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[ [ "July 26" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 657 – First Fitna: In the Battle of Siffin, troops led by Ali ibn Abu Talib clash with those led by Muawiyah I.", "* 811 – Battle of Pliska: Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros I is killed and his heir Staurakios is seriously wounded.", "* 920 – Rout of an alliance of Christian troops from Navarre and Léon against the Muslims at the Battle of Valdejunquera.", "1309 – The Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII is recognized King of the Romans by Pope Clement V.1509 – The Emperor Krishnadevaraya ascends to the throne, marking the beginning of the regeneration of the Vijayanagara Empire.", "1529 – Francisco Pizarro González, Spanish conquistador, is appointed governor of Peru.", "1579 – Francis Drake, the English explorer, discovers a \"fair and good\" bay on the coast of the Pacific Northwest (probably Oregon or Washington).", "1581 – Plakkaat van Verlatinghe (Act of Abjuration): The northern Low Countries declare their independence from the Spanish king, Philip II.===1601–1900===1703 – During the ''Bavarian Rummel'' the rural population of Tyrol drove the Bavarian Prince-Elector Maximilian II Emanuel out of North Tyrol with a victory at the Pontlatzer Bridge and thus prevented the Bavarian Army, which was allied with France, from marching as planned on Vienna during the War of the Spanish Succession.", "1745 – The first recorded women's cricket match takes place near Guildford, England.", "1758 – French and Indian War: The Siege of Louisbourg ends with British forces defeating the French and taking control of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.", "1775 – The office that would later become the United States Post Office Department is established by the Second Continental Congress.", "Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania takes office as Postmaster General.", "1778 – The Emigration of Christians from the Crimea in 1778 begins.", "1788 – New York ratifies the United States Constitution and becomes the 11th state of the United States.", "1803 – The Surrey Iron Railway, arguably the world's first public railway, opens in south London, United Kingdom.", "1814 – The Swedish–Norwegian War begins.", "1822 – José de San Martín arrives in Guayaquil, Ecuador, to meet with Simón Bolívar.", "* 1822 – First day of the three-day Battle of Dervenakia, between the Ottoman Empire force led by Mahmud Dramali Pasha and the Greek Revolutionary force led by Theodoros Kolokotronis.", "1847 – Liberia declares its independence from the United States.", "France and the United Kingdom are the first to recognize the new nation.", "1861 – American Civil War: George B. McClellan assumes command of the Army of the Potomac following a disastrous Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run.", "1863 – American Civil War: Morgan's Raid ends; At Salineville, Ohio, Confederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and 360 of his volunteers are captured by Union forces.", "1882 – Premiere of Richard Wagner's opera ''Parsifal'' at Bayreuth.", "* 1882 – The Republic of Stellaland is founded in Southern Africa.", "1887 – Publication of the ''Unua Libro'', founding the Esperanto movement.", "1890 – In Buenos Aires, Argentina the Revolución del Parque takes place, forcing President Miguel Ángel Juárez Celman's resignation.", "1891 – France annexes Tahiti.", "1892 – Dadabhai Naoroji is elected as the first Indian Member of Parliament in Britain.", "1897 – Anglo-Afghan War: The Pashtun fakir Saidullah leads an army of more than 10,000 to begin a siege of the British garrison in the Malakand Agency of the North West Frontier Province of India.", "1899 – Ulises Heureaux, the 27th President of the Dominican Republic, is assassinated.===1901–present===1908 – United States Attorney General Charles Joseph Bonaparte issues an order to immediately staff the Office of the Chief Examiner (later renamed the Federal Bureau of Investigation).", "1918 – Emmy Noether's paper, which became known as Noether's theorem was presented at Göttingen, Germany, from which conservation laws are deduced for symmetries of angular momentum, linear momentum, and energy.", "1936 – Spanish Civil War: Germany and Italy decide to intervene in the war in support for Francisco Franco and the Nationalist faction.", " 1936 – King Edward VIII, in one of his few official duties before he abdicates the throne, officially unveils the Canadian National Vimy Memorial.", "1937 – Spanish Civil War: End of the Battle of Brunete with the Nationalist victory.", "1941 – World War II: Battle of Grand Harbour, British forces on Malta destroy an attack by the Italian Decima Flottiglia MAS.", "Fort St Elmo Bridge covering the harbour is demolished in the process.", "1941 – World War II: In response to the Japanese occupation of French Indochina, the United States, Britain and the Netherlands freeze all Japanese assets and cut off oil shipments.", "1944 – World War II: The Red Army enters Lviv, a major city in western Ukraine, capturing it from the Nazis.", "Only 300 Jews survive out of 160,000 living in Lviv prior to occupation.", "1945 – The Labour Party wins the United Kingdom general election of July 5 by a landslide, removing Winston Churchill from power.", " 1945 – World War II: The Potsdam Declaration is signed in Potsdam, Germany.", "* 1945 – World War II: is the last British Royal Navy ship to be sunk in the war.", "* 1945 – World War II: The arrives at Tinian with components and enriched uranium for the Little Boy nuclear bomb.", "1946 – Aloha Airlines begins service from Honolulu International Airport.", "1947 – Cold War: U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs the National Security Act of 1947 into United States law creating the Central Intelligence Agency, United States Department of Defense, United States Air Force, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the United States National Security Council.", "1948 – U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs Executive Order 9981, desegregating the military of the United States.", "1951 – Walt Disney's 13th animated film, ''Alice in Wonderland'', premieres in London, England, United Kingdom.", "1952 – King Farouk of Egypt abdicates in favor of his son Fuad.", "1953 – Cold War: Fidel Castro leads an unsuccessful attack on the Moncada Barracks, thus beginning the Cuban Revolution.", "The movement took the name of the date: 26th of July Movement* 1953 – Arizona Governor John Howard Pyle orders an anti-polygamy law enforcement crackdown on residents of Short Creek, Arizona, which becomes known as the Short Creek raid.", "* 1953 – Soldiers from the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment repel a number of Chinese assaults against a key position known as The Hook during the Battle of the Samichon River, just hours before the Armistice Agreement is signed, ending the Korean War.", "1956 – Following the World Bank's refusal to fund building the Aswan Dam, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, sparking international condemnation.", "1957 – Carlos Castillo Armas, dictator of Guatemala, is assassinated.", "1958 – Explorer program: ''Explorer 4'' is launched.", "1963 – Syncom 2, the world's first geosynchronous satellite, is launched from Cape Canaveral on a Delta B booster.", "* 1963 – An earthquake in Skopje, Yugoslavia (present-day North Macedonia) leaves 1,100 dead.", "* 1963 – The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development votes to admit Japan.", "1968 – Vietnam War: South Vietnamese opposition leader Trương Đình Dzu is sentenced to five years hard labor for advocating the formation of a coalition government as a way to move toward an end to the war.", "1971 – Apollo program: Launch of Apollo 15 on the first Apollo \"J-Mission\", and first use of a Lunar Roving Vehicle.", "1974 – Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis forms the country's first civil government after seven years of military rule.", "1977 – The National Assembly of Quebec imposes the use of French as the official language of the provincial government.", "1989 – A federal grand jury indicts Cornell University student Robert T. Morris, Jr. for releasing the Morris worm, thus becoming the first person to be prosecuted under the 1986 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act.", "1990 – The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is signed into law by President George H. W.", "Bush.", "1993 – Asiana Airlines Flight 733 crashes into a ridge on Mt.", "Ungeo on its third attempt to land at Mokpo Airport, South Korea.", "Sixty-eight of the 116 people on board are killed.", "1999 – Kargil conflict officially comes to an end.", "The Indian Army announces the complete eviction of Pakistani intruders.", "2005 – Space Shuttle program: STS-114 Mission: Launch of ''Discovery'', NASA's first scheduled flight mission after the ''Columbia'' Disaster in 2003.", " 2005 – Mumbai, India receives 99.5cm of rain (39.17 inches) within 24 hours, resulting in floods killing over 5,000 people.", "2008 – Fifty-six people are killed and over 200 people are injured, in the Ahmedabad bombings in India.", "2009 – The militant Nigerian Islamist group Boko Haram attacks a police station in Bauchi, leading to reprisals by the Nigeria Police Force and four days of violence across multiple cities.", "2011 – A Royal Moroccan Air Force Lockheed C-130 Hercules crashes near Guelmim Airport in Guelmim, Morocco.", "All 80 people on board are killed.", "2016 – The Sagamihara stabbings occur in Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan.", "Nineteen people are killed.", "* 2016 – Hillary Clinton becomes the first female nominee for President of the United States by a major political party at the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia.", "* 2016 – Solar Impulse 2 becomes the first solar-powered aircraft to circumnavigate the Earth." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1030 – Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Polish bishop and saint (d. 1079)1400 – Isabel le Despenser, Countess of Worcester, English noble (d. 1439)1502 – Christian Egenolff, German printer (d. 1555)===1601–1900===1678 – Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1711)1711 – Lorenz Christoph Mizler, German physician, mathematician, and historian (d. 1778)1739 – George Clinton, American general and politician, 4th Vice President of the United States (d. 1812)1782 – John Field, Irish pianist and composer (d. 1837)1791 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1844)1796 – George Catlin, American painter, author, and traveler (d. 1872)1802 – Mariano Arista, Mexican general and politician, 42nd President of Mexico (d. 1855)1819 – Justin Holland, American guitarist and educator (d. 1887)1829 – Auguste Beernaert, Belgian politician, 14th Prime Minister of Belgium, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1912)1838 – Silas Soule, American soldier and whistleblower of the Sand Creek Massacre (d. 1865)1841 – Carl Robert Jakobson, Estonian journalist and politician (d. 1882)1842 – Alfred Marshall, English economist and academic (d. 1924)1844 – Stefan Drzewiecki, Ukrainian-Polish engineer and journalist (d. 1938)1854 – Philippe Gaucher, French dermatologist and academic (d. 1918)1855 – Ferdinand Tönnies, German sociologist and philosopher (d. 1936)1856 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish playwright and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)1858 – Tom Garrett, Australian cricketer and lawyer (d. 1943)1863 – Jāzeps Vītols, Latvian composer (d. 1948) 1865 – Philipp Scheidemann, German journalist and politician, 10th Chancellor of Germany (d. 1939)* 1865 – Rajanikanta Sen, Indian poet and composer (d. 1910)1874 – Serge Koussevitzky, Russian-American bassist, composer, and conductor (d. 1951)1875 – Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist (d. 1961)* 1875 – Ernesta Di Capua, Italian botanist and explorer (d. 1943)* 1875 – Antonio Machado, Spanish poet and academic (d. 1939)* 1877 – Jesse Lauriston Livermore, American investor and security analyst, \"Great Bear of Wall Street\" (d. 1940)1878 – Ernst Hoppenberg, German swimmer and water polo player (d. 1937)1879 – Shunroku Hata, Japanese field marshal and politician, 48th Japanese Minister of War (d. 1962)1880 – Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Ukrainian playwright and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Ukrainian People's Republic (d. 1951)1882 – Albert Dunstan, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of Victoria (d. 1950)1885 – Roy Castleton, American baseball player (d. 1967) 1885 – André Maurois, French soldier and author (d. 1967)1886 – Lars Hanson, Swedish actor (d. 1965)1888 – Reginald Hands, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1918)1890 – Daniel J. Callaghan, American admiral, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1942)1892 – Sad Sam Jones, American baseball player and manager (d. 1966)1893 – George Grosz, German painter and illustrator (d. 1959)1894 – Aldous Huxley, English novelist and philosopher (d. 1963)1895 – Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (d. 1964)1896 – Tim Birkin, English soldier and race car driver (d. 1933)1897 – Harold D. Cooley, American lawyer and politician (d. 1974) 1897 – Paul Gallico, American journalist and author (d. 1976)1900 – Sarah Kafrit, Israeli politician and teacher (d. 1983)===1901–present===1903 – Estes Kefauver, American lawyer and politician (d. 1963)1904 – Frank Scott Hogg, Canadian astronomer and academic (d. 1951) 1904 – Edwin Albert Link, American industrialist and entrepreneur, invented the flight simulator (d. 1981)1906 – Irena Iłłakowicz, German-Polish lieutenant (d. 1943)1908 – Lucien Wercollier, Luxembourger sculptor (d. 2002)1909 – Peter Thorneycroft, Baron Thorneycroft, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1994) 1909 – Vivian Vance, American actress and singer (d. 1979)1913 – Kan Yuet-keung, Hong Kong banker, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012)1914 – C. Farris Bryant, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 34th Governor of Florida (d. 2002)* 1914 – Erskine Hawkins, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1993)* 1914 – Ellis Kinder, American baseball player (d. 1968)1916 – Dean Brooks, American physician and actor (d. 2013) 1916 – Jaime Luiz Coelho, Brazilian archbishop (d. 2013)1918 – Marjorie Lord, American actress (d. 2015)1919 – Virginia Gilmore, American actress (d. 1986)* 1919 – James Lovelock, English biologist and chemist (d. 2022)1920 – Bob Waterfield, American football player and coach (d. 1983)1921 – Tom Saffell, American baseball player and manager (d. 2012)* 1921 – Jean Shepherd, American radio host, actor, and screenwriter (d. 1999)1922 – Blake Edwards, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1922 – Jim Foglesong, American record producer (d. 2013)* 1922 – Jason Robards, American actor (d. 2000)1923 – Jan Berenstain, American author and illustrator (d. 2012) 1923 – Bernice Rubens, Welsh author (d. 2004)* 1923 – Hoyt Wilhelm, American baseball player and coach (d. 2002)1925 – Jerzy Einhorn, Polish-Swedish physician and politician (d. 2000) 1925 – Joseph Engelberger, American physicist and engineer (d. 2015)* 1925 – Gene Gutowski, Polish-American film producer (d. 2016)* 1925 – Ana María Matute, Spanish author and academic (d. 2014)1926 – James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2015)1927 – Gulabrai Ramchand, Indian cricketer (d. 2003)1928 – Don Beauman, English race car driver (d. 1955) 1928 – Francesco Cossiga, Italian academic and politician, 8th President of Italy (d. 2010)* 1928 – Elliott Erwitt, French-American photographer and director (d. 2023)* 1928 – Ibn-e-Safi, Indian-Pakistani author and poet (d. 1980)* 1928 – Joe Jackson, American talent manager, father of Michael Jackson (d. 2018)* 1928 – Stanley Kubrick, American director, producer, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 1999)* 1928 – Peter Lougheed, Canadian lawyer and politician, 10th Premier of Alberta (d. 2012)* 1928 – Sally Oppenheim-Barnes, Baroness Oppenheim-Barnes, Irish-born English politician1929 – Marc Lalonde, Canadian lawyer and politician, 34th Canadian Minister of Justice 1929 – Alexis Weissenberg, Bulgarian-French pianist and educator (d. 2012)1930 – Plínio de Arruda Sampaio, Brazilian lawyer and politician (d. 2014) 1930 – Barbara Jefford, English actress (d. 2020)1931 – Telê Santana, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2006)1934 – Tommy McDonald, American football player (d. 2018)1936 – Tsutomu Koyama, Japanese volleyball player and coach (d. 2012) 1936 – Lawrie McMenemy, English footballer and manager1937 – Ercole Spada, Italian automotive designer1938 – Bobby Hebb, American singer-songwriter (d. 2010)* 1938 – Keith Peters, Welsh physician and academic1939 – Jun Henmi, Japanese author and poet (d. 2011) 1939 – John Howard, Australian lawyer and politician, 25th Prime Minister of Australia* 1939 – Bob Lilly, American football player and photographer* 1939 – Richard Marlow, English organist and conductor (d. 2013)1940 – Dobie Gray, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011) 1940 – Brian Mawhinney, Baron Mawhinney, Northern Irish-British academic and politician, Secretary of State for Transport (d. 2019)* 1940 – Bobby Rousseau, Canadian ice hockey player1941 – Jean Baubérot, French historian and sociologist 1941 – Darlene Love, American singer and actress* 1941 – Brenton Wood, American R&B singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1942 – Vladimír Mečiar, Slovak politician, 1st Prime Minister of Slovakia 1942 – Teddy Pilette, Belgian race car driver1943 – Peter Hyams, American director, screenwriter, and cinematographer 1943 – Mick Jagger, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor* 1944 – Betty Davis, American singer-songwriter (d. 2022)* 1945 – Helen Mirren, English actress1946 – Emilio de Villota, Spanish race car driver1948 – Luboš Andršt, Czech guitarist and songwriter * 1948 – Herbert Wiesinger, German figure skater1949 – Thaksin Shinawatra, Thai businessman and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Thailand 1949 – Roger Taylor, English singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer 1950 – Nelinho, Brazilian footballer and manager 1950 – Nicholas Evans, English journalist, screenwriter, and producer* 1950 – Susan George, English actress and producer* 1950 – Anne Rafferty, English lawyer and judge* 1950 – Rich Vogler, American race car driver (d. 1990)1951 – Rick Martin, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2011)1952 – Glynis Breakwell, English psychologist and academic1953 – Felix Magath, German footballer and manager 1953 – Robert Phillips, American guitarist* 1953 – Henk Bleker, Dutch politician* 1953 – Earl Tatum, American professional basketball player1954 – Vitas Gerulaitis, American tennis player and coach (d. 1994)1955 – Aleksandrs Starkovs, Latvian footballer and coach* 1955 – Asif Ali Zardari, Pakistani businessman and politician, 11th President of Pakistan1956 – Peter Fincham, English screenwriter and producer 1956 – Dorothy Hamill, American figure skater* 1956 – Tommy Rich, American wrestler* 1956 – Tim Tremlett, English cricketer and coach1957 – Norman Baker, Scottish politician 1957 – Nana Visitor, American actress1958 – Monti Davis, American basketball player (d. 2013) 1958 – Angela Hewitt, Canadian-English pianist1959 – Rick Bragg, American author and journalist 1959 – Kevin Spacey, American actor and director1961 – Gary Cherone, American singer-songwriter 1961 – Andy Connell, English keyboard player and songwriter * 1961 – Felix Dexter, Caribbean-English comedian and actor (d. 2013)1963 – Jeff Stoughton, Canadian curler1964 – Sandra Bullock, American actress and producer* 1964 – Ralf Metzenmacher, German painter and designer (d. 2020)* 1964 – Anne Provoost, Belgian author1965 – Jeremy Piven, American actor and producer 1965 – Jim Lindberg, American singer and guitarist1966 – Angelo di Livio, Italian footballer1967 – Martin Baker, English organist and conductor* 1967 – Tim Schafer, American video game designer, founded Double Fine Productions* 1967 – Jason Statham, English actor 1968 – Frédéric Diefenthal, French actor and director 1968 – Jim Naismith, Scottish biologist and academic* 1968 – Olivia Williams, English actress1969 – Greg Colbrunn, American baseball player and coach 1969 – Tanni Grey-Thompson, Welsh baroness and wheelchair racer 1971 – Khaled Mahmud, Bangladeshi cricketer and coach 1971 – Chris Harrison, American television personality1972 – Nathan Buckley, Australian footballer and coach1973 – Kate Beckinsale, English actress* 1973 – Mariano Raffo, Argentinian director and producer1974 – Iron & Wine, American singer-songwriter 1974 – Kees Meeuws, New Zealand rugby player and coach* 1974 – Dean Sturridge, English footballer and sportscaster1975 – Ingo Schultz, German sprinter 1975 – Joe Smith, American basketball player* 1975 – Liz Truss, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom1976 – Elena Kustarova, Russian ice dancer and coach1977 – Joaquín Benoit, Dominican baseball player* 1977 – Martin Laursen, Danish footballer and manager* 1977 – Tanja Szewczenko, German figure skater 1979 – Friedrich Michau, German rugby player 1979 – Derek Paravicini, English pianist * 1979 – Peter Sarno, Canadian ice hockey player* 1979 – Erik Westrum, American ice hockey player* 1979 – Juliet Rylance, English actress1980 – Jacinda Ardern, 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand 1980 – Dave Baksh, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1980 – Robert Gallery, American football player1981 – Abe Forsythe, Australian actor, director, and screenwriter 1981 – Maicon Sisenando, Brazilian footballer1982 – Gilad Hochman, Israeli composer 1982 – Christopher Kane, Scottish fashion designer1983 – Kelly Clark, American snowboarder 1983 – Stephen Makinwa, Nigerian footballer* 1983 – Roderick Strong, American wrestler* 1983 – Naomi van As, Dutch field hockey player* 1983 – Ken Wallace, Australian kayaker* 1983 – Delonte West, American basketball player1984 – Kyriakos Ioannou, Cypriot high jumper 1984 – Benjamin Kayser, French rugby player* 1984 – Sabri Sarıoğlu, Turkish footballer1985 – Marcus Benard, American football player 1985 – Gaël Clichy, French footballer* 1985 – Audrey De Montigny, Canadian singer-songwriter* 1985 – Mat Gamel, American baseball player1986 – Monica Raymund, American actress 1986 – Leonardo Ulloa, Argentinian footballer* 1986 – John White, English footballer1987 – Panagiotis Kone, Greek footballer 1987 – Jordie Benn, Canadian ice hockey player* 1987 – Fredy Montero, Colombian footballer1988 – Yurie Omi, Japanese announcer and news anchor 1988 – Sayaka Akimoto, Filipino–Japanese actress and singer1991 – Tyson Barrie, Canadian ice hockey player1992 – Marika Koroibete, Fijian rugby player1993 – Raymond Faitala-Mariner, New Zealand rugby league player 1993 – Taylor Momsen, American singer-songwriter, model, and actress1994 – Ella Leivo, Finnish tennis player1996 – Olivia Breen, British Paralympic athlete1999 – HX Leal, Brazilian rapper 2000 – Thomasin McKenzie, New Zealand actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 342 – Cheng of Jin, emperor of the Jin Dynasty (b.", "321)* 811 – Nikephoros I, Byzantine emperor* 899 – Li Hanzhi, Chinese warlord (b.", "842)* 943 – Motoyoshi, Japanese nobleman and poet (b.", "890)* 990 – Fujiwara no Kaneie, Japanese statesman (b.", "929)1380 – Kōmyō, emperor of Japan (b.", "1322)1450 – Cecily Neville, duchess of Warwick (b.", "1424)1471 – Paul II, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "1417)1533 – Atahualpa, Inca emperor abducted and murdered by Francisco Pizarro (b. ca.", "1500)1592 – Armand de Gontant, French marshal (b.", "1524)===1601–1900===1605 – Miguel de Benavides, Spanish archbishop and sinologist (b.", "1552)1611 – Horio Yoshiharu, Japanese daimyō (b.", "1542)1630 – Charles Emmanuel I, duke of Savoy (b.", "1562)1659 – Mary Frith, English criminal (b.", "1584)1680 – John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet and courtier (b.", "1647)1684 – Elena Cornaro Piscopia, Italian mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1646)1693 – Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark, queen of Sweden (b.", "1656)1712 – Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds, English politician, Lord High Treasurer (b.", "1631)1723 – Robert Bertie, 1st Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b.", "1660)1801 – Maximilian Francis, archduke of Austria (b.", "1756)1863 – Sam Houston, American general and politician, 7th Governor of Texas, and 6th Governor of Tennessee (b.", "1793)1867 – Otto, king of Greece (b.", "1815)1899 – Ulises Heureaux, 22nd, 26th, and 27th President of the Dominican Republic (b.", "1845)===1901–present===1915 – James Murray, Scottish lexicographer and philologist (b.", "1837)1919 – Edward Poynter, English painter and illustrator (b.", "1836)1921 – Howard Vernon, Australian actor (b.", "1848)1925 – Antonio Ascari, Italian race car driver (b.", "1888)* 1925 – Gottlob Frege, German mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1848)* 1925 – William Jennings Bryan, American lawyer and politician, 41st United States Secretary of State (b.", "1860)1926 – Robert Todd Lincoln, American lawyer and politician, 35th United States Secretary of War, son of Abraham Lincoln (b.", "1843)1930 – Pavlos Karolidis, Greek historian and academic (b.", "1849)1932 – Fred Duesenberg, German-American businessman, co-founded the Duesenberg Company (b.", "1876)1934 – Winsor McCay, American cartoonist, animator, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1871)1941 – Henri Lebesgue, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1875)1942 – Roberto Arlt, Argentinian author and playwright (b.", "1900)1951 – James Mitchell, Australian politician, 13th Premier of Western Australia (b.", "1866)1952 – Eva Perón, Argentinian politician, 25th First Lady of Argentina (b.", "1919)1953 – Nikolaos Plastiras, Greek general and politician, 135th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1883)1957 – Carlos Castillo Armas, Authoritarian ruler of Guatemala (1954-1957)1960 – Cedric Gibbons, British art director and production designer (b.", "1893)1964 – Francis Curzon, 5th Earl Howe, English race car driver and politician (b.", "1884)1968 – Cemal Tollu, Turkish lieutenant and painter (b.", "1899)1970 – Robert Taschereau, Canadian lawyer and jurist, 11th Chief Justice of Canada (b.", "1896)1971 – Diane Arbus, American photographer and academic (b.", "1923)1984 – George Gallup, American mathematician and statistician, founded the Gallup Company (b.", "1901)* 1984 – Ed Gein, American serial killer (b.", "1906)1986 – W. Averell Harriman, American politician and diplomat, 11th United States Secretary of Commerce (b.", "1891)1988 – Fazlur Rahman Malik, Pakistani philosopher, scholar, and academic (b.", "1919)1992 – Mary Wells, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1943)1993 – Matthew Ridgway, American general (b.", "1895)1994 – James Luther Adams, American theologian and academic (b.", "1901)1995 – Laurindo Almeida, Brazilian-American guitarist and composer (b.", "1917)* 1995 – Raymond Mailloux, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1918)* 1995 – George W. Romney, American businessman and politician, 43rd Governor of Michigan (b.", "1907) 1996 – Max Winter, American businessman and sports executive (b.", "1903)1999 – Walter Jackson Bate, American author and critic (b.", "1918)* 1999 – Phaedon Gizikis, Greek general and politician, President of Greece (b.", "1917)2000 – John Tukey, American mathematician and academic (b.", "1915)2001 – Rex T. Barber, American colonel and pilot (b.", "1917)* 2001 – Peter von Zahn, German journalist and author (b.", "1913)2004 – William A. Mitchell, American chemist, created Pop Rocks and Cool Whip (b.", "1911)2005 – Alexander Golitzen, Russian-born American production designer and art director (b.", "1908)* 2005 – Jack Hirshleifer, American economist and academic (b.", "1925)* 2005 – Gilles Marotte, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1945)2007 – Lars Forssell, Swedish author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1928) 2007 – Skip Prosser, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1950)2009 – Merce Cunningham, American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1919)2010 – Sivakant Tiwari, Indian-Singaporean politician (b.", "1945)2011 – Joe Arroyo, Colombian singer-songwriter and composer (b.", "1955) 2011 – Tom Borton, American jazz saxophonist, songwriter and composer (b.", "1956)* 2011 – Richard Harris, American-Canadian football player and coach (b.", "1948)* 2011 – Sakyo Komatsu, Japanese author and screenwriter (b.", "1931)* 2011 – Margaret Olley, Australian painter and philanthropist (b.", "1923)2012 – Don Bagley, American bassist and composer (b.", "1927) 2012 – Karl Benjamin, American painter and educator (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Miriam Ben-Porat, Russian-Israeli lawyer and jurist (b.", "1918)* 2012 – Lupe Ontiveros, American actress (b.", "1942)* 2012 – James D. Watkins, American admiral and politician, 6th United States Secretary of Energy (b.", "1927)2013 – Luther F. Cole, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1925) 2013 – Harley Flanders, American mathematician and academic (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Sung Jae-gi, South Korean philosopher and activist (b.", "1967)* 2013 – George P. Mitchell, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1919)2014 – Oleh Babayev, Ukrainian businessman and politician (b.", "1965) 2014 – Charles R. Larson, American admiral (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Richard MacCormac, English architect, founded MJP Architects (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Sergei O. Prokofieff, Russian anthropologist and author (b.", "1954)* 2014 – Roland Verhavert, Belgian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1927)2015 – Bijoy Krishna Handique, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Mines (b.", "1934) 2015 – Flora MacDonald, Canadian banker and politician, 10th Canadian Minister of Communications (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Leo Reise, Jr., Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1922)* 2015 – Ann Rule, American police officer and author (b.", "1931)2017 – June Foray, American voice actress (b.", "1917) 2017 – Patti Deutsch, American voice artist and comedic actress (b.", "1943)* 2017 – Ronald Phillips, American criminal (b.", "1973)2018 – Adem Demaçi, Kosovo Albanian politician and writer (b.", "1936) 2018 – John Kline, American basketball player (b.", "1931)2019 – Russi Taylor, American voice actress (b.", "1944) 2019 – Jaime Lucas Ortega y Alamino, Cuban Roman Catholic prelate (b.", "1936)2020 – Olivia de Havilland, American actress (b.", "1916)2021 – Joey Jordison, American musician (b.", "1975)2023 – Sinéad O'Connor, Irish singer and musician (b.", "1966)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Andrew of Phú YênAnne (Western Christianity)Bartolomea CapitanioBlessed Maria PierinaJoachim (Western Christianity)Paraskevi of Rome (Eastern Orthodox Church)VeneraJuly 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Emancipation Day (Barbados)Day of the National Rebellion (Cuba)Esperanto DayIndependence Day (Liberia), celebrates the independence of Liberia from the American Colonization Society in 1847.", "Independence Day (Maldives), celebrates the independence of Maldives from the United Kingdom in 1965.", "Kargil Victory Day or ''Kargil Vijay Diwas'' (India)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jeff Mills" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeff Mills''' (born June 18, 1963, in Detroit, Michigan), also known as \"'''the''' '''Wizard'''\", is an American DJ, record producer, and composer.", "In the late 1980s Mills founded the techno collective Underground Resistance with fellow Detroit techno producers 'Mad' Mike Banks and Robert Hood but left the group to pursue a career as a solo artist in the early 90s.", "Mills founded the Chicago based Axis Records in 1992, which is responsible for the release of much of his solo work.Mills has received international recognition for his work as a DJ and producer.", "He featured in ''Man From Tomorrow'', a documentary about techno music that he produced along with French filmmaker Jacqueline Caux.", "He continued working in film, releasing ''Life to Death and Back'', a film he shot in the Egyptian wing of the Louvre Museum where he also had a four-month residency.", "In 2017 the president of the Arab World Institute and former French Minister of Culture Jack Lang awarded Mills the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for his services to the arts." ], [ "Career", "Jeff Mills performing in Detroit in 2007.===Early career and radio DJ===A 1981 graduate of Mackenzie High School, Mills started his career in the early 1980s using the name \"the Wizard\".", "He performed DJ tricks like beat juggling and scratching during his sets, some of which were pre-recorded.", "He had a nightly show as the Wizard at WDRQ and later at WJLB under the same name.", "He would highlight local techno artists, giving light to artists such as Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson and Juan Atkins.In his early career, Mills managed numerous residencies in the Detroit area.", "He credits The Necto as the residency where he was able to experiment with new ideas in techno music.", "Mills played The Necto where he began incorporating concepts such as different equipment setups, including positioning himself on the dance floor with the people.", "For his radio DJ spots, Mills had a music spending budget to use for his sets.", "Mills would also drive as far as Toronto or Chicago in order to purchase newly released music.===Underground Resistance===Mills is a founding member of Underground Resistance, a techno collective that he started with former Parliament bass player 'Mad' Mike Banks.", "The group embraced revolutionary rhetoric and only appeared in public dressed in ski masks and black combat suits.", "Mills never \"officially\" left the group, but did begin to pursue his own ventures outside of the collective.", "Many of Underground Resistance's labelmate's early releases were the product of various experiments by Banks and Mills, both solo and in collaboration, before Mills left the collective in 1991 to achieve international success as a solo artist and DJ.", "The collective continues to be a mainstay of Detroit's music scene.UR related the aesthetics of early Detroit Techno to the complex social, political, and economic circumstances which followed on from Reagan-era inner-city economic recession, producing uncompromising music geared toward promoting awareness and facilitating political change.", "UR's songs created a sense of self-exploration, experimentation and the ability to change yourself and circumstances.", "Additionally, UR wanted to establish a means of identification beyond traditional lines of race and ethnicity.", "Another form of UR's rebellion concerns the rejection of the commercialization of techno.", "This is evident in the messages scratched in UR's records, lyrics and sounds expressing economic independence from major record labels.===Solo work and independent labels===Tresor Club in Berlin, where Mills was a resident prior to launching Axis RecordsMills left Underground Resistance in 1991 to pursue his own ventures.", "He relocated from Detroit, first to New York, then Berlin (as a resident at the Tresor club), and then Chicago.", "There in 1992, with fellow Detroit native Robert Hood, he set up the record label Axis, and later, sub-labels Purpose Maker, Tomorrow, and 6277, all aiming for a more minimal sound than most of the techno being produced in those years.Mills released ''Blue Potential'' in 2006, a live album of him playing with the 70 piece Montpelier Philharmonic Orchestra in 2005.The album was a remix for classical interpretation, following musical acts such as Radiohead.", "In 2013, he released Where Light Ends, an album inspired by the Japanese astronaut Mamoru Mohri and his first trip to space.In 2018, Mills recorded E.P.", "''Tomorrow Comes The Harvest'' with legendary afro-jazz drummer Tony Allen.===Film, soundtracks, and documentary===Mills performed a live set in January 2015 at the Jewish Community Center in San Francisco, California.", "The set was performed with four turntables to create a cinemix soundtrack for Woman in the Moon, the 1929 silent film from Fritz Lang.", "The set was performed during a screening of the film at the center.", "Mills has previously completed work highlighting Lang's career, including composing, performing, and releasing a soundtrack to Lang's 1927 silent film Metropolis, releasing the soundtrack in 2000.Mills became involved in film with the help of French filmmaker Jacqueline Caux.", "He helped Caux produce the film ''Man From Tomorrow'', a documentary about techno music that featured Mills.", "He continued in the film industry with the release of the independent film ''Life to Death and Back'' which he shot in the Egyptian wing of the Louvre Museum in France, the same museum where he had a four-month residency." ], [ "Music style", "In his DJ sets, Mills usually uses three decks, a Roland TR-909 drum machine, and up to seventy records in one hour.", "Mills' ''Exhibitionist'' DVD, from 2004, features him mixing live on three decks and CD player in a studio.", "In 2011, Mills switched to using three or four CD decks for most of his club appearances, instead of the usual Technics turntables.", "''Mixmag'' described Mills as the \"master\" of the 909.He was mentioned by Detroit rapper Eminem in his song \"Groundhog Day\", from his album ''The Marshall Mathers LP 2''.", "Eminem says: \"...and discovered this DJ who was mixing, I say it to this day, if you ain't listened to the Wizard, you ain't have a fucking clue what you was missing...\"" ], [ "Art exhibits", "Mills is also an artist and has shown his works at exhibits internationally.", "His works have included \"Man of Tomorrow,\" a portrait of Mills that shows his perception of the future as well as \"Critical Arrangements\" exhibited at Pompidou Centre in 2008 as a part of \"Le Futurisme à Paris – une avant-garde explosive.\"", "One of his most notable works was exhibited in 2015.Known as \"The Visitor,\" it was a sculpture of a drum machine inspired by a UFO sighting in Los Angeles from the 1950s." ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums===Year, Title (Label)* 1993, Waveform Transmission Vol.1 (Tresor)* 1994, Waveform Transmission Vol.", "3 (Tresor)* 1999, Live at the Liquid Room, Tokyo (Sony/React)* 1997, The Other Day (Sony/React/Labels)* 1997, Purpose Maker Compilation (React/Labels/NEWS/Neuton/Energy/Watts)* 1998, From the 21st (Sony)* 2000, Lifelike (Sony/Labels/NEWS)* 2000, Art of Connecting (Next Era/Hardware)* 2000, Metropolis (Tresor)* 2001, Time Machine (Tomorrow)* 2001, Every Dog Has Its Day CD (Sony/Labels/NEWS)* 2002, Actual (Axis)* 2002, At First Sight (Sony/React/NEWS/Energy/Intergroove)* 2003, Medium (Axis)* 2004, Exhibitionist (Axis/React/NEWS/Sonar)* 2005, Three Ages (MK2)* 2005, Contact Special (Cisco/Soundscape)* 2006, One Man Spaceship (Cisco/Soundscape)* 2008, X-102 Rediscovers the Rings of Saturn (Tresor)* 2008, Gamma Player Compilation Vol.", "1: The Universe by Night (Axis)* 2009, Sleep Wakes (Third Ear)* 2010, The Occurrence (Third Ear)* 2011, The Power (Axis)* 2011, 2087 (Axis)* 2011 Jeff Mills/Dj Surgeles Something In The Sky Mix (Axis)* 2011, Fantastic Voyage (Axis)* 2012, The Messenger (Axis)* 2012, Waveform Transmission Vol.", "1 Remastered (Axis)* 2012, Sequence – The Retrospective of Axis Records (Axis)* 2013, The Jungle Planet (Axis)* 2014, Emerging Crystal Universe (Axis)* 2014, Woman In The Moon (Axis)* 2015, When Time Splits (with Mikhail Rudy) (Axis)* 2015, Proxima Centauri (Axis)* 2016, Free Fall Galaxy (Axis)* 2017, A Trip to the Moon (Axis)* 2017, Planets (Axis)* 2019, Moon - The Area of Influence (Axis)===Extended plays===Year, Title (Label)* 1992, Tranquilizer (Axis)* 1993, Mecca (Axis)* 1993, Thera (Axis)* 1994, Cycle 30 (Axis)* 1994, Growth (Axis)* 1995, Purpose Maker EP (Axis)* 1995, Humana (Axis)* 1995, Tephra (Axis)* 1996, Other Day EP (Axis)* 1996, Very (Axis)* 1996, AX-009ab (Axis)* 1996, Java (Purpose Maker)* 1996, Kat Moda (Purpose Maker)* 1997, Universal Power (Purpose Maker)* 1997, Our Man in Havana (Purpose Maker)* 1997, Steampit (Purpose Maker)* 1997, More Drama (Axis)* 1997, Tomorrow EP (Axis)* 1998, Vanishing (Purpose Maker)* 1998, Live Series (Purpose Maker)* 1999, Skin Deep (Purpose Maker)* 1999, If/Tango (w/ Anna F.) (Purpose Maker)* 1999, Apollo (Axis)* 1999, Preview (Tomorrow)* 2000, Every Dog Has Its Day vol.1 (Axis)* 2000, Lifelike EP (Axis)* 2000, Metropolis EP (Axis)* 2000, Every Dog Has Its Day vol.2 (Axis)* 2000, Circus (Purpose Maker)* 2001, Jetset (Purpose Maker)* 2001, Electrical Experience (Purpose Maker)* 2001, 4Art/UFO* 2002, Every Dog Has Its Day vol.3 (Axis)* 2002, Actual (Axis)* 2003, Every Dog Has Its Day vol.4 (Axis)* 2003, Medium (Axis)* 2003, See The Light part 1 (Axis)* 2003, See The Light part 2 (Axis)* 2003, See The Light part 3 (Axis)* 2003, Divine (Purpose Maker)* 2004, Expanded (Axis)* 2004, From the 21st part 1 (Axis)* 2004, From the 21st part 2 (Axis)* 2004, The Tomorrow Time Forgot (Axis)* 2005, Suspense/Dramatized (Axis)* 2005, Time Mechanic (Axis)* 2006, Blade Runner (Axis)* 2006, The Bells (Purpose Maker)* 2007, Natural World (Purpose Maker)* 2007, Systematic/The Sin (Axis)* 2008, Alpha Centauri (Axis)* 2008, FlyBy (Axis)* 2008, Eternity (Tomorrow)* 2008, Adjustments (Tomorrow)* 2009, Good Robot (Axis)* 2009, The Defender (Axis)* 2009, The Drummer (Purpose Maker)* 2009, The Drummer part 2 (Purpose Maker)* 2009, Something In The Sky (Something In The Sky)* 2010, The Drummer part 3 (Purpose Maker)* 2010, Something In The Sky 2 (Something In The Sky)* 2010, Something In The Sky 3 (Something In The Sky)* 2010, Something In The Sky 4 (Something In The Sky)* 2010, Something In The Sky 5 (Something In The Sky)* 2010, Something In The Sky 6 (Something In The Sky)* 2011, Something In The Sky 7 (Something In The Sky)* 2011, Beat Master (Axis)* 2011, The Power (Axis)* 2011, Star Chronicles (Tomorrow)* 2012, Something In The Sky 10 (Something In The Sky)* 2013, Something In The Sky 11 (Something In The Sky)* 2013, The Space Horizon (Axis)* 2014, What A Machine Believes (Axis)* 2014, Zones and Layers (Axis)* 2015, Exhibitionist 2 part 1 (Axis)* 2018, Tomorrow Comes The Harvest (with Tony Allen) (Blue Note Records)" ], [ "Filmography", "* 2004, Exhibitionist (Axis/React/NEWS/Sonar)* 2004, Three Ages (MK2)* 2006, The Bells – 10 Year Anniversary (Axis)* 2006, Blue Potential (with Monpelier Philharmonic Orchestra) (UWe)* 2013, Chronicles of Possible Worlds (Axis/Second Nature)* 2014, Man From Tomorrow (Axis)* 2015, Exhibitionist 2 (Axis)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Jeff Mills interview on Higher Frequency* Jeff Mills interview at HardwareCorp* Jeff Mills interview pm Real Detroit Weekly* Human to Human: An Interview with Jeff Mills" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Major" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Major''' (born 29 March 1943) is a British former politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997.He previously held Cabinet positions under prime minister Margaret Thatcher, his last as chancellor of the Exchequer from 1989 to 1990.Major was Member of Parliament (MP) for Huntingdon, formerly Huntingdonshire, from 1979 to 2001.Since stepping down as an MP in 2001, Major has focused on writing and his business, sporting and charity work, and has occasionally commented on political developments in the role of an elder statesman.Having left school just before turning sixteen, Major worked as a banker and joined the Young Conservatives in 1959, and soon became a highly active member.", "He was elected to Lambeth London Borough Council in 1968, and a decade later to parliament, being elected as the Conservative MP for Huntingdonshire in the 1979 general election.", "Major held several junior government positions under Thatcher from 1984 to 1987, including parliamentary private secretary and assistant whip.", "He served in Thatcher's third ministry as Chief Secretary to the Treasury from 1987 to 1989, Foreign Secretary in 1989, and Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1989 to 1990.Following Thatcher's resignation in 1990, after a challenge was launched to her leadership, Major stood in the 1990 Conservative leadership election to replace her and emerged victorious, becoming prime minister.", "His mild-mannered style and moderate political stance contrasted with that of Thatcher.", "Two years into his premiership, Major went on to lead the Conservative Party to a fourth consecutive electoral victory, winning more than 14 million votes, which remains the highest number ever won by a political party in Britain.As prime minister, Major created the Citizen's Charter, removed the Poll Tax and replaced it with the Council Tax, committed British troops to the Gulf War, took charge of the UK's negotiations over the Maastricht Treaty, led the country during the early 1990s economic crisis, withdrew the pound from the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (on Black Wednesday), promoted the socially conservative back to basics campaign, privatised the railways and coal industry, and played a pivotal role in creating peace in Northern Ireland.", "In 1995, Major resigned as party leader, amid internal divisions over UK membership of the European Union, parliamentary scandals (widely known as \"sleaze\") and questions over his economic credibility.", "Despite being reelected as Conservative leader in the 1995 leadership election, his administration remained unpopular, and soon lost its parliamentary majority.", "The Labour Party pulled ahead of the Conservatives in every local election during Major's leadership, which increased after Tony Blair became Labour leader in 1994.The Conservatives were defeated in a landslide in the 1997 general election, ending 18 years of Conservative rule.", "After Blair succeeded Major as prime minister, Major served as Leader of the Opposition for seven weeks while the leadership election to replace him took place.", "He formed a temporary shadow cabinet, and Major himself served as shadow foreign secretary and shadow secretary of state for defence.", "His resignation as Conservative leader formally took effect in June 1997 following the election of William Hague.", "He remained active in Parliament, regularly attending and contributing in debates, until he stood down at the 2001 election to focus on writing and his business, sporting and charity work.Since leaving office, Major has tended to maintain a low profile in the media, occasionally making political interventions.", "He supported the Britain Stronger in Europe campaign for the UK to remain in the European Union, and has often criticised Brexit since the outcome of the 2016 referendum.", "Major was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 2005 for services to politics and charity, and was made a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 1999 for his work on the Northern Ireland peace process.", "Although public favourability of Major has improved since he left office, his premiership has generally been viewed as average in historical rankings and public opinion of British prime ministers." ], [ "Early life and education (1943–1959)", "260 Longfellow Road, Worcester Park, where John Major was raised from birth to the age of twelveJohn Major was born on 29 March 1943 at St Helier Hospital and Queen Mary's Hospital for Children in St Helier, Surrey, to Gwen Major (''née'' Coates, 1905–1970) and former music hall performer Tom Major-Ball (1879–1962), who was 63 years old when Major was born.", "He was christened \"John Roy Major\" but only \"John Major\" was recorded on his birth certificate; he used his middle name until the early 1980s.", "His birth had been a difficult one, with his mother suffering from pleurisy and pneumonia and John requiring several blood transfusions due to an infection, causing permanent scarring to his ankles.The Major family - John, his parents, and his two older siblings Terry and Pat) - lived at 260 Longfellow Road, Worcester Park, Surrey, a middle-class area where Major's father ran a garden ornaments business and his mother worked in a local library and as a part-time dance teacher.", "John Major later described the family's circumstances at this time as being \"comfortable but not well off\".", "Following a German V-1 flying bomb attack in the area in 1944 which killed several people, the Majors moved to the village of Saham Toney, Norfolk, for the duration of the war.John began attending primary school at Cheam Common School from 1948.His childhood was generally happy, and he enjoyed reading, sports (especially cricket and football) and keeping pets, such as his rabbits.", "In 1954 John passed the 11+ exam, enabling him to go to Rutlish School, a grammar school in Merton Park, though to John's chagrin his father insisted that he register as 'John Major-Ball'.", "The family's fortunes took a turn for the worse, with his father's health deteriorating, and the business in severe financial difficulties.", "A recalled business loan which the family were unable to repay forced Tom Major to sell the house in Worcester Park in May 1955, with the family moving to a cramped, rented top-floor flat at 144 Coldharbour Lane, Brixton.", "With his parents distracted by their reduced circumstances, John's difficulties at Rutlish went unnoticed.Acutely conscious of his straitened circumstances in relation to the other pupils, Major was something of a loner and consistently under-performed except in sports, coming to see the school as \"a penance to be endured\".", "Major left school just before his 16th birthday in 1959 with just three O-level passes in History, English Language and English Literature, to his parents' disappointment.Major's interest in politics stems from this period, and he avidly kept up with current affairs by reading newspapers on his long commutes from Brixton to Wimbledon.", "In 1956 Major met local MP Marcus Lipton at a local church fair and was invited to watch his first debate in the House of Commons, where Harold Macmillan presented his only Budget as Chancellor of the Exchequer.", "Major has attributed his political ambitions to this event." ], [ "Early post-school career (1959–1979)", "Major's first job was as a clerk in the London-based insurance brokerage firm Price Forbes in 1959, though finding the job dull and offering no prospects he quit.", "Major began working with his brother Terry at the garden ornaments business; this had been sold in 1959, enabling the family to move to a larger residence at 80 Burton Road, Brixton.", "Major's father died on 27 March 1962.John left the ornaments business the following year to care for his ill mother, though when she got better he was unable to find a new job and was unemployed for much of the latter half of 1962, a situation he says was \"degrading\".", "After Major became prime minister, it was misreported that his failure to get a job as a bus conductor resulted from his failing to pass a maths test; he had in fact passed all of the necessary tests but had been passed over owing to his height.", "In the meantime he studied for a qualification in banking via correspondence course.", "Eventually in December 1962 he found a job working at the London Electricity Board (LEB) in Elephant and Castle.In 1959 Major had joined the Young Conservatives in Brixton and soon became a highly active member, which helped increase his confidence following the failure of his school days.", "Encouraged by fellow Conservative Derek Stone, he started giving speeches on a soap-box in Brixton Market.", "According to his biographer Anthony Seldon, Major brought \"youthful exuberance\" to the Tories in Brixton, but was sometimes in trouble with the professional agent Marion Standing.", "Major stood as a Councillor in the 1964 Lambeth London Borough Council election for Larkhall ward at the age of 21 in 1964, losing to Labour.", "He also assisted local Conservative candidates Kenneth Payne in the 1964 general election and Piers Dixon in the 1966 general election.", "Another formative influence on Major in this period was Jean Kierans, a divorcée 13 years his elder with two children who lived opposite the family on Burton Road, who became his mentor and lover.", "Seldon writes \"She ... made Major smarten his appearance, groomed him politically, and made him more ambitious and worldly.\"", "Major later moved in with Kierans when his family left Burton Road in 1965; their relationship lasted from 1963 to sometime after 1968.St Matthew's Church, Brixton where John and Norma Major married in 1970Major left the LEB and took up a post at District Bank in May 1965, though he soon left this to join Standard Bank the following year, largely because the latter offered the chance to work abroad.", "In December 1966 he was sent for a long secondment in Jos, Nigeria, which he enjoyed immensely, though he was put off by the casual racism of some of the ex-pat workers there.", "In May 1967 he was involved in a serious car crash in which he broke a leg and had to be flown home.", "Leaving hospital, he split his time between Jean Kierans' house and a small rented flat in Mayfair, working at Standard Bank's London office and resuming his banking diploma and activities with the Young Conservatives in his spare time.Major stood again as Councillor in the 1968 Lambeth London Borough Council election, this time for Ferndale ward.", "Though a Labour stronghold, the Conservatives received a huge boost following Enoch Powell's anti-immigration 'Rivers of Blood speech' in April 1968 and Major won, despite strongly disapproving of Powell's views.", "Major took a major interest in housing matters, with Lambeth notorious for overcrowding and poor-quality rented accommodation.", "In February 1970 Major became Chairman of the Housing Committee, being responsible for overseeing the building of several large council estates.", "He also promoted more openness at the council, initiating a series of public meetings with local residents.", "Major also undertook fact-finding trips to the Netherlands, Finland and the Soviet Union.", "Despite the Lambeth housing team being well-regarded nationally, Major lost his seat in the 1971 Lambeth London Borough Council election.Major met Norma Johnson at a Conservative party event in Brixton in April 1970, and the two became engaged shortly thereafter, marrying at St Matthew's Church in Brixton on 3 October 1970.John's mother died shortly before in September at the age of 65.John and Norma moved into a flat at Primrose Court, Streatham, which John had bought in 1969, and had their first child, Elizabeth, in November 1971.In 1974 the couple moved to a larger residence at West Oak, Beckenham, and had a second child, James, in January 1975.Meanwhile, Major continued to work at Standard Bank (renamed Standard Chartered from 1975), having completed his banking diploma in 1972.Major was promoted to head of the PR department in August 1976, and his duties necessitated the occasional foreign trip to East Asia.Despite his setback at the 1971 Lambeth Council election, Major continued to nurse political ambitions, and with help from friends in the Conservative Party managed to get onto the Conservative Central Office's list of potential MP candidates.", "Major was selected as the Conservative candidate for the Labour-dominated St Pancras North constituency, fighting both the February and October 1974 general elections, losing heavily both times to Labour's Albert Stallard.", "Major then attempted to get selected as a candidate for a more promising seat, and despite numerous attempts was unsuccessful until December 1976.Growing increasingly frustrated, Major resolved to make one last attempt, applying for selection to the safe Conservative seat of Huntingdonshire and finally he succeeded.", "Major was in some ways an odd choice, being a born-and-bred Londoner in a largely rural constituency still home to many landed families; however, he was seen as being the most likely to win-over the increasingly large numbers of upwardly mobile London over-spill families living in the area, and he was helped to familiarise himself with the area by local MP David Renton.", "In 1977 the Major family purchased a house at De Vere Close in the village of Hemingford Grey.", "Major took on a less demanding job at Standard Chartered, and started working part-time in 1978 so that he could devote more time to his constituency duties." ], [ "Early parliamentary career (1979–1987)", "Major won the Huntingdon seat by a large margin in the 1979 general election, which brought Margaret Thatcher to power.", "He made his maiden speech in the House of Commons on 13 June 1979, voicing his support for the government's budget.", "Major assiduously courted contacts at all levels of the party in this period, joining the informal 'Guy Fawkes club' of Conservative MPs and attending various Committees.", "He became Secretary of the Environment Committee and also assisted with work on the Housing Act 1980, which allowed council house tenants the Right to Buy their homes.", "At this time Major lived in De Vere Close, Hemingford Grey.A demonstration against the deployment of cruise missiles at RAF Molesworth in the early 1980sMajor's first promotion came when he was appointed as a Parliamentary Private Secretary in January 1981 to Patrick Mayhew and Timothy Raison, both Ministers of State at the Home Office.", "Seeking to gain more exposure to foreign affairs, he joined several Labour Party MPs on a fact-finding trip to the Middle East in April 1982.The group met with King Hussein of Jordan and Yasser Arafat of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation in Lebanon; in Israel they were briefly caught in the middle of a shooting incident between Israeli troops and a Palestinian rock-thrower.Major later became an assistant whip in January 1983, responsible for East Anglian MPs.", "During this period Major became also involved in the response to protests at RAF Molesworth, which lay in his constituency; various peace groups were opposed to the siting of cruise missiles at the base and had established a permanent 'peace camp' there.", "Major addressed public meetings opposed to the protesters, organised by parish councillors, and also met Bill Westwood and separately Michael Heseltine to discuss the issue.", "The protesters were evicted in February 1984.Major comfortably won re-election to the now slightly enlarged seat of Huntingdon at the 1983 general election.", "Shortly thereafter he and Norma moved to a larger house (Finings) in Great Stukeley; Major generally spent his weekends there, and weekdays at a rented flat in Durand Gardens, Stockwell.", "Major was invited to join the prestigious 'Blue Chip' group of rising stars in the Conservative Party, and he was promoted to Treasury Whip in October 1984.It was later revealed (in 2002) that during this period Major had conducted an affair with Edwina Currie, a Conservative backbencher and later Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security; the affair ended in 1988.Major narrowly avoided the IRA's Brighton hotel bombing in October 1984, having left the hotel only a few hours before the bomb went off.", "Also in this period, Major stood in for a Foreign Office minister on a trip to South America, visiting Colombia, Peru and Venezuela.In September 1985, Major was made Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS), before being promoted to become Minister of State in the same department in September 1986.The large size of the DHSS granted Ministers a greater degree of responsibility than in other departments, with Major assisting with work on the Social Security Act 1986 and improving provision for disabled people.", "Major began to gain a bigger profile, giving his first speech at the Conservative Party Conference in October 1986.He first attracted major national media attention in January 1987 over cold weather payments to the elderly, when Britain was in the depths of a severe winter.", "Amidst intense media criticism, Major discussed the issue with Margaret Thatcher and an increase in the payments was approved." ], [ "In Cabinet (1987–1990)", "===Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1987–1989)===Following the 1987 general election, in which Major retained his seat with an increased majority, he was promoted to the Cabinet as Chief Secretary to the Treasury, making him the first MP of the 1979 intake to reach the Cabinet.", "The then-Chancellor Nigel Lawson generally made significant decisions with little input from others, and Major was put in charge of agreeing departmental budgets with the Secretaries of State.", "These discussions went well, and for the first time in several years budgets were agreed without recourse to the external adjudication of the so-called 'Star Chamber'.", "Major successfully concluded a second round of such spending reviews in July 1988.Whilst Chief Secretary Major took part in discussions over the future funding of the NHS, against the background of an NHS strike in February 1988 over pay, resulting in the 'Working for Patients' white paper and subsequent National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990.Major also insisted in discussions with Thatcher that government assistance should be provided to support the sale of Short Brothers to Bombardier, an aerospace company and major employer in Northern Ireland which might otherwise have collapsed.===Foreign Secretary (July–October 1989)===In 1987–1988 it became clear that Major had become a 'favourite' of Thatcher's and he was widely tipped for further promotion.", "Nevertheless, Major's appointment to Foreign Secretary in July 1989 came as a surprise due to his relative lack of experience in the Cabinet and unfamiliarity with international affairs.", "Major found the prospect daunting, and unsuccessfully attempted to convince Thatcher to allow him to stay on at the Treasury.", "There were also fears within the Foreign & Commonwealth Office (FCO) that Major would be Thatcher's 'hatchet-man', as her relations with the department under Geoffrey Howe had been poor and characterised by mutual distrust.", "Major accepted the job and began to settle into the department, living in an upstairs room at the FCO and devolving decision making where necessary, though he found the increased security burdensome and disliked the extensive ceremonial aspects of the role.Amongst Major's first acts as Foreign Secretary was to cancel the sale of Hawk aircraft to Iraq, over concerns they would be used for internal repression.", "He represented Britain at the Paris Peace Conference to determine the future of Cambodia.", "Major also met with US secretary of state James Baker, with whom he primarily discussed the issue of Vietnamese boat people, and with Qian Qichen, Foreign Minister of China, becoming the first senior Western politician to meet with a Chinese official since the violent crackdown of pro-democracy protesters in Tiananmen Square the previous month.", "Discussions focused primarily on the future of Hong Kong, which Britain was scheduled to hand over to China in 1997.Major spent most of a summer holiday that year in Spain conducting extensive background reading on foreign affairs and British foreign policy.", "Upon his return to the UK he and Thatcher met with French president François Mitterrand, in which the future direction of the European Community was discussed.", "In September 1989 Major delivered a speech at the United Nations General Assembly, in which he pledged to support Colombia's effort to tackle the drugs trade and reiterated Britain's opposition to the apartheid regime in South Africa.", "Major also met US president George H. W. Bush in Washington, D.C. and Domingo Cavallo, the Argentine foreign minister, the first such meeting since the end of the Falklands War seven years earlier.Major's last major summit as Foreign Secretary was the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Malaysia.", "The meeting was dominated by the issue of sanctions on South Africa, with Britain being the only country to oppose them, on the grounds that they would end up hurting poorer South Africans far more than the apartheid regime at which they were aimed.", "The summit ended acrimoniously, with Thatcher controversially and against established precedent issuing a second final communiqué stating Britain's opposition to sanctions, with the press seizing on the apparent disagreement on the matter between Major and Thatcher.=== Chancellor of the Exchequer (1989–1990) ===After just three months as Foreign Secretary Major was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer on 26 October 1989 following the sudden resignation of Nigel Lawson, who had fallen out with Thatcher over what he saw as her excessive reliance on the advice of her Economic Adviser Alan Walters.", "The appointment meant that, despite only being in the Cabinet for a little over two years, Major had gone from the most junior position in the Cabinet to holding two of the Great Offices of State.", "Major made tackling inflation a priority, stating that tough measures were needed to bring it down and that \"if it isn't hurting, it isn't working.\"", "He delivered his first Autumn Statement on 15 November, announcing a boost in spending (mainly for the NHS) and with interest rates to be kept as they were.As Chancellor, Major presented only one Budget, the first to be televised live, on 20 March 1990.He publicised it as a 'budget for savers', with the creations of the Tax-exempt special savings account (TESSA), arguing that measures were required to address the marked fall in the household savings ratio that had been apparent during the previous financial year.", "Major also abolished the composite rate tax and stamp duty on share trades, whilst increasing taxes on alcohol, cigarettes and petrol.", "Tax cuts were also made which benefited football associations, the aim being to increase funding on safety measures following the Bradford City stadium fire and Hillsborough disaster.", "Extra funding was also made available to Scotland in order to limit the impact of the Community Charge (widely dubbed the 'Poll Tax'), which had been introduced there that year.The European Community's push for full Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was another important factor in Major's time as Chancellor; in June 1990 he proposed that instead of a single European currency there could instead be a 'hard ECU', which different national currencies could compete against and, if the ECU was successful, could lead to a single currency.", "The move was seen as a wrecking tactic by France and Germany, especially when the increasingly Euro-sceptic Thatcher announced her outright opposition to EMU, and the idea was abandoned.", "More successfully, Major managed to get the new European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) located in London.By early 1990 Major had become convinced that the best way to combat inflation and restore macroeconomic stability would be if the British pound were to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), and he and Douglas Hurd (Major's successor as Foreign Secretary) set about trying to convince a reluctant Thatcher to join it.", "The move was supported by the Bank of England, the Treasury, most of the Cabinet, the Labour Party, several major business associations and much of the press.", "With the 'Lawson Boom' showing signs of running out of steam, exacerbated by rising oil prices following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, there were fears of a potential recession and pressure to cut interest rates.", "Thatcher finally agreed on 4 October, and Britain's entry into the ERM at a rate of DM 2.95 to £1.00 (with an agreed 6% floating 'band' either side) was announced the following day.", "An interest rate cut of 1% (from 15%) was also announced on the same day.The rest of Major's Chancellorship prior to the leadership contest was largely uneventful; he considered granting the Bank of England operational independence over monetary policy, with the ability to set interest rates, but decided against it.", "He also agreed a restructuring and write-off of some Third World debt at a Commonwealth Finance Ministers meeting in Trinidad and Tobago in September 1990.====Conservative Party leadership contest====Opposition within the Conservative Party to Margaret Thatcher had been brewing for some time, focusing on what was seen as her brusque, imperious style and the poll tax, which was facing serious opposition across the country.", "In December 1989, she had survived a leadership bid by Anthony Meyer; though she won easily, 60 MPs had not voted for her, and it was rumoured that many more had had to be strong-armed into supporting her.", "By early 1990, it was clear that bills for many under the new poll tax regime would be higher than anticipated, and opposition to the Tax grew, with a non-payment campaign gaining much support and an anti-poll tax demonstration in Trafalgar Square in March ending in rioting.", "The Conservatives lost the 1990 Mid Staffordshire by-election to Labour and the 1990 Eastbourne by-election to the Liberal Democrats, both Conservative seats, causing many Conservative MPs to worry about their prospects at the upcoming general election, due in 1991 or 1992.Thatcher's staunch anti-European stance also alienated pro-Europe Conservatives.", "On 1 November, the pro-European deputy prime minister Geoffrey Howe resigned, issuing a fiercely critical broadside against Thatcher in the House of Commons on 13 November.The day after Howe's speech Michael Heseltine, Thatcher's former Secretary of State for Defence who had acrimoniously resigned in 1986 over the Westland affair, challenged Thatcher for the leadership of the Conservative Party.", "Both John Major and Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd supported Thatcher in the first round.", "Major was at home in Huntingdon recovering from a pre-arranged wisdom tooth operation during the first leadership ballot, which Thatcher won but not by the required threshold, necessitating a second round.", "Following discussions with her cabinet, in which many stated that though supporting her they doubted she could win, Thatcher withdrew from the contest and announced that she would resign as prime minister once a new leader had been elected.", "Major subsequently announced on 22 November that he would stand in the second ballot, with Thatcher's backing.", "Major's platform was one of moderation on Europe, a review of the poll tax, and the desire to build a \"classless society\".Unlike in the first ballot, a candidate only required a simple majority of Conservative MPs to win, in this case 187 of 372 MPs.", "The ballot was held on the afternoon of 27 November; although Major obtained 185 votes, 2 votes short of an overall majority, he polled far enough ahead of both Hurd and Heseltine to secure their immediate withdrawal.", "With no remaining challengers, Major was formally named Leader of the Conservative Party that evening and was duly appointed prime minister the following day.", "At 47, he was the youngest prime minister since Lord Rosebery some 95 years earlier." ], [ "Prime Minister (1990–1997)", "=== First Major ministry (1990–1992) ===Prime Minister John Major and President George H. W. Bush participate in a press availability at Camp DavidMajor became prime minister on 28 November 1990 when he accepted the Queen's invitation to form a government, succeeding Margaret Thatcher.", "He inherited a majority government from Margaret Thatcher who had been the prime minister for the previous eleven years.", "The Conservatives' popularity was low, with some polling showing Labour's Neil Kinnock with a 23% lead over the Tories in April 1990 following the introduction of the Community Charge (poll tax).", "By the time of Major's appointment, Labour's lead had shrunk to 14%.", "However, by 1991, the Conservatives had narrowly retaken Labour in the polls.Major's first ministry was dominated by the early 1990s recession which was believed to be caused by high interest rates, falling house prices and an overvalued exchange rate.", "The high interest rates led to more saving, less spending and less investment in the UK's sectors.", "Falling house prices stalled construction in the housing sector.", "Economic growth wasn't re-established until early 1993.By December 1991, unemployment was at 2.5 million (compared to 1.6 million 18 months earlier).", "Additionally, inflation was in double digits and interest rates reached 15%.", "However, opinion polling for Major's government remained stable during this period.On 10 March 1992, Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont delivered his budget speech to the House of Commons, which included tax cuts widely perceived to achieve votes at the forthcoming general election.", "The next day, as universally expected, Major called an election for 9 April.=== Second Major ministry (1992–1997) ===Prime Minister John Major and President Bill Clinton deliver press statements outside Downing Street in 1995To the surprise of many pollsters, the Conservatives won a majority on the 9 April election, with 336 seats, and earning 41.9% of the vote.", "With a high turnout, the Conservatives earned over 14 million votes which remains a record in any UK general election.", "This was the Conservatives' fourth consecutive election victory.", "Neil Kinnock was replaced by John Smith as Labour leader and Leader of the Opposition in 1992.On 16 September 1992, the pound sterling crashed out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism after the Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont had invested heavily in trying to keep it there, adjusting interest rates four times in one day.", "This event would later be called Black Wednesday.", "Despite the recession finally ending in 1993, the Conservatives' popularity didn't improve.", "Major's second ministry was also defined by conflicts within the Conservative Party regarding Europe following the government's defeat on the Maastricht Treaty.Major and Clinton at the White House in 1994On 12 May 1994, John Smith died from a heart attack and was replaced by Tony Blair who continued Labour's modernisation under the slogan of \"New Labour\".", "Some polling at the end of 1994 and the start of 1995 had Labour with a vote share of over 60%.", "The Tories remained divided over this era and in an attempt to silence his critics, Major resigned as Party leader.", "In the leadership election, Major comfortably beat John Redwood in June 1995.Following a string of by-election defeats, the Conservatives' majority of 21 had been eroded by 13 December 1996.In the 1997 election on 1 May 1997, Labour won a 179-seat majority, ending their eighteen years in opposition.", "This was the worst general election result of the 20th century for the Conservatives, seeing the loss of all the party's seats in Wales and Scotland.", "On the morning of 2 May 1997, on his final departure from Downing Street to offer his resignation to the Queen, Major announced his intention to step down as leader of the Conservative Party, stating in his exit speech that \"when the curtain falls, it's time to get off the stage\".", "He was succeeded as prime minister by Tony Blair." ], [ "Final years in Parliament (1997–2001)", "Major talks with Lieutenant General Michael Walker in 1996Speculation over Major's leadership had continued since his re-election in 1995, and intensified as it became increasingly likely that the Conservatives would suffer a landslide defeat in the upcoming general election.", "During this period, Michael Portillo had frequently been touted as the favourite to replace Major, but lost his seat in the election, thus eliminating him from the running.", "Although many Conservative MPs wanted Major to resign as leader immediately because of the 1997 election loss, there was a movement among the grassroots of the party, encouraged by his political allies, to have him stay on as leader until the autumn.", "Lord Cranborne, his chief of staff during the election, and the chief whip, Alastair Goodlad, both pleaded with him to stay on: they argued that remaining as leader for a few months would give the party time to come to terms with the scale of defeat before electing a successor.", "Major refused, saying: \"It would be terrible, because I would be presiding with no authority over a number of candidates fighting for the crown.", "It would merely prolong the agony.", "\"Major served as Leader of the Opposition for seven weeks while the leadership election to replace him was underway.", "He formed a temporary Shadow Cabinet, but with seven of his Cabinet ministers having lost their seats at the election, and with few senior MPs left to replace them, several MPs had to hold multiple briefs.", "Major himself served as shadow foreign secretary (having served as foreign secretary for three months in 1989) and Shadow Secretary of State for Defence, and the office of Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland was left vacant until after the 2001 general election as the party no longer had any Scottish MPs.", "Major's resignation as Conservative leader formally took effect on 19 June 1997 after the election of William Hague.Major's Resignation Honours were announced on 1 August 1997.He remained active in Parliament, regularly attending and contributing in debates.", "He stood down from the House of Commons at the 2001 general election, having announced his retirement from Parliament on 10 March 2000.Jonathan Djanogly took over as MP for Huntingdon, retaining the seat for the Conservatives at the 2001 election.Like some post-war former prime ministers (such as Edward Heath), Major turned down a peerage when he retired from the House of Commons in 2001.He said that he wanted a \"firebreak from politics\" and to focus on writing and his business, sporting and charity work." ], [ "Post-parliamentary life (2001–present)", "Major at The Hist in Dublin, 2007Since leaving office, Major has tended to maintain a low profile in the media, occasionally commentating on political developments in the role of an elder statesman.", "In 1999 he published an autobiography, covering his early life and time in office, which was generally well received.", "Major went on to write a book about the history of cricket in 2007 (''More Than a Game: The Story of Cricket's Early Years'' and a book about music hall (''My Old Man: A Personal History of Music Hall'' in 2012.Major has further indulged his love of cricket as President of Surrey County Cricket Club from 2000 to 2001 (and Honorary Life Vice-president since 2002).", "In March 2001 he gave the tribute to cricketer Colin Cowdrey at his memorial service in Westminster Abbey.", "In 2005 he was elected to the Committee of the Marylebone Cricket Club, historically the governing body of the sport, and still guardian of the laws of the game.", "Major left the committee in 2011, citing concerns with the planned redevelopment of Lord's Cricket Ground.John Major has also been actively engaged in charity work, being President of Asthma UK, and a Patron of the Prostate Cancer Charity, Sightsavers UK, Mercy Ships, Support for Africa 2000, Afghan Heroes, and Consortium for Street Children.", "In February 2012, Major became chairman of the Queen Elizabeth Diamond Jubilee Trust, which was formed as part of the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II and is intended to support charitable organisations and projects across the Commonwealth, focusing on areas such as cures for diseases and the promotion of culture and education.", "Major was a Patron of the sight loss and learning disability charity SeeAbility from 2006 to 2012 and has been a vice-president since 2013.Queen Elizabeth II at Chatham House in 2012Major has also pursued a variety of business interests, taking up appointments as senior adviser to Credit Suisse, chairman of the board of senior advisers at Global Infrastructure Partners, Global Adviser to AECOM, Chairman of the International Advisory Board of the National Bank of Kuwait, and Chairman of the European Advisory Council of the Emerson Electric Company.", "He was a member of the Carlyle Group's European Advisory Board from 1998 and was appointed Chairman of Carlyle Europe in May 2001.He stood down from the Group circa 2004–05.Major was also a director at the bus manufacturers the Mayflower Corporation from 2000 to 2003, which was liquidated in 2004 due to funding issues.Following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, Major was appointed a special guardian to Princes William and Harry, with responsibility for legal and administrative matters.", "As a result of this, Major was the only current or former prime minister out of the five then still alive invited to the wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle in May 2018.Major has also attended the funerals of notable political figures, such as Nelson Mandela in December 2013, former US first lady Barbara Bush at St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston, Texas on 21 April 2018 and the state funeral of George H. W. Bush on 5 December 2018.===Revelation of affair ===In 1993, Major sued two magazines, ''New Statesman and Society'' and ''Scallywag'', as well as their distributors, for reporting rumours of an affair with Clare Latimer, a Downing Street caterer, even though at least one of the magazines had said that the rumours were false.", "The allegations of an affair with Latimer were indeed proven false.", "However, an affair with a different woman, Edwina Currie, came out a decade later, and both of these publications considered legal action to recover their costs when that happened.In September 2002, it was revealed that, prior to his elevation to the Cabinet, Major had had a four-year-long extramarital affair with Edwina Currie, from 1984 to 1988.Commentators were quick to refer to Major's previous 'Back to Basics' platform to throw charges of hypocrisy at him.", "An obituary of Tony Newton in ''The Daily Telegraph'' claimed that if Newton had not kept the affair a closely guarded secret, \"it is highly unlikely that Major would have become prime minister\".", "In a press statement, Major said that he was \"ashamed\" by the affair and that his wife had forgiven him.", "In response, Currie said \"he wasn't ashamed of it at the time and he wanted it to continue.", "\"===Political engagement===Major delivering a speech at Chatham House in 2010Major has become an active after-dinner speaker, earning over £25,000 per engagement for his \"insights and his own opinions\" on politics and other matters according to his agency.", "Major is also actively involved in various think tanks: he is the chair of the Panel of senior advisers at Chatham House (having previously served as a president of Chatham House), a member of the International Advisory Boards of the Peres Center for Peace in Israel, the InterAction Council, the Baker Institute in Houston, and a Patron of the Atlantic Partnership.", "Major was also a director with the Ditchley Foundation from 2000 to 2009, and a president of the influential centre-right think tank the Bow Group from 2012 to 2014.In February 2005, it was reported that Major and Norman Lamont delayed the release of papers on Black Wednesday under the Freedom of Information Act.", "Major denied doing so, saying that he had not heard of the request until the scheduled release date and had merely asked to look at the papers himself.", "He told BBC News that he and Lamont had been the victims of \"whispering voices\" to the press.", "He later publicly approved the release of the papers.In December 2006, Major led calls for an independent inquiry into Blair's decision to invade Iraq, following revelations made by Carne Ross, a former British senior diplomat, that contradicted Blair's case for the invasion.He was touted as a possible Conservative candidate for the Mayor of London elections in 2008, but turned down an offer from the Leader of the Conservatives at the time, David Cameron.", "A spokesperson for Major said \"his political career is behind him\".Major delivering a speech at The Role of the Nation State in Addressing Global Challenges in 2014Following the 2010 general election, Major announced his support for the Cameron–Clegg coalition, and stated that he hoped for a \"liberal conservative\" alliance beyond 2015, criticising Labour under Ed Miliband for playing \"party games\" rather than serving the national interest.", "Nevertheless, in 2013 Major expressed his concern at the seeming decline in social mobility in Britain: \"In every single sphere of British influence, the upper echelons of power in 2013 are held overwhelmingly by the privately educated or the affluent middle class.", "To me, from my background, I find that truly shocking.", "\"During the 2014 Scottish independence referendum Major strongly encouraged a \"No\" vote, stating that a vote for independence would be damaging both for Scotland and the rest of the UK.", "This was similar to his stance on devolution in Scotland before referendums were held on the subject both there and in Wales in 1997.Queen Elizabeth II, Prime Minister David Cameron, and former prime ministers Tony Blair and Gordon BrownMajor was a vocal supporter for the Remain campaign in the 2016 referendum on British membership of the European Union.", "Major supported a second referendum over Brexit, stating that the leave campaign put out a \"fantasy case\" during the referendum campaign, adding that to describe a second vote as undemocratic was \"a rather curious proposition\" and that he could see no \"intellectual argument\" against redoing the ballot.", "Major feared Brexit would make the UK poorer and could endanger the peace settlement in Northern Ireland.On 30 August 2019, it was announced that Major intended to join a court case by Gina Miller against the proroguing of Parliament by the prime minister at the time, Boris Johnson.", "In the 2019 general election Major urged voters to vote tactically against candidates supporting Boris Johnson when those candidates wanted a hard Brexit.", "Major said Brexit is, \"the worst foreign policy decision in my lifetime.", "It will affect nearly every single aspect of our lives for many decades to come.", "It will make our country poorer and weaker.", "It will hurt most those who have least.", "Never have the stakes been higher, especially for the young.", "Brexit may even break up our historic United Kingdom.\"", "In early 2020, after the UK formally left the EU with an initial deal, Major expressed his concerns about a future trading deal with the EU being \"flimsy\".In February 2022, Major made a speech at the Institute for Government think-tank in London, in which he criticised Johnson over the Partygate scandal, suggesting that he ought to resign, and also the proposed policy for those seeking asylum which he called \"un-British\".", "In July 2022, immediately following Johnson's announcement he intended to resign as prime minister but would stay until a successor was chosen, Major called for Johnson's immediate replacement and removal \"for the overall wellbeing of the country.", "\"In February 2023, Major made a speech at the Northern Ireland Affairs Select Committee, where he said that Brexit was \"a colossal mistake\" and that Johnson agreed the Brexit protocol knowing it was \"a mess\"." ], [ "Assessment and legacy", "Bust of Major by Shenda Amery in Huntingdon LibraryMajor's mild-mannered style and moderate political stance contrasted with that of Thatcher, and made him theoretically well-placed to act as a conciliatory and relatively uncontroversial leader of his party.", "In spite of this, conflict raged within the parliamentary Conservative Party, particularly over the extent of Britain's integration with the European Union.", "Major never succeeded in reconciling the \"Euro-rebels\" among his MPs to his European policy, who although relatively few in number, wielded great influence because of his small majority and their wider following among Conservative activists and voters.", "Episodes such as the Maastricht Rebellion, led by Bill Cash and Margaret Thatcher, inflicted serious political damage on him and his government.", "The additional bitterness on the right wing of the Conservative Party at the manner in which Margaret Thatcher had been deposed did not make Major's task any easier, with many viewing him as a weak and vacillating leader.", "Ongoing 'sleaze'-related scandals among leading Conservative MPs also did Major and his government no favours, decreasing support for the party amongst the public.His task became even more difficult after the election of the modernist and highly media-savvy Tony Blair as Labour leader in July 1994, who mercilessly exploited Conservative divisions whilst shifting Labour to the centre, thus making it much more electable.", "Whilst few observers doubted that Major was an honest and decent man, or that he made sincere and sometimes successful attempts to improve life in Britain and to unite his deeply divided party, he was also perceived as a weak and ineffectual figure, and his approval ratings for most of his time in office were low, particularly after \"Black Wednesday\" in September 1992 which destroyed the Conservative's reputation for effective economic management.Major defended his government in his memoirs, focusing particularly on how under him the British economy had recovered from the recession of 1990–1993.He wrote that \"during my premiership interest rates fell from 14% to 6%; unemployment was at 1.75 million when I took office, and at 1.6 million and falling upon my departure; and the government's annual borrowing rose from £0.5 billion to nearly £46 billion at its peak before falling to £1 billion\".", "Major's Chancellor Ken Clarke stated in 2016 that Major's reputation looked better as time went by, in contrast to that of Tony Blair's which appeared to be in decline.", "Paddy Ashdown, the Leader of the Liberal Democrats during Major's term of office, was more sympathetic, writing in 2017 that Major was \"one of the most honest, brave and sincere men to ever be Prime Minister\" and that his time in office compares favourably with that of his successor Tony Blair.Major at a fundraising event in Central London in 2009Writing shortly after he left office, the historian and journalist Paul Johnson wrote that Major was \"a hopeless leader\" who \"should never have been Prime Minister\".", "The sentiments echoed that of much of the press at the time, which was generally hostile to Major, especially after Black Wednesday.", "The journalist Peter Oborne was one such figure, though writing in 2017 he stated that he now regrets his negative reporting, stating that he himself and the press in general were \"grossly unfair to Major\" and that this was motivated at least in part by snobbery at Major's humble upbringing.", "In 2012 Oborne had written that Major's government looks ever more successful as time goes by.", "Oborne singled out Major's achievements in the Northern Irish peace process, boosting the economy, keeping Britain out of the Eurozone, and his reforms of public services as being worthy of praise.", "Others remain unconvinced however and, writing in 2011, the BBC's Home editor Mark Easton judged that \"Majorism\" had made little lasting impact.In academic circles Major's legacy has generally been better received.", "Mark Stuart, writing in 2017, stated that Major is \"the best ex-Prime Minister we have ever had\", praising him for initiating the Northern Ireland peace process, peacefully handing Hong Kong back to China, creating the National Lottery and leaving a sound economy to Labour in 1997.Dennis Kavanagh likewise states that Major did relatively well considering the unbridgeable divides that existed in the Conservative Party in the 1990s, chiefly over Europe, whilst also delivering economic growth, a more user-focused public sector and the basis of peace settlement in Northern Ireland.", "He also notes that Major's unexpected 1992 election victory effectively sealed in the Thatcher-era reforms and forced the Labour Party to ditch most of its more socialist-tinged policies, thereby permanently shifting the British political landscape to the centre ground.", "Anthony Seldon largely agrees with this assessment, adding that Major's deep dislike of discrimination contributed to the continuing decline in racism and homophobia in British society, and that his proactive foreign policy stance maintained Britain's influence in the world at a time of profound global change.", "He also notes that Major faced a deeply unfavourable set of circumstances: most of the obvious and pressing Conservative reforms (e.g.", "reining in the power of trade unions and privatising failing industries) had already been completed under Thatcher, the swift nature of his rise to power left him little time to formulate policy positions and upon becoming prime minister he was immediately thrust into having to deal with the Gulf War and a major recession.", "Furthermore, the narrow majority achieved after the 1992 election left him exposed to internal Conservative rebellions, which only worsened as time went by, abetted by a hostile press, as it became clear the Conservatives would lose the next election.", "Seldon concludes that \"Major was neither non-entity nor failure.", "His will be judged an important if unruly premiership at the end of the Conservative century, completing some parts of an earlier agenda while in some key respects helping to define a Conservatism for the 21st century.\"", "Seldon reiterated these views in his contribution to the 2017 volume ''John Major: An Unsuccessful Prime Minister?", "''Political historian Robert Taylor, in his 2006 biography of Major, concurs with many of these points, summing up that \"In the perspective provided by the years of New Labour government since May 1997, John Major's record as Prime Minister looked much better than his many critics liked to suggest... Britain's most extraordinary Conservative Prime Minister bequeathed an important legacy to this party and his country to build on.", "One day both yet may come to recognise and appreciate it.\"", "Noted political historian Dick Leonard, however, writing in 2004, was more harsh in his assessment, concluding that Major was \"A man of evident decent instincts, but limited abilities: as Prime Minister he pushed these abilities to the limit.", "It was not enough.\"" ], [ "Representation in the media", "Major at Chatham House in 2011During his leadership of the Conservative Party, Major was portrayed as honest (\"Honest John\") but unable to exert effective control over his fractious party.", "However, his polite, easy-going manner was initially well received by both his supporters and his critics.", "Major's appearance was noted for its greyness, his prodigious philtrum, and large glasses, all of which were exaggerated in caricatures.", "For example, in ''Spitting Image'', Major's puppet was changed from a circus performer to that of a literally grey man who ate dinner with his wife in silence, occasionally saying \"nice peas, dear\", while at the same time nursing an unrequited crush on his colleague Virginia Bottomley – an invention, but an ironic one in view of his affair with Edwina Currie, which was not then a matter of public knowledge.", "By the end of his premiership his puppet would often be shown observing the latest fiasco and ineffectually murmuring \"oh dear\".", "Long-standing Conservative MP Enoch Powell, when asked about Major, stated \"I simply find myself asking – does he really exist?", "\", whereas on the left Labour's Alastair Campbell dismissed him as a \"piece of lettuce that passes for prime minister\" and Labour MP Tony Banks said of Major in 1994 that, \"He was a fairly competent Chairman of Housing on Lambeth Council.", "Every time he gets up now I keep thinking, 'What on earth is Councillor Major doing?'", "I can't believe he's here and sometimes I think he can't either.", "\"The media (particularly ''The Guardian'' cartoonist Steve Bell) used the allegation by Alastair Campbell that he had observed Major tucking his shirt into his underpants to caricature him wearing his pants outside his trousers, as a pale grey echo of both Superman and Supermac, a parody of Harold Macmillan.", "Bell also used the humorous possibilities of the Cones Hotline, a means for the public to inform the authorities of potentially unnecessary traffic cones, which was part of the Citizen's Charter project established by John Major.", "Major was also satirised by Patrick Wright with his book ''101 Uses for a John Major'' (based on a comic book of some 10 years earlier called ''101 Uses for a Dead Cat'', in which Major was illustrated serving a number of bizarre purposes, such as a train-spotter's anorak or as a flag-pole; Wright published a second collection of '101 Uses', as well as a parodic cartoon biography of Major entitled ''Not Inconsiderable: Being the Life and Times of John Major''.", "''Private Eye'' parodied Sue Townsend's ''The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole, age 13¾'' to run a regular column ''The Secret Diary of John Major, age 47¾'', in which Major was portrayed as naïve and childish, keeping lists of his enemies in a Rymans Notebook called his \"Bastards Book\", and featuring \"my wife Norman\" and \"Mr Dr Mawhinney\" as recurring characters.", "The magazine still runs one-off specials of this diary (with the age updated) on occasions when Major is in the news, such as on the breaking of the Edwina Currie story or the publication of his autobiography.The impressionist comedian Rory Bremner often mocked John Major, for example depicting him as 'John 90', a play on 1960s puppet show ''Joe 90''; his impersonation was so accurate that he managed to fool the MP Richard Body that he was really speaking to Major in a prank phone call.", "The incident prompted Cabinet Secretary Robin Butler to warn Channel 4 head Michael Grade against any further calls for fear that state secrets could be inadvertently leaked.Major was often mocked for his nostalgic evocation of what sounded like the lost Britain of the 1950s ; for example, his famous speech stating that \"Fifty years from now Britain will still be the country of long shadows on county grounds, warm beer, invincible green suburbs, dog lovers and pools fillers and – as George Orwell said – 'old maids bicycling to Holy Communion through the morning mist'.\"", "Major complained in his memoirs that these words (which drew upon a passage in George Orwell's essay ''The Lion and the Unicorn'' had been misrepresented as being more naive and romantic than he had intended, and indeed his memoirs were dismissive of the common conservative viewpoint that there was once a time of moral rectitude; Major wrote that \"life has never been as simple as that\".", "Throughout his time in office Major was often acutely sensitive to criticism of him in the press; his biographer Anthony Seldon posits this to an inner vulnerability stemming from his difficult childhood and adolescence.", "After leaving office, Major stated that \"Perhaps up to a point I was too sensitive about some of the things in the press, I'm happy to concede that.", "But, the politicians who are said to have hides like rhinos and be utterly impervious to criticism, if they're not extinct, they are very rare and I freely confess I wasn't amongst them.", "\"Major has been depicted on screen by Keith Drinkel in ''Thatcher: The Final Days'' (1991), Michael Maloney in ''Margaret'' (2009), Robin Kermode in ''The Iron Lady'' (2011), Marc Ozall in the TV series ''The Crown'', Gordon Griffin in ''Westminster on Trial'' and Roger Sansom in ''On the Record''.", "Footage of Major's 1992 election win is used in Patrick Keiller's 1994 documentary film ''London''.", "Major was also one of the prime ministers portrayed in the 2013 stage play ''The Audience''.", "Less flatteringly, Major was the subject of the song ''John Major – Fuck You'' by Scottish punk band Oi Polloi.Major was portrayed by Jonny Lee Miller in the fifth season of ''The Crown'' in 2022.Major called the series a \"barrel-load of nonsense\" for a fictitious storyline in which the then Prince Charles lobbies Major in 1991, attempting to oust Queen Elizabeth II from power.", "Netflix defended the series as a \"fictional dramatisation\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Major at a cricket matchMajor married Norma Johnson (now Dame Norma Major) on 3 October 1970 at St Matthew's Church, Brixton.", "She was a teacher and a member of the Young Conservatives.", "They met on polling day for the Greater London Council elections in London, and became engaged after only ten days.", "They have two children: a daughter, Elizabeth (born November 1971) and a son, James (b. January 1975).", "They continue to live at their constituency home, Finings, in Great Stukeley, Huntingdonshire.", "They also own a flat in London and a holiday home on the Norfolk coast at Weybourne, which they have in the past invited ex-soldiers to use for free as part of the Afghan Heroes charity.", "As with all former prime ministers, Major is entitled to round-the-clock police protection.Elizabeth Major, a qualified veterinary nurse, married Luke Salter on 26 March 2000 at All Saints Church, Somerby, having been in a relationship with him since 1988.Salter died on 22 November 2002 from cancer.", "James Major, a former retail manager and nightclub promoter, married gameshow hostess Emma Noble on 29 March 1999 in the Chapel Crypt at Westminster Abbey.", "They had a son, Harrison, born July 2000, who was later diagnosed with autism.", "The marriage ended in an acrimonious divorce in 2003, with Noble accusing Major of \"unreasonable behaviour\".", "James later married Kate Postlethwaite (née Dorrell), the mother of his second son.Major's elder brother Terry, who died in 2007, became a minor media personality during Major's period in Downing Street, writing a 1994 autobiography, ''Major Major: Memories of an Older Brother'', and appearing on TV shows such as ''Have I Got News for You''.", "John's sister Patricia Dessoy kept a much lower profile; she died in 2017.After leaving office Major became aware that his father fathered two half-siblings extramaritally: Tom Moss and Kathleen Lemmon.Research conducted by Paul Penn-Simkins, a genealogist formerly employed as a researcher at the College of Arms and as a heraldic consultant at Christie's, and subsequently corroborated by Lynda Rippin, a genealogist employed by Lincolnshire Council, showed that John Major and Margaret Thatcher were fifth cousins once removed, both descending from the Crust family, who farmed at Leake, near Boston, Lincolnshire.Major has been keen on sports since his youth, most notably cricket; he is also a supporter of Chelsea F.C.", "and a Patron of British Gymnastics.", "He also enjoys gardening, listening to music and reading; Anthony Trollope being among his favourite authors.", "Major is a Christian, though his upbringing was never especially religious and he states that he is \"a believer at a distance\".", "He shied away from the topic when in office, stating that \"I have always been a little wary of politicians who parade their faith, and prefer a little English reserve on the subject.\"" ], [ "Honours", "Major receiving the insignia of a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour from the Queen at Buckingham Palace, 1999In the 1999 New Year Honours List, Major was made a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour for his work on the Northern Ireland peace process.On 23 April 2005, Major was bestowed with a knighthood as a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter by Queen Elizabeth II.", "He was installed at St George's Chapel, Windsor, on 13 June.", "Membership of the Order of the Garter is limited in number to 24, and as a personal gift of the Monarch is an honour traditionally bestowed on former prime ministers.On 20 June 2008, Major was granted the Freedom of the City of Cork.", "He was also granted the Outstanding Contribution to Ireland award in Dublin on 4 December 2014.On 8 May 2012, Major was personally decorated at the Imperial Palace in Tokyo by the Emperor of Japan with the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun in recognition of his invaluable contributions to Japan–UK relations through his work in the political and economic arena, and also in promoting mutual understanding.", "While prime minister, Major had pursued energetic campaigns aimed at boosting bilateral trade: \"Priority Japan\" (1991–1994) and \"Action Japan\" (1994–1997).", "The 1991 Japan Festival also took place under his premiership.", "He was awarded the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D) by Queen's University Belfast on 10 November 2023.===Awards===In 2008, Major won the British Sports Book Awards (Best Cricket Book) for ''More Than a Game''.===Public commemoration=== An oil painting of Major, painted in 1996 by June Mendoza, is part of the Parliamentary collection, as is a bronze bust by Anne Curry, unveiled in the Members' Lobby on 16 October 2017.There is another bust of Major in the Norman Shaw Building North by Neale Andrew, sculpted in 1993 and installed in 2004, however this is not accessible to the public.A large bust of John Major by Shenda Amery in Huntingdon Library was unveiled by his wife Norma in 1993.A painting of John Major by Diccon Swan is on display at the Carlton Club, and was unveiled by his wife Norma in 1994.The National Portrait Gallery holds two paintings of Major – the first official portrait of him as prime minister, painted by Peter Deighan in 1994, and one of John and Norma by John Wonnacott, painted in 1997.There is a large John Major Suite at The Oval, home to Surrey County Cricket Club; the venue also contains a painting of Major.There is a 'Heritage in Sutton' plaque on St Helier Hospital, where John Major was born in 1943, and a plaque commemorating him in Archbishop's Park next to Lambeth Palace, included as part of the Lambeth Millennium Pathway.", "There are also various plaques commemorating facilities opened by John Major: at Brampton Memorial Centre, Brampton (opened 1988), Hamerton Zoo Park, Hamerton (1990), Cadbury World, Birmingham (1991), a tree commemorating the restoration of the River Mill pub, Eaton Socon, the gardens at Hinchingbrooke Hospital, Huntingdon (2009), the North Terminal extension at Gatwick Airport (2011), Huntingdonshire Football Association headquarters, Huntingdon (2015), and Alconbury Weald cricket pitch (2019).In 2013 the town of Candeleda in Spain named a street for John Major (, as Major has holidayed there for many years.", "Major Close, in Loughborough Junction near where John grew up, is also named for him; the street was to be called 'Sir John Major Close', however this long name breached council guidelines.In type theory, heterogeneous equality, that is, a form of equality predicate defined for pairs of elements of arbitrary type, not just from the same type, is sometimes referred to as ''John Major's equality'' (JMeq), following Conor McBride::John Major’s ‘classless society’ widened people’s aspirations to equality, but also the gap between rich and poor.", "After all, aspiring to be equal to others than oneself is the politics of envy.", "In much the same way, forms equations between members of any type, but they cannot be treated as equals (ie substituted) unless they are of the same type.", "Just as before, each thing is only equal to itself.===Arms===" ], [ "See also", "1997 Prime Minister's Resignation HonoursElectoral history of John MajorFirst Major ministrySecond Major ministry" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * Bell, David S., Erwin C. Hargrove, and Kevin Theakston.", "\"Skill in context: A comparison of politicians.\"", "''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 29.3 (1999): 528–548; comparison of John Major with George H.W.", "Bush (US), and Jacques Chirac (France).", "* * * * , covers his term as Chancellor.", "* * * * * * * * * * ===Primary sources===* " ], [ "External links", "* * The Public Whip – John Major MP voting record* Ubben Lecture at DePauw University* More about John Major on the Downing Street website.", "* 'Prime-Ministers in the Post-War World: John Major', lecture by Vernon Bogdanor at Gresham College on 21 June 2007 (with video and audio files available for download).", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jazz dance" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jazz dance''' is a performance dance and style that arose in the United States in the mid 20th century.", "Jazz dance may allude to vernacular jazz, Broadway or dramatic jazz.", "The two types expand on African American vernacular styles of dance that arose with jazz music.", "Vernacular jazz dance incorporates ragtime moves, Charleston, Lindy hop and mambo.", "Popular vernacular jazz dance performers include The Whitman Sisters, Florence Mills, Ethel Waters, Al Minns and Leon James, Frankie Manning, Norma Miller, Dawn Hampton, and Katherine Dunham.", "Dramatic jazz dance performed on the show stage was promoted by Jack Cole, Bob Fosse, Eugene Louis Faccuito, and Gus Giordano.The term 'jazz dance' has been used in ways that have little or nothing to do with jazz music.", "Since the 1940s, Hollywood movies and Broadway shows have used the term to describe the choreographies of Bob Fosse and Jerome Robbins.", "In the 1990s, colleges and universities applied to the term to classes offered by physical education departments in which students dance to various forms of pop music, rarely jazz." ], [ "Swing dancing", "A couple dances the Charleston.In 1917, jazz pianist Spencer Williams wrote a song called \"Shim-Me-Sha-Wabble\" which inspired a jazz dance called the shimmy.", "The shimmy is done by holding the body still \"except for the shoulders, which are quickly alternated back and forth\".", "The dances that emerged during this period were the Charleston and the Lindy hop.The Charleston is \"characterized by its toes-in, heels-out twisting steps\".", "It can be done as a solo or with any number of people.The Lindy hop was a wild and spontaneous partner dance that was extremely rhythmically conscious.", "When the Great Depression began in October 1929, many people turned to dance.", "Because of this, the Aubrielle and the Lindy hop are now considered to be under the umbrella term \"swing dance stylized, continuously flowing movements that developed the technique and style for the combinations that followed\".", "Cole's style has been called hip, hard, and cool\".", "Fosse combined \"vaudeville, striptease, magic shows, nightclubs, film and Broadway musicals\"." ], [ "Pop music and television", "Alvin Ailey Dance TheaterContemporary jazz became well known because of its television shows unlike ''So You Think You Can Dance''.", "Mia Michaels's earlier work exemplifies this style.", "Some other companies and choreographers that create contemporary jazz dance are Sonya Tayeh, Mandy Moore, and Hubbard Street Dance Chicago.", "Commercial jazz, which has been popular since the 1980s, combines aspects of hip hop and jazz and is often done to pop music.", "This style can be seen in the music videos of Janet Jackson and Paula Abdul.", "Commercial jazz often includes more \"tricks.\"", "Commercial jazz and contemporary jazz are both seen at dance competitions.", "Another variety of jazz is Latin jazz.", "\"Maria Torres developed and popularized the fusion at Broadway Dance Center\".", "Latin jazz has an emphasis on the movement of hips and isolations.", "It can be seen in the films ''El Cantante'' and ''Dance with Me'', as well as on TV dance shows." ], [ "Dancers, directors, choreographers", "* Jack Cole influenced Matt Mattox, Bob Fosse, Jerome Robbins, and Gwen Verdon, and is credited with popularizing the theatrical form of jazz dance with his great number of choreographic works on television and Broadway.", "* Katherine Dunham is an anthropologist, choreographer, and pioneer in black theatrical dance who introduced isolations jazz dance.", "* Eugene Louis Faccuito also known as Luigi, was an American jazz dancer, teacher, choreographer, and creator of the first codified jazz technique, the Luigi Technique.", "* Bob Fosse, choreographer and film director, revolutionized jazz dance with his sexually suggestive movements.", "His choreography is very recognizable and can be found in the musicals and films that he has choreographed, such as ''Cabaret'' and ''Chicago''.", "* Gus Giordano was a jazz dancer and choreographer in Chicago known for his clean, precise movement.", "* Patsy Swayze, choreographer and dance instructor, combined jazz and ballet, founded the Houston Jazz Ballet Company, and served as its director." ], [ "See also", "* Jazz-funk dance* Jitterbug* Swing (dance)* Tap dance* Vaudeville" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bailey, A. Peter.", "''Revelations: The Autobiography of Alvin Ailey''.", "Carol Publishing Group, 1995.", "* Carter, Curtis.", "\"Improvisation in Dance\".", "''The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism''.", "58, No.", "2, p. 181–90.jstor.org* Cohan, Robert.", "''The Dance Workshop''.", "Gaia Books, 1989.", "* Crease, Robert.", "''Divine Frivolity: Hollywood Representations of the Lindy Hop, 1937–1942''.", "In ''Representing Jazz''.", "Durham: Duke University Press, 1995.", "* Dunning, Jennifer.", "''Alvin Ailey: A Life in Dance''.", "Da Capo Press, 1998.", "* Reid, Molly.", "''New Orleans: A Haven for Swing Dance Beginners, Professionals''.", "''The Times-Picayune''.", "21 January 2010* Seguin, Eliane ''Histoire de la danse jazz''.", "Editions Chiron, 2003.", "* Torbert, Margot L. ''Teaching Dance Jazz''.", "Margot Torbert, 2000." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jabberwocky" ], [ "Introduction", "The Jabberwock, as illustrated by John Tenniel, 1871\"'''Jabberwocky'''\" is a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll about the killing of a creature named \"the Jabberwock\".", "It was included in his 1871 novel ''Through the Looking-Glass'', the sequel to ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' (1865).", "The book tells of Alice's adventures within the back-to-front world of the Looking-Glass world.In an early scene in which she first encounters the chess piece characters White King and White Queen, Alice finds a book written in a seemingly unintelligible language.", "Realising that she is travelling through an inverted world, she recognises that the verses on the pages are written in mirror-writing.", "She holds a mirror to one of the poems and reads the reflected verse of \"Jabberwocky\".", "She finds the nonsense verse as puzzling as the odd land she has passed into, later revealed as a dreamscape.", "\"Jabberwocky\" is considered one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English.", "Its playful, whimsical language has given English nonsense words and neologisms such as \"galumphing\" and \"chortle\"." ], [ "Origin and publication", "Alice entering the Looking-Glass Land.", "Illustration by John Tenniel, 1871A decade before the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' and the sequel ''Through the Looking-Glass'', Carroll wrote the first stanza to what would become \"Jabberwocky\" while in Croft-on-Tees, where his parents resided.", "It was printed in 1855 in ''Mischmasch'', a periodical he wrote and illustrated for the amusement of his family.", "The piece, titled \"Stanza of Anglo-Saxon Poetry\", reads:The stanza is printed first in faux-mediaeval lettering as a \"relic of ancient Poetry\" (in which ''þe'' is a form of the word ''the'') and printed again \"in modern characters\".The rest of the poem was written during Carroll's stay with relatives at Whitburn, near Sunderland.", "The story may have been partly inspired by the local Sunderland area legend of the Lambton Worm and the tale of the Sockburn Worm.The concept of nonsense verse was not original to Carroll, who would have known of chapbooks such as ''The World Turned Upside Down'' and stories such as \"The Grand Panjandrum\".", "Nonsense existed in Shakespeare's work and was well-known in the Brothers Grimm's fairytales, some of which are called lying tales or ''lügenmärchen''.", "Biographer Roger Lancelyn Green suggested that \"Jabberwocky\" was a parody of the German ballad \"The Shepherd of the Giant Mountains\", which had been translated into English by Carroll's cousin Menella Bute Smedley in 1846.Historian Sean B. Palmer suggests that Carroll was inspired by a section from Shakespeare's ''Hamlet'', citing the lines: \"The graves stood tenantless, and the sheeted dead / Did squeak and gibber in the Roman streets\" from Act I, Scene i.John Tenniel reluctantly agreed to illustrate the book in 1871, and his illustrations are still the defining images of the poem.", "The illustration of the Jabberwock may reflect the contemporary Victorian obsession with natural history and the fast-evolving sciences of palaeontology and geology.", "Stephen Prickett notes that in the context of Darwin and Mantell's publications and vast exhibitions of dinosaurs, such as those at the Crystal Palace from 1854, it is unsurprising that Tenniel gave the Jabberwock \"the leathery wings of a pterodactyl and the long scaly neck and tail of a sauropod.\"" ], [ "Lexicon", "Many of the words in the poem are playful nonce words of Carroll's own invention, without intended explicit meaning.", "When Alice has finished reading the poem she gives her impressions:This may reflect Carroll's intention for his readership; the poem is, after all, part of a dream.", "In later writings he discussed some of his lexicon, commenting that he did not know the specific meanings or sources of some of the words; the linguistic ambiguity and uncertainty throughout both the book and the poem may largely be the point.In ''Through the Looking-Glass'', the character of Humpty Dumpty, in response to Alice's request, explains to her the non-sense words from the first stanza of the poem, but Carroll's personal commentary on several of the words differ from Humpty Dumpty's.", "For example, following the poem, a \"rath\" is described by Humpty Dumpty as \"a sort of green pig\".", "Carroll's notes for the original in ''Mischmasch'' suggest a \"rath\" is \"a species of Badger\" that \"lived chiefly on cheese\" and had smooth white hair, long hind legs, and short horns like a stag.", "The appendices to certain ''Looking Glass'' editions state that the creature is \"a species of land turtle\" that lived on swallows and oysters.", "Later critics added their own interpretations of the lexicon, often without reference to Carroll's own contextual commentary.", "An extended analysis of the poem and Carroll's commentary is given in the book ''The Annotated Alice'' by Martin Gardner.In 1868 Carroll asked his publishers, Macmillan, \"Have you any means, or can you find any, for printing a page or two in the next volume of Alice in reverse?\"", "It may be that Carroll was wanting to print the whole poem in mirror writing.", "Macmillan responded that it would cost a great deal more to do, and this may have dissuaded him.In the author's note to the Christmas 1896 edition of ''Through the Looking-Glass'' Carroll writes, \"The new words, in the poem Jabberwocky, have given rise to some differences of opinion as to their pronunciation, so it may be well to give instructions on ''that'' point also.", "Pronounce 'slithy' as if it were the two words, 'sly, thee': make the 'g' ''hard'' in 'gyre' and 'gimble': and pronounce 'rath' to rhyme with 'bath'.", "\"In the Preface to ''The Hunting of the Snark'', Carroll wrote, \"Let me take this opportunity of answering a question that has often been asked me, how to pronounce 'slithy toves'.", "The 'i' in 'slithy' is long, as in 'writhe', and 'toves' is pronounced so as to rhyme with 'groves'.", "Again, the first \"o\" in \"borogoves\" is pronounced like the 'o' in 'borrow'.", "I have heard people try to give it the sound of the 'o' in 'worry'.", "Such is Human Perversity.\"" ], [ "Possible interpretations of words{{anchor\|Glossary}}", "* Bandersnatch: A swift moving creature with snapping jaws, capable of extending its neck.", "A \"bander\" was also an archaic word for a \"leader\", suggesting that a \"bandersnatch\" might be an animal that hunts the leader of a group.", "* Beamish: Radiantly beaming, happy, cheerful.", "Although Carroll may have believed he had coined this word, usage in 1530 is cited in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "* Borogove: Following the poem Humpty Dumpty says: borogove' is a thin shabby-looking bird with its feathers sticking out all round, something like a live mop.\"", "In ''Mischmasch'' borogoves are described differently: \"An extinct kind of Parrot.", "They had no wings, beaks turned up, and made their nests under sun-dials: lived on veal.\"", "In ''Hunting of the Snark'', Carroll says that the initial syllable of ''borogove'' is pronounced as in ''borrow'' rather than as in ''worry''.", "* Brillig: Following the poem, the character of Humpty Dumpty comments: Brillig' means four o'clock in the afternoon, the time when you begin broiling things for dinner.\"", "According to ''Mischmasch'', it is derived from the verb to ''bryl'' or ''broil''.", "* Burbled: In a letter of December 1877, Carroll notes that \"burble\" could be a mixture of the three verbs 'bleat', 'murmur', and 'warble', although he did not remember creating it.", "* Chortled: \"Combination of 'chuckle' and 'snort'.\"", "(OED)* Frabjous: Possibly a blend of \"fair\", \"fabulous\", and \"joyous\".", "Definition from ''Oxford English Dictionary'', credited to Lewis Carroll.", "* Frumious: Combination of \"fuming\" and \"furious\".", "In the Preface to ''The Hunting of the Snark'' Carroll comments, \"Take the two words 'fuming' and 'furious'.", "Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first.", "Now open your mouth and speak.", "If your thoughts incline ever so little towards 'fuming', you will say 'fuming-furious'; if they turn, by even a hair's breadth, towards 'furious', you will say 'furious-fuming'; but if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say 'frumious'.", "\"* Galumphing: Perhaps used in the poem as a blend of \"gallop\" and \"triumphant\".", "Used later by Kipling, and cited by Webster as \"To move with a clumsy and heavy tread\"* Gimble: Humpty Dumpty comments that it means: \"to make holes like a gimlet.", "\"* Gyre: \"To 'gyre' is to go round and round like a gyroscope.\"", "''Gyre'' is entered in the OED from 1420, meaning a circular or spiral motion or form; especially a giant circular oceanic surface current.", "Carroll also wrote in ''Mischmasch'' that it meant to scratch like a dog.", "The ''g'' is pronounced like the /g/ in ''gold'', not like ''gem'' (since this was how \"gyroscope\" was pronounced in Carroll's day).", "* Jabberwock: When a class in the Girls' Latin School in Boston asked Carroll's permission to name their school magazine ''The Jabberwock'', he replied: \"The Anglo-Saxon word 'wocer' or 'wocor' signifies 'offspring' or 'fruit'.", "Taking 'jabber' in its ordinary acceptation of 'excited and voluble discussion', this would give the meaning of 'the result of much excited and voluble discussion'...\" It is often depicted as a monster similar to a dragon.", "John Tenniel's illustration depicts it with a long serpentine neck, rabbit-like teeth, spidery talons, bat-like wings and, as a humorous touch, a waistcoat.", "In the 2010 film version of ''Alice in Wonderland'' it is shown with large back legs, small dinosaur-like front legs, and on the ground it uses its wings as front legs like a pterosaur, and it breathes out lightning flashes rather than flame.", "* Jubjub bird: \"A desperate bird that lives in perpetual passion\", according to the Butcher in Carroll's later poem ''The Hunting of the Snark''.", "'Jub' is an ancient word for a jerkin or a dialect word for the trot of a horse (OED).", "It might make reference to the call of the bird resembling the sound \"jub, jub\".", "* Manxome: Possibly 'fearsome'; Possibly a portmanteau of \"manly\" and \"buxom\", the latter relating to men for most of its history; or \"three-legged\" after the triskelion emblem of the Manx people from the Isle of Man.", "* Mimsy: Humpty Dumpty comments that Mimsy' is 'flimsy and miserable.", "* Mome: Humpty Dumpty is uncertain about this one: \"I think it's short for 'from home', meaning that they'd lost their way, you know\".", "The notes in ''Mischmasch'' give a different definition of 'grave' (via 'solemome', 'solemone' and 'solemn').", "* Outgrabe: Humpty Dumpty says outgribing' is something between bellowing and whistling, with a kind of sneeze in the middle\".", "Carroll's book appendices suggest it is the past tense of the verb to 'outgribe', connected with the old verb to 'grike' or 'shrike', which derived 'shriek' and 'creak' and hence 'squeak'.", "* Rath: Humpty Dumpty says following the poem: \"A 'rath' is a sort of green pig\".", "Carroll's notes for the original in ''Mischmasch'' state that a 'Rath' is \"a species of land turtle.", "Head erect, mouth like a shark, the front forelegs curved out so that the animal walked on its knees, smooth green body, lived on swallows and oysters.\"", "In the 1951 animated film adaptation of the previous book, the raths are depicted as small, multi-coloured creatures with tufty hair, round eyes, and long legs resembling pipe stems.", "* Slithy: Humpty Dumpty says: Slithy' means 'lithe and slimy'.", "'Lithe' is the same as 'active'.", "You see it's like a portmanteau, there are two meanings packed up into one word.\"", "The original in ''Mischmasch'' notes that 'slithy' means \"smooth and active\".", "The ''i'' is long, as in ''writhe''.", "* Snicker-snack: possibly related to the large knife, the snickersnee.", "* Tove: Humpty Dumpty says Toves' are something like badgers, they're something like lizards, and they're something like corkscrews.", "... Also they make their nests under sun-dials, also they live on cheese.\"", "Pronounced so as to rhyme with ''groves''.", "They \"gyre and gimble\", i.e., rotate and bore.", "Toves are described slightly differently in ''Mischmasch'': \"a species of Badger which had smooth white hair, long hind legs, and short horns like a stag and lived chiefly on cheese\".", "* Tulgey: Carroll himself said he could give no source for this word.", "It could be taken to mean thick, dense, dark.", "It has been suggested that it comes from the Anglo-Cornish word ''tulgu'', 'darkness', which in turn comes from Cornish ''tewolgow'' 'darkness, gloominess'.", "* Uffish: Carroll noted, \"It seemed to suggest a state of mind when the voice is gruffish, the manner roughish, and the temper huffish\".", "* Vorpal: Carroll said he could not explain this word, though it has been noted that it can be formed by taking letters alternately from \"verbal\" and \"gospel\".", "It has appeared in dictionaries as meaning both 'deadly' and 'extremely sharp'.", "* Wabe: The characters in the poem suggest it means \"The grass plot around a sundial\", called a 'wa-be' because it \"goes a long way before it, and a long way behind it\".", "In the original ''Mischmasch'' text, Carroll states a 'wabe' is \"the side of a hill (from its being soaked by rain)\"." ], [ "Linguistics and poetics", "Humpty Dumpty who explains to Alice the definitions of some of the words in \"Jabberwocky\".", "Illustration by John Tenniel, 1871Though the poem contains many nonsensical words, English syntax and poetic forms are observed, such as the quatrain verses, the general ABAB rhyme scheme and the iambic meter.", "Linguist Peter Lucas believes the \"nonsense\" term is inaccurate.", "The poem relies on a distortion of sense rather than \"non-sense\", allowing the reader to infer meaning and therefore engage with narrative while lexical allusions swim under the surface of the poem.Marnie Parsons describes the work as a \"semiotic catastrophe\", arguing that the words create a discernible narrative within the structure of the poem, though the reader cannot know what they symbolise.", "She argues that Humpty Dumpty tries, after the recitation, to \"ground\" the unruly multiplicities of meaning with definitions, but cannot succeed as both the book and the poem are playgrounds for the \"carnivalised aspect of language\".", "Parsons suggests that this is mirrored in the prosody of the poem: in the tussle between the tetrameter in the first three lines of each stanza and trimeter in the last lines, such that one undercuts the other and we are left off balance, like the poem's hero.Carroll wrote many poem parodies such as \"Twinkle, twinkle little bat\", \"You Are Old, Father William\" and \"How Doth the Little Crocodile?\"", "Some have become generally better known than the originals on which they are based, and this is certainly the case with \"Jabberwocky\".", "The poems' successes do not rely on any recognition or association of the poems that they parody.", "Lucas suggests that the original poems provide a strong container but Carroll's works are famous precisely because of their random, surreal quality.", "Carroll's grave playfulness has been compared with that of the poet Edward Lear; there are also parallels with the work of Gerard Manley Hopkins in the frequent use of soundplay, alliteration, created-language and portmanteau.", "Both writers were Carroll's contemporaries." ], [ "Translations", "John Tenniel's illustration for the poem.===History===\"Jabberwocky\" has been translated into 65 languages.", "The translation might be difficult because the poem holds to English syntax and many of the principal words of the poem are invented.", "Translators have generally dealt with them by creating equivalent words of their own.", "Often these are similar in spelling or sound to Carroll's while respecting the morphology of the language they are being translated into.", "In Frank L. Warrin's French translation, \"'Twas brillig\" becomes \"Il brilgue\".", "In instances like this, both the original and the invented words echo actual words of Carroll's lexicon, but not necessarily ones with similar meanings.", "Translators have invented words which draw on root words with meanings similar to the English roots used by Carroll.", "Douglas Hofstadter noted in his essay \"Translations of Jabberwocky\", the word 'slithy', for example, echoes the English 'slimy', 'slither', 'slippery', 'lithe' and 'sly'.", "A French translation that uses 'lubricilleux' for 'slithy', evokes French words like 'lubrifier' (to lubricate) to give an impression of a meaning similar to that of Carroll's word.", "In his exploration of the translation challenge, Hofstadter asks \"what if a word does exist, but it is very intellectual-sounding and Latinate ('lubricilleux'), rather than earthy and Anglo-Saxon ('slithy')?", "Perhaps 'huilasse' would be better than 'lubricilleux'?", "Or does the Latin origin of the word 'lubricilleux' not make itself felt to a speaker of French in the way that it would if it were an English word ('lubricilious', perhaps)?", "\".Hofstadter also notes that it makes a great difference whether the poem is translated in isolation or as part of a translation of the novel.", "In the latter case the translator must, through Humpty Dumpty, supply explanations of the invented words.", "But, he suggests, \"even in this pathologically difficult case of translation, there seems to be some rough equivalence obtainable, a kind of rough isomorphism, partly global, partly local, between the brains of all the readers\".In 1967, D.G.", "Orlovskaya wrote a popular Russian translation of \"Jabberwocky\" entitled \"Barmaglot\" (\"Бармаглот\").", "She translated \"Barmaglot\" for \"Jabberwock\", \"Brandashmyg\" for \"Bandersnatch\" while \"myumsiki\" (\"мюмзики\") echoes \"mimsy\".", "Full translations of \"Jabberwocky\" into French and German can be found in ''The Annotated Alice'' along with a discussion of why some translation decisions were made.", "Chao Yuen Ren, a Chinese linguist, translated the poem into Chinese by inventing characters to imitate what Rob Gifford of National Public Radio refers to as the \"slithy toves that gyred and gimbled in the wabe of Carroll's original\".", "Satyajit Ray, a film-maker, translated the work into Bengali and concrete poet Augusto de Campos created a Brazilian Portuguese version.", "There is also an Arabic translation by Wael Al-Mahdi, and at least two into Croatian.", "Multiple translations into Latin were made within the first weeks of Carroll's original publication.", "In a 1964 article, M. L. West published two versions of the poem in Ancient Greek that exemplify the respective styles of the epic poets Homer and Nonnus.=== Sample translations ===Sources:Bulgarian(Lazar Goldman & Stefan Gechev)Danish 1(Mogens Jermiin Nissen)JabberwockyDanish 2(Arne Herløv Petersen)Kloppervok:Бе сгладне и честлинните комбурси:търляха се и сврецваха във плите;:съвсем окласни бяха тук щурпите:и отма равапсатваха прасурси.", ":Et slidigt gravben vridrede:i brumringen på tidvis plent,:og lappingen var vaklig, og:det borte grøfgrin grent.", ":I glummert lys den slyge spæg:stod gomrende og glim.", ":I børkens dyb stod mamren fjæg:og bungrede i skim.Esperanto (Marjorie Boulton)La ĴargonbestoTurkish (Nihal Yeğinobalı)EjdercenknameFinnish 1(Kirsi Kunnas & Eeva-Liisa Manner, 1974)Pekoraali:Brilumis, kaj la ŝlirtaj melfoj:en la iejo ĝiris, ŝraŭis;:mizaris la maldikdudelfoj,:forfuraj ratjoj vaŭis.", ":akşamözdü, yavışkan burguleler:döndeleyip cermelerken günsatba:uyudüşmüş kalmışlardı karpüsler:yemizler derseniz ak-ök begirba:On illanpaisto, ja silkavat saijat:luopoissa pirkeinä myörien ponkii::surheisna kaikk' kirjuvat lorokaijat:ja vossut lonkaloisistansa ulos vonkii.Finnish 2(Matti Rosvall, 1999)JabberwockyFinnish 3(Alice Martin, 2010)MonkeriasFrench(Frank L. Warrin):Kyryissä mäiden myryt parvat:ripoen kormivat pällyissään.", ":Vilhujen borogrovien karvat:talsoivat – ne niin sällyissään.", ":Jo koitti kuumon aika, ja viukkaat puhvenet:päinillä harpitellen kieruloivat,:haipeloina seisoksivat varakuhvenet,:ja öksyt muvut kaikki hinkuroivat.", ":Il brilgue: les tôves lubricilleux:Se gyrent en vrillant dans le guave.", ":Enmîmés sont les gougebosqueux:Et le mômerade horsgrave.Georgian(Giorgi Gokieli)ტარტალოკიGerman(Robert Scott)Hebrew 1(Aharon Amir)פִּטְעוֹנִי:მიმწუხარშდა.", "მოქნიალა სლუკები:ზილობდნენ და ძვრიალებდნენ მარეხვში;:საბუდავად ცხოვდნენ ბარდალუკები,:ვით ფშუნები სურდაბილის გარეშე.", ":Es brillig war.", "Die schlichten Toven:Wirrten und wimmelten in Waben;:Und aller-mümsige Burggoven:Die mohmen Räth' ausgraben.", ":בְעֵת בָשָׁק וּשְׁלֵי פַּחְזָר,:בְּאַפְסֵי־חָק סָבְסוּ, מָקְדוּ,:אוֹ אָז חִלְכֵּן הָיָה נִמְזַר,:וּמְתֵי־עָרָן כֵּרְדוּ.Hebrew 2(Rina Litvin)גֶּבֶרִיקָאIcelandic(Valdimar Briem)RausuvokkskviðaIrish(Nicholas Williams)An Gheabairleog:הִבְרִיל כְבָר, זַחְלָצִים קְלִיחִים:חָגְווּ וְעָגוּ בַּשְּׁבִילֵל,:מַסִּים הָיוּ הַסְּמַרְלַחִים:וְחֶזְרוֹנִי צִרְלֵל.", ":Það leið að stekju, og slýgir greðlar:sig snældu og böluðu um slöffruna,:og angurvært sungu sópfiðrungar:við sífgelt týðmana svíræna.", ":Briollaic a bhí ann; bhí na tóibhí sleo:ag gírleáil 's ag gimleáil ar an taof.", ":B’an-chuama go deo na borragóibh:is bhí na rádaí miseacha ag braíomh.Italian(Adriana Crespi)Il ciarlestroneLatin(Hassard H. Dodgson)GaberbocchusPolish(Janusz Korwin-Mikke)Żabrołak:Era brillosto, e gli alacridi tossi:succhiellavano scabbi nel pantúle::Méstili eran tutti i paparossi,:e strombavan musando i tartarocchi.", ":Hora aderat briligi.", "Nunc et Slythia Tova:Plurima gyrabant gymbolitare vabo;:Et Borogovorum mimzebant undique formae,:Momiferique omnes exgrabuere Rathi.", ":Błyszniało – szlisgich hopuch świr:Tęczując w kałdach świtrzem wre,:Mizgłupny był borolągw hyr,:Chrząszczury wlizły młe.Portuguese 1(Augusto de Campos, 1980)JaguadartePortuguese 2(Oliveira Ribeiro Neto, 1984)AlgaraviaPortuguese 3(Ricardo Gouveia)Blablassauro:Era briluz.", "As lesmolisas touvas:Roldavam e reviam nos gramilvos.", ":Estavam mimsicais as pintalouvas,:E os momirratos davam grilvos.", ":Era o auge e as rolas brilhantes:Pelo ar giravam, giravam.", ":Palhaços davam pinotes,:Os montes se amontoava.", ":Brilumia e colescosos touvos:No capimtanal se giroscavam;:Miquíticos eram os burrogouvos,:E os mamirathos extrapitavam.Russian(Dina Orlovskaya)Spanish 1(Ulalume González de León)El JabberwockySpanish 2(Adolfo de Alba)El Jabberwocky:Варкалось.", "Хливкие шорьки:Пырялись по наве,:И хрюкотали зелюки,:Как мюмзики в мове.", ":Era la parrillhora y los flexiosos tovos:en el cesplejos giroscopiaban, vibrhoradaban.", ":Frivoserables estaban los borogovos:y los verchinos telehogariados relinchiflaban.", ":Era la asarvesperia y los flexilimosos toves:giroscopiaban taledrando en el vade;:debilmiseros estaban los borogoves;:bramatchisilban los verdilechos parde.Spanish 3(Ramón Buckley, 1984)El FablistanónWelsh(Selyf Roberts)SiaberwociAmerican Sign Language (ASL)(Eric Malzkuhn, 1939):Borgotaba.", "Los viscoleantes toves:rijando en la solea, tadralaban...:Misébiles estaban los borgoves:y algo momios los verdos bratchilbaban:Mae'n brydgell ac mae'r brochgim stwd:Yn gimblo a gyrian yn y mhello::Pob cólomrws yn féddabwd,:A'r hoch oma'n chwibruo.Due to no written language in ASL, view video to see translation of Jabberwocky.", "(Performed in 1994)See this link for explanation of techniques used by Eric Malzkuhn" ], [ "Reception", "According to Chesterton and Green and others, the original purpose of \"Jabberwocky\" was to satirise both pretentious verse and ignorant literary critics.", "It was designed as verse showing how not to write verse, but eventually became the subject of pedestrian translation or explanation and incorporated into classroom learning.", "It has also been interpreted as a parody of contemporary Oxford scholarship and specifically the story of how Benjamin Jowett, the notoriously agnostic Professor of Greek at Oxford, and Master of Balliol, came to sign the ''Thirty-Nine Articles'', as an Anglican statement of faith, to save his job.", "The transformation of audience perception from satire to seriousness was in a large part predicted by G. K. Chesterton, who wrote in 1932, \"Poor, poor, little Alice!", "She has not only been caught and made to do lessons; she has been forced to inflict lessons on others.", "\"It is often now cited as one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English, the source for countless parodies and tributes.", "In most cases the writers have changed the nonsense words into words relating to the parodied subject, as in Frank Jacobs's \"If Lewis Carroll Were a Hollywood Press Agent in the Thirties\" in ''Mad for Better or Verse''.", "Other writers use the poem as a form, much like a sonnet, and create their own words for it as in \"Strunklemiss\" by Shay K. Azoulay or the poem \"Oh Freddled Gruntbuggly\" recited by Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz in Douglas Adams' ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', a 1979 book which contains numerous other references and homages to Carroll's work.Some of the words that Carroll created, such as \"chortled\" and \"galumphing\", have entered the English language and are listed in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "The word \"jabberwocky\" itself has come to refer to nonsense language.In American Sign Language, Eric Malzkuhn invented the sign for \"chortled\".", "It unintentionally caught on and became a part of American Sign Language's lexicon as well." ], [ "Media", "A song called \"Beware the Jabberwock\" was written for Disney's 1951 animated film ''Alice in Wonderland'' sung by Stan Freberg, but it was discarded, replaced with \"'Twas Brillig\", sung by the Cheshire Cat, that includes the first stanza of \"Jabberwocky\".The Alice in Wonderland sculpture in Central Park in Manhattan, New York City, has at its base, among other inscriptions, a line from \"Jabberwocky\".The British group Boeing Duveen and The Beautiful Soup released a single (1968) called \"Jabberwock\" based on the poem.", "Singer and songwriter Donovan put the poem to music on his album ''HMS Donovan'' (1971).The poem was a source of inspiration for Jan Švankmajer's 1971 short film ''Žvahlav aneb šatičky slaměného Huberta'' (released as ''Jabberwocky'' in English) and Terry Gilliam's 1977 feature film ''Jabberwocky''.In 1972, the American composer Sam Pottle put the poem to music.", "The stage musical ''Jabberwocky'' (1973) by Andrew Kay, Malcolm Middleton and Peter Phillips, follows the basic plot of the poem.", "Keyboardists Clive Nolan and Oliver Wakeman released a musical version ''Jabberwocky (1999)'' with the poem read in segments by Rick Wakeman.", "British contemporary lieder group Fall in Green set the poem to music for a single release (2021) on Cornutopia Music.In 1978, the musical group Ambrosia included the text of ''Jabberwocky'' in the lyrics of \"Moma Frog\" (credited to musicians Puerta, North, Drummond, and Pack) on their debut album ''Ambrosia''.In 1980 ''The Muppet Show'' staged a full version of \"Jabberwocky\" for TV viewing, with the Jabberwock and other creatures played by Muppets closely based on Tenniel's original illustrations.", "According to Jaques and Giddens, it distinguished itself by stressing the humor and nonsense of the poem.The Jabberwock appears in Tim Burton's ''Alice in Wonderland'' (2010), voiced by Christopher Lee, and is referred to as \"The Jabberwocky\".", "An abridged version of the poem is spoken by the Mad Hatter (played by Johnny Depp)." ], [ "See also", "* Works based on ''Alice in Wonderland''* Translations of ''Through the Looking-Glass''" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Sources===* Carpenter, Humphrey (1985).", "''Secret Gardens: The Golden Age of Children's Literature''.", "Houghton Mifflin.", "Medievil 1998 sony playstation 1" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alakay-Gut, Karen.", "\"Carroll's Jabberwocky\".", "''Explicator'', Fall 1987.Volume 46, issue 1.", "* Borchers, Melanie.", "\"A Linguistic Analysis of Lewis Carroll's Poem 'Jabberwocky'\".", "''The Carrollian: The Lewis Carroll Journal''.", "Autumn 2009, No.", "24, pp. 3–46..", "* Dolitsky, Marlene (1984).", "''Under the tumtum tree: from nonsense to sense, a study in nonautomatic comprehension.", "J. Benjamins Pub.", "Co. Amsterdam, Philadelphia''* Gardner, Martin (1999).", "''The Annotated Alice: The Definitive Edition''.", "New York: W .W.", "Norton and Company.", "* Green, Roger Lancelyn (1970).", "''The Lewis Carroll Handbook'', \"Jabberwocky, and other parodies\" : Dawson of Pall Mall, London* * Lucas, Peter J.", "(1997).", "\"Jabberwocky back to Old English: Nonsense, Anglo-Saxon and Oxford\" in ''Language History and Linguistic Modelling''.", ".", "* Richards, Fran.", "\"The Poetic Structure of Jabberwocky\".", "''Jabberwocky: The Journal of the Lewis Carroll Society''.", "8:1 (1978/79):16–19." ], [ "External links", "* * Essay: \"Translations of Jabberwocky\".", "Douglas R. Hofstadter, 1980 from ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' , Vintage Books, New York* BBC Video (2 mins), \"Jabberwocky\" read by English actor Brian Blessed* read by English author Neil Gaiman* Poetry Foundation Biography of Lewis Carroll* ''The Lewis Carroll Journal'' published by The Lewis Carroll Society.", "* Sam Pottle" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Sparrow David Thompson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Sparrow David Thompson''' (November 10, 1845 – December 12, 1894) was a Canadian lawyer, judge and politician who served as the fourth prime minister of Canada from 1892 until his death.", "He had previously been fifth premier of Nova Scotia for a brief period in 1882.Thompson was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia.", "He trained as a lawyer and was called to the bar in 1865.Thompson was elected to the Nova Scotia House of Assembly in 1877 as a representative of the Conservative Party.", "He became the provincial attorney general the following year, in Simon Holmes' government, replaced Holmes as premier in 1882.However, he served for only two months before losing the 1882 general election to the Liberal Party.", "After losing the premiership, he accepted an appointment to the Nova Scotia Supreme Court.In 1885, Thompson entered federal politics at the personal request of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, becoming Minister of Justice.", "In that role he was the driving force behind the enactment of the ''Criminal Code''.", "Thompson became prime minister in 1892, following the retirement of John Abbott.", "He was the first Roman Catholic to hold the position.", "On a trip to England in 1894, Thompson unexpectedly suffered a heart attack and died, aged 49.He is the second and most recent Canadian prime minister to have died in office, after John A. Macdonald." ], [ "Early years", "Born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to John Sparrow Thompson and Charlotte Pottinger, he was of Irish descent.", "Some sources say he was born on November 10, 1845, though others say 1844.Thompson married Annie Affleck (1842–1913) in 1870.Annie Thompson was strong-willed and had the same kind of spirit that had driven Agnes Macdonald (another prime minister's wife) to ride the cowcatcher of a Canadian Pacific Railway train through the British Columbia mountains.", "During their courtship, Thompson was forced to write love letters in shorthand because of his soon-to-be wife's disapproving parents.", "A daughter, Annie, died at 1, while youngest son David lived to be 2.Two other children died at birth, the Thompsons had five children survive childhood." ], [ "Law, politics, and professorship", "Thompson was called to the Nova Scotia Bar in July 1865, and from 1878 to 1882, he served as Attorney General in the provincial government of Simon H. Holmes.", "He briefly held the office of Nova Scotia premier in 1882, but his government was defeated in that year's election.", "Thompson was always a reluctant politician.After his resignation from government, Thompson was immediately appointed to the Nova Scotia Supreme Court by the Prime Minister Macdonald.", "In this role, he was instrumental in founding the Dalhousie Law School in 1883.He taught law courses at Dalhousie in its early years." ], [ "Federal Minister of Justice", "After several failed overtures, Macdonald finally recruited Thompson to Ottawa in 1885.Macdonald generally thought highly of Thompson, remarking, \"My one great discovery was my discovery of Thompson\".", "Macdonald poked some fun at his recruit as well: \"Thompson is a little too fond of satire, and a little too much of a Nova Scotian.\"", "However, his rise in government was probably because of the influence of Lady Aberdeen, the wife of Governor General Aberdeen and Macdonald's mentoring.", "She had great admiration for Thompson and wrote frequently about him in her \"Canadian Journal\".Thompson was sworn in as Minister of Justice in September 1885 and won a seat in Parliament in October, representing Antigonish.===Louis Riel crisis===When he returned to Ottawa, the Louis Riel crisis was in full swing.", "The question of what to do with Riel, who had been sentenced to hang for leading the 1885 North-West Rebellion, was now the responsibility of Thompson.", "Although Thompson was ill with kidney stones at the time of Riel's execution, Thompson made his first major speech to Parliament during the subsequent debate by arguing that anyone who encouraged Canadians to act against the state could not escape justice.", "The speech was notable and helped to popularize Thompson, and he quickly rose to become a leading member of the Conservative government.His achievements as Minister of Justice included the first ''Criminal Code'', a consolidation and unification of the criminal law for Canada." ], [ "Declines post of prime minister as a Roman Catholic", "Thompson was the last minister to see Macdonald before his devastating stroke in May 1891.Following Macdonald's death a week later, there was a Cabinet crisis.", "The governor general, Lord Stanley of Preston, asked Thompson to form a government, but Thompson declined because of religious prejudice against the Roman Catholicism to which he had converted at his marriage.", "Thompson recommended John Abbott, who ultimately accepted.", "After 1893 Prince Edward Island House of Assembly passage of the amalgamation \"Bill respecting the Legislature,\" Thompson, still wary of a Protestant backlash, reported to the Canadian Governor General that almost every article of the Prince Edward Island \"amalgamation\" statute, save for a punitive clause that violated with \"little injury\" the separation of powers between the Legislative Assembly and provincial court system, was \"unobjectionable, and may be left to their operation.\"", "In a rejoinder to Neil McLeod (Leader of the Opposition in the provincial legislature), he concluded that there was as much probability of an amendment to increase the supermajority requirement to unanimity (for amending the bill) as there was probability that the entire \"section itself may be repealed at any time by statute passed in the ordinary way.\"", "Then, in a demonstration that his tenure as Prime Minister would not result in a papal majority government, Thompson disregarded Conservative allegations of gerrymandering of French Acadian and otherwise Roman Catholic voters in Prince Edward Island.", "In 1894, Lord Stanley \"approved\" of this report months before Thompson's fatal heart attack." ], [ "Prime Minister (1892–1894)", "Thompson assumed the office of Prime Minister in 1892, a year later, when John Abbott retired.", "Thompson retained the post of Attorney General while he was prime minister.He came very close to bringing Newfoundland into Confederation, but was unsuccessful.His first major speech as Prime Minister was given in Toronto in January 1893 and covered the topics of tolerance and Canadian nationalism in conjunction with loyalty to the British crown.", "At the time, Thompson was concerned about the possibility of the annexation of Canada by the United States, a goal that was being pursued within Canada by the Continental Union Association, a group of Ontario and Quebec Liberals.", "Despite his concern, Thompson ultimately realized that the conspiracy to make Canada part of the United States was confined to a small and noisy minority within the opposition party.In March 1893, Thompson travelled to Paris as one of the judges on the tribunal to settle the dispute over the seal harvest in the Bering Sea.", "The tribunal ruled there was no justification for the American claim that the Bering Sea was closed to all but American seal hunters.Other matters of concern during Thompson's tenure as Prime Minister included the reduction of trade tariffs and questions over schooling in Manitoba and in the North West Territories, where serious disputes existed over the role of Catholics and Protestants in administering the school system.", "The issue in the North West Territories would be resolved to Thompson's satisfaction but only after his death." ], [ "Supreme Court appointments", "While in office, Thompson chose the following jurists to sit as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada:* Sir Samuel Henry Strong (as Chief Justice, December 13, 1892 – November 18, 1902; appointed a Puisne Justice under Prime Minister Mackenzie, September 30, 1875)* Robert Sedgewick – (February 18, 1893 – August 4, 1906)* George Edwin King – (September 21, 1893 – May 8, 1901)" ], [ "Death in office", "Holy Cross Cemetery, Halifax, Nova ScotiaThompson had been Prime Minister of Canada for only two years when he died suddenly from a heart attack at the age of 49 on December 12, 1894.He was at England's Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria had just made him a member of her Privy Council.", "Thompson's physical condition had deteriorated during his time in Ottawa; he was significantly overweight when he died (standing , he weighed about ), and had always pushed himself very hard in his work.Thompson was the second of two Canadian prime ministers to die in office (the first being John A. Macdonald), and the first of three who did not die in Canada (the other two being Charles Tupper and Richard Bedford Bennett).After an elaborate funeral was staged for him in the United Kingdom by Queen Victoria, Thompson's remains were transported back to Canada aboard the armoured cruiser , which was painted black for the occasion.", "He was buried on January 3, 1895, in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia.Despite having held prime ministerial office, Thompson had little estate, so Parliament set up a fund to support his widow and children.", "The Canadian politician Margaret Mitchell, who died March 8, 2017, is considered the last of Thompson's descendants." ], [ "Family", "Annie E Thompson by William James TopleyThompson, then a young barrister, married in 1870 Annie E. Affleck, daughter of John Affleck, of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and his wife, Catherine Saunders.", "Annie was born and educated in Halifax, Nova Scotia.", "The couple had nine children, only five of whom survived early childhood.", "After she was widowed December 12, 1894, a fund of $30,000 was raised for Lady Thompson, headed by Lord Strathcona with a subscription of $5,000; the Parliament of Canada contributed $25,000.The Governor-General, the Earl of Aberdeen undertook the education of the sons.", "Lady Thompson cofounded, with the Countess of Aberdeen, the National Council of Women, and served as one of its presidents.", "She served as a governor of the Victorian Order of Nurses.", "As a widow, she lived at Derwent Lodge, 631 Sherbourne Street in Toronto." ], [ "Legacy", "Thompson was designated a Person of National Historic Significance in 1937.His collected papers were donated in 1949 to the National Archives of Canada by his son, Colonel John Thompson.A ranking of the Canadian Prime Ministers was published by J.L.", "Granatstein and Norman Hillmer in 1997.A survey of 26 Canadian historians determined that Thompson was ranked #10 of the 20 people who had at that time served as Canadian PM.", "He was identified as \"The great \"might-have-been\" of Canadian Prime Ministers...\", whose potentially promising career was cut short by his early death.", "A follow-up article co-authored by Hillmer in 2011 broadened the survey to include survey responses of over 100 historians; in this survey, Thompson was ranked 14th out the 22 who had by then served as PM.The high school in the Canadian sitcom Life with Derek, SJST, is named after Thompson.", "Sir John Thompson Catholic Junior High School in Edmonton is named for him.", "Thompson appears as a prominent character in Paul Marlowe's novel ''Knights of the Sea'' (set in 1887 when Thompson was Minister of Justice).Since 1996, Sir John Thompson's former home in Ottawa at 237 Metcalfe Street has served as the national office of the Canadian Soccer Association.Nova Scotian artist William Valentine painted Thompson's portrait." ], [ "See also", "* List of prime ministers of Canada* List of books about prime ministers of Canada* Provincial premiers who have become Canadian MPs" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * J. P. Heisler, 1955, ''Sir John Thompson'', thesis, University of Toronto.", "* J. Castell Hopkins, 1895, ''Life and Work of the Rt.", "Hon.", "Sir John Thompson'', Toronto: United Publishing Houses.", "* * ===Attribution===" ], [ "External links", " * Sir John Thompson fonds at Library and Archives Canada* Photograph: Funeral cortege of Sir John D. Thompson, 1895 – McCord Museum" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach" ], [ "Introduction", "Haussmann made of Bach (1746, 1748 – above).", "In the 19th-century Bach Gesellschaft edition the canon was published in Volume 451, p. 138.In 1950 the piece was assigned the number 1076 in Schmieder's catalogue of Bach's works (BWV).", "The 1998 edition of that catalogue (BWV2a) mentions Haussmann's paintings as original sources for the work (p. 438), and likewise the Bach digital website gives a description of both paintings as sources for the piece (linked from Bach digital Work page ).Johann Sebastian Bach's vocal music includes cantatas, motets, masses, Magnificats, Passions, oratorios, four-part chorales, songs and arias.", "His instrumental music includes concertos, suites, sonatas, fugues, and other works for organ, harpsichord, lute, violin, viola da gamba, cello, flute, chamber ensemble and orchestra.There are over 1000 known compositions by Bach.", "Nearly all are listed in the '''' (BWV), which is the best known and most widely used catalogue of Bach's compositions." ], [ "Listing Bach's compositions", "Some of the early biographies of Johann Sebastian Bach contain lists of his compositions.", "For instance, his obituary contains a list of the instrumental compositions printed during the composer's lifetime, followed by an approximate list of his unpublished work.", "The first separately published biography of the composer, by Johann Nikolaus Forkel, follows the same approach: its ninth chapter first lists printed works (adding four-part chorales which had been published in the second half of the 18th century), followed by a rough overview of the unpublished ones.", "In the first half of the 19th century more works were published, so the next biographies (Schauer and Hilgenfeldt in 1850) had more elaborate appendices listing printed works, referring to these works by publisher, and the number or page number given to the works in these publications.", "So, for example, the Prelude and Fugue in E-flat major can be indicated as \"C. F. Peters Vol.", "III No.", "1\", or any of the variants (\"Griepenkerl and Roitzsch Vol.", "3 p. 2\", \"Peters Book 242 p. 2\", \"P. S. V., Cah.", "3 (242), No.", "1\", etc.", ")===BG===The Prelude in F minor of ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' book 1, in the BGA known as Vol.", "14, p. 44, over eighty years before it got the number 857 in the ''Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis''In the 2nd half of the 19th century the Bach-Gesellschaft (BG) published all of Bach's works in around 50 volumes, the so-called Bach Gesellschaft Ausgabe (BGA).", "This offered a unique identification of all of Bach's known works, a system that was quickly adopted, for instance by the biographers: Philipp Spitta used it complementarily to the Peters edition numbering for the BG volumes that had appeared when he was writing his Bach-biography in the second half of the 19th century (e.g.", "\"B. G., III., p. 173\" for the above-mentioned Prelude in E-flat major), and Terry used it in the third Appendix to his 20th-century translation of Forkel's biography.But there was still a lot of confusion: some authors preferred to list Bach's works according to Novello's editions, or Augener's, or Schirmer's,... giving rise to various conversion tables at the end of books on Bach's compositions (e.g.", "Harvey Grace's in a 1922 book on Bach's organ compositions).====NBG====In 1900 the BG published its last volume, and dissolved itself, as its primary goal, publishing all of Bach's known works, was accomplished.", "The BG was succeeded by the Neue Bachgesellschaft (NBG), with a new set of goals (Bach yearbook, Bach festivals, and a Bach museum).", "Occasionally however the NBG published newly discovered works, or variants not published in the BGA.", "For instance the 1740s version of ''O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht'' was published in NBG XVII1 in 1916 (the 1730s version of the same piece, with a different orchestration, had been published in BG 24, pp.", "185–192).===BWV===In 1950 the ''Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis'' was published, allocating a unique number to every known composition by Bach.", "Wolfgang Schmieder, the editor of that catalogue, grouped the compositions by genre, largely following BG for the collation (e.g.", "BG cantata number = BWV number of the cantata):The BWV is a thematic catalogue, thus it identifies every movement of every composition by its first measures, like the opening of BWV 1006, movement 2 (Loure) above.# Kantaten (Cantatas), BWV 1–224# Motetten (Motets), BWV 225–231# Messen, Messensätze, Magnificat (Masses, Mass movements, Magnificat), BWV 232–243# Passionen, Oratorien (Passions, Oratorios), BWV 244–249# Vierstimmige Choräle (Four-part chorales), BWV 250–438# Lieder, Arien, Quodlibet (Songs, Arias and Quodlibet), BWV 439–524# Werke für Orgel (Works for organ), BWV 525–771# Werke für Klavier (Keyboard compositions), BWV 772–994# Werke für Laute (Lute compositions), BWV 995–1000# Kammermusik (Chamber music), BWV 1001–1040# Orchesterwerke (Works for orchestra), BWV 1041–1071, originally in two separate chapters: Concertos (BWV 1041–1065) and Overtures (BWV 1066–1071)# Kanons (Canons), BWV 1072–1078# Musikalisches Opfer, Kunst der Fuge (Musical Offering, Art of the Fugue), BWV 1079–1080For instance, the Prelude and Fugue in E-flat major now became BWV 552, situated in the range of the works for organ.", "In contrast to other catalogues such as the Köchel catalogue for Mozart's compositions there is no attempt at chronological organization in the BWV numbering, for instance BWV 992 is an early composition by Bach.", "Exceptionally BWV numbers are also indicated as Schmieder (S) numbers (e.g.", "S. 225 = BWV 225).Another consequence of the ordering principles of the BWV was that it tore known collections apart, for instance Clavier-Übung III was partly in the organ compositions range (BWV 552 and 669–689), with the four duets listed among the keyboard compositions (BWV 802–805).====BWV Anh.====The Anhang (Anh.", "), i.e.", "Appendix, of the BWV listed works that were not suitable for the main catalogue, in three sections:* I – lost works, or works of which only a tiny fraction had survived (Anh.", "1–23)* II – works of dubious authenticity (Anh.", "24–155)* III – works that were once attributed to Bach, but for which it had been established they were not composed by him (Anh.", "156–189)Within each section of the Anhang the works are sorted by genre, following the same sequence of genres as the main catalogue.Schmieder published the BWV's second edition in 1990, with some modifications regarding authenticity discriminations, and more works added to the main catalogue and the Anhang.", "A strict numerical collation was abandoned to insert additions, or when for another reason compositions were regrouped.", "For example, BWV 11, formerly listed as a Cantata, was moved to the fourth chapter of the main catalogue as an Oratorio.", "Rather than renumbering a composition, an arrow indicated where the composition was inserted: \"\" meaning \"BWV 11, inserted after BWV 249b\" (4th chapter).", "Similarly, meant BWV 1083, inserted after BWV 243a (3rd chapter).", "Also authenticity discriminations, based on new research, could lead to such repositionings within the catalogue, e.g. \"\"", "became \" indicating it was now considered a spurious work.In 1998 Alfred Dürr and Yoshitake Kobayashi published a small edition of the catalogue, based on the 1990 second edition.", "This edition, known as BWV2a, contained a few further updates and collation rearrangements.New additions (Nachträge) to BWV2/BWV2a included:* BWV 1081–1126* BWV Anh.", "190–213A few exceptions to the principle that compositions were not renumbered were when a composition from the Anhang could be recovered or authenticated as Bach's, so that it deserved a place in the main catalogue, in which case it was given a number above 1080.So, for example, BWV Anh.", "205 (BWV2) → BWV 1121 (BWV2a, where it is in section 7 as a work for organ).Other renumberings and additional numbers involved alternative or earlier versions of basically the same composition, which were indicated by adding a lower case letter to the BWV number.", "Examples:* BWV 243a: 1723 E major version of the 1733 Magnificat in D major BWV 243* BWV 1071 renumbered to BWV 1046a (early version of the first ''Brandenburg Concerto'')* BWV Anh.", "198 renumbered to BWV 149/1a (earlier abandoned version of the opening movement of Cantata BWV 149)Some versions were completely removed from the catalogue, e.g.", "BWV 655b and c.Slashes indicate movements: e.g.", "BWV 149/1 indicates the first movement of the Cantata BWV 149.Another example: the Agnus Dei of the Mass in B minor can be indicated as BWV 232/22 (22nd movement of the composition), or alternatively as BWV 232IV/4 (BWV 232, fourth movement of Part IV).====21st-century additions====Numbers above BWV 1126 were added in the 21st century.====Reconstructed versions====An upper case R added to a BWV number indicates a reconstructed version, that is a conjectured earlier version of a known composition.", "One of such reconstructions, the Concerto for oboe and violin, as published in NBA VII/7 (Supplement) p. 75, based on the double harpsichord concerto BWV 1060, is known as BWV 1060R.====BWV3====As of mid-2018 the Bach digital website started to implement the new numbers of the 3rd edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, which has been announced for publication in 2020.For example, the Leipzig version of the ''Christ lag in Todes Banden'' cantata used to be BWV 4 in previous versions of the catalogue, and, in BWV3, has become BWV 4.2.===NBA===NBA illustrates its score editions with facsimiles from manuscripts or contemporary editions: for instance NBA Series IV Volume 4 (''Clavier-Übung III'') contains a facsimile of the title page of the 1739 first edition of that collection.In the meantime, the New Bach Edition (Neue Bach-Ausgabe, abbreviated as NBA) was being published, offering a new system to refer to Bach's works, e.g.", ", which is Series IV, Volume 4, p. 2 (Prelude) and p. 105 (Fugue), for BWV 552.====NBArev====Some years after the completion of the NBA in 2007 its publisher Bärenreiter joined with the Bach Archive again to publish revised editions of some of Bach's scores.", "These revised editions, aligning with the NBA editions (format, layout), but outside that group of publications, were published under the name Johann Sebastian Bach: New Edition of the Complete Works – Revised Edition (Johann Sebastian Bach: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke – Revidierte Edition), in short: New Bach Edition – Revised (Neue Bach-Ausgabe – Revidierte Edition), abbreviated as NBArev.", "Where the original NBA editions were exclusively in German, the volumes of the Revised series have their introductions both in German and English.", "Its first volume, NBArev 1, was a new edition of the Mass in B minor, appearing in 2010.===BC===The Bach Compendium (BC), a catalogue covering Bach's vocal works was published in 1985.Occasionally works that have no BWV number can be identified by their BC number, e.g.", "BC C 8 for \"Der Gerechte kömmt um\" an arrangement attributed to Bach on stylistic grounds, however unmentioned in the BWV.===BNB===Bachs Notenbibliothek (BNB) is a list of works Bach had at his disposition.", "Works of other composers which were arranged by Bach or which he (had) copied for performance usually have a BNB number.===SBB===The Berlin State Library (Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin = SBB) holds an important collection of composition manuscripts relating to Bach.", "Some versions of works are best known by their principal manuscript in the SBB, for instance = , or according to the abbreviations used at the Bach-digital website .===By opus number, and chronological lists===Title page of Bach's Opus 1 (''Clavier-Übung I'', 1731), the only time he seems to have used an opus number Apart from indicating his first published keyboard composition as Opus 1, Bach did not use opus numbers.", "Lists following publication chronologies are for example implied in the first list in Bach's obituary, and BG numbers (within the BGA sequence of publication) – overall lists covering all of Bach's compositions in order of first publication are however not a way Bach's compositions are usually presented.Listing Bach's works according to their time of composition cannot be done comprehensively: for many works the period in which they were composed is a very wide range.", "For Bach's larger vocal works (cantatas, Passions,...) research has led to some more or less generally accepted chronologies, covering most of these works: a catalogue in this sense is Philippe (and Gérard) Zwang's list giving a chronological number to the cantatas BWV 1–215 and 248–249.This list was published in 1982 as ''Guide pratique des cantates de Bach'' in Paris, .", "A revised edition was published in 2005 ().===Other composers===Various catalogues with works by other composers have intersections with collections of works associated with Bach:;BR-WFB (or) BR : Bach-Repertorium numbers for works by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, e.g.", "BWV 970 = BR A49:Other BRs::'''BR-CPEB''': works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (for this composer Helm or Wotquenne numbers are however more often used):'''BR-JCFB''': works by Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach;Fk (or) F : Falck catalogue numbers for works by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, e.g.", "BWV 970 = F 25/2;H : Helm numbers for works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, e.g.", "BWV 1036 = H 569;HWV : Works by George Frideric Handel, e.g.", "BWV Anh.", "106 = HWV 605;TWV : Compositions by Georg Philipp Telemann, e.g.", "BWV 824 = TWV 32:14;Warb (or) W : Warburton numbers for works by Johann Christian Bach, e.g.", "= W A22 (or: );Wq : Wotquenne numbers for works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, e.g.", "BWV 1036 = Wq 145" ], [ "Works in Bach's catalogues and collections", "There are over 1500 works that feature in a catalogue of works by Bach, like the ''Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis'', or in a collection of works associated with Bach (e.g.", "in one of the ''Notebooks for Anna Magdalena Bach'').", "Of these around a thousand are original compositions by Bach, that is: more than a mere copy or transcription of an earlier work by himself or another composer.+ Table sections (collated as in BWV2a for BWV 1–1126 and Anhang) BWV (original ranges in parentheses) BWV Anhang (Appendix) Not in BWV (BWV deest) Sorted by BC, BGA, BNB, NBA, etc.+ Collections Without resorting the table (i.e.", "collection kept together in BWV2a) • • • • • Using the sort function (not available in all browsers)* Cantatas by function (Advent I → Trinity XXVII; other Feasts, celebrations and church services; Secular cantatas): sort by NBA → '''I/1'''* ''Clavier-Übung I'' (1731): sort by NBA → '''V/1'''* ''Clavier-Übung II'' (1735): sort by NBA → '''V/2'''* ''Clavier-Übung III'' (1739): sort by NBA → '''IV/4'''* Kirnberger collection of chorale preludes: sort by BWV → '''BWV 690'''* Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1720): sort by NBA → '''V/5'''* ''Twelve Little Preludes'': sort by BG → '''36: 118'''* ''Neumeister Chorales'' by J. S. Bach (without BWV 601, 639, 719, 723, 737 and 751): sort by NBA → '''IV/9'''* Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (1722): sort by Name → '''''Notebook A. M. Bach'' (1722)'''* Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (1725): sort by Name → '''''Notebook A. M. Bach'' (1725)'''* Vivaldi arrangements: sort by Additional info → '''after Vivaldi'''* ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' book I (1722): sort by BG → '''Vol.", "14'''* ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' book II (1739–1742): sort by NBA → '''V/6.2'''* ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' book II (1744): sort by BG → '''14: 91''' '''1.'''", "Cantatas (see also: List of Bach cantatas, Church cantata (Bach) and List of secular cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ '''2.'''", "Motets (see also: List of motets by Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ '''5.'''", "Four-part chorales (see also: List of chorale harmonisations by Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ 250 5.1734–1738 chorale setting \"Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan\" (Three wedding chorales No.", "1) SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc 131: 147 III/2.1: 3 text by Rodigast 251 5.1734–1738 chorale setting \"Sei Lob und Ehr dem höchsten Gut\" (Three wedding chorales No.", "2) SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc 131: 148 III/2.1: 4 text by Schütz, J. J.", "252 5.1734–1738 chorale setting \"Nun danket alle Gott\" (Three wedding chorales No.", "3) SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc 131: 149 III/2.1: 5 text by Rinkart 500a 5.1726-04-19 chorale setting \"So gehst du nun, mein Jesu, hin\" (in Bach's Leipzig versions of ''St Mark Passion'' attributed to Keiser) SATB Str Bc II/9: 75 text by ; ↔ BWV 500 1084 5.1726-04-19 chorale setting \"O hilf Christe, Gottes Sohn\" (in Bach's Leipzig versions of ''St Mark Passion'' attributed to Keiser) SATB Str Bc II/9: 76 text by Weiße; after BC D 5a/14 1089 5.chorale setting \"Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stund\" SATB III/2.2: 216 text by 1122 5.or earlier chorale setting \"Denket doch, ihr Menschenkinder\" F maj. SATB III/2.1: 31III/2.2: 217 text by Hübner?", "1123 5.or earlier chorale setting \"Wo Gott zum Haus gibt nicht sein Gunst\" G maj. SATB III/2.1: 40 after Z 305; text by Kolross 1124 5.or earlier chorale setting \"Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ\" E min.", "SATB III/2.1: 51 after Z 7400; text by Agricola, J.", "1125 5.or earlier chorale setting \"O Gott, du frommer Gott\" D maj. SATB III/2.1: 79 after Z 5206b; text by Heermann 1126 5.chorale setting \"Lobet Gott, unsern Herren\" SATB III/2.2: 218 '''6.'''", "Songs, Arias and Quodlibet (see also: List of songs and arias of Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ '''7.'''", "Works for organ (see also: List of organ compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ '''10.'''", "Chamber music (see also: List of chamber music works by Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ '''11.'''", "Works for orchestra (see also: List of orchestral works by Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ '''Later''' Later additions to the main catalogue (above BWV 1128: BWV3) Up ↑ '''R''' Reconstructions (see also Reconstruction of music by Johann Sebastian Bach) Up ↑ '''—'''---- Up ↑ 655b – 1708–1789 chorale setting \"Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend\" (alternative version \"a\" in BGA) Organ 252: 159 after BWV 655(a); ↔ 655c 655c – 1708–1789 chorale setting \"Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend\" (alternative version \"b\" in BGA) Organ 252: 160 after BWV 655(a); ↔ 655b 813a – ''French Suites'', No.", "2 – Version B (early version): No.", "6 Menuet II C min.", "Keyboard 36: 236 V/8: 79 deest BCC 8 1723–1750?(JSB?)", "Motet ''Der Gerechte kömmt um'' (''Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt''/39; funer.", "motet?)", "E min.", "SSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc I/41: 127 by Kuhnau?", "(''Tristis est...''); arr.", "by Bach?", "deest BCD 1 1717-03-28?", "Passion ''Weimarer Passion'' ?stbSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc → BWV 23/4 (and 55/3; 244/29; 245a–c; 283?)", "deest BCD 5a 1707 (Kei)before 1713(JSB) Passion ''Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet'' (''St Mark Passion'' pastiche, Weimar version) SATB 2Vl 2Va Hc II/9: 69 Pasticcio (Keiser G.?, Bach) deest BCD 5b 1726-04-19(JSB) Passion ''Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet'' (''St Mark Passion'' pastiche, 1st Leipzig version) SATB 2Vl 2Va Org II/9 Pasticcio after BC D 5a (Keiser G.?, Bach) adding BWV 500a and 1084) deest BCD 10 1750?", "Passion ''Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt'' D min.", "satbSSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc I/41: 95 Pasticcio (Graun, C. H.; Telemann; Bach; ...) deest(8/6) BC F 131 .1c chorale setting \"Liebster Gott, wenn werd ich sterben\" E♭ maj. SATB III/2.1: 100 after Z 6634; text by Neumann BGA 1725 (JSB) ''Notebook A. M. Bach'' (1725) No.", "21 Menuet fait par Mons.", "Böhm G maj.", "Keyboard 432: 35 V/4: 82 by Böhm BNBI/B/48 1738(JSB) 6 Masses without Benedictus and Agnus Dei from 2SATB 3Tbn Str Bc by Bassani; copied by Bach (BNB I/B/48), later adding BWV 1081 BNBI/C/1 1740–1742 (JSB) Magnificat C maj. SATB 4Tbn Tmp Bc by Caldara; → BWV 1082; in DBB 2755/1 deest BNBI/K/2 before 1719(Han.", ")1743–1748(JSB) Passion ''Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet'' (''St Mark Passion'' pastiche, 2nd Leipzig version) stSATB 2Ob 2Bas 2Vl 2Va Vc Vne Hc II/9 Pasticcio after BC D 5b (Keiser G.?, Bach) and HWV 48/9 /23 /41 /44 /47 /52 /55 (Handel) deest NBA 1742(JSB) Kyrie–Gloria Mass arranged from ''Missa sine nomine'' a 6 E min.", "SSATTB 2Co 4Tro Vne Hc Org II/9: 13 by Palestrina after anon.", "motet ''Beata Dei genitrix''; arr.", "by Bach NBA 1720-01-22 Klavierbüchlein WFB, p. 3a: Claves signatae (introduction on clefs) 451: 213 V/5 NBA 1720-01-22 Klavierbüchlein WFB, p. 3b: Explication... (introduction on ornaments) 451: 213 V/5 NBA 1720 (WFB) Klavierbüchlein WFB No.", "25: Pièce pour le Clavecin Keyboard 451: 218 V/5: 40 by deest NBA 1720 (anon) Klavierbüchlein WFB No.", "30: Bass sketch G min.", "451: 220 V/5: 45 NBA 1720 (WFB) Klavierbüchlein WFB No.", "48a–d: Partita Keyboard 451: 223 V/5: 82 by Stölzel===By genre=======Cantatas (BWV 1–224)====:''See #BWV Chapter 1 in the table above''In the 1950 first edition of the BWV the cantatas were largely listed according to their BGA number: BWV 1–200: Church cantatas* BWV 201–216: Secular cantatas* BWV 217–224: Cantatas with various issues (lost, incomplete, spurious, doubtful)Additionally Anh.", "I of the first edition of the BWV started with a list of some 20 lost cantatas, while Anh.", "III of that edition listed a few cantata (movements) by other composers (Anh.", "156–158).BWV2a added many more lost cantatas (BWV Anh.", "190–199 and 209–212) and alternative versions to known works indicating (partially) lost cantatas or cantata versions, e.g.", "BWV 244a, the music of which was partially preserved in the ''St Matthew Passion'', BWV 244.====Motets (BWV 225–231)====:''See #BWV Chapter 2 in the table above''There are over a dozen motets attributed to Bach, about half of which are authentic by all accounts:* BWV 225–230 are the six compositions that have always been considered motets composed by Bach* BWV 231 was later renumbered to BWV 28/2a, a variant of the second movement of cantata BWV 28* BWV 118, published as a cantata in the 19th century, was later recategorised as a motet, following Bach's designation on the score.", "* BWV Anh.", "159–165 are motets with a doubtful or spurious assignation to Bach, the first of which is however most likely composed by Bach.====Liturgical works in Latin (BWV 232–243)====:''See #BWV Chapter 3 in the table above''Bach's involvement with Latin church music, as composer, arranger or copyist, includes:* BWV 232–242: Masses and Mass movements (Mass in B minor; Kyrie–Gloria Masses; separate Mass movements)* BWV 243: Magnificat* BWV 1081–1083: later additions to the BWV catalogue* BWV Anh.", "24–30, 166–168: doubtful and spurious works* BNB I/B/48, I/C/1, I/P/2: copies and arrangements====Passions and oratorios (BWV 244–249)====:''See #BWV Chapter 4 in the table above''Passions and oratorios composed or contributed to by Bach include:* BWV 244–247: Passions (''St Matthew Passion''; ''St John Passion''; ''St Luke Passion''; ''St Mark Passion'')* BWV 248–249: Oratorios (''Christmas Oratorio''; ''Easter Oratorio'')* BWV 11: ''Ascension Oratorio''* BWV 127/1, 500a, 1084, 1088, deest: ''St Mark Passion'' (attributed to Keiser), ''Weimarer Passion'', ''Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt''* BWV Anh.", "169: passion text by Picander (not set by Bach, apart from using some parts of this text in his ''St Matthew Passion'')====Four-part chorales (BWV 250–438)====:''See #BWV Chapter 5 in the table above''Bach's chorale settings (usually for SATB choir) are included in:* BWV 250–438: separate chorale settings* Cantatas (most prominently in the chorale cantatas), motets, passions, oratorios, Second ''Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach''* BWV 1089, 1122–1126: later additions to the BWV catalogue* BWV Anh.", "31, 201–204: doubtful and spurious====Songs and arias (BWV 439–524)====:''See #BWV Chapter 6 in the table above''Songs and (separate) arias by Bach are included in several collections:* BWV 439–507: ''Schemellis Gesangbuch''* BWV 508–518: Second ''Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach''* BWV 519–523: D-B Mus.", "ms. Bach P 802, a manuscript by Johann Ludwig Krebs* BWV Anh.", "32–39: ''Deutsche Übersetzungen und Gedichte'' (doubtful)* BWV Anh.", "40–41: ''Singende Muse an der Pleiße'' (doubtful)Associated with the Songs and Arias group:* BWV 524: (Wedding) Quodlibet for four voices (incomplete)* BWV 1127: \"Alles mit Gott und nichts ohn' ihn\" (strophic aria rediscovered in 2005)====Works for organ (BWV 525–771)====:''See #BWV Chapter 7 in the table above''Bach's organ compositions include:* BWV 525–530: Sonatas* BWV 531–582: compositions of the type Prelude/Fantasia/Toccata/Adagio/Passacaglia or Fugue* BWV 583–591: various free organ compositions (Trios/Aria/Canzona/Allabreve/Pastorale/''Kleines harmonisches Labyrinth '')* BWV 592–597: Concertos (transcriptions)* BWV 598: ''Pedal-Exercitium''* BWV 599–764: Chorale preludes (''Orgelbüchlein''; ''Schübler Chorales''; ''Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes'' or ''Leipzig Chorales''; Chorale preludes from ''Clavier-Übung III''; Kirnberger chorale preludes; other chorale preludes)* BWV 765–768: Chorale partitas* BWV 769–771: Chorale variations (includes Canonic Variations on \"Vom Himmel hoch da komm' ich her\")* BWV 1085–1087, 1121, 1128: various later additions to the BWV catalogue* BWV 1090–1120: Neumeister Chorales* BWV Anh.", "42–79, 171–178, 200, 206, 208, 213: lost, doubtful and spurious organ pieces ====Works for keyboard (BWV 772–994)====:''See #BWV Chapter 8 in the table above''Bach's works for harpsichord, clavichord and other keyboard instruments include:* BWV 772–801: Inventions and Sinfonias* BWV 802–805: Duets from ''Clavier-Übung III''* BWV 806–845: Suites and suite movements (''English Suites''; ''French Suites''; Partitas = ''Clavier-Übung I''; ''Overture in the French style'' from ''Clavier-Übung II''; etc.", ")* BWV 846–893: ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' (book I, book II)* BWV 894–962: compositions of the type Prelude/Fantasia/Concerto/Toccata or Fugue/Fughetta (includes Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, ''Six Little Preludes'', several parts of the ''Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach'', etc.", ")* BWV 963–970: Sonatas and sonata movements* BWV 971–987: Concertos (includes ''Italian Concerto'' from ''Clavier-Übung II'' and various concerto transcriptions)* BWV 988–991: Variations (includes ''Goldberg Variations'' = ''Clavier-Übung IV'' and ''Aria variata alla maniera italiana'')* BWV 992–994: Capriccios and Applicatio (includes ''Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother'') ====Works for solo lute (BWV 995–1000)====:''See #BWV Chapter 9 in the table above''Bach's compositions for lute or lute-harpsichord (Lautenwerck) include:* BWV 995–1000 suites and separate movements for lute or lute-harpsichord* BWV 1006a: transcription of BWV 1006 ====Chamber music (BWV 1001–1040)====:''See #BWV Chapter 10 in the table above''Bach wrote chamber music for solo violin, cello or flute, sonatas for harpsichord and an instrumental soloist, and trio sonatas:* BWV 1001–1006: Sonatas and partitas for solo violin* BWV 1007–1012: Cello Suites* BWV 1013: Partita for solo flute* BWV 1014–1026: works for accompanied violin (sonatas, suite for violin and harpsichord; sonatas, fugue for violin and basso continuo)* BWV 1027–1029: sonatas for viola da gamba and harpsichord* BWV 1030–1035: sonatas for accompanied flute (sonatas for flute and harpsichord; sonatas for flute and basso continuo)* BWV 1036–1040: trio sonatas====Orchestral works (BWV 1041–1071)====:''See #BWV Chapter 11 in the table above''Bach wrote concertos and orchestral suites:* BWV 1041–1045: Violin concertos (in A minor, in E major, ''Double Concerto''); ''Triple Concerto''; Concerto movement/Sinfonia fragment* BWV 1046–1051: ''Brandenburg Concertos''* BWV 1052–1065: Harpsichord concertos* BWV 1066–1071: Orchestral suites and Sinfonia (early version of BWV 1046)====Canons (BWV 1072–1078)====:''See #BWV Chapter 12 in the table above''Separate canons by Bach are listed in the 12th chapter of the BWV:* BWV 1072–1078: canons* BWV 1086–1087: later additions====Late contrapuntal works (BWV 1079–1080)====:''See #BWV Chapter 13 in the table above''The list of late contrapuntal works contains only two items:* BWV 1079: ''The Musical Offering''* BWV 1080: ''The Art of Fugue''===20th-century additions to the BWV catalogue and Anhang===Additions as published in BWV2a====Additions to the main catalogue (BWV 1081–1126)====* BWV 1081 – Credo in unum Deum in F major (for choir), included in Chapter 3 in BWV2a* BWV 1082 – Suscepit Israel by Antonio Caldara (for choir), as copied by Bach; Included in Chapter 3 in BWV2a* BWV 1083 – Tilge, Höchster, meine Sünden (motet, \"parody\", i.e., reworked version, of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater), included in Chapter 3 in BWV2a* BWV 1084 – O hilf, Christe, Gottes Sohn (chorale from Bach's Leipzig versions of the ''St Mark Passion'' attributed to Keiser), included in Chapter 5 in BWV2a* BWV 1085 – O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (chorale prelude), included in Chapter 7 in BWV2a* BWV 1086 – Canon ''Concordia discors'', included in Chapter 12 in BWV2a* BWV 1087 – 14 canons on the First Eight Notes of Goldberg Variations Ground (discovered 1974), included in Chapter 12 in BWV2a* BWV 1088 – \"So heb ich denn mein Auge sehnlich auf\" (arioso for bass), No.", "20 in ''Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt'' (pasticcio Passion oratorio); Included in Chapter 4 in BWV2a* BWV 1089 – Da Jesus an dem Kreutze stund (four-part chorale), included in Chapter 5 in BWV2a* BWV 1090–1120 – 31 chorale preludes for organ from the Neumeister Collection, discovered in 1985 in the archives of the Yale University library; Included in Chapter 7 in BWV2a, except for BWV 1096, attributed to Johann Pachelbel, which was moved to Anh.", "III (spurious works).", "* BWV 1121, previously Anh.", "205 – Fantasie in C minor (organ), included in Chapter 7 in BWV2a* BWV 1122–1126 – five four-part chorales, moved to Chapter 5 in BWV2a====Additions to the Anhang (BWV Anh.", "190–213)====BWV Anh.", "190–213 were added between the 1950 and 1990s editions of the catalogue* BWV Anh.", "190–197 – Cantatas added to Anh.", "I (music lost); see also List of Bach cantatas* BWV Anh.", "198 – Abandoned sketch of a cantata opening, renumbered to BWV 149/1a and added to Chapter 1 in BWV2a* BWV Anh.", "199 – Cantata added to Anh.", "I (music lost); see also List of Bach cantatas* BWV Anh.", "200 – Fragment of a chorale prelude ''O Traurigkeit, o herzeleid'', added to Anh.", "I (unused sketch for the ''Orgelbüchlein'')* BWV Anh.", "201–204 – Four-part chorales added to Anh.", "II (doubtful)* BWV Anh.", "205 – Fantasia in C minor, authenticated as BWV 1121 and added to Chapter 7 in BWV2a* BWV Anh.", "206 – Doubtful chorale prelude, added to Anh.", "II* BWV Anh.", "207 – Doubtful keyboard fugue, added to Anh.", "II* BWV Anh.", "208 – Spurious organ fugue, added to Anh.", "III* BWV Anh.", "209–212 – Lost cantatas added to Anh.", "I; see also List of Bach cantatas* BWV Anh.", "213 – Lost arrangement for organ of an unidentified Telemann concerto, added to Anh.", "I===21st-century additions to the BWV catalogue (BWV 1127 and higher)===:''See also #BWV Later in the table above''BWV numbers assigned after the publication of BWV2a:* BWV 1127: strophic aria \"Alles mit Gott und nichts ohn' ihn\" (discovered June 2005)* BWV Anh.", "71, renumbered to BWV 1128: chorale fantasia for organ \"Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält\" ( was authenticated as a composition by Bach after Wilhelm Rust's 1877 copy was recovered in March 2008)* BWV 1129 and higher: BWV3 numbers, see BWV#Numbers above BWV 1126" ], [ "Derivative works", "There is not much system in the way works derived from Bach's compositions are listed.", "The \"R\" addition to the BWV number is only well-established for the reconstructions included in NBA VII/7 (e.g.", "solo violin reconstructions of BWV 565 are not usually indicated as BWV 565R, neither is the system used for reconstructed vocal works).", "For some series of transcriptions and arrangements works catalogues of these transcribers/arrangers may hold sublists with works derived from compositions by Bach.===Reconstructed concertos===:''See also #Reconstructions in the table above''Each reconstructed concerto is created after the harpsichord concerto for the presumed original instrument.", "Such reconstructions are commonly referred to as, for example, BWV 1052R (where the R stands for 'reconstructed').", "Other reconstructions and completions of for instance BWV 1059 have been indicated as BWV 1059, or BWV 1059a.===Adaptations===Transcriptions and arrangements in the catalogues of works by other composers include:;Ferruccio Busoni: Catalogue numbers BV B 20 to B 46 are arrangements of works by Bach, many of which published in the Bach-Busoni Editions." ], [ "See also", "* List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach printed during his lifetime* List of fugal works by Johann Sebastian Bach" ], [ "References", "For abbreviations used in the references see also Bibliography at '''Bibliography'''" ], [ "Further reading", "* Basso, Alberto.", "''Frau Musika: La vita e le opere di J. S. Bach''.", "Turin, EDT : Vol.", "1 (1979): ''Le origini familiari, l'ambiente luterano, gli anni giovanili, Weimar e Köthen (1685–1723)''.", " Vol.", "2 (1983): ''Lipsia e le opere de la maturità (1723–1750)''.", "* " ], [ "External links", " * * Johann Sebastian Bach: Systematisch-chronologisches Werkverzeichnis at *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 30" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 762 – Baghdad is founded.", "1419 – First Defenestration of Prague: A crowd of radical Hussites kill seven members of the Prague city council.", "1502 – Christopher Columbus lands at Guanaja in the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras during his fourth voyage.===1601–1900===1609 – Beaver Wars: At Ticonderoga (now Crown Point, New York), Samuel de Champlain shoots and kills two Iroquois chiefs on behalf of his native allies.", "1619 – In Jamestown, Virginia, the first Colonial European representative assembly in the Americas, the Virginia General Assembly, convenes for the first time.", "1627 – An earthquake kills about 5,000 people in Gargano, Italy.", "1635 – Eighty Years' War: The Siege of Schenkenschans begins; Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, begins the recapture of the strategically important fortress from the Spanish Army.", "1645 – English Civil War: Scottish Covenanter forces under the Earl of Leven launch the Siege of Hereford, a remaining Royalist stronghold.", "1656 – The Battle of Warsaw ends with a Swedish-Brandenburger victory over a larger Polish-Lithuanian force.", "1676 – Nathaniel Bacon issues the \"Declaration of the People of Virginia\", beginning Bacon's Rebellion against the rule of Governor William Berkeley.", "1729 – Founding of Baltimore, Maryland.", "1733 – The first Masonic Grand Lodge in the future United States is constituted in Massachusetts.", "1756 – In Saint Petersburg, Bartolomeo Rastrelli presents the newly built Catherine Palace to Empress Elizabeth and her courtiers.", "1811 – Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, leader of the Mexican insurgency, is executed by the Spanish in Chihuahua City, Mexico.", "1859 – First ascent of Grand Combin, one of the highest summits in the Alps.", "1863 – American Indian Wars: Representatives of the United States and tribal leaders including Chief Pocatello (of the Shoshone) sign the Treaty of Box Elder.", "1864 – American Civil War: Battle of the Crater: Union forces attempt to break Confederate lines at Petersburg, Virginia by exploding a large bomb under their trenches.", "1865 – The steamboat ''Brother Jonathan'' sinks off the coast of Crescent City, California, killing 225 passengers, the deadliest shipwreck on the Pacific Coast of the U.S. at the time.", "1866 – Armed Confederate veterans in New Orleans riot against a meeting of Radical Republicans, killing 48 people and injuring another 100.", "1871 – The Staten Island Ferry ''Westfield'''s boiler explodes, killing over 85 people.===1901–present===1912 – Japan's Emperor Meiji dies and is succeeded by his son Yoshihito, who is now known as the Emperor Taishō.", "1916 – The Black Tom explosion in New York Harbor kills four and destroys some $20,000,000 worth of military goods.", "1930 – In Montevideo, Uruguay wins the first FIFA World Cup.", "1932 – Premiere of Walt Disney's ''Flowers and Trees'', the first cartoon short to use Technicolor and the first Academy Award winning cartoon short.", "1945 – World War II: sinks the , killing 883 seamen.", "Most die during the following four days, until an aircraft notices the survivors.", "1956 – A joint resolution of the U.S. Congress is signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, authorizing ''In God We Trust'' as the U.S. national motto.", "1962 – The Trans-Canada Highway, the then longest national highway in the world, is officially opened.", "1965 – U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Social Security Act of 1965 into law, establishing Medicare and Medicaid.", "1966 – England defeats West Germany to win the 1966 FIFA World Cup at Wembley Stadium after extra time.", "1969 – Vietnam War: US President Richard Nixon makes an unscheduled visit to South Vietnam and meets with President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and U.S. military commanders.", "1971 – Apollo program: On Apollo 15, David Scott and James Irwin on the Apollo Lunar Module ''Falcon'' land on the Moon with the first Lunar Rover.", "* 1971 – An All Nippon Airways Boeing 727 and a Japanese Air Force F-86 collide over Morioka, Iwate, Japan killing 162.", "1974 – Watergate scandal: U.S. President Richard Nixon releases subpoenaed White House recordings after being ordered to do so by the Supreme Court of the United States.", "1975 – Jimmy Hoffa disappears from the parking lot of the Machus Red Fox restaurant in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit, at about 2:30 p.m.", "He is never seen or heard from again.", "1978 – The 730: Okinawa Prefecture changes its traffic on the right-hand side of the road to the left-hand side.", "1980 – Vanuatu gains independence.", "* 1980 – Israel's Knesset passes the Jerusalem Law.", "1981 – As many as 50,000 demonstrators, mostly women and children, took to the streets in Łódź to protest food ration shortages in Communist Poland.", "1990 – Ian Gow, Conservative Member of Parliament, is assassinated at his home by the IRA in a car bombing after he assured the group that the British government would never surrender to them.", "2003 – In Mexico, the last 'old style' Volkswagen Beetle rolls off the assembly line.", " 2003 – Three years after the death the last Pyrenean ibex, Celia, a clone of her is born only to subsequently die from lung defects.", "Within minutes, the Pyrenean ibex becomes the first and so-far only species to have ever gone de-extinct as well as go extinct twice.", "2006 – The world's longest running music show ''Top of the Pops'' is broadcast for the last time on BBC Two.", "The show had aired for 42 years.", " 2006 – An Israeli airstrike kills 28 Lebanese civilians, including 16 children.", "2011 – Marriage of Queen Elizabeth II's eldest granddaughter Zara Phillips to former rugby union footballer Mike Tindall.", "2012 – A train fire kills 32 passengers and injures 27 on the Tamil Nadu Express in Andhra Pradesh, India.", "* 2012 – A power grid failure in Delhi leaves more than 300 million people without power in northern India.", "2014 – Twenty killed and 150 are trapped after a landslide in Maharashtra, India.", "2020 – NASA's Mars 2020 mission was launched on an Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1470 – Hongzhi, emperor of the Ming dynasty (d. 1505)1511 – Giorgio Vasari, Italian painter, historian, and architect (d. 1574)1549 – Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1609)===1601–1900===1641 – Regnier de Graaf, Dutch physician and anatomist (d. 1673)1751 – Maria Anna Mozart, Austrian pianist (d. 1829)1763 – Samuel Rogers, English poet and art collector (d. 1855)1781 – Maria Aletta Hulshoff, Dutch feminist and pamphleteer (d. 1846)1809 – Charles Chiniquy, Canadian-American priest and theologian (d. 1899)1818 – Emily Brontë, English novelist and poet (d. 1848) 1818 – Jan Heemskerk, Dutch lawyer and politician, 16th and 19th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1897)1825 – Chaim Aronson, Lithuanian engineer and author (d. 1893)1832 – George Lemuel Woods, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 3rd Governor of Oregon (d. 1890)1855 – Georg Wilhelm von Siemens, German-Swiss businessman (d. 1919)1857 – Thorstein Veblen, American economist and sociologist (d. 1929)1859 – Henry Simpson Lunn, English minister and humanitarian, founded Lunn Poly (d. 1939)1862 – Nikolai Yudenich, Russian general (d. 1933)1863 – Henry Ford, American engineer and businessman, founded the Ford Motor Company (d. 1947)1872 – Princess Clémentine of Belgium (d. 1955)1881 – Smedley Butler, American general, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1940)1890 – Casey Stengel, American baseball player and manager (d. 1975)1898 – Henry Moore, English sculptor and illustrator (d. 1986)1899 – Gerald Moore, English pianist (d. 1987)===1901–present===1901 – Alfred Lépine, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1955)1904 – Salvador Novo, Mexican poet and playwright (d. 1974)1909 – C. Northcote Parkinson, English historian and author (d. 1993)1910 – Edgar de Evia, Mexican-American photographer (d. 2003)1913 – Lou Darvas, American soldier and cartoonist (d. 1987)1914 – Michael Morris, 3rd Baron Killanin, Irish journalist and author, 6th President of the International Olympic Committee (d. 1999)1920 – Walter Schuck, German lieutenant and pilot (d. 2015)1921 – Grant Johannesen, American pianist and educator (d. 2005)1922 – Henry W. Bloch, American banker and businessman, co-founded H&R Block (d. 2019)1925 – Stan Stennett, Welsh actor and trumpet player (d. 2013)* 1925 – Alexander Trocchi, Scottish author and poet (d. 1984)1926 – Betye Saar, American artist 1927 – Richard Johnson, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)* 1927 – Pete Schoening, American mountaineer (d. 2004)* 1927 – Victor Wong, American actor (d. 2001)1928 – Sulochana Latkar, Indian actress (d. 2023) 1928 – Joe Nuxhall, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2007)1929 – Sid Krofft, Canadian-American puppeteer and producer1931 – Dominique Lapierre, French historian and author (d. 2022)* 1931 – Marina Popovich, Soviet pilot, engineer and military officer (d. 2017)1934 – Bud Selig, 9th Major League Baseball Commissioner1936 – Buddy Guy, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1936 – Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz (d. 2020)1938 – Hervé de Charette, French politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs 1938 – Terry O'Neill, English photographer (d. 2019)1939 – Peter Bogdanovich, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2022) 1939 – Eleanor Smeal, American activist, founded the Feminist Majority Foundation1940 – Patricia Schroeder, American lawyer and politician (d. 2023) 1940 – Clive Sinclair, English businessman, founded Sinclair Radionics and Sinclair Research (d. 2021)1941 – Paul Anka, Canadian singer-songwriter and actor1942 – Pollyanna Pickering, English environmentalist and painter (d. 2018)1943 – Henri-François Gautrin, Canadian physicist and politician1944 – Gerry Birrell, Scottish race car driver (d. 1973)* 1944 – Peter Bottomley, English politician* 1944 – Frances de la Tour, English actress1945 – Patrick Modiano, French novelist and screenwriter, Nobel Prize laureate 1945 – David Sanborn, American saxophonist and composer1946 – Neil Bonnett, American race car driver and sportscaster (d. 1994) 1946 – Jeffrey Hammond, English bass player 1947 – William Atherton, American actor and producer 1947 – Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, French virologist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate* 1947 – Jonathan Mann, American physician and author (d. 1998)* 1947 – Arnold Schwarzenegger, Austrian-American bodybuilder, actor, and politician, 38th Governor of California1948 – Billy Paultz, American basketball player 1948 – Jean Reno, Moroccan-French actor* 1948 – Otis Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1948 – Julia Tsenova, Bulgarian pianist and composer (d. 2010)1949 – Duck Baker, American guitarist 1949 – Sonia Proudman, English lawyer and judge1950 – Harriet Harman, English lawyer and politician 1950 – Frank Stallone, American singer-songwriter and actor1951 – Alan Kourie, South African cricketer 1951 – Gerry Judah, Indian-English painter and sculptor1952 – Stephen Blackmore, English botanist and author1954 – Ken Olin, American actor, director, and producer1955 – Rat Scabies, English drummer and producer 1955 – Christopher Warren-Green, English violinist and conductor1956 – Delta Burke, American actress 1956 – Réal Cloutier, Canadian ice hockey player* 1956 – Georg Gänswein, German prelate, Prefect of the Pontifical Household, and former personal secretary to Pope Benedict XVI* 1956 – Anita Hill, American lawyer and academic* 1956 – Soraida Martinez, American painter and educator1957 – Antonio Adamo, Italian director and cinematographer 1957 – Bill Cartwright, American basketball player and coach* 1957 – Clint Hurdle, American baseball player and manager* 1957 – Nery Pumpido, Argentinian footballer, coach, and manager1958 – Kate Bush, English singer-songwriter and producer1958 – Liz Kershaw, English radio broadcaster* 1958 – Daley Thompson, English decathlete and trainer1960 – Jennifer Barnes, American-English musicologist and academic 1960 – Richard Linklater, American director and screenwriter* 1960 – Brillante Mendoza, Filipino independent film director1961 – Laurence Fishburne, American actor and producer1962 – Alton Brown, American chef, author, and producer* 1962 – Jay Feaster, American ice hockey player and manager* 1962 – Yakub Memon, Indian accountant and terrorist (d. 2015)1963 – Peter Bowler, English-Australian cricketer 1963 – Lisa Kudrow, American actress and producer* 1963 – Antoni Martí, Andorran architect and politician* 1963 – Chris Mullin, American basketball player, coach, and executive1964 – Ron Block, American singer-songwriter and banjo player 1964 – Vivica A.", "Fox, American actress * 1964 – Alek Keshishian, Lebanese-American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1964 – Jürgen Klinsmann, German footballer and manager* 1964 – Laine Randjärv, Estonian lawyer and politician, 6th Estonian Minister of Culture1965 – Tim Munton, English cricketer1966 – Kerry Fox, New Zealand actress and screenwriter* 1966 – Craig Gannon, English guitarist and songwriter * 1966 – Allan Langer, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1966 – Louise Wener, English author and singer-songwriter 1968 – Terry Crews, American actor and football player 1968 – Robert Korzeniowski, Polish race walker and coach* 1968 – Sean Moore, Welsh drummer and songwriter 1969 – Simon Baker, Australian actor, director, and producer 1969 – Errol Stewart, South African cricketer and lawyer1970 – Alun Cairns, Welsh businessman and politician 1970 – Dean Edwards, American comedian, actor, and singer* 1970 – Christopher Nolan, English-American director, producer, and screenwriter1971 – Elvis Crespo, American-Puerto Rican singer 1971 – Tom Green, Canadian comedian and actor* 1971 – Christine Taylor, American actress1972 – Jim McIlvaine, American basketball player and sportscaster1973 – Kenton Cool, English mountaineer* 1973 – Ümit Davala, Turkish footballer and manager* 1973 – Anastasios Katsabis, Greek footballer* 1973 – Markus Näslund, Swedish ice hockey player and manager* 1973 – Sonu Nigam, Indian playback singer and actor* 1973 – Clementa C. Pinckney, American minister and politician (d. 2015)1974 – Radostin Kishishev, Bulgarian footballer and manager 1974 – Jason Robinson, English rugby league footballer, and rugby union footballer and coach* 1974 – Hilary Swank, American actress and producer1975 – Graham Nicholls, English author and activist 1975 – Kate Starbird, American basketball player and computer scientist1977 – Diana Bolocco, Chilean model and journalist; 1977 – Misty May-Treanor, American volleyball player and coach* 1977 – Jaime Pressly, American actress* 1977 – Bootsy Thornton, American basketball player* 1977 – Ian Watkins, Welsh singer-songwriter and child abuse convict1979 – Carlos Arroyo, Puerto Rican basketball player and singer 1979 – Chad Keegan, South African cricketer and coach* 1979 – Graeme McDowell, Northern Irish golfer* 1979 – Maya Nasser, Syrian journalist (d. 2012)1980 – Seth Avett, American folk-rock singer-songwriter and musician 1980 – Justin Rose, South African-English golfer1981 – Nicky Hayden, American motorcycle racer (d. 2017) 1981 – Juan Smith, South African rugby union footballer* 1981 – Hope Solo, American soccer player* 1981 – Indrek Turi, Estonian decathlete1982 – Jehad Al-Hussain, Syrian footballer 1982 – James Anderson, English cricketer * 1982 – Martin Starr, American actor and comedian* 1982 – Yvonne Strahovski, Australian actress1983 – Seán Dillon, Irish footballer1984 – Marko Asmer, Estonian race car driver* 1984 – Gabrielle Christian, American actress and singer* 1984 – Trudy McIntosh, Australian artistic gymnast* 1984 – Kevin Pittsnogle, American basketball player* 1984 – Gina Rodriguez, American actress1985 – Chris Guccione, Australian tennis player 1985 – Daniel Fredheim Holm, Norwegian footballer* 1985 – Luca Lanotte, Italian ice dancer* 1985 – Matthew Scott, Australian rugby league player1986 – Tiago Alencar, Brazilian footballer 1986 – William Zillman, Australian rugby league player1987 – Anton Fink, German footballer 1987 – Sam Saunders, American golfer1988 – Wen Chean Lim, Malaysian rhythmic gymnast1989 – Aleix Espargaró, Spanish motorcycle racer* 1989 – Wayne Parnell, South African cricketer1990 – Chris Maxwell, Welsh footballer1990 – Tom Morris, Australian journalist1991 – Diana Vickers, English singer-songwriter1992 – Hannah Cockroft, English wheelchair racer1993 – Jacob Faria, American baseball player 1993 – André Gomes, Portuguese footballer * 1993 – Margarida Moura, Portuguese tennis player1994 – Nelydia Senrose, Malaysian actress1995 – Hirving Lozano, Mexican footballer1996 – Nina Stojanović, Serbian tennis player1999 – Joey King, American actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 578 – Jacob Baradaeus, Greek bishop* 579 – Pope Benedict I* 734 – Tatwine, English archbishop (b.", "670)* 829 – Shi Xiancheng, general of the Tang Dynasty1286 – Bar Hebraeus, Syrian scholar and historian (b.", "1226)1393 – Alberto d'Este, Lord of Ferrara and Modena (b.", "1347)1516 – John V, Count of Nassau-Siegen (b.", "1455)1540 – Thomas Abel, English priest and martyr (b.", "1497)* 1540 – Robert Barnes, English martyr and reformer (b.", "1495)1550 – Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (b.", "1505)1566 – Guillaume Rondelet, French doctor (b.", "1507)===1601–1900===1608 – Rory O'Donnell, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, last King of Tyrconnell (b.", "1575)1624 – Esmé Stewart, 3rd Duke of Lennox, British nobleman (b.", "1579) 1652 – Charles Amadeus, Duke of Nemours (b.", "1624)1680 – Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory, Irish admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1634)1683 – Maria Theresa of Spain (b.", "1638)1691 – Daniel Georg Morhof, German scholar and academic (b.", "1639)1700 – Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, English royal (b.", "1689)1718 – William Penn, English businessman and philosopher, founded the Province of Pennsylvania (b.", "1644)1771 – Thomas Gray, English poet (b.", "1716)1811 – Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Mexican priest and soldier (b.", "1753)1832 – Lê Văn Duyệt, Vietnamese general, mandarin (b.", "1763–4)1870 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian poet and journalist (b.", "1818) 1875 – George Pickett, American general (b.", "1825)1889 – Charlie Absolom, England cricketer (b.", "1846)1898 – Otto von Bismarck, German lawyer and politician, 1st Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1815)1900 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b.", "1844)===1901–present===1912 – Emperor Meiji of Japan (b.", "1852)1918 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, journalist, and poet (b.", "1886)1920 – Albert Gustaf Dahlman, Swedish executioner (b.", "1848)1930 – Joan Gamper, Swiss-Spanish footballer and businessman, founded FC Barcelona (b.", "1877)1938 – John Derbyshire, English swimmer and water polo player (b.", "1878)1941 – Hugo Celmiņš, Latvian politician, former Prime Minister of Latvia (b.", "1877)1947 – Joseph Cook, English-Australian miner and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (b.", "1860)1965 – Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Japanese author and playwright (b.", "1886)1970 – Walter Murdoch, Scottish-Australian academic (b.", "1874) 1970 – George Szell, Hungarian-American conductor and composer (b.", "1897)1971 – Thomas Hollway, Australian politician, 36th Premier of Victoria (b.", "1906)1975 – James Blish, American author and critic (b.", "1921)1977 – Emory Holloway, American scholar, author, and educator (b.", "1885)1983 – Howard Dietz, American songwriter and publicist (b.", "1896)* 1983 – Lynn Fontanne, English actress (b.", "1887)1985 – Julia Robinson, American mathematician and theorist (b.", "1919)1989 – Lane Frost, American professional bull rider (b.", "1963) 1990 – Ian Gow, British Member of Parliament who was assassinated by the IRA (b.", "1937)1992 – Brenda Marshall, Filipino-American actress and singer (b.", "1915)* 1992 – Joe Shuster, Canadian-American illustrator, co-created Superman (b.", "1914)1994 – Konstantin Kalser, German-American film producer and advertising executive (b.", "1920)1996 – Claudette Colbert, French-American actress (b.", "1903)1997 – Bảo Đại, Vietnamese emperor (b.", "1913)1998 – Buffalo Bob Smith, American television host (b.", "1917)2001 – Anton Schwarzkopf, German engineer (b.", "1924)2003 – Steve Hislop, Scottish motorcycle racer (b.", "1962)* 2003 – Sam Phillips, American record producer, founded Sun Records (b.", "1923)2005 – Ray Cunningham, American baseball player (b.", "1905) 2005 – John Garang, Sudanese colonel and politician, 6th President of South Sudan (b.", "1945)2006 – Duygu Asena, Turkish journalist and author(b.", "1946) 2006 – Al Balding, Canadian golfer (b.", "1924)* 2006 – Murray Bookchin, American philosopher and author (b.", "1921)* 2006 – Anthony Galla-Rini, American accordion player and composer (b.", "1904)* 2006 – Akbar Mohammadi, Iranian activist (b.", "1972)2007 – Michelangelo Antonioni, Italian director and screenwriter (b.", "1912) 2007 – Teoctist Arăpașu, Romanian patriarch (b.", "1915)* 2007 – Ingmar Bergman, Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1918)* 2007 – Bill Walsh, American football player and coach (b.", "1931)2008 – Anne Armstrong, American businesswoman and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (b.", "1927)2009 – Mohammed Yusuf, Nigerian militant leader, founded Boko Haram (b.", "1970)* 2009 – Peter Zadek, German director and screenwriter (b.", "1926)2011 – Bob Peterson, American basketball player (b.", "1932)2012 – Maeve Binchy, Irish author, playwright, and journalist (b.", "1939)* 2012 – Bill Doss, American singer and guitarist (b.", "1968)* 2012 – Stig Ossian Ericson, Swedish actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Les Green, English footballer and manager (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Jonathan Hardy, New Zealand-Australian actor and screenwriter (b.", "1940)* 2012 – Bill Kitchen, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1960)* 2012 – Mary Louise Rasmuson, American colonel (b.", "1911)2013 – Cecil Alexander, American architect, designed the State of Georgia Building (b.", "1918) 2013 – Berthold Beitz, German businessman (b.", "1913)* 2013 – Robert Neelly Bellah, American sociologist and author (b.", "1927)* 2013 – Harry F. Byrd Jr., American lieutenant, publisher, and politician (b.", "1914)* 2013 – Antoni Ramallets, Spanish footballer and manager (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Ossie Schectman, American basketball player (b.", "1919)* 2013 – Benjamin Walker, Indian-English author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1913)2014 – Robert Drew, American director and producer (b.", "1924) 2014 – Harun Farocki, German director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Julio Grondona, Argentinian businessman (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Peter Hall, English geographer, author, and academic (b.", "1932)* 2014 – Dick Smith, American make-up artist (b.", "1922)* 2014 – Dick Wagner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1942)2015 – Lynn Anderson, American singer (b.", "1947) 2015 – Stuart Baggs, English businessman (b.", "1988)* 2015 – Endel Lippmaa, Estonian physicist (b.", "1930) * 2015 – Francis Paul Prucha, American historian and academic (b.", "1921)* 2015 – Alena Vrzáňová, Czech figure skater (b.", "1931)2016 – Gloria DeHaven, American actress, singer, and dancer (b.", "1925)2018 – Michael A. Sheehan, American author, former government official and military officer (b.", "1955)2020 – Lee Teng-hui, Taiwanese politician, President (1988–2000), Vice President (1984–1988) and mayor of Taipei (1978–1981) (b.", "1923) 2020 – Herman Cain, American businessman and political activist (b.", "1945) 2021 – Shona Ferguson, Botswana-born, South African actor and executive producer (b.", "1974)2022 – Pat Carroll, American actress and comedian (b.", "1927)* 2022 – Nichelle Nichols, American actress, singer and dancer (b.", "1932)2023 – Paul Reubens, American actor and comedian (b.", "1952)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Abdon and Sennen HatebrandMaxima, Donatilla, and Secunda Peter ChrysologusRobert Barnes (Lutheran)Rufinus of AssisiTatwineUrsus of AuxerreSolanus CaseyJuly 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Feast of the Throne (Morocco)Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Vanuatu from the United Kingdom and France in 1980.", "International Day of Friendship (international), and its related observances:Día del Amigo (Paraguay) Martyrs Day (South Sudan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John A. Macdonald" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Sir John Alexander Macdonald''' (January 10 or 11, 1815 – June 6, 1891) was the first prime minister of Canada, serving from 1867 to 1873 and from 1878 to 1891.He was the dominant figure of Canadian Confederation, and had a political career that spanned almost half a century.Macdonald was born in Scotland; when he was a boy his family immigrated to Kingston in the Province of Upper Canada (today in eastern Ontario).", "As a lawyer, he was involved in several high-profile cases and quickly became prominent in Kingston, which elected him in 1844 to the legislature of the Province of Canada.", "By 1857, he had become premier under the colony's unstable political system.", "In 1864, when no party proved capable of governing for long, Macdonald agreed to a proposal from his political rival, George Brown, that the parties unite in a Great Coalition to seek federation and political reform.", "Macdonald was the leading figure in the subsequent discussions and conferences, which resulted in the British North America Act and the establishment of Canada as a nation on July 1, 1867.Macdonald was the first prime minister of the new nation, and served 19 years; only William Lyon Mackenzie King has served longer.", "In his first term, Macdonald established the North-West Mounted Police and expanded Canada by annexing the North-Western Territory, Rupert's Land, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island.", "In 1873, he resigned from office over a scandal in which his party took bribes from businessmen seeking the contract to build the Canadian Pacific Railway.", "However, he was re-elected in 1878.Macdonald's greatest achievements were building and guiding a successful national government for the new Dominion, using patronage to forge a strong Conservative Party, promoting the protective tariff of the National Policy, and completing the railway.", "He fought to block provincial efforts to take power back from the national government in Ottawa.", "He approved the execution of Métis leader Louis Riel for treason in 1885 which alienated many francophones from his Conservative Party.", "He continued as prime minister until his death in 1891.He remains the oldest prime minister in Canadian history.In the 21st century, Macdonald has come under criticism for his role in the Chinese Head Tax and federal policies towards Indigenous peoples, including his actions during the North-West Rebellion that resulted in Riel's execution, and the development of the residential school system designed to assimilate Indigenous children.", "Macdonald, however, remains respected for his key role in the formation of Canada.", "Historical rankings in surveys of experts in Canadian political history have consistently placed Macdonald as one of the highest-rated prime ministers in Canadian history." ], [ "Early years, 1815–1830", "John Alexander Macdonald was born in Ramshorn parish in Glasgow, Scotland, on January 10 (official record) or 11 (father's journal) 1815.His father Hugh, an unsuccessful merchant, had married John's mother, Helen Shaw, on October 21, 1811.John Alexander Macdonald was the third of five children.", "After Hugh's business ventures left him in debt, the family immigrated to Kingston, in Upper Canada (today the southern and eastern portions of Ontario), in 1820, as the family had several relatives and connections there.The family initially lived together, then resided over a store which Hugh Macdonald ran.", "Soon after their arrival, John's younger brother James died from a blow to the head by a servant charged with taking care of the boys.", "After Hugh's store failed, the family moved to Hay Bay (south of Napanee, Ontario), west of Kingston, where Hugh unsuccessfully ran another shop.", "In 1829, his father was appointed as a magistrate for the Midland District.", "John Macdonald's mother was a lifelong influence on her son, helping him in his difficult first marriage and remaining influential in his life until her 1862 death.Macdonald initially attended local schools.", "When he was aged 10, his family gathered enough money to send him to Midland District Grammar School in Kingston.", "Macdonald's formal schooling ended at 15, a common school-leaving age at a time when only children from the most prosperous families were able to attend university.", "Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, he might have embarked on a literary career." ], [ "Legal career, 1830–1843", "===Legal training and early career, 1830–1837 ===Macdonald's parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school.", "As Donald Creighton (who penned a two-volume biography of Macdonald in the 1950s) wrote, \"law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence, even to power\".", "It was also \"the obvious choice for a boy who seemed as attracted to study as he was uninterested in trade.\"", "Macdonald needed to start earning money immediately to support his family because his father's businesses were failing.", "\"I had no boyhood,\" he complained many years later.", "\"From the age of 15, I began to earn my own living.", "\"A few months after he opened his first law office in 1835, Macdonald moved with his parents and sisters to this -storey stone house on Kingston's Rideau Street.Macdonald travelled by steamboat to Toronto (known until 1834 as York), where he passed an examination set by The Law Society of Upper Canada.", "British North America had no law schools in 1830; students were examined when beginning and ending their tutelage.", "Between the two examinations, they were apprenticed, or articled to established lawyers.", "Macdonald began his apprenticeship with George Mackenzie, a prominent young lawyer who was a well-regarded member of Kingston's rising Scottish community.", "Mackenzie practised corporate law, a lucrative speciality that Macdonald himself would later pursue.", "Macdonald was a promising student, and in the summer of 1833, managed the Mackenzie office when his employer went on a business trip to Montreal and Quebec in Lower Canada (today the southern portion of the province of Quebec).", "Later that year, Macdonald was sent to manage the law office of a Mackenzie cousin who had fallen ill.In August 1834, George Mackenzie died of cholera.", "With his supervising lawyer dead, Macdonald remained at the cousin's law office in Hallowell (today Picton, Ontario).", "In 1835, Macdonald returned to Kingston, and even though not yet of age nor qualified, began his practice as a lawyer, hoping to gain his former employer's clients.", "Macdonald's parents and sisters also returned to Kingston.Soon after Macdonald was called to the Bar in February 1836, he arranged to take in two students; both became, like Macdonald, Fathers of Confederation.", "Oliver Mowat became premier of Ontario, and Alexander Campbell a federal cabinet minister and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario.", "One early client was Eliza Grimason, an Irish immigrant then aged sixteen, who sought advice concerning a shop she and her husband wanted to buy.", "Grimason would become one of Macdonald's richest and most loyal supporters, and may have also become his lover.", "Macdonald joined many local organisations, seeking to become well known in the town.", "He also sought out high-profile cases, representing accused child rapist William Brass.", "Brass was hanged for his crime, but Macdonald attracted positive press comments for the quality of his defence.", "According to one of his biographers, Richard Gwyn:As a criminal lawyer who took on dramatic cases, Macdonald got himself noticed well beyond the narrow confines of the Kingston business community.", "He was operating now in the arena where he would spend by far the greatest part of his life – the court of public opinion.", "And, while there, he was learning the arts of argument and of persuasion that would serve him all his political life.===Military service===All male Upper Canadians between 18 and 60 years of age were members of the Sedentary Militia, which was called into active duty during the Rebellions of 1837.Macdonald served as a Private in Captain George Well's Company of the Commercial Bank Guard.", "Macdonald and the militia marched to Toronto to confront the rebels, and Sir Joseph Pope, Macdonald's private secretary, recalled Macdonald's account of his experience during the march:The Bank Guard served on active duty in Toronto guarding the Commercial Bank of the Midland District on King Street.", "The company was present at the Battle of Montgomery's Tavern and Macdonald recalled in an 1887 letter to Sir James Gowan that: The Bank Guard was taken off active service on December 17, 1837, and returned to Kingston.On February 15, 1838, Macdonald was appointed an Ensign in the 3rd (East) Regiment of Frontenac Militia but did not take up the position, serving briefly as a Private in the regiment, patrolling the area around Kingston.", "The town saw no real action during 1838 and Macdonald was not called upon to fire on the enemy, however the Frontenac Militia regiments were on active duty in Kingston while the Battle of the Windmill occurred.===Professional prominence, 1837–1843 ===Although most of the trials resulting from the Upper Canada Rebellion took place in Toronto, Macdonald represented one of the defendants in the one trial to take place in Kingston.", "All the Kingston defendants were acquitted, and a local paper described Macdonald as \"one of the youngest barristers in the Province is rapidly rising in his profession\".Battle of the Windmill, near Prescott, Upper Canada, November 13, 1838In late 1838, Macdonald agreed to advise one of a group of American raiders who had crossed the border to liberate Canada from what they saw as the yoke of British colonial oppression.", "The invaders had been captured after the Battle of the Windmill near Prescott, Upper Canada.", "Public opinion was inflamed against the prisoners, as they were accused of mutilating the body of a dead Canadian lieutenant.", "Macdonald could not represent the prisoners, as they were tried by court-martial and civilian counsel had no standing.", "At the request of Kingston relatives of Daniel George, paymaster of the ill-fated invasion, Macdonald agreed to advise George, who, like the other prisoners, had to conduct his own defence.", "George was convicted and hanged.", "According to Macdonald biographer Donald Swainson, \"By 1838, Macdonald's position was secure.", "He was a public figure, a popular young man, and a senior lawyer.", "\"Macdonald continued to expand his practice while being appointed director of many companies, mainly in Kingston.", "He became both a director of and a lawyer for the new Commercial Bank of the Midland District.", "Throughout the 1840s, Macdonald invested heavily in real estate, including commercial properties in downtown Toronto.", "Meanwhile, he was suffering from some illness, and in 1841, his father died.", "Sick and grieving, he decided to take a lengthy holiday in Britain in early 1842.He left for the journey well supplied with money, as he spent the last three days before his departure gambling at the card game loo and winning substantially.", "Sometime during his two months in Britain, he met his first cousin, Isabella Clark.", "As Macdonald did not mention her in his letters home, the circumstances of their meeting are not known.", "In late 1842, Isabella journeyed to Kingston to visit with a sister.", "The visit stretched for nearly a year before John and Isabella Macdonald married on September 1, 1843." ], [ "Political rise, 1843–1864", "===Parliamentary advancement, 1843–1857 ===Portrait of Isabella Clark Macdonald, artist unknownOn March 29, 1843, Macdonald was elected as alderman in Kingston's Fourth Ward, with 156 votes against 43 for his opponent, Colonel Jackson.", "He also suffered what he termed his first downfall, as his supporters, carrying the victorious candidate, accidentally dropped him onto a slushy street.The British Parliament had merged Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada in 1841.Kingston became the initial capital of the new province; Upper Canada and Lower Canada became known as Canada West and Canada East.", "In March 1844, Macdonald was asked by local businessmen to stand as Conservative candidate for Kingston in the upcoming legislative election.", "Macdonald followed the contemporary custom of supplying the voters with large quantities of alcohol.", "Votes were publicly declared in this election, and Macdonald defeated his opponent, Anthony Manahan, by 275 \"shouts\" to 42 when the election concluded on October 15, 1844.Macdonald was never an orator, and especially disliked the bombastic addresses of the time.", "Instead, he found a niche in becoming an expert on election law and parliamentary procedure.In 1844, Isabella fell ill. She recovered, but the illness recurred the following year, and she became an invalid.", "John took his wife to Savannah, Georgia, in the United States in 1845, hoping that the sea air and warmth would cure her ailments.", "John returned to Canada after six months and Isabella remained in the United States for three years.", "He visited her again in New York at the end of 1846 and returned several months later when she informed him she was pregnant.", "In August 1847 their son John Alexander Macdonald Jr. was born in New York, but as Isabella remained ill, relatives cared for the infant.Although he was often absent due to his wife's illness, Macdonald was able to gain professional and political advancement.", "In 1846, he was made a Queen's Counsel.", "The same year, he was offered the non-cabinet post of solicitor general, but declined it.", "In 1847, Macdonald became receiver general.", "Accepting the government post required Macdonald to give up his law firm income and spend most of his time in Montreal, away from Isabella.", "When elections were held in December 1848 and January 1849, Macdonald was easily reelected for Kingston, but the Conservatives lost seats and were forced to resign when the legislature reconvened in March 1848.Macdonald returned to Kingston when the legislature was not sitting, and Isabella joined him there in June.", "In August, their child died suddenly.", "In March 1850, Isabella Macdonald gave birth to another boy, Hugh John Macdonald, and his father wrote, \"We have got Johnny back again, almost his image.\"", "Macdonald began to drink heavily around this time, both in public and in private, which Patricia Phenix, who studied Macdonald's private life, attributes to his family troubles.The Liberals, or Grits, maintained power in the 1851 election but were soon divided by a parliamentary scandal.", "In September, the government resigned, and a coalition government uniting parties from both parts of the province under Allan MacNab took power.", "Macdonald did much of the work of putting the government together and served as attorney general.", "The coalition, which came to power in 1854, became known as the Liberal-Conservatives (referred to, for short, as the Conservatives).", "In 1855, George-Étienne Cartier of Canada East (today Quebec) joined the Cabinet.", "Until Cartier's 1873 death, he would be Macdonald's political partner.", "In 1856, MacNab was eased out as premier by Macdonald, who became the leader of the Canada West Conservatives.", "Macdonald remained as attorney general when Étienne-Paschal Taché became premier.===Colonial leader, 1858–1864 ===John A. Macdonald in 1858In July 1857, Macdonald departed for Britain to promote Canadian government projects.", "On his return to Canada, he was appointed premier in place of the retiring Taché, just in time to lead the Conservatives in a general election.", "Macdonald was elected in Kingston by 1,189 votes to 9 for John Shaw; other Conservatives, however, did badly in Canada West, and only French-Canadian support kept Macdonald in power.", "On December 28, Isabella Macdonald died, leaving John a widower with a seven-year-old son.", "Hugh John Macdonald would be principally raised by his paternal aunt and her husband.The Assembly had voted to move the seat of government permanently to Quebec City.", "Macdonald opposed this and used his power to force the Assembly to reconsider in 1857.Macdonald proposed that Queen Victoria decide which city should be Canada's capital.", "Opponents, especially from Canada East, argued that the Queen would not make the decision in isolation; she would be bound to receive informal advice from her Canadian ministers.", "Macdonald's scheme was adopted, with Canada East support assured by allowing Quebec City to serve a three-year term as the seat of government before the Assembly moved to the permanent capital.", "Macdonald privately asked the Colonial Office to ensure that the Queen would not respond for at least 10 months, or until after the general election.", "In February 1858, the Queen's choice was announced, much to the dismay of many legislators from both parts of the province: the isolated Canada West town of Ottawa became the capital.On July 28, 1858, an opposition Canada East member proposed an address to the Queen informing her that Ottawa was an unsuitable place for a national capital.", "Macdonald's Canada East party members crossed the floor to vote for the address, and the government was defeated.", "Macdonald resigned, and the Governor General, Sir Edmund Walker Head, invited opposition leader George Brown to form a government.", "Under the law at that time, Brown and his ministers lost their seats in the Assembly by accepting their positions, and had to face by-elections.", "This gave Macdonald a majority pending the by-elections, and he promptly defeated the government.", "Head refused Brown's request for a dissolution of the Assembly, and Brown and his ministers resigned.", "Head then asked Macdonald to form a government.", "The law allowed anyone who had held a ministerial position within the last thirty days to accept a new position without needing to face a by-election; Macdonald and his ministers accepted new positions, then completed what was dubbed the \"Double Shuffle\" by returning to their old posts.", "In an effort to give the appearance of fairness, Head insisted that Cartier be the titular premier, with Macdonald as his deputy.In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Canada enjoyed a period of great prosperity, while the railroad and telegraph improved communications.", "According to Macdonald biographer Richard Gwyn, \"In short, Canadians began to become a single community.\"", "At the same time, the provincial government became increasingly difficult to manage.", "An act affecting both Canada East and Canada West required a \"double majority\"—a majority of legislators from each of the two sections of the province.", "This led to increasing deadlock in the Assembly.", "The two sections each elected 65 legislators, even though Canada West had a larger population.", "One of Brown's major demands was representation by population, which would lead to Canada West having more seats; this was bitterly opposed by Canada East.The American Civil War led to fears in Canada and in Britain that once the U.S. had concluded its internal warfare, they would invade Canada again.", "Canada was sometimes a safe haven for Confederate Secret Service operations against the U.S.; many Canadian citizens and politicians were sympathetic to the Confederacy.", "This led to events such as the ''Chesapeake'' Affair, the St. Albans Raid, and a failed attempt to burn down New York City.", "As attorney general of Canada West, Macdonald refused to prosecute Confederate operatives who were using British territory to launch attacks on U.S. soil across the border.With Canadians fearing invasion from the U.S., the British asked that Canadians pay a part of the expense of defence, and a Militia Bill was introduced in the Assembly in 1862.The opposition objected to the expense, and Canada East representatives feared that French-Canadians would have to fight in a British-instigated war.", "Macdonald was drinking heavily and failed to provide much leadership on behalf of the bill.", "The government fell over the bill, and the Grits took over under the leadership of John Sandfield Macdonald (no relation to John A. Macdonald).", "The parties held an almost equal number of seats, with a handful of independents able to destroy any government.", "The new government fell in May 1863, but Head allowed a new election, which did little to change party standings.", "In December 1863, Canada West MP Albert Norton Richards accepted the post of solicitor general, and so had to face a by-election.", "John A. Macdonald campaigned against Richards personally, and Richards was defeated by a Conservative.", "The switch in seats cost the Grits their majority, and they resigned in March.", "John A. Macdonald returned to office with Taché as titular premier.", "The Taché-Macdonald government was defeated in June.", "The parties were deadlocked to such an extent that, according to Swainson, \"It was clear to everybody that the constitution of the Province of Canada was dead\"." ], [ "Confederation of Canada, 1864–1867", "The Quebec Conference.", "Macdonald is seated fourth from left.As his government had fallen again, Macdonald approached the new governor general, Lord Monck, to dissolve the legislature.", "Before Macdonald could act on this, Brown approached him through intermediaries; the Grit leader believed that the crisis gave the parties the opportunity to join together for constitutional reform.", "Brown had led a parliamentary committee on confederation among the British North American colonies, which had reported back just before the Taché-Macdonald government fell.", "Brown was more interested in representation by population; Macdonald's priority was a federation that the other colonies could join.", "The two compromised and agreed that the new government would support the \"federative principle\"—a conveniently elastic phrase.", "The discussions were not public knowledge and Macdonald stunned the Assembly by announcing that the dissolution was being postponed because of progress in negotiations with Brown—the two men were not only political rivals, but were known to hate each other.The parties resolved their differences, joining in the Great Coalition, with only the Parti rouge of Canada East, led by Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion, remaining apart.", "A conference, called by the Colonial Office, was scheduled for September 1, 1864, in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; the Maritimes were to consider a union.", "The Canadians obtained permission to send a delegation—led by Macdonald, Cartier, and Brown—to what became known as the Charlottetown Conference.", "At its conclusion, the Maritime delegations expressed a willingness to join a confederation if the details could be successfully negotiated.In October 1864, delegates for Confederation met in Quebec City for the Quebec Conference, where they agreed to the Seventy-Two Resolutions, the basis of Canada's government.", "The Great Coalition was endangered by Taché's 1865 death; Lord Monck asked Macdonald to become premier, but Brown felt that he had as good a claim on the position as his coalition partner.", "The disagreement was resolved by appointing another compromise candidate to serve as titular premier, Narcisse-Fortunat Belleau.Lady Agnes MacdonaldIn 1865, after lengthy debates, Canada's legislative assembly approved confederation by 91 votes to 33.None of the Maritimes, however, had approved the plan.", "In 1866, Macdonald and his colleagues financed pro-confederation candidates in the New Brunswick general election, resulting in a pro-confederation assembly.", "Shortly after the election, Nova Scotia's premier, Charles Tupper, pushed a pro-confederation resolution through that colony's legislature.", "A final conference, to be held in London, was needed before the British parliament could formalise the union.", "Maritime delegates left for London in July 1866, but Macdonald, who was drinking heavily again, did not leave until November, angering the Maritimers.", "In December 1866, Macdonald both led the London Conference, winning acclaim for his handling of the discussions, and courted and married his second wife, Agnes Bernard.", "Bernard was the sister of Macdonald's private secretary, Hewitt Bernard; the couple first met in Quebec in 1860, but Macdonald had seen and admired her as early as 1856.In January 1867, while still in London, he was seriously burned in his hotel room when his candle set fire to the chair he had fallen asleep in, but Macdonald refused to miss any sessions of the conference.", "In February, he married Agnes at St George's, Hanover Square.", "On March 8, the British North America Act, 1867, which would thereafter serve as the major part of Canada's constitution, passed the House of Commons (it had previously passed the House of Lords).", "Queen Victoria gave the bill Royal Assent on March 29, 1867.Macdonald had favoured the union coming into force on July 15, fearing that the preparations would not be completed any earlier.", "The British favoured an earlier date and, on May 22, it was announced that Canada would come into existence on July 1.Lord Monck appointed Macdonald as the new nation's first prime minister.", "With the birth of the new nation, Canada East and Canada West became separate provinces, known as Quebec and Ontario, respectively.", "Macdonald was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on that first observance of what came to be known as Dominion Day, later called Canada Day, on July 1, 1867." ], [ "Prime Minister of Canada", "===First majority, 1867–1871===Timeline of the evolution of Canada's boundaries since 1867Macdonald and his government faced immediate problems upon the formation of the new country.", "Much work remained to do in creating a federal government.", "Nova Scotia was already threatening to withdraw from the union; the Intercolonial Railway, which would both conciliate the Maritimes and bind them closer to the rest of Canada, was not yet built.", "Anglo-American relations were in a poor state, and Canadian foreign relations were matters handled from London.", "The withdrawal of the Americans in 1866 from the Reciprocity Treaty had increased tariffs on Canadian goods in US markets.", "American and British opinion was that the experiment of Confederation would quickly unravel, and the nascent nation absorbed by the United States.", "In August 1867, the new nation's first general election was held; Macdonald's party won easily, with strong support in both large provinces, and a majority from New Brunswick.", "By 1869, Nova Scotia had agreed to remain part of Canada after a promise of better financial terms—the first of many provinces to negotiate concessions from Ottawa.", "Pressure from London and Ottawa failed to gain the accession of Newfoundland, whose voters rejected a Confederation platform in a general election in October 1869.In 1869, John and Agnes Macdonald had a daughter, Mary.", "It soon became apparent that Mary had ongoing developmental issues; she was never able to walk, nor did she ever fully develop mentally.", "Hewitt Bernard, Deputy Minister of Justice and Macdonald's former secretary, also lived in the Macdonald house in Ottawa, together with Bernard's widowed mother.", "In May 1870, John Macdonald fell ill with gallstones; coupled with his frequent drinking, he may have developed a severe case of acute pancreatitis.", "In July, he moved to Prince Edward Island to convalesce, most likely conducting discussions aimed at drawing the island into Confederation at a time when some there supported joining the United States.", "The island joined Confederation in 1873.Macdonald had once been tepid on the question of westward expansion of the Canadian provinces; as prime minister, he became a strong supporter of a bicoastal Canada.", "Immediately upon Confederation, he sent commissioners to London who in due course successfully negotiated the transfer of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to Canada.", "The Hudson's Bay Company received £300,000 () in compensation, and retained some trading posts as well as one-twentieth of the best farmland.", "Prior to the date of acquisition, the Canadian government faced unrest in the Red River Colony (today southeastern Manitoba, centred on Winnipeg).", "The local people, including the Métis, were fearful that rule would be imposed on them which did not take into account their interests, and rose in the Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel.", "Unwilling to pay for a territory in insurrection, Macdonald had troops put down the uprising before the formal transfer; as a result of the unrest, the Red River Colony joined Confederation as the province of Manitoba, while the rest of the purchased lands became the North-West Territories.", "\"We don't want you here.\"", "Annexation to the United States was a political issue in Canada's early days.", "In this anti-annexation cartoon by John Wilson Bengough from an 1869 issue of Grinchuckle, Uncle Sam is given the boot by Young Canada as John Bull looks on approvingly.Macdonald also wished to secure the colony of British Columbia.", "There was interest in the United States in bringing about the colony's annexation, and Macdonald wished to ensure his new nation had a Pacific outlet.", "The colony had an extremely large debt that would have to be assumed should it join Confederation.", "Negotiations were conducted in 1870, principally during Macdonald's illness and recuperation, with Cartier leading the Canadian delegation.", "Cartier offered British Columbia a railway linking it to the eastern provinces within ten years.", "The British Columbians, who privately had been prepared to accept far less generous terms, quickly agreed and joined Confederation in 1871.The Canadian Parliament ratified the terms after a debate over the high cost that cabinet member Alexander Morris described as the worst fight the Conservatives had had since Confederation.", "There were continuing disputes with the Americans over deep-sea fishing rights, and in early 1871, an Anglo-American commission was appointed to settle outstanding matters between the British (and Canadians) and the Americans.", "Canada was hoping to secure compensation for damage done by Fenians raiding Canada from bases in the United States.", "Macdonald was appointed a British commissioner, a post he was reluctant to accept as he realised Canadian interests might be sacrificed for the mother country.", "This proved to be the case; Canada received no compensation for the raids and no significant trade advantages in the settlement, which required Canada to open her waters to American fishermen.", "Macdonald returned home to defend the Treaty of Washington against a political firestorm.===Second majority and Pacific Scandal, 1872–1873===In the run-up to the 1872 election, Macdonald had yet to formulate a railway policy, or to devise the loan guarantees that would be needed to secure the construction.", "During the previous year, Macdonald had met with potential railway financiers such as Hugh Allan and considerable financial discussion took place.", "The greatest political problem Macdonald faced was the Washington treaty, which had not yet been debated in Parliament.In early 1872, Macdonald submitted the treaty for ratification, and it passed the Commons with a majority of 66.The general election was held through late August and early September.", "Redistribution had given Ontario increased representation in the House; Macdonald spent much time campaigning in the province, for the most part outside Kingston.", "Widespread bribery of voters took place throughout Canada, a practice especially effective in the era when votes were publicly declared.", "Macdonald and the Conservatives saw their majority reduced from 35 to 8.The Liberals (as the Grits were coming to be known) did better than the Conservatives in Ontario, forcing the government to rely on the votes of Western and Maritime MPs who did not fully support the party.", "\"Whither are we drifting?\"", "Macdonald is shown triumphant at obtaining a prorogation, but is trampling a weeping Canada and apparently drunk with bottle in pocket in this August 1873 cartoon by John Wilson Bengough.", "Macdonald is depicted claiming clean hands, but with \"Send me another $10,000\" written on his palm.Macdonald had hoped to award the charter for the Canadian Pacific Railway in early 1872, but negotiations dragged on between the government and the financiers.", "Macdonald's government awarded the Allan group the charter in late 1872.In 1873, when Parliament opened, Liberal MP Lucius Seth Huntington charged that government ministers had been bribed with large, undisclosed political contributions to award the charter.", "Documents soon came to light which substantiated what came to be known as the Pacific Scandal.", "The Allan-led financiers, who were secretly backed by the United States's Northern Pacific Railway, had donated $179,000 to the Tory election funds, they had received the charter, and Opposition newspapers began to publish telegrams signed by government ministers requesting large sums from the railway interest at the time the charter was under consideration.", "Macdonald had taken $45,000 in contributions from the railway interest himself.", "Substantial sums went to Cartier, who waged an expensive fight to try to retain his seat in Montreal East (he was defeated, but was subsequently returned for the Manitoba seat of Provencher).", "During the campaign Cartier had fallen ill with Bright's disease, which may have been causing his judgment to lapse; he died in May 1873 while seeking treatment in London.Before Cartier's death, Macdonald attempted to use delay to extricate the government.", "The Opposition responded by leaking documents to friendly newspapers.", "On July 18, three papers published a telegram dated August 1872 from Macdonald requesting another $10,000 and promising \"it will be the last time of asking\".", "Macdonald was able to get a prorogation of Parliament in August by appointing a Royal Commission to look into the matter, but when Parliament reconvened in late October, the Liberals, feeling Macdonald could be defeated over the issue, applied immense pressure to wavering members.", "On November 3, Macdonald rose in the Commons to defend the government, and according to one of his biographer, P.B.", "Waite, he gave \"the speech of his life, and, in a sense, for his life\".", "He began his speech at 9 p.m., looking frail and ill, an appearance which quickly improved.", "As he spoke, he consumed numerous glasses of gin and water.", "He denied that there had been a corrupt bargain, and stated that such contributions were common to both political parties.", "After five hours, Macdonald concluded,I leave it with this House with every confidence.", "I am equal to either fortune.", "I can see past the decision of this House either for or against me, but whether it be against me or for me, I know, and it is no vain boast to say so, for even my enemies will admit that I am no boaster, that there does not exist in Canada a man who has given more of his time, more of his heart, more of his wealth, or more of his intellect and power, as it may be, for the good of this Dominion of Canada.Macdonald's speech was seen as a personal triumph, but it did little to salvage the fortunes of his government.", "With eroding support both in the Commons and among the public, Macdonald went to the Governor General, Lord Dufferin on November 5, and resigned; Liberal leader Alexander Mackenzie became the second prime minister of Canada.", "He is not known to have spoken of the events of the Pacific Scandal again.On November 6, 1873, Macdonald offered his resignation as party leader to his caucus; it was refused.", "Mackenzie called an election for January 1874; the Conservatives were reduced to 70 seats out of the 206 in the Commons, giving Mackenzie a massive majority.", "The Conservatives bested the Liberals only in British Columbia; Mackenzie had called the terms by which the province had joined Confederation \"impossible\".", "Macdonald was returned in Kingston but was unseated on an election contest when bribery was proven; he won the ensuing by-election by 17 votes.", "According to Swainson, most observers viewed Macdonald as finished in politics, \"a used-up and dishonoured man\".===Opposition, 1873–1878===In this Bengough cartoon, Macdonald (centre, ankles crossed) rides the elephant of the National Policy into power in the 1878 election, trampling the Liberals underfoot.", "Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie is also being strangled by the elephant's trunk.Macdonald was content to lead the Conservatives in a relaxed manner in opposition and await Liberal mistakes.", "He took long holidays and resumed his law practice, moving his family to Toronto and going into partnership with his son Hugh John.", "One mistake that Macdonald believed the Liberals had made was a free-trade agreement with Washington, negotiated in 1874; Macdonald had come to believe that protection was necessary to build Canadian industry.", "The Panic of 1873 had led to a worldwide depression; the Liberals found it difficult to finance the railway in such a climate, and were generally opposed to the line anyway—the slow pace of construction led to British Columbia claims that the agreement under which it had entered Confederation was in jeopardy of being broken.By 1876, Macdonald and the Conservatives had adopted protectionism as party policy.", "This view was widely promoted in speeches at a number of political picnics, held across Ontario during the summer of 1876.Macdonald's proposals were popular with the public, and the Conservatives began to win a string of by-elections.", "By the end of 1876, the Tories had picked up 14 seats as a result of by-elections, reducing Mackenzie's Liberal majority from 70 to 42.Despite the success, Macdonald considered retirement, wishing only to reverse the voters' verdict of 1874—he considered Charles Tupper his heir apparent.When Parliament convened in 1877, the Conservatives were confident and the Liberals defensive.", "After the Tories had a successful session in the early part of the year, another series of picnics commenced in the areas around Toronto.", "Macdonald even campaigned in Quebec, which he had rarely done, leaving speechmaking there to Cartier.", "More picnics followed in 1878, promoting proposals which would come to be collectively called the \"National Policy\": high tariffs, rapid construction of the transcontinental railway (the Canadian Pacific Railway or CPR), rapid agricultural development of the West using the railway, and policies which would attract immigrants to Canada.", "These picnics allowed Macdonald venues to show off his talents at campaigning, and were often lighthearted—at one, the Tory leader blamed agricultural pests on the Grits, and promised the insects would go away if the Conservatives were elected.The final days of the 3rd Canadian Parliament were marked by explosive conflict, as Macdonald and Tupper alleged that MP and railway financier Donald Smith had been allowed to build the Pembina branch of the CPR (connecting to American lines) as a reward for betraying the Conservatives during the Pacific Scandal.", "The altercation continued even after the Commons had been summoned to the Senate to hear the dissolution read, as Macdonald spoke the final words recorded in the 3rd Parliament: \"That fellow Smith is the biggest liar I ever saw!", "\"The election was called for September 17, 1878.Fearful that Macdonald would be defeated in Kingston, his supporters tried to get him to run in the safe Conservative riding of Cardwell; having represented his hometown for 35 years, he stood there again.", "In the election, Macdonald was defeated in his riding by Alexander Gunn, but the Conservatives swept to victory.", "Macdonald remained in the House of Commons, having quickly secured his election for Marquette, Manitoba; elections there were held later than in Ontario.", "His acceptance of office vacated his parliamentary seat, and Macdonald decided to stand for the British Columbia seat of Victoria, where the election was to be held on October 21.Macdonald was duly returned for Victoria, although he had never visited either Marquette or Victoria.===Third and fourth majorities, 1878–1887===Macdonald uses his parliamentary majority to roll to victory over Liberal leader Edward Blake and his party in this 1884 cartoon by John Wilson Bengough.Part of the National Policy was implemented in the budget presented in February 1879.Under that budget, Canada became a high-tariff nation like the United States and Germany.", "The tariffs were designed to protect and build Canadian industry—finished textiles received a tariff of 34%, but the machinery to make them entered Canada free.", "Macdonald continued to fight for higher tariffs for the remainder of his life.In January 1879, Macdonald commissioned politician Nicholas Flood Davin to write a report regarding the industrial boarding-school system in the United States.", "Now known as the Davin Report, the ''Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Half-Breeds'' was submitted to Ottawa on March 14, 1879, providing the basis for the Canadian Indian residential school system.", "It made the case for a cooperative approach between the Canadian government and the church to implement the \"aggressive assimilation\" pursued by President of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant.", "In 1883, Parliament approved $43,000 for three industrial schools and the first, Battleford Industrial School, opened on December 1 of that year.", "By 1900, there were 61 schools in operation.", "In 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission concluded that the assimilation amounted to cultural genocide.By the 1880s, Macdonald was becoming frailer, but he maintained his political acuity.", "In 1883, he secured the \"Intoxicating Liquors Bill\" which took the regulation system away from the provinces, in part to stymie his foe Premier Mowat.", "In his own case, Macdonald took better control of his drinking and binges had ended.", "\"The great drinking-bouts, the gargantuan in sobriety's of his middle years, were dwindling away now into memories.\"", "As the budget moved forward, Macdonald found that the railway was progressing well: although little money had been spent on the project under Mackenzie, several hundred miles of track had been built and nearly the entire route surveyed.", "In 1880, Macdonald found a syndicate, led by George Stephen, willing to undertake the CPR project.", "Donald Smith (later Lord Strathcona) was a major partner in the syndicate, but because of the ill will between him and the Conservatives, Smith's participation was initially not made public, though it was well-known to Macdonald.", "In 1880, the Dominion took over Britain's remaining Arctic territories, which extended Canada to its present-day boundaries, with the exception of Newfoundland, which would not enter Confederation until 1949.Also in 1880, Canada sent its first diplomatic representative abroad, Sir Alexander Galt as High Commissioner to Britain.", "With good economic times, Macdonald and the Conservatives were returned with a slightly decreased majority in 1882.Macdonald was returned for the Ontario riding of Carleton.The transcontinental railroad project was heavily subsidised by the government.", "The CPR was granted of land along the route of the railroad, and $25 million from the government.", "In addition, the government had to spend $32 million on the construction of other railways to support the CPR.", "The entire project was extremely costly, especially for a nation with only 4.1 million people in 1881.Between 1880 and 1885, as the railway was slowly built, the CPR repeatedly came close to financial ruin.", "The terrain in the Rocky Mountains was difficult and the route north of Lake Superior proved treacherous, as tracks and engines sank into the muskeg.", "When Canadian guarantees of the CPR's bonds failed to make them salable in a declining economy, Macdonald obtained a loan to the corporation from the Treasury—the bill authorizing it passed the Senate just before the firm would have become insolvent.Protestants demanded Riel be executed; Catholics wanted him to live.", "The decision for execution alienated Francophones.The Northwest again saw unrest.", "Many of the Manitoban Métis had moved into the territories and negotiations between the Métis and the Government to settle grievances over land rights proved difficult.", "Riel, who lived in exile in the United States since 1870, journeyed to Regina with the connivance of Macdonald's government, who believed he would prove a leader they could deal with.", "Instead, the Métis rose the following year under Riel in the North-West Rebellion.", "Macdonald put down the rebellion with militia troops transported by rail, and Riel was captured, tried for treason, convicted, and hanged.", "Macdonald refused to consider reprieving Riel, who was of uncertain mental health.", "The hanging of Riel was controversial, and alienated many Quebecers from the Conservatives and they were, like Riel, Catholic and culturally French Canadian; they soon realigned with the Liberals.", "Following the North-West Rebellion of 1885, Macdonald's government implemented restrictions upon the movement of indigenous groups, requiring them to receive formal permission from an Indian Department Official in order to go off-reserve.The CPR was almost bankrupt, but its role in rushing troops to the crisis showed that it was helpful to maintain British control of the territory and Parliament provided money for its completion.", "On November 7, 1885, CPR manager William Van Horne wired Macdonald from Craigellachie, British Columbia that the last spike was inserted into the track, completing the railway.", "That same year, the Macdonald government enacted the ''Chinese Immigration Act, 1885''.", "Macdonald told the House of Commons that, if the Chinese were not excluded from Canada, \"the Aryan character of the future of British America should be destroyed\".", "In the summer of 1886, Macdonald travelled by rail to western Canada.", "On August 13, 1886, Macdonald used a silver hammer and pounded a gold spike to complete the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway.In 1886, another dispute arose over fishing rights with the United States.", "Americans fishermen had been using treaty provisions allowing them to land in Canada to take on wood and water as a cover for clandestine inshore fishing.", "Several vessels were detained in Canadian ports, to the outrage of Americans, who demanded their release.", "Macdonald sought to pass a Fisheries Act which would override some of the treaty provisions, to the dismay of the British, who were still responsible for external relations.", "The British government instructed the Governor General, Lord Lansdowne, to reserve the bill for Royal Assent, effectively placing it on hold without vetoing it.", "After considerable discussion, the British government allowed Royal Assent at the end of 1886, and indicated it would send a warship to protect the fisheries if no agreement was reached with the Americans.===Fifth and sixth majorities, 1887–1891===Conservative election poster from 1891Fearing continued loss of political strength as poor economic times continued, Macdonald planned to hold an election by the end of 1886, but had not yet issued the writ when an Ontario provincial election was called by Liberal Ontario Premier Oliver Mowat.", "The provincial election was seen as a bellwether for the federal poll.", "Despite considerable campaigning by Macdonald, Mowat's Liberals were re-elected in Ontario and increased their majority.", "Macdonald dissolved the federal Parliament on January 15, 1887 for an election on February 22.During the campaign, the Quebec provincial Liberals formed a government (four months after the October 1886 Quebec election), forcing the Conservatives from power in Quebec City.", "Nevertheless, Macdonald and his cabinet campaigned hard in the winter election, with Tupper (the new High Commissioner to London) postponing his departure to try to bolster Conservative votes in Nova Scotia.", "The Liberal leader, Edward Blake, ran an uninspiring campaign, and the Conservatives were returned nationally with a majority of 35, winning easily in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Manitoba.", "The Tories also took a narrow majority of Quebec's seats despite resentment over Riel's hanging.", "Macdonald became MP for Kingston once again.", "Even the younger ministers, such as future Prime Minister John Thompson, who sometimes differed with Macdonald on policy, admitted Macdonald was an essential electoral asset for the Conservatives.Blake resigned after the defeat and was replaced by Wilfrid Laurier.", "Under Laurier's early leadership, the Liberals, who previously supported much of the National Policy, campaigned against it and called for \"unrestricted reciprocity\", or free trade, with the United States.", "Macdonald was willing to see some reciprocity with the United States, but was reluctant to lower many tariffs.", "American advocates of what they dubbed \"commercial union\" saw it as a prelude to political union, and did not scruple to say so, causing additional controversy in Canada.Funeral of Sir John A. Macdonald in Cataraqui Cemetery, Kingston, OntarioMacdonald called an election for March 5, 1891.The Liberals were heavily financed by American interests; the Conservatives drew much financial support from the CPR.", "The 76-year-old prime minister collapsed during the campaign, and conducted political activities from his brother-in-law's house in Kingston.", "The Conservatives gained slightly in the popular vote, but their majority was reduced to 27.The parties broke even in the central part of the country but the Conservatives dominated in the Maritimes and Western Canada, leading Liberal MP Richard John Cartwright to claim that Macdonald's majority was dependent on \"the shreds and patches of Confederation\".", "After the election, Laurier and his Liberals grudgingly accepted the National Policy; when Laurier later became prime minister, he adopted it with only minor changes.=== Death ===In May 1891, Macdonald suffered a stroke which left him partially paralysed and unable to speak.", "His health continued to deteriorate and he died in the late evening of June 6, 1891.Thousands filed by his open casket in the Senate Chamber; his body was transported by funeral train to his hometown of Kingston, with crowds greeting the train at each stop.", "On arrival in Kingston, Macdonald lay in state in City Hall, wearing the uniform of an Imperial Privy Counsellor.", "He was buried in Cataraqui Cemetery in Kingston, his grave near that of his first wife, Isabella." ], [ "Legacy and memorials", "Canadian stamp honouring Macdonald, 1927Macdonald served just under 19 years as prime minister, a length of service only surpassed by William Lyon Mackenzie King.", "In polls, Macdonald has consistently been ranked as one of the greatest prime ministers in Canadian history.", "No cities or political subdivisions are named for Macdonald (with the exception of a small Manitoba village), nor are there any massive monuments.", "A peak in the Rockies, Mount Macdonald ( 1887) at Rogers Pass, is named for him.", "In 2001, Parliament designated January 11 as Sir John A. Macdonald Day, but the day is not a federal holiday and generally passes unremarked.", "He appears on Canadian ten-dollar notes printed between 1971 and 2018.In 2015, the Royal Canadian Mint featured Macdonald's face on the Canadian two dollar coin, the Toonie, to celebrate his 200th birthday.", "Macdonald's name is also used in Ottawa's Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport (renamed in 1993) and Ontario Highway 401 (the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway 1968).", "His name is being phased out on Ottawa's Sir John A. Macdonald Parkway (River Parkway before 2012), being renamed to an indigenous term, Kichi Zibi Mikan.The statue in the Macdonald Monument in Montreal in 2011A number of sites associated with Macdonald are preserved.", "His gravesite has been designated a National Historic Site of Canada.", "Bellevue House in Kingston, where the Macdonald family lived in the 1840s, is also a National Historic Site administered by Parks Canada, and has been restored to that time period.", "His Ottawa home, Earnscliffe, is the official residence of the British High Commissioner to Canada.", "Statues have been erected to Macdonald across Canada; one stands on Parliament Hill in Ottawa (by Louis-Philippe Hebert 1895).", "A statue of Macdonald stands atop a granite plinth originally intended for a statue of Queen Victoria in Toronto's Queen's Park, looking south on University Avenue.", "Macdonald's statue also stood in Kingston's City Park; the Kingston Historical Society annually holds a memorial service in his honour.", "On June 18, 2021, following the discovery of 215 unmarked graves at the Kamloops Indian Residential School, the statue of Macdonald was removed from Kingston's City Park after city council voted 12–1 in favour of its removal, and is set to be installed at Cataraqui Cemetery where Macdonald is buried.", "In 2018, a statue of Macdonald was removed from outside Victoria City Hall, as part of the city's program for reconciliation with local First Nations.", "The Macdonald Monument in Montreal has been repeatedly vandalized, and on August 29, 2020, the statue in the monument was vandalized, toppled and decapitated.", "Montreal Mayor Valérie Plante condemned the actions and said the city plans to restore the statue.Macdonald's biographers note his contribution to establishing Canada as a nation.", "Swainson suggests that Macdonald's desire for a free and tolerant Canada became part of its national outlook and contributed immeasurably to its character.", "Gwyn said Macdonald's accomplishments of Confederation and building the Canadian railroad were great, but he was also responsible for scandals and bad government policy for the execution of Riel and the head tax on Chinese workers.", "In 2017, the Canadian Historical Association had voted to remove Macdonald's name from their prize for best scholarly book about Canadian history.", "Historian James Daschuk acknowledges Macdonald's contributions as a founding figure of Canada, but states \"He built the country.", "But he built the country on the backs of the Indigenous people.\"", "A biographical online article about Macdonald was deleted from the Scottish government's website in August 2018.A spokesperson for the Scottish government stated: \"We acknowledge controversy around Sir John A Macdonald's legacy and the legitimate concerns expressed by Indigenous communities\".", "On July 5, 2021, Canada's national library, Library and Archives Canada, deleted its web page on Canada's prime ministers, \"First Among Equals\", calling it \"outdated and redundant\"." ], [ "Honorary degrees", "Macdonald was awarded the following honorary degrees: Location Date School Degree Canada West 1863 Queen's University at Kingston Doctor of Laws (LL.D) 1865 University of Oxford Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)", "Ontario 1889 University of Toronto Doctor of Laws (LL.D)" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ======Works cited===** * * * *** * * " ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * ; essays by scholars* * * * ===Historiography===* , essays by scholars* ===Primary sources===* ; mostly drawn from debates in Parliament" ], [ "External links", " * Library and Archives Canada: gallery of papers* * * * Sir John A. Macdonald fonds at Library and Archives Canada* John A. Macdonald collection, Archives of Ontario" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Diefenbaker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John George Diefenbaker''' ( ; September 18, 1895 – August 16, 1979) was the 13th prime minister of Canada, serving from 1957 to 1963.He was the only Progressive Conservative party leader between 1930 and 1979 to lead the party to an election victory, doing so three times, although only once with a majority of the seats in the House of Commons.Diefenbaker was born in the small town of Neustadt in Southwestern Ontario.", "In 1903, his family migrated west to the portion of the North-West Territories that would soon become the province of Saskatchewan.", "He grew up in the province and was interested in politics from a young age.", "After service in World War I, Diefenbaker became a noted criminal defence lawyer.", "He contested elections through the 1920s and 1930s with little success until he was finally elected to the House of Commons in 1940.Diefenbaker was repeatedly a candidate for the party leadership.", "He gained that position in 1956, on his third attempt.", "In 1957, he led the party to its first electoral victory in 27 years; a year later he called a snap election and spearheaded them to one of their greatest triumphs.", "Diefenbaker appointed the first female minister in Canadian history to his cabinet (Ellen Fairclough), as well as the first Indigenous member of the Senate (James Gladstone).", "During his six years as prime minister, his government obtained passage of the ''Canadian Bill of Rights'' and granted the vote to the First Nations and Inuit peoples.", "In 1962, Diefenbaker's government eliminated racial discrimination in immigration policy.", "In foreign policy, his stance against apartheid helped secure the departure of South Africa from the Commonwealth of Nations, but his indecision on whether to accept Bomarc nuclear missiles from the United States led to his government's downfall.", "Diefenbaker is also remembered for his role in the 1959 cancellation of the Avro Arrow project.In the 1962 federal election, the Progressive Conservatives narrowly won a minority government before losing power altogether in 1963.Diefenbaker stayed on as party leader, becoming Opposition leader, but his second loss at the polls prompted opponents within the party to force him to a leadership convention in 1967.Diefenbaker stood for re-election as party leader at the last moment, but attracted only minimal support and withdrew.", "He remained in parliament until his death in 1979, two months after Joe Clark became the first Progressive Conservative prime minister since Diefenbaker.", "Diefenbaker ranks average in rankings of prime ministers of Canada." ], [ "Early life", "John Diefenbaker's birthplaceDiefenbaker was born on September 18, 1895, in Neustadt, Ontario, to William Thomas Diefenbaker and Mary Florence Diefenbaker, née Bannerman.", "His father was the son of German immigrants from Adersbach (near Sinsheim) in Baden; Mary Diefenbaker was of Scottish descent and Diefenbaker was Baptist.", "The family moved to several locations in Ontario in John's early years.", "William Diefenbaker was a teacher, and had deep interests in history and politics, which he sought to inculcate in his students.", "He had remarkable success doing so; of the 28 students at his school near Toronto in 1903, four, including his son, John, served as Conservative MPs in the 19th Canadian Parliament beginning in 1940.—the others were Robert Henry McGregor, Joseph Henry Harris, and George Tustin.The Diefenbaker family moved west in 1903, for William Diefenbaker to accept a position near Fort Carlton, then in the Northwest Territories (now in Saskatchewan).", "In 1906, William claimed a quarter-section, of undeveloped land near Borden, Saskatchewan.", "In February 1910, the Diefenbaker family moved to Saskatoon, the site of the University of Saskatchewan.", "William and Mary Diefenbaker felt that John and his brother Elmer would have greater educational opportunities in Saskatoon.John Diefenbaker had been interested in politics from an early age and told his mother at the age of eight or nine that he would some day be prime minister.", "She told him that it was an impossible ambition, especially for a boy living on the prairies.", "She would live to be proved wrong.", "John claimed that his first contact with politics came in 1910, when he sold a newspaper to Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier, in Saskatoon to lay the cornerstone for the university's first building.", "The present and future Prime Ministers conversed, and when giving his speech that afternoon, Sir Wilfrid commented on the newsboy who had ended their conversation by saying, \"I can't waste any more time on you, Prime Minister.", "I must get about my work.\"", "The authenticity of the meeting was questioned in the 21st century, with an author suggesting that it was invented by Diefenbaker during an election campaign.In a 1977 interview with the CBC, Diefenbaker recalled he saw injustice first-hand in his youth against French Canadians, Indigenous Canadians and the Métis.", "He said, \"From my earliest days, I knew the meaning of discrimination.", "Many Canadians were virtually second-hand citizens because of their names and racial origin.", "Indeed, it seemed until the end of World War II that the only first-class Canadians were either of English or French descent.", "As a youth, l determined to devote myself to assuring that all Canadians, whatever their racial origin, were equal and declared myself to be a sworn enemy of discrimination.", "\"Diefenbaker as a law student, 1919After graduating from high school in Saskatoon in 1912, Diefenbaker entered the University of Saskatchewan.", "He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1915, and his Master of Arts the following year.Diefenbaker was commissioned a lieutenant into the 196th (Western Universities) Battalion, CEF in May 1916.In September of that year, Diefenbaker was part of a contingent of 300 junior officers sent to Britain for pre-deployment training.", "Diefenbaker related in his memoirs that he was hit by a shovel, and the injury eventually resulted in him being sent home as an invalid.", "Diefenbaker's recollections do not correspond with his army medical records, which show no contemporary account of such an injury, and his biographer, Denis Smith, speculates that any injury was psychosomatic.After leaving the military in 1917, Diefenbaker returned to Saskatchewan where he resumed his work as an articling student in law.", "He received his law degree in 1919, the first student to secure three degrees from the University of Saskatchewan.", "On June 30, 1919, he was called to the bar, and the following day, opened a small practice in the village of Wakaw, Saskatchewan." ], [ "Barrister and candidate (1919–1940)", "=== Wakaw days (1919–1924) ===Recreation of Diefenbaker's first office, Wakaw, SaskatchewanAlthough Wakaw had a population of only 400, it sat at the heart of a densely populated area of rural townships and had its own district court.", "It was also easily accessible to Saskatoon, Prince Albert and Humboldt, places where the Court of King's Bench sat.", "The local people were mostly immigrants, and Diefenbaker's research found them to be particularly litigious.", "There was already one barrister in town, and the residents were loyal to him, initially refusing to rent office space to Diefenbaker.", "The new lawyer was forced to rent a vacant lot and erect a two-room wooden shack.Diefenbaker won the local people over through his success; in his first year in practice, he tried 62 jury trials, winning approximately half of his cases.", "He rarely called defence witnesses, thereby avoiding the possibility of rebuttal witnesses for the Crown, and securing the last word for himself.", "In late 1920, he was elected to the village council to serve a three-year term.Diefenbaker would often spend weekends with his parents in Saskatoon.", "While there, he began to woo Olive Freeman, daughter of the Baptist minister, but in 1921, she moved with her family to Brandon, Manitoba, and the two lost touch for more than 20 years.", "He then courted Beth Newell, a cashier in Saskatoon, and by 1922, the two were engaged.", "However, in 1923, Newell was diagnosed with tuberculosis, and Diefenbaker broke off contact with her.", "She died the following year.", "Diefenbaker was himself subject to internal bleeding, and may have feared that the disease would be transmitted to him.", "In late 1923, he had an operation at the Mayo Clinic for a gastric ulcer, but his health remained uncertain for several more years.After four years in Wakaw, Diefenbaker so dominated the local legal practice that his competitor left town.", "On May 1, 1924, Diefenbaker moved to Prince Albert, leaving a law partner in charge of the Wakaw office.=== Aspiring politician (1924–1929) ===Since 1905, when Saskatchewan entered Confederation, the province had been dominated by the Liberal Party, which practised highly effective machine politics.", "Diefenbaker was fond of stating, in his later years, that the only protection a Conservative had in the province was that afforded by the game laws.Diefenbaker's father, William, was a Liberal; however, John Diefenbaker found himself attracted to the Conservative Party.", "Free trade was widely popular throughout Western Canada, but Diefenbaker was convinced by the Conservative position that free trade would make Canada an economic dependent of the United States.", "However, he did not speak publicly of his politics.", "Diefenbaker recalled in his memoirs that, in 1921, he had been elected as secretary of the Wakaw Liberal Association while absent in Saskatoon, and had returned to find the association's records in his office.", "He promptly returned them to the association president.", "Diefenbaker also stated that he had been told that if he became a Liberal candidate, \"there was no position in the province which would not be open to him.", "\"It was not until 1925 that Diefenbaker publicly came forward as a Conservative, a year in which both federal and Saskatchewan provincial elections were held.", "Journalist Peter C. Newman, in his best-selling account of the Diefenbaker years, suggested that this choice was made for practical, rather than political reasons, as Diefenbaker had little chance of defeating established politicians and securing the Liberal nomination for either the House of Commons or the Legislative Assembly.", "The provincial election took place in early June; Liberals would later claim that Diefenbaker had campaigned for their party in the election.", "On June 19, however, Diefenbaker addressed a Conservative organizing committee, and on August 6, was nominated as the party's candidate for the federal riding of Prince Albert, a district in which the party's last candidate had lost his election deposit.", "A nasty campaign ensued, in which Diefenbaker was called a \"Hun\" because of his German-derived surname.", "The 1925 federal election was held on October 29; he finished third behind the Liberal and Progressive Party candidates, losing his deposit.Handout for the Diefenbaker campaign 1926The winning candidate, Charles McDonald, did not hold the seat long, resigning it to open a place for the Prime Minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King, who had been defeated in his Ontario riding.", "The Tories ran no candidate against King in the by-election on February 15, 1926, and he won easily.", "Although in the 1925 federal election, the Conservatives had won the greatest number of seats, King continued as Prime Minister with the support of the Progressives.", "Mackenzie King held office for several months until he finally resigned when the Governor General, Lord Byng, refused a dissolution.", "Conservative Party leader Arthur Meighen became Prime Minister, but was quickly defeated in the House of Commons, and Byng finally granted a dissolution of Parliament.", "Diefenbaker, who had been confirmed as Conservative candidate, stood against King in the 1926 election, a rare direct electoral contest between two individuals who had or would become prime minister.", "King triumphed easily over Diefenbaker, the Liberals won the federal election, and King regained his position as prime minister.=== Perennial candidate (1929–1940) ===Diefenbaker as King's Counsel, 1929Diefenbaker stood for the Legislative Assembly in the 1929 provincial election.", "He was defeated, but Saskatchewan Conservatives formed their first government, with help from smaller parties.", "As the defeated Conservative candidate for Prince Albert City, he was given charge of political patronage there and was created a King's Counsel.", "Three weeks after his electoral defeat, he married Saskatoon teacher Edna Brower.Diefenbaker chose not to stand for the House of Commons in the 1930 federal election, citing health reasons.", "The Conservatives gained a majority in the election, and party leader R. B. Bennett became Prime Minister.", "Diefenbaker continued a high-profile legal practice, and in 1933, ran for mayor of Prince Albert.", "He was defeated by 48 votes in an election in which over 2,000 ballots were cast.In 1934, when the Crown prosecutor for Prince Albert resigned to become the Conservative Party's legislative candidate, Diefenbaker took his place as prosecutor.", "Diefenbaker did not stand in the 1934 provincial election, in which the governing Conservatives lost every seat.", "Six days after the election, Diefenbaker resigned as Crown prosecutor.", "The federal government of Bennett was defeated the following year and Mackenzie King returned as prime minister.", "Judging his prospects hopeless, Diefenbaker had declined a nomination to stand again against Mackenzie King in Prince Albert.", "In the waning days of the Bennett government, the Saskatchewan Conservative Party president was appointed a judge, leaving Diefenbaker, who had been elected the party's vice president, as acting president of the provincial party.Poster to advertise a speech by John Diefenbaker as Conservative candidate, 1939 (leading up to the 1940 federal election)Saskatchewan Conservatives eventually arranged a leadership convention for October 28, 1936.Eleven people were nominated, including Diefenbaker.", "The other ten candidates withdrew, and Diefenbaker won the position by default.", "Diefenbaker asked the federal party for $10,000 in financial support, but the funds were refused, and the Conservatives were shut out of the legislature in the 1938 provincial elections for the second consecutive time.", "Diefenbaker himself was defeated in the Arm River riding by 190 votes.", "With the province-wide Conservative vote having fallen to 12 percent, Diefenbaker offered his resignation to a post-election party meeting in Moose Jaw, but it was refused.", "Diefenbaker continued to run the provincial party out of his law office and paid the party's debts from his own pocket.Diefenbaker quietly sought the Conservative nomination for the federal riding of Lake Centre but was unwilling to risk a divisive intra-party squabble.", "In what Diefenbaker biographer Smith states \"appears to have been an elaborate and prearranged charade\", Diefenbaker attended the nominating convention as keynote speaker, but withdrew when his name was proposed, stating a local man should be selected.", "The winner among the six remaining candidates, riding president W. B. Kelly, declined the nomination, urging the delegates to select Diefenbaker, which they promptly did.", "Mackenzie King called a general election for March 25, 1940.The incumbent in Lake Centre was Liberal John Frederick Johnston.", "Diefenbaker campaigned aggressively in Lake Centre, holding 63 rallies and seeking to appeal to members of all parties.", "On election day, he defeated Johnston by 280 votes on what was otherwise a disastrous day for the Conservatives, who won only 39 seats out of the 245 in the House of Commons—their lowest total since Confederation." ], [ "Parliamentary rise (1940–1957)", "=== Mackenzie King years (1940–1948) ===Diefenbaker joined a shrunken and demoralized Conservative caucus in the House of Commons.", "The Conservative leader, Robert Manion, failed to win a place in the Commons in the election, which saw the Liberals take 181 seats.", "The Tories sought to be included in a wartime coalition government, but Mackenzie King refused.", "The House of Commons had only a slight role in the war effort; under the state of emergency, most business was accomplished through the Cabinet issuing Orders in Council.Diefenbaker was appointed to the House Committee on the Defence of Canada Regulations, an all-party committee which examined the wartime rules which allowed arrest and detention without trial.", "On June 13, 1940, Diefenbaker made his maiden speech in the House of Commons, supporting the regulations, and emphatically stating that most Canadians of German descent were loyal.", "In his memoirs, Diefenbaker wrote he waged an unsuccessful fight against the forced relocation and internment of many Japanese-Canadians, but historians say that the fight against the internment never took place.According to Diefenbaker's biographer, Denis Smith, the Conservative MP quietly admired Mackenzie King for his political skills.", "However, Diefenbaker proved a gadfly and an annoyance to Mackenzie King.", "Angered by the words of Diefenbaker and fellow Conservative MP Howard Green in seeking to censure the government, the Prime Minister referred to Conservative MPs as \"a mob\".", "When Diefenbaker accompanied two other Conservative leaders to a briefing by Mackenzie King on the war, the Prime Minister exploded at Diefenbaker (a constituent of his), \"What business do you have to be here?", "You strike me to the heart every time you speak.", "\"The Conservatives elected a floor leader, and in 1941 approached former Prime Minister Meighen, who had been appointed as a senator by Bennett, about becoming party leader again.", "Meighen agreed, and resigned his Senate seat, but lost a by-election for an Ontario seat in the House of Commons.", "He remained as leader for several months, although he could not enter the chamber of the House of Commons.", "Meighen sought to move the Tories to the left, in order to undercut the Liberals and to take support away from the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF, the predecessor of the New Democratic Party (NDP)).", "To that end, he sought to draft the Liberal-Progressive premier of Manitoba, John Bracken, to lead the Conservatives.", "Diefenbaker objected to what he saw as an attempt to rig the party's choice of new leader and stood for the leadership himself at the party's 1942 leadership convention.", "Bracken was elected on the second ballot; Diefenbaker finished a distant third in both polls.", "At Bracken's request, the convention changed the party's name to \"Progressive Conservative Party of Canada.\"", "Bracken chose not to seek entry to the House through a by-election, and when the Conservatives elected a new floor leader, Diefenbaker was defeated by one vote.Bracken was elected to the Commons in the 1945 general election, and for the first time in five years the Tories had their party leader in the House of Commons.", "The Progressive Conservatives won 67 seats to the Liberals' 125, with smaller parties and independents winning 52 seats.", "Diefenbaker increased his majority to over 1,000 votes, and had the satisfaction of seeing Mackenzie King defeated in Prince Albert—albeit by a CCF candidate.", "The Prime Minister was returned in an Ontario by-election within months.Diefenbaker staked out a position on the populist left of the PC party.", "Though most Canadians were content to look to Parliament for protection of civil liberties, Diefenbaker called for a Bill of Rights, calling it \"the only way to stop the march on the part of the government towards arbitrary power\".", "He objected to the great powers used by the Mackenzie King government to attempt to root out Soviet spies after the war, such as imprisonment without trial, and complained about the government's proclivity for letting its wartime powers become permanent.=== Leadership contender (1948–1956) ===Diefenbaker makes his point in the House of Commons, 1948.In early 1948, Mackenzie King, now aged 73, announced his retirement; later that year Louis St. Laurent succeeded him.", "Although Bracken had nearly doubled the Tory representation in the House, prominent Tories were increasingly unhappy with his leadership and pressured him to stand down.", "These party bosses believed that Ontario Premier George A.", "Drew, who had won three successive provincial elections and had even made inroads in francophone ridings, was the man to lead the Progressive Conservatives to victory.", "When Bracken resigned on July 17, 1948, Diefenbaker announced his candidacy.", "The party's backers, principally financiers headquartered on Toronto's Bay Street, preferred Drew's conservative political stances to Diefenbaker's Western populism.", "Tory leaders packed the 1948 leadership convention in Ottawa in favour of Drew, appointing more than 300 delegates at-large.", "One cynical party member commented, \"Ghost delegates with ghost ballots, marked by the ghostly hidden hand of Bay Street, are going to pick George Drew, and he'll deliver a ghost-written speech that'll cheer us all up, as we march briskly into a political graveyard.\"", "Drew easily defeated Diefenbaker on the first ballot.", "St. Laurent called an election for June 1949, and the Tories were decimated, falling to 41 seats, only two more than the party's 1940 nadir.", "Despite intense efforts to make the Progressive Conservatives appeal to Quebecers, the party won only two seats in the province.Newman argued that but for Diefenbaker's many defeats, he would never have become Prime Minister:If, as a neophyte lawyer, he had succeeded in winning the Prince Albert seat in the federal elections of 1925 or 1926, ... Diefenbaker would probably have been remembered only as an obscure minister in Bennett's Depression cabinet ...", "If he had carried his home-town mayoralty in 1933, ... he'd probably not be remembered at all ...", "If he had succeeded in his bid for the national leadership in 1942, he might have taken the place of John Bracken on his six-year march to oblivion as leader of a party that had not changed itself enough to follow a Prairie radical ... would have been free to flounder before the political strength of Louis St. Laurent in the 1949 and 1953 campaigns.The governing Liberals repeatedly attempted to draw Diefenbaker's seat out from under him.", "In 1948, Lake Centre was redistricted to remove areas which strongly supported Diefenbaker.", "In spite of that, he was returned in the 1949 election, the only PC member from Saskatchewan.", "In 1952, a redistricting committee dominated by Liberals abolished Lake Centre entirely, dividing its voters among three other ridings.", "Diefenbaker stated in his memoirs that he had considered retiring from the House; with Drew only a year older than he was, the Westerner saw little prospect of advancement and had received tempting offers from Ontario law firms.", "However, the gerrymandering so angered him that he decided to fight for a seat.", "Diefenbaker's party had taken Prince Albert only once, in 1911, but he decided to stand in that riding for the 1953 election and was successful.", "He would hold that seat for the rest of his life.", "Even though Diefenbaker campaigned nationally for party candidates, the Progressive Conservatives gained little, rising to 51 seats as St. Laurent led the Liberals to a fifth successive majority.", "In addition to trying to secure his departure from Parliament, the government opened a home for unwed Indian mothers next door to Diefenbaker's home in Prince Albert.Diefenbaker continued practising law.", "In 1951, he gained national attention by accepting the ''Atherton'' case, in which a young telegraph operator had been accused of negligently causing a train crash by omitting crucial information from a message.", "Twenty-one people were killed, mostly Canadian troops bound for Korea.", "Diefenbaker paid $1,500 and sat a token bar examination to join the Law Society of British Columbia to take the case, and gained an acquittal, prejudicing the jury against the Crown prosecutor and pointing out a previous case in which interference had caused information to be lost in transmission.In the mid-1940s Edna began to suffer mental illness and was placed in a private psychiatric hospital for a time.", "She later fell ill from leukemia and died in 1951.In 1953, Diefenbaker married Olive Palmer (formerly Olive Freeman), whom he had courted while living in Wakaw.", "Olive Diefenbaker became a great source of strength to her husband.", "There were no children born of either marriage.", "In 2013, claims were made that he fathered at least two sons out of wedlock, based on DNA testing showing a relationship between the two individuals, and that Diefenbaker employed both mothers.Diefenbaker won Prince Albert in 1953, even as the Tories suffered a second consecutive disastrous defeat under Drew.", "Speculation arose in the press that the leader might be pressured to step aside.", "Drew was determined to remain, however, and Diefenbaker was careful to avoid any action that might be seen as disloyal.", "However, Diefenbaker was never a member of the \"Five O'clock Club\" of Drew intimates who met the leader in his office for a drink and gossip each day.", "By 1955, there was a widespread feeling among Tories that Drew was not capable of leading the party to a victory.", "At the same time, the Liberals were in flux as the aging St. Laurent tired of politics.", "Drew was able to damage the government in a weeks-long battle over the TransCanada pipeline in 1956—the so-called Pipeline Debate—in which the government, in a hurry to obtain financing for the pipeline, imposed closure before the debate even began.", "The Tories and the CCF combined to obstruct business in the House for weeks before the Liberals were finally able to pass the measure.", "Diefenbaker played a relatively minor role in the Pipeline Debate, speaking only once.=== Leader of the Opposition; 1957 election ===By 1956, the Social Credit Party was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada's main right-wing party.", "Canadian journalist and author Bruce Hutchison discussed the state of the Tories in 1956:When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government's election promises; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results ... when in short, the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty-one years ... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory.In August 1956, Drew fell ill and many within the party urged him to step aside, feeling that the Progressive Conservatives needed vigorous leadership with an election likely within a year.", "He resigned in late September, and Diefenbaker immediately announced his candidacy for the leadership.", "A number of Progressive Conservative leaders, principally from the Ontario wing of the party, started a \"Stop Diefenbaker\" movement, and wooed University of Toronto president Sidney Smith as a possible candidate.", "When Smith declined, they could find no one of comparable stature to stand against Diefenbaker.", "The only serious competition to Diefenbaker came from Donald Fleming, who had finished third at the previous leadership convention, but his having repeatedly criticised Drew's leadership ensured that the critical Ontario delegates would not back Fleming, all but destroying his chances of victory.", "At the leadership convention in Ottawa in December 1956, Diefenbaker won on the first ballot, and the dissidents reconciled themselves to his victory.", "After all, they reasoned, Diefenbaker was now 61 and unlikely to lead the party for more than one general election, an election they believed would be won by the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories.In January 1957, Diefenbaker took his place as Leader of the Official Opposition.", "In February, St. Laurent informed him that Parliament would be dissolved in April for an election on June 10.The Liberals submitted a budget in March; Diefenbaker attacked it for overly high taxes, failure to assist pensioners, and a lack of aid for the poorer provinces.", "Parliament was dissolved on April 12.St.", "Laurent was so confident of victory that he did not even bother to make recommendations to the Governor General to fill the 16 vacancies in the Senate.Diefenbaker ran on a platform which concentrated on changes in domestic policies.", "He pledged to work with the provinces to reform the Senate.", "He proposed a vigorous new agricultural policy, seeking to stabilize income for farmers.", "He sought to reduce dependence on trade with the United States, and to seek closer ties with the United Kingdom.", "St. Laurent called the Tory platform \"a mere cream-puff of a thing—with more air than substance\".", "Diefenbaker and the PC party used television adroitly, whereas St. Laurent stated that he was more interested in seeing people than in talking to cameras.", "Though the Liberals outspent the Progressive Conservatives three to one, according to Newman, their campaign had little imagination, and was based on telling voters that their only real option was to re-elect St. Laurent.Diefenbaker characterized the Tory program in a nationwide telecast on April 30:It is a program ... for a united Canada, for one Canada, for Canada first, in every aspect of our political and public life, for the welfare of the average man and woman.", "That is my approach to public affairs and has been throughout my life ... A Canada, united from Coast to Coast, wherein there will be freedom for the individual, freedom of enterprise and where there will be a Government which, in all its actions, will remain the servant and not the master of the people.The final Gallup poll before the election showed the Liberals ahead, 48% to 34%.", "Just before the election, ''Maclean's'' magazine printed its regular weekly issue, to go on sale the morning after the vote, editorializing that democracy in Canada was still strong despite a sixth consecutive Liberal victory.", "On election night, the Progressive Conservative advance started early, with the gain of two seats in reliably Liberal Newfoundland.", "The party picked up nine seats in Nova Scotia, five in Quebec, 28 in Ontario, and at least one seat in every other province.", "The Progressive Conservatives took 112 seats to the Liberals' 105: a plurality, but not a majority.", "While the Liberals finished some 200,000 votes ahead of the Tories nationally, that margin was mostly wasted in overwhelming victories in safe Quebec seats.", "St. Laurent could have attempted to form a government, however, with the minor parties pledging to cooperate with the Progressive Conservatives, he would have likely faced a quick defeat at the Commons.", "St. Laurent instead resigned, making Diefenbaker prime minister." ], [ "Prime Minister (1957–1963)", "=== Domestic events and policies ======= Minority government ====When John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21, 1957, only one Progressive Conservative MP, Earl Rowe, had served in federal governmental office, for a brief period under Bennett in 1935.Rowe was no friend of Diefenbaker — he had briefly served as the party's acting leader in-between Drew's resignation and Diefenbaker's election, and did not definitively rule himself out of running to succeed Drew permanently until a relatively late stage, contributing to Diefenbaker's mistrust of him — and was given no place in his government.", "Diefenbaker appointed Ellen Fairclough as Secretary of State for Canada, the first woman to be appointed to a Cabinet post, and Michael Starr as Minister of Labour, the first Canadian of Ukrainian descent to serve in Cabinet.As the Parliament buildings had been lent to the Universal Postal Union for its 14th congress, Diefenbaker was forced to wait until the fall to convene Parliament.", "However, the Cabinet approved measures that summer, including increased price supports for butter and turkeys, and raises for federal employees.", "Once the 23rd Canadian Parliament was opened on October 14 by Queen Elizabeth II – the first to be opened by any Canadian monarch – the government rapidly passed legislation, including tax cuts and increases in old age pensions.", "The Liberals were ineffective in opposition, with the party in the midst of a leadership race after St. Laurent's resignation as party leader.With the Conservatives leading in the polls, Diefenbaker wanted a new election, hopeful that his party would gain a majority of seats.", "The strong Liberal presence meant that the Governor General could refuse a dissolution request early in a parliament's term and allow them to form government if Diefenbaker resigned.", "Diefenbaker sought a pretext for a new election.Such an excuse presented itself when former Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester Pearson attended his first parliamentary session as Leader of the Opposition on January 20, 1958, four days after becoming the Liberal leader.", "In his first speech as leader, Pearson (recently returned from Oslo where he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize), moved an amendment to supply, and called, not for an election, but for the Progressive Conservatives to resign, allowing the Liberals to form a government.", "Pearson stated that the condition of the economy required \"a Government pledged to implement Liberal policies\".", "Government MPs laughed at Pearson, as did members of the press who were present.", "Pearson later recorded in his memoirs that he knew that his \"first attack on the government had been a failure, indeed a fiasco\".", "Diefenbaker spoke for two hours and three minutes, and devastated his Liberal opposition.", "He mocked Pearson, contrasting the party leader's address at the Liberal leadership convention with his speech to the House:On Thursday there was shrieking defiance, on the following Monday there is shrinking indecision ...", "The only reason that this motion is worded as it is, is that my honourable friends opposite quake when they think of what will happen if an election comes ...", "It is the resignation from responsibility of a great party.Diefenbaker read from an internal report provided to the St. Laurent government in early 1957, warning that a recession was coming, and stated:Across the way, Mr. Speaker, sit the purveyors of gloom who would endeavour for political purposes, to panic the Canadian people ...", "They had a warning ... Did they tell us that?", "No.", "Mr. Speaker, why did they not reveal this?", "Why did they not act when the House was sitting in January, February, March, and April?", "They had the information ... You concealed the facts, that is what you did.According to the Minister of Finance, Donald Fleming, \"Pearson looked at first merry, then serious, then uncomfortable, then disturbed, and finally sick.\"", "Pearson recorded in his memoirs that the Prime Minister \"tore me to shreds\".", "Prominent Liberal frontbencher Paul Martin called Diefenbaker's response \"one of the greatest devastating speeches\" and \"Diefenbaker's great hour\".", "On February 1, Diefenbaker asked the Governor General, Vincent Massey, to dissolve Parliament, alleging that though St. Laurent had promised cooperation, Pearson had made it clear he would not follow his predecessor's lead.", "Massey agreed to the dissolution, and Diefenbaker set an election date of March 31, 1958.==== 1958 election ====The 1958 election campaign saw a huge outpouring of public support for the Progressive Conservatives.", "At the opening campaign rally in Winnipeg on February 12 voters filled the hall until the doors had to be closed for safety reasons.", "They were promptly broken down by the crowd outside.", "At the rally, Diefenbaker called for \" new vision.", "A new hope.", "A new soul for Canada.\"", "He pledged to open the Canadian North, to seek out its resources and make it a place for settlements.", "The conclusion to his speech expounded on what became known as \"The Vision\",This is the vision: One Canada.", "One Canada, where Canadians will have preserved to them the control of their own economic and political destiny.", "Sir John A. Macdonald saw a Canada from east to west: he opened the west.", "I see a new Canada—a Canada of the North.", "This is the vision!Pierre Sévigny, who would be elected an MP in 1958, recalled the gathering, \"When he had finished that speech, as he was walking to the door, I saw people kneel and kiss his coat.", "Not one, but many.", "People were in tears.", "People were delirious.", "And this happened many a time after.\"", "When Sévigny introduced Diefenbaker to a Montreal rally with the words ''\"Levez-vous, levez-vous, saluez votre chef!\"''", "(Rise, rise, salute your chief!)", "according to Postmaster General William Hamilton \"thousands and thousands of people, jammed into that auditorium, just tore the roof off in a frenzy.\"", "Michael Starr remembered, \"That was the most fantastic election ...", "I went into little places.", "Smoky Lake, Alberta, where nobody ever saw a minister.", "Canora, Saskatchewan.", "Every meeting was jammed ...", "The halls would be filled with people and sitting there in the front would be the first Ukrainian immigrants with shawls and hands gnarled from work ...", "I would switch to Ukrainian and the tears would start to run down their faces ...", "I don't care who says what won the election; it was the emotional aspect that really caught on.", "\"Pearson and his Liberals faltered badly in the campaign.", "The Liberal Party leader tried to make an issue of the fact that Diefenbaker had called a winter election, generally disfavoured in Canada due to travel difficulties.", "Pearson's objection cut little ice with voters, and served only to remind the electorate that the Liberals, at their convention, had called for an election.", "Pearson mocked Diefenbaker's northern plans as \"igloo-to-igloo\" communications, and was assailed by the Prime Minister for being condescending.", "The Liberal leader spoke to small, quiet crowds, which quickly left the halls when he was done.", "By election day, Pearson had no illusions that he might win the election, and hoped only to salvage 100 seats.", "The Liberals would be limited to less than half of that.On March 31, 1958, the Tories won what is still the largest majority (in terms of percentage of seats) in Canadian federal political history, winning 208 seats to the Liberals' 48, with the CCF winning 8 and Social Credit wiped out.", "The Progressive Conservatives won a majority of the votes and of the seats in every province except British Columbia (49.8%) and Newfoundland.", "Quebec's ''Union Nationale'' political machine had given the PC party little support, but with Quebec voters minded to support Diefenbaker, ''Union Nationale'' boss Maurice Duplessis threw the machinery of his party behind the Tories.==== Mandate (1958–1962) ====An economic downturn was beginning in Canada by 1958.Because of tax cuts instituted the previous year, the budget presented by the government predicted a small deficit for 1957–58, and a large one, $648 million, for the following year.", "Minister of Finance Fleming and Bank of Canada Governor James Coyne proposed that the wartime Victory Bond issue, which constituted two-thirds of the national debt and which was due to be redeemed by 1967, be refinanced to a longer term.", "After considerable indecision on Diefenbaker's part, a nationwide campaign took place, and 90% of the bonds were converted.", "However, this transaction led to an increase in the money supply, which in future years would hamper the government's efforts to respond to unemployment.As a trial lawyer, and in opposition, Diefenbaker had long been concerned with civil liberties.", "On July 1, 1960, Dominion Day, he introduced the ''Canadian Bill of Rights'' in Parliament, and the bill rapidly passed and was proclaimed on August 10, fulfilling a lifetime goal of Diefenbaker's, having begun drafting it as early as 1936.The document purported to guarantee fundamental freedoms, with special attention to the rights of the accused.", "However, as a mere piece of federal legislation, it could be amended by any other law, and the question of civil liberties was to a large extent a provincial matter, outside of federal jurisdiction.", "One lawyer remarked that the document provided rights for all Canadians, \"so long as they don't live in any of the provinces\".", "Diefenbaker had appointed the first First Nations member of the Senate, James Gladstone in January 1958, and in 1960, his government extended voting rights to all native people.", "In 1962, Diefenbaker's government eliminated race discrimination clauses in immigration laws.Diefenbaker pursued a \"One Canada\" policy, seeking equality of all Canadians.", "As part of that philosophy, he was unwilling to make special concessions to Quebec's francophones.", "Thomas Van Dusen, who served as Diefenbaker's executive assistant and wrote a book about him, characterized the leader's views on this issue:There must be no compromise with Canada's existence as a nation.", "Opting out, two flags, two pension plans, associated states, Two Nations and all the other baggage of political dualism was ushering Quebec out of Confederation on the instalment plan.", "He could not accept any theory of two nations, however worded, because it would make of those neither French nor English second-class citizens.Diefenbaker's disinclination to make concessions to Quebec, along with the disintegration of the ''Union Nationale'', the failure of the Tories to build an effective structure in Quebec, and Diefenbaker appointing few Quebecers to his Cabinet, none to senior positions, all led to an erosion of Progressive Conservative support in Quebec.", "Diefenbaker did recommend the appointment of the first French-Canadian governor general, Georges Vanier.Three \"Diefendollars\", used to mock Diefenbaker during the 1962 campaign.By mid-1961, differences in monetary policy led to open conflict with Bank of Canada Governor Coyne, who adhered to a tight money policy.", "Appointed by St. Laurent to a term expiring in December 1961, Coyne could only be dismissed before then by the passing of an Act of Parliament.", "Coyne defended his position by giving public speeches, to the dismay of the government.", "The Cabinet was also angered when it learned that Coyne and his board had passed amendments to the bank's pension scheme which greatly increased Coyne's pension, without publishing the amendments in the ''Canada Gazette'' as required by law.", "Negotiations between Minister of Finance Fleming and Coyne for the latter's resignation broke down, with the governor making the dispute public, and Diefenbaker sought to dismiss Coyne by legislation.", "Diefenbaker was able to get legislation to dismiss Coyne through the House, but the Liberal-controlled Senate invited Coyne to testify before one of its committees.", "After giving the governor a platform against the government, the committee then chose to take no further action, adding its view that Coyne had done nothing wrong.", "Once he had the opportunity to testify (denied him in the Commons), Coyne resigned, keeping his increased pension, and the government was extensively criticized in the press.By the time Diefenbaker called an election for June 18, 1962, the party had been damaged by loss of support in Quebec and in urban areas as voters grew disillusioned with Diefenbaker and the Tories.", "The PC campaign was hurt when the Bank of Canada was forced to devalue the Canadian dollar to US cents; it had previously hovered in the range from 95 cents to par with the United States dollar.", "Privately printed satirical \"Diefenbucks\" swept the country.", "On election day, the Progressive Conservatives lost 92 seats, but were still able to form a minority government.", "The New Democratic Party (the successor to the CCF) and Social Credit held the balance of power in the new Parliament.=== Foreign policy ======= Britain and the Commonwealth ====Diefenbaker stands to the right of Queen Elizabeth II at the 1960 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.Diefenbaker attended a meeting of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers in London shortly after taking office in 1957.He generated headlines by proposing that 15% of Canadian spending on US imports instead be spent on imports from the United Kingdom.", "Britain responded with an offer of a free trade agreement, which was rejected by the Canadians.", "As the Harold Macmillan government in the UK sought to enter the Common Market, Diefenbaker feared that Canadian exports to the UK would be threatened.", "He also believed that the mother country should place the Commonwealth first, and sought to discourage Britain's entry.", "The British were annoyed at Canadian interference.", "Britain's initial attempt to enter the Common Market was vetoed by French President Charles de Gaulle.Through 1959, the Diefenbaker government had a policy of not criticizing South Africa and its apartheid government.", "In this stance, Diefenbaker had the support of the Liberals but not that of CCF leader Hazen Argue.", "In 1960, however, the South Africans sought to maintain membership in the Commonwealth even if South African white voters chose to make the country a republic in a referendum scheduled for later that year.", "South Africa asked that year's Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference to allow it to remain in the Commonwealth regardless of the result of the referendum.", "Diefenbaker privately expressed his distaste for apartheid to South African External Affairs Minister Eric Louw and urged him to give the black and coloured people of South Africa at least the minimal representation they had originally had.", "Louw, attending the conference as Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd recovered from an assassination attempt, refused.", "The conference resolved that an advance decision would be interfering in South Africa's internal affairs.On October 5, 1960, South Africa's white voters decided to make the country a republic.", "At the Prime Ministers' Conference in 1961, Verwoerd formally applied for South Africa to remain in the Commonwealth.", "The prime ministers were divided; Diefenbaker broke the deadlock by proposing that South Africa only be re-admitted if it joined other states in condemning apartheid in principle.", "Once it became clear that South Africa's membership would be rejected, Verwoerd withdrew his country's application to remain in the Commonwealth and left the group.", "According to Peter Newman, this was \"Diefenbaker's most important contribution to international politics ... Diefenbaker flew home, a hero.", "\"==== Policy towards the United States ========= Ike and John: the Eisenhower years =====Diefenbaker (seated left) and US President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the signing of the Columbia River Treaty, 1961.American officials were uncomfortable with Diefenbaker's initial election, believing they had heard undertones of anti-Americanism in the campaign.", "After years of the Liberals, one US State Department official noted, \"We'll be dealing with an unknown quantity.\"", "US officials viewed Diefenbaker's 1958 landslide with disappointment; they knew and liked Pearson from his years in diplomacy and felt the Liberal Party leader would be more likely to institute pro-American policies.", "However, US President Dwight Eisenhower took pains to foster good relations with Diefenbaker.", "The two men found much in common, from Western farm backgrounds to a love of fishing, and Diefenbaker had an admiration for war leaders such as Eisenhower and Churchill.", "Diefenbaker wrote in his memoirs, \"I might add that President Eisenhower and I were from our first meeting on an 'Ike–John' basis, and that we were as close as the nearest telephone.\"", "The Eisenhower–Diefenbaker relationship was sufficiently strong that the touchy Canadian Prime Minister was prepared to overlook slights.", "When Eisenhower addressed Parliament in October 1958, he downplayed trade concerns that Diefenbaker had publicly expressed.", "Diefenbaker said nothing and took Eisenhower fishing.Diefenbaker had approved plans to join the United States in what became known as NORAD, an integrated air defence system, in mid-1957.Despite Liberal misgivings that Diefenbaker had committed Canada to the system before consulting either the Cabinet or Parliament, Pearson and his followers voted with the government to approve NORAD in June 1958.In 1959, the Diefenbaker government cancelled the development and manufacture of the Avro CF-105 Arrow.", "The Arrow was a supersonic jet interceptor built by Avro Canada in Malton, Ontario, to defend Canada in the event of a Soviet attack.", "The interceptor had been under development since 1953, and had suffered from many cost overruns and complications.", "In 1955, the RCAF stated it would need only nine squadrons of Arrows, down from 20, as originally proposed.", "According to C. D. Howe, the former minister responsible for postwar reconstruction, the St. Laurent government had serious misgivings about continuing the Arrow program, and planned to discuss its termination after the 1957 election.", "In the run-up to the 1958 election, with three Tory-held seats at risk in the Malton area, the Diefenbaker government authorized further funding.", "Even though the first test flights of the Arrow were successful, the US government was unwilling to commit to a purchase of aircraft from Canada.", "In September 1958, Diefenbaker warned that the Arrow would come under complete review in six months.", "The company began seeking out other projects including a US-funded \"saucer\" program that became the VZ-9 Avrocar, and also mounted a public relations offensive urging that the Arrow go into full production.", "On February 20, 1959, the Cabinet decided to cancel the Avro Arrow, following an earlier decision to permit the United States to build two Bomarc missile bases in Canada.", "The company immediately dismissed its 14,000 employees, blaming Diefenbaker for the firings, though it rehired 2,500 employees to fulfil existing obligations.Although the two leaders had a strong relationship, by 1960 US officials were becoming concerned by what they viewed as Canadian procrastination on vital issues, such as whether Canada should join the Organization of American States (OAS).", "Talks on these issues in June 1960 produced little in results.", "Diefenbaker hoped that US Vice President Richard Nixon would win the 1960 US presidential election, but when Nixon's Democratic rival, Senator John F. Kennedy won the race, he sent Senator Kennedy a note of congratulations.", "Kennedy did not respond until Canadian officials asked what had become of Diefenbaker's note, two weeks later.", "Diefenbaker, for whom such correspondence was very meaningful, was annoyed at the President-elect's slowness to respond.", "In January 1961, Diefenbaker visited Washington to sign the Columbia River Treaty.", "However, with only days remaining in the Eisenhower administration, little else could be accomplished.===== Bilateral antipathy: the Kennedy administration =====Diefenbaker (front right) at the US Naval base in Argentia, Newfoundland during the 1962 campaign.Kennedy and Diefenbaker started off well but matters soon worsened.", "When the two met in Washington on February 20, Diefenbaker was impressed by Kennedy, and invited him to visit Ottawa.", "Kennedy, however, told his aides that he never wanted \"to see the boring son of a bitch again\".", "The Ottawa visit began awkwardly.", "Kennedy accidentally left behind a briefing note suggesting he \"push\" Diefenbaker on several issues, including the decision to accept nuclear weapons on Canadian soil, which bitterly divided the Canadian Cabinet.", "Diefenbaker was also annoyed by Kennedy's speech to Parliament, in which he urged Canada to join the OAS (which Diefenbaker had already rejected), and by the President spending most of his time talking to Leader of the Opposition Pearson at the formal dinner.", "Both Kennedy and his wife Jackie were bored by Diefenbaker's Churchill anecdotes at lunch, stories that Jackie Kennedy later described as \"painful\".Diefenbaker was initially inclined to go along with Kennedy's request that nuclear weapons be stationed on Canadian soil as part of NORAD.", "However, when an August 3, 1961, letter from Kennedy which urged this was leaked to the media, Diefenbaker was angered and withdrew his support.", "The Prime Minister was also influenced by a massive demonstration against nuclear weapons, which took place on Parliament Hill.", "Diefenbaker was handed a petition containing 142,000 names.By 1962, the American government was becoming increasingly concerned at the lack of a commitment from Canada to take nuclear weapons.", "The interceptors and Bomarc missiles with which Canada was being supplied as a NORAD member were either of no use or of greatly diminished utility without nuclear devices.", "Canadian and American military officers launched a quiet campaign to make this known to the press, and to advocate Canadian agreement to acquire the warheads.", "Diefenbaker was also upset when Pearson was invited to the White House for a dinner for Nobel Prize winners in April, and met with the President privately for 40 minutes.", "When the Prime Minister met with retiring American Ambassador Livingston Merchant, he angrily disclosed the paper Kennedy had left behind, and hinted that he might make use of it in the upcoming election campaign.", "Merchant's report caused consternation in Washington, and the ambassador was sent back to see Diefenbaker again.", "This time, he found Diefenbaker calm, and the Prime Minister pledged not to use the memo, and to give Merchant advance word if he changed his mind.", "Canada appointed a new ambassador to Washington, Charles Ritchie, who on arrival received a cool reception from Kennedy and found that the squabble was affecting progress on a number of issues.Kennedy was careful to avoid overt favouritism during the 1962 Canadian election campaign.", "Several times during the campaign, Diefenbaker stated that the Kennedy administration desired his defeat because he refused to \"bow down to Washington\".", "After Diefenbaker was returned with a minority, Washington continued to press for acceptance of nuclear arms, but Diefenbaker, faced with a split between Defence Minister Douglas Harkness and External Affairs Minister Howard Green on the question, continued to stall, hoping that time and events would invite consensus.When the Cuban Missile Crisis erupted in October 1962, Kennedy chose not to consult with Diefenbaker before making decisions on what actions to take.", "The US president sent former Ambassador Merchant to Ottawa to inform the Prime Minister as to the content of the speech that Kennedy was to make on television.", "Diefenbaker was upset at both the lack of consultation and the fact that he was given less than two hours advance word.", "He was angered again when the US government released a statement stating that it had Canada's full support.", "In a statement to the Commons, Diefenbaker proposed sending representatives of neutral nations to Cuba to verify the American allegations, which Washington took to mean that he was questioning Kennedy's word.", "When American forces went to a heightened alert, DEFCON 3, Diefenbaker was slow to order Canadian forces to match it.", "Harkness and the Chiefs of Staff had Canadian forces clandestinely go to that alert status anyway, and Diefenbaker eventually authorized it.", "The crisis ended without war, and polls found that Kennedy's actions were widely supported by Canadians.", "Diefenbaker was severely criticized in the media.=== Downfall ===Button urging Diefenbaker's re-electionOn January 3, 1963, NATO Supreme Commander General Lauris Norstad visited Ottawa, in one of a series of visits to member nations prior to his retirement.", "At a news conference, Norstad stated that if Canada did not accept nuclear weapons, it would not be fulfilling its commitments to NATO.", "Newspapers across Canada criticized Diefenbaker, who was convinced the statement was part of a plot by Kennedy to bring down his government.", "Although the Liberals had been previously indecisive on the question of nuclear weapons, on January 12, Pearson made a speech stating that the government should live up to its commitments.With the Cabinet still divided between adherents of Green and Harkness, Diefenbaker made a speech in the Commons on January 25 that Fleming (by then Minister of Justice) termed \"a model of obfuscation\".", "Harkness was initially convinced that Diefenbaker was saying that he would support nuclear warheads in Canada.", "After talking to the press, he realized that his view of the speech was not universally shared, and he asked Diefenbaker for clarification.", "Diefenbaker, however, continued to try to avoid taking a firm position.", "On January 30, the US State Department issued a press release suggesting that Diefenbaker had made misstatements in his Commons speech.", "For the first time ever, Canada recalled its ambassador to Washington as a diplomatic protest.", "Though all parties condemned the State Department action, the three parties outside the government demanded that Diefenbaker take a stand on the nuclear weapon issue.The bitter divisions within the Cabinet continued, with Diefenbaker deliberating whether to call an election on the issue of American interference in Canadian politics.", "At least six Cabinet ministers favoured Diefenbaker's ouster.", "Finally, at a dramatic Cabinet meeting on Sunday, February 3, Harkness told Diefenbaker that the Prime Minister no longer had the confidence of the Canadian people, and resigned.", "Diefenbaker asked ministers supporting him to stand, and when only about half did, stated that he was going to see the Governor General to resign, and that Fleming would be the next Prime Minister.", "Green called his Cabinet colleagues a \"nest of traitors\", but eventually cooler heads prevailed, and the Prime Minister was urged to return and to fight the motion of non-confidence scheduled for the following day.", "Harkness, however, persisted in his resignation.", "Negotiations with the Social Credit Party, which had enough votes to save the government, failed, and the government fell, 142–111.Two members of the government resigned the day after the government lost the vote.", "As the campaign opened, the Tories trailed in the polls by 15 points.", "To Pearson and his Liberals, the only question was how large a majority they would win.", "Peter Stursberg, who wrote two books about the Diefenbaker years, stated of that campaign:For the old Diefenbaker was in full cry.", "All the agony of the disintegration of his government was gone, and he seemed to be a giant revived by his contact with the people.", "This was Diefenbaker's finest election.", "He was virtually alone on the hustings.", "Even such loyalists as Gordon Churchill had to stick close to their own bailiwicks, where they were fighting for their political lives.Though the White House maintained public neutrality, privately Kennedy made it clear he desired a Liberal victory.", "Kennedy lent Lou Harris, his pollster to work for the Liberals again.", "On election day, April 8, 1963, the Liberals claimed 129 seats to the Tories' 95, five seats short of an absolute majority.", "Diefenbaker held to power for several days, until six Quebec Social Credit MPs signed a statement that Pearson should form the government.", "These votes would be enough to give Pearson support of a majority of the House of Commons, and Diefenbaker resigned.", "The six MPs repudiated the statement within days.", "Nonetheless, Pearson formed a government with the support of the NDP." ], [ "Later years (1963–1979)", "=== Return to opposition ===Diefenbaker continued to lead the Progressive Conservatives, again as Leader of the Opposition.", "In November 1963, upon hearing of Kennedy's assassination, the Tory leader addressed the Commons, stating, \"A beacon of freedom has gone.", "Whatever the disagreement, to me he stood as the embodiment of freedom, not only in his own country, but throughout the world.\"", "In the 1964 Great Canadian Flag Debate, Diefenbaker led the unsuccessful opposition to the Maple Leaf flag, which the Liberals pushed for after the rejection of Pearson's preferred design showing three maple leaves.", "Diefenbaker preferred the existing Canadian Red Ensign or another design showing symbols of the nation's heritage.", "He dismissed the adopted design, with a single red maple leaf and two red bars, as \"a flag that Peruvians might salute\", a reference to Peru's red-white-red tricolour.", "At the request of Quebec Tory Léon Balcer, who feared devastating PC losses in the province at the next election, Pearson imposed closure, and the bill passed with the majority singing \"O Canada\" as Diefenbaker led the dissenters in \"God Save the Queen\".In 1966, the Liberals began to make an issue of the Munsinger affair—two officials of the Diefenbaker government had slept with a woman suspected of being a Soviet spy.", "In what Diefenbaker saw as a partisan attack, Pearson established a one-man Royal Commission, which, according to Diefenbaker biographer Smith, indulged in \"three months of reckless political inquisition\".", "By the time the commission issued its report, Diefenbaker and other former ministers had long since withdrawn their counsel from the proceedings.", "The report faulted Diefenbaker for not dismissing the ministers in question, but found no actual security breach.There were calls for Diefenbaker's retirement, especially from the Bay Street wing of the party as early as 1964.Diefenbaker initially beat back attempts to remove him without trouble.", "When Pearson called an election in 1965 in the expectation of receiving a majority, Diefenbaker ran an aggressive campaign.", "The Liberals fell two seats short of a majority, and the Tories improved their position slightly at the expense of the smaller parties.", "After the election, some Tories, led by party president Dalton Camp, began a quiet campaign to oust Diefenbaker.In the absence of a formal leadership review process, Camp was able to stage a de facto review by running for re-election as party president on the platform of holding a leadership convention within a year.", "His campaign at the Tories' 1966 convention occurred amidst allegations of vote rigging, violence, and seating arrangements designed to ensure that when Diefenbaker addressed the delegates, television viewers would see unmoved delegates in the first ten rows.", "Other Camp supporters tried to shout Diefenbaker down.", "Camp was successful in being re-elected thereby forcing a leadership convention for 1967.Diefenbaker initially made no announcement as to whether he would stand, but angered by a resolution at the party's policy conference which spoke of ''\"deux nations\"'' or \"two founding peoples\" (as opposed to Diefenbaker's \"One Canada\"), decided to seek to retain his leadership.", "Although Diefenbaker entered at the last minute to stand as a candidate for the leadership, he finished fifth on each of the first three ballots, and withdrew from the contest, which was won by Nova Scotia Premier Robert Stanfield.Diefenbaker addressed the delegates before Stanfield spoke:My course has come to an end.", "I have fought your battles, and you have given me that loyalty that led us to victory more often than the party has ever had since the days of Sir John A. Macdonald.", "In my retiring, I have nothing to withdraw in my desire to see Canada, my country and your country, one nation.=== Final years and death ===Diefenbaker was embittered by his loss of the party leadership.", "Pearson announced his retirement in December 1967, and Diefenbaker forged a wary relationship of mutual respect with Pearson's successor, Pierre Trudeau.", "Trudeau called a general election for June 1968; Stanfield asked Diefenbaker to join him at a rally in Saskatoon, which Diefenbaker refused, although the two appeared at hastily arranged photo opportunities.", "Trudeau obtained the majority against Stanfield that Pearson had never been able to obtain against Diefenbaker, as the PC party lost 25 seats, 20 of them in the West.", "The former Prime Minister, though stating, \"The Conservative Party has suffered a calamitous disaster\" in a CBC interview, could not conceal his delight at Stanfield's humiliation, and especially gloated at the defeat of Camp, who made an unsuccessful attempt to enter the Commons.", "Diefenbaker was easily returned for Prince Albert.Although Stanfield worked to try to unify the party, Diefenbaker and his loyalists proved difficult to reconcile.", "The division in the party broke out in well-publicised dissensions, as when Diefenbaker called on Progressive Conservative MPs to break with Stanfield's position on the Official Languages bill, and nearly half the caucus voted against their leader's will or abstained.", "In addition to his parliamentary activities, Diefenbaker travelled extensively and began work on his memoirs, which were published in three volumes between 1975 and 1977.Pearson died of cancer in 1972, and Diefenbaker was asked if he had kind words for his old rival.", "Diefenbaker shook his head and said only, \"He shouldn't have won the Nobel Prize.", "\"By 1972, Diefenbaker had grown disillusioned with Trudeau, and campaigned wholeheartedly for the Tories in that year's election.", "Diefenbaker was re-elected comfortably in his home riding, and the Progressive Conservatives came within two seats of matching the Liberal total.", "Diefenbaker was relieved both that Trudeau had been humbled and that Stanfield had been denied power.", "Trudeau regained his majority two years later in an election that saw Diefenbaker, by then the only living former Prime Minister, have his personal majority grow to 11,000 votes.In the 1976 New Year Honours, Diefenbaker was created a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour, an honour bestowed as the personal gift of the Sovereign.", "After a long illness, Olive Diefenbaker died on December 22, a loss which plunged Diefenbaker into despair.Joe Clark succeeded Stanfield as party leader in 1976, but as Clark had supported the leadership review, Diefenbaker held a grudge against him.", "Diefenbaker had supported Claude Wagner for leader, but when Clark won, stated that Clark would make \"a remarkable leader of this party\".", "However, Diefenbaker repeatedly criticized his party leader, to such an extent that Stanfield publicly asked Diefenbaker \"to stop sticking a knife into Mr. Clark\"—a request Diefenbaker did not agree to.", "According to columnist Charles Lynch, Diefenbaker regarded Clark as an upstart and a pipsqueak.The Diefenbaker grave, close by the Diefenbaker CentreIn 1978, Diefenbaker announced that he would stand in one more election, and under the slogan \"Diefenbaker—Now More Than Ever\", weathered a campaign the following year during which he apparently suffered a mild stroke, although the media were told he was bedridden with influenza.", "In the May election Diefenbaker defeated NDP candidate Stan Hovdebo (who, after Diefenbaker's death, would win the seat in a by-election) by 4,000 votes.", "Clark had defeated Trudeau, though only gaining a minority government, and Diefenbaker returned to Ottawa to witness the swearing-in, still unreconciled to his old opponents among Clark's ministers.", "Two months later, Diefenbaker died of a heart attack in his study about a month before his 84th birthday.Diefenbaker had extensively planned his funeral in consultation with government officials.", "He lay in state in the Hall of Honour in Parliament for two and a half days; 10,000 Canadians passed by his casket.", "The Maple Leaf Flag on the casket was partially obscured by the Red Ensign.", "After the service, his body was taken by train on a slow journey to its final destination, Saskatoon; along the route, many Canadians lined the tracks to watch the funeral train pass.", "In Winnipeg, an estimated 10,000 people waited at midnight in a one-kilometre line to file past the casket which made the trip draped in a Canadian flag and Diefenbaker's beloved Red Ensign.", "In Prince Albert, thousands of those he had represented filled the square in front of the railroad station to salute the only man from Saskatchewan ever to become Prime Minister.", "His coffin was accompanied by that of his wife Olive, disinterred from temporary burial in Ottawa.", "Prime Minister Clark delivered the eulogy, paying tribute to \"an indomitable man, born to a minority group, raised in a minority region, leader of a minority party, who went on to change the very nature of his country, and change it forever\".", "John and Olive Diefenbaker rest outside the Diefenbaker Centre, built to house his papers, on the campus of the University of Saskatchewan." ], [ "Legacy", "alt=Bronze statue of Diefenbaker, taken from one side.", "He is depicted wearing an overcoat over a suit.", "He carries the Bill of Rights under his arm.", "Patrick Kyba and Wendy Green-Finlay report: Most of those who have written about John Diefenbaker have concluded that he was a failure as a leader, or that, while he may have had some successes, he never fully lived up to his promise and, therefore, must be considered a failure.Historian Conrad Black says that Diefenbaker: was not a successful prime minister; he was a jumble of attitudes but had little in the way of policy, was a disorganized administrator, and was inconsistent, indecisive, and not infrequently irrational.", "But he was very formidable; a deadly campaigner, an idiosyncratic but often galvanizing public speaker, a brilliant parliamentarian, and a man of many fine qualities.", "He was absolutely honest financially, a passionate supporter of the average and the underprivileged and disadvantaged person, a fierce opponent of any racial or religious or socioeconomic discrimination....", "According to Robert Bothwell:By the time Diefenbaker left office, his conduct of foreign policy was reviled by an important and growing number of Canadians, while his relations with both the Americans and the British were disastrous.", "Canada's influence in the world was declining....Overseas, at Canada's NATO garrisons, the prime minister's portrait was used as a dartboard in military messes.Some of Diefenbaker's policies did not survive the 16 years of Liberal government that followed his fall.", "By the end of 1963, the first of the Bomarc warheads entered Canada, where they remained until the last were finally phased out during John Turner's brief government in 1984.Diefenbaker's decision to have Canada remain outside the OAS was not reversed by Pearson, and it was not until 1989, under the Tory government of Brian Mulroney, that Canada joined.But several defining features of modern Canada can be traced back to Diefenbaker.", "Diefenbaker's Bill of Rights remains in effect, and signalled the change in Canadian political culture that would eventually bring about the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which came into force after his death.Diefenbaker has had several locations named in his honour, some before his 1979 death (particularly in his home province of Saskatchewan, including Lake Diefenbaker, the largest lake in Southern Saskatchewan, and the Diefenbaker Bridge in Prince Albert), others after (in 1993, Saskatoon renamed its airport the Saskatoon John G. Diefenbaker International Airport).", "The city of Prince Albert continues to maintain the house he resided in from 1947 to 1975 as a public museum known as Diefenbaker House; it was designated a National Historic Site in 2018.Diefenbaker reinvigorated a moribund party system in Canada.", "Clark and Mulroney, two men who, as students, worked on and were inspired by his 1957 triumph, became the only other Progressive Conservatives to lead the party to election triumphs.", "Diefenbaker's biographer, Denis Smith, wrote of him, \"In politics he had little more than two years of success in the midst of failure and frustration, but he retained a core of deeply committed loyalists to the end of his life and beyond.", "The federal Conservative Party that he had revived remained dominant in the prairie provinces for 25 years after he left the leadership.\"", "The Harper government, believing that Tory prime ministers have been given short shrift in the naming of Canadian places and institutions, named the former Ottawa City Hall, now a federal office building, the John G. Diefenbaker Building.", "It also gave Diefenbaker's name to a human rights award and an icebreaking vessel.", "Harper often invoked Diefenbaker's northern vision in his speeches.Conservative Senator Marjory LeBreton worked in Diefenbaker's office during his second time as Opposition Leader, and has said of him, \"He brought a lot of firsts to Canada, but a lot of it has been air-brushed from history by those who followed.\"", "Historian Michael Bliss, who published a survey of the Canadian Prime Ministers, wrote of Diefenbaker:From the distance of our times, Diefenbaker's role as a prairie populist who tried to revolutionize the Conservative Party begins to loom larger than his personal idiosyncrasies.", "The difficulties he faced in the form of significant historical dilemmas seem less easy to resolve than Liberals and hostile journalists opined at the time.", "If Diefenbaker defies rehabilitation, he can at least be appreciated.", "He stood for a fascinating and still relevant combination of individual and egalitarian values ...", "But his contemporaries were also right in seeing some kind of disorder near the centre of his personality and his prime-ministership.", "The problems of leadership, authority, power, ego, and a mad time in history overwhelmed the prairie politician with the odd name." ], [ "Honorary degrees", "Diefenbaker received several honorary degrees in recognition of his political career: Location Date University Degree Ontario October 1952 McMaster University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Nova Scotia 1956 Acadia University Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) Quebec October 7, 1957 McGill University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Nova Scotia February 12, 1958 Saint Mary's University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Saskatchewan May 9, 1958 University of Saskatchewan Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) British Columbia September 25, 1958 University of British Columbia Doctor of Laws (LL.D) New Brunswick October 1958 University of New Brunswick Doctor of Laws (LL.D) India November 11, 1958 University of Delhi Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Ontario May 15, 1959 Royal Military College of Canada Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Ontario May 30, 1959 University of Western Ontario Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) Ontario 1959 University of Toronto Doctor of Laws (LL.D) New Jersey 1959 Princeton University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Ontario Fall 1959 University of Windsor Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Ontario 1960 Queen's University at Kingston Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Ontario 1960 University of Ottawa Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Newfoundland and Labrador October 1961 Memorial University of Newfoundland Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Nova Scotia 1961 Dalhousie University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Ontario November 1968 Waterloo Lutheran University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Alberta Fall 1974 University of Alberta Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Prince Edward Island 1977 University of Prince Edward Island Pakistan 1969 University of the Punjab Doctor of Laws (LL.D)" ], [ "See also", "* \"Dief Will Be the Chief Again\"* Diefenbunker* List of people from Prince Albert" ], [ "References", "=== Explanatory notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * Bothwell, Robert.", "''Alliance and Illusion: Canada and the world 1945-1984'' (2007)* * * * Granatstein, J. L. ''Canada 1957-1967: The years of uncertainty and innovation'' (1986), the major scholarly survey* Kyba, Patrick.", "and Wendy Green-Finlay, \"John Diefenbaker as prime minister,\" in D. C. Story and R. Bruce Shepard, eds.", "''The Diefenbaker Legacy: Canadian Politics, Law and Society since 1957'' (1998): 57–70.", "* McKercher, Asa.", "\"Diefenbaker's World: One Canada and the History of Canadian–American Relations, 1961–63.\"", "''The Historian'' 75.1 (2013): 94–120, online* * * * * Prymak, Thomas, M. \"Cold War Clash, New York City, September-October 1960: Comrade Khrushchev vs. 'Dief the Chief, ''International History Review'', vol.", "45, no.", "1 (2023), 134–51.", "* Robinson, H. Basil.", "''Diefenbaker's World: A Populist in Foreign Affairs'' (U of Toronto Press, 1989)* * * Spencer, Dick (1994).", "''Trumpets and Drums: John Diefenbaker on the Campaign Trail''.", "* * * * === Online sources ===* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Bothwell, Robert, Ian Drummond, and John English.", "\"The Diefenbaker Years 1957-63.\"", "in ''Canada Since 1945'' (University of Toronto Press, 2018).", "pp 181–252; university textbook* Boyko, John.", "''Cold fire: Kennedy's northern front'' (Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2016)* Carter, Mark.", "\"Diefenbaker's Bill of Rights and the Counter-Majoritarian Difficulty: The Notwithstanding Clause and Fundamental Justice as Touchstones for the Charter Debate.\"", "''Saskatchewan Law Review'' 82 (2019): 121+ online.", "* Cavell, Janice, and Ryan M. Touhey, eds.", "''Reassessing the Rogue Tory: Canadian Foreign Relations in the Diefenbaker Era'' (UBC Press, 2018).", "* Empey, Sarah.", "\"John G. Diefenbaker and Cross Border Relations During the Bomarc Missile Crisis.\"", "''Waterloo Historical Review'' 8 (2016).", "online* Hilliker, John.", "\"The Politicians and the 'Pearsonalities': The Diefenbaker Government and the Conduct of Canadian External Relations\", in ''Canadian Foreign Policy: Historical Readings'' ed.", "J. L. Granatstein (Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman, 1993), pp 152–167.", "* Kyba, Patrick.", "''Alvin: A Biography of the Honourable Alvin Hamilton, PC'' (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 1989).", "* McKercher, Asa.", "\"No, Prime Minister: Revisiting Diefenbaker and the 'Pearsonalities'.\"", "''Canadian Journal of History'' 52.2 (2017): 264–289.online* McKercher, Asa.", "\"Sound and Fury: Diefenbaker, Human Rights, and Canadian Foreign Policy.\"", "''Canadian Historical Review'' 97.2 (2016): 165–194.online* McKercher, Asa.", "\"The trouble with self-determination: Canada, Soviet colonialism and the United Nations, 1960–1963.\"", "''The International Journal of Human Rights'' 20.3 (2016): 343–364.", "* McMahon.", "Patricia I.", "''Essence of Indecision: Diefenbaker's Nuclear Policy, 1957–1963'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2009) online review* Molinaro, Dennis.", "\"'Calculated Diplomacy': John Diefenbaker and the Origins of Canada's Cuba Policy.\"", "in ''Our place in the sun'' (University of Toronto Press, 2016) pp. 75–95.", "* Manulak, Daniel.", "\"Blood Brothers: Moral Emotion, the Afro-Asian-Canadian Bloc, and South Africa's Expulsion from the Commonwealth, 1960–1.\"", "''Canadian Historical Review'' (2021): e20200041.", "* Morris-Hurl, Rebecca.", "\"Diefenbaker's Canada: A Vision for Human Rights and Multiculturalism in the Speeches from the Throne.\"", "in ''Canada and Speeches from the Throne'' (2020).", "online* Neary, Peter.", "\"High Commissioner JJS Garner on Joey Smallwood versus John Diefenbaker, 1959.\"", "''Newfoundland and Labrador Studies'' 32.1 (2017): 229–240.online* Parker, Oliver.", "\"Canadian Concerns of a Different Kind of Brexit: Britain's First Application to the EEC and Canada's Commonwealth Appeal.\"", "''The Round Table'' 108.1 (2019): 81–85.", "* Story, D. C. and R. Bruce Shepard, eds.", "''Diefenbaker legacy: Canadian politics, law and society since 1957''.", "(Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1998).", "13 essays by experts.", "* Stevenson, Michael D. \"George Drew, the Law of the Sea, and the Diefenbaker Government, 1957-1963.\"", "''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 31.2 (2020): 326–349.", "* Urban, Michael Crawford.", "\"A fearful asymmetry: Diefenbaker, the Canadian military and trust during the Cuban missile crisis.\"", "''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' 21.3 (2015): 257–271.online* Wiseman, Nelson.", "\"Minority Governments: The Diefenbaker-Pearson Years.\"", "in ''Partisan Odysseys'' (University of Toronto Press, 2020) pp. 67–82.", "* Prymak, Thomas M., \"Cold War Clash, New York City, September–October 1960: Comrade Khrushchev vs. Dief the Chief,\" ''International History Review,'' no.", "1 (January, 2023), 134–51." ], [ "External links", "* Political Biography from the Library of Parliament, and Diefenbaker's electoral results* Diefenbaker Homestead* CBC Digital Archives – Dief the Chief* 1960 Commencement Address at DePauw University* ''Dief'', documentary film, National Film Board of Canada* \"Dief the Chief\" , entry in ''Parli'', the dictionary of Canadian politics" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jean-Michel Basquiat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean-Michel Basquiat''' (; December 22, 1960 – August 12, 1988) was an American artist who rose to success during the 1980s as part of the Neo-expressionism movement.Basquiat first achieved notoriety in the late 1970s as part of the graffiti duo SAMO, alongside Al Diaz, writing enigmatic epigrams all over Manhattan, particularly in the cultural hotbed of the Lower East Side where rap, punk, and street art coalesced into early hip-hop music culture.", "By the early 1980s, his paintings were being exhibited in galleries and museums internationally.", "At 21, Basquiat became the youngest artist to ever take part in Documenta in Kassel, Germany.", "At 22, he was one of the youngest to exhibit at the Whitney Biennial in New York.", "The Whitney Museum of American Art held a retrospective of his artwork in 1992.Basquiat's art focused on dichotomies such as wealth versus poverty, integration versus segregation, and inner versus outer experience.", "He appropriated poetry, drawing, and painting, and married text and image, abstraction, figuration, and historical information mixed with contemporary critique.", "He used social commentary in his paintings as a tool for introspection and for identifying with his experiences in the black community, as well as attacks on power structures and systems of racism.Since his death at the age of 27 in 1988, Basquiat's work has steadily increased in value.", "In 2017, ''Untitled'', a 1982 painting depicting a black skull with red and yellow rivulets, sold for a record-breaking $110.5 million, becoming one of the most expensive paintings ever purchased." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life: 1960–1977===Basquiat was born on December 22, 1960, in Park Slope, Brooklyn, New York City, the second of four children to Matilde Basquiat (née Andrades, 1934–2008) and Gérard Basquiat (1930–2013).", "He had an older brother, Max, who died shortly before his birth, and two younger sisters, Lisane (b.", "1964) and Jeanine (b.", "1967).", "His father was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti and his mother was born in Brooklyn to Puerto Rican parents.", "He was raised Catholic.Matilde instilled a love for art in her young son by taking him to local art museums and enrolling him as a junior member of the Brooklyn Museum of Art.", "Basquiat was a precocious child who learned to read and write by the age of four.", "His mother encouraged her son's artistic talent and he often tried to draw his favorite cartoons.", "In 1967, he started attending Saint Ann's School, a private school.", "There he met his friend Marc Prozzo and together they created a children's book, written by Basquiat at the age of seven and illustrated by Prozzo.In 1968, Basquiat was hit by a car while playing in the street at the age of seven.", "His arm was broken and he suffered several internal injuries, which required a splenectomy.", "While he was hospitalized, his mother brought him a copy of ''Gray's Anatomy'' to keep him occupied.", "After his parents separated that year, Basquiat and his sisters were raised by their father.", "His mother was admitted to a psychiatric hospital when he was ten and thereafter spent her life in and out of institutions.", "By the age of eleven, Basquiat was fluent in French, Spanish and English, and an avid reader of all three languages.Basquiat's family resided in the Brooklyn neighborhood of Boerum Hill and then in 1974, moved to Miramar, Puerto Rico.", "When they returned to Brooklyn in 1976, Basquiat attended Edward R. Murrow High School.", "He struggled to deal with his mother's instability and rebelled as a teenager.", "He ran away from home at 15 when his father caught him smoking cannabis in his room.", "He slept on park benches at Washington Square Park and took LSD.", "Eventually, his father spotted him with a shaved head and called the police to bring him home.In the 10th grade, he enrolled at City-As-School, an alternative high school in Manhattan, home to many artistic students who found conventional schooling difficult.", "He would skip school with his friends, but still received encouragement from his teachers, and began to write and illustrate for the school newspaper.", "He developed the character SAMO to endorse a faux religion.", "The saying \"SAMO\" had started as a private joke between Basquiat and his schoolmate Al Diaz, as an abbreviation for the phrase \"Same old shit.\"", "They drew a series of cartoons for their school paper before and after using SAMO©.===Street art and Gray: 1978–1980=== In May 1978, Basquiat and Diaz began spray painting graffiti on buildings in Lower Manhattan.", "Working under the pseudonym SAMO, they inscribed poetic and satirical advertising slogans such as \"SAMO© AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO GOD.\"", "In June 1978, Basquiat was expelled from City-As-School for pieing the principal.", "At 17, his father kicked him out of the house when he decided to drop out of school.", "He worked for the Unique Clothing Warehouse in NoHo while continuing to create graffiti at night.", "On December 11, 1978, ''The Village Voice'' published an article about the SAMO graffiti.In 1979, Basquiat appeared on the live public-access television show ''TV Party'' hosted by Glenn O'Brien.", "Basquiat and O'Brien formed a friendship and he made regular appearances on the show over the next few years.", "Eventually, he began spending time writing graffiti around the School of Visual Arts, where he befriended students John Sex, Kenny Scharf, and Keith Haring.In April 1979, Basquiat met Michael Holman at the Canal Zone Party and they founded the noise rock band Test Pattern, which was later renamed Gray.", "Other members of Gray included Shannon Dawson, Nick Taylor, Wayne Clifford and Vincent Gallo.", "They performed at nightclubs such as Max's Kansas City, CBGB, Hurrah and the Mudd Club.Around this time, Basquiat lived in the East Village with his friend Alexis Adler, a Barnard biology graduate.", "He often copied diagrams of chemical compounds borrowed from Adler's science textbooks.", "She documented Basquiat's creative explorations as he transformed the floors, walls, doors and furniture into his artworks.", "He also made postcards with his friend Jennifer Stein.", "While selling postcards in SoHo, Basquiat spotted Andy Warhol at W.P.A.", "restaurant with art critic Henry Geldzahler.", "He sold Warhol a postcard titled ''Stupid Games, Bad Ideas''.SAMO Xerox poster (1979)In October 1979, at Arleen Schloss's open space called A's, Basquiat showed his SAMO montages using color Xerox copies of his works.", "Schloss allowed Basquiat to use the space to create his \"MAN MADE\" clothing, which were painted upcycled garments.", "In November 1979, costume designer Patricia Field carried his clothing line in her upscale boutique on 8th Street in the East Village.", "Field also displayed his sculptures in the store window.When Basquiat and Diaz had a falling out, he inscribed \"SAMO IS DEAD\" on the walls of SoHo buildings in 1980.In June 1980, he appeared in ''High Times'' magazine, his first national publication, as part of an article titled \"Graffiti '80: The State of the Outlaw Art\" by Glenn O'Brien.", "Later that year, he began filming O'Brien's independent film ''Downtown 81'' (2000), originally titled ''New York Beat,'' which featured some of Gray's recordings on its soundtrack.===Rise to fame and success: 1980–1986===In June 1980, Basquiat participated in ''The Times Square Show'', a multi-artist exhibition sponsored by Collaborative Projects Incorporated (Colab) and Fashion Moda.", "He was noticed by various critics and curators, including Jeffrey Deitch, who mentioned him in an article titled \"Report from Times Square\" in the September 1980 issue of ''Art in America''.", "In February 1981, Basquiat participated in the ''New York/New Wave'' exhibition, curated by Diego Cortez at New York's P.S.1.Italian artist Sandro Chia recommended Basquiat's work to Italian dealer Emilio Mazzoli, who promptly bought 10 paintings for Basquiat to have a show at his gallery in Modena, Italy in May 1981.In December 1981, art critic Rene Ricard published \"The Radiant Child\" in ''Artforum'' magazine, the first extensive article on Basquiat.", "During this period, Basquiat painted many pieces on objects he found in the streets, such as discarded doors.Basquiat sold his first painting, ''Cadillac Moon'' (1981), to Debbie Harry, lead singer of the punk rock band Blondie, for $200 after they had filmed ''Downtown 81'' together.", "He also appeared as a disc jockey in the 1981 Blondie music video \"Rapture\", a role originally intended for Grandmaster Flash.", "At the time, Basquiat was living with his girlfriend, Suzanne Mallouk, who financially supported him as a waitress.In September 1981, art dealer Annina Nosei invited Basquiat to join her gallery at the suggestion of Sandro Chia.", "Soon after, he participated in her group show ''Public Address''.", "She provided him with materials and a space to work in the basement of her gallery.", "In 1982, Nosei arranged for him to move into a loft which also served as a studio at 101 Crosby Street in SoHo.", "He had his first American one-man show at the Annina Nosei Gallery in March 1982.He also painted in Modena for his second Italian exhibition in March 1982.Feeling exploited, that show was canceled because he was expected to make eight paintings in one week.By the summer of 1982, Basquiat had left the Annina Nosei Gallery and gallerist Bruno Bischofberger became his worldwide art dealer.", "In June 1982, at 21, Basquiat became the youngest artist to ever take part in Documenta in Kassel, Germany.", "His works were exhibited alongside Joseph Beuys, Anselm Kiefer, Gerhard Richter, Cy Twombly and Andy Warhol.", "Bischofberger gave Basquiat a one-man show at his Zurich gallery in September 1982, and arranged for him to meet Warhol for lunch on October 4, 1982.Warhol recalled, \"I took a Polaroid and he went home and within two hours a painting was back, still wet, of him and me together.\"", "The painting, ''Dos Cabezas'' (1982), ignited a friendship between them.", "Basquiat was photographed by James Van Der Zee for an interview with Henry Geldzahler published in the January 1983 issue of Warhol's ''Interview'' magazine.From 1983 to 1988 Basquiat lived at 57 Great Jones Street in NoHo, where he died.", "A plaque commemorating his life was placed outside the building in 2016.In November 1982, Basquiat's solo exhibition opened at the Fun Gallery in the East Village.", "Among the works exhibited were ''A Panel of Experts'' (1982) and ''Equals Pi'' (1982).", "In early December 1982, Basquiat began working at the studio space art dealer Larry Gagosian had built below his Venice, California home.", "In Los Angeles, he frequented the Whisky a Go Go and Tail o' the Pup with his friend artist George Condo.", "There, he commenced a series of paintings for a March 1983 show, his second at the Gagosian Gallery in West Hollywood.", "He was accompanied by his girlfriend, then-unknown singer Madonna.", "Gagosian recalled: \"Everything was going along fine.", "Jean-Michel was making paintings, I was selling them, and we were having a lot of fun.", "But then one day Jean-Michel said, 'My girlfriend is coming to stay with me.'", "...", "So I said, 'Well, what's she like?'", "And he said, 'Her name is Madonna and she's going to be ''huge''.'", "I'll never forget that he said that.", "\"Basquiat took considerable interest in the work that artist Robert Rauschenberg was producing at Gemini G.E.L.", "in West Hollywood.", "He visited him on several occasions and found inspiration in his accomplishments.", "While in Los Angeles, Basquiat painted ''Hollywood Africans'' (1983), which portrays him with graffiti artists Toxic and Rammellzee.", "He often painted portraits of other graffiti artists—and sometimes collaborators—in works such as ''Portrait of A-One A.K.A.", "King'' (1982), ''Toxic'' (1984), and ''ERO'' (1984).", "In 1983, he produced the hip-hop record \"Beat Bop\" featuring Rammellzee and rapper K-Rob.", "It was pressed in limited quantities on his Tartown Inc. imprint.", "He created the cover art for the single, making it highly desirable among both record and art collectors.Andy Warhol, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Bruno Bischofberger, and Francesco Clemente in 1984In March 1983, at 22 years old, Basquiat became one of the youngest artists to participate in the Whitney Biennial exhibition of contemporary art.", "Paige Powell, an associate publisher for ''Interview'' magazine, organized a show of his work at her friend's New York apartment in April 1983.Shortly after, he began a relationship with Powell, who was instrumental in fostering his friendship with Warhol.", "In August 1983, Basquiat moved into a loft owned by Warhol at 57 Great Jones Street in NoHo, which also served as a studio.In the summer of 1983, Basquiat invited Lee Jaffe, a former musician in Bob Marley's band, to join him on a trip throughout Asia and Europe.", "On his return to New York, he was deeply affected by the death of Michael Stewart, an aspiring black artist in the downtown club scene who was killed by transit police in September 1983.He painted ''Defacement (The Death of Michael Stewart)'' (1983) in response to the incident.", "He also participated in a Christmas benefit with various New York artists for the family of Michael Stewart in 1983.Having joined the Mary Boone's SoHo gallery in 1983, Basquiat had his first show there in May 1984.A large number of photographs depict a collaboration between Warhol and Basquiat in 1984 and 1985.When they collaborated, Warhol would start with something very concrete or a recognizable image and then Basquiat defaced it in his animated style.", "They made an homage to the 1984 Summer Olympics with ''Olympics'' (1984).", "Other collaborations include ''Taxi, 45th/Broadway'' (1984–85) and ''Zenith'' (1985).", "Their joint exhibition, ''Paintings'', at the Tony Shafrazi Gallery, caused a rift in their friendship after it was panned by critics, and Basquiat was called Warhol's \"mascot\".Basquiat often painted in expensive Armani suits and would appear in public in the same paint-splattered clothes.", "He was a regular at the Area nightclub, where he sometimes worked the turntables as a DJ for fun.", "He also painted murals for the Palladium nightclub in New York City.", "His swift rise to fame was covered in the media.", "He appeared on the cover of the February 10, 1985, issue of ''The New York Times Magazine'' in a feature titled \"New Art, New Money: The Marketing of an American Artist\".", "His work appeared in ''GQ'' and ''Esquire'', and he was interviewed for MTV's \"Art Break\" segment.", "In 1985, he walked the runway for the Comme des Garçons Spring fashion show in New York.In the mid-1980s, Basquiat was earning $1.4 million a year and he was receiving lump sums of $40,000 from art dealers.", "Despite his success, his emotional instability continued to haunt him.", "\"The more money Basquiat made, the more paranoid and deeply involved with drugs he became,\" wrote journalist Michael Shnayerson.", "Basquiat's cocaine use became so excessive that he blew a hole in his nasal septum.", "A friend claimed that Basquiat confessed he was on heroin in late 1980.Many of his peers speculated that his drug use was a means of coping with the demands of his newfound fame, the exploitative nature of the art industry, and the pressures of being a black man in the white-dominated art world.For what would be his last exhibition on the West Coast, Basquiat returned to Los Angeles for his show at the Gagosian Gallery in January 1986.In February 1986, Basquiat traveled to Atlanta, Georgia for an exhibition of his drawings at Fay Gold Gallery.", "That month, he participated in Limelight's Art Against Apartheid benefit.", "In the summer, he had a solo exhibition at Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac in Salzburg.", "He was also invited to walk the runway for Rei Kawakubo again, this time at the Comme des Garçons Homme Plus fashion show in Paris.", "In October 1986, Basquiat flew to Ivory Coast for an exhibition of his work organized by Bruno Bischofberger at the French Cultural Institute in Abidjan.", "He was accompanied by his girlfriend Jennifer Goode, who worked at his frequent hangout, Area nightclub.", "In November 1986, at 25 years old, Basquiat became the youngest artist given an exhibition at Kestner-Gesellschaft in Hanover, Germany.=== Final years and death: 1986–1988 ===During their relationship, Goode began snorting heroin with Basquiat since drugs were at her disposal.", "She said: \"He didn't push it on me, but it was just there and I was so naïve.\"", "In late 1986, she successfully got herself and Basquiat into a methadone program in Manhattan, but he quit after three weeks.", "According to Goode, he did not start injecting heroin until after she ended their relationship.", "In the last 18 months of his life, Basquiat became something of a recluse.", "His continued drug use is thought to have been a way of coping after the death of his friend Andy Warhol in February 1987.In 1987, Basquiat had exhibitions at Galerie Daniel Templon in Paris, the Akira Ikeda Gallery in Tokyo, and the Tony Shafrazi Gallery in New York.", "He designed a Ferris wheel for André Heller's ''Luna Luna'', an ephemeral amusement park in Hamburg from June to August 1987 with rides designed by renowned contemporary artists.In January 1988, Basquiat traveled to Paris for his exhibition at the Yvon Lambert Gallery and to Düsseldorf for an exhibition at the Hans Mayer Gallery.", "While in Paris, he befriended Ivorian artist Ouattara Watts.", "They made plans to travel together to Watts' birthplace, Korhogo, that summer.", "Following his exhibition at the Vrej Baghoomian Gallery in New York in April 1988, Basquiat traveled to Maui in June to withdraw from drug use.", "After returning to New York in July, Basquiat ran into Keith Haring on Broadway, who stated that this last encounter was the only time Basquiat ever discussed his drug problem with him.", "Glenn O'Brien also recalled Basquiat calling him and telling him he was \"feeling really good.", "\"Despite attempts at sobriety, Basquiat died at the age of 27 of a heroin overdose at his home on Great Jones Street in Manhattan on August 12, 1988.He had been found unresponsive in his bedroom by his girlfriend Kelle Inman and was taken to Cabrini Medical Center, where he was pronounced dead on arrival.Basquiat's grave at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New YorkBasquiat is buried at Brooklyn's Green-Wood Cemetery.", "A private funeral was held at Frank E. Campbell Funeral Chapel on August 17, 1988.The funeral was attended by immediate family and close friends, including Keith Haring, Francesco Clemente, Glenn O'Brien, and Basquiat's former girlfriend Paige Powell.", "Art dealer Jeffrey Deitch delivered a eulogy.A public memorial was held at Saint Peter's Church on November 3, 1988.Among the speakers was Ingrid Sischy, who as the editor of ''Artforum'' got to know Basquiat well and commissioned a number of articles that introduced his work to the wider world.", "Basquiat's former girlfriend Suzanne Mallouk recited sections of A. R. Penck's \"Poem for Basquiat\" and his friend Fab 5 Freddy read a poem by Langston Hughes.", "The 300 guests included musicians John Lurie and Arto Lindsay, Keith Haring, poet David Shapiro, Glenn O'Brien, and members of Basquiat's former band Gray.In memory of the late artist, Keith Haring created the painting ''A Pile of Crowns for Jean-Michel Basquiat''.", "In the obituary Haring wrote for ''Vogue'', he stated: \"He truly created a lifetime of works in ten years.", "Greedily, we wonder what else he might have created, what masterpieces we have been cheated out of by his death, but the fact is that he has created enough work to intrigue generations to come.", "Only now will people begin to understand the magnitude of his contribution.\"" ], [ "Artistry", "Art critic Franklin Sirmans analyzed that Basquiat appropriated poetry, drawing, and painting, and married text and image, abstraction, figuration, and historical information mixed with contemporary critique.", "His social commentary were acutely political and direct in their criticism of colonialism and support for class struggle.", "He also explored artistic legacies from wide sources, including an interrogation of the classical tradition.", "Art historian Fred Hoffman hypothesizes that the underlying of Basquiat's self-identification as an artist was his \"innate capacity to function as something like an oracle, distilling his perceptions of the outside world down to their essence and, in turn, projecting them outward through his creative act\", and that his art focused on recurrent \"suggestive dichotomies\" such as wealth versus poverty, integration versus segregation, and inner versus outer experience.Before his career as a painter began, Basquiat produced punk-inspired postcards for sale on the street, and became known for his political–poetical graffiti under the name of SAMO.", "He often drew on random objects and surfaces, including other people's clothing.", "The conjunction of various media is an integral element of his art.", "His paintings are typically covered with codes of all kinds: words, letters, numerals, pictograms, logos, map symbols, and diagrams.Basquiat primarily used texts as reference sources.", "A few of the books he used were ''Gray's Anatomy'', Henry Dreyfuss' ''Symbol Sourcebook'', ''Leonardo da Vinci'' published by Reynal & Company, and Burchard Brentjes' ''African Rock Art'', ''Flash of the Spirit'' by Robert Farris Thompson.A middle period from late 1982 to 1985 featured multi-panel paintings and individual canvases with exposed stretcher bars, the surface dense with writing, collage and imagery.", "The years 1984 to 1985 were also the period of the Basquiat–Warhol collaborations.=== Drawings ===Basquiat drawing of the supportive art critic Rene Ricard, ''Untitled (Axe/Rene)'' (1984)In his short but prolific career, Basquiat produced around 1,500 drawings, around 600 paintings, and many sculpture and mixed media works.", "He drew constantly and often used objects around him as surfaces when paper was not immediately at hand.", "Since childhood, he produced cartoon-inspired drawings when encouraged by his mother's interest in art, and drawing became a part of his expression as an artist.", "He drew in many different media, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-tip or marker, and oil-stick.", "He sometimes used Xerox copies of fragments of his drawings to paste onto the canvases of larger paintings.The first public showing of Basquiat's paintings and drawings was in 1981 at the MoMA PS1 ''New York/New Wave'' exhibition.", "Rene Ricard's article \"Radiant Child\" in ''Artforum'' magazine brought Basquiat to the attention of the art world.", "Basquiat immortalized Ricard in two drawings, ''Untitled (Axe/Rene)'' (1984) and ''René Ricard'' (1984).A poet as well as an artist, words featured heavily in his drawings and paintings, with direct references to racism, slavery, the people and street scene of 1980s New York, black historical figures, famous musicians and athletes, as his notebooks and many important drawings demonstrate.", "Often Basquiat's drawings were untitled, and as such to differentiate works a word written within the drawing is commonly in parentheses after ''Untitled''.", "After Basquiat died, his estate was controlled by his father Gérard Basquiat, who also oversaw the committee which authenticated artworks, and operated from 1994 to 2012 to review over 2000 works, the majority of which were drawings.===Heroes and saints===A prominent theme in Basquiat's work is the portrayal of historically prominent black figures, who were identified as heroes and saints.", "His early works often featured the iconographic depiction of crowns and halos to distinguish heroes and saints in his specially chosen pantheon.", "\"Jean-Michel's crown has three peaks, for his three royal lineages: the poet, the musician, the great boxing champion.", "Jean measured his skill against all he deemed strong, without prejudice as to their taste or age,\" said his friend and artist Francesco Clemente.", "Reviewing Basquiat's show at the Bilbao Guggenheim, ''Art Daily'' noted that \"Basquiat's crown is a changeable symbol: at times a halo and at others a crown of thorns, emphasizing the martyrdom that often goes hand in hand with sainthood.", "For Basquiat, these heroes and saints are warriors, occasionally rendered triumphant with arms raised in victory.", "\"Basquiat was particularly a fan of bebop and cited saxophonist Charlie Parker as a hero.", "He frequently referenced Parker and other jazz musicians in paintings such as ''Charles the First'' (1982) and ''Horn Players'' (1983), and ''King Zulu'' (1986).", "\"Basquiat looked to jazz music for inspiration and for instruction, much in the same way that he looked to the modern masters of painting,\" said art historian Jordana Moore Saggese.=== Anatomy and heads ===''Untitled (Skull)'' (1981)A major reference source used by Basquiat throughout his career was the book ''Gray's Anatomy'', which his mother had given him while he was in the hospital when he was seven.", "It remained influential in his depictions of human anatomy, and in its mixture of image and text as seen in ''Flesh and Spirit'' (1982–83).", "Art historian Olivier Berggruen situates in Basquiat's anatomical screen prints ''Anatomy'' (1982) an assertion of vulnerability, one which \"creates an aesthetic of the body as damaged, scarred, fragmented, incomplete, or torn apart, once the organic whole has disappeared.", "Paradoxically, it is the very act of creating these representations that conjures a positive corporeal valence between the artist and his sense of self or identity.", "\"Heads and skulls are significant focal points of many of Basquiat's most seminal works.", "Heads in works like ''Untitled (Two Heads on Gold)'' (1982) and ''Philistines'' (1982) are reminiscent of African masks, suggesting a cultural reclamation.", "The skulls allude to Haitian Vodou, which is filled with skull symbolism; the paintings ''Red Skull'' (1982) and ''Untitled'' (1982) can be seen as primary examples.", "In reference to the potent image depicted in ''Untitled (Skull)'' (1981'')'', art historian Fred Hoffman writes that Basquiat was likely \"caught off guard, possibly even frightened, by the power and energy emanating from this unexpected image.\"", "Further investigation by Hoffman in his book ''The Art of Jean-Michel Basquiat'' reveals a deeper interest in the artist's fascination with heads that proves an evolution in the artist's oeuvre from one of raw power to one of more refined cognizance.===Heritage===Basquiat's diverse cultural heritage was one of his many sources of inspiration.", "He often incorporated Spanish words into his artworks like ''Untitled (Pollo Frito)'' (1982) and ''Sabado por la Noche'' (1984).", "Basquiat's ''La Hara'' (1981), a menacing portrait of a white police officer, combines the Nuyorican slang term for police (la jara) and the Irish surname O'Hara.", "The black-hatted figure that appears in his paintings ''The Guilt of Gold Teeth'' (1982) and ''Despues De Un Pun'' (1987) is believed to represent Baron Samedi, the spirit of death and resurrection in Haitian Vodou.Basquiat has various works deriving from African-American history, namely ''Slave Auction'' (1982), ''Undiscovered Genius of the Mississippi Delta'' (1983), ''El Gran Espectaculo (The Nile)'' (1983), and ''Jim Crow'' (1986).", "Another painting, ''Irony of Negro Policeman'' (1981), illustrates how African-Americans have been controlled by a predominantly white society.", "Basquiat sought to portray that African-Americans have become complicit with the \"institutionalized forms of whiteness and corrupt white regimes of power\" years after the Jim Crow era had ended.", "This concept has been reiterated in additional Basquiat works, including ''Created Equal'' (1984).In the essay \"Lost in Translation: Jean-Michel in the (Re)Mix,\" Kellie Jones posits that Basquiat's \"mischievous, complex, and neologistic side, with regard to the fashioning of modernity and the influence and effluence of black culture\" are often elided by critics and viewers, and thus \"lost in translation.\"" ], [ "Reception", "Shortly after his death, ''The New York Times'' indicated that Basquiat was \"the most famous of only a small number of young black artists who have achieved national recognition.\"", "Art critic Bonnie Rosenberg wrote that Basquiat experienced a good taste of fame in his last years when he was a \"critically embraced and popularly celebrated artistic phenomenon\"; and that some people focused on the \"superficial exoticism of his work\", missing the fact that it \"held important connections to expressive precursors.", "\"Traditionally, the interpretation of Basquiat's works at the visual level comes from the subdued emotional tone of what they represent compared to what is actually depicted.", "For example, the figures in his paintings, as stated by writer Stephen Metcalf, \"are shown frontally, with little or no depth of field, and nerves and organs are exposed, as in an anatomy textbook.", "Are these creatures dead and being clinically dissected, one wonders, or alive and in immense pain?\"", "Writer Olivia Laing noted that \"words jumped out at him, from the back of cereal boxes or subway ads, and he stayed alert to their subversive properties, their double and hidden meaning.", "\"A second recurrent reference to Basquiat's aesthetics comes from the artist's intention to share, in the words of gallerist Niru Ratnam, a \"highly individualistic, expressive view of the world\".", "Art historian Luis Alberto Mejia Clavijo believes Basquiat's work inspires people to \"paint like a child, don't paint what is in the surface but what you are re-creating inside.", "Musician David Bowie, who was a collector of Basquiat's works, stated that \"he seemed to digest the frenetic flow of passing image and experience, put them through some kind of internal reorganization and dress the canvas with this resultant network of chance.", "\"Art critics have also compared Basquiat's work to the emergence of hip-hop during the same era.", "\"Basquiat's art—like the best hip-hop—takes apart and reassembles the work that came before it,\" said art critic Franklin Sirmans in a 2005 essay, \"In the Cipher: Basquiat and the Hip-Hop Culture\".Art critic Rene Ricard wrote in his 1981 article \"The Radiant Child\":I'm always amazed at how people come up with things.", "Like Jean-Michel.", "How did he come up with the words he puts all over everything, his way of making a point without overstating the case, using one or two words he reveals a political acuity, gets the viewer going in the direction he wants, the illusion of the bombed-over wall.", "One or two words containing a full body.", "One or two words on a Jean-Michel contain the entire history of graffiti.", "What he incorporates into his pictures, whether found or made, is specific and selective.", "He has a perfect idea of what he's getting across, using everything that collates to his vision.Curator Marc Mayer wrote in the 2005 essay \"Basquiat in History\":Basquiat speaks articulately while dodging the full impact of clarity like a matador.", "We can read his pictures without strenuous effort—the words, the images, the colors and the construction—but we cannot quite fathom the point they belabor.", "Keeping us in this state of half-knowing, of mystery-within-familiarity, had been the core technique of his brand of communication since his adolescent days as the graffiti poet SAMO.", "To enjoy them, we are not meant to analyze the pictures too carefully.", "Quantifying the encyclopedic breadth of his research certainly results in an interesting inventory, but the sum cannot adequately explain his pictures, which requires an effort outside the purview of iconography ... he painted a calculated incoherence, calibrating the mystery of what such apparently meaning-laden pictures might ultimately mean.In the 1980s, art critic Robert Hughes dismissed Basquiat's work as absurd.", "He attributed the Basquiat phenomenon to be a mixture of hype, overproduction, and a greedy art market.In a 1997 review for ''The Daily Telegraph'', art critic Hilton Kramer begins by stating that Basquiat had no idea what the word \"quality\" meant.", "He relentlessly criticized Basquiat as a \"talentless hustler\" and \"street-smart but otherwise invincibly ignorant\", arguing that he \"used his youth, his looks, his skin colour and his abundant sex appeal to win an overnight fame that proved to be his undoing\" and that art dealers of the time were \"as ignorant about art as Basquiat himself.\"", "In saying that Basquiat's work never rose above \"that lowly artistic station\" of graffiti \"even when his paintings were fetching enormous prices,\" Kramer argued that graffiti art \"acquired a cult status in certain New York art circles.\"", "He further opined, \"As a result of the campaign waged by these art-world entrepreneurs on Basquiat's behalf—and their own, of course—there was never any doubt that the museums, the collectors and the media would fall into line\" when talking about the marketing of Basquiat's name." ], [ "Exhibitions", "Basquiat's first public exhibition was at ''The Times Square Show'' in New York in June 1980.In May 1981, he had his first solo exhibition at Galleria d'Arte Emilio Mazzoli in Modena.", "In late 1981, he joined the Annina Nosei Gallery in New York, where he had his first American one-man show from March 6 to April 1, 1982.In 1982, he also had shows at the Gagosian Gallery in West Hollywood, Galerie Bruno Bischofberger in Zurich, and the Fun Gallery in the East Village.", "Major exhibitions of his work have included ''Jean-Michel Basquiat: Paintings 1981–1984'' at the Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh in 1984, which traveled to the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam in 1985.In 1985, the University Art Museum, Berkeley hosted Basquiat's first solo American museum exhibition.", "His work was showcased at Kestner-Gesellschaft, Hannover in 1987 and 1989.The first retrospective of his work was held by the Baghoomian Gallery in New York from October to November 1989.His first museum retrospective, ''Jean-Michel Basquiat'', was at the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York from October 1992 to February 1993.The show was sponsored by AT&T, MTV and Basquiat's former girlfriend Madonna.", "It subsequently traveled to the Menil Collection in Texas; the Des Moines Art Center in Iowa; and the Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts in Alabama, from 1993 to 1994.The exhibition's catalog was edited by Richard Marshall and included several essays from different perspectives.", "In 1996, Madonna sponsored an exhibition of his work at the Serpentine Gallery in London.In March 2005, the retrospective ''Basquiat'' was mounted by the Brooklyn Museum in New York.", "It traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.", "From October 2006 to January 2007, the first Basquiat exhibition in Puerto Rico was held at the Museo de Arte de Puerto Rico, produced by ArtPremium, Corinne Timsit and Eric Bonici.", "In 2016, the Brooklyn Museum organized and presented ''Basquiat: The Unknown Notebooks'', the first major viewing of Basquiat's sketches, poetry, notetaking, and overall artist's book practice.", "The show traveled to the Pérez Art Museum Miami later on.", "A monograph featuring essays by Pérez Art Museum Miami executive director, the art historian Franklin Sirmans and Henry Louis Gates, was published in the occasion of this exhibitionBasquiat remains an important source of inspiration for a younger generation of contemporary artists all over the world, such as Rita Ackermann and Kader Attia—as shown, for example, at the exhibition ''Street and Studio: From Basquiat to Séripop'' co-curated by Cathérine Hug and Thomas Mießgang and previously exhibited at Kunsthalle Wien, Austria, in 2010.", "''Basquiat and the Bayou'', a 2014 show presented by the Ogden Museum of Southern Art in New Orleans, focused on the artist's works with themes of the American South.", "The Brooklyn Museum exhibited ''Basquiat: The Unknown Notebooks'' in 2015.In 2017, ''Basquiat Before Basquiat: East 12th Street, 1979–1980'' exhibited as Museum of Contemporary Art Denver, which displayed works created during the year Basquiat lived with his friend Alexis Adler.", "Later that year, the Barbican Centre in London exhibited ''Basquiat: Boom for Real''.In 2019, the Brant Foundation in New York, hosted an extensive exhibition of Basquiat's works with free admission.", "All 50,000 tickets were claimed before the exhibition opened, so additional tickets were released.", "In June 2019, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York presented ''Basquiat's \"Defacement\": The Untold Story''.", "Later that year, the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne opened the exhibition ''Keith Haring and Jean-Michel Basquiat: Crossing Lines''.", "In 2020, the Lotte Museum of Art mounted the first major exhibition of Jean-Michel Basquiat in Seoul.", "The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston exhibited ''Writing the Future: Basquiat and the Hip-Hop Generation'' from October 2020 to July 2021.Basquiat's family curated ''Jean-Michel Basquiat: King Pleasure'', an immersive exhibition with over 200 never-before-seen and rarely shown works.", "King Pleasure debuted at the Starrett-Lehigh Building in Chelsea, New York in April 2022.In March 2023, the exhibition traveled to the Grand LA in Los Angeles.", "In 2022, the Albertina presented the first museum retrospective of Basquiat's work in Austria.", "The exhibition ''Seeing Loud: Basquiat and Music'' was mounted at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts in 2022.In 2023, the show traveled to Paris as ''Basquiat Soundtracks'' at the Philharmonie de Paris.", "Later that year, the Brant Foundation held the exhibition ''Basquiat X Warhol'' at their East Village location." ], [ "Art market", "Basquiat sold his first painting to singer Debbie Harry for $200 in 1981.Advised by Italian artist Sandro Chia, gallerist Emilio Mazzoli purchased ten of Basquiat's works for $10,000 and held an exhibition at his gallery in Modena in May 1981.Spurred by the Neo-expressionism art boom, his work was in great demand by 1982, which is considered his most valuable year.", "A majority of his highest-selling paintings at auction date to 1982.Recalling that year, Basquiat said, \"I had some money; I made the best paintings ever.\"", "His paintings were priced at $5,000 to $10,000 in 1983—lowered from the range of $10,000 to $15,000 when he joined Mary Boone's gallery to reflect what she felt was consistent with those of other artists in her gallery.", "In 1984, it was reported that in two years his work appreciated in value by 500%.", "In the mid-1980s, Basquiat was earning $1.4 million a year as an artist.", "By 1985, his paintings were selling for $10,000 to $25,000 each.", "Basquiat's rise to fame in the international art market landed him on the cover of ''The New York Times Magazine'' in 1985, which was unprecedented for a young African-American artist.Since Basquiat's death in 1988, the market for his work has developed steadily—in line with overall art market trends—with a dramatic peak in 2007 when, at the height of the art market boom, the global auction volume for his work was over $115 million.", "Brett Gorvy, deputy chairman of Christie's, is quoted describing Basquiat's market as \"two-tiered ...", "The most coveted material is rare, generally dating from the best period, 1981–83.\"", "Until 2002, the highest amount paid for an original work of Basquiat's was $3.3 million for ''Self-Portrait'' (1982), sold at Christie's in 1998.In 2002, Basquiat's ''Profit I'' (1982) was sold at Christie's by drummer Lars Ulrich of the heavy metal band Metallica for $5.5 million.", "The proceedings of the auction were documented in the 2004 film ''Metallica: Some Kind of Monster''.In June 2002, New York artist Alfredo Martinez was charged by the Federal Bureau of Investigation with attempting to deceive two art dealers by selling them $185,000 worth of fake Basquiat drawings.", "The charges against Martinez, which landed him in Manhattan's Metropolitan Correction Center for 21 months, involved a scheme to sell drawings he copied from authentic artworks, accompanied by forged certificates of authenticity.", "Martinez claimed he got away with selling fake Basquiat drawings for 18 years.In 2007, Basquiat's painting ''Hannibal'' (1982) was seized by federal authorities as part of an embezzlement scheme by convicted Brazilian money launderer and former banker Edemar Cid Ferreira.", "Ferreira had purchased the painting with illegally acquired funds while he controlled Banco Santos in Brazil.", "It was shipped to a Manhattan warehouse, via the Netherlands, with a false shipping invoice stating it was worth $100.The painting was later sold at Sotheby's for $13.1 million.Between 2007 and 2012, the price of Basquiat's work continued to steadily increase up to $16.3 million.", "The sale of ''Untitled'' (1981) for $20.1 million in 2012 elevated his market to a new stratosphere.", "Soon other works in his oeuvre outpaced that record.", "Another work, ''Untitled'' (1981), depicting a fisherman, sold for $26.4 million in 2012.In 2013, ''Dustheads'' (1982) sold for $48.8 million at Christie's.", "Japanese billionaire Yusaku Maezawa purchased ''Untitled'' (1982), depicting a devil-like figure, for $57.3 million at Christie's in 2017.He sold the painting for $85 million at Phillips in 2022.Maezawa also purchased Basquiat's ''Untitled'' (1982), a powerful depiction of a black skull with red and yellow rivulets, for a record-setting $110.5 million in May 2017.It is the second highest price ever paid at an auction for artwork by an American artist.In 2018, ''Flexible'' (1984) sold for $45.3 million, becoming Basquiat's first post-1983 painting to surpass the $20 million mark.", "In June 2020, ''Untitled (Head)'' (1982), sold for $15.2 million; a record for a Sotheby's online sale and a record for a Basquiat work on paper.", "In July 2020, Loïc Gouzer's Fair Warning app announced that an untitled drawing on paper sold for $10.8 million, which is a record high for an in-app purchase.", "Earlier that year, American businessman Ken Griffin purchased ''Boy and Dog in a Johnnypump'' (1982) for upwards of $100 million from art collector Peter Brant.", "In March 2021, ''Warrior'' (1982) sold for $41.8 million at Christie's in Hong Kong, which is the most expensive Western work of art sold at auction in Asia.", "In May 2021, ''In This Case'' (1983) sold for $93.1 million at Christie's in New York.", "Later that year, ''Donut Revenge'' (1982) sold for $20.9 million at Christie's in Hong Kong.", "In 2022, ''Sugar Ray Robinson'' (1982) sold for $32.6 million at Christie's in New York.", "In 2023, ''El Gran Espectaculo (The Nile)'' (1983) sold for $67.1 million at Christie's, and ''Self-Portrait as a Heel (Part Two)'' (1982) sold for $42 million at Sotheby's in New York.=== Forgeries ===In 1994, three paintings displayed as Basquiats at the FIAC were revealed to be fakes.", "In 2007 Christie's was sued Manhattan Supreme Court for allegedly selling a fake Basquiat.", "Christie's rejected the charge but the suit proceeded.", "In 2020 a Los Angeles man, Philip Bennet Righter, plead guilty to art fraud after trying to sell forged paintings by Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat.", "Also in 2020, in France, an exhibition of drawings attributed to Basquiat at the Volcano gallery in Nuits-Saint-Georges was disputed.", "In February 2022, the Orlando Museum of Art mounted the controversial exhibition ''Heroes & Monsters'', which consisted of 25 cardboard works that were claimed to have been sold by Basquiat directly to screenwriter Thad Mumford in 1982, and then placed in storage, where they remained until being rediscovered in 2012.The paintings were seized in a raid by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in June 2022.", "''The New York Times'' obtained an affidavit that revealed Mumford signed a declaration in the presence of federal agents stating that \"at no time in the 1980s or any other time did I meet with Jean-Michel Basquiat, and at no time did I acquire or purchase any paintings from him.\"", "Los Angeles auctioneer Michael Barzman confessed to creating a suite of 25 Basquiat forgeries that wound up at the Orlando Museum of Art and was sentenced to community service and probation.In 2023, Florida art dealer Daniel Elie Bouaziz was sentenced to 27 months in federal prison for a money laundering scheme to sell counterfeit contemporary artworks, including pieces purportedly by Jean-Michel Basquiat, Andy Warhol, and Banksy.", "===Authentication committee===The authentication committee of the estate of Jean-Michel Basquiat was formed by the Robert Miller Gallery, the gallery that was assigned to handle Basquiat's estate after his death, in part to wage battle against the growing number of fakes and forgeries in the Basquiat market.", "The cost of the committee's opinion was $100.The committee was headed by Basquiat's father Gérard Basquiat.", "Members varied depending on who was available at the time when a piece was being authenticated, but they have included the curators and gallerists Diego Cortez, Jeffrey Deitch, Annina Nosei, John Cheim, Richard Marshall, Fred Hoffman, and publisher Larry Warsh.In 2008, the authentication committee was sued by collector Gerard De Geer, who claimed the committee breached its contract by refusing to offer an opinion on the authenticity of the painting ''Fuego Flores'' (1983).", "After the lawsuit was dismissed, the committee ruled the work genuine.", "In January 2012, the committee announced that after eighteen years it would dissolve in September of that year and no longer consider applications." ], [ "Sexuality", "Basquiat had romantic relationships with many women, including Madonna.", "Although he never publicly identified as bisexual, several of his friends have stated that he had sexual relationships with men.", "Basquiat's former girlfriend Suzanne Mallouk described his sexual interest as \"not monochromatic.", "It did not rely on visual stimulation, such as a pretty girl.", "It was a very rich multichromatic sexuality.", "He was attracted to people for all different reasons.", "They could be boys, girls, thin, fat, pretty, ugly ...", "He was attracted to intelligence more than anything and to pain.", "\"Biographer Phoebe Hoban stated that Basquiat's first sexual experiences were homosexual while he was a minor in Puerto Rico; he had been orally raped by a barber dressed in drag, then he got involved with a deejay.", "Art critic Rene Ricard, who helped launch Basquiat's career, said that Basquiat was into everything and had \"turned tricks\" in Condado when he lived in Puerto Rico.", "As a teenager, Basquiat told a friend that he worked as a prostitute on 42nd Street in Manhattan when he ran away from home.", "Andy Warhol said Basquiat had refused to go with him and Keith Haring to Rounds, a gay hustler bar, because it brought back bad memories of when he was hustling." ], [ "Legacy", "Place Jean-Michel Basquiat in ParisBasquiat's estate was administered by his father, Gerard Basquiat, until his passing in 2013.It is now run by his sisters, Jeanine Heriveaux and Lisane Basquiat.In 2015, Basquiat was featured on the cover of ''Vanity Fair'''s Art and Artists Special Edition.", "In 2016, the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation placed a plaque commemorating Basquiat's life outside his former residence at 57 Great Jones Street in Manhattan.", "In 2017, Basquiat was posthumously awarded the key to the city of Brooklyn by Borough President Eric Adams and honored on the Celebrity Path at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden.Before the exhibition ''Basquiat: Boom for Real'' at London's Barbican Centre in 2017, graffiti artist Banksy created two murals inspired by Basquiat on the walls of the Barbican.", "The first mural depicts Basquiat's painting ''Boy and Dog in a Johnnypump'' (1982) being searched by two police officers.", "The second mural depicts a carousel with the carriages replaced with Basquiat's signature crown motif.In 2018, a public square in the 13th arrondissement of Paris was named Place Jean-Michel Basquiat in his memory.", "For the 2020–21 NBA season, the Brooklyn Nets honored Basquiat with their City Edition uniform and a court design inspired by his art.", "In 2021, the Joe and Clara Tsai Foundation funded a Basquiat educational arts program developed in partnership between the Brooklyn Nets, the New York City Department of Education and the Fund for Public Schools.", "The Nets used a white version of the Basquiat City Edition uniform for the 2022–23 NBA season.=== Fashion ===In 2007, Basquiat was listed among ''GQ'''s 50 Most Stylish Men of the Past 50 Years.", "Basquiat often painted in expensive Armani suits and he did a photo shoot for Issey Miyake.", "Comme des Garçons was one of his favorite brands; he was a model for the Spring 1986 fashion show in New York and the Homme Plus Spring/Summer 1987 fashion show in Paris.", "To commemorate Basquiat's runway appearances, Comme des Garçons featured his prints in the brand's Fall/Winter 2018 collection.", "In 2015, Basquiat was featured on the cover of ''T: The New York Times Style Magazine'' Men's Style issue.Valentino's Fall/Winter 2006 collection paid homage to Basquiat.", "Sean John created a capsule collection for the 30th anniversary of Basquiat's death in 2018.Apparel and accessories companies that have featured Basquiat's work include Uniqlo, Urban Outfitters, Supreme, Herschel Supply Co., Alice + Olivia, Olympia Le-Tan, DAEM, Coach New York, and Saint Laurent.", "Footwear companies such as Dr. Martens, Reebok, and Vivobarefoot have also collaborated with Basquiat's estate.In 2021, luxury jewelry company Tiffany & Co. partnered with American singer Beyoncé and rapper Jay-Z to promote the company's \"About Love\" campaign.", "The campaign incorporated Tiffany's recently acquired painting, ''Equals Pi'' (1982), by Basquiat.", "The painting heavily features a color close to the company's signature robin egg blue.The campaign was met with criticism from the artist's friends and colleagues.", "In 2022, Basquiat's estate partnered with Black Fashion Fair for a limited-run capsule collection, which was on view at the exhibition ''Jean-Michel Basquiat: King Pleasure'' in New York City.=== Film, television and theater ===Basquiat starred in ''Downtown 81'', a ''vérité'' movie written by Glenn O'Brien and shot by Edo Bertoglio in 1980–81, but not released until 2000.", "''Without Walls: Shooting Star'', a British documentary by Geoff Dunlop on Basquiat's life, aired on Channel 4 in 1990.In 1996, painter Julian Schnabel made his filmmaking debut with the biopic ''Basquiat''.", "It stars Jeffrey Wright as Basquiat and David Bowie as Andy Warhol.", "''Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child'', a documentary film directed by Tamra Davis, premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival and was shown on the PBS series ''Independent Lens'' in 2011.Sara Driver directed the documentary film ''Boom for Real: The Late Teenage Years of Jean-Michel Basquiat'', which premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival.", "In 2018, PBS aired the documentary ''Basquiat: Rage to Riches'' as part of the ''American Masters'' series.In 2022, it was reported that actor Kelvin Harrison Jr. will star as Basquiat in an upcoming biopic titled ''Samo Lives'', which will be written, directed and produced by Julius Onah.", "It was also announced that actor Stephan James will star and co-produce a limited series about Basquiat.In 2022, ''The Collaboration,'' a play by Anthony McCarten about Basquiat and Warhol debuted at London's Young Vic Theatre with Jeremy Pope portraying Basquiat, and Paul Bettany as Warhol.", "The play then moved to Broadway, for a limited run from December 2022 through March 2023, again starring Bettany and Pope, produced by the Manhattan Theatre Club.", "The pair have also reprised their roles in a film version.=== Literature ===\"KING\" by Johnny Blanco.", "Mixed Media on Canvas.In 1991, poet Kevin Young published the book ''To Repel Ghosts'', a compendium of 117 poems relating to Basquiat's life, individual paintings, and social themes found in the artist's work.", "He published a \"remix\" of the book in 2005.In 1993, a children's book was released titled ''Life Doesn't Frighten Me'', which combines a poem written by Maya Angelou with art made by Basquiat.In 1998, journalist Phoebe Hoban published the unauthorized biography ''Basquiat: A Quick Killing in Art''.", "In 2000, author Jennifer Clement wrote the memoir ''Widow Basquiat: A Love Story'', based on the narratives told to her by Basquiat's former girlfriend Suzanne Mallouk.In 2005, poet M. K. Asante published the poem \"SAMO\", dedicated to Basquiat, in his book ''Beautiful.", "And Ugly Too''.", "The children's book ''Radiant Child: The Story of Young Artist Jean-Michel Basquiat'', written and illustrated by Javaka Steptoe, was released in 2016.The picture book won the Caldecott Medal in 2017.In 2019, illustrator Paolo Parisi wrote the graphic novel ''Basquiat: A Graphic Novel'', following Basquiat's journey from street-art legend SAMO to international art-scene darling, up until his death.=== Music ===Shortly after Basquiat's death, guitarist Vernon Reid of the funk metal band Living Colour wrote a song called \"Desperate People\", released on their album ''Vivid''.", "The song primarily addresses the drug scene of New York at that time.", "Reid was inspired to write the song after receiving a phone call from Greg Tate informing him of Basquiat's death.In August 2014, Revelation 13:18 released the single \"Old School\" featuring Jean-Michel Basquiat, along with the self-titled album ''Revelation 13:18 x Basquiat''.", "The release date of \"Old School\" coincided with the anniversary of Basquiat's death.", "In 2020, New York rock band the Strokes used Basquiat's painting ''Bird on Money'' (1981) as the cover art for their album ''The New Abnormal''." ], [ "See also", "* List of paintings by Jean-Michel Basquiat" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Almiron, J.", "Faith; (2019). \"", "No One Owns Basquiat: Not Even Peter Brant\".", "Hyperallergic * Basquiat, Jean-Michel; Buchhart, Dieter; Keller, Sam; O'Brien, Glenn (2010) ''Jean-Michel Basquiat''.", "Hatje Cantz.", "Basquiat, Jean-Michel; O'Brien, Glenn; Cortez, Diego (2007).", "''Jean-Michel Basquiat: 1981: the Studio of the Street'', Charta.", "Basquiat, Jean Michel; Hoffman, Fred; Mayer, Marc (2005).", "''Basquiat''.", "Merrell Publishers.", "* Buchhart, Dieter; Nairne, Eleanor (2017).", "''Basquiat: Boom for Real''.", "London: Prestel Publishing.", "* Clement, Jennifer (2014) ''Widow Basquiat: A Love Story''.", "Broadway Books.", "*** Hoffman, Fred (2014).", "''Jean-Michel Basquiat Drawing: Work from the Schorr Family Collection''.", "Acquavella.", "* Marenzi, Luca (1999) ''Jean-Michel Basquiat.''", "Charta.", "Saggese, Jordana Moore (2014).", "Reading Basquiat: Exploring Ambivalence in American.", "University of California Press.", " " ], [ "External links", " * Jean-Michel Basquiat, BBC World Service program on Basquiat*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Graves Simcoe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Graves Simcoe''' (25 February 1752 – 26 October 1806) was a British Army general and the first lieutenant governor of Upper Canada from 1791 until 1796 in southern Ontario and the watersheds of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior.", "He founded York, which is now known as Toronto, and was instrumental in introducing institutions such as courts of law, trial by jury, English common law, and freehold land tenure, and also in the abolition of slavery in Upper Canada.His long-term goal was the development of Upper Canada (Ontario) as a model community built on aristocratic and conservative principles, designed to demonstrate the superiority of those principles to the republicanism of the United States.", "His energetic efforts were only partially successful in establishing a local gentry, a thriving Church of England, and an anti-American coalition with select indigenous nations.", "He is seen by many Canadians as a founding figure in Canadian history, especially by those in Southern Ontario.", "He is commemorated in Toronto with Simcoe Day." ], [ "Early life", "Simcoe was the only surviving son of Cornishman John (1710–1759) and Katherine Simcoe (died 1767).", "His parents had four children, but he was the only one to live past childhood; Percy drowned in 1764, while Paulet William and John William died as infants.", "His father was a captain in the Royal Navy who commanded the 60-gun HMS ''Pembroke'' during the siege of Louisbourg, with James Cook as his sailing master.", "He died of pneumonia on 15 May 1759 on board his ship in the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River a few months prior to the siege of Quebec, and was buried at sea.", "The family then moved to his mother's parental home in Exeter.", "His paternal grandparents were William and Mary (née Hutchinson) Simcoe.He was educated at Exeter Grammar School and Eton College.", "He spent a year at Merton College, Oxford; he was then admitted to Lincoln's Inn, but decided to follow the military career for which his father had intended him.", "He was initiated into Freemasonry in Union Lodge, Exeter on 2 November 1773." ], [ "Military career in American Revolutionary War", "In 1770, Simcoe entered the British Army as an ensign in the 35th Regiment of Foot, and his unit was dispatched to the Thirteen Colonies.", "Later, he saw action in the American Revolutionary War during the siege of Boston.", "After the siege, in July 1776, he was promoted captain in the 40th Regiment of Foot.", "He saw action with the grenadier company of the 40th Foot in the New York and New Jersey campaign and the Philadelphia campaign.", "Simcoe commanded the 40th's Grenadiers at the Battle of Brandywine on 11 September 1777, where he was wounded.", "Legend has it that Simcoe ordered his men at Brandywine not to fire upon three fleeing rebels, among whom was George Washington.In 1777, Simcoe sought to form a Loyalist regiment of free blacks from Boston but instead was offered the command of the Queen's Rangers formed on Staten Island on 15 October 1777.It was a well-trained light infantry unit comprising 11 companies of 30 men, 1 grenadier, and 1 hussar, and the rest light infantry.", "The Queen's Rangers saw extensive action during the Philadelphia campaign, including a successful surprise attack (planned and executed by Simcoe) at the Battle of Crooked Billet.In 1778, Simcoe led an attack on Judge William Hancock's house during a foraging expedition opposed by Patriot militia.", "Hancock was also killed, although he was not with the Americans.", "The attack took place at night and with bayonets.", "On 28 June of that year, Simcoe and his Queen's Rangers took part in the Battle of Monmouth, in and near Freehold, New Jersey.On 31 August 1778, Lieut.", "Col. Simcoe earned a victory over a Native American force serving under the Continental Army as the Stockbridge Militia in the Battle of Kingsbridge (also known as the “Stockbridge Massacre”).", "The skirmish had been planned by Simcoe for an earlier ambush by the same unit, and took place in what today is Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx, New York.", "The battlefield is recognized as the Indian Field there.On 26 October 1779, Simcoe and 80 men launched an attack on central New Jersey from southern Staten Island known as Simcoe's Raid, from what is known today as the Conference House, resulting in the burning of Patriot supplies inside a Dutch Reformed Church in Finderne, including hay and grain; the release of Loyalist prisoners from the Somerset County Courthouse; and Simcoe's capture by Armand Tuffin de La Rouërie.", "Simcoe was released at the end of 1779 and rejoined his unit in Virginia.", "He participated in the Raid on Richmond with Benedict Arnold in January 1781 and was involved in a skirmish near Williamsburg and was at the siege of Yorktown.", "He was invalided back to England in December of that year as a lieutenant-colonel, having been promoted in March 1782.Simcoe wrote a book on his experiences with the Queen's Rangers, titled ''A Journal of the Operations of the royal Queen's Rangers from the end of the year 1777 to the conclusion of the late American War'', which was published in 1787.He served briefly as Inspector General of Recruitment for the British Army, from 1789 until his departure for Upper Canada two years later." ], [ "Marriage and family", "Simcoe convalesced at the Devon home of his godfather, Admiral Samuel Graves.", "In 1782, Simcoe married Elizabeth Posthuma Gwillim, his godfather's ward.", "Elizabeth was a wealthy heiress, who acquired a estate at Honiton in Devon and built Wolford Lodge.", "Wolford was the Simcoe family seat until 1923.The Simcoes had five daughters before their posting in Canada.", "Son Francis was born in 1791.Their Canadian-born daughter, Katherine, died in infancy in York.", "She is buried in the Victoria Square Memorial Park on Portland Avenue, Toronto.", "Francis returned with his father to England when his tenure expired and joined the army.", "He was killed in an infantry charge during the Peninsular War in 1812.Son Henry Addington Simcoe became an English theologian." ], [ "Member of Parliament", "Simcoe entered politics in 1790.He was elected Member of Parliament for St Mawes in Cornwall, as a supporter of the government (led by William Pitt the Younger).", "As MP, he proposed raising a militia force like the Queen's Rangers.", "He also proposed to lead an invasion of Spain.", "But instead he was to be made lieutenant governor of the new loyalist province of Upper Canada.", "He resigned from Parliament in 1792 on taking up his new post." ], [ "Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada", "The Constitutional Act 1791 divided Canada into the Provinces of Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec).", "The Act established separate governments and legislative assemblies for each province.", "Lower Canada was the French-speaking eastern portion, which retained the French civil law and protections for the Roman Catholic Church established when Britain took over the area after its defeat of the French in the Seven Years' War.", "Upper Canada was the western area, newly settled after the American Revolutionary War.", "The settlers were mostly English speakers, including Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies, and also the Six Nations of the Iroquois, who had been British allies during the war.", "The Crown had purchased land from the Mississauga and other First Nations to give the Loyalists land grants in partial compensation for property lost in the United States, and to help them set up new communities and develop this territory.Simcoe was appointed Lieutenant-Governor on 12 September 1791, and left for Canada with his wife Elizabeth and daughter Sophia, leaving three daughters behind in England with their aunt.", "They left England in September and arrived in Canada on 11 November.", "Due to severe weather, the Simcoes spent the winter in Quebec City.", "Simcoe finally reached Kingston, Upper Canada, on 24 June 1792.In a proclamation on 16 July 1792, he renamed several islands at the mouth of the archipelago at the head of the St. Lawrence river to commemorate the British generals of the Seven Years' War (Amherst Island, Carleton Island, Gage Island, Wolfe Island, and Howe Island).Under the Constitutional Act, the provincial government consisted of the Lieutenant-Governor, an appointed Executive Council and Legislative Council, and an elected Legislative Assembly.", "The first meeting of the nine-member Legislative Council and sixteen-member Legislative Assembly took place at Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake) on 17 September 1792.Following Simcoe's work precipitated by the Chloe Cooley incident, the Assembly passed the ''Act Against Slavery'' in 1793, the first legislation to limit slavery in the British Empire; the English colonists of Upper Canada took pride in this distinction with respect to the French-Canadian populace of Lower Canada.", "The Upper Canadians valued their common law legal system, as opposed to the civil law of Quebec, which had chafed them ever since 1763.This was one of the primary reasons for the partition of 1791.Simcoe collaborated extensively with his Attorney-General John White on the file.However, this Act did not free anybody directly, and slaves continued to be held across Upper Canada.", "The Crown abolished slavery throughout the British Empire, including Upper Canada, in 1834.Simcoe's priority was the Northwest Indian War between the United States and the \"Western Confederacy\" of Native Americans west of the Appalachian Mountains and south of the Great Lakes (the Shawnee, Miami, Wyandot, and other tribes).", "This conflict had begun in 1785, and was still raging when Simcoe arrived in 1792.Simcoe had hoped to form an Indian barrier state between the two countries, even though he distrusted Joseph Brant, the main Indian leader.", "Simcoe rejected the section of the Treaty of Paris (1783) which awarded that area to the US, on the grounds that American actions had nullified the treaty.", "However, the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in 1793.The government in London decided to seek good terms with the United States.", "Simcoe was instructed to avoid giving the US reason to mistrust Britain but, at the same time, to keep the Natives on both sides of the border friendly to Britain.", "The Indians asked for British military support, which was initially refused, but in 1794 Britain supplied the Indians with rifles and ammunition.In February 1794, the governor general, Lord Dorchester, expecting the US to ally with France, said that war was likely to break out between the US and Britain before the year was out.", "This encouraged the Indians in their war.", "Dorchester ordered Simcoe to rally the Indians and arm British vessels on the Great Lakes.", "He also built Fort Miami (present-day Maumee, Ohio) to supply the Indians.", "Simcoe expelled Americans from a settlement on the southern shore of Lake Erie which had threatened British control of the lake.", "US President Washington denounced the \"irregular and high-handed proceeding of Mr.", "Simcoe.\"", "While Dorchester planned for a defensive war, Simcoe urged London to declare war: \"Upper Canada is not to be defended by remaining within the boundary line.\"", "Dorchester was officially reprimanded by the Crown for his strong speech against the Americans in 1794.Simcoe realised that Newark made an unsuitable capital because it was on the Canada–US border and subject to attack.", "He proposed moving the capital to a more defensible position, in the middle of Upper Canada's southwestern peninsula between Lake Erie and Lake Huron.", "He named the new location London, and renamed the river there the Thames in anticipation of the change.", "Dorchester rejected this proposal, but accepted Simcoe's second choice, the present site of Toronto.", "Simcoe moved the capital there in 1793, and renamed the settlement York after Frederick, Duke of York, King George III's second son.", "The town was severely underdeveloped at the time of its founding so he brought with him politicians, builders, Nova Scotia timber men, and Englishmen skilled in whipsawing and cutting joists and rafters.Simcoe began construction of two roads through Upper Canada, for defence and to encourage settlement and trade.", "Yonge Street (named after British Minister of War Sir George Yonge) ran north–south from York to Lake Simcoe.", "Soldiers of the Queen's Rangers began cutting the road in August 1793, reaching Holland Landing in 1796.Dundas Street (named for Colonial Secretary Henry Dundas) ran east–west, between York and London.The Northwest Indian War ended after the United States defeated the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.", "They made peace under the Treaty of Greenville.", "While still at war with France, Britain could not afford to antagonise the US in the Jay Treaty of 1794, and agreed to withdraw north of the Great Lakes, as agreed in the Treaty of Paris.", "Simcoe evacuated the frontier forts." ], [ "Later career", "A memorial to Simcoe in Exeter CathedralIn 1794, Simcoe was appointed to the rank of major general.", "In July 1796, poor health (gout and neuralgia) forced him to return to Britain.", "He was unable to return to Upper Canada and resigned his office in 1798.From October 1796 until March 1797, Simcoe briefly served as the commander of the British expeditionary force which was dispatched to captured the French colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti), which was in the midst of a slave rebellion.", "Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, who was the Secretary of State for War for prime minister William Pitt the Younger, had instructed Sir Adam Williamson, the lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, to sign an agreement with representatives of the French colonists that promised to restore the ancien regime, slavery and discrimination against mixed-race colonists, a move that drew criticism from abolitionists William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson.After assuming control of the British forces in Saint-Domingue, Simcoe was attacked by Haitian forces under the command of Toussaint Louverture, who at the time was fighting on behalf of the French Republic.", "An assault on the British-held town of Saint-Marc was repulsed, though Haitian forces captured Mirebalais and the Central Plateau.", "Simcoe was eventually replaced as leader of the expeditionary force in March.Simcoe was appointed colonel of the 81st Foot in 1798, but exchanged the position for the 22nd Foot less than six months later.", "Simcoe was buried in Wolford Chapel on the Simcoe family estate near Honiton, Devon.", "The Ontario Heritage Foundation acquired title to the chapel in 1982.Many of Simcoe's personal effects including his sword, sabre, and walking cane, may be viewed by appointment at the Archives of Ontario in Toronto.", "Elizabeth Simcoe's personal effects and hundreds of her watercolour paintings are also available there." ], [ "Legacy", "The 1903 unveiling of the statue of John Graves Simcoe at Queen's Park in TorontoLieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada by Walter Seymour Allward 1903 Queen's Park (Toronto)* In the winter of 1779, the first known Valentine's Day letter in America was given by then Lieutenant Colonel John Simcoe to Sarah 'Sally' Townsend.", "* Simcoe Street in Oyster Bay, New York is named after him for his destruction of a vast apple orchard and reconstruction of a hill fort on the site.", "* Act Against Slavery passed in 1793, leading to the abolition of slavery in Upper Canada by 1810.It was superseded by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 that abolished slavery across the British Empire.", "* Simcoe named London, Ontario and the River Thames in Upper Canada.", "* He named Lake Simcoe and Simcoe County to the west and north of Lake Simcoe in honour of his father.", "* Simcoe named his summer home Castle Frank for his first son Francis Gwillim, who was preceded by eight daughters.", "(It is in what is now named Rosedale, a neighbourhood in downtown Toronto.", ")* The Ontario Heritage Foundation placed a plaque in Exeter's cathedral precinct to commemorate his life.", "* Simcoe's regiment is still called the Queen's York Rangers, now an armoured reconnaissance regiment of the Canadian Forces reserves.Many places in Canada were named in honour of Simcoe:* The town of Simcoe in southwestern Ontario* The Simcoe Fairgrounds in Simcoe* Civic Holiday, a statutory holiday celebrated throughout Canada under a variety of names by region, was established in honour of Simcoe by the Toronto City Council in 1869.Other Ontario municipalities and then other provinces soon took up the holiday as well, leading to its Canada-wide status, but without any attribution to Simcoe.", "In 1965, the Toronto City Council declared the holiday would henceforth be known as Simcoe Day within Toronto.", "Attempts have been made to have the official provincial name—still Civic Holiday—amended, but none have succeeded.", "* Governor Simcoe Secondary School in St. Catharines, Ontario* Governor Simcoe Public School.", "Grades K – 8, in London, Ontario.", "The now closed and demolished school was located at the corner of Simcoe and Clarence Streets.", "* Three parallel streets in downtown Toronto, John Street, Graves Street, and Simcoe Street, are all located near the fort where Simcoe lived during his early years in York and were named for him.", "Graves Street was later renamed Duncan Street.", "* Simcoe Street, Simcoe Street United Church, and Simcoe Hall Settlement House in Oshawa.", "* Simcoe Street in New Westminster and Simcoe Park was named by Colonel Moody in reference to the surveying of the area after the city of Toronto.", "* Simcoe Street, Simcoe Street School and the Simcoe Street School Tigers Bantam Baseball Team of Niagara Falls* Simcoe Island, located near Kingston, Ontario* Simcoe Hall, located on the St. George campus of the University of Toronto* John Graves Simcoe Armoury, located on Industrial Parkway in Aurora, Ontario* Governors Road, a named section of Ontario Highway 99 running between Dundas, Ontario and Paris, OntarioTwo places have been named for Simcoe with the title ''Lord'', even though Simcoe was never a Lord in his lifetime:* Lord Simcoe Drive in Brampton, Ontario* Lord Simcoe Hotel, which operated from 1956 to 1981Captain John Kennaway Simcoe, the last member of the Simcoe family, died without issue in 1891 and was survived by his widow beyond 1911.===In popular culture===A fictionalised version of John Graves Simcoe is a primary antagonist in the 2014–2017 AMC drama ''Turn: Washington's Spies'', portrayed by Samuel Roukin.", "He is portrayed in the series as a cruel and ruthless sociopath.Despite the strong fictionalisation of the namesake TV-show character, several biographical aspects of the latter's historical counterpart appear to have been adapted for and transferred onto the fictional character Edmund Hewlett.", "For instance, Hewlett's romantic ambitions regarding Anna Strong in the series resemble Simcoe's courtship of Sarah Townsend, sister of Culper Ring spy Robert Townsend, for whom he wrote a poem that is thought to be the first verifiable valentine on the North American continent.", "It is presumed that Townsend, much like the fictionalised portrayal of Anna Strong on ''Turn'', may have gathered and passed on intelligence gleaned from her unsuspecting suitor to the Culper Ring.Similarly, Hewlett's close bond with his horse Bucephalus (presumably named after Bucephalus, the horse of Alexander the Great) which overarches all four seasons, appears to have been inspired by history: in 1783, John Graves Simcoe sent a series of letters to New York in order to find the horse he had ridden on campaign, Salem.", "Salem was located and Simcoe subsequently paid the considerable sum of £40 to have him shipped to England and thus returned to him.", "Shortly before his departure to Upper Canada almost a decade later, it is reported he was greatly concerned for Salem's welfare in his absence, therefore making arrangements for the latter's care and upkeep." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Craig, Gerald M. ''Upper Canada: the formative years, 1784–1841'' (McClelland & Stewart, 1963) ch 2* Fryer, Mary Beacock, and Christopher Dracott.", "''John Graves Simcoe 1752–1806: A Biography''(Dundurn, 1998) online* Mealing, S. R. \"SIMCOE, JOHN GRAVES,\" in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography'', vol.", "5, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–.", "Retrieved 6 October 2015, online.", "* Mealing, Stanley Robert.", "\"The Enthusiasms of John Graves Simcoe.\"", "''Report of the Annual Meeting.''", "Vol.", "37.No.", "1.The Canadian Historical Association/La Société historique du Canada, 1958.online* Read, David Breakinridge.", "The Life and Times of John Graves Simcoe.", "Toronto: George Virtue, 1890.", "* Riddell, William Renwick.", "''The Life of John Graves Simcoe, First Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of Upper Canada, 1792–96'' (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1926.", ")* Scott, Duncan Campbell.", "''John Graves Simcoe'' (Toronto: Morang & Company, 1905) online* * ===Primary sources===* Simcoe, John Graves.", "''The correspondence of Lieut.", "Governor John Graves Simcoe: with allied documents relating to his administration of the government of Upper Canada'' (2 vol.", "The Society, 1924)" ], [ "External links", "* * Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''* John Graves Simcoe's biography* Massacre at Hancock's Bridge* Massacre at Hancock's Bridge 2* The Real Castle Frank (Toronto Star)* Simcoe family fonds, Archives of Ontario" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Wilkes Booth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Wilkes Booth''' (May 10, 1838 – April 26, 1865) was an American stage actor who assassinated United States President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865.A member of the prominent 19th-century Booth theatrical family from Maryland, he was a noted actor who was also a Confederate sympathizer; denouncing President Lincoln, he lamented the then-recent abolition of slavery in the United States.Originally, Booth and his small group of conspirators had plotted to kidnap Lincoln to aid the Confederate cause.", "They later decided to murder him, as well as Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William H. Seward.", "Although the Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E. Lee, had surrendered to the Union Army four days earlier, Booth believed that the Civil War remained unresolved because the Army of Tennessee of General Joseph E. Johnston continued fighting.Booth shot President Lincoln once in the back of the head.", "Lincoln's death the next morning completed Booth's piece of the plot.", "Seward, severely wounded, recovered, whereas Vice President Johnson was never attacked.", "Booth fled on horseback to Southern Maryland; twelve days later, at a farm in rural Northern Virginia, he was tracked down sheltered in a barn.", "Booth's companion David Herold surrendered, but Booth maintained a standoff.", "After the authorities set the barn ablaze, Union soldier Boston Corbett fatally shot him in the neck.", "Paralyzed, he died a few hours later.", "Of the eight conspirators later convicted, four were soon hanged." ], [ "Background and early life", "Booth's parents were noted British Shakespearean actor Junius Brutus Booth and his mistress, Mary Ann Holmes, who moved to the United States from England in June 1821.They purchased a farm near Bel Air, Maryland, where John Wilkes Booth was born in a four-room log house on May 10, 1838, the ninth of ten children.", "He was named after English radical politician John Wilkes, a distant relative.", "Thirty years after he had absconded across the Atlantic Ocean, Junius' wife Adelaide Delannoy Booth was granted a divorce in 1851 on grounds of adultery, and Holmes legally wed Junius on May 10, 1851, John Wilkes' 13th birthday.", "Nora Titone suggests in her book ''My Thoughts Be Bloody'' (2010) that the shame and ambition of Junius Brutus Booth's actor sons Edwin and John Wilkes eventually spurred them to strive for achievement and acclaim as rivals—Edwin as a Unionist and John Wilkes as the assassin of Abraham Lincoln.Booth's father built Tudor Hall on the Harford County property as the family's summer home in 1851, while also maintaining a winter residence on Exeter Street in Baltimore.", "The Booth family was listed as living in Baltimore in the 1850 census.Tudor Hall in 1865As a boy, Booth was athletic and popular, and he became skilled at horsemanship and fencing.", "He attended the Bel Air Academy and was an indifferent student whom the headmaster thought was \"not deficient in intelligence, but disinclined to take advantage of the educational opportunities offered him.\"", "In 1850–1851, he attended the Quaker-run Milton Boarding School for Boys located in Sparks, Maryland, and later St. Timothy's Hall, an Episcopal military academy in Catonsville, Maryland.", "At the Milton school, students recited classical works by such authors as Cicero, Herodotus, and Tacitus.", "Students at St. Timothy's wore military uniforms and were subject to a regimen of daily formation drills and strict discipline.", "Booth left school at 14 after his father's death.While attending the Milton Boarding School, Booth met a Romani fortune-teller who read his palm and pronounced a grim destiny, telling him that he would have a grand but short life, doomed to die young and \"meeting a bad end\".", "His sister recalled that he wrote down the palm-reader's prediction, showed it to his family and others, and often discussed its portents in moments of melancholy.By age 16, Booth was interested in the theater and in politics, and he became a delegate from Bel Air to a rally by the Know Nothing Party for Henry Winter Davis, the anti-immigrant party's candidate for Congress in the 1854 elections.", "Booth aspired to follow in the footsteps of his father and his actor brothers Edwin and Junius Brutus Jr.", "He began practicing elocution daily in the woods around Tudor Hall and studying Shakespeare." ], [ "Theatrical career", "===1850s===The Richmond Theatre, Richmond, Virginia in 1858, when Booth, who had started acting in 1855, made his first stage appearance there in the repertory companyBooth made his stage debut at age 17 on August 14, 1855, in the supporting role of the Earl of Richmond in ''Richard III'' at Baltimore's Charles Street Theatre.", "The audience jeered at him when he missed some of his lines.", "He also began acting at Baltimore's Holliday Street Theater, owned by John T. Ford, where the Booths had performed frequently.", "In 1857 he joined the stock company of the Arch Street Theatre in Philadelphia, where he played for a full season.", "At his request, he was billed as \"J.B. Wilkes\", a pseudonym meant to avoid comparison with other members of his famous thespian family.", "Jim Bishop wrote that Booth \"developed into an outrageous scene stealer, but he played his parts with such heightened enthusiasm that the audiences idolized him.\"", "In February 1858, he played in ''Lucrezia Borgia'' at the Arch Street Theatre.", "On opening night, he experienced stage fright and stumbled over one of his lines.", "Instead of introducing himself by saying, \"Madame, I am Petruchio Pandolfo\", he stammered, \"Madame, I am Pondolfio Pet—Pedolfio Pat—Pantuchio Ped—dammit!", "Who am I?", "\", causing the audience to roar with laughter.Later that year, Booth played the part of Mohegan Indian Chief Uncas in a play staged in Petersburg, Virginia, and then became a stock company actor at the Richmond Theatre in Virginia, where he became increasingly popular with audiences for his energetic performances.", "On October 5, 1858, he played the part of Horatio in ''Hamlet'', alongside his older brother Edwin in the title role.", "Afterward, Edwin led him to the theater's footlights and said to the audience, \"I think he's done well, don't you?\"", "In response, the audience applauded loudly and cried, \"Yes!", "Yes!\"", "In all, Booth performed in 83 plays in 1858.Booth said that, of all Shakespearean characters, his favorite role was Brutus, the slayer of a tyrant.A ''carte de visite'' of John Wilkes BoothSome critics called Booth \"the handsomest man in America\" and a \"natural genius\", and noted his having an \"astonishing memory\"; others were mixed in their estimation of his acting.", "He stood tall, had jet-black hair, and was lean and athletic.", "Noted Civil War reporter George Alfred Townsend described him as a \"muscular, perfect man\" with \"curling hair, like a Corinthian capital\".", "Booth's stage performances were often characterized by his contemporaries as acrobatic and intensely physical, with him leaping upon the stage and gesturing with passion.", "He was an excellent swordsman, although a fellow actor once recalled that Booth occasionally cut himself with his own sword.Historian Benjamin Platt Thomas wrote that Booth \"won celebrity with theater-goers by his romantic personal attraction\", and that he was \"too impatient for hard study\" and his \"brilliant talents had failed of full development.\"", "Author Gene Smith wrote that Booth's acting may not have been as precise as his brother Edwin's, but his strikingly handsome appearance enthralled women.", "As the 1850s drew to a close, Booth was becoming wealthy as an actor, earning $20,000 a year ().===1860s===Booth embarked on his first national tour as a leading actor after finishing the 1859–1860 theatre season in Richmond, Virginia.", "He engaged Philadelphia attorney Matthew Canning to serve as his agent.", "By mid-1860, he was playing in such cities as New York; Boston; Chicago; Cleveland; St. Louis; Columbus, Georgia; Montgomery, Alabama; and New Orleans.", "Poet and journalist Walt Whitman said of Booth's acting, \"He would have flashes, passages, I thought of real genius.\"", "The ''Philadelphia Press'' drama critic said, \"Without having his brother Edwin's culture and grace, Mr. Booth has far more action, more life, and, we are inclined to think, more natural genius.\"", "In October 1860, while performing in Columbus, Georgia, Booth was shot accidentally in his hotel, leaving a wound some thought would end his life.Boston Museum playbill advertising Booth in ''Romeo and Juliet,'' May 3, 1864When the Civil War began on April 12, 1861, Booth was starring in Albany, New York.", "He was outspoken in his admiration for the South's secession, publicly calling it \"heroic.\"", "This so enraged local citizens that they demanded that he be banned from the stage for making \"treasonable statements\".", "Albany's drama critics were kinder, giving him rave reviews.", "One called him a genius, praising his acting for \"never failing to delight with his masterly impressions.\"", "As the Civil War raged across the divided land in 1862, Booth appeared mostly in Union and border states.", "In January, he played the title role in ''Richard III'' in St. Louis and then made his Chicago debut.", "In March, he made his first acting appearance in New York City.", "In May 1862, he made his Boston debut, playing nightly at the Boston Museum in ''Richard III'' (May 12, 15 and 23), ''Romeo and Juliet'' (May 13), ''The Robbers'' (May 14 and 21), ''Hamlet'' (May 16), ''The Apostate'' (May 19), ''The Stranger'' (May 20), and ''The Lady of Lyons'' (May 22).", "Following his performance of ''Richard III'' on May 12, the Boston ''Transcript'' review the next day called Booth \"the most promising young actor on the American stage\".Starting in January 1863, he returned to the Boston Museum for a series of plays, including the role of villain Duke Pescara in ''The Apostate'', that won him acclaim from audiences and critics.", "Back in Washington in April, he played the title roles in ''Hamlet'' and ''Richard III,'' one of his favorites.", "He was billed as \"The Pride of the American People, A Star of the First Magnitude,\" and the critics were equally enthusiastic.", "The ''National Republican'' drama critic said that Booth \"took the hearts of the audience by storm\" and termed his performance \"a complete triumph\".", "At the beginning of July 1863, Booth finished the acting season at Cleveland's Academy of Music, as the Battle of Gettysburg raged in Pennsylvania.", "Between September and November 1863, Booth played a hectic schedule in the northeastern United States, appearing in Boston, Providence, Rhode Island, and Hartford, Connecticut.", "Every day he received fan mail from infatuated women.Family friend John T. Ford opened 1,500-seat Ford's Theatre on November 9 in Washington, D.C. Booth was one of the first leading men to appear there, playing in Charles Selby's ''The Marble Heart''.", "In this play, Booth portrayed a Greek sculptor in costume, making marble statues come to life.", "Lincoln watched the play from his box.", "At one point during the performance, Booth was said to have shaken his finger in Lincoln's direction as he delivered a line of dialogue.", "Lincoln's sister-in-law was sitting with him in the same presidential box where he was later slain; she turned to him and said, \"Mr. Lincoln, he looks as if he meant that for you.\"", "The President replied, \"He does look pretty sharp at me, doesn't he?\"", "On another occasion, Lincoln's son Tad saw Booth perform.", "He said that the actor thrilled him, prompting Booth to give Tad a rose.", "Booth ignored an invitation to visit Lincoln between acts.Julius Caesar''On November 25, 1864, Booth performed for the only time with his brothers Edwin and Junius in a single engagement production of ''Julius Caesar'' at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York.", "He played Mark Antony and his brother Edwin had the larger role of Brutus in a performance acclaimed as \"the greatest theatrical event in New York history.\"", "The proceeds went towards a statue of William Shakespeare for Central Park, which still stands today (2019).", "In January 1865, he acted in Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet'' in Washington, again garnering rave reviews.", "The ''National Intelligencer'' called Booth's Romeo \"the most satisfactory of all renderings of that fine character,\" especially praising the death scene.", "Booth made the final appearance of his acting career at Ford's on March 18, 1865, when he again played Duke Pescara in ''The Apostate.''" ], [ "Business ventures", "Booth invested some of his growing wealth in various enterprises during the early 1860s, including land speculation in Boston's Back Bay section.", "He also started a business partnership with John A. Ellsler, manager of the Cleveland Academy of Music, and with Thomas Mears to develop oil wells in northwestern Pennsylvania, where an oil boom had started in August 1859, following Edwin Drake's discovery of oil there, initially calling their venture Dramatic Oil but later renaming it Fuller Farm Oil.", "The partners invested in a site along the Allegheny River at Franklin, Pennsylvania in late 1863 for drilling.", "By early 1864, they had a producing deep oil well named Wilhelmina for Mears' wife, yielding 25 barrels (4 kL) of crude oil daily, then considered a good yield.", "The Fuller Farm Oil company was selling shares with a prospectus featuring the well-known actor's celebrity status as \"Mr. J. Wilkes Booth, a successful and intelligent operator in oil lands\".", "The partners were impatient to increase the well's output and attempted the use of explosives, which wrecked the well and ended production.Booth was already growing more obsessed with the South's worsening situation in the Civil War and angered at Lincoln's re-election.", "He withdrew from the oil business on November 27, 1864, with a substantial loss of his $6,000 investment ($ today)." ], [ "Civil War years", "Booth was strongly opposed to the abolitionists who sought to end slavery in the United States.", "He attended the hanging of abolitionist leader John Brown on December 2, 1859, who was executed for treason, murder, and inciting a slave insurrection, charges resulting from his raid on the Federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (since 1863, West Virginia).", "Booth had been rehearsing at the Richmond Theatre when he read in a newspaper about Brown's upcoming execution.", "So as to gain access that the public would not have, he donned a borrowed uniform of the Richmond Grays, a volunteer militia of 1,500 men traveling to Charles Town for Brown's hanging, to guard against a possible attempt to rescue Brown from the gallows by force.", "When Brown was hanged without incident, Booth stood near the scaffold and afterwards expressed great satisfaction with Brown's fate, although he admired the condemned man's bravery in facing death stoically.Lincoln was elected president on November 6, 1860, and the following month Booth drafted a long speech, apparently never delivered, that decried Northern abolitionism and made clear his strong support of the South and the institution of slavery.", "On April 12, 1861, the Civil War began, and eventually 11 Southern states seceded from the Union.", "In Booth's native Maryland, some of the slaveholding portion of the population favored joining the Confederate States of America.", "Although the Maryland legislature voted decisively (53–13) against secession on April 28, 1861, it also voted not to allow federal troops to pass south through the state by rail, and it requested that Lincoln remove the growing numbers of federal troops in Maryland.", "The legislature seems to have wanted to remain in the Union while also wanting to avoid involvement in a war against Southern neighbors.", "Adhering to Maryland's demand that its infrastructure not be used to wage war on seceding neighbors would have left the federal capital of Washington, D.C., exposed, and would have made the prosecution of war against the South impossible, which was no doubt the legislature's intention.", "Lincoln suspended the writ of ''habeas corpus'' and imposed martial law in Baltimore and other portions of the state, ordering the imprisonment of many Maryland political leaders at Fort McHenry and the stationing of Federal troops in Baltimore.", "Many Marylanders, including Booth, agreed with the ruling of Marylander and U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, in ''Ex parte Merryman'', that Lincoln's suspension of ''habeas corpus'' in Maryland was unconstitutional.As a popular actor in the 1860s, Booth continued to travel extensively to perform in the North and South, and as far west as New Orleans.", "According to his sister Asia, Booth confided to her that he also used his position to smuggle the anti-malarial drug quinine, which was crucial to the lives of residents of the Gulf coast, to the South during his travels there, since it was in short supply due to the Northern blockade.Lucy Lambert Hale, Booth's fiancée in 1865Booth was pro-Confederate, but his family was divided, like many Marylanders.", "He was outspoken in his love of the South, and equally outspoken in his hatred of Lincoln.", "As the Civil War went on, Booth increasingly quarreled with his brother Edwin, who declined to make stage appearances in the South and refused to listen to John Wilkes' fiercely partisan denunciations of the North and Lincoln.", "In early 1863, Booth was arrested in St. Louis while on a theatre tour, when he was heard saying that he \"wished the President and the whole damned government would go to hell.\"", "He was charged with making \"treasonous\" remarks against the government, but was released when he took an oath of allegiance to the Union and paid a substantial fine.Booth is alleged to have been a member of the Knights of the Golden Circle, a secret society whose initial objective was to acquire territories as slave states.In February 1865, Booth became infatuated with Lucy Lambert Hale, the daughter of U.S.", "Senator John P. Hale of New Hampshire, and they became secretly engaged when Booth received his mother's blessing for their marriage plans.", "\"You have so often been dead in love,\" his mother counseled Booth in a letter, \"be well assured she is really and truly devoted to you.\"", "Booth composed a handwritten Valentine card for his fiancée on February 13, expressing his \"adoration\".", "She was unaware of Booth's deep antipathy towards Lincoln.===Plot to kidnap Lincoln===As the 1864 presidential election drew near, the Confederacy's prospects for victory were ebbing, and the tide of war increasingly favored the North.", "The likelihood of Lincoln's re-election filled Booth with rage towards the President, whom Booth blamed for the war and all of the South's troubles.", "Booth had promised his mother at the outbreak of war that he would not enlist as a soldier, but he increasingly chafed at not fighting for the South, writing in a letter to her, \"I have begun to deem myself a coward and to despise my own existence.\"", "He began to formulate plans to kidnap Lincoln from his summer residence at the Old Soldiers Home, from the White House, and to smuggle him across the Potomac River and into Richmond, Virginia.", "Once in Confederate hands, Lincoln would be exchanged for Confederate Army prisoners of war held in Northern prisons and, Booth reasoned, bring the war to an end by emboldening opposition to the war in the North or forcing Union recognition of the Confederate government.Throughout the Civil War, the Confederacy maintained a network of underground operators in southern Maryland, particularly Charles and St. Mary's Counties, smuggling recruits across the Potomac River into Virginia and relaying messages for Confederate agents as far north as Canada.", "Booth recruited his friends Samuel Arnold and Michael O'Laughlen as accomplices.", "They met often at the house of Confederate sympathizer Maggie Branson at 16 North Eutaw Street in Baltimore.", "He also met with several well-known Confederate sympathizers at The Parker House in Boston.The Old Soldiers Home, where Booth planned to kidnap LincolnIn October, Booth made an unexplained trip to Montreal, which was a center of clandestine Confederate activity.", "He spent ten days in the city, staying for a time at St. Lawrence Hall, a rendezvous for the Confederate Secret Service, and meeting several Confederate agents there.", "No conclusive proof has linked Booth's kidnapping or assassination plots to a conspiracy involving the leadership of the Confederate government, but historian David Herbert Donald states that \"at least at the lower levels of the Southern secret service, the abduction of the Union President was under consideration.\"", "Historian Thomas Goodrich concludes that Booth entered the Confederate Secret Service as a spy and courier.Lincoln won a landslide re-election in early November 1864, on a platform that advocated abolishing slavery altogether, by Constitutional amendment.", "Booth, meanwhile, devoted increased energy and money to his kidnapping plot.", "He assembled a loose-knit band of Confederate sympathizers, including David Herold, George Atzerodt, Lewis Powell (also known as Lewis Payne or Paine), and rebel agent John Surratt.", "They began to meet routinely at the boarding house of Surratt's mother, Mary Surratt.By this time, John was arguing vehemently with his older, pro-Union brother Edwin about Lincoln and the war, and Edwin finally told him that he was no longer welcome at his New York home.", "Booth also railed against Lincoln in conversations with his sister Asia.", "\"That man's appearance, his pedigree, his coarse low jokes and anecdotes, his vulgar similes, and his policy are a disgrace to the seat he holds.", "He is made the tool of the North, to crush out slavery.\"", "Asia recalled that he decried Lincoln's re-election, \"making himself a king\", and that he went on \"wild tirades\" in 1865, as the Confederacy's defeat became more certain.Booth attended Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4 as the guest of his secret fiancée Lucy Hale.", "In the crowd below were Powell, Atzerodt, and Herold.", "There was no attempt to assassinate Lincoln during the inauguration.", "Later, Booth remarked about his \"excellent chance...to kill the President, if I had wished.\"", "On March 17, he learned that Lincoln would be attending a performance of the play ''Still Waters Run Deep'' at a hospital near the Soldier's Home.", "He assembled his team on a stretch of road near the Soldier's Home in hope of kidnapping Lincoln en route to the hospital, but the President did not appear.", "Booth later learned that Lincoln had changed his plans at the last moment to attend a reception at the National Hotel in Washington — where Booth was staying.Lincoln's second inauguration.\|alt=President Lincoln at his second inauguration with John Wilkes Booth looking onwards with many others" ], [ "Assassination of Lincoln", "March 18, 1865, Ford's Theatre playbillBooth's last acting appearanceOn April 11, 1865, Booth was in the crowd outside the White House when Lincoln gave an impromptu speech from his window.", "During the speech, Lincoln stated that he was in favor of granting suffrage to former slaves; infuriated, Booth vowed to kill him and declared that it would be the last speech that Lincoln would ever make.On April 12, 1865, Booth heard the news that Robert E. Lee had surrendered at Appomattox Court House.", "He told Louis J. Weichmann, a friend of John Surratt and a boarder at Mary Surratt's house, that he was done with the stage and that the only play he wanted to present henceforth was ''Venice Preserv'd''.", "Weichmann did not understand the reference; ''Venice Preserv'd'' is about an assassination plot.", "Booth's scheme to kidnap Lincoln was no longer feasible with the Union Army's capture of Richmond and Lee's surrender, and he changed his goal to assassination.On the morning of Good Friday, April 14, 1865, Booth went to Ford's Theatre to get his mail.", "While there, he was told by John Ford's brother that the President and Mrs. Lincoln would be attending the play ''Our American Cousin'' at Ford's Theatre that evening, accompanied by Gen. and Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant.", "He immediately set about making plans for the assassination, which included making arrangements with livery stable owner James W. Pumphrey for a getaway horse and an escape route.", "Later that night, at 8:45 pm, Booth informed Powell, Herold, and Atzerodt of his intention to kill Lincoln.", "He assigned Powell to assassinate Secretary of State William H. Seward and Atzerodt to do so to Vice President Andrew Johnson.", "Herold would assist in their escape into Virginia.Currier and Ives depiction of Lincoln's assassination.", "''L-to-r:'' Maj. Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Pres.", "Lincoln, and BoothHistorian Michael W. Kauffman wrote that, by targeting Lincoln and his two immediate successors to the presidency, Booth seems to have intended to decapitate the Union government and throw it into a state of panic and confusion.", "In 1865, however, the second presidential successor would have been the president pro tempore of the U.S. Senate, Lafayette S. Foster, rather than Secretary Seward.", "The possibility of assassinating the Union Army's commanding general as well was foiled when Grant declined the theatre invitation at his wife's insistence.", "Instead, the Grants departed Washington by train that evening for a visit to relatives in New Jersey.", "Booth had hoped that the assassinations would create sufficient chaos within the Union that the Confederate government could reorganize and continue the war if one Confederate army remained in the field or, that failing, would avenge the South's defeat.Booth had free access to all parts of Ford's Theatre as a famous and popular actor who had frequently performed there and who was well known to its owner John T. Ford, even having his mail sent there.", "Many believe that Booth had bored a spyhole into the door of the presidential box earlier that day, so that he could observe the box's occupants and verify that the President had made it to the play.", "Conversely, an April 1962 letter from Frank Ford, son of the theatre manager Harry Clay Ford, to George Olszewski, a National Park Service historian, includes: \"Booth did not bore the hole in the door leading to the box ....", "The hole was bored by my father ... to allow the guard ... to look into the box\".After spending time at the saloon during intermission, Booth entered Ford's Theatre one last time at 10:10 pm.", "In the theater, he slipped into Lincoln's box at around 10:14 p.m. as the play progressed and shot the President in the back of the head with a .41 caliber Deringer pistol.", "Booth's escape was almost thwarted by Major Henry Rathbone, who was in the presidential box with Mary Todd Lincoln.", "Booth stabbed Rathbone when the startled officer lunged at him.", "Rathbone's fiancée Clara Harris was also in the box but was not harmed.Booth then jumped from the President's box to the stage, where he raised his knife and shouted \"''Sic semper tyrannis''\".", "(Latin for \"Thus always to tyrants,\" attributed to Brutus at Caesar's assassination; state motto of Virginia and mentioned in the new \"Maryland, My Maryland\", future anthem of Booth's Maryland.)", "According to some accounts, Booth added, \"I have done it, the South is avenged!\"", "Some witnesses reported that Booth fractured or otherwise injured his leg when his spur snagged a decorative U.S. Treasury Guard flag while leaping to the stage.", "Historian Michael W. Kauffman questioned this legend in his book ''American Brutus: John Wilkes Booth and the Lincoln Conspiracies'', writing that eyewitness accounts of Booth's hurried stage exit made it unlikely that his leg was broken then.", "Kauffman contends that Booth was injured later that night during his flight to escape when his horse tripped and fell on him, calling Booth's claim to the contrary an exaggeration to portray his own actions as heroic.Booth was the only one of the assassins to succeed.", "Powell was able to stab Seward, who was bedridden as a result of an earlier carriage accident; Seward was seriously wounded but survived.", "Atzerodt lost his nerve and spent the evening drinking alcohol, never making an attempt to kill Johnson." ], [ "Reaction and pursuit", "Booth fled Ford's Theatre by a stage door to the alley, where his getaway horse was held for him by Joseph \"Peanuts\" Burroughs.", "The owner of the horse had warned Booth that the horse was high-spirited and would break halter if left unattended.", "Booth had left the horse with Edmund Spangler and Spangler arranged for Burroughs to hold it.Booth rode into southern Maryland, accompanied by David Herold, having planned his escape route to take advantage of the sparsely settled area's lack of telegraphs and railroads, along with its predominantly Confederate sympathies.", "He thought that the area's dense forests and the swampy terrain of Zekiah Swamp made it ideal for an escape route into rural Virginia.", "At midnight, Booth and Herold arrived at Surratt's Tavern on the Brandywine Pike, from Washington, where they had stored guns and equipment earlier in the year as part of the kidnap plot.The duo then continued southward, stopping before dawn on April 15 for treatment of Booth's injured leg at the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd in St. Catharine, from Washington.", "Mudd later said that Booth told him the injury occurred when his horse fell.", "The next day, Booth and Herold arrived at the home of Samuel Cox around 4 am.", "As the two fugitives hid in the woods nearby, Cox contacted Thomas A. Jones, his foster brother and a Confederate agent in charge of spy operations in the southern Maryland area since 1862.The War Department advertised a $100,000 reward ($ in USD) by order of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton for information leading to the arrest of Booth and his accomplices, and Federal troops were dispatched to search southern Maryland extensively, following tips reported by Federal intelligence agents to Col. Lafayette Baker.Booth's escape routeFederal troops combed the rural area's woods and swamps for Booth in the days following the assassination, as the nation experienced an outpouring of grief.", "On April 18, mourners waited seven abreast in a mile-long line outside the White House for the public viewing of the slain president, reposing in his open walnut casket in the black-draped East Room.", "A cross of lilies was at the head and roses covered the coffin's lower half.", "Thousands of mourners arriving on special trains jammed Washington for the next day's funeral, sleeping on hotel floors and even resorting to blankets spread outdoors on the Capitol's lawn.", "Prominent African American abolitionist leader and orator Frederick Douglass called the assassination an \"unspeakable calamity\".", "Great indignation was directed towards Booth as the assassin's identity was telegraphed across the nation.", "Newspapers called him an \"accursed devil,\" \"monster,\" \"madman,\" and a \"wretched fiend.\"", "Historian Dorothy Kunhardt writes: \"Almost every family who kept a photograph album on the parlor table owned a likeness of John Wilkes Booth of the famous Booth family of actors.", "After the assassination Northerners slid the Booth card out of their albums: some threw it away, some burned it, some crumpled it angrily.\"", "Even in the South, sorrow was expressed in some quarters.", "In Savannah, Georgia, the mayor and city council addressed a vast throng at an outdoor gathering to express their indignation, and many in the crowd wept.", "Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston called Booth's act \"a disgrace to the age\".", "Robert E. Lee also expressed regret at Lincoln's death by Booth's hand.Not all were grief-stricken.", "In New York City, a man was attacked by an enraged crowd when he shouted, \"It served Old Abe right!\"", "after hearing the news of Lincoln's death.", "Elsewhere in the South, Lincoln was hated in death as in life, and Booth was viewed as a hero as many rejoiced at news of his deed.", "Other Southerners feared that a vengeful North would exact a terrible retribution upon the defeated former Confederate states.", "\"Instead of being a great Southern hero, his deed was considered the worst possible tragedy that could have befallen the South as well as the North,\" writes Kunhardt.Booth continued hiding in the Maryland woods, waiting for an opportunity to cross the Potomac River into Virginia.", "He read the accounts of national mourning reported in the newspapers brought to him by Jones each day.", "By April 20, he was aware that some of his co-conspirators had already been arrested: Mary Surratt, Powell (or Paine), Arnold, and O'Laughlen.", "Booth was surprised to find little public sympathy for his action, especially from those anti-Lincoln newspapers that had previously excoriated the President in life.", "News of the assassination reached the far corners of the nation, and indignation was aroused against Lincoln's critics, whom many blamed for encouraging Booth to act.", "The ''San Francisco Chronicle'' editorialized:Booth wrote of his dismay in a journal entry on April 21, as he awaited nightfall before crossing the Potomac River into Virginia (''see map''):That same day, the nine-car funeral train bearing Lincoln's body departed Washington on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, arriving at Baltimore's Camden Station at 10 am, the first stop on a 13-day journey to Springfield, Illinois, its final destination.", "The funeral train slowly made its way westward through seven states, stopping en route at Harrisburg, Philadelphia, Trenton, New York, Albany, Buffalo, Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis during the following days.", "About 7 million people lined the railroad tracks along the route, holding aloft signs with legends such as \"We mourn our loss,\" \"He lives in the hearts of his people,\" and \"The darkest hour in history.", "\"Broadside advertising reward for capture of Lincoln assassination conspirators, illustrated with photographic prints of John Surratt, John Wilkes Booth, and David HeroldIn the cities where the train stopped, 1.5 million people viewed Lincoln in his coffin.", "Aboard the train was Chauncey Depew, a New York politician and later president of the New York Central Railroad, who said, \"As we sped over the rails at night, the scene was the most pathetic ever witnessed.", "At every crossroads the glare of innumerable torches illuminated the whole population, kneeling on the ground.\"", "Dorothy Kunhardt called the funeral train's journey \"the mightiest outpouring of national grief the world had yet seen.", "\"Mourners were viewing Lincoln's remains when the funeral train steamed into Harrisburg at 8:20 pm, while Booth and Herold were provided with a boat and compass by Jones to cross the Potomac at night on April 21.Instead of reaching Virginia, they mistakenly navigated upriver to a bend in the broad Potomac River, coming ashore again in Maryland on April 22.The 23-year-old Herold knew the area well, having frequently hunted there, and recognized a nearby farm as belonging to a Confederate sympathizer.", "The farmer led them to his son-in-law, Col. John J. Hughes, who provided the fugitives with food and a hideout until nightfall, for a second attempt to row across the river to Virginia.", "Booth wrote in his diary:The pair finally reached the Virginia shore near Machodoc Creek before dawn on April 23.There, they made contact with Thomas Harbin, whom Booth had previously brought into his erstwhile kidnapping plot.", "Harbin took Booth and Herold to another Confederate agent in the area named William Bryant who supplied them with horses.While Lincoln's funeral train was in New York City on April 24, Lieutenant Edward P. Doherty was dispatched from Washington at 2 p.m. with a detachment of 26 Union soldiers from the 16th New York Cavalry Regiment to capture Booth in Virginia, accompanied by Lieutenant Colonel Everton Conger, an intelligence officer assigned by Lafayette Baker.", "The detachment steamed down the Potomac River on the boat ''John S. Ide'', landing at Belle Plain, Virginia, at 10 pm.", "The pursuers crossed the Rappahannock River and tracked Booth and Herold to Richard H. Garrett's farm, about south of Port Royal, Virginia.", "Booth and Herold had been led to the farm on April 24 by William S. Jett, a former private in the 9th Virginia Cavalry, whom they had met before crossing the Rappahannock.", "The Garretts were unaware of Lincoln's assassination; Booth was introduced to them as \"James W. Boyd\", a Confederate soldier, they were told, who had been wounded in the battle of Petersburg and was returning home.Garrett's 11-year-old son Richard was an eyewitness to the event.", "In later years, he became a Baptist minister and widely lectured on the events of Booth's demise at his family's farm.", "In 1921, Garrett's lecture was published in the ''Confederate Veteran'' as the \"True Story of the Capture of John Wilkes Booth.\"", "According to his account, Booth and Herold arrived at the Garretts' farm, located on the road to, and close to, Bowling Green, around 3 p.m. on Monday afternoon.", "Confederate mail delivery had ceased with the collapse of the Confederacy, he explained, so the Garretts were unaware of Lincoln's assassination.", "After having dinner with the Garretts that evening, Booth learned of the surrender of Johnston's army, the last Confederate armed force of any size.", "Its capitulation meant that the Civil War was unquestionably over and Booth's attempt to save the Confederacy by Lincoln's assassination had failed.", "The Garretts also finally learned of Lincoln's death and the substantial reward for Booth's capture.", "Booth, said Garrett, displayed no reaction other than to ask if the family would turn in the fugitive should they have the opportunity.", "Still not aware of their guest's true identity, one of the older Garrett sons offered that they might, if only because they needed the money.", "The next day, Booth told the Garretts that he intended to reach Mexico, drawing a route on a map of theirs.", "Biographer Theodore Roscoe said of Garrett's account, \"Almost nothing written or testified in respect to the doings of the fugitives at Garrett's farm can be taken at face value.", "Nobody knows exactly what Booth said to the Garretts, or they to him.\"" ], [ "Death", "The porch of the Garrett farmhouse, where Booth died in 1865Ford's Theatre National Historic Site (2011)Conger tracked down Jett and interrogated him, learning of Booth's location at the Garrett farm.", "Before dawn on April 26, the soldiers caught up with the fugitives, who were hiding in Garrett's tobacco barn.", "David Herold surrendered, but Booth refused Conger's demand to surrender, saying, \"I prefer to come out and fight.\"", "The soldiers then set the barn on fire.", "As Booth moved about inside the blazing barn, Sergeant Boston Corbett shot him.", "According to Corbett's later account, he fired at Booth because the fugitive \"raised his pistol to shoot\" at them.", "Conger's report to Stanton stated that Corbett shot Booth \"without order, pretext or excuse,\" and recommended that Corbett be punished for disobeying orders to take Booth alive.", "Booth, fatally wounded in the neck, was dragged from the barn to the porch of Garrett's farmhouse, where he died three hours later, aged 26.The bullet had pierced three vertebrae and partially severed his spinal cord, paralyzing him.", "He was exactly two weeks short of his 27th birthday.", "In his dying moments, he reportedly whispered, \"Tell my mother I died for my country.\"", "Asking that his hands be raised to his face so that he could see them, Booth uttered his last words, \"Useless, useless,\" and as dawn was breaking he died of asphyxiation as a result of his wounds.", "In Booth's pockets were found a compass, a candle, pictures of five women (actresses Alice Grey, Helen Western, Effie Germon, Fannie Brown, and Booth's fiancée Lucy Hale), and his diary, where he had written of Lincoln's death, \"Our country owed all her troubles to him, and God simply made me the instrument of his punishment.", "\"\"The killing of Booth, the assassinthe dying murderer drawn from the barn where he had taken refuge, on Garrett's farm, near Port Royal, Va., April 26, 1865\" (''Frank Leslie's Illustrated News'') Shortly after Booth's death, his brother Edwin wrote to his sister Asia, \"Think no more of him as your brother; he is dead to us now, as he soon must be to all the world, but imagine the boy you loved to be in that better part of his spirit, in another world.\"", "Asia also had in her possession a sealed letter that Booth had given her in January 1865 for safekeeping, only to be opened upon his death.", "In the letter, Booth had written:Booth's letter was seized by Federal troops, along with other family papers at Asia's house, and published by ''The New York Times'' while the manhunt was still underway.", "It explained his reasons for plotting against Lincoln.", "In it he decried Lincoln's war policy as one of \"total annihilation\", and said:" ], [ "Aftermath", "Historic Site marker on U.S. Route 301 near Port Royal, where the Garrett barn and farmhouse once stood in what is now the highway's median (2007)Booth's body was shrouded in a blanket and tied to the side of an old farm wagon for the trip back to Belle Plain.", "There, his corpse was taken aboard the ironclad USS ''Montauk'' and brought to the Washington Navy Yard for identification and an autopsy.", "The body was identified there as Booth's by more than ten people who knew him.", "Among the identifying features used to make sure that the man that was killed was Booth was a tattoo on his left hand with his initials J.W.B., and a distinct scar on the back of his neck.Three vertebrae were removed during the autopsy to enable physicians to remove the bullet.", "These bones were later put on display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, D.C.", "The body was then buried in a storage room at the Arsenal Penitentiary in 1865, and later moved to a warehouse at the Washington Arsenal on October 1, 1867.In 1869, the remains were once again identified before being released to the Booth family, where they were buried in the family plot at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, after a burial ceremony conducted by Fleming James, minister of Christ Episcopal Church, in the presence of more than 40 people.", "Russell Conwell visited homes in the vanquished former Confederate states during this time, and he found that hatred of Lincoln still smoldered.", "\"Photographs of Wilkes Booth, with the last words of great martyrs printed upon its borders...adorn their drawing rooms\".Eight others implicated in Lincoln's assassination were tried by a military tribunal in Washington, D.C., and found guilty on June 30, 1865.Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt were hanged in the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7, 1865.Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, and Michael O'Laughlen were sentenced to life imprisonment at Fort Jefferson in Florida's isolated Dry Tortugas.", "Edmund Spangler was given a six-year term in prison.", "O'Laughlen died in a yellow fever epidemic there in 1867.The others were eventually pardoned in February 1869 by President Andrew Johnson.Forty years later, when the centenary of Lincoln's birth was celebrated in 1909, a border state official reflected on Booth's assassination of Lincoln: \"Confederate veterans held public services and gave public expression to the sentiment, that 'had Lincoln lived' the days of Reconstruction might have been softened and the era of good feeling ushered in earlier.\"", "The majority of Northerners viewed Booth as a madman or monster who murdered the savior of the Union, while in the South, many cursed Booth for bringing upon them the harsh revenge of an incensed North instead of the reconciliation promised by Lincoln.", "A century later, Goodrich concluded in 2005, \"For millions of people, particularly in the South, it would be decades before the impact of the Lincoln assassination began to release its terrible hold on their lives\".===Theories of Booth's motivation===Author Francis Wilson was 11 years old at the time of Lincoln's assassination.", "He wrote an epitaph of Booth in his 1929 book ''John Wilkes Booth'': \"In the terrible deed he committed, he was actuated by no thought of monetary gain, but by a self-sacrificing, albeit wholly fanatical devotion to a cause he thought supreme.\"", "Others have seen more selfish motives, such as shame, ambition, and sibling rivalry for achievement and fame.===Theories of Booth's escape===In 1907, Finis L. Bates wrote ''Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth'', contending that a Booth look-alike was mistakenly killed at the Garrett farm while Booth eluded his pursuers.", "Booth, said Bates, assumed the pseudonym \"John St. Helen\" and settled on the Paluxy River near Glen Rose, Texas, and later moved to Granbury, Texas.", "He fell gravely ill and made a deathbed confession that he was the fugitive assassin, but he then recovered and fled, eventually committing suicide in 1903 in Enid, Oklahoma, under the alias \"David E. George\".", "By 1913, more than 70,000 copies of the book had been sold, and Bates exhibited St. Helen's mummified body in carnival sideshows.Booth Family gravesite, Green Mount Cemetery, where Booth is buried in an unmarked grave (2008)pennies, which depict Lincoln on their obverse, on the large monument of Booth's father JuniusIn response, the Maryland Historical Society published an account in 1913 by Baltimore mayor William M. Pegram, who had viewed Booth's remains upon the casket's arrival at the Weaver funeral home in Baltimore on February 18, 1869, for burial at Green Mount Cemetery.", "Pegram had known Booth well as a young man; he submitted a sworn statement that the body which he had seen in 1869 was Booth's.", "Others positively identified this body as Booth at the funeral home, including Booth's mother, brother, and sister, along with his dentist and other Baltimore acquaintances.", "In 1911, ''The New York Times'' had published an account by their reporter detailing the burial of Booth's body at the cemetery and those who were witnesses.", "The rumor periodically revived, as in the 1920s when a corpse was exhibited on a national tour by a carnival promoter and advertised as the \"Man Who Shot Lincoln\".", "According to a 1938 article in the ''Saturday Evening Post'', the exhibitor said that he obtained St. Helen's corpse from Bates' widow.", "''The Lincoln Conspiracy'' (1977) contended that there was a government plot to conceal Booth's escape, reviving interest in the story and prompting the display of St. Helen's mummified body in Chicago that year.", "The book sold more than one million copies and was made into a feature film called ''The Lincoln Conspiracy'' which was theatrically released later that year.", "The 1998 book ''The Curse of Cain: The Untold Story of John Wilkes Booth'' contended that Booth had escaped, sought refuge in Japan, and eventually returned to the United States.In 1994, two historians together with several descendants sought a court order for the exhumation of Booth's body at Green Mount Cemetery which was, according to their lawyer, \"intended to prove or disprove longstanding theories on Booth's escape\" by conducting a photo-superimposition analysis.", "The application was blocked by Baltimore Circuit Court Judge Joseph H. H. Kaplan, who cited, among other things, \"the unreliability of petitioners' less-than-convincing escape/cover-up theory\" as a major factor in his decision.", "The Maryland Court of Special Appeals upheld the ruling.In December 2010, descendants of Edwin Booth reported that they obtained permission to exhume the Shakespearean actor's body to obtain DNA samples to compare with a sample of his brother John's DNA to refute the rumor that John had escaped after the assassination.", "Bree Harvey, a spokesman from the Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where Edwin Booth is buried, denied reports that the family had contacted them and requested to exhume Edwin's body.", "The family hoped to obtain samples of John Wilkes's DNA from remains such as vertebrae stored at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Maryland.", "On March 30, 2013, museum spokesperson Carol Johnson announced that the family's request to extract DNA from the vertebrae had been rejected." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Film===Booth was portrayed by Raoul Walsh in the 1915 film ''The Birth of a Nation''.", "He was played by Ian Keith in D. W. Griffith's early sound film ''Abraham Lincoln'' (1930)John Wilkes Booth was played by John Derek in the film ''Prince of Players'' (1955), a biography of Edwin Booth (played by Richard Burton).", "James Marsden plays Booth in a flashback cameo in the comedy ''Zoolander'' (2001).", "Chris Conner portrayed John Wilkes Booth in the director's cut of the 2003 film ''Gods and Generals''.", "Christian Camargo depicts Booth in ''National Treasure: Book of Secrets'' (2007).", "Booth is portrayed by Toby Kebbell in the Robert Redford film ''The Conspirator'' (2010).", "Jesse Johnson plays Booth in the telefilm ''Killing Lincoln'' (2013), where he is the main character.===Literature===* In G. J.", "A. O'Toole's 1979 historical fiction-mystery novel ''The Cosgrove Report'', a present-day private detective investigates the authenticity of a 19th-century manuscript that alleges Booth survived the aftermath of the Lincoln assassination.", "()In ''Abraham Lincoln, Vampire Hunter'' by Seth Grahame-Smith, Booth is transformed into a vampire a few years before the Civil War and assassinates Lincoln out of natural sympathy for the Confederate States, whose slave population provides America's vampires with an abundant source of blood.===Stage productions===Booth is featured as a central character of Stephen Sondheim's musical ''Assassins'', in which his assassination of Lincoln is depicted in a musical number called \"The Ballad of Booth\".", "Austin-based theatre company The Hidden Room developed a staged reading of John Wilkes Booth's ''Richard III'' based on the manuscript promptbook in the collection of the Harry Ransom Center.", "The promptbook is one of only two known surviving promptbooks created by John Wilkes Booth and uses the Colley Cibber adaptation of Shakespeare's text.", "The full book with the actor's handwritten notations has been digitized.", "The other promptbook is also for ''Richard III'' and can be found in the Harvard Theatre Collection.===Television===Jack Lemmon played Booth live onstage in the sixth ''Ford Star Jubilee'' episode \"The Day Lincoln Was Shot\" (1956).", "The ''Wagon Train'' episode \"The John Wilbot Story\" (1958) is based on the premise that Booth survived and moved west; the character John Wilbot is played by Dane Clark.", "Booth was portrayed by John Lasell in ''The Twilight Zone'' episode \"Back There\" (1961).", "All three Booth brothers interact with the Morehouses and with Elizabeth in New York City in episode 9 of season 1 (\"A Day to Give Thanks\") of the BBC America series ''Copper''.", "Booth was portrayed by Kelly Blatz in \"The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln\" episode (S01E02) of ''Timeless''.", "In the early 1990s, an episode of the American TV show, ''Unsolved Mysteries'', presented originally by Robert Stack, examined sympathetically the theory that John Wilkes Booth was not killed in Maryland but escaped, dying in Oklahoma in 1903.The episode was re-edited and hosted by Dennis Farina in 2009.", "Booth was played by Rob Morrow in a 1998 remake of the television film ''The Day Lincoln Was Shot''.", "* In the 2019 web television series ''Blame the Hero'', Booth is portrayed by Anthony Padilla.", "In the series, multiple time travelers prevent Booth from killing President Lincoln.===Music===\"John Wilkes Booth\" is a song written by Mary Chapin Carpenter, commissioned and notably interpreted by Tony Rice.", "The song is included on his recording ''Native American''.===Video games===In the 2013 video game ''BioShock Infinite'', John Wilkes Booth is viewed as a hero in the fictional airborne city of Columbia.", "A cult's headquarters features a large statue of Booth in its lobby, as well as a painting depicting Booth as a saint while assassinating a devil version of Abraham Lincoln." ], [ "See also", "* Ogarita Booth Henderson* Charles Guiteau, assassin of President James Garfield* Leon Czolgosz, assassin of President William McKinley* Lee Harvey Oswald, assassin of President John Kennedy" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===*********************************************" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 17" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===38 BC – Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla, ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey.", "1362 – Saint Marcellus' flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea.", "1377 – Pope Gregory XI reaches Rome, after deciding to move the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon.", "1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean.", "1562 – France grants religious toleration to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain.", "1595 – During the French Wars of Religion, Henry IV of France declares war on Spain.===1601–1900===1608 – Emperor Susenyos I of Ethiopia surprises an Oromo army at Ebenat; his army reportedly kills 12,000 Oromo at the cost of 400 of his men.", "1641 – The Junta de Braços (parliamentary assembly) of the Principality of Catalonia proclaimed the Catalan Republic under French protection.", "1648 – England's Long Parliament passes the \"Vote of No Addresses\", breaking off negotiations with King Charles I and thereby setting the scene for the second phase of the English Civil War.", "1649 – The Second Ormonde Peace creates an alliance between the Irish Royalists and Confederates during the War of the Three Kingdoms.", "The coalition was then decisively defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.", "1773 – Captain James Cook leads the first expedition to sail south of the Antarctic Circle.", "1781 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Cowpens: Continental troops under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan defeat British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the battle in South Carolina.", "1799 – Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri, along with a number of other patriots, is executed.", "1811 – Mexican War of Independence: In the Battle of Calderón Bridge, a heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats nearly 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries.", "1852 – The United Kingdom signs the Sand River Convention with the South African Republic.", "1873 – A group of Modoc warriors defeats the United States Army in the First Battle of the Stronghold, part of the Modoc War.", "1885 – A British force defeats a large Dervish army at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan.", "1893 – Lorrin A. Thurston, along with the Citizens' Committee of Public Safety, led the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the government of Queen Liliuokalani.", "1899 – The United States takes possession of Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean.===1901–present===1903 – El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico becomes part of the United States National Forest System as the Luquillo Forest Reserve.", "1904 – Anton Chekhov's ''The Cherry Orchard'' receives its premiere performance at the Moscow Art Theatre.", "1912 – British polar explorer Captain Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole, one month after Roald Amundsen.", "1915 – Russia defeats Ottoman Turkey in the Battle of Sarikamish during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I.", "1917 – The United States pays Denmark 25 million for the Virgin Islands.", "1918 – Finnish Civil War: The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and the White Guard.", "1920 – Alcohol Prohibition begins in the United States as the Volstead Act goes into effect.", "1941 – Franco-Thai War: Vichy French forces inflict a decisive defeat over the Royal Thai Navy.", "1943 – World War II: Greek submarine Papanikolis captures the 200-ton sailing vessel ''Agios Stefanos'' and mans her with part of her crew.", "1944 – World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino with the intention of breaking through the Winter Line and seizing Rome, an effort that would ultimately take four months and cost 105,000 Allied casualties.", "1945 – World War II: The Vistula–Oder Offensive forces German troops out of Warsaw.", "* 1945 – The ''SS-Totenkopfverbände'' begin the evacuation of the Auschwitz concentration camp as the Red Army closes in.", "* 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg is taken into Soviet custody while in Hungary; he is never publicly seen again.", "1946 – The UN Security Council holds its first session.", "1948 – The Renville Agreement between the Netherlands and Indonesia is ratified.", "1950 – The Great Brink's Robbery: Eleven thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car company's offices in Boston.", " 1950 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 79 relating to arms control is adopted.", "1961 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers a televised farewell address to the nation three days before leaving office, in which he warns against the accumulation of power by the \"military–industrial complex\" as well as the dangers of massive spending, especially deficit spending.", " 1961 – Former Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered in circumstances suggesting the support and complicity of the governments of Belgium and the United States.", "1966 – Palomares incident: A B-52 bomber collides with a KC-135 Stratotanker over Spain, killing seven airmen, and dropping three 70-kiloton nuclear bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea.", "1969 – Black Panther Party members Bunchy Carter and John Huggins are killed during a meeting in Campbell Hall on the campus of UCLA.", "1977 – Capital punishment in the United States resumes after a ten-year hiatus, as convicted murderer Gary Gilmore is executed by firing squad in Utah.", "1981 – President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos lifts martial law eight years and five months after declaring it.", "1991 – Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning as aircraft strike positions across Iraq, it is also the first major combat sortie for the F-117.LCDR Scott Speicher's F/A-18C Hornet from VFA-81 is shot down by a Mig-25 and is the first American casualty of the War.", "Iraq fires eight Scud missiles into Israel in an unsuccessful bid to provoke Israeli retaliation.", " 1991 – Crown Prince Harald of Norway becomes King Harald V, following the death of his father, King Olav V.1992 – During a visit to South Korea, Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa apologizes for forcing Korean women into sexual slavery during World War II.", "1994 – The 6.7 Northridge earthquake shakes the Greater Los Angeles Area with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent''), leaving 57 people dead and more than 8,700 injured.", "1995 – The 6.9 Great Hanshin earthquake shakes the southern Hyōgo Prefecture with a maximum Shindo of VII, leaving 5,502–6,434 people dead, and 251,301–310,000 displaced.", "1996 – The Czech Republic applies for membership in the European Union.", "1997 – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station: A Delta II carrying the GPS IIR-1 satellite explodes 13 seconds after launch, dropping 250 tons of burning rocket remains around the launch pad.", "1998 – Clinton–Lewinsky scandal: Matt Drudge breaks the story of the Bill Clinton–Monica Lewinsky affair on his ''Drudge Report'' website.", "2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, displacing an estimated 400,000 people.", "2007 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes to midnight in response to North Korea's nuclear testing.", "2008 – British Airways Flight 38 crashes short of the runway at Heathrow Airport, injuring 47.", "2010 – Rioting begins between Muslim and Christian groups in Jos, Nigeria, results in at least 200 deaths.", "2013 – Former cyclist Lance Armstrong confesses to his doping in an airing of ''Oprah's Next Chapter''.", "2013 – Shahzad Luqman is murdered by members of Golden Dawn in Petralona, Athens, leading the creation of new measures to combat race-based attacks in Greece.", "2016 – President Barack Obama announces the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.", "2017 – The search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is announced to be suspended.", "* 2023 – An avalanche strikes Nyingchi, Tibet, killing 28 people." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1342 – Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1404)1429 – Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Italian artist (d.c. 1498)1463 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (d. 1525) 1463 – Antoine Duprat, French cardinal (d. 1535)1472 – Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, Italian captain (d. 1508)1484 – George Spalatin, German priest and reformer (d. 1545)1501 – Leonhart Fuchs, German physician and botanist (d. 1566)1504 – Pope Pius V (d. 1572)1517 – Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English Duke (d. 1554)1560 – Gaspard Bauhin, Swiss botanist, physician, and academic (d. 1624)1574 – Robert Fludd, English physician, astrologer, and mathematician (d. 1637)1593 – William Backhouse, English alchemist and astrologer (d. 1662)1600 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Spanish playwright and poet (d. 1681)===1601–1900===1612 – Thomas Fairfax, English general and politician (d. 1671)1640 – Jonathan Singletary Dunham, American settler (d. 1724)1659 – Antonio Veracini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1745)1666 – Antonio Maria Valsalva, Italian anatomist and physician (d. 1723)1686 – Archibald Bower, Scottish historian and autor (d. 1766)1693 – Melchor de Navarrete, Spanish colonial governor of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia, 1739 - 1742); of Spanish Florida (1749 - 1752); and of Yucatán (Mexico, 1754 - 1758) (d. 1761) 1706 – Benjamin Franklin, American publisher, inventor, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (d. 1790)1712 – John Stanley, English organist and composer (d. 1786)1719 – William Vernon, American businessman (d. 1806)1728 – Johann Gottfried Müthel, German pianist and composer (d. 1788)1732 – Stanisław August Poniatowski, Polish-Lithuanian king (d. 1798)1734 – François-Joseph Gossec, French composer and conductor (d. 1829)1761 – Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet, Scottish geologist and geophysicist (d. 1832)1789 – August Neander, German historian and theologian (d. 1850)1793 – Antonio José Martínez, Spanish-American priest, rancher and politician (d. 1867)1814 – Ellen Wood, English author (d. 1887)1820 – Anne Brontë, English author and poet (d. 1849)1828 – Lewis A.", "Grant, American lawyer and general, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1918) 1828 – Ede Reményi, Hungarian violinist and composer (d. 1898)1832 – Henry Martyn Baird, American historian and academic (d. 1906)1834 – August Weismann, German biologist, zoologist, and geneticist (d. 1914)1850 – Joaquim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti, Brazilian cardinal (d. 1930) 1850 – Alexander Taneyev, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1918)1851 – A.", "B.", "Frost, American author and illustrator (d. 1928)1853 – Alva Belmont, American suffragist (d. 1933) * 1853 – T. Alexander Harrison, American painter and academic (d. 1930)1857 – Wilhelm Kienzl, Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1941) 1857 – Eugene Augustin Lauste, French-American engineer (d. 1935)1858 – Tomás Carrasquilla, Colombian author (d. 1940)1860 – Douglas Hyde, Irish academic and politician, 1st President of Ireland (d. 1949)1863 – David Lloyd George, Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1945) 1863 – Konstantin Stanislavski, Russian actor and director (d. 1938)1865 – Sir Charles Fergusson, 7th Baronet, English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1951)1867 – Carl Laemmle, German-born American film producer, co-founded Universal Studios (d. 1939)* 1867 – Sir Alfred Rawlinson, 3rd Baronet, English colonel, pilot, and polo player (d. 1934)1871 – David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty, English admiral (d. 1936) 1871 – Nicolae Iorga, Romanian historian and politician, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1940)1875 – Florencio Sánchez, Uruguayan journalist and playwright (d. 1910)1876 – Frank Hague, American lawyer and politician, 30th Mayor of Jersey City (d. 1956)1877 – Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková, Czech botanist and zoologist (d. 1937) 1877 – May Gibbs, English-Australian author and illustrator (d. 1969)1880 – Mack Sennett, Canadian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1960)1881 – Antoni Łomnicki, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1941)* 1881 – Harry Price, English psychologist and author (d. 1948)1882 – Noah Beery, Sr., American actor (d. 1946)1883 – Compton Mackenzie, English-Scottish author, poet, and playwright (d. 1972)1886 – Glenn L. Martin, American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (d. 1955)1887 – Ola Raknes, Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (d. 1975)1888 – Babu Gulabrai, Indian philosopher and author (d. 1963)1897 – Marcel Petiot, French physician and serial killer (d. 1946)1898 – Lela Mevorah, Serbian librarian (d. 1972) 1899 – Al Capone, American mob boss (d. 1947)* 1899 – Robert Maynard Hutchins, American philosopher and academic (d. 1977)* 1899 – Nevil Shute, English engineer and author (d. 1960)===1901–present===1901 – Aron Gurwitsch, Lithuanian-American philosopher and author (d. 1973)1904 – Hem Vejakorn, Thai painter and illustrator (d. 1969)1905 – Ray Cunningham, American baseball player (d. 2005) 1905 – Peggy Gilbert, American saxophonist and bandleader (d. 2007)* 1905 – Eduard Oja, Estonian composer, conductor, educator, and critic (d. 1950)* 1905 – Guillermo Stábile, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1966)* 1905 – Jan Zahradníček, Czech poet and translator (d. 1960)1907 – Henk Badings, Indonesian-Dutch composer and engineer (d. 1987) 1907 – Alfred Wainwright, British fellwalker, guidebook author and illustrator (d. 1991)1908 – Cus D'Amato, American boxing manager and trainer (d. 1985)1911 – Busher Jackson, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1966)* 1911 – John S. McCain Jr., American admiral (d. 1981)* 1911 – George Stigler, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)1914 – Anacleto Angelini, Italian-Chilean businessman (d. 2007) 1914 – Irving Brecher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)* 1914 – Howard Marion-Crawford, English actor (d. 1969) * 1914 – Paul Royle, Australian lieutenant and pilot (d. 2015)* 1914 – William Stafford, American poet and author (d. 1993)1916 – Peter Frelinghuysen Jr., American lieutenant and politician (d. 2011)1917 – M. G. Ramachandran, Indian actor, director, and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (d. 1987)1918 – Keith Joseph, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (d. 1994) 1918 – George M. Leader, American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 2013)1920 – Georges Pichard, French author and illustrator (d. 2003)1921 – Jackie Henderson, Scottish footballer (d. 2005)* 1921 – Asghar Khan, Pakistani general and politician (d. 2018)* 1921 – Charlie Mitten, English footballer and manager (d. 2002)* 1921 – Antonio Prohías, Cuban cartoonist (d. 1998)1922 – Luis Echeverría, Mexican academic and politician, 50th President of Mexico (d. 2022) 1922 – Nicholas Katzenbach, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 65th United States Attorney General (d. 2012)* 1922 – Betty White, American actress, game show panelist, television personality, and animal rights activist (d. 2021)1923 – Rangeya Raghav, Indian author and playwright (d. 1962)1924 – Rik De Saedeleer, Belgian footballer and journalist (d. 2013)* 1924 – Jewel Plummer Cobb, American biologist, cancer researcher, and academic (d. 2017)1925 – Gunnar Birkerts, Latvian-American architect (d. 2017) 1925 – Robert Cormier, American author and journalist (d. 2000)* 1925 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar, Pakistani cricketer and author (d. 1996)1926 – Newton N. Minow, American lawyer and politician (d. 2023) 1926 – Moira Shearer, Scottish-English ballerina and actress (d. 2006)* 1926 – Clyde Walcott, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2006)1927 – Thomas Anthony Dooley III, American physician and humanitarian (d. 1961) 1927 – Eartha Kitt, American actress and singer (d. 2008)* 1927 – Harlan Mathews, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014)* 1927 – E. W. Swackhamer, American director and producer (d. 1994)1928 – Jean Barraqué, French composer (d. 1973) 1928 – Vidal Sassoon, English-American hairdresser and businessman (d. 2012)1929 – Philip Latham, British actor (d. 2020) 1929 – Jacques Plante, Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1986)* 1929 – Tan Boon Teik, Malaysian-Singaporean lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of Singapore (d. 2012)1931 – James Earl Jones, American actor 1931 – Douglas Wilder, American sergeant and politician, 66th Governor of Virginia* 1931 – Don Zimmer, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2014)1932 – John Cater, English actor (d. 2009) 1932 – Sheree North, American actress and dancer (d. 2005)1933 – Dalida, Egyptian-French singer and actress (d. 1987) 1933 – Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, French-Pakistani diplomat, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (d. 2003)* 1933 – Shari Lewis, American actress, puppeteer/ventriloquist, and television host (d. 1998)1934 – Donald Cammell, Scottish-American director and screenwriter (d. 1996) 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner, American businesswoman and politician, 72nd Governor of Delaware (d. 2021)1936 – John Boyd, English academic and diplomat, British ambassador to Japan (d. 2019) 1936 – A. Thangathurai, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1997)1937 – Alain Badiou, French philosopher and academic1938 – John Bellairs, American author and academic (d. 1991)* 1938 – Toini Gustafsson, Swedish cross country skier1939 – Christodoulos of Athens, Greek archbishop (d. 2008) 1939 – Maury Povich, American talk show host and producer1940 – Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni, Egyptian-Armenian patriarch (d. 2015) 1940 – Kipchoge Keino, Kenyan athlete* 1940 – Tabaré Vázquez, Uruguayan physician and politician, 39th President of Uruguay (d. 2020)1941 – István Horthy, Jr., Hungarian physicist and architect1942 – Muhammad Ali, American boxer and activist (d. 2016)* 1942 – Ita Buttrose, Australian journalist and author* 1942 – Ulf Hoelscher, German violinist and educator* 1942 – Nigel McCulloch, English bishop1943 – Chris Montez, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – René Préval, Haitian agronomist and politician, 52nd President of Haiti (d. 2017)1944 – Ann Oakley, English sociologist, author, and academic1945 – Javed Akhtar, Indian poet, playwright, and composer* 1945 – Anne Cutler, Australian psychologist and academic (d. 2022)1947 – Joanna David, English actress 1947 – Jane Elliot, American actress1948 – Davíð Oddsson, Icelandic politician, 21st Prime Minister of Iceland1949 – Anita Borg, American computer scientist and academic (d. 2003)* 1949 – Gyude Bryant, Liberian businessman and politician (d. 2014)* 1949 – Augustin Dumay, French violinist and conductor* 1949 – Andy Kaufman, American actor and comedian (d. 1984)* 1949 – Mick Taylor, English singer-songwriter and guitarist1950 – Luis López Nieves, Puerto Rican-American author and academic1952 – Tom Deitz, American author (d. 2009)* 1952 – Darrell Porter, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2002)* 1952 – Ryuichi Sakamoto, Japanese pianist, composer, and producer (d. 2023)1953 – Jeff Berlin, American bass player and educator 1953 – Carlos Johnson, American singer and guitarist1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., American environmental lawyer, writer, and conspiracy theorist1955 – Steve Earle, American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, author and actor* 1955 – Pietro Parolin, Italian cardinal* 1955 – Steve Javie, American basketball player and referee1956 – Damian Green, English journalist and politician 1956 – Paul Young, English singer-songwriter and guitarist1957 – Steve Harvey, American actor, comedian, television personality and game show host 1957 – Ann Nocenti, American journalist and author1958 – Tony Kouzarides, English biologist, cancer researcher1959 – Susanna Hoffs, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress 1960 – John Crawford, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Chili Davis, Jamaican-American baseball player and coach1961 – Brian Helgeland, American director, producer, and screenwriter1962 – Jun Azumi, Japanese broadcaster and politician, 46th Japanese Minister of Finance * 1962 – Jim Carrey, Canadian-American actor, comedian, and producer* 1962 – Sebastian Junger, American journalist and author* 1962 – Denis O'Hare, American actor and singer 1963 – Colin Gordon, English footballer, agent, manager and chief executive 1963 – Kai Hansen, German singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1964 – Michelle Obama, American lawyer and activist, 44th First Lady of the United States 1964 – John Schuster, Samoan-New Zealand rugby player1965 – Sylvain Turgeon, Canadian ice hockey player1966 – Trish Johnson, English golfer* 1966 – Joshua Malina, American actor* 1966 – Shabba Ranks, Jamaican rapper, musician, and songwriter1967 – Richard Hawley, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1968 – Rowan Pelling, English journalist and author* 1968 – Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer, Dutch author, poet, and scholar1969 – Naveen Andrews, English actor 1969 – Lukas Moodysson, Swedish director, screenwriter, and author* 1969 – Tiësto, Dutch DJ and producer1970 – Cássio Alves de Barros, Brazilian footballer 1970 – Jeremy Roenick, American ice hockey player and actor* 1970 – Genndy Tartakovsky, Russian-American animator, director, and producer1971 – Giorgos Balogiannis, Greek basketball player 1971 – Richard Burns, English race car driver (d. 2005)* 1971 – Lil Jon, American rapper and producer* 1971 – Kid Rock, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor* 1971 – Sylvie Testud, French actress, director, and screenwriter1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Mexican footballer and actor 1973 – Chris Bowen, Australian politician, 37th Treasurer of Australia* 1973 – Liz Ellis, Australian netball player and sportscaster* 1973 – Aaron Ward, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster1974 – Yang Chen, Chinese footballer and manager 1974 – Vesko Kountchev, Bulgarian viola player, composer, and producer* 1974 – Derrick Mason, American football player1975 – Freddy Rodriguez, American actor1977 – Leigh Whannell, Australian actor, director, screenwriter, and producer1978 – Lisa Llorens, Australian Paralympian 1978 – Ricky Wilson, English singer-songwriter 1980 – Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Ukrainian-American dancer and choreographer 1980 – Zooey Deschanel, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1980 – Modestas Stonys, Lithuanian footballer1981 – Warren Feeney, Northern Irish footballer and manager 1981 – Ray J, American singer, actor, and television personality* 1981 – Michael Zigomanis, Canadian ice hockey player1982 – Dwyane Wade, American basketball player 1982 – Andrew Webster, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1982 – Amanda Wilkinson, Canadian singer1983 – Álvaro Arbeloa, Spanish footballer 1983 – Ryan Gage, English actor* 1983 – Johannes Herber, German basketball player* 1983 – Rick Kelly, Australian race car driver* 1983 – Marcelo Garcia, Brazilian martial artist1984 – Calvin Harris, Scottish singer-songwriter, DJ, and producer 1984 – Dexter Lumis, American wrestler1985 – Pablo Barrientos, Argentinian footballer 1985 – Simone Simons, Dutch singer-songwriter1986 – Viktor Stålberg, Swedish ice hockey player1987 – Cody Decker, American baseball player* 1987 – Oleksandr Usyk, Ukrainian boxer1988 – Andrea Antonelli, Italian motorcycle racer (d. 2013) 1988 – Earl Clark, American basketball player* 1988 – Will Genia, Australian rugby player* 1988 – Jonathan Keltz, American actor* 1988 – Héctor Moreno, Mexican footballer1989 – Taylor Jordan, American baseball player 1989 – Kelly Marie Tran, American actress1990 – Santiago Tréllez, Colombian footballer 1990 – Tyler Zeller, American basketball player1991 – Trevor Bauer, American baseball player 1991 – Willa Fitzgerald, American actress* 1991 – Esapekka Lappi, Finnish rally driver* 1991 – Alise Post, American BMX rider1992 – Stanislav Galiev, Russian ice hockey player1994 – Lucy Boynton, American-English actress* 1994 – Mark Steketee, Australian cricketer1995 – Indya Moore, American actor and model1996 – Allonzo Trier, American basketball player1997 – Jake Paul, American boxer, actor, rapper, and social media personality 1997 – Kyle Tucker, American baseball player1998 – Sophie Molineux, Australian cricketer 1998 – Jeff Reine-Adelaide, French footballer1999 – Isa Briones, American actor and singer2000 – Kang Chan-hee, South Korean singer and actor* 2000 – Devlin DeFrancesco, Canadian race car driver* 2000 – Ayo Dosunmu, American basketball player2001 – Enzo Fernández, Argentinian footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 395 – Theodosius I, Roman emperor (b.", "347)* 644 – Sulpitius the Pious, French bishop and saint* 764 – Joseph of Freising, German bishop1040 – Mas'ud I of Ghazni, Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire (b.", "998)1156 – André de Montbard, fifth Grand Master of the Knights Templar1168 – Thierry, Count of Flanders (b.", "1099)1229 – Albert of Riga, German bishop (b.", "1165)1329 – Saint Roseline, Carthusian nun (b.", "1263)1334 – John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (b.", "1266)1345 – Henry of Asti, Greek patriarch 1345 – Martino Zaccaria, Genoese Lord of Chios1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (b.", "1328)1456 – Elisabeth of Lorraine-Vaudémont, French translator (b.", "1395)1468 – Skanderbeg, Albanian soldier and politician (b.", "1405)1523 – Elisabeth of Hesse-Marburg, German landgravine (b.", "1466)1588 – Qi Jiguang, Chinese general (b.", "1528)1598 – Feodor I of Russia (b.", "1557)===1601–1900===1617 – Fausto Veranzio, Croatian bishop and lexicographer (b.", "1551)1705 – John Ray, English botanist and historian (b.", "1627)1718 – Benjamin Church, American colonel (b.", "1639)1737 – Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, German architect (b.", "1662)1738 – Jean-François Dandrieu, French organist and composer (b.", "1682)1751 – Tomaso Albinoni, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1671)1826 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, Spanish-French composer (b.", "1806)1834 – Giovanni Aldini, Italian physicist and academic (b.", "1762)1850 – Elizabeth Simcoe, English-Canadian painter and author (b.", "1762)1861 – Lola Montez, Irish actress and dancer (b.", "1821)1863 – Horace Vernet, French painter (b.", "1789)1869 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky, Russian composer (b.", "1813)1878 – Edward Shepherd Creasy, English historian and jurist (b.", "1812)1884 – Hermann Schlegel, German ornithologist and herpetologist (b.", "1804)1887 – William Giblin, Australian lawyer and politician, 13th Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1840)1888 – Big Bear, Canadian tribal chief (b.", "1825)1891 – George Bancroft, American historian and politician, 17th United States Secretary of the Navy (b.", "1800)1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes, American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (b.", "1822)1896 – Augusta Hall, Baroness Llanover, Welsh writer and patron of the arts (b.", "1802)===1901–present===1903 – Ignaz Wechselmann, Hungarian architect and philanthropist (b.", "1828)1908 – Ferdinand IV, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b.", "1835)1909 – Agathon Meurman, Finnish politician and journalist (b.", "1826)* 1909 – Francis Smith, Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1819)1911 – Francis Galton, English polymath, anthropologist, and geographer (b.", "1822)1927 – Juliette Gordon Low, American founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (b.", "1860)1930 – Gauhar Jaan, One of the first performers to record music on 78 rpm records in India.", "(b.", "1873)1931 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (b.", "1864)1932 – Ahmet Derviş, Turkish general (b.", "1881) 1932 – Albert Jacka, Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1893)1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany, American stained glass artist (b.", "1848)1936 – Mateiu Caragiale, Romanian journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1885)1942 – Walther von Reichenau, German field marshal (b.", "1884)1947 – Pyotr Krasnov, Russian historian and general (b.", "1869)* 1947 – Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve, Canadian cardinal (b.", "1883)1951 – Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Indian poet, playwright, and director (b.", "1903)1952 – Walter Briggs Sr., American businessman (b.", "1877)1961 – Patrice Lumumba, Congolese politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b.", "1925)1970 – Simon Kovar, Russian-American bassoon player and educator (b.", "1890)* 1970 – Billy Stewart, American rhythm and blues singer and pianist (b.", "1937)1972 – Betty Smith, American author and playwright (b.", "1896)1977 – Dougal Haston, Scottish mountaineer (b.", "1940)* 1977 – Gary Gilmore, American murderer (b.", "1940)1981 – Loukas Panourgias, Greek footballer and lawyer (b.", "1899)1984 – Kostas Giannidis, Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1903)1987 – Hugo Fregonese, Argentinian director and screenwriter (b.", "1908)1988 – Percy Qoboza, South African journalist and author (b.", "1938)1991 – Olav V of Norway (b.", "1903)1992 – Frank Pullen, English soldier and businessman (b.", "1915)1993 – Albert Hourani, English-Lebanese historian and academic (b.", "1915)1994 – Yevgeni Ivanov, Russian spy (b.", "1926)* 1994 – Helen Stephens, American runner, shot putter, and discus thrower (b.", "1918)1996 – Barbara Jordan, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1936) 1996 – Sylvia Lawler, English geneticist (b.", "1922)1997 – Bert Kelly, Australian farmer and politician, 20th Australian Minister for the Navy (b.", "1912) 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh, American astronomer and academic, discovered Pluto (b.", "1906)2000 – Philip Jones, English trumpet player and educator (b.", "1928) 2000 – Ion Rațiu, Romanian journalist and politician (b.", "1917)2002 – Camilo José Cela, Spanish author and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1916) 2002 – Roman Personov, Russian physicist and academic (b.", "1932)2003 – Richard Crenna, American actor and director (b.", "1926)2004 – Raymond Bonham Carter, English banker (b.", "1929)* 2004 – Harry Brecheen, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1914)* 2004 – Ray Stark, American film producer (b.", "1915)* 2004 – Noble Willingham, American actor (b.", "1931)2005 – Charlie Bell, Australian businessman (b.", "1960) 2005 – Virginia Mayo, American actress, singer, and dancer (b.", "1920)* 2005 – Albert Schatz, American microbiologist and academic (b.", "1920)* 2005 – Zhao Ziyang, Chinese politician, 3rd Premier of the People's Republic of China (b.", "1919)2006 – Pierre Grondin, Canadian surgeon (b.", "1925)2007 – Art Buchwald, American journalist and author (b.", "1925)* 2007 – Yevhen Kushnaryov, Ukrainian engineer and politician (b.", "1951)* 2007 – Uwe Nettelbeck, German record producer, journalist and film critic (b.", "1940)2008 – Bobby Fischer, American chess player and author (b.", "1943) 2008 – Ernie Holmes, American football player, wrestler, and actor (b.", "1948)2009 – Anders Isaksson, Swedish journalist and historian (b.", "1943)2010 – Gaines Adams, American football player (b.", "1983)* 2010 – Jyoti Basu, Indian politician and 9th Chief Minister of West Bengal (b.", "1914)* 2010 – Michalis Papakonstantinou, Greek journalist and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (b.", "1919)* 2010 – Erich Segal, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1937)2011 – Don Kirshner, American songwriter and producer (b.", "1934)2012 – Julius Meimberg, German soldier and pilot (b.", "1917)* 2012 – Johnny Otis, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Marty Springstead, American baseball player and umpire (b.", "1937)2013 – Mehmet Ali Birand, Turkish journalist and author (b.", "1941) 2013 – Jakob Arjouni, German author (b.", "1964)* 2013 – Yves Debay, Belgian journalist (b.", "1954)* 2013 – John Nkomo, Zimbabwean politician, Vice President of Zimbabwe (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Lizbeth Webb, English soprano and actress (b.", "1926)2014 – Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin, Indian spiritual leader, 52nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (b.", "1915) 2014 – Francine Lalonde, Canadian educator and politician (b.", "1940)* 2014 – Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green, English businessman and politician (b.", "1942)* 2014 – John J. McGinty III, American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1940)* 2014 – Sunanda Pushkar, Indian-Canadian businesswoman (b.", "1962)* 2014 – Suchitra Sen, Indian film actress (b.", "1931) 2015 – Ken Furphy, English footballer and manager (b.", "1931) 2015 – Faten Hamama, Egyptian actress and producer (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Don Harron, Canadian actor and screenwriter (b.", "1924)2016 – Blowfly, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1939) 2016 – Melvin Day, New Zealand painter and historian (b.", "1923)* 2016 – V. Rama Rao, Indian lawyer and politician, 12th Governor of Sikkim (b.", "1935)* 2016 – Sudhindra Thirtha, Indian religious leader (b.", "1926)2017 – Tirrel Burton, American football player and coach (b.", "1929) 2017 – Colo, American western lowland gorilla, first gorilla born in captivity and oldest recorded (b.", "1956)2019 – S. Balakrishnan, Malayalam movie composer (b.", "1948)2020 – Derek Fowlds, British actor (b.1937) 2021 – Rasheed Naz, Pakistani film and television actor (b.", "1948)2022 – Birju Maharaj, Indian dancer (b.", "1937)* 2023 – Lucile Randon, French supercentenarian (b.", "1904)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Anthony the Great Blessed Angelo PaoliBlessed Gamelbert of MichaelsbuchCharles Gore (Church of England)Jenaro Sánchez Delgadillo (one of Saints of the Cristero War)MildgythOur Lady of Pontmain Sulpitius the PiousJanuary 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)National Day (Menorca, Spain)The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival, celebrated until Clean Monday.", "(Patras, Greece)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 17" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 27" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1054 – Siward, Earl of Northumbria, invades Scotland and defeats Macbeth, King of Scotland, somewhere north of the Firth of Forth.", "1189 – Friedrich Barbarossa arrives at Niš, the capital of Serbian King Stefan Nemanja, during the Third Crusade.", "1202 – Georgian–Seljuk wars: At the Battle of Basian the Kingdom of Georgia defeats the Sultanate of Rum.", "1214 – Battle of Bouvines: Philip II of France decisively defeats Imperial, English and Flemish armies, effectively ending John of England's Angevin Empire.", "1299 – According to Edward Gibbon, Osman I invades the territory of Nicomedia for the first time, usually considered to be the founding day of the Ottoman state.", "1302 – Battle of Bapheus: Decisive Ottoman victory over the Byzantines opening up Bithynia for Turkish conquest.", "1549 – The Jesuit priest Francis Xavier's ship reaches Japan.===1601–1900===1663 – The English Parliament passes the second Navigation Act requiring that all goods bound for the American colonies have to be sent in English ships from English ports.", "After the Acts of Union 1707, Scotland would be included in the Act.", "1689 – Glorious Revolution: The Battle of Killiecrankie is a victory for the Jacobites.", "1694 – A Royal charter is granted to the Bank of England.", "1714 – The Great Northern War: The first significant victory of the Russian Navy in the naval battle of Gangut against the Swedish Navy near the Hanko Peninsula.", "1775 – Founding of the U.S. Army Medical Department: The Second Continental Congress passes legislation establishing \"an hospital for an army consisting of 20,000 men.\"", "1778 – American Revolution: First Battle of Ushant: British and French fleets fight to a standoff.", "1789 – The first U.S. federal government agency, the Department of Foreign Affairs, is established (it will be later renamed Department of State).", "1794 – French Revolution: Maximilien Robespierre is arrested after encouraging the execution of more than 17,000 \"enemies of the Revolution\".", "1816 – Seminole Wars: The Battle of Negro Fort ends when a hot shot cannonball fired by US Navy Gunboat No.", "154 explodes the fort's Powder Magazine, killing approximately 275.It is considered the deadliest single cannon shot in US history.", "1857 – Indian Rebellion: Sixty-eight men hold out for eight days against a force of 2,500 to 3,000 mutinying sepoys and 8,000 irregular forces.", "1865 – Welsh settlers arrive at Chubut in Argentina.", "1866 – The first permanent transatlantic telegraph cable is successfully completed, stretching from Valentia Island, Ireland, to Heart's Content, Newfoundland.", "1880 – Second Anglo-Afghan War: Battle of Maiwand: Afghan forces led by Mohammad Ayub Khan defeat the British Army in battle near Maiwand, Afghanistan.", "1890 – Vincent van Gogh shoots himself and dies two days later.", "1900 – Kaiser Wilhelm II makes a speech comparing Germans to Huns; for years afterwards, \"Hun\" would be a disparaging name for Germans.===1901–present===1917 – World War I: The Allies reach the Yser Canal at the Battle of Passchendaele.", "1919 – The Chicago Race Riot erupts after a racial incident occurred on a South Side beach, leading to 38 fatalities and 537 injuries over a five-day period.", "1921 – Researchers at the University of Toronto, led by biochemist Frederick Banting, prove that the hormone insulin regulates blood sugar.", "1929 – The Geneva Convention of 1929, dealing with treatment of prisoners-of-war, is signed by 53 nations.", "1940 – The animated short ''A Wild Hare'' is released, introducing the character of Bugs Bunny.", "1942 – World War II: Allied forces successfully halt the final Axis advance into Egypt.", "1947 – In Vatican City, Rome, canonization of Catherine Labouré, the saint whose apparitions of the Virgin Mary originated the worldwide diffusion of the Miraculous Medal.", "1949 – Initial flight of the de Havilland Comet, the first jet-powered airliner.", "1953 – Cessation of hostilities is achieved in the Korean War when the United States, China, and North Korea sign an armistice agreement.", "Syngman Rhee, President of South Korea, refuses to sign but pledges to observe the armistice.", "1955 – The Austrian State Treaty restores Austrian sovereignty.", "* 1955 – El Al Flight 402 is shot down by two fighter jets after straying into Bulgarian air space.", "All 58 people on board are killed.", "1959 – The Continental League is announced as baseball's \"third major league\" in the United States.", "1963 – The Puijo observation tower is opened to the general public at Puijo Hill in Kuopio, Finland.", "1964 – Vietnam War: Five thousand more American military advisers are sent to South Vietnam bringing the total number of United States forces in Vietnam to 21,000.", "1974 – Watergate scandal: The House of Representatives Judiciary Committee votes 27 to 11 to recommend the first article of impeachment (for obstruction of justice) against President Richard Nixon.", "1975 – Mayor of Jaffna and former MP Alfred Duraiappah is shot dead.", "1981 – While landing at Chihuahua International Airport, Aeromexico Flight 230 overshoots the runway.", "Thirty-two of the 66 passengers and crew on board the DC-9 are killed.", "1983 – Black July: Eighteen Tamil political prisoners at the Welikada high security prison in Colombo are massacred by Sinhalese prisoners, the second such massacre in two days.", "1989 – While attempting to land at Tripoli International Airport in Libya, Korean Air Flight 803 crashes just short of the runway.", "Seventy-five of the 199 passengers and crew and four people on the ground are killed, in the second accident involving a DC-10 in less than two weeks, the first being United Airlines Flight 232.", "1990 – The Supreme Soviet of the Belarusian Soviet Republic declares independence of Belarus from the Soviet Union.", "Until 1996 the day is celebrated as the Independence Day of Belarus; after a referendum held that year the celebration of independence is moved to June 3.", " 1990 – The Jamaat al Muslimeen attempt a ''coup d'état'' in Trinidad and Tobago.", "1995 – The Korean War Veterans Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C.1996 – In Atlanta, United States, a pipe bomb explodes at Centennial Olympic Park during the 1996 Summer Olympics.", "1997 – About 50 people are killed in the Si Zerrouk massacre in Algeria.", "2002 – Ukraine airshow disaster: A Sukhoi Su-27 fighter crashes during an air show at Lviv, Ukraine killing 77 and injuring more than 500 others, making it the deadliest air show disaster in history.", "2005 – After an incident during STS-114, NASA grounds the Space Shuttle, pending an investigation of the continuing problem with the shedding of foam insulation from the external fuel tank.", "2015 – At least seven people are killed and many injured after gunmen attack an Indian police station in Punjab." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 774 – Kūkai, Japanese Buddhist monk, founder of Esoteric (Shingon) Buddhism (d. 835)1452 – Ludovico Sforza, Italian son of Francesco I Sforza (d. 1508) 1452 – Lucrezia Crivelli, mistress of Ludovico Sforza (d. 1508)1502 – Francesco Corteccia, Italian composer (d. 1571)1578 – Frances Howard, Duchess of Richmond (d. 1639)===1601–1900===1612 – Murad IV, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1640)1625 – Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich (d. 1672)1667 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and academic (d. 1748)1733 – Jeremiah Dixon, English surveyor and astronomer (d. 1779)1740 – Jeanne Baré, French explorer (d. 1803)1741 – François-Hippolyte Barthélémon, French-English violinist and composer (d. 1808)1752 – Samuel Smith, American general and politician (d. 1839)1768 – Charlotte Corday, French assassin of Jean-Paul Marat (d. 1793)* 1768 – Joseph Anton Koch, Austrian painter (d. 1839)1773 – Jacob Aall, Norwegian economist and politician (d. 1844)1777 – Thomas Campbell, Scottish-French poet and academic (d. 1844)* 1777 – Henry Trevor, 21st Baron Dacre, English general (d. 1853)1781 – Mauro Giuliani, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1828)1784 – Denis Davydov, Russian general and poet (d. 1839)1812 – Thomas Lanier Clingman, American general and politician (d. 1897)1818 – Agostino Roscelli, Italian priest and saint (d. 1902)1824 – Alexandre Dumas, fils, French novelist and playwright (d. 1895)1833 – Thomas George Bonney, English geologist, mountaineer, and academic (d. 1923)1834 – Miguel Grau Seminario, Peruvian admiral (d. 1879)1835 – Giosuè Carducci, Italian poet and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907)1848 – Loránd Eötvös, Hungarian physicist and politician, Minister of Education of Hungary (d. 1919) 1848 – Friedrich Ernst Dorn, German physicist (d. 1916)1853 – Vladimir Korolenko, Ukrainian journalist, author, and activist (d. 1921) 1853 – Elizabeth Plankinton, American philanthropist (d. 1923)1854 – Takahashi Korekiyo, Japanese accountant and politician, 20th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1936)1857 – José Celso Barbosa, Puerto Rican physician, sociologist, and politician (d. 1921)* 1857 – Ernest Alfred Thompson Wallis Budge, English Egyptologist, Orientalist, and philologist (d. 1934)1858 – George Lyon, Canadian golfer and cricketer (d. 1938)1866 – António José de Almeida, Portuguese physician and politician, 6th President of Portugal (d. 1929)1867 – Enrique Granados, Spanish pianist and composer (d. 1916)1870 – Hilaire Belloc, French-born British writer and historian (d. 1953)1872 – Stanislav Binički, Serbian composer, conductor, and pedagogue.", "(d. 1942)1879 – Francesco Gaeta, Italian poet (d. 1927)1877 – Ernő Dohnányi, Hungarian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1960)1881 – Hans Fischer, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1945)1882 – Geoffrey de Havilland, English pilot and engineer, founded the de Havilland Aircraft Company (d. 1965)1886 – Ernst May, German architect and urban planner (d. 1970)1889 – Vera Karalli, Russian ballerina, choreographer, and actress (d. 1972)1890 – Benjamin Miessner, American radio engineer and inventor (d. 1976)* 1890 – Armas Taipale, Finnish discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1976)1891 – Jacob van der Hoeden, Dutch-Israeli veterinarian and academic (d. 1968)1893 – Ugo Agostoni, Italian cyclist (d. 1941)1894 – Mientje Kling, Dutch actress (d. 1966)1896 – Robert George, Scottish air marshal and politician, 24th Governor of South Australia (d. 1967)* 1896 – Henri Longchambon, French lawyer and politician (d. 1969)1899 – Percy Hornibrook, Australian cricketer (d. 1976)===1901–present===1902 – Yaroslav Halan, Ukrainian playwright and publicist (d. 1949)1903 – Nikolay Cherkasov, Russian actor (d. 1966) 1903 – Michail Stasinopoulos, Greek jurist and politician, President of Greece (d. 2002)* 1903 – Mārtiņš Zīverts, Latvian playwright (d. 1990)1904 – Lyudmila Rudenko, Soviet chess player (d. 1986)1905 – Leo Durocher, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991)1906 – Jerzy Giedroyc, Polish author and activist (d. 2000) 1906 – Herbert Jasper, Canadian psychologist and neurologist (d. 1999)1907 – Ross Alexander, American stage and film actor (d. 1937) 1907 – Carl McClellan Hill, American educator and academic administrator (d. 1995)* 1907 – Irene Fischer, Austrian-American geodesist and mathematician (d. 2009)1908 – Joseph Mitchell, American journalist and author (d. 1996)1910 – Julien Gracq, French author and critic (d. 2007)* 1910 – Lupita Tovar, Mexican-American actress (d. 2016)1911 – Rayner Heppenstall, English author and poet (d. 1981)1912 – Vernon Elliott, English bassoon player, composer, and conductor (d. 1996)1913 – George L. Street III, American captain, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2000)1914 – August Sang, Estonian poet and translator (d. 1969)1915 – Mario Del Monaco, Italian tenor (d. 1982) 1915 – Josef Priller, German colonel and pilot (d. 1961)1916 – Elizabeth Hardwick, American literary critic, novelist, and short story writer (d. 2007) 1916 – Skippy Williams, American saxophonist and arranger (d. 1994)* 1916 – Keenan Wynn, American actor (d. 1986)1918 – Leonard Rose, American cellist and educator (d. 1984)1920 – Henry D. \"Homer\" Haynes, American comedian and musician (d. 1971) 1921 – Garry Davis, American pilot and activist, created the World Passport (d. 2013) 1921 – Émile Genest, Canadian-American actor (d. 2003)1922 – Adolfo Celi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1986) 1922 – Norman Lear, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2023)1923 – Mas Oyama, South Korean-Japanese martial artist (d. 1994)1924 – Vincent Canby, American historian and critic (d. 2000)* 1924 – Otar Taktakishvili, Georgian composer and conductor (d. 1989)1927 – Guy Carawan, American singer and musicologist (d. 2015) 1927 – Pierre Granier-Deferre, French director and screenwriter (d. 2007)* 1927 – Mel Hunter, American illustrator (d. 2004)* 1927 – Will Jordan, American comedian and actor (d. 2018)* 1927 – C. Rajadurai, Sri Lankan journalist and politician, 1st Mayor of Batticaloa* 1927 – John Seigenthaler, American journalist and academic (d. 2014)1928 – Joseph Kittinger, American colonel and pilot (d. 2022)1929 – Jean Baudrillard, French sociologist and philosopher (d. 2007)* 1929 – Harvey Fuqua, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2010)* 1929 – Jack Higgins, English author and academic (d. 2022)* 1929 – Marc Wilkinson, French-Australian composer and conductor (d. 2022)1930 – Joy Whitby, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1930 – Shirley Williams, English academic and politician, Secretary of State for Education (d. 2021)1931 – Khieu Samphan, Cambodian academic and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Cambodia 1931 – Jerry Van Dyke, American actor (d. 2018)1932 – Forest Able, American basketball player 1932 – Diane Webber, American model, dancer and actress (d. 2008)1933 – Nick Reynolds, American singer and bongo player (d. 2008) 1933 – Ted Whitten, Australian football player and journalist (d. 1995)1935 – Hillar Kärner, Estonian chess player (d. 2017) 1935 – Billy McCullough, Northern Irish footballer1936 – J. Robert Hooper, American businessman and politician (d. 2008)1937 – Anna Dawson, English actress and singer* 1937 – Don Galloway, American actor (d. 2009)* 1937 – Robert Holmes à Court, South African-Australian businessman and lawyer (d. 1990)1938 – Gary Gygax, American game designer, co-created Dungeons & Dragons (d. 2008)1939 – William Eggleston, American photographer and academic* 1939 – Michael Longley, Northern Irish poet and academic* 1939 – Paulo Silvino, Brazilian comedian, composer and actor (d. 2017)1940 – Pina Bausch, German dancer and choreographer (d. 2009)1941 – Christian Boesch, Austrian opera singer* 1941 – Johannes Fritsch, German viola player and composer (d. 2010)1942 – Édith Butler, Canadian singer-songwriter 1942 – Bobbie Gentry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1942 – John Pleshette, American actor, director, and screenwriter* 1942 – Dennis Ralston, American tennis player (d. 2020)1943 – Jeremy Greenstock, English diplomat, British Ambassador to the United Nations1944 – Jean-Marie Leblanc, French cyclist and journalist* 1944 – Barbara Thomson, English saxophonist and composer (d. 2022) 1946 – Peter Reading, English poet and author (d. 2011)1947 – Kazuyoshi Miura, Japanese businessman (d. 2008)* 1947 – Giora Spiegel, Israeli footballer and coach* 1947 – Betty Thomas, American actress, director, and producer1948 – Peggy Fleming, American figure skater and sportscaster 1948 – James Munby, English lawyer and judge* 1948 – Henny Vrienten, Dutch singer-songwriter and bass player 1949 – Maury Chaykin, American-Canadian actor (d. 2010) 1949 – André Dupont, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1949 – Rory MacDonald, Scottish singer-songwriter and bass player * 1949 – Maureen McGovern, American singer and actress* 1949 – Robert Rankin, English author and illustrator1950 – Simon Jones, English actor1951 – Roseanna Cunningham, Scottish lawyer and politician, Minister for Community Safety and Legal Affairs* 1951 – Bob Diamond, American-English banker and businessman* 1951 – Rolf Thung, Dutch tennis player1952 – Marvin Barnes, American basketball player (d. 2014) 1952 – Roxanne Hart, American actress1953 – Chung Dong-young, South Korean journalist and politician, 31st South Korean Minister of Unification 1953 – Yahoo Serious, Australian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter1954 – Philippe Alliot, French race car driver and sportscaster 1954 – G. S. Bali, Indian lawyer and politician* 1954 – Mark Stanway, English keyboard player* 1954 – Ricardo Uceda, Peruvian journalist and author1955 – Cat Bauer, American journalist, author, and playwright 1955 – Allan Border, Australian cricketer and coach* 1955 – John Howell, English journalist and politician* 1955 – Bobby Rondinelli, American drummer 1956 – Carol Leifer, American actress, comedian, screenwriter, and producer1957 – Bill Engvall, American comedian, actor, and producer1958 – Christopher Dean, English figure skater and choreographer 1958 – Kimmo Hakola, Finnish composer1959 – Joe DeSa, American baseball player (d. 1986) 1959 – Hugh Green, American football player* 1959 – Yiannos Papantoniou, French-Greek economist and politician, Greek Minister of National Defence1960 – Jo Durie, English tennis player and sportscaster 1960 – Conway Savage, Australian singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2018)* 1960 – Emily Thornberry, English lawyer and politician1961 – Ed Orgeron, American football coach1962 – Neil Brooks, Australian swimmer* 1962 – Karl Mueller, American bass player (d. 2005)1963 – Donnie Yen, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and martial artist1964 – Rex Brown, American bass player and songwriter 1965 – José Luis Chilavert, Paraguayan footballer1966 – Steve Tilson, English footballer and manager1967 – Rahul Bose, Indian journalist, actor, director, and screenwriter 1967 – Juliana Hatfield, American singer-songwriter and musician * 1967 – Hans Mathisen, Norwegian guitarist and composer* 1967 – Neil Smith, English cricketer* 1967 – Craig Wolanin, American ice hockey player1968 – Maria Grazia Cucinotta, Italian actress and producer 1968 – Tom Goodwin, American baseball player and coach* 1968 – Sabina Jeschke, Swedish-German engineer and academic* 1968 – Julian McMahon, Australian actor and producer* 1968 – Ricardo Rosset, Brazilian race car driver1969 – Triple H, American wrestler and actor 1969 – Jonty Rhodes, South African cricketer and coach1970 – Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Danish actor and producer 1970 – David Davies, English-Welsh politician1971 – Matthew Johns, Australian rugby league player, sportscaster and television host 1971 – Anna Menconi, Italian Paralympic archer1972 – Clint Robinson, Australian kayaker 1972 – Maya Rudolph, American actress * 1972 – Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, Malaysian surgeon and astronaut1973 – Cassandra Clare, American journalist and author 1973 – Erik Nys, Belgian long jumper* 1973 – Gorden Tallis, Australian rugby league player and coach1974 – Eason Chan, Hong Kong singer, actor, and producer 1974 – Pete Yorn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Serkan Çeliköz, Turkish keyboard player and songwriter 1975 – Shea Hillenbrand, American baseball player* 1975 – Fred Mascherino, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1975 – Alessandro Pistone, Italian footballer* 1975 – Alex Rodriguez, American baseball player1976 – Demis Hassabis, English computer scientist and academic 1976 – Scott Mason, Australian cricketer (d. 2005)1977 – Foo Swee Chin, Singaporean illustrator 1977 – Björn Dreyer, German footballer* 1977 – Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Irish actor 1978 – Diarmuid O'Sullivan, Irish hurler and manager1979 – Marielle Franco, Brazilian politician, feminist, and human rights activist (d. 2018)* 1979 – Jorge Arce, Mexican boxer* 1979 – Sidney Govou, French footballer* 1979 – Shannon Moore, American wrestler and singer1980 – Allan Davis, Australian cyclist 1980 – Wesley Gonzales, Filipino basketball player* 1980 – Dolph Ziggler, American wrestler and comedian1981 – Susan King Borchardt, American basketball player 1981 – Collins Obuya, Kenyan cricketer* 1981 – Dash Snow, American painter and photographer (d. 2009)* 1981 – Christopher Weselek, German rugby player1982 – Neil Harbisson, English-Catalan painter, composer, and activist1983 – Lorik Cana, Albanian footballer* 1983 – Martijn Maaskant, Dutch cyclist* 1983 – Goran Pandev, Macedonian footballer* 1983 – Soccor Velho, Indian footballer (d. 2013)1984 – Antoine Bethea, American football player 1984 – Tsuyoshi Nishioka, Japanese baseball player* 1984 – Max Scherzer, American baseball player* 1984 – Taylor Schilling, American actress* 1984 – Kenny Wormald, American actor, dancer, and choreographer1985 – Husain Abdullah, American football player 1985 – Matteo Pratichetti, Italian rugby player* 1985 – Ajmal Shahzad, English cricketer1986 – DeMarre Carroll, American basketball player 1986 – Ryan Flaherty, American baseball player* 1986 – Ryan Griffen, Australian footballer1987 – Jacoby Ford, American football player 1987 – Marek Hamšík, Slovak footballer* 1987 – Jordan Hill, American basketball player* 1987 – Sarah Parsons, American ice hockey player1988 – Adam Biddle, Australian footballer 1988 – Yoervis Medina, Venezuelan baseball player* 1988 – Ryan Tannehill, American football player1989 – Maya Ali, Pakistani actress1990 – Nick Hogan, American race car driver and actor* 1990 – Paolo Hurtado, Peruvian footballer* 1990 – Cheyenne Kimball, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1990 – Stephen Li-Chung Kuo, Taiwanese-American figure skater* 1990 – Kriti Sanon, Indian actress1991 – Wandy Peralta, Dominican baseball player1993 – Reagan Campbell-Gillard, Australian rugby league player* 1993 – Max Power, English footballer* 1993 – Jordan Spieth, American golfer2003 – Elvina Kalieva, American tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 903 – Abdallah II of Ifriqiya, Aghlabid emir* 959 – Chai Rong, emperor of Later Zhou1144 – Salomea of Berg, High Duchess consort of Poland1061 – Nicholas II, pope of the Catholic Church1101 – Conrad II, king of Italy (b.", "1074) 1101 – Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester (b. c. 1047)1158 – Geoffrey VI, Count of Anjou (b.", "1134)1276 – James I of Aragon (b.", "1208)1365 – Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria (b.", "1339)1382 – Joanna I of Naples (b.", "1326)1469 – William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke (b.", "1423)===1601–1900===1656 – Salomo Glassius, German theologian and critic (b.", "1593)1675 – Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne, French general (b.", "1611)1689 – John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee, Scottish general (b. c. 1648)1759 – Pierre Louis Maupertuis, French mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1698)1770 – Robert Dinwiddie, Scottish merchant and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b.", "1693)1841 – Mikhail Lermontov, Russian poet and painter (b.", "1814)1844 – John Dalton, English physicist, meteorologist, and chemist (b.", "1776)1863 – William Lowndes Yancey, American journalist and politician (b.", "1813)1865 – Jean-Joseph Dassy, French painter and lithographer (b.", "1791)1875 – Aleksander Kunileid, Estonian composer and educator (b.", "1845)1876 – Albertus van Raalte, Dutch-born American minister and author (b.", "1811)1883 – Montgomery Blair, American lieutenant and politician, 20th United States Postmaster General (b.", "1813)===1901–present===1916 – Charles Fryatt, English captain (b.", "1872)* 1916 – William Jonas, English footballer (d. 1890)1917 – Emil Theodor Kocher, Swiss physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1841)1921 – Myrddin Fardd, Welsh writer and antiquarian scholar (b.", "1836)1924 – Ferruccio Busoni, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1866)1931 – Auguste Forel, Swiss neuroanatomist and psychiatrist (b.", "1848)1938 – Tom Crean, Irish seaman and explorer (b.", "1877)1941 – Alfred Henry O'Keeffe, New Zealand painter and educator (b.", "1858)1942 – Karl Pärsimägi, Estonian painter (b.", "1902) 1946 – Gertrude Stein, American novelist, poet, and playwright (b.", "1874)1948 – Woolf Barnato, English race car driver and businessman (b.", "1898) 1948 – Joe Tinker, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1880)1951 – Paul Kogerman, Estonian chemist and politician, 22nd Estonian Minister of Education (b.", "1891)1958 – Claire Lee Chennault, American general and pilot (b.", "1893)1960 – Julie Vinter Hansen, Danish-Swiss astronomer and academic (b.", "1890)1962 – Richard Aldington, English poet and author (b.", "1892)* 1962 – James H. Kindelberger, American pilot and businessman (b.", "1895)1963 – Hooks Dauss, American baseball player (b.", "1889) 1963 – Garrett Morgan, American inventor (b.", "1877)1964 – Winifred Lenihan, American actress, writer, and director (b.", "1898)1965 – Daniel-Rops, French historian and author (b.", "1901)1968 – Babe Adams, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1882)1970 – António de Oliveira Salazar, Portuguese economist and politician, 100th Prime Minister of Portugal (b.", "1889)1971 – Charlie Tully, Irish footballer and manager (b.", "1924)1975 – Alfred Duraiappah, Sri Lankan Tamil lawyer and politician (d. 1926)1978 – Bob Heffron, New Zealand-Australian miner and politician, 30th Premier of New South Wales (b.", "1890) 1978 – Willem van Otterloo, Dutch cellist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1907)1980 – Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Iranian Shah (b.", "1919) 1980 – Rushdy Abaza, Egyptian actor (b.", "1926)1981 – William Wyler, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1902) 1981 – Elizabeth Rona, Hungarian American nuclear chemist (b.", "1890)1984 – James Mason, English actor (b.", "1909)1985 – Smoky Joe Wood, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1889)1987 – Travis Jackson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1903)1988 – Frank Zamboni, American inventor and businessman, founded the Zamboni Company (b.", "1901)1990 – Bobby Day, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b.", "1928) 1990 – René Toribio, Guadeloupean politician (b.", "1912)1991 – John Friedrich, German-Australian engineer and conman (b.", "1950)1992 – Max Dupain, Australian photographer and educator (b.", "1911)* 1992 – Tzeni Karezi, Greek actress and screenwriter 1993 – Reggie Lewis, American basketball player (b.", "1965)1994 – Kevin Carter, South African photographer and journalist (b.", "1960)1995 – Melih Esenbel, Turkish politician and diplomat, 20th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1915) 1995 – Rick Ferrell, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1905)* 1995 – Miklós Rózsa, Hungarian-American composer and conductor (b.", "1907)1998 – Binnie Barnes, English-American actress (b.", "1903)1999 – Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov, Russian mathematician, physicist, and mountaineer (b.", "1912)* 1999 – Harry Edison, American trumpet player (b.", "1915)2000 – Gordon Solie, American sportscaster (b.", "1929)2001 – Rhonda Sing, Canadian wrestler (b.", "1961)* 2001 – Leon Wilkeson, American bass player and songwriter (b.", "1952)2003 – Vance Hartke, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1919) 2003 – Bob Hope, English-American actor, comedian, television personality, and businessman (b.", "1903)2005 – Al Held, American painter and academic (b.", "1928) 2005 – Marten Toonder, Dutch author and illustrator (b.", "1912)2006 – Maryann Mahaffey, American academic and politician (b.", "1925)2007 – James Oyebola, Nigerian-English boxer (b.", "1961)2008 – Youssef Chahine, Egyptian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1926) 2008 – Horst Stein, German-born Swiss conductor (b.", "1928)* 2008 – Isaac Saba Raffoul, Mexican businessman (b.", "1923)2010 – Maury Chaykin, American-Canadian actor (b.", "1949) 2010 – Jack Tatum, American football player (b.", "1948)2012 – Norman Alden, American actor (b.", "1924) 2012 – R. G. Armstrong, American actor and playwright (b.", "1917)* 2012 – Darryl Cotton, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b.", "1949)* 2012 – Geoffrey Hughes, English actor (b.", "1944)* 2012 – Tony Martin, American actor and singer (b.", "1913)* 2012 – Jack Taylor, English footballer and referee (b.", "1930)2013 – Fernando Alonso, Cuban dancer, co-founded the Cuban National Ballet (b.", "1914) 2013 – Lindy Boggs, American politician and diplomat, 5th United States Ambassador to the Holy See (b.", "1916)* 2013 – Bud Day, American colonel and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Kidd Kraddick, American radio host (b.", "1959)* 2013 – Ilya Segalovich, Russian businessman, co-founded Yandex (b.", "1964)2014 – Richard Bolt, New Zealand air marshal and pilot (b.", "1923) 2014 – George Freese, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Wallace Jones, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Francesco Marchisano, Italian cardinal (b.", "1929)* 2014 – Paul Schell, American lawyer and politician, 50th Mayor of Seattle (b.", "1937)2015 – Rickey Grundy, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1959) 2015 – A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Indian engineer, academic, and politician, 11th President of India (b.", "1931)* 2015 – Samuel Pisar, Polish-born American lawyer and author (b.", "1929)* 2015 – Anthony Shaw, English general (b.", "1930)2016 – Einojuhani Rautavaara, Finnish composer (b.", "1928) 2016 – James Alan McPherson, American short story writer and essayist (b.", "1943)* 2016 – Jerry Doyle, American actor and talk show host (b.", "1956)* 2016 – Piet de Jong, Dutch politician and naval officer, Minister of Defence), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b.", "1915)2017 – Sam Shepard, American playwright, actor, author, screenwriter, and director (b.", "1943)2018 – Marco Aurelio Denegri, Peruvian literature critic, television host and sexologist2022 – Tony Dow, American actor, film producer, director, and sculptor (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Arethas (Western Christianity)Aurelius and Natalia and companions of the Martyrs of Córdoba.", "Maurus, Pantalemon, and SergiusPantaleonSeven Sleepers of Ephesus (Roman Martyrology)National Sleepy Head Day (Finland)Theobald of MarlyTitus Brandsma, ''O.Carm.", "''July 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Day of Victory in the Great Fatherland Liberation War (North Korea)Iglesia ni Cristo Day (the Philippines)José Celso Barbosa Day (Puerto Rico)Medical Workers Day (Ukraine)Martyrs and Wounded Soldiers Day (Vietnam)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dan Quayle" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Danforth Quayle''' (; born February 4, 1947) is an American retired politician who served as the 44th vice president of the United States from 1989 to 1993 under President George H. W. Bush.", "A member of the Republican Party, Quayle represented Indiana in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1977 to 1981 and in the U.S. Senate from 1981 to 1989.A native of Indianapolis, Quayle spent most of his childhood in Paradise Valley, a suburb of Phoenix, Arizona.", "He married Marilyn Tucker in 1972 and obtained his J.D.", "degree from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law in 1974.He and Marilyn practiced law in Huntington, Indiana, before his election to the United States House of Representatives in 1976.In 1980, he was elected to the U.S. Senate.In 1988, vice president and Republican presidential nominee George H. W. Bush chose Quayle as his running mate.", "His vice presidential debate against Lloyd Bentsen was notable for Bentsen's \"Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy\" quip.", "The Bush–Quayle ticket defeated the Democratic ticket of Michael Dukakis and Bentsen, and Quayle became vice president in January 1989.During his tenure, Quayle made official visits to 47 countries and was appointed chairman of the National Space Council.", "As vice president, he developed a reputation for making comments that some media outlets perceived to be gaffes.", "He secured re-nomination for vice president in 1992, but Democrat Bill Clinton and his running mate Al Gore defeated the Bush–Quayle ticket.In 1994, Quayle published his memoir, ''Standing Firm''.", "He declined to run for president in 1996 because of phlebitis.", "He sought the Republican presidential nomination in 2000 but withdrew his campaign early on and supported the eventual nominee, George W. Bush.", "He joined Cerberus Capital Management, a private-equity firm, in 1999.Since leaving office, Quayle has remained active in the Republican Party, including making presidential endorsements in 2000, 2012, and 2016." ], [ "Early life, education, and career", "Quayle in Huntington North High School's 1965 yearbookQuayle was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, to Martha Corinne (née Pulliam) and James Cline Quayle.", "He has sometimes been incorrectly referred to as ''James Danforth Quayle III''.", "In his memoir he points out that his birth name was simply James Danforth Quayle.", "The name Quayle originates from the Isle of Man, where his great-grandfather was born.His maternal grandfather, Eugene C. Pulliam, was a wealthy and influential publishing magnate who founded Central Newspapers, Inc., and owned more than a dozen major newspapers, such as ''The Arizona Republic'' and ''The Indianapolis Star''.", "James C. Quayle moved his family to Arizona in 1955 to run a branch of the family's publishing empire.After spending much of his youth in Arizona, Quayle returned to his native Indiana and graduated from Huntington North High School in Huntington in 1965.He then matriculated at DePauw University, where he received his B.A.", "degree in political science in 1969, was a 3-year letterman for the university's golf team (1967–1969) and a member of the fraternity Delta Kappa Epsilon (Psi Phi chapter).After graduation, Quayle joined the Indiana National Guard and served from 1969 to 1975, reaching the rank of sergeant; his joining meant that he was not subject to the draft.", "In 1970, while serving in the Guard, Quayle enrolled at Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law.", "He was admitted under a program for students who could demonstrate \"special factors\" as his grades did not meet the regular admission standards.", "In 1974, Quayle earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.)", "degree.", "At Indiana University, he met his future wife, Marilyn, who was taking night classes at the same law school at the time.Quayle became an investigator for the Consumer Protection Division of the Office of the Indiana Attorney General in July 1971.Later that year, he became an administrative assistant to Governor Edgar Whitcomb.", "From 1973 to 1974, he was the Director of the Inheritance Tax Division of the Indiana Department of Revenue.", "After graduating from law school in 1974, Quayle worked as associate publisher of his family's newspaper, the ''Huntington Herald-Press''." ], [ "Congressional tenure", "Quayle in 1977, his first term in the House of RepresentativesIn 1976, Quayle was elected to the House of Representatives from Indiana's 4th congressional district, defeating eight-term incumbent Democrat J. Edward Roush by a 55%-to-45% margin.", "He was reelected in 1978, 64% to 34%.In November 1978, Congressman Leo Ryan of California invited Quayle to accompany him on a delegation to investigate unsafe conditions at the Jonestown settlement in Guyana, but Quayle was unable to participate.", "The decision likely saved Quayle's life, because Ryan and his entourage were subsequently murdered at the airstrip in Jonestown as the party tried to escape the massacre.In 1980, at age 33, Quayle became the youngest person ever elected to the Senate from the state of Indiana, defeating three-term incumbent Democrat Birch Bayh with 54% of the vote.", "Making Indiana political history again, Quayle was reelected to the Senate in 1986 with the largest margin ever achieved to that date by a candidate in a statewide Indiana race, taking 61% of the vote against his Democratic opponent, Jill Long.In 1986, Quayle was criticized for championing the cause of Daniel Anthony Manion, a candidate for a federal appellate judgeship, who was in law school one year ahead of Quayle.", "The American Bar Association had evaluated Manion as \"qualified/unqualified\", its lower passing grade.", "Manion was nominated for the Seventh Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals by President Ronald Reagan on February 21, 1986, and confirmed by the Senate on June 26, 1986." ], [ "Vice presidency (1989–1993)", "===1988 campaign===On August 16, 1988, at the Republican convention in New Orleans, Louisiana, George H. W. Bush chose Quayle to be his running mate in the 1988 United States presidential election.", "The choice immediately became controversial.", "Outgoing President Reagan praised Quayle for his \"energy and enthusiasm\".", "Press coverage of the convention was dominated by questions about \"the three Quayle problems\".", "The questions involved his military service, a golf holiday in Florida where he and several other politicians shared a house with lobbyist Paula Parkinson, and whether he had enough experience to be vice president.", "Quayle seemed at times rattled and at other times uncertain or evasive as he responded to questions.", "Delegates to the convention generally blamed television and newspapers for the focus on Quayle's problems, but Bush's staff said they thought Quayle had mishandled the questions about his military record, leaving questions dangling.", "Although Bush was trailing by up to 15 points in public opinion polls taken before the convention, in August the Bush–Quayle ticket took the lead, which it did not relinquish for the rest of the campaign.In the October 1988 vice-presidential debate, Quayle debated Democratic candidate Lloyd Bentsen.", "During the debate, Quayle's strategy was to criticize Dukakis as too liberal.", "When the debate turned to Quayle's relatively limited experience in public life, he compared the length of his congressional service (12 years) with that of President John F. Kennedy (14 years); Kennedy had less experience than his rivals during the 1960 presidential nomination.", "It was a factual comparison, although Quayle's advisers cautioned beforehand that it could be used against him.", "Bentsen's response—\"I served with Jack Kennedy.", "I knew Jack Kennedy.", "Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine.", "Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy\"—subsequently became a part of the political lexicon.George H. W. Bush, Dan Quayle, and Marilyn Quayle participate in a Hanukkah Celebration in 1989.USS ''John F. Kennedy'' (CV-67) during Operation Desert Shield in 1991The Bush–Quayle ticket won the November election by a 53–46 percent margin, sweeping 40 states and capturing 426 electoral votes.", "He was sworn in on January 20, 1989.Quayle cast no tie-breaking votes as president of the Senate, becoming only the second vice-president (after Charles W. Fairbanks) not to do so while serving a complete term.===Tenure===During his vice presidency, Quayle made official trips to 47 countries.", "Bush named Quayle head of the Council on Competitiveness and the first chairman of the National Space Council.", "As head of the NSC he called for greater efforts to protect Earth against the danger of potential asteroid impacts.Quayle and Prince Abdullah of Saudi Arabia at a meeting to discuss US military intervention during Operation Desert Shield in 1990After a briefing by Lt. General Daniel O. Graham, (USA Ret.", "), Max Hunter, and Jerry Pournelle, Quayle sponsored the development of an experimental Single Stage to Orbit X-Program, which resulted in the building of the McDonnell Douglas DC-X.Quayle speaking at Race for the Cure in Washington, D.C. in 1990Quayle with President George H. W. Bush in 1989Quayle has since described the vice presidency as \"an awkward office.", "You're president of the Senate.", "You're not even officially part of the executive branch—you're part of the legislative branch.", "You're paid by the Senate, not by the executive branch.", "And it's the president's agenda.", "It's not your agenda.", "You're going to disagree from time to time, but you salute and carry out the orders the best you can\".====''Murphy Brown''====On May 19, 1992, Quayle gave a speech titled ''Reflections on Urban America'' to the Commonwealth Club of California on the subject of the Los Angeles riots.", "In the speech he blamed the violence on a decay of moral values and family structure in American society.", "In an aside, he cited the single mother title character in the television program ''Murphy Brown'' as an example of how popular culture contributes to this \"poverty of values\", saying, \"It doesn't help matters when prime-time TV has Murphy Brown—a character who supposedly epitomizes today's intelligent, highly paid, professional woman—mocking the importance of fathers, by bearing a child alone, and calling it just another 'lifestyle choice'.", "\"The \"Murphy Brown speech\" became one of the most memorable of the 1992 campaign.", "Long after the outcry had ended, the comment continued to have an effect on U.S. politics.", "Stephanie Coontz, a professor of family history and the author of several books and essays about the history of marriage, said that this brief remark by Quayle about Murphy Brown \"kicked off more than a decade of outcries against the 'collapse of the family.", "In 2002, Candice Bergen, the actress who played Brown, said \"I never have really said much about the whole episode, which was endless, but his speech was a perfectly intelligent speech about fathers not being dispensable and nobody agreed with that more than I did.\"", "Others interpreted it differently; singer Tanya Tucker was widely quoted as saying \"Who the hell is Dan Quayle to come after single mothers?", "\"====Perceived gaffes====Throughout his time as vice president, Quayle was characterized by some media outlets and journalists as being unprepared for the position.", "Like many political leaders from both main US political parties, his comments were heavily scrutinized for factual and grammatical errors.", "Contributing to this perception of Quayle was his tendency to make public statements that were either impossible (\"I have made good judgments in the past.", "I have made good judgments in the future\"), self-contradictory (\"I believe we are on an irreversible trend toward more freedom and democracy, but that could change\"), self-contradictory and confused (\"The Holocaust was an obscene period in our nation's history. ...", "No, not our nation's, but in World War II.", "I mean, we all lived in this century.", "I didn't live in this century, but in this century's history\"), or just confused (such as the comments he made in a May 1989 address to the United Negro College Fund (UNCF).", "Commenting on the UNCF's slogan—which is \"a mind is a terrible thing to waste\"—Quayle said, \"You take the UNCF model that what a waste it is to lose one's mind or not to have a mind is being very wasteful.", "How true that is\").On June 15, 1992, Quayle altered 12-year-old student William Figueroa's correct spelling of \"potato\" to \"potatoe\" at the Muñoz Rivera Elementary School spelling bee in Trenton, New Jersey.", "He was the subject of widespread ridicule for his error.", "According to ''The New York Times'' and Quayle's memoirs, he was relying on cards provided by the school, which Quayle says included the misspelling.", "Quayle said he was uncomfortable with the version he gave, but did so because he decided to trust the school's incorrect written materials instead of his own judgment.===1992 campaign===In the 1992 election, Bush and Quayle were challenged in their bid for reelection by the Democratic ticket of Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton and Tennessee Senator Al Gore and the independent ticket of Texas businessman Ross Perot and retired Vice Admiral James Stockdale.As Bush lagged in the polls in the weeks preceding the August 1992 Republican National Convention, some Republican strategists (led by Secretary of State James Baker) viewed Quayle as a liability to the ticket and pushed for his replacement.", "Quayle ultimately survived the challenge and secured renomination.During the 1992 presidential campaign, Quayle told the news media that he believed homosexuality was a choice, and \"the wrong choice\".Quayle faced off against Gore and Stockdale in the vice presidential debate on October 13, 1992.He attempted to avoid the one-sided outcome of his debate with Bentsen four years earlier by staying on the offensive.", "Quayle criticized Gore's book ''Earth in the Balance'' with specific page references, though his claims were subsequently criticized by the liberal group FAIR for inaccuracy.", "In Quayle's closing argument, he sharply asked voters, \"Do you really believe Bill Clinton will tell the truth?\"", "and \"Do you trust Bill Clinton to be your president?\"", "Gore and Stockdale talked more about the policies and philosophies they espoused.", "Republican loyalists were largely relieved and pleased with Quayle's performance, and his camp attempted to portray it as an upset triumph against a veteran debater, but post-debate polls were mixed on whether Gore or Quayle had won.", "It ultimately proved to be a minor factor in the election, which Bush and Quayle lost, 168 electoral votes to 370." ], [ "Post–vice presidency (1993–present)", "===Initial activities===In 1993, Quayle became the trustee of the Hudson Institute.", "From 1993 to January 1999, he served on the board of Central Newspapers, Inc., and from 1995 until January 1999, he headed the Campaign America political action committee.Quayle authored a 1994 memoir, ''Standing Firm'', which became a bestseller.", "Quayle's second book, ''The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong'', was co-authored with Diane Medved and published in 1996.He later published his third book ''Worth Fighting For'', in 1999.Quayle moved to Arizona in 1996.He considered but decided against running for governor of Indiana in 1996, and decided against running for the 1996 Republican presidential nomination, citing health problems related to phlebitis.In 1997 and 1998, Quayle was a \"distinguished visiting professor of international studies\" at the Thunderbird School of Global Management.===2000 presidential campaign===Logo from Quayle's 2000 presidential campaignDuring a January 1999 appearance on ''Larry King Live'', Quayle said he would run for president in 2000.On January 28, 1999, he officially created an exploratory committee.", "On April 14, 1999, at a rally held at his alma mater Huntington North High School's gymnasium, Quayle officially launched his campaign for the 2000 Republican presidential nomination.", "In July 1999, he published his book ''Worth Fighting For''.During campaign appearances, Quayle criticized fellow candidate George W. Bush.", "Early on, he criticized Bush's use of the term \"compassionate conservative\".", "Quayle finished eighth in the August 1999 Ames Straw Poll.", "He withdrew from the race the next month and supported Bush.===Subsequent activities===Quayle, then working as an investment banker in Phoenix, was mentioned as a candidate for governor of Arizona before the 2002 election, but declined to run.On January 31, 2011, Quayle wrote a letter to President Barack Obama urging him to commute Jonathan Pollard's sentence.In December 2011, Quayle endorsed Mitt Romney for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination.In the 2016 presidential election, Quayle endorsed Jeb Bush.", "After Bush failed to win the nomination, Quayle endorsed Donald Trump; he was later seen visiting with Trump at Trump Tower in Manhattan before Trump's inauguration.The Dan Quayle Center and Museum, in Huntington, Indiana, features information on Quayle and all U.S. vice presidents.Quayle is an Honorary Trustee Emeritus of the Hudson Institute and president of Quayle and Associates.", "He has also been a member of the board of directors of Heckmann Corporation, a water-sector company, since the company's inception and serves as chair of the company's Compensation and Nominating & Governance Committees.", "Quayle is a director of Aozora Bank, based in Tokyo, Japan.", "He has also been on the boards of directors of other companies, including K2 Sports, AmTran Inc., Central Newspapers Inc., BTC Inc. and Carvana Co.According to the book ''Peril'', by Bob Woodward and Robert Costa, Quayle played a central role in advising his fellow Hoosier and Vice President Mike Pence to certify the 2020 United States presidential election as per the Senate rules, rather than cooperate with a plan by then-president Donald Trump that sought to overturn the election.", "Quayle attended President Joe Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021.File:Dan Quayle with Donald Rumsfeld.jpg\|Quayle with Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld in 2001File:Dan Quayle (7835924970).jpg\|Dan Quayle speaking at a \"Politics on the Rocks\" event in Scottsdale, Arizona, in 2012File:Dan and Marilyn Quayle at 58th Inauguration 01-20-17.jpg\|Dan Quayle and Marilyn Quayle at the 2017 Presidential InaugurationFile:National Veterans Day Observance 2019 (49051656176).jpg\|Dan Quayle and Marilyn Quayle with Vice President Mike Pence in 2019File:George W. Bush and Dan Quayle at Biden inauguration.png\|Quayle (right) with George W. Bush (left) at the 2021 Presidential Inauguration===Cerberus Capital Management===In 1999, Quayle joined Cerberus Capital Management, a multibillion-dollar private-equity firm, where he serves as chair of the company's Global Investments division.", "As chair of the international advisory board of Cerberus Capital Management, he recruited former Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney, who would have been installed as chair if Cerberus had acquired Air Canada.In early 2014, Quayle traveled to Belfast, Northern Ireland, in an attempt to speed approval for a deal in which Cerberus acquired nearly £1.3 billion in Northern Ireland loans from the Republic of Ireland's National Asset Management Agency.", "The Irish government is investigating the deal, and the US Securities and Exchange Commission, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York are investigating Quayle's involvement as a potentially \"very serious\" misuse of the vice president's office.", "As of December 2018, Quayle served as chair of Global Investments at Cerberus." ], [ "Personal life", "Quayle lives with his wife, Marilyn Quayle, in Paradise Valley, Arizona.", "They married in November 1972 and have three children: Tucker, Benjamin, and Corinne.", "Benjamin Quayle served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2011 to 2013, representing Arizona's 3rd congressional district." ], [ "Electoral history" ], [ "Published material", "* ''Standing Firm: A Vice-Presidential Memoir'', HarperCollins, May 1994.Hardcover.", "; mass market paperback, May 1995; ; limited edition, 1994..* ''The American Family: Discovering the Values That Make Us Strong'' (with Diane Medved), Harpercollins, April 1996.(hardcover).", "(paperback).", "* ''Worth Fighting For'', W Publishing Group, July 1999.." ], [ "See also", "" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Further reading", " Richard F. Fenno Jr., ''The Making of a Senator: Dan Quayle'', Congressional Quarterly Press, 1989.. online free to borrow* ''What a Waste It Is to Lose One's Mind: The Unauthorized Autobiography of Dan Quayle'', Quayle Quarterly (published by Rose Communications), April 1992, .", "* Joe Queenan, ''Imperial Caddy: The Rise of Dan Quayle in America and the Decline and Fall of Practically Everything Else'', Hyperion Books; October 1992 (1st edition).", "." ], [ "External links", "* * * Campaign contributions made by Dan Quayle* \"Reflections on Urban America\" speech to the Commonwealth Club of California (\"Murphy Brown speech\"): Transcript, Audio* List of Quayle quotations* Another list of Quayle quotations* Vice Presidential Museum at the Dan Quayle Center* VP Quayle Receives DePauw's McNaughton Medal for Public Service; October 26, 1990* Genealogy of the family of J. Danforth Quayle * Ubben Lecture at DePauw University; March 31, 2015" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Julius Caesar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gaius Julius Caesar''' (, ; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman.", "A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC.", "He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years.", "Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in the Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the private support of Cicero.", "Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory.", "During this time he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the river Rhine.", "These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC.", "With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome.", "In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army.", "This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC.After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of the Julian calendar.", "He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic.", "He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme.", "In early 44 he was proclaimed \"dictator for life\" ().", "Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius assassinated Caesar on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC.", "A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored.", "Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the last civil war of the Roman Republic.", "Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began.Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns.", "Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust.", "Later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also important sources.", "Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.", "His cognomen was subsequently adopted as a synonym for \"Emperor\"; the title \"Caesar\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such as Kaiser and Tsar.", "He has frequently appeared in literary and artistic works." ], [ "Early life and career", "Gaius Marius, Caesar's uncle and the husband of Caesar's aunt Julia.", "He was an enemy of Sulla and took the city with Lucius Cornelius Cinna in 87 BC.Gaius Julius Caesar was born into a patrician family, the on 12 July 100 BC.", "The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome from Alba Longa during the seventh century BC after the third king of Rome, Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city.", "The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa.", "Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine.", "This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness.", "There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, but Caesar's mother lived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth.Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic.", "The first person known to have had the cognomen ''Caesar'' was a praetor in 208 BC during the Second Punic War.", "The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC.", "Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically.", "He married Aurelia, a member of the politically influential Aurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters.", "Buoyed by his own marriage and his sister's marriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influential Gaius Marius, he also served on the Saturninian land commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC.=== Life under Sulla and military service ===Quintus Pompeius Rufus in 54 BC.", "Sulla took the city in 82 BC, purged his political enemies, and instituted new constitutional reforms.Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination of Lucius Cornelius Cinna and instead chose retirement.", "During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named as ''flamen Dialis'' (a priest of Jupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's daughter, Cornelia.", "The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forego a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar.", "In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly.", "After Sulla's victory in the civil war (82 BC), Cinna's ''acta'' were annulled.", "Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter.", "Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment.", "Sulla may have put Caesar on the proscription lists, though scholars are mixed.", "Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among the Vestal Virgins were able to intercede on his behalf.", "They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \"in Caesar many Mariuses\" is apocryphal.Bust, from the imperial period, of a man – in this case Augustus – wearing the civic crown ().", "Caesar won the civic crown for his bravery at the Siege of Mytilene in 81 BC.Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia, Marcus Minucius Thermus.", "While there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king, Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch.", "He then served at the Siege of Mytilene where he won the civic crown for saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle.", "The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours.", "After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff of Publius Servilius Vatia in Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately.", "He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consul Lepidus' revolt that year but this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age.Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella in 77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia.", "Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecuting Gaius Antonius Hybrida (later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf.", "After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetorician Apollonius Molon.", "While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished.", "According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fifty talents and responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates.", "The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery per Velleius Paterculus.", "His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War over the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces.=== Entrance to politics ===While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into the pontifices in place of his deceased relative Gaius Aurelius Cotta.", "The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career.", "Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of the military tribunes for 71 BC.", "There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even though the war on Spartacus was on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned.", "These advocacies were common and uncontroversial.", "The next year, 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus were consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles.For his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve under Gaius Antistius Vetus in Hispania Ulterior.", "His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate.", "However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child, Julia.", "He gave eulogies for both at public funerals.", "During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war.", "Some of the Sullan nobles – including Quintus Lutatius Catulus – who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common.", "Contra Plutarch, Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism.", "Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughter Pompeia.=== Aedileship and election as ''pontifex maximus'' ===For much of this period, Caesar was one of Pompey's supporters.", "Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans.", "Caesar also supported the ''lex Gabinia'' in 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported the ''lex Manilia'' in 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commander Lucullus to Pompey.Denarius of C. Cossutius Maridianus, 44 BC, with the head of Julius Caesar as pontifex maximus on the obverse.", "The legend on the reverse mentions A.", "A.", "A. F. F..Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served as curule aedile and staged lavish games that won him further attention and popular support.", "He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, over Jugurtha and the Cimbri.", "According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night.", "It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue of – and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate.In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post of , who was the head of the College of Pontiffs and the highest ranking state religious official.", "In the pontifical election before the tribes, Caesar faced two influential senators: Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Isauricus.", "Caesar came out victorious.", "Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent.", "Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating; that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory.", "If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy.Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribune Publius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting.", "Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial of Gaius Rabirius by one of the plebeian tribunes – Titus Labienus – for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with a senatus consultum ultimum some forty years earlier.", "The most famous event of the year was the Catilinarian conspiracy.", "While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy, the chance that he was a participant is extremely small.=== Praetorship ===Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy.", "Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear.", "The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial.", "Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property.", "Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of the , and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention by Cato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution.Cicero, consul in 63 BC, depicted in an 1889 fresco denouncing Catiline and exposing his conspiracy before the Senate.", "When conspirators within the city were later arrested, Cicero referred their fate to the Senate, triggering a debate in which Caesar as praetor-elect participated.During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuilt Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey.", "This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition.", "He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribune Metellus Nepos to transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey.", "After a violent meeting of the comitia tributa in the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato and Quintus Minucius Thermus, the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility – which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority.", "He also was engaged in the Bona Dea affair, where Publius Clodius Pulcher snuck into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \"above suspicion\" – but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way.Bronze bust of Cato, Caesar's principal opponent in the Catilinarian debate and also a personal enemy.", "Cato may have been responsible for the law requiring declarations of candidacy in person within the .After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior ''pro consule''.", "Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off.", "He campaigned against the Callaeci and Lusitani and seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts.", "Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailed .", "When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside the (Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy.", "Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to support the exception.", "Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship." ], [ "First consulship and the Gallic wars", "A denarius depicting Julius Caesar, dated to February–March 44 BCthe goddess Venus is shown on the reverse, holding Victoria and a scepter.", "Caption: CAESAR IMP.", "M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA.Caesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates.", "His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn.", "His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society.", "With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with one Lucius Lucceius, Caesar won.", "Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returned Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus instead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies.=== First consulship ===After the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadingly termed the \"First Triumvirate\" in modern times.", "Caesar was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start.", "Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement and the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients.", "All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans.Caesar's first act was to publish the minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public.", "He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor.", "It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains.", "Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people, there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement.", "Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year.", "This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereignty and triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy.", "The bill was then voted through.", "Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused.Caesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements.", "Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate.", "Caesar then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house.", "Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance.", "An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribune Publius Vatinius moved the ''lex Vatinia'' assigning the provinces of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul to Caesar for five years.", "Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar the (\"woods and tracks\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \"mere 'forest tracks'\".", "The Senate was also persuaded to assign to Caesar Transalpine Gaul as well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps.Some time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian land and after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house.", "There, he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons.", "Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \"feign victimisation\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year.", "This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy.", "Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed the to crack down on provincial corruption.", "When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped.", "He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March.=== Campaigns in Gaul ===The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's conquestsDuring the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote his ''Commentaries'' thereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork.", "Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC.", "Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome; the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period.Gaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability.", "Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics.", "The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years.", "The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migrating Helvetii from moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman ally.", "Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte before forcing them to return to their original homes.", "He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including the Aedui, for aid against Ariovistus – king of the Suebi and a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at the Battle of Vosges.", "Wintering in northeastern Gaul near the Belgae in the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at the Battle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against the Veneti in what is now Brittany.", "At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation.Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar, painting by Lionel Royer in 1899.Musée Crozatier, Le Puy-en-Velay, France.Seeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as a Roman frontier; displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built a bridge across the Rhine in a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power.", "Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \"island of mystery\" and \"a land of wonder\".", "He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by the Eburones and Belgae starting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts.", "Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle.", "The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led by Vercingetorix of the Averni.", "Caesar was initially defeated at Gergovia before besieging Vercingetorix at Alesia.", "After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance.=== Politics, Gaul, and Rome ===In the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popular Publius Clodius Pulcher, who was plebeian tribune in 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile.", "When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion.", "Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies.Politics in Rome falling into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero.", "With Cicero now supporting the Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification.", "The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving.", "Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by the ''lex Vatinia'' until 54 BC.", "His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally.The three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year.", "With a real threat to Caesar's command and brewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support.", "Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands.", "Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support of Appius Claudius Pulcher and his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus.", "Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command.Cicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC.", "During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – the extending Caesar's command and the ''lex Trebonia'' giving them respective commands in Spain and Syria, though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome.", "The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul – and defeated the allies in the elections of that year.The ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar's ''Commentaries''.", "The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirth did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey.", "At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents.", "In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at the Battle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of the Parthians.", "When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city, Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \"Law of the Ten Tribunes\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia." ], [ "Civil war", "A Roman bust of Pompey the Great made during the reign of Augustus (27 BC14 AD), a copy of an original bust from 70 to 60 BC, Venice National Archaeological Museum, ItalyFrom the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated.", "In 51 BC, the consul Marcellus proposed recalling Caesar, arguing that his ''provincia'' (here meaning \"task\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting the Bellovaci and regardless the proposal was vetoed.", "That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship.", "Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command.As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.", "In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.", "It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed when one of the consuls dissolved the meeting.", "That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort.", "At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners.", "A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence.", "On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued its ''senatus consultum ultimum''.There is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome.", "A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position.", "Whether Caesar actually would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated.", "Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely.", "Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship – and a triumph.", "He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won.", "This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments.=== Italy, Spain, and Greece ===Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC, in response to the Senate's \"final decree\", Caesar crossed the Rubicon – the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war.", "Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, \"let the die be cast\".", "Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.", "Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust.", "Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference.Pompey withdrew to Brundisium and was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit.", "Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications – and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces.", "He defeated two of Pompey's legates at the Battle of Ilerda before forcing surrender of the third; his legates moved into Sicily and into Africa, though the African expedition failed.", "Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesar dictator to conduct the elections; he, along with Publius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC.", "Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days, Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC.Caesar besieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee.", "Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC.", "Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero and Marcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon.=== Alexandrine war and Asia Minor ===Cleopatra and Caesar'', 1866 painting by Jean-Léon GérômeRoman wall painting in Pompeii is probably a depiction of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as Cupid.", "Its owner Marcus Fabius Rufus most likely ordered its concealment behind a wall in reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Octavian in 30 BC.Pompey was killed when he arrived in Alexandria, the capital of Egypt.", "Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC.", "Prevented from leaving the city by Etesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Cleopatra, his sister, wife, and co-regent queen.", "In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship, after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome.", "While in Alexandria, he started an affair with Cleopatra and withstood a siege by Ptolemy and his other sister Arsinoe until March 47 BC.", "Reinforced by eastern client allies under Mithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at the Battle of the Nile and installed Cleopatra as ruler.", "Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile.", "He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression.", "Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, called Caesarion.When Caesar landed at Antioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea, Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across the Black Sea in northern Anatolia.", "His invasion had swept aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him at Zela and defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to write (\"I came, I saw, I conquered\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories.", "He then left quickly for Italy.=== Italy, Africa, and Spain ===Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, as , in charge.", "His rule was unpopular: Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order.", "Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity.", "Cato had marched to Africa and there Metellus Scipio was in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied with Juba of Numidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands.", "Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to the republican side.Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violence before overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC.", "Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC.", "Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically.", "He was defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.", "After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded at Thapsus.", "His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting a battle; they then won it and massacred the republican forces without quarter.", "Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.", "Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.", "Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt.", "Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC.Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa).", "He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.", "According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.", "The soldiers were each given 24,000 sesterces (a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs.", "Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge as .At a bloody battle at Munda on 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory; his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.", "Labienus died on the field.", "While one of Pompey's sons, Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over.", "Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.", "By this point he had started preparations for war on the Parthians to avenge Crassus' death at Carrhae in 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years.", "It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC." ], [ "Assassination", "The Green Caesar, posthumous portrait from the 1st century AD, now located at the Altes Museum in Berlin.", "=== Dictatorships and honours ===Prior to Caesar's assumption of the title in February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC.", "After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned.", "The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually.", "The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship: .", "These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans.", "Through the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours, including the title () which historically was associated with the censorial power to revise the Senate rolls.", "He was also granted power over war and peace, usurping a power traditionally held by the comitia centuriata.", "These powers attached to Caesar personally.", "Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's image put onto Roman coinage – the first for a living Roman – with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples.", "The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamed (now July).", "These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment.The decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic.", "Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life.=== Legislation ===Caesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society.", "Ernst Badian, writing in the ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\" and that \"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\".The most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of the traditional republican lunisolar calendar and its replacement with a solar calendar now called the Julian calendar.", "He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices.", "Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest.", "The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his men and the permanent courts jury pools were also altered to remove the , leaving only the equestrians and senators.He also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state.", "Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation.", "Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census.", "Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and to Cádiz.", "During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food.", "Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla.The building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of the Forum of Caesar and the Temple of Venus Genetrix therein.", "Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through the Corinthian Isthmus, were also planned.", "Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome.The , civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished.", "His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship on the last day of the year so any ally could be elected as suffect consul for a single day.", "Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills.=== Conspiracy and death ===Denarius (42 BC) of Cassius and Lentulus Spinther, depicting the crowned head of Liberty and on the reverse a sacrificial jug and ''lituus''.", "The Death of Caesar'' by Jean-Léon Gérôme.", "Attempts in January 44 BC to call Caesar () – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd.", "Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate.", "The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom.", "Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary.", "Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power.Just days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected a diadem from Antony at celebrations for the Lupercalia.", "Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative.", "By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure.The plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC.", "An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning.", "By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators.", "It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart.", "While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians.", "Among their leaders were Gaius Trebonius (consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well as Cassius and Brutus (both praetors in 44 BC).", "Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other Caesarians involved included Servius Sulpicius Galba, Lucius Minucius Basilus, Lucius Tullius Cimber, and Gaius Servilius Casca.", "Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC, likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC.", "Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support.", "Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse () was appreciated.Brutus, who claimed descent from the Lucius Junius Brutus who had driven out the kings and the Gaius Servilius Ahala who had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy.", "By late autumn 45 BC, graffiti and some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator.", "The ancient sources, excepting Nicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar.", "Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of the restored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision.", "A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates.", "Whether there was a tradition of tyrannicide at Rome is unclear: Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given; he, however, made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide.", "The philosophical tradition of the Platonic Old Academy was also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny.", "While some news of the conspiracy did leak out, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard.", "The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, the Ides of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign.", "News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure.", "They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road.", "That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage.", "The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC.The Ides of March coin, minted in 42 BC, depicts Marcus Junius Brutus.", "The reverse depicts daggers and a ''pileus'' symbolising their use to win back freedom.Various stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot.", "Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers.", "Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance – (\"you too, child?\")", "– is variantly recorded.", "Between twenty-three and thirty-five wounds later, the dictator-for-life was dead.=== Aftermath of the assassination ===''Marc Antony's Oration at Caesar's Funeral'' by George Edward Robertson (late 19th or early 20th century).The assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator.", "They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population.", "They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar's lieutenant in the dictatorship – moved troops from the Tiber Island into the city proper.", "Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate: Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished.Caesar's funeral was then approved.", "At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force.", "On the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum.", "Only its altar now remains.", "The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir one Gaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then at Apollonia, and adopted him in the will.Resumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars.", "The first war was between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate.", "After purging their political enemies in a series of proscriptions, the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods – and marched on the east where a second war saw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides in battle, resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world.", "By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war.", "Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of a new Roman monarchy." ], [ "Personal life", "===Health and physical appearance===The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC, Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican MuseumsBased on remarks by Plutarch, Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy.", "Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC.", "Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm.Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures.", "He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth.", "The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died.", "The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf\".", "No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar.", "The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made.", "By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence.Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestationsheadaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibilityand syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy.", "Pliny the Elder reports in his ''Natural History'' that Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes.", "These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack.", "Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease.Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\".===Name and family=======The name Gaius Julius Caesar====Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters ''J'' and ''U'', Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of ''G'' by ''C''.", "The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling.", "(The letterform ''Æ'' is a ligature of the letters ''A'' and ''E'', and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.", ")In Classical Latin, it was pronounced ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar.", "In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied.", "Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus.", "In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (''Kaísar''), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation.", "Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German ''Kaiser'' () or Dutch ''keizer'' ().In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel .", "Then, the plosive before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like in Italian and in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar.", "With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate became a fricative (thus, ) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived.Caesar's cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse \"Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\".", "The title became, from the late first millennium, ''Kaiser'' in German and (through Old Church Slavic ''cěsarĭ'') Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages.", "The last Tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023.This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name.", "As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in the text corpora of Old High German (''keisar''), Old Saxon (''kēsur''), Old English (''cāsere''), Old Norse (''keisari''), Old Dutch (''keisere'') and (through Greek) Gothic (''kaisar'').====Posterity====;Wives* First marriage to Cornelia, from 84 BC until her death in 69 BC* Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal* Third marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until Caesar's deathReliefs of Cleopatra and her son by Julius Caesar, Caesarion, at the Temple of DenderaRoman painting from the House of Giuseppe II, Pompeii, early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra VII, wearing her royal diadem, consuming poison in an act of suicide, while her son Caesarion, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her;Children* Julia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC* Caesarion, by Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus.", "* ''Posthumously adopted'': Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-nephew by blood (grandson of Julia, his sister), who later became Emperor Augustus.", "; Suspected childrenSome ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide, Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children.", "Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15.Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\".", ";GrandchildrenGrandchild from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.", ";Lovers* Cleopatra, mother of Caesarion* Servilia, mother of Brutus* Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes===Rumors of passive homosexuality===Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority.", "Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\"", "According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career.", "The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \"Queen of Bithynia\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him.", "Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.", "This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents.Catullus wrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, but later apologised.Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors.", "Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander.", "Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus." ], [ "Literary works", "''Julii Caesaris quae exstant'' (1678)A 1783 edition of ''The Gallic Wars''During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latineven Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.", "Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived.", "A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors.", "Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his \"Anticato\", a document attacking Cato in response to Cicero's eulogy.", "Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.===Memoirs===* The ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'', usually known in English as ''The Gallic Wars'', seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years.", "* The ''Commentarii de Bello Civili'' (''The Civil War''), events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt:* ''De Bello Alexandrino'' (''On the Alexandrine War''), campaign in Alexandria;* ''De Bello Africo'' (''On the African War''), campaigns in North Africa; and* ''De Bello Hispaniensi'' (''On the Hispanic War''), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula.These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \"dispatches from the front\".", "They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods.", "They may have been presented as public readings.", "As a model of clear and direct Latin style, ''The Gallic Wars'' traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students." ], [ "Legacy", "===Historiography===altar of Caesar in the Roman Forum of Rome, ItalyThe texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography.", "However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind.", "Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read.", "The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir.", "The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition.Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar.", "Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work ''Histoire de Jules César'', which was not finished.", "The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic.", "Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the ''Gallic Wars'' in 1480.Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict.", "The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the ''Commentaries'', and translated them to Turkish language.", "Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one afterwards.===Politics===Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of ''Caesarism'', a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government.", "Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.", "Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism.", "The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.===Depictions===File:Giulio-cesare-enhanced 1-800x1450.jpg\|Bust in the National Archaeological Museum of NaplesFile:Rimini083.jpg\|Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, Rimini, ItalyFile:Portrait of Julius Caesar (1st cent.", "B.C.)", "at the Archaeological Museum of Sparta on 15 May 2019.jpg\|Portrait at the Archaeological Museum of SpartaFile:Porta palatina, statue.jpg\|Bronze statue at the Porta Palatina in TurinFile:Portrait head of Julius Caesar (1st cent.", "A.D.) at the Archaeological Museum of Corinth on 10 January 2020.jpg\|Bust in the Archaeological Museum of CorinthFile:Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC).JPG\|Bust in Naples National Archaeological Museum, photograph published in 1902===Battle record=== Date War Action Opponents Type Present-day areas Outcome58 BC 58 BCGallic WarsArar Battle of the Arar.HelvetiiBattleFranceVictory⁂58 BC 58 BCMount Haemus Battle of BibracteHelvetii, Boii, Tulingi, RauraciBattleFranceVictory⁂58 BC 58 BCVosges Battle of Vosges.SuebiBattleFranceVictory⁂57 BC 57 BCBattle of the Axona.BelgaeBattleFranceVictory⁂57 BC 57 BCBattle of the Sabis Battle of the Sabis.Nervii, Viromandui, Atrebates, AduatuciBattleFranceVictory⁂55 and 54 BC55 and 54 BCJulius Caesar's invasions of Britain Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain.Celtic BritonsCampaignEnglandVictory⁂54 BC–53 BC 54 BC–53 BCAmbiorix's revolt Ambiorix's revolt.Eburones Campaign Belgium, FranceVictory⁂52 BC 52 BCAvaricum Avaricum.Bituriges, ArverniSiegeFranceVictory⁂52 BC 52 BCBattle of Gergovia Battle of Gergovia.Gallic tribes Battle France DefeatSeptember 52 BCBattle of Alesia Battle of Alesia.Gallic ConfederationSiege and BattleAlise-Sainte-Reine, FranceDecisive victory⁂51 BC 51 BCSiege of Uxellodunum Siege of Uxellodunum.GallicSiegeVayrac, FranceVictory⁂June–August 49 BC June–August 49 BCCaesar's Civil WarBattle of Ilerda Battle of IlerdaOptimates.BattleCatalonia, SpainVictory⁂10 July 48 BC 10 July 48 BCBattle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC).OptimatesBattle Durrës, AlbaniaDefeat⁂9 August 48 BC 9 August 48 BC Battle of Pharsalus.PompeiansBattleGreeceDecisive Victory⁂47 BC 47 BC Battle of the Nile.Ptolemaic KingdomBattleAlexandria, EgyptVictory⁂2 August 47 BC 2 August 47 BC Battle of Zela.Kingdom of PontusBattleZile, TurkeyVictory⁂4 January 46 BC 4 January 46 BCBattle of Ruspina Battle of Ruspina.Optimates, NumidiaBattle Ruspina AfricaDefeat⁂6 April 46 BC 6 April 46 BCBattle of Thapsus Battle of Thapsus.Optimates, NumidiaBattleTunisiaDecisive Victory⁂17 March 45 BC 17 March 45 BCBattle of Munda Battle of Munda.PompeiansBattleAndalusia SpainVictory⁂" ], [ "Chronology" ], [ "See also", "* ''Et tu, Brute?", "''* ''Julius Caesar'', a play by William Shakespeare ( 1599)* ''Giulio Cesare'', an opera by Handel, 1724* ''Veni, vidi, vici''* Caesar cipher* Caesareum of Alexandria" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources=======Own writings====* * * Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online in Latin and translation* * * * ====Ancient historians' writings====* * Published in nine volumes.", "* * * * * * * * * ===Secondary sources===* * * * * * ** * * * * * * * Reprinted 2009.", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * Guide to online resources" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacobitism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacobitism''' is a political movement supporting the restoration of the senior line of the House of Stuart to the British throne.", "The name derives from the first name of James II of England, which is rendered in Latin as ''Jacobus''.", "When James went into exile after the November 1688 Glorious Revolution, the Parliament of England decided that he had abandoned the English throne, which they offered to his Protestant daughter Mary II of England, and her husband William III.", "In April, the Scottish Convention held that James \"forfeited\" the throne of Scotland by his actions, listed in the Articles of Grievances.The Revolution thus created the principle of a contract between monarch and people, which if violated meant the monarch could be removed.", "Jacobites argued monarchs were appointed by God, or divine right, and could not be removed, making the post-1688 regime illegitimate.", "While this was the most consistent difference, Jacobitism was a complex mix of ideas, many opposed by the Stuarts themselves.", "In Ireland, James supported tolerance for Catholicism, but opposed other demands such as Irish autonomy and reversing the 17th-century land settlements.", "In 1745, clashes between Prince Charles and Scottish Jacobites over the 1707 Union and divine right were central to the internal conflicts that ended Jacobitism as a viable movement.Outside Ireland, Jacobitism was strongest in the western Scottish Highlands, Perthshire and Aberdeenshire, and areas of Northern England with a high proportion of Catholics such as western Lancashire, Northumberland and County Durham.", "Sympathisers were also present in parts of Wales, the West Midlands and South West England, to some degree overlapping with areas that were strongly Royalist during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "The movement had an international dimension; several European powers sponsored the Jacobites as an extension of larger conflicts, while many Jacobite exiles served in foreign armies.In addition to the 1689–1691 Williamite War in Ireland and the Jacobite rising of 1689 in Scotland, there were serious revolts in 1715, 1719 and 1745; abortive French-backed invasion attempts in 1708 and 1744; and several unsuccessful plots.", "While the 1745 rising briefly threatened the Hanoverian monarchy and forced the recall of British troops from Continental Europe, its collapse and withdrawal of French support in 1748 ended Jacobitism as a serious political movement." ], [ "Political background", "'The True Law of Free Monarchies;' James VI and I's political tract formed the basis of Stuart ideologyJacobite ideology originated with James VI and I, first monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1603.Its basis was divine right, which claimed his authority came from God, and the crown's descent by indefeasible hereditary right: James and his supporters emphasised his right to the throne by blood to forestall controversy over his appointment by Elizabeth I as her successor.", "Personal rule by the monarch eliminated the need for Parliaments, and required political and religious union, concepts widely unpopular in all three kingdoms.", "\"Divine right\" also clashed with Catholic allegiance to the Pope and with Protestant nonconformists, since both argued there was an authority above the king.", "The 17th-century belief that 'true religion' and 'good government' were one and the same meant disputes in one area fed into the other; Millenarianism and belief in the imminence of the Second Coming meant many Protestants viewed such issues as urgent and real.As the first step towards union, James began standardising religious practices between the churches of England, Scotland and Ireland.", "After his death in 1625, this was continued by his son Charles I, who lacked his political sensitivity; by the late 1630s, instituting Personal Rule in 1629, enforcing Laudian reforms on the Church of England, and ruling without Parliament led to a political crisis.", "Similar measures in Scotland caused the 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars, and installation of a Covenanter government.Organised by a small group of Catholic nobility, the October 1641 Irish Rebellion was the cumulative effect of land confiscation, loss of political control, anti-Catholic measures and economic decline.", "The Rebellion was intended as a bloodless coup, but its leaders quickly lost control, leading to atrocities on both sides.", "In May, a Covenanter army landed in Ulster to support Scots settlers.", "Although Charles and Parliament both supported raising an army to suppress the Rebellion, neither trusted the other with its control; these tensions ultimately led to the outbreak of the First English Civil War in August 1642.In 1642, the Catholic Confederacy representing the Irish insurgents proclaimed allegiance to Charles, but the Stuarts were an unreliable ally, since concessions in Ireland cost them Protestant support in all three kingdoms.", "In addition, the Adventurers' Act, approved by Charles in March 1642, funded suppression of the revolt by confiscating land from Irish Catholics, much of it owned by members of the Confederacy.", "The result was a three-way contest between the Confederacy, Royalist forces under the Protestant Duke of Ormond, and a Covenanter-led army in Ulster.", "The latter were increasingly at odds with the English government; after Charles' execution in January 1649, Ormond combined these factions to resist the 1649-to-1652 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.Charles I, whose policies caused instability throughout his three kingdomsCharles II repudiated his alliance with the Confederacy, in return for Scottish support in the Third English Civil War, and Ormond went into exile in 1650.Defeat in 1652 led to the mass confiscation of Catholic and Royalist land, and its re-distribution among English Parliamentary soldiers and Protestant settlers.", "The three kingdoms were combined into the Commonwealth of England, regaining their separate status when the monarchy was restored in 1660.Charles's reign was dominated by the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France, seen as a threat to Protestant Europe.", "When his brother and heir James announced his conversion to Catholicism in 1677, an attempt was made to bar him from the English throne.", "Nevertheless, he became king in February 1685 with widespread support in England and Scotland; a Catholic monarch was preferable to excluding the 'natural heir', and rebellions by Protestant dissidents quickly suppressed.", "It was also viewed as temporary; James was 52, his second marriage was childless after 11 years, and his Protestant daughter Mary was heir.His religion made James popular among Irish Catholics, whose position had not improved under his brother.", "By 1685, Catholic land ownership had fallen to 22%, versus 90% in 1600, and after 1673, a series of proclamations deprived them of the right to bear arms or hold public office.", "The Catholic Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1687, and began building a Catholic establishment that could survive James.", "Fearing a short reign, Tyrconnell moved at a speed that destabilised all three kingdoms.James dismissed the English and Scottish Parliaments when they refused to approve his measures of religious tolerance, which he enforced using the Royal Prerogative.", "Doing so threatened to re-open disputes over religion, reward those who rebelled in 1685 and undermine his own supporters.", "It also ignored the impact of the 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau, which revoked tolerance for French Protestants and created an estimated 400,000 refugees, 40,000 of whom settled in London.", "Two events turned discontent into rebellion, the first being the birth of James's son on 10 June 1688, which created the prospect of a Catholic dynasty.", "The second was James' prosecution of the Seven Bishops, which seemed to go beyond tolerance for Catholicism and actively attack the Church of England; their acquittal on 30 June caused widespread rejoicing throughout England and Scotland, and destroyed James's political authority.In 1685, many feared civil war if James were bypassed; by 1688, even the Earl of Sunderland, his chief minister, felt only his removal could prevent it.", "Sunderland secretly co-ordinated an Invitation to William, assuring Mary and her husband, and James's cousin, William of Orange of English support for armed intervention.", "William landed in Brixham on 5 November with 14,000 men; as he advanced, James's army deserted and he went into exile on 23 December.", "In February 1689, the English Parliament appointed William and Mary joint monarchs of England, while the Scots followed suit in March.James II, 1685, dressed in military uniformMost of Ireland was still controlled by Tyrconnell, where James landed on 12 March 1689 with 6,000 French troops.", "The 1689-to-1691 Williamite War in Ireland highlighted two recurring trends; for James and his successors, the main prize was England, with Ireland and Scotland secondary to that, while the primary French objective was to absorb British resources, not necessarily restore the Stuarts.", "Elections in May 1689 produced the first Irish Parliament with a Catholic majority since 1613.It repealed the Cromwellian land seizures, confiscated land from Williamites, and proclaimed Ireland a 'distinct kingdom from England', measures annulled after defeat in 1691.A Jacobite rising in Scotland achieved some initial success but was ultimately suppressed.", "Several days after the Irish Jacobites were defeated at The Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, victory at Beachy Head gave the French temporary control of the English Channel.", "James returned to France to urge an immediate invasion of England, but the Anglo-Dutch fleet soon regained maritime supremacy, and the opportunity was lost.The Irish Jacobites and their French allies were finally defeated at the battle of Aughrim in 1691, and the Treaty of Limerick ended the war in Ireland; future risings on behalf of the exiled Stuarts were confined to England and Scotland.", "The Act of Settlement 1701 barred Catholics from the English throne, and when Anne became the last Stuart monarch in 1702, her heir was her Protestant cousin Sophia of Hanover, not her Catholic half-brother James.", "Ireland retained a separate Parliament until 1800, but the 1707 Union combined England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain.", "Anne viewed this as the unified Protestant kingdom which her predecessors had failed to achieve.The exiled Stuarts continued to agitate for a return to power, based on the support they retained within the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland.", "Doing so required external help, most consistently supplied by France, while Spain backed the 1719 Rising.", "While talks were also held at different times with Sweden, Prussia, and Russia, these never produced concrete results.", "Although the Stuarts were useful as a lever, their foreign backers generally had little interest in their restoration." ], [ "Ideology", "Historian Frank McLynn identifies seven primary drivers in Jacobitism, noting that while the movement contained \"sincere men .. who aimed solely to restore the Stuarts\", it \"provided a source of legitimacy for political dissent of all kinds\".", "Establishing the ideology of active participants is complicated by the fact that \"by and large, those who wrote most did not act, and those who acted wrote little, if anything.\"", "Later historians have characterised Jacobitism in a variety of ways, including as a revolutionary extension of anti-court ideology; an aristocratic reaction against a growth in executive power; feudal opposition to the growth of capitalism; or as a product of nationalist feeling in Scotland and Ireland.Jacobitism's main ideological tenets drew on a political theology shared by Non-juring High church Anglicans, such as the Hancorne family, and Scots Episcopalians.", "They were, firstly, the divine right of kings, their accountability to God, not man or Parliament; secondly that monarchy was a divine institution; thirdly, the crown's descent by indefeasible hereditary right, which could not be overturned or annulled; and lastly the scriptural injunction of passive obedience and non-resistance, even towards monarchs of which the individual subject might disapprove.Alexander Forbes, 4th Lord Forbes of Pitsligo; his support of the doctrine of indefeasible hereditary right placed him in a minority of Jacobites by 1745Jacobite propagandists argued such divinely sanctioned authority was the main moral safeguard of society, while its absence led to party strife.", "They claimed the 1688 Revolution had allowed self-interested minorities, such as Whigs, religious dissenters, and foreigners, to take control of the state and oppress the common people.", "However, views on the 'correct' balance of rights and duties between monarch and subject varied, and Jacobites attempted to distinguish between 'arbitrary' and 'absolute' power.", "Non-juring Church of Ireland clergyman Charles Leslie was perhaps the most extreme divine right theorist, but even he argued the monarch was bound by \"his oath to God, as well as his promise to his people\" and \"the laws of justice and honour\".", "Another common theme in Jacobite pamphlets was the implication that economic or other upheavals in the British Isles were punishment for ejecting a divinely appointed monarch, although after 1710, pamphlet writers instead began blaming the \"malevolent\" Whig political party for exiling the Stuarts, rather than the nation collectively.Such sentiments were not always consistently held within the Jacobite community, or restricted to Jacobites alone: many Whigs and Church of England clergy also argued the post 1688 succession was \"divinely ordained\".", "After the Act of Settlement, Jacobite propagandists deemphasised the purely legitimist elements in their writing and by 1745, active promotion of hereditary and indefeasible right was restricted largely to a few Scots Episcopalians such as Lords Pitsligo and Balmerino.Instead they began to focus on populist themes such as opposition to a standing army, electoral corruption and social injustice.", "By the 1750s, Charles himself promised triennial parliaments, disbanding the army and legal guarantees on freedom of the press.", "Such tactics broadened their appeal but also carried risks, since they could always be undercut by a government prepared to offer similar concessions.", "The ongoing Stuart focus on England and regaining a united British throne led to tensions with their broader-based supporters in 1745, when the primary goal of most Scots Jacobites was ending the 1707 Union.", "This meant that following victory at Prestonpans in September, they preferred to negotiate, rather than invade England as Charles wanted.More generally, Jacobite theorists reflected a broader conservative current in Enlightenment thought, appealing to those attracted to a monarchist solution to perceived modern decadence.", "Populist songs and tracts presented the Stuarts as capable of correcting a wide range of ills and restoring social harmony, as well as contrasting Dutch and Hanoverian \"foreigners\" with a man who even in exile continued to consume English beef and beer.", "While particularly calculated to appeal to Tories, the wide range of themes adopted by Jacobite pamphleteers and agents periodically drew in disaffected Whigs and former radicals.", "Such \"Whig-Jacobites\" were highly valued by the exiled court, although many viewed James II as a potentially weak king from whom it would be easy to extract concessions in the event of a restoration." ], [ "Jacobite supporters in the three kingdoms", "===Ireland===The role of Jacobitism in Irish political history is debated; some argue that it was a broad-based popular movement and the main driver of Irish Catholic nationalism between 1688 and 1795.Others see it as part of \"a pan-British movement, rooted in confessional and dynastic loyalties\", very different from 19th-century Irish nationalism.", "Historian Vincent Morely describes Irish Jacobitism as a distinctive ideology within the broader movement that \"emphasised the Milesian ancestry of the Stuarts, their loyalty to Catholicism, and Ireland's status as a kingdom with a Crown of its own.\"", "In the first half of the 18th century, Jacobitism was \"the primary allegiance of politically conscious Catholics\".Tyrconnell, Deputy Governor of Ireland; his appointment of Catholics to military and political positions built widespread support for the Jacobite regimeIrish Catholic support for James was predicated on his religion and assumed willingness to deliver their demands.", "In 1685, Gaelic poet Dáibhí Ó Bruadair celebrated his accession as ensuring the supremacy of Catholicism and the Irish language.", "Tyrconnell's expansion of the army by the creation of Catholic regiments was welcomed by Diarmuid Mac Carthaigh, as enabling the native Irish 'Tadhg' to be armed and to assert his dominance over \"John\" the English Protestant.", "Conversely, most Irish Protestants viewed his policies as designed to \"utterly ruin the Protestant interest and the English interest in Ireland\".", "This restricted Protestant Jacobitism to \"doctrinaire clergymen, disgruntled Tory landowners and Catholic converts\", who opposed Catholicism but still viewed James' removal as unlawful.", "A few Church of Ireland ministers refused to swear allegiance to the new regime and became Non-Jurors, the most famous being propagandist Charles Leslie.Since regaining England was his primary objective, James viewed Ireland as a strategic dead-end but Louis XIV of France argued it was the best place to launch a war, since the administration was controlled by Tyrconnell and his cause popular among the majority Catholic population.", "James landed at Kinsale in March 1689 and in May called the first Parliament of Ireland since 1666, primarily seeking taxes to fund the war effort.", "Tyrconnell ensured a predominantly Catholic electorate and candidates by issuing new borough charters, admitting Catholics into city corporations, and removing \"disloyal members\".", "Since elections were not held in many northern areas, the Irish House of Commons was 70 members short, and 224 out of 230 MPs were Catholic.Known to 19th-century Irish historians as the \"Patriot Parliament\", it opened by proclaiming James as the rightful king and condemning the \"treasonous subjects\" who had ousted him.", "There were some divisions among Irish Jacobites on the issue of returning all Catholic lands confiscated in 1652 after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.", "The majority of the Irish House of Commons wanted the 1652 Cromwellian Act of Settlement repealed in its entirety, with ownership returned to that prevailing in 1641.This was opposed by a minority within the Catholic elite who had benefited from the 1662 Act of Settlement, a group that included James himself, Tyrconnell and other members of the Irish House of Lords.", "Instead, they suggested those dispossessed in the 1650s should be restored to half their estates and paid compensation for the remainder.", "However, with the Commons overwhelmingly in favour of complete restoration, Tyrconnell persuaded the Lords to approve the bill.More serious were differences between Parliament and James, who resisted any measures that might \"dissatisfy his Protestant subjects\" in England and Scotland.", "These conflicted with the demands of the Irish Parliament, which in addition to land restoration included toleration for Catholicism and Irish autonomy.", "A French diplomat observed James had 'a heart too English to do anything that might vex the English.'", "He therefore resisted measures that might \"dissatisfy his Protestant subjects\" in England and Scotland, complaining \"he was fallen into the hands of a people who would ram many hard things down his throat\".", "When it became clear Parliament would only vote war taxes if he met their minimum demands, James reluctantly gave his assent to Tyrconnell's land bill and passed a Bill of attainder, confiscating estates from 2,000 mostly Protestant \"rebels\".", "Although he also approved Parliament's resolution that Ireland was a \"distinct kingdom\" and laws passed in England did not apply there, he refused to abolish Poynings' Law, which required Irish legislation to be approved by the English Parliament.Despite his own Catholicism, James viewed the Protestant Church of Ireland as an important part of his support base; he insisted on retaining its legal pre-eminence, although agreeing landowners would only have to pay tithes to clergy of their own religion.", "However, the price for these concessions was to largely remove the Protestant element from Irish Jacobitism, which thereafter became almost entirely a Catholic ideology.", "After 1690, Irish Jacobites were also split between Tyrconnell's 'Peace party' who continued to seek a negotiated solution, and a 'War party' led by Patrick Sarsfield who favoured fighting on to the end.The Spanish Regiment of Hibernia, ca 1740; foreign military service remained common for Irish Catholics until banned after 1745James left Ireland after defeat at the Boyne in 1690, telling his supporters to \"shift for themselves\".", "This led some to depict him as \"Séamus an chaca\", \"James of the shit\", who had deserted his loyal followers.", "However, Gaelic scholar Breandán Ó Buachalla claims his reputation subsequently recovered as \"the rightful king...destined to return' and upper-class Irish Jacobite writers like Charles O'Kelly and Nicholas Plunkett blamed \"corrupt English and Scottish advisors\" for his apparent desertion.After 1691, measures passed by the 1689 Parliament were annulled, penal laws barred Catholics from public life, while the Act of Attainder was used to justify further land confiscations.", "12,000 Jacobite soldiers went into exile in the diaspora known as the Flight of the Wild Geese, the majority of whom were later absorbed into the French Irish Brigade.", "About 1,000 men were recruited for the French and Spanish armies annually, many with a \"tangible commitment to the Stuart cause\".", "Elements of the French Irish Brigade participated in the Scottish Jacobite rising of 1745.Irish-language poets, especially in Munster, continued to champion the cause after James' death; in 1715, Eoin O Callanain described his son James Francis Edward Stuart as \"''taoiseach na nGaoidheal''\" or \"chieftain of the Gaels\".", "As in England, throughout the 1720s, James' birthday on 10 June was marked by celebrations in Dublin, and towns like Kilkenny and Galway.", "These were often accompanied by rioting, suggested as proof of popular pro-Jacobite sympathies.", "Others argue riots were common in 18th-century urban areas and see them as a \"series of ritualised clashes\".Combined with Jacobite rhetoric and symbolism among rapparees or bandits, some historians claim this provides evidence of continuing popular support for a Stuart restoration.", "Other however argue that it is hard to discern \"how far rhetorical Jacobitism reflected support for the Stuarts, as opposed to discontent with the status quo\".", "Nevertheless, fears of resurgent Catholic Jacobitism among the ruling Protestant minority meant anti-Catholic Penal Laws remained in place for most of the eighteenth century.There was no Irish rising in either 1715 or 1745 to accompany those in England and Scotland; one suggestion is after 1691, for various reasons Irish Jacobites looked to European allies, rather than relying on a domestic revolt.", "From the 1720s on, many Catholics were willing to swear loyalty to the Hanoverian regime, but not the Oath of Abjuration, which required renouncing the authority of the Pope, as well as the Stuarts.", "After the effective demise of the Jacobite cause in the 1750s, many Catholic gentry withdrew support from the Stuarts.", "Instead, they created organisations like the Catholic Convention, which worked within the existing state for redress of Catholic grievances.", "When Charles died in 1788, Irish nationalists looked for alternative liberators, among them the French First Republic, Napoleon Bonaparte and Daniel O'Connell.=== England and Wales ===In England and Wales, Jacobitism was often associated with the Tories, many of whom supported James's right to the throne during the Exclusion Crisis.", "Tory ideology implied that neither \"time nor statute law ... could ameliorate the sin of usurpation\", while shared Tory and Jacobite themes of divine right and sacred kingship may have provided an alternative to Whig concepts of \"liberty and property\".", "A minority of academics, including Eveline Cruickshanks, have argued that until the late 1750s the Tories were a crypto-Jacobite party; others, that Jacobitism was a \"limb of Toryism\".", "However, the supremacy of the Church of England was also central to Tory ideology, and James lost their support when his policies seemed to threaten that primacy.", "The Act of Settlement 1701 excluding Catholics from the English throne was passed by a Tory administration; for the vast majority, Stuart Catholicism was an insuperable barrier to active support, while the Tory doctrine of non-resistance also discouraged them from supporting the exiles against a reigning monarch.Lord Bolingbroke; driven into exile in 1715 and pardoned in 1720For most of the period from 1690 to 1714, Parliament was either controlled by the Tories, or evenly split with the Whigs; when George I succeeded Anne, most hoped to reconcile with the new regime.", "The Earl of Mar, who led the 1715 rising, observed \"Jacobitisme, which they used to brand the Tories with, is now I presum out of doors\".", "However, George blamed the 1710-to-1714 Tory government for the Peace of Utrecht, which he viewed as damaging to his home state of Hanover.", "His isolation of former Tory ministers like Lord Bolingbroke and the Earl of Mar drove them first into opposition, then exile.", "Their exclusion from power between 1714 and 1742 led many Tories to remain in contact with the Jacobite court, which they saw as a potential tool for changing or pressuring the existing government.In 1715, there were co-ordinated celebrations on 29 May, Restoration Day, and 10 June, James Stuart's birthday, especially in Tory-dominated towns like Bristol, Oxford, Manchester and Norwich, although they remained quiet in the 1715 Rising.", "In the 1730s many 'Jacobite' demonstrations in Wales and elsewhere were driven by local tensions, especially hostility to Methodism, and featured attacks on Nonconformist chapels.", "Most English participants in 1715 came from traditionally Catholic areas in the northwest, such as Lancashire.", "By 1720 there were fewer than 115,000 in England and Wales, and most remained loyal in 1745, including the Duke of Norfolk, head of the English Catholic community, sentenced to death for his role in 1715 but pardoned.", "Even so, sympathies were complex; Norfolk's agent Andrew Blood joined the Manchester Regiment, and he later employed another ex-officer, John Sanderson, as his master of horse.", "English Catholics continued to provide the exiles with financial support well into the 1770s.In 1689, around 2% of clergy in the Church of England refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary; one list identifies a total of 584 clergy, schoolmasters and university dons as Non Jurors.", "This almost certainly understates their numbers, for many sympathisers remained within the Church of England, but Non Jurors were disproportionately represented in Jacobite risings and riots, and provided many \"martyrs\".", "By the late 1720s arguments over doctrine and the death of its originators reduced the church to a handful of scattered congregations, but several of those executed in 1745 came from Manchester, the last significant assembly in England.Quaker leader William Penn was a prominent non-conformist supporter of James, although this was based on their personal relationship and did not survive his deposition.", "Another element in English Jacobitism was a handful of disaffected radicals, for whom the exiled Stuarts provided a potential alternative to the Whig establishment.", "An example was John Matthews, a Jacobite printer executed in 1719; his pamphlet ''Vox Populi vox Dei'' emphasised the Lockean theory of the social contract, a doctrine very few Tories of the period would have supported.=== Scotland ===Scottish Jacobitism had wider and more extensive roots than in England.", "20,000 Scots fought for the Jacobites in 1715, compared to 11,000 who joined the government army, and were the majority of the 9,000 to 14,000 who served in 1745.One reason was the persistence of feudalism in parts of rural Scotland, where tenants could be compelled to provide their landlords with military service.", "Many of the Highland clansmen who were a feature of Jacobite armies were raised this way: in all three major risings, the bulk of the rank and file were supplied by a small number of north-western clans whose leaders joined the rebellion.George Murray; a pro-Union, anti-Hanoverian Scot who fought in the 1715, 1719 and 1745 Risings but loathed Prince Charles, he encapsulated the many contradictions of Jacobite supportDespite this, many Jacobites were Protestant Lowlanders, rather than the Catholic, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders of legend.", "By 1745, fewer than 1% of Scots were Catholic, restricted to the far north-west and a few noble families.", "The majority of the rank and file, as well as many Jacobite leaders, belonged to Protestant Episcopalian congregations.", "Throughout the 17th century, the close connection between Scottish politics and religion meant changes of regime were accompanied by the losers being expelled from the kirk.", "In 1690, over 200 clergy lost their positions, mostly in Aberdeenshire and Banffshire, a strongly Episcopalian area since the 1620s.", "In 1745, around 25% of Jacobite recruits came from this part of the country.Episcopalianism was popular among social conservatives, as it emphasised indefeasible hereditary right, absolute obedience, and implied deposition of the senior Stuart line was a breach of natural order.", "The church continued to offer prayers for the Stuarts until 1788, while many refused to swear allegiance to the Hanoverians in 1714.However, even in 1690, a substantial minority accommodated to the new regime, a number that increased significantly after the establishment of the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1712.Episcopalian ministers, such as Professor James Garden of Aberdeen, presented the 1707 Union as one in a series of disasters to befall Scotland, provoked by \"the sins ... of rebellion, injustice, oppression, schism and perjury\".", "Opposition was boosted by measures imposed by the post-1707 Parliament of Great Britain, including the Treason Act 1708, the 1711 ruling that barred Scots peers with English or British peerages from their seats in the House of Lords, and tax increases.", "Despite their own preferences, the Stuarts tried to appeal to this group; in 1745, Charles issued declarations dissolving the \"pretended Union\", despite concerns this would alienate his English supporters.However, opposition to post-Union legislation was not restricted to Jacobites.", "Many Presbyterians opposed the establishment of the Episcopal Church in 1712 and other measures of indulgence, while the worst tax riots took place in Glasgow, a town noted for its antipathy to the Stuarts.", "As in England, some objected less to the Union than the Hanoverian connection; Lord George Murray, a senior Jacobite commander in 1745, was a Unionist who repeatedly disagreed with Charles, but opposed \"wars ... on account of the Electors of Hanover\"." ], [ "Community", "Flora MacDonald by Allan Ramsay c. 1749–1750; note white roses, a Jacobite symbolWhile Jacobite agents continued in their attempts to recruit the disaffected, the most committed Jacobites were often linked by relatively small family networks, particularly in Scotland; Jacobite activities in areas like Perthshire and Aberdeenshire centred on a limited number of influential families heavily involved in 1715 and 1745.Some of the most powerful landowning families preserved their establishment loyalties, but maintained traditions of Stuart allegiance by permitting younger sons to become involved in active Jacobitism; in 1745, Lewis Gordon was widely believed to be a proxy for his brother, the Duke of Gordon.", "Many Jacobite leaders were closely linked to each other and the exile community by marriage or blood.", "This has led some historians, notably Bruce Lenman, to characterise the Jacobite risings as French-backed coup attempts by a small network drawn from the elite, though this view is not universally accepted.Family traditions of Jacobite sympathy were reinforced through objects such as inscribed glassware or rings with hidden symbols, although many of those that survive are in fact 19th-century neo-Jacobite creations.", "Other family heirlooms contained reference to executed Jacobite martyrs, for which the movement preserved an unusual level of veneration.", "Tartan cloth, widely adopted by the Jacobite army in 1745, was used in portraiture as a symbol of Stuart sympathies, even before the Rising.", "Outside elite social circles, the Jacobite community circulated propaganda and symbolic objects through a network of clubs, print-sellers and pedlars, aimed at the provincial gentry and middling sort.", "In 1745, Prince Charles ordered commemorative medals and miniature pictures for clandestine distribution.Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn; his blue coat was a colour often worn by Jacobite sympathisersAmong the more visible elements of the Jacobite community were drinking clubs established in the early 18th century, such as the Scottish Bucks Club or the \"Cycle of the White Rose\", led by Welsh Tory Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn.", "Others included the \"Sea Serjeants\", largely composed of South Wales gentry or the \"Independent Electors of Westminster\" led by the Glamorganshire lawyer David Morgan, executed for his role in 1745.Other than Morgan, the vast majority of their members took no part in the 1745 Rising; Charles later said \"I will do for the Welsh Jacobites what they did for me.", "I will drink their health\".Oak Apple Day on 29 May commemorated Charles II and was an occasion for displays of Stuart sympathy, as was \"White Rose Day\", the Old Pretender's birthday on 10 June.", "Symbols were commonly employed by Jacobites, given that they could not be prosecuted for their use; the most common of these was the White rose of York, adopted after 1688 for reasons now unclear.", "Various origins have been suggested, including its use as an ancient Scottish royal device, its association with James II as Duke of York, or Charles I being styled as the \"White King\".", "Jacobite military units often used plain white standards or cockades, while green ribbons were another recognised Stuart symbol despite their association with the Whig Green Ribbon Club." ], [ "Post-1745 decline", "Despite being greeted as a hero on his return to Paris, Charles' reception behind the scenes was more muted.", "D’Éguilles, unofficial French envoy to the Jacobites, had a low opinion of him and other senior Jacobites, describing Lochgarry as \"a bandit\", and suggesting George Murray was a British spy.", "For their part, the Scots were disillusioned by lack of meaningful English or French support, despite constant assurances of both.", "Events also highlighted the reality that a low level, ongoing insurgency was far more cost-effective for the French than a restoration, a form of warfare potentially devastating to the local populace.", "By exposing the divergence between Scottish, French and Stuart objectives, as well as the lack of support in England, the 1745 Rising ended Jacobitism as a viable political alternative in England and Scotland.The British authorities enacted a series of measures designed to prevent the Scottish Highlands being used for another rising.", "New forts were built, the military road network finally completed and William Roy made the first comprehensive survey of the Highlands.", "Much of the power held by the Highland chiefs derived from their ability to require military service from their clansmen and even before 1745 the clan system had been under severe stress due to changing economic conditions; the Heritable Jurisdictions Act removed such feudal controls by Highland chiefs.", "This was far more significant than the better-known Act of Proscription which outlawed Highland dress unless worn in military service: its impact is debated and the law was repealed in 1782.Charles Edward Stuart in old age; in 1759, he was dismissed by French ministers as \"incapacitated by drink\"As early as 1745, the French were struggling with the costs of the War of the Austrian Succession, and in June 1746, they began peace negotiations with Britain at Breda.", "Victories in Flanders in 1747 and 1748 actually worsened their position by drawing in the previously neutral Dutch Republic, whose shipping they relied on to avoid the British naval blockade.", "By 1748, food shortages among the French population made peace a matter of urgency, but the British refused to sign the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle while Charles remained in France.", "After he ignored requests to leave, the French lost patience; in December 1748, he was briefly jailed before being deported.In June 1747, his brother Henry became a Catholic priest; given that Charles had no legitimate heir, this was seen as tacit acceptance by their father James that the Jacobite cause was finished.", "Charles continued to explore options for a rising in England, including his conversion to Anglicanism, a proposal that had outraged his father James when previously suggested.", "He \"secretly\" visited London in 1750 to meet supporters, and was inducted into the Non Juror church.", "However, the decline of Jacobitism is demonstrated by the fact that King George II and his government were well aware of Charles's presence and did nothing to intervene.", "The English Jacobites made it clear they would do nothing without foreign backing, which despite Charles's overtures to Frederick II of Prussia seemed unlikely.A plot to capture or assassinate George II, headed by Alexander Murray of Elibank, was betrayed to the government by Alastair Ruadh MacDonnell, or \"Pickle the Spy\", but not before Charles had sent two exiles as agents.", "One was Archibald Cameron, responsible for recruiting the Cameron regiment in 1745, who was allegedly betrayed by his own clansmen and executed on 7 June 1753.In a 1754 dispute with the English conspirators, a drunken and increasingly desperate Charles threatened to publish their names for having \"betrayed\" him; most remaining English sympathisers now left the cause.During the Seven Years' War in 1759, Charles met Choiseul, then Chief minister of France to discuss another invasion, but Choiseul dismissed him as \"incapacitated by drink\".", "The Jacobite cause was abandoned by the French, while British supporters stopped providing funds; Charles, who had returned to Catholicism, now relied on the Papacy to fund his lifestyle.", "However, with the death of Charles's father in 1766, the Hanoverians received the Pope's recognition.", "Despite Henry's urgings, Clement XIII refused to recognise his brother as Charles III; Charles died of a stroke in Rome in January 1788, a disappointed and embittered man.Detail of the monument in the VaticanFollowing Charles's death, Scottish Catholics swore allegiance to the House of Hanover, and resolved two years later to pray for King George by name.", "The Stuart claim passed to Henry, now a Cardinal, who styled himself King Henry IX of England.", "After he fell into financial difficulty during the French Revolution, he was granted a stipend by George III.", "However, his refusal to renounce his claim to be 'Henry IX' prevented a full reconciliation with the House of Hanover.During the Irish Rebellion of 1798, headed by the United Irishmen with French support, the Directory suggested making Henry King of the Irish.", "They hoped this would attract support from the Catholic Irish and lead to the creation of a stable pro-French client state.", "Wolfe Tone, the Protestant republican leader, rejected the suggestion, and a short-lived Irish Republic was proclaimed instead.Following the death of Henry in 1807, the Jacobite claim passed to those excluded by the 1701 Act of Settlement.", "From 1807 to 1840, it was held by the House of Savoy, then the House of Habsburg-Lorraine until 1919, while the current Jacobite heir is Franz, Duke of Bavaria, from the House of Wittelsbach.", "However, neither he nor any of his predecessors since 1807 have pursued their claim.", "Henry, Charles and James are memorialised in the Monument to the Royal Stuarts in the Vatican." ], [ "Analysis", "Traditional Whig historiography viewed Jacobitism as marginal to the progression towards present-day Parliamentary democracy, taking the view that as it was defeated, it could never have won.", "Representing \"pre-industrial paternalism\" and \"mystical loyalism\" against forward-thinking individualism, this conception of Jacobitism was reinforced by Macaulay's stereotype of the typical \"Tory-Jacobite squire\" as a \"bigoted, ignorant, drunken philistine\".More recent analyses, such as that of J. C. D. Clark, suggest that Jacobitism can instead be regarded as part of a \"deep vein of social and political conservatism running throughout British history\", arguing that the Whig settlement was not as stable as has been depicted.", "Further interest in Jacobite studies has been prompted by a reassessment of the nationalist aspirations of Scots Jacobites in particular, emphasising its place as part of an ongoing political idea.=== Romantic revival ===As the political danger of Jacobitism receded, the movement was increasingly viewed as a romantic symbol of the past, particularly the final rebellion.", "Relics and mementoes of 1745 were preserved, and Charles himself celebrated in \"increasingly emotional language\".", "This memorialising tendency was reinforced by the publication in the 1830s of selections from ''The Lyon in Mourning'' by Robert Forbes (1708–1775), a collection of source material and interviews with Jacobite participants in the 1745 rising.19th-century historiography often presented Scottish Jacobites as primarily driven by a romantic attachment to the Stuarts, rather than the reality of individuals with disparate motives.", "This suited the Victorian depiction of Highlanders as a \"martial race\", distinguished by a tradition of a \"misplaced loyalism\" since transferred to the British crown.", "The participation of Lowland and north-eastern gentry was less emphasised, while his Irish Jacobite advisors were presented as a largely negative influence on Charles in 1745.", "\"Jacobites\" by John Pettie (1874): romantic view of JacobitismWalter Scott, author of ''Waverley'', a story of the 1745 rebellion, combined a romantic view of Jacobitism with an appreciation of the practical benefits of Union.", "In 1822 he arranged a pageantry of reinvented Scottish traditions for the visit of King George IV to Scotland.", "The displays of tartan proved immensely popular, and Highland clothing, previously associated with rebellion and disorder, became emblems of Scottish national identity.", "Some descendants of those attained for rebellion had their titles restored in 1824, while discriminatory laws against Catholics were repealed in 1829.With political Jacobitism now safely confined to an \"earlier era\", the hitherto largely ignored site of their final defeat at Culloden began to be celebrated.Many Jacobite folk songs emerged in Scotland in this period; a number of examples were collected by Scott's colleague James Hogg in his ''Jacobite Reliques'', including several he likely composed himself.", "Nineteenth-century Scots poets such as Alicia Ann Spottiswoode and Carolina Nairne, Lady Nairne (whose \"Bonnie Charlie\" remains popular) added further examples.", "Relatively few of the surviving songs, however, actually date from the time of the risings; one of the best known is the Irish song \"Mo Ghile Mear\", which although a more recent composition is based on the contemporary lyric \"Buan ar Buairt Gach Ló\" by Seán Clárach Mac Domhnaill.=== Neo-Jacobite revival ===There was a brief revival of political Jacobitism in the late 1880s and into the 1890s.", "A number of Jacobite clubs and societies were formed, starting with the Order of the White Rose founded by Bertram Ashburnham in 1886.In 1890, Herbert Vivian and Ruaraidh Erskine co-founded a weekly newspaper, ''The Whirlwind'', that espoused a Jacobite political view.", "Vivian, Erskine and Melville Henry Massue formed the Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland in 1891, which lasted for several years.", "Vivian went on to stand for Parliament four times on a Jacobite platform – though he failed to be elected each time.", "The revival largely came to an end with the First World War, and the various societies of the time are now represented by the Royal Stuart Society.==Claimants to the thrones of England, Scotland, Ireland and France=='''James II and VII''' (6 February 168516 September 1701).", "'''James III and VIII''' (16 September 17011 January 1766), James Francis Edward Stuart, also known as the ''Chevalier de St. George'', the ''King over the Water'', or the ''Old Pretender''.", "(Son of James II)'''Charles III''' (31 December 172031 January 1788), Charles Edward Stuart, also known as ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'', the ''Young Chevalier'', or the ''Young Pretender''.", "(Son of James III)'''Henry IX and I''' (6 March 172513 July 1807), Henry Benedict Stuart, also known as the ''Cardinal King''.", "(Son of James III)Since Henry's death, none of the Jacobite heirs have claimed the English or Scottish thrones.", "Franz, Duke of Bavaria (born 1933), a direct descendant of Charles I, is the current legitimate heir of the house of Stuart.", "It has been suggested that a repeal of the Act of Settlement 1701 could allow him to claim the throne, although he has expressed no interest in doing so." ], [ "See also", "* List of movements that dispute the legitimacy of a reigning monarch* Conservatism" ], [ "Explanatory footnotes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " BBC – Interactive Timeline of British History* General History of the Highlands* The University of Guelph Library, Archival and Special Collections, has more than 500 Jacobite pamphlets, histories, and literature in its rare books section introduced at UG Library: Archival and Special Collections – Jacobite Pamphlets* Ascanius; or, the Young Adventurer" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "J. G. Ballard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Graham Ballard''' (15 November 193019 April 2009) was an English novelist and short story writer, satirist and essayist known for psychologically provocative works of fiction that explore the relations between human psychology, technology, sex and mass media.", "Ballard first became associated with New Wave science fiction for post-apocalyptic novels such as ''The Drowned World'' (1962), but later courted political controversy with the short-story collection ''The Atrocity Exhibition'' (1970), which includes the story \"Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan\" (1968) and the novel ''Crash'' (1973), a story about car-crash fetishists.In 1984, Ballard won broad critical recognition for the war novel ''Empire of the Sun'', a semi-autobiographical story of the experiences of a British boy during the Japanese occupation of Shanghai; three years later, the American film director Steven Spielberg adapted the novel into a film of the same name.", "The novelist's journey from youth to mid-age is chronicled, with fictional inflections, in ''The Kindness of Women'' (1991), and in the autobiography ''Miracles of Life'' (2008).", "Some of Ballard's early novels have been adapted as films, including ''Crash'' (1996), directed by David Cronenberg, and ''High-Rise'' (2015), directed by Ben Wheatley, an adaptation of the 1975 novel.From the distinct nature of the literary fiction of J. G. Ballard arose the adjective ''Ballardian'', defined as: \"resembling or suggestive of the conditions described in J. G. Ballard's novels and stories, especially dystopian modernity, bleak man-made landscapes, and the psychological effects of technological, social or environmental developments\".", "The ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' describes the novelist Ballard as preoccupied with \"Eros, Thanatos, mass media and emergent technologies\"." ], [ "Life", "===Shanghai==='''J.", "G. Ballard''' was born to Edna Johnstone (1905–1998) and James Graham Ballard (1901–1966), who was a chemist at the Calico Printers' Association, a textile company in the city of Manchester, and later became the chairman and managing director of the China Printing and Finishing Company, the Association's subsidiary company in Shanghai.", "The China in which Ballard was born featured the Shanghai International Settlement, where Western foreigners \"lived an American style of life\".", "At school age, Ballard attended the Cathedral School of the Holy Trinity Church, Shanghai.", "Upon the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), the Ballard family abandoned their suburban house, and moved to a house in the city centre of Shanghai to avoid the warfare between the Chinese defenders and the Japanese invaders.After the Battle of Hong Kong (8–25 December 1941), the Imperial Japanese Army occupied the International Settlement and imprisoned the Allied civilians in early 1943.The Ballard family were sent to the Lunghua Civilian Assembly Centre where they lived in G-block, a two-storey residence for 40 families, for the remainder of the Second World War.", "At the Lunghua Centre, Ballard attended school, where the teachers were prisoners with a profession.", "In the autobiography ''Miracles of Life'', Ballard said that those experiences of displacement and imprisonment were the thematic bases of the novel ''Empire of the Sun''.Concerning the violence found in Ballard's fiction, the novelist Martin Amis said that ''Empire of the Sun'' \"gives shape to what shaped him.\"", "About his experiences of the Japanese war in China, Ballard said: \"I don't think you can go through the experience of war without one's perceptions of the world being forever changed.", "The reassuring stage-set that everyday reality in the suburban West presents to us is torn down; you see the ragged scaffolding, and then you see the truth beyond that, and it can be a frightening experience.\"", "\"I have — I won't say ''happy'' — but not unpleasant memories of the camp...", "I remember a lot of the casual brutality and beatings-up that went on — but, at the same time, we children were playing a hundred and one games all the time!\"", "In his later life, Ballard became atheist, yet said: \"I'm extremely interested in religion ...", "I see religion as a key to all sorts of mysteries that surround the human consciousness.", "\"===Britain and Canada===In late 1945, Ballard's mother returned to Britain with J.G.", "and his sister, where they resided at Plymouth, and he attended The Leys School in Cambridge, where he won a prize for a well-written essay.", "Within a few years, Mrs Ballard and her daughter returned to China and rejoined Mr Ballard; and, whilst not at school, Ballard resided with grandparents.", "In 1949, he studied medicine at King's College, Cambridge, with the intention of becoming a psychiatrist.Ballard's Vermilion Sands story \"The Singing Statues\" took the cover of the July 1962 issue of ''Fantastic'', featuring artwork by Ed Emshwiller.At university, Ballard wrote avant-garde fiction influenced by psychoanalysis and the works of surrealist painters, and pursued writing fiction and medicine.", "In his second year at Cambridge, in May 1951, the short story \"The Violent Noon\", a Hemingway pastiche, won a crime-story competition and was published in the ''Varsity'' newspaper.", "In October 1951, encouraged by publication, and understanding that clinical medicine disallowed time to write fiction, Ballard forsook medicine and enrolled at Queen Mary College to read English literature.", "After a year, he quit the College and worked as an advertising copywriter, then worked as an itinerant encyclopaedia salesman.", "Throughout that odd-job period, Ballard continued writing short-story fiction but found no publisher.In early 1954, Ballard joined the Royal Air Force and was assigned to the Royal Canadian Air Force flight-training base in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Canada.", "In that time, he encountered American science fiction magazines, and, in due course, wrote his first science fiction story, \"Passport to Eternity\", a pastiche of the American science fiction genre; yet the story was not published until 1962.In 1955, Ballard left the RAF and returned to England, where he met and married Helen Mary Matthews, who was a secretary at the ''Daily Express'' newspaper; the first of three Ballard children was born in 1956.In December 1956, Ballard became a professional science-fiction writer with the publication of the short stories \"Escapement\" (in ''New Worlds'' magazine) and \"Prima Belladonna\" (in ''Science Fantasy'' magazine).", "At the ''New Worlds'' magazine, the editor, Edward J. Carnell, greatly supported Ballard's science-fiction writing, and published most of his early stories.From 1958 onwards, Ballard was assistant editor of the scientific journal ''Chemistry and Industry''.", "His interest in art involved the emerging Pop Art movement, and, in the late 1950s, Ballard exhibited collages that represented his ideas for a new kind of novel.", "Moreover, his avant-garde inclinations discomfited writers of mainstream science fiction, whose artistic attitudes Ballard considered philistine.", "Briefly attending the 1957 World Science Fiction Convention in London, Ballard left disillusioned and demoralised by the type and quality of the science-fiction writing he encountered, and did not write another story for a year; however, by 1965, he was editor of ''Ambit'', an avante-garde magazine, which had an editorial remit amenable to his aesthetic ideals.===Professional writer===In 1960, the Ballard family moved to Shepperton, Surrey, where he resided till his death in 2009.To become a professional writer, Ballard forsook mainstream employment to write his first novel, ''The Wind from Nowhere'' (1962), during a fortnight holiday, and quit his editorial job with the ''Chemistry and Industry'' magazine.", "Later that year, his second novel, ''The Drowned World'' (1962), also was published; those two novels established Ballard as a notable writer of New Wave science fiction.", "From that success followed the publication of short-story collections, and was the beginning of a great period of literary productivity from which emerged the short-story collection \"The Terminal Beach\" (1964).Another Emshwiller cover illustrating the Vermilion Sands story \"The Screen Game\" (1963)If''In 1964, Mary Ballard died of pneumonia, leaving Ballard to raise their three children, James, Fay and Bea Ballard.", "Although he did not remarry, his friend Michael Moorcock introduced Claire Walsh to Ballard, who later became his partner.", "Claire Walsh worked in publishing during the 1960s and the 1970s, and was Ballard's sounding board for his story ideas; later, Claire introduced Ballard to the expatriate community in Sophia Antipolis, in southern France; those expatriates provided grist for the writer's mill.In 1965, after the death of his wife Mary, Ballard's writing yielded the thematically-related short stories that were published as ''The Atrocity Exhibition'' (1970).", "In 1967, the novelist Algis Budrys said that Brian W. Aldiss, Roger Zelazny, Samuel R. Delany and J. G. Ballard were the leading writers of New Wave Science Fiction.", "In the event, ''The Atrocity Exhibition'' proved legally controversial in the U.S., because the publisher feared libel-and-slander lawsuits by the living celebrities who featured in the science fiction stories.", "In ''The Atrocity Exhibition'', the story titled \"Crash!\"", "deals with the psychosexuality of car-crash enthusiasts; in 1970, at the New Arts Laboratory, Ballard sponsored an exhibition of damaged automobiles titled \"Crashed Cars\"; lacking the commentary of an art curator, the artwork provoked critical vitriol and layman vandalism.", "In the story \"Crash!\"", "and in the \"Crashed Cars\" exhibition, Ballard presented and explored the sexual potential in a car crash, which theme he also explored in a short film made with Gabrielle Drake in 1971.Those interests produced the novel ''Crash'' (1973), which features a protagonist named James Ballard, who lives in Shepperton, Surrey, England.", "''Crash'' was also controversial upon publication.", "In 1996, the film adaptation by David Cronenberg was met by a tabloid uproar in the UK, with the ''Daily Mail'' campaigning for it to be banned.", "In the years following the initial publication of ''Crash'', Ballard produced two further novels: 1974's ''Concrete Island'', about a man stranded in the traffic-divider island of a high-speed motorway, and ''High-Rise'', about a modern luxury high rise apartment building's descent into tribal warfare.Ballard published several novels and short story collections throughout the 1970s and 1980s, but his breakthrough into the mainstream came with ''Empire of the Sun'' in 1984, based on his years in Shanghai and the Lunghua internment camp.", "It became a best-seller, was shortlisted for the Booker Prize and awarded the Guardian Fiction Prize and James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction.", "It made Ballard known to a wider audience, although the books that followed failed to achieve the same degree of success.", "''Empire of the Sun'' was filmed by Steven Spielberg in 1987, starring a young Christian Bale as Jim (Ballard).", "Ballard himself appears briefly in the film, and he has described the experience of seeing his childhood memories reenacted and reinterpreted as bizarre.Ballard continued to write until the end of his life, and also contributed occasional journalism and criticism to the British press.", "Of his later novels, ''Super-Cannes'' (2000) was well received, winning the regional Commonwealth Writers' Prize.", "These later novels often marked a move away from science fiction, instead engaging with elements of a traditional crime novel.", "Ballard was offered a CBE in 2003, but refused, calling it \"a Ruritanian charade that helps to prop up our top-heavy monarchy\".", "In June 2006, he was diagnosed with terminal prostate cancer, which metastasised to his spine and ribs.", "The last of his books published in his lifetime was the autobiography ''Miracles of Life'', written after his diagnosis.", "His final published short story, \"The Dying Fall\", appeared in the 1996 issue 106 of ''Interzone'', a British sci-fi magazine.", "It was later reproduced in ''The Guardian'' on 25 April 2009.He was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery.===Posthumous publication===The grave of the novelist J. G. Ballard.", "(Kensal Green Cemetery)In October 2008, before his death, Ballard's literary agent, Margaret Hanbury, brought an outline for a book by Ballard with the working title ''Conversations with My Physician: The Meaning, if Any, of Life'' to the Frankfurt Book Fair.", "The physician in question is oncologist Professor Jonathan Waxman of Imperial College London, who was treating Ballard for prostate cancer.", "While it was to be in part a book about cancer, and Ballard's struggle with it, it reportedly was to move on to broader themes.", "In April 2009 ''The Guardian'' reported that HarperCollins announced that Ballard's ''Conversations with My Physician'' could not be finished and plans to publish it were abandoned.In 2013, a 17-page untitled typescript listed as \"Vermilion Sands short story in draft\" in the British Library catalogue and edited into an 8,000-word text by Bernard Sigaud appeared in a short-lived French reissue of the collection by Éditions Tristram () under the title \"Le labyrinthe Hardoon\" as the first story of the cycle, tentatively dated \"late 1955/early 1956\" by B. Sigaud, David Pringle and Christopher J. Beckett.", "''Reports From the Deep End'', an anthology of short stories inspired by J. G. Ballard (London: Titan Books, 2023, edited by Maxim Jakubowski and Rick McGrath), could have included \"The Hardoon Labyrinth\" – the original edition by B. Sigaud enriched to about 9,400 words by D. Pringle – but opposition from the J. G. Ballard Estate terminated the project.===Archive===In June 2010 the British Library acquired Ballard's personal archives under the British government's acceptance in lieu scheme for death duties.", "The archive contains eighteen holograph manuscripts for Ballard's novels, including the 840-page manuscript for ''Empire of the Sun'', plus correspondence, notebooks, and photographs from throughout his life.", "In addition, two typewritten manuscripts for ''The Unlimited Dream Company'' are held at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin." ], [ "Dystopian fiction", "With the exception of his autobiographical novels, Ballard most commonly wrote in the post-apocalyptic dystopia genre.His most celebrated novel in this regard is ''Crash'', in which the characters (the protagonist, called Ballard, included) become increasingly obsessed with the violent psychosexuality of car crashes in general, and celebrity car crashes in particular.", "Ballard's novel was turned into a controversial film by David Cronenberg.Particularly revered among Ballard's admirers is his short story collection ''Vermilion Sands'' (1971), set in an eponymous desert resort town inhabited by forgotten starlets, insane heirs, very eccentric artists, and the merchants and bizarre servants who provide for them.", "Each story features peculiarly exotic technology such as cloud-carving sculptors performing for a party of eccentric onlookers, poetry-composing computers, orchids with operatic voices and egos to match, phototropic self-painting canvases, etc.", "In keeping with Ballard's central themes, most notably technologically mediated masochism, these tawdry and weird technologies service the dark and hidden desires and schemes of the human castaways who occupy Vermilion Sands, typically with psychologically grotesque and physically fatal results.", "In his introduction to ''Vermilion Sands'', Ballard cites this as his favourite collection.In a similar vein, his collection ''Memories of the Space Age'' explores many varieties of individual and collective psychological fallout from—and initial deep archetypal motivations for—the American space exploration boom of the 1960s and 1970s.Will Self has described much of his fiction as being concerned with \"idealised gated communities; the affluent, and the ennui of affluence where the virtualised world is concretised in the shape of these gated developments.\"", "He added in these fictional settings \"there is no real pleasure to be gained; sex is commodified and devoid of feeling and there is no relationship with the natural world.", "These communities then implode into some form of violence.\"", "Budrys, however, mocked his fiction as \"calling for people who don't think ... to be the protagonist of a J. G. Ballard novel, or anything more than a very minor character therein, you must have cut yourself off from the entire body of scientific education\".In addition to his novels, Ballard made extensive use of the short story form.", "Many of his earliest published works in the 1950s and 1960s were short stories, including influential works like ''Chronopolis.''", "In an essay on Ballard, Will Wiles notes how his short stories \"have a lingering fascination with the domestic interior, with furnishing and appliances\", adding, \"it's a landscape that he distorts until it shrieks with anxiety\".", "He concludes that \"what Ballard saw, and what he expressed in his novels, was nothing less than the effect that the technological world, including our built environment, was having upon our minds and bodies.", "\"Ballard coined the term ''inverted Crusoeism''.", "Whereas the original Robinson Crusoe became a castaway against his own will, Ballard's protagonists often choose to maroon themselves; hence inverted Crusoeism (e.g., ''Concrete Island'').", "The concept provides a reason as to why people would deliberately maroon themselves on a remote island; in Ballard's work, becoming a castaway is as much a healing and empowering process as an entrapping one, enabling people to discover a more meaningful and vital existence." ], [ "Television", "On 13 December 1965, BBC Two screened an adaptation of the short story \"Thirteen to Centaurus\" directed by Peter Potter.", "The one-hour drama formed part of the first season of ''Out of the Unknown'' and starred Donald Houston as Dr. Francis and James Hunter as Abel Granger.", "In 2003, Ballard's short story \"The Enormous Space\" (first published in the science fiction magazine ''Interzone'' in 1989, subsequently printed in the collection of Ballard's short stories ''War Fever'') was adapted into an hour-long television film for the BBC entitled ''Home'' by Richard Curson Smith, who also directed it.", "The plot follows a middle-class man who chooses to abandon the outside world and restrict himself to his house, becoming a hermit." ], [ "Influence", "Ballard is cited as an important forebear of the cyberpunk movement by Bruce Sterling in his introduction to the ''Mirrorshades'' anthology, and by author William Gibson.", "Ballard's parody of American politics, the pamphlet \"Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan\", which was subsequently included as a chapter in his experimental novel ''The Atrocity Exhibition'', was photocopied and distributed by pranksters at the 1980 Republican National Convention.", "In the early 1970s, Bill Butler, a bookseller in Brighton, was prosecuted under UK obscenity laws for selling the pamphlet.In his 2002 book ''Straw Dogs: Thoughts on Humans and Other Animals'', the philosopher John Gray acknowledges Ballard as a major influence on his ideas.", "The book's publisher quotes Ballard as saying, \"''Straw Dogs'' challenges all our assumptions about what it is to be human, and convincingly shows that most of them are delusions.\"", "Gray wrote a short essay, in the New Statesman, about a dinner he had with Ballard in which he stated, \"Unlike many others, it wasn't his dystopian vision that gripped my imagination.", "For me his work was lyrical – an evocation of the beauty that can be gleaned from landscapes of desolation.", "\"According to literary theorist Brian McHale, ''The Atrocity Exhibition'' is a \"postmodernist text based on science fiction topoi\".Lee Killough directly cites Ballard's seminal ''Vermilion Sands'' short stories as the inspiration for her collection ''Aventine'', also a backwater resort for celebrities and eccentrics where bizarre or frivolous novelty technology facilitates the expression of dark intents and drives.", "Terry Dowling's milieu of ''Twilight Beach'' is also influenced by the stories of ''Vermilion Sands'' and other Ballard works.In ''Simulacra and Simulation'', Jean Baudrillard hailed ''Crash'' as the \"first great novel of the universe of simulation\".Ballard also had an interest in the relationship between various media.", "In the early 1970s, he was one of the trustees of the Institute for Research in Art and Technology.===In popular music===Ballard has had a notable influence on popular music, where his work has been used as a basis for lyrical imagery, particularly amongst British post-punk and industrial groups.", "Examples include albums such as ''Metamatic'' by John Foxx and ''The Atrocity Exhibition... Exhibit A'' by Exodus, various songs by Joy Division (most famously \"Atrocity Exhibition\" from ''Closer'' and \"Disorder\" from ''Unknown Pleasures''), \"High Rise\" by Hawkwind, \"Miss the Girl\" by Siouxsie Sioux's second band The Creatures (based on ''Crash''), \"Down in the Park\" by Gary Numan, \"Chrome Injury\" by The Church, \"Drowned World\" by Madonna, \"Warm Leatherette\" by The Normal and ''Atrocity Exhibition'' by Danny Brown.Songwriters Trevor Horn and Bruce Woolley credit Ballard's story \"The Sound-Sweep\" with inspiring The Buggles' hit \"Video Killed the Radio Star\", and the Buggles' second album included a song entitled \"Vermillion Sands\".The 1978 post-punk band Comsat Angels took their name from one of Ballard's short stories.", "An early instrumental track by British electronic music group The Human League \"4JG\" bears Ballard's initials as a homage to the author (intended as a response to \"2HB\" by Roxy Music).The Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers include a sample from an interview with Ballard in their song \"Mausoleum\".", "Additionally, the Manic Street Preachers song, \"A Billion Balconies Facing the Sun\", is taken from a line in the J. G. Ballard novel ''Cocaine Nights''.", "The English band Klaxons named their debut album ''Myths of the Near Future'' after one of Ballard's short story collections.", "The band Empire of the Sun took their name from Ballard's novel.", "The American rock band The Sound of Animals Fighting took the name of the song \"The Heraldic Beak of the Manufacturer's Medallion\" from ''Crash''.", "UK based drum and bass producer Fortitude released an EP in 2016 called \"Kline Coma Xero\" named after characters in ''The Atrocity Exhibition''.", "The song \"Terminal Beach\" by the American band Yacht is a tribute to his short story collection that goes by the same name.", "US indie musician and comic book artist Jeffrey Lewis mentions Ballard by name in his song \"Cult Boyfriend\", on the record ''A Turn in The Dream-Songs'' (2011), in reference to Ballard's cult following as an author.=== In the 2024 Met Gala===The 2024 Met Gala dress code was “The Garden of Time”, inspired by Ballard’s 1962 short story “The Garden of Time”." ], [ "Awards and honours", "* 1979 BSFA Award for Best Novel for ''The Unlimited Dream Company''* 1984 Guardian Fiction Prize for ''Empire of the Sun''* 1984 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction for ''Empire of the Sun''* 1984 ''Empire of the Sun'' shortlisted for the Booker Prize for Fiction* 1997 De Montfort University Honorary doctorate.", "* 2001 Commonwealth Writers' Prize (Europe & South Asia region) for ''Super-Cannes''* 2008 Golden PEN Award* 2009 Royal Holloway University of London Posthumous honorary doctorate" ], [ "Works", "=== Novels ===* ''The Wind from Nowhere'' (1961)* ''The Drowned World'' (1962)* ''The Burning World'' (1964; also ''The Drought'', 1965)* ''The Crystal World'' (1966)* ''The Atrocity Exhibition'' (1970, first published as ''Love and Napalm: Export USA'', 1972)* ''Crash'' (1973)* ''Concrete Island'' (1974)* ''High-Rise'' (1975)* ''The Unlimited Dream Company'' (1979)* ''Hello America'' (1981)* ''Empire of the Sun'' (1984)* ''The Day of Creation'' (1987)* ''Running Wild'' (1988)* ''The Kindness of Women'' (1991)* ''Rushing to Paradise'' (1994)* ''Cocaine Nights'' (1996)* ''Super-Cannes'' (2000)* ''Millennium People'' (2003)* ''Kingdom Come'' (2006)=== Short story collections ===* ''The Voices of Time and Other Stories'' (1962)* ''Billennium'' (1962)* ''Passport to Eternity'' (1963)* ''The 4-Dimensional Nightmare'' (1963)* ''The Terminal Beach'' (1964)* ''The Impossible Man'' (1966)* ''The Overloaded Man'' (1967)* ''The Disaster Area'' (1967)* ''The Day of Forever'' (1967)* ''Vermilion Sands'' (1971)* ''Chronopolis and Other Stories'' (1971)* ''Low-Flying Aircraft and Other Stories'' (1976)* ''The Best of J. G. Ballard'' (1977)* ''The Best Short Stories of J. G. Ballard'' (1978)* ''The Venus Hunters'' (1980)* ''Myths of the Near Future'' (1982)* ''The Voices of Time'' (1985)* ''Memories of the Space Age'' (1988)* ''War Fever'' (1990)* ''The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard'' (2001)* ''The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard: Volume 1'' (2006)* ''The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard: Volume 2'' (2006)* ''The Complete Stories of J. G. Ballard'' (2009)=== Non-fiction ===* ''A User's Guide to the Millennium: Essays and Reviews'' (1996)* ''Miracles of Life'' (autobiography; 2008)=== Interviews ===* ''Paris Review – J.G.", "Ballard '' (1984)* ''Re/Search No.", "8/9: J.G.", "Ballard'' (1985)* ''J.G.", "Ballard: Quotes'' (2004)* ''J.G.", "Ballard: Conversations'' (2005)* ''Extreme Metaphors'' (interviews; 2012)" ], [ "Adaptations", "=== Films ===* ''When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth'' (1970, Val Guest)* ''Empire of the Sun'' (1987, Steven Spielberg)* ''Crash'' (1996, David Cronenberg)* ''The Atrocity Exhibition'' (2000, Jonathan Weiss)* ''Low-Flying Aircraft'' (2002, Solveig Nordlund)* ''High-Rise'' (2015, Ben Wheatley)=== Television ===* \"Thirteen to Centaurus\" (1965) from the short story of the same name – dir.", "Peter Potter (BBC Two)* ''Crash!''", "(1971) dir.", "Harley Cokliss* \"Minus One\" (1991) from the story of the same name – short film dir.", "by Simon Brooks.", "* \"Home\" (2003) primarily based on \"The Enormous Space\" – dir.", "Richard Curson Smith (BBC Four)* \"The Drowned Giant\" (2021) from the short story of the same name, is the eighth episode of the second season of the Netflix anthology series ''Love, Death & Robots''=== Radio ===* In Nov/Dec 1988, CBC Radio's sci-fi series ''Vanishing Point'' ran a seven-episode miniseries of ''The Stories of J. G. Ballard'', which included audio adaptations of \"Escapement,\" \"Dead Astronaut,\" \"The Cloud Sculptors of Coral D,\" \"Low Flying Aircraft,\" \"A Question of Re-entry,\" \"News from the Sun\" and \"Having a Wonderful Time\".", "* In June 2013, BBC Radio 4 broadcast adaptions of ''The Drowned World'' and ''Concrete Island'' as part of a season of dystopian fiction entitled ''Dangerous Visions''." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* Ballard, J.G.", "(1984).", "''Empire of the Sun''.", ".", "* Ballard, J.G.", "(1991).", "''The Kindness of Women''.", ".", "* Ballard, J.G.", "(1993).", "''The Atrocity Exhibition'' (expanded and annotated edition).", ".", "* Ballard, J.G.", "(2006). \"", "Look back at Empire\".", "''The Guardian'', 4 March 2006.", "* Baxter, J.", "(2001). \"", "J.G.", "Ballard\".", "''The Literary Encyclopedia''.", "Retrieved 11 March 2006.", "* Baxter, J.", "(ed.)", "(2008).", "''J.G.", "Ballard'', London: Continuum.", ".", "* Baxter, John (2011).", "''The Inner Man: The Life of J. G.", "Ballard.''", "London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", ".", "* Brigg, Peter (1985).", "''J.G.", "Ballard''.", "Rpt.", "Borgo Press/Wildside Press.", ".", "* Collins English Dictionary.", ".", "Quoted in Ballardian: The World of JG Ballard.", "Retrieved 11 March 2006.", "* Cowley, J.", "(2001). \"", "The Ballard of Shanghai jail\".", "Review of ''The Complete Stories'' by J.G.", "Ballard.", "''The Observer'', 4 November 2001.Retrieved 11 March 2006.", "* Delville, Michel.", "''J.G.", "Ballard''.", "Plymouth: Northcote House, 1998.", "* Gasiorek, A.", "(2005).", "''J.", "G. Ballard''.", "Manchester University Press.", "* Hall, C. \" Extreme Metaphor: A Crash Course in the Fiction of JG Ballard\".", "Retrieved 11 March 2006.", "* Livingstone, D. B.", "(1996?). \"", "Prophet with Honour\".", "Retrieved 12 March 2006.", "* Luckhurst, R. (1998).", "''The Angle Between Two Walls: The Fiction of J. G. Ballard''.", "Liverpool University Press.", ".", "* McGrath, Rick (ed.).", "''Deep Ends: The JG Ballard Anthology 2015''.", "The Terminal Press.", "2015..* McGrath, Rick (ed.).", "''Deep Ends: The JG Ballard Anthology 2016''.", "The Terminal Press.", "2016..* McGrath, Rick (ed.).", "''Deep Ends: A Ballardian Anthology 2018''.", "The Terminal Press.", "2018..* McGrath, Rick (ed.).", "''Deep Ends: A Ballardian Anthology 2019''.", "The Terminal Press.", "2019..* McGrath, Rick (ed.).", "''Deep Ends: A Ballardian Anthology 2020''.", "The Terminal Press.", "2020..* McGrath, R. JG Ballard Book Collection.", "Retrieved 11 March 2006.", "* McGrath, Rick (ed.).", "''The JG Ballard Book''.", "The Terminal Press.", "2013.", "* * Oramus, Dominika.", "''Grave New World''.", "Warsaw: University of Warsaw, 2007.", "* Pringle, David, ''Earth is the Alien Planet: J.G.", "Ballard's Four-Dimensional Nightmare'', San Bernardino, CA: The Borgo Press, 1979.", "* Pringle, David (ed.)", "and Ballard, J.G.", "(1982).", "\"From Shanghai to Shepperton\".", "''Re/Search'' '''8/9''': J.G.", "Ballard: 112–124..* Rossi, Umberto (2009). \"", "A Little Something about Dead Astronauts\", ''Science-Fiction Studies'', No.", "107, 36:1 (March), 101–120.", "* Stephenson, Gregory, ''Out of the Night and into the Dream: A Thematic Study of the Fiction of J.G.", "Ballard'', New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.", "* McGrath, Rick (ed.).", "''Deep Ends: The JG Ballard Anthology 2014''.", "The Terminal Press.", "2014..* V. Vale (ed.)", "(2005).", "''J.G.", "Ballard: Conversations'' ( excerpts).", "RE/Search Publications.", ".", "* V. Vale and Ryan, Mike (eds.)", "(2005).", "''J.G.", "Ballard: Quotes'' ( excerpts).", "RE/Search Publications.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Ballardian (Simon Sellars)* J.G.", "Ballard Literary Archive & Bibliographies (Rick McGrath)* 2008 profile of J. G. Ballard by Theodore Dalrymple in ''City Journal'' magazine* J. G. Ballard Literary Estate* J G Ballard at the British Library* J G Ballard archives and manuscripts catalogue at the British Library'''Articles, reviews and essays'''* * ''Landscapes From a Dream'' , J G Ballard and modern art* The Marriage of Reason and Nightmare, ''City Journal,'' Winter 2008 * ''Miracles of Life'' reviewed by Karl Miller in the Times Literary Supplement, 12 March 2008* J.G.", "Ballard: The Glow of the Prophet Diane Johnson article on Ballard from ''The New York Review of Books''* Reviews of Ballard's work and John Foyster's criticism of Ballard's work featured in Edition 46 of Science Fiction magazine edited by Van Ikin.", "* A review of Ballard's ''Running Wild'' J. G. Ballard's Running Wild – The Literary Life '''Source material'''* J. G. Ballard and his family on the list of the internment camp at Japan Center for Asian Historical Records* J.G.", "Ballard and Scottish artist Sir Eduardo Paolozzi'''Obituaries and remembrances'''* Obituary in the ''Times'' Online* Obituary by John Clute in ''The Independent''* Obituary in the ''Los Angeles Times''* Quotes from other writers on BBC News* More writers' reactions in ''The Guardian''* A short appreciation in ''The New Yorker''* Tribute by V. Vale from RE/Search* Letter From London: The J.G.", "Ballard Memorial ()* ''Self on Ballard'' by Will Self on BBC Radio 4, 26 September 2009 ( Transcript and Postscript) at The Terminal Collection by Rick McGrath)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Journalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Journalism''' is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the \"news of the day\" and that informs society to at least some degree of accuracy.", "The word, a noun, applies to the occupation (professional or not), the methods of gathering information, and the organizing literary styles.", "The appropriate role for journalism varies from country to country, as do perceptions of the profession, and the resulting status.", "In some nations, the news media are controlled by government and are not independent.", "In others, news media are independent of the government and operate as private industry.", "In addition, countries may have differing implementations of laws handling the freedom of speech, freedom of the press as well as slander and libel cases.The proliferation of the Internet and smartphones has brought significant changes to the media landscape since the turn of the 21st century.", "This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other personal electronic devices, as opposed to the more traditional formats of newspapers, magazines, or television news channels.", "News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print.", "Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues." ], [ "Production", "Journalistic conventions vary by country.", "In the United States, journalism is produced by media organizations or by individuals.", "Bloggers are often regarded as journalists.", "The Federal Trade Commission requires that bloggers who write about products received as promotional gifts, disclose that they received the products for free.", "This is intended to eliminate conflicts of interest and protect consumers.In the US, many credible news organizations are incorporated entities, have an editorial board, and exhibit separate editorial and advertising departments.", "Many credible news organizations, or their employees, often belong to and abide by the ethics of professional organizations such as the American Society of News Editors, the Society of Professional Journalists, Investigative Reporters & Editors, Inc., or the Online News Association.", "Many news organizations also have their own codes of ethics that guide journalists' professional publications.", "For instance, ''The New York Times'' code of standards and ethics is considered particularly rigorous.When crafting news stories, regardless of the medium, fairness and bias are issues of concern to journalists.", "Some stories are intended to represent the author's own opinion; others are more neutral or feature balanced points of view.", "In a traditional print newspaper and its online version, information is organized into sections.", "This makes clear the distinction between content based on fact and on opinion.", "In other media, many of these distinctions break down.", "Readers should pay careful attention to headings and other design elements to ensure that they understand the journalist's intent.", "Opinion pieces are generally written by regular columnists or appear in a section titled \"Op-ed\", these reflect a journalist's own opinions and ideology.", "While feature stories, breaking news, and hard news stories typically make efforts to remove opinion from the copy.According to Robert McChesney, healthy journalism in a democratic country must provide an opinion of people in power and who wish to be in power, must include a range of opinions and must regard the informational needs of all people.Many debates centre on whether journalists are \"supposed\" to be \"objective\" and \"neutral\"; arguments include the fact that journalists produce news out of and as part of a particular social context, and that they are guided by professional codes of ethics and do their best to represent all legitimate points of view.", "Additionally, the ability to render a subject's complex and fluid narrative with sufficient accuracy is sometimes challenged by the time available to spend with subjects, the affordances or constraints of the medium used to tell the story, and the evolving nature of people's identities." ], [ "Forms", "There are several forms of journalism with diverse audiences.", "Journalism is said to serve the role of a \"fourth estate\", acting as a watchdog on the workings of the government.", "A single publication (such as a newspaper) contains many forms of journalism, each of which may be presented in different formats.", "Each section of a newspaper, magazine, or website may cater to a different audience.Photojournalists photographing US President Barack Obama in November 2013 Photo and broadcast journalists interviewing a government official after a building collapse in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.", "March 2013.Some forms include:* Access journalism – journalists who self-censor and voluntarily cease speaking about issues that might embarrass their hosts, guests, or powerful politicians or businesspersons.", "* Advocacy journalism – writing to advocate particular viewpoints or influence the opinions of the audience.", "* Broadcast journalism – written or spoken journalism for radio or televisionRadio-Canada/CBC newsroom in Montreal, CanadaMedia greeting Cap Anamur II's Rupert Neudeck in Hamburg, 1986 at a press conference* Business journalism – tracks, records, analyzes and interprets the business, economic and financial activities and changes that take place in societies.", "* Citizen journalism – participatory journalism.", "* Data journalism – the practice of finding stories in numbers, and using numbers to tell stories.", "Data journalists may use data to support their reporting.", "They may also report about uses and misuses of data.", "The US news organization ProPublica is known as a pioneer of data journalism.", "* Drone journalism – use of drones to capture journalistic footage.", "* Gonzo journalism – first championed by Hunter S. Thompson, gonzo journalism is a \"highly personal style of reporting\".", "* Interactive journalism – a type of online journalism that is presented on the web* Investigative journalism – in-depth reporting that uncovers social problems.", "* Photojournalism – the practice of telling true stories through images* Political journalism – coverage of all aspects of politics and political science * Science journalism - conveys reporting about science to the public* Sensor journalism – the use of sensors to support journalistic inquirySports journalism – writing that reports on matters pertaining to sporting topics and competitionsStudent journalism – the practice of journalism by students at an educational institution, often covering topics particularly relevant to the student body* Tabloid journalism – writing that is light-hearted and entertaining.", "Considered less legitimate than mainstream journalism.", "* Yellow journalism (or sensationalism) – writing which emphasizes exaggerated claims or rumors.", "* Global journalism – journalism that encompasses a global outlook focusing on intercontinental issues.", "* War journalism – the covering of wars and armed conflicts=== Social media ===The rise of social media has drastically changed the nature of journalistic reporting, giving rise to so-called citizen journalists.", "In a 2014 study of journalists in the United States, 40% of participants claimed they rely on social media as a source, with over 20% depending on microblogs to collect facts.", "From this, the conclusion can be drawn that breaking news nowadays often stems from user-generated content, including videos and pictures posted online in social media.", "However, though 69.2% of the surveyed journalists agreed that social media allowed them to connect to their audience, only 30% thought it had a positive influence on news credibility.", "In addition to this, a recent study done by Pew Research Center shows that eight-in-ten Americans are getting their news from digital devices.Consequently, this has resulted in arguments to reconsider journalism as a process distributed among many authors, including the socially mediating public, rather than as individual products and articles written by dedicated journalists.Because of these changes, the credibility ratings of news outlets has reached an all-time low.", "A 2014 study revealed that only 22% of Americans reported a \"great deal\" or \"quite a lot of confidence\" in either television news or newspapers.=== Fake news ===\"Fake news\" is also deliberately untruthful information, which can often spread quickly on social media or by means of fake news websites.", "News cannot be regarded as \"fake\", but disinformation rather.It is often published to intentionally mislead readers to ultimately benefit a cause, organization or an individual.", "A glaring example was the proliferation of fake news in social media during the 2016 U.S. presidential election.", "Conspiracy theories, hoaxes, and lies have been circulated under the guise of news reports to benefit specific candidates.", "One example is a fabricated report of Hillary Clinton's email which was published by a non-existent newspaper called The Denver Guardian.", "Many critics blamed Facebook for the spread of such material.", "Its news feed algorithm, in particular, was identified by Vox as the platform where the social media giant exercise billions of editorial decisions every day.", "Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and TikTok are distributors of disinformation or \"fake news\".", "Mark Zuckerberg, the CEO of Facebook, has acknowledged the company's role in this problem: in a testimony before a combined Senate Judiciary and Commerce committee hearing on 20 April 2018, he said:It's clear now that we didn't do enough to prevent these tools from being used for harm as well.", "That goes for fake news, foreign interference in elections, and hate speech, as well as developers and data privacy.Readers can often evaluate credibility of news by examining the credibility of the underlying news organization.The phrase was popularized and used by Donald Trump during his presidential campaign to discredit what he perceived as negative news coverage of his candidacy and then the presidency.In some countries, including Turkey, Egypt, India, Bangladesh, Iran, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Cote d’Ivoire, Montenegro, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, and Somalia journalists have been threatened or arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic.On 4 March 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law a bill introducing prison sentences of up to 15 years for those who publish \"knowingly false information\" about the Russian armed forces and their operations, leading to some media outlets in Russia to stop reporting on Ukraine or shutting their media outlet.", "As of December 2022, more than 4,000 people were prosecuted under \"fake news\" laws in connection with the war in Ukraine.", "At least 1,000 Russian journalists have fled Russia since February 2022." ], [ "History", "=== Antiquity ===While publications reporting the news to the general public in a standardized fashion only began to appear in the 17th century and later, governments as early as Han dynasty China made use of regularly published news bulletins.", "Similar publications were established in the Republic of Venice in the 16th century.", "These bulletins, however, were intended only for government officials, and thus were not journalistic news publications in the modern sense of the term.=== Early modern newspapers ===As mass-printing technologies like the printing press spread, newspapers were established to provide increasingly literate audiences with the news.", "The first references to privately owned newspaper publishers in China date to the late Ming dynasty in 1582.Johann Carolus's ''Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien'', published in 1605 in Strasbourg, is often recognized as the first newspaper in Europe.Freedom of the press was formally established in Great Britain in 1695, with Alan Rusbridger, former editor of ''The Guardian'', stating: \"licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695.Remember how the freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world, and be conscious how the world still watches us to see how we protect those freedoms.\"", "The first successful English daily, the ''Daily Courant'', was published from 1702 to 1735.While journalistic enterprises were started as private ventures in some regions, such as the Holy Roman Empire and the British Empire, other countries such as France and Prussia kept tighter control of the press, treating it primarily as an outlet for government propaganda and subjecting it to uniform censorship.", "Other governments, such as the Russian Empire, were even more distrusting of the journalistic press and effectively banned journalistic publications until the mid-19th century.", "As newspaper publication became a more and more established practice, publishers would increase publication to a weekly or daily rate.", "Newspapers were more heavily concentrated in cities that were centres of trade, such as Amsterdam, London, and Berlin.", "The first newspapers in Latin America would be established in the mid-to-late 19th century.==== News media and the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries ====Newspapers played a significant role in mobilizing popular support in favor of the liberal revolutions of the late 18th and 19th centuries.", "In the American Colonies, newspapers motivated people to revolt against British rule by publishing grievances against the British crown and republishing pamphlets by revolutionaries such as Thomas Paine, while loyalist publications motivated support against the American Revolution.", "News publications in the United States would remain proudly and publicly partisan throughout the 19th century.", "In France, political newspapers sprang up during the French Revolution, with ''L'Ami du peuple'', edited by Jean-Paul Marat, playing a particularly famous role in arguing for the rights of the revolutionary lower classes.", "Napoleon would reintroduce strict censorship laws in 1800, but after his reign print publications would flourish and play an important role in political culture.", "As part of the Revolutions of 1848, radical liberal publications such as the ''Rheinische Zeitung, Pesti Hírlap,'' and ''Morgenbladet'' would motivate people toward deposing the aristocratic governments of Central Europe.", "Other liberal publications played a more moderate role: ''The Russian Bulletin'' praised Alexander II of Russia's liberal reforms in the late 19th century, and supported increased political and economic freedoms for peasants as well as the establishment of a parliamentary system in Russia.", "Farther to the left, socialist and communist newspapers had wide followings in France, Russia and Germany despite being outlawed by the government.=== Early 20th century =======China====Journalism in China before 1910 primarily served the international community.", "The ''overthrow of the old imperial regime in 1911'' produced a surge in Chinese nationalism, an end to censorship, and a demand for professional, nation-wide journalism.", "All the major cities launched such efforts.", "By the late 1920s, however, there was a much greater emphasis on advertising and expanding circulation, and much less interest in the sort of advocacy journalism that had inspired the revolutionaries.====France====The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the ''First World War''; circulation inched up to six million a day from five million in 1910.The major postwar success story was ''Paris Soir''; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige.", "By 1939 its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid ''Le Petit Parisien.''", "In addition to its daily paper ''Paris Soir'' sponsored a highly successful women's magazine ''Marie-Claire.''", "Another magazine ''Match'' was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine ''Life.", "''====Great Britain====By 1900 popular journalism in Britain aimed at the largest possible audience, including the working class, had proven a success and made its profits through advertising.", "Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe (1865–1922), \"More than anyone... shaped the modern press.", "Developments he introduced or harnessed remain central: broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control.", "His ''Daily Mail'' held the world record for daily circulation until his death.", "Prime Minister Lord Salisbury quipped it was \"written by office boys for office boys\".Described as \"the scoop of the century\", as a rookie journalist for ''The Daily Telegraph'' in 1939 Clare Hollingworth was the first to report the outbreak of World War II.", "While travelling from Poland to Germany, she spotted and reported German forces massed on the Polish border; ''The Daily Telegraph'' headline read: \"1,000 tanks massed on Polish border \"; three days later she was the first to report the German invasion of Poland.During World War II, George Orwell worked as a journalist at ''The Observer'' for seven years, and its editor David Astor gave a copy of Orwell's essay \"Politics and the English Language\"—a critique of vague, slovenly language—to every new recruit.", "In 2003, literary editor at the newspaper Robert McCrum wrote, \"Even now, it is quoted in our style book\".==== India ====The first newspaper of India, ''Hicky's Bengal Gazette'', was published on 29 January 1780.This first effort at journalism enjoyed only a short stint yet it was a momentous development, as it gave birth to modern journalism in India.", "Following Hicky's efforts which had to be shut down just within two years of circulation, several English newspapers started publication in the aftermath.", "Most of them enjoyed a circulation figure of about 400 and were weeklies giving personal news items and classified advertisements about a variety of products.", "Later on, in the 1800s, English newspapers were started by Indian publishers with English-speaking Indians as the target audience.", "During that era vast differences in language was a major problem in facilitating smooth communication among the people of the country.", "This is because they hardly knew the languages prevalent in other parts of this vast land.", "However, English became a ''lingua franca'' across the country.", "Notable among this breed is the one named 'Bengal Gazette' started by Gangadhar Bhattacharyya in 1816.==== United States ====The late 19th and early 20th century in the United States saw the advent of media empires controlled by the likes of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer.", "Realizing that they could expand their audience by abandoning politically polarized content, thus making more money off of advertising, American newspapers began to abandon their partisan politics in favor of less political reporting starting around 1900.Newspapers of this era embraced sensationalized reporting and larger headline typefaces and layouts, a style that would become dubbed \"yellow journalism\".", "Newspaper publishing became much more heavily professionalized in this era, and issues of writing quality and workroom discipline saw vast improvement.", "This era saw the establishment of freedom of the press as a legal norm, as President Theodore Roosevelt tried and failed to sue newspapers for reporting corruption in his handling of the purchase of the Panama Canal.", "Still, critics note that although government's ability to suppress journalistic speech is heavily limited, the concentration of newspaper (and general media) ownership in the hands of a small number of private business owners leads to other biases in reporting and media self-censorship that benefits the interests of corporations and the government.===== African-American press =====The rampant discrimination and segregation against African-Americans led to the founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities.", "While the first Black newspapers in America were established in the early 19th century, in the 20th century these newspapers truly flourished in major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs.", "Representative leaders included Robert Sengstacke Abbott (1870–1940), publisher of the Chicago Defender; John Mitchell, Jr. (1863–1929), editor of the ''Richmond Planet'' and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; Anthony Overton (1865–1946), publisher of the Chicago Bee, and Robert Lee Vann (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the Pittsburgh Courier.===== College =====Although it is not completely necessary to have attended college to be a journalist, over the past few years it has become more common to attend.", "With this becoming more popular, jobs are starting to require a degree to be hired.", "The first school of Journalism opened as part of the University of Missouri in 1908.In the History Of Journalism page, it goes into depth on how journalism has evolved into what it is today.", "As of right now, there are a couple different routes one can take if interested in journalism.", "If one wanting to expand their skills as a journalist, there are many college courses and workshops one can take.", "If going the full college route, the average time is takes to graduate with a journalism degree is four years.The top 5 ranked journalism schools in the US for the school year of 2022 are: 1.Washington and Lee University.", "2.Northwestern University.", "3.Georgetown University.", "4.Columbia University in the City of New York.", "5.University of Wisconsin - Madison.===== Writing for experts or for ordinary citizens =====Walter Lippmann in 1914In the 1920s in the United States, as newspapers dropped their blatant partisanship in search of new subscribers, political analyst Walter Lippmann and philosopher John Dewey debated the role of journalism in a democracy.", "Their differing philosophies still characterize an ongoing debate about the role of journalism in society.", "Lippmann's views prevailed for decades, helping to bolster the Progressives' confidence in decision-making by experts, with the general public standing by.", "Lippmann argued that high-powered journalism was wasted on ordinary citizens, but was of genuine value to an elite class of administrators and experts.", "Dewey, on the other hand, believed not only that the public was capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, but also that it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate.", "When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface.", "The danger of demagoguery and false news did not trouble Dewey.", "His faith in popular democracy has been implemented in various degrees, and is now known as \"community journalism\".", "The 1920s debate has been endlessly repeated across the globe, as journalists wrestle with their roles.", "'''Radio'''Radio broadcasting increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s.", "While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming.", "Radio reached the peak of its importance during World War II, as radio and newsreels were major sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war.", "In the Soviet Union, radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership.", "These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting.", "The radio would however soon be eclipsed by broadcast television starting in the 1950s.=== Television ===Starting in the 1940s, United States broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening.", "The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of John F. Kennedy, broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels.", "During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows.", "Starting in 1980 with the establishment of CNN, news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today.=== Digital age ===Journalists at a press conferenceThe role and status of journalism, as well as mass media, has undergone changes over the last two decades, together with the advancement of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet.", "This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other electronic devices.", "News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print.", "Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues.Notably, in the American media landscape, newsrooms have reduced their staff and coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, grappling with declining audiences.", "For example, between 2007 and 2012, CNN edited its story packages into nearly half of their original time length.", "The compactness in coverage has been linked to broad audience attrition.", "According to the Pew Research Center, the circulation for U.S. newspapers has fallen sharply in the 21st century.", "Digital-first, non-profit newsrooms have grown in response to the need for high-quality information that the private sector has been struggling to provide.The digital era also introduced journalism whose development is done by ordinary citizens, with the rise of citizen journalism being possible through the Internet.", "Using video camera-equipped smartphones, active citizens are now enabled to record footage of news events and upload them onto channels like YouTube (which is often discovered and used by mainstream news media outlets).", "News from a variety of online sources, like blogs and other social media, results in a wider choice of official and unofficial sources, rather than only traditional media organizations.Journalist interviewing a cosplayer===Demographics in 2016===A worldwide sample of 27,500 journalists in 67 countries in 2012–2016 produced the following profile:* 57 percent male;* Mean age of 38* Mean years of experience:13* College degree: 56 percent; graduate degree: 29 percent* 61 percent specialized in journalism/communications at college* 62 percent identified as generalists and 23 percent as hard-news beat journalists* 47 percent were members of a professional association* 80 percent worked full-time* 50 percent worked in print, 23 percent in television, 17 percent in radio, and 16 percent online." ], [ "Ethics and standards", "News photographers and reporters waiting behind a police line in New York City, in May 1994While various existing codes have some differences, most share common elements including the principles of – truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity, impartiality, fairness and public accountability – as these apply to the acquisition of newsworthy information and its subsequent dissemination to the public.Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel propose several guidelines for journalists in their book ''The Elements of Journalism''.Their view is that journalism's first loyalty is to the citizenry and that journalists are thus obliged to tell the truth and must serve as an independent monitor of powerful individuals and institutions within society.", "In this view, the essence of journalism is to provide citizens with reliable information through the discipline of verification.Some journalistic Codes of Ethics, notably the European ones, also include a concern with discriminatory references in news based on race, religion, sexual orientation, and physical or mental disabilities.", "The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe approved in 1993 Resolution 1003 on the Ethics of Journalism which recommends journalists to respect the presumption of innocence, in particular in cases that are still ''sub judice''.In the UK, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the Independent Press Standards Organisation.", "This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy.", "However, the Media Standards Trust has criticized the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure the public trust of newspapers.This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity.", "editor-in-chief Dmitry Muratov was awarded the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize for his \"efforts to safeguard freedom of expression\" in Russia.Because of the pressure on journalists to report news promptly and before their competitors, factual errors occur more frequently than in writing produced and edited under less time pressure.", "Thus a typical issue of a major daily newspaper may contain several corrections of articles published the previous day.", "Perhaps the most famous journalistic mistake caused by time pressure was the Dewey Defeats Truman edition of the Chicago Daily Tribune, based on early election returns that failed to anticipate the actual result of the 1948 US presidential election.=== Codes of ethics ===There are over 242 codes of ethics in journalism that vary across various regions of the world.", "The codes of ethics are created through an interaction of different groups of people such as the public and journalists themselves.", "Most of the codes of ethics serve as a representation of the economic and political beliefs of the society where the code was written.", "Despite the fact that there are a variety of codes of ethics, some of the core elements present in all codes are: remaining objective, providing the truth, and being honest.Journalism does not have a universal code of conduct; individuals are not legally obliged to follow a certain set of rules like a doctor or a lawyer does.", "There have been discussions for creating a universal code of conduct in journalism.", "One suggestion centers on having three claims for credibility, justifiable consequence, and the claim of humanity.", "Within the claim of credibility, journalists are expected to provide the public with reliable and trustworthy information, and allowing the public to question the nature of the information and its acquisition.", "The second claim of justifiable consequences centers on weighing the benefits and detriments of a potentially harmful story and acting accordingly.", "An example of justifiable consequence is exposing a professional with dubious practices; on the other hand, acting within justifiable consequence means writing compassionately about a family in mourning.", "The third claim is the claim of humanity which states that journalists are writing for a global population and therefore must serve everyone globally in their work, avoiding smaller loyalties to country, city, etc." ], [ "Legal status", "imprisonment of their colleagues on Human Rights Day, 10 December 2016Number of journalists reported killed between 2002 and 2013Governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish.", "Some governments guarantee the freedom of the press; while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research or publish.Journalists in many nations have some privileges that members of the general public do not, including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye.Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether wars between nations or insurgencies within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection from the government.", "Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government.", "Many governments around the world target journalists for intimidation, harassment, and violence because of the nature of their work.===Right to protect confidentiality of sources===Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves confidentiality, an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a confidential informant private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding their sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail.In the United States, there is no right to protect sources in a federal court.", "However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal their sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case and there is no other way to get it.", "State courts provide varying degrees of such protection.", "Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed.", "On the journalistic side of keeping sources confidential, there is also a risk to the journalist's credibility because there can be no actual confirmation of whether the information is valid.", "As such it is highly discouraged for journalists to have confidential sources" ], [ "See also", "* Citizen journalism* Fourth Estate* Glossary of journalism* Investigative journalism* Hallin's spheres* History of American newspapers* History of journalism* Journalism school* Journalism ethics and standards* Journalism genres* Lists of journalists* List of journalism awards* Nonprofit journalism* Journalistic objectivity* Sensor journalism* Sports journalism===Reviews===* ''American Journalism Review''* ''Columbia Journalism Review''* ''Health News Review''* ''Ryerson Review of Journalism''===Academic journals===* ''Journalism Practice''* ''Journalism Studies''* ''Journalism''* ''Digital Journalism''" ], [ "References", "===Sources===" ], [ "Further reading", " de Beer Arnold S. and John C. Merrill, eds.", "''Global Journalism: Topical Issues and Media Systems'' (5th ed.", "2008)* Hanitzsch, Thomas et al.", "eds.", "''Worlds of Journalism: Journalistic Cultures around the Globe'' (2019) online review* Kaltenbrunner, Andy and Matthias Karmasin and Daniela Kraus, eds.", "\"The Journalism Report V: Innovation and Transition\", Facultas, 2017Marthoz, J.-P. (2016).", "Giving up on the graft and the grind: Why journalists are failing to cover difficult stories.", "''Index on Censorship'', 45(2), 22–27.", " Quick, Amanda C. ed.", "''World Press Encyclopedia: A Survey of Press Systems Worldwide'' (2nd ed.", "2 vol 2002); 2500 pp; highly detailed coverage of every country large and small.", "Rodgers, Ronald R.", "2018.", "''The Struggle for the Soul of Journalism : The Pulpit Versus the Press 1833-1923''.", "Columbia Missouri: University of Missouri Press.", "Rutherfurd, Livingston., ''John Peter Zenger; His Press, His Trial, and a Bibliography of Zenger Imprints.''", "Gloucester,Mass: Peter Smith, 1963.", "* Shoemaker, Pamela J. and Akiba A. Cohen, eds.", "''News Around the World: Content, Practitioners, and the Public'' (2nd ed.", "2005)* * Sterling, Christopher H.", "(ed.", "), ''Encyclopedia of journalism'', (6 vol, SAGE, 2009)." ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Calvin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Calvin''' (; ; ; 10 July 150927 May 1564) was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation.", "He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism, including its doctrines of predestination and of God's absolute sovereignty in the salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation.", "Calvinist doctrines were influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian and other Christian traditions.", "Various Congregational, Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world.Calvin was a tireless polemicist and apologetic writer who generated much controversy.", "He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger.", "In addition to his seminal ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'', Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, confessional documents, and various other theological treatises.Calvin was originally trained as a humanist lawyer.", "He broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530.After religious tensions erupted in widespread deadly violence against Protestant Christians in France, Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, where in 1536 he published the first edition of the ''Institutes''.", "In that same year, Calvin was recruited by Frenchman William Farel to join the Reformation in Geneva, where he regularly preached sermons throughout the week.", "However, the governing council of the city resisted the implementation of their ideas, and both men were expelled.", "At the invitation of Martin Bucer, Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees.", "He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and in 1541 he was invited back to lead the church of the city.Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite opposition from several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority.", "During this period, Michael Servetus, a Spaniard regarded by both Roman Catholics and Protestants as having a heretical view of the Trinity, arrived in Geneva.", "He was denounced by Calvin and burned at the stake for heresy by the city council.", "Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out.", "Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe." ], [ "Life", "===Early life (1509–1535)===Calvin was originally interested in the priesthood, but he changed course to study law in Orléans and Bourges.", "Painting titled ''Portrait of Young John Calvin'' from the collection of the Library of Geneva.John Calvin was born as Jehan Cauvin on 10 July 1509, at Noyon, a town in Picardy, a province of the Kingdom of France.", "He was the second of three sons who survived infancy.", "His mother, Jeanne le Franc, was the daughter of an innkeeper from Cambrai.", "She died of an unknown cause in Calvin's childhood, after having borne four more children.", "Calvin's father, Gérard Cauvin, had a prosperous career as the cathedral notary and registrar to the ecclesiastical court.", "Gérard intended his three sons—Charles, Jean, and Antoine—for the priesthood.Young Calvin was particularly precocious.", "By age 12, he was employed by the bishop as a clerk and received the tonsure, cutting his hair to symbolize his dedication to the Church.", "He also won the patronage of an influential family, the Montmors.", "Through their assistance, Calvin was able to attend the Collège de la Marche, Paris, where he learned Latin from one of its greatest teachers, Mathurin Cordier.", "Once he completed the course, he entered the Collège de Montaigu as a philosophy student.In 1525 or 1526, Gérard withdrew his son from the Collège de Montaigu and enrolled him in the University of Orléans to study law.", "According to contemporary biographers Theodore Beza and Nicolas Colladon, Gérard believed that Calvin would earn more money as a lawyer than as a priest.", "After a few years of quiet study, Calvin entered the University of Bourges in 1529.He was intrigued by Andreas Alciati, a humanist lawyer.", "Humanism was a European intellectual movement which stressed classical studies.", "During his 18-month stay in Bourges, Calvin learned Koine Greek, a necessity for studying the New Testament.Alternative theories have been suggested regarding the date of Calvin's religious conversion.", "Some have placed the date of his conversion around 1533, shortly before he resigned from his chaplaincy.", "In this view, his resignation is the direct evidence for his conversion to the evangelical faith.", "However, T. H. L. Parker argues that, although this date is a terminus for his conversion, the more likely date is in late 1529 or early 1530.The main evidence for his conversion is contained in two significantly different accounts of his conversion.", "In the first, found in his ''Commentary on the Book of Psalms'', Calvin portrayed his conversion as a sudden change of mind, brought about by God:God by a sudden conversion subdued and brought my mind to a teachable frame, which was more hardened in such matters than might have been expected from one at my early period of life.", "Having thus received some taste and knowledge of true godliness, I was immediately inflamed with so intense a desire to make progress therein, that although I did not altogether leave off other studies, yet I pursued them with less ardor.In the second account, Calvin wrote of a long process of inner turmoil, followed by spiritual and psychological anguish:Being exceedingly alarmed at the misery into which I had fallen, and much more at that which threatened me in view of eternal death, I, duty bound, made it my first business to betake myself to your way, condemning my past life, not without groans and tears.", "And now, O Lord, what remains to a wretch like me, but instead of defense, earnestly to supplicate you not to judge that fearful abandonment of your Word according to its deserts, from which in your wondrous goodness you have at last delivered me.Scholars have argued about the precise interpretation of these accounts, but most agree that his conversion corresponded with his break from the Roman Catholic Church.", "The Calvin biographer Bruce Gordon has stressed that \"the two accounts are not antithetical, revealing some inconsistency in Calvin's memory, but rather are two different ways of expressing the same reality.", "\"By 1532, Calvin received his licentiate in law and published his first book, a commentary on Seneca's ''De Clementia''.", "After uneventful trips to Orléans and his hometown of Noyon, Calvin returned to Paris in October 1533.During this time, tensions rose at the Collège Royal (later to become the Collège de France) between the humanists/reformers and the conservative senior faculty members.", "One of the reformers, Nicolas Cop, was rector of the university.", "On 1 November 1533 he devoted his inaugural address to the need for reform and renewal in the Roman Catholic Church.", "The address provoked a strong reaction from the faculty, who denounced it as heretical, forcing Cop to flee to Basel.", "Calvin, a close friend of Cop, was implicated in the offense, and for the next year he was forced into hiding.", "He remained on the move, sheltering with his friend Louis du Tillet in Angoulême and taking refuge in Noyon and Orléans.", "He was finally forced to flee France during the Affair of the Placards in mid-October 1534.In that incident, unknown reformers had posted placards in various cities criticizing the Roman Catholic mass, to which adherents of the Roman Catholic church responded with violence against the would-be Reformers and their sympathizers.", "In January 1535, Calvin joined Cop in Basel, a city under the enduring influence of the late reformer Johannes Oecolampadius.===Reform work commences (1536–1538)===William Farel was the reformer who persuaded Calvin to stay in Geneva.", "16th-century painting.", "In the Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire, Geneva.In March 1536, Calvin published the first edition of his ''Institutio Christianae Religionis'' or ''Institutes of the Christian Religion''.", "The work was an ''apologia'' or defense of his faith and a statement of the doctrinal position of the reformers.", "He also intended it to serve as an elementary instruction book for anyone interested in the Christian faith.", "The book was the first expression of his theology.", "Calvin updated the work and published new editions throughout his life.", "Shortly after its publication, he left Basel for Ferrara, Italy, where he briefly served as secretary to Princess Renée of France.", "By June he was back in Paris with his brother Antoine, who was resolving their father's affairs.", "Following the Edict of Coucy, which gave a limited six-month period for heretics to reconcile with the Catholic faith, Calvin decided that there was no future for him in France.", "In August he set off for Strasbourg, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire and a refuge for reformers.", "Due to military maneuvers of imperial and French forces, he was forced to make a detour to the south, bringing him to Geneva.", "Calvin had intended to stay only a single night, but William Farel, a fellow French reformer residing in the city, implored him to stay and assist him in his work of reforming the church there.", "Calvin accepted his new role without any preconditions on his tasks or duties.", "The office to which he was initially assigned is unknown.", "He was eventually given the title of \"reader\", which most likely meant that he could give expository lectures on the Bible.", "Sometime in 1537 he was selected to be a \"pastor\" although he never received any pastoral consecration.", "For the first time, the lawyer-theologian took up pastoral duties such as baptisms, weddings, and church services.During late 1536, Farel drafted a confession of faith, and Calvin wrote separate articles on reorganizing the church in Geneva.", "On 16 January 1537, Farel and Calvin presented their ''Articles concernant l'organisation de l'église et du culte à Genève'' (Articles on the Organization of the Church and its Worship at Geneva) to the city council.", "The document described the manner and frequency of their celebrations of the Eucharist, the reason for, and the method of, excommunication, the requirement to subscribe to the confession of faith, the use of congregational singing in the liturgy, and the revision of marriage laws.", "The council accepted the document on the same day.As the year progressed, Calvin and Farel's reputation with the council began to suffer.", "The council was reluctant to enforce the subscription requirement, as only a few citizens had subscribed to their confession of faith.", "On 26 November, the two ministers hotly debated the council over the issue.", "Furthermore, France was taking an interest in forming an alliance with Geneva and as the two ministers were Frenchmen, councilors had begun to question their loyalty.", "Finally, a major ecclesiastical-political quarrel developed when the city of Bern, Geneva's ally in the reformation of the Swiss churches, proposed to introduce uniformity in the church ceremonies.", "One proposal required the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist.", "The two ministers were unwilling to follow Bern's lead and delayed the use of such bread until a synod in Zurich could be convened to make the final decision.", "The council ordered Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for the Easter Eucharist.", "In protest, they refused to administer communion during the Easter service.", "This caused a riot during the service.", "The next day, the council told Farel and Calvin to leave Geneva.Farel and Calvin then went to Bern and Zurich to plead their case.", "The resulting synod in Zurich placed most of the blame on Calvin for not being sympathetic enough toward the people of Geneva.", "It asked Bern to mediate with the aim of restoring the two ministers.", "The Geneva council refused to readmit the two men, who then took refuge in Basel.", "Subsequently, Farel received an invitation to lead the church in Neuchâtel.", "Calvin was invited to lead a church of French refugees in Strasbourg by that city's leading reformers, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito.", "Initially, Calvin refused because Farel was not included in the invitation, but relented when Bucer appealed to him.", "By September 1538 Calvin had taken up his new position in Strasbourg, fully expecting that this time it would be permanent; a few months later, he applied for and was granted citizenship of the city.===Minister in Strasbourg (1538–1541)===During his time in Strasbourg, Calvin was not attached to one particular church, but held his office successively in the Saint-Nicolas Church, the Sainte-Madeleine Church and the former Dominican Church, renamed the Temple Neuf.", "(All of these churches still exist, but none are in the architectural state of Calvin's days.)", "Calvin ministered to 400–500 members in his church.", "He preached or lectured every day, with two sermons on Sunday.", "Communion was celebrated monthly and congregational singing of the psalms was encouraged.", "He also worked on the second edition of the ''Institutes''.", "Calvin was dissatisfied with its original structure as a catechism, a primer for young Christians.For the second edition, published in 1539, Calvin changed its format in favor of systematically presenting the main doctrines from the Bible.", "In the process, the book was enlarged from six chapters to seventeen.", "He concurrently worked on another book, the ''Commentary on Romans'', which was published in March 1540.The book was a model for his later commentaries: it included his own Latin translation from the Greek rather than the Latin Vulgate, an exegesis, and an exposition.", "In the dedicatory letter, Calvin praised the work of his predecessors Philipp Melanchthon, Heinrich Bullinger, and Martin Bucer, but he also took care to distinguish his own work from theirs and to criticize some of their shortcomings.Calvin's friends urged him to marry.", "Calvin took a prosaic view, writing to one correspondent:I, who have the air of being so hostile to celibacy, I am still not married and do not know whether I will ever be.", "If I take a wife it will be because, being better freed from numerous worries, I can devote myself to the Lord.Several candidates were presented to him including one young woman from a noble family.", "Reluctantly, Calvin agreed to the marriage, on the condition that she would learn French.", "Although a wedding date was planned for March 1540, he remained reluctant and the wedding never took place.", "He later wrote that he would never think of marrying her, \"unless the Lord had entirely bereft me of my wits\".", "Instead, in August of that year, he married Idelette de Bure, a widow who had two children from her first marriage.Geneva reconsidered its expulsion of Calvin.", "Church attendance had dwindled and the political climate had changed; as Bern and Geneva quarreled over land, their alliance frayed.", "When Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the city council inviting Geneva to return to the Catholic faith, the council searched for an ecclesiastical authority to respond to him.", "At first Pierre Viret was consulted, but when he refused, the council asked Calvin.", "He agreed and his ''Responsio ad Sadoletum'' (Letter to Sadoleto) strongly defended Geneva's position concerning reforms in the church.", "On 21 September 1540 the council commissioned one of its members, Ami Perrin, to find a way to recall Calvin.", "An embassy reached Calvin while he was at a colloquy, a conference to settle religious disputes, in Worms.", "His reaction to the suggestion was one of horror in which he wrote, \"Rather would I submit to death a hundred times than to that cross on which I had to perish daily a thousand times over.", "\"Calvin also wrote that he was prepared to follow the Lord's calling.", "A plan was drawn up in which Viret would be appointed to take temporary charge in Geneva for six months while Bucer and Calvin would visit the city to determine the next steps.", "The city council pressed for the immediate appointment of Calvin in Geneva.", "By mid-1541, Strasbourg decided to lend Calvin to Geneva for six months.", "Calvin returned on 13 September 1541 with an official escort and a wagon for his family.===Reform in Geneva (1541–1549)===In supporting Calvin's proposals for reforms, the council of Geneva passed the ''Ordonnances ecclésiastiques'' (Ecclesiastical Ordinances) on 20 November 1541.The ordinances defined four orders of ministerial function: pastors to preach and to administer the sacraments; doctors to instruct believers in the faith; elders to provide discipline; and deacons to care for the poor and needy.", "They also called for the creation of the ''Consistoire'' (Consistory), an ecclesiastical court composed of the elders and the ministers.", "The city government retained the power to summon persons before the court, and the Consistory could judge only ecclesiastical matters having no civil jurisdiction.", "Originally, the court had the power to mete out sentences, with excommunication as its most severe penalty.", "The government contested this power and on 19 March 1543 the council decided that all sentencing would be carried out by the government.Calvin preached at 266x266pxIn 1542, Calvin adapted a service book used in Strasbourg, publishing ''La Forme des Prières et Chants Ecclésiastiques'' (The Form of Prayers and Church Hymns).", "Calvin recognized the power of music and he intended that it be used to support scripture readings.", "The original Strasbourg psalter contained twelve psalms by Clément Marot and Calvin added several more hymns of his own composition in the Geneva version.", "At the end of 1542, Marot became a refugee in Geneva and contributed nineteen more psalms.", "Louis Bourgeois, also a refugee, lived and taught music in Geneva for sixteen years and Calvin took the opportunity to add his hymns, the most famous being the Old Hundredth.In the same year of 1542, Calvin published ''Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Genève'' (Catechism of the Church of Geneva), which was inspired by Bucer's ''Kurze Schrifftliche Erklärung'' of 1534.Calvin had written an earlier catechism during his first stay in Geneva which was largely based on Martin Luther's Large Catechism.", "The first version was arranged pedagogically, describing Law, Faith, and Prayer.", "The 1542 version was rearranged for theological reasons, covering Faith first, then Law and Prayer.Historians debate the extent to which Geneva was a theocracy.", "On the one hand, Calvin's theology clearly called for separation between church and state.", "Other historians have stressed the enormous political power wielded on a daily basis by the clerics.Idelette and Calvin had no children survive infancy.During his ministry in Geneva, Calvin preached over two thousand sermons.", "Initially he preached twice on Sunday and three times during the week.", "This proved to be too heavy a burden and late in 1542 the council allowed him to preach only once on Sunday.", "In October 1549, he was again required to preach twice on Sundays and, in addition, every weekday of alternate weeks.", "His sermons lasted more than an hour and he did not use notes.", "An occasional secretary tried to record his sermons, but very little of his preaching was preserved before 1549.In that year, professional scribe Denis Raguenier, who had learned or developed a system of shorthand, was assigned to record all of Calvin's sermons.", "An analysis of his sermons by T. H. L. Parker suggests that Calvin was a consistent preacher and his style changed very little over the years.", "John Calvin was also known for his thorough manner of working his way through the Bible in consecutive sermons.", "From March 1555 to July 1556, Calvin delivered two hundred sermons on Deuteronomy.Voltaire wrote about Calvin, Luther and Zwingli, \"If they condemned celibacy in the priests, and opened the gates of the convents, it was only to turn all society into a convent.", "Shows and entertainments were expressly forbidden by their religion; and for more than two hundred years there was not a single musical instrument allowed in the city of Geneva.", "They condemned auricular confession, but they enjoined a public one; and in Switzerland, Scotland, and Geneva it was performed the same as penance.", "\"Very little is known about Calvin's personal life in Geneva.", "His house and furniture were owned by the council.", "The house was big enough to accommodate his family as well as Antoine's family and some servants.", "On 28 July 1542, Idelette gave birth to a son, Jacques, but he was born prematurely and survived only briefly.", "Idelette fell ill in 1545 and died on 29 March 1549.Calvin never married again.", "He expressed his sorrow in a letter to Viret:I have been bereaved of the best friend of my life, of one who, if it has been so ordained, would willingly have shared not only my poverty but also my death.", "During her life she was the faithful helper of my ministry.", "From her I never experienced the slightest hindrance.Throughout the rest of his life in Geneva, he maintained several friendships from his early years including Montmor, Cordier, Cop, Farel, Melanchthon and Bullinger.===Discipline and opposition (1546–1553)===Sixteenth-century portrait of John Calvin by an unknown artist.", "From the collection of the Bibliothèque de Genève (Library of Geneva)Calvin encountered bitter opposition to his work in Geneva.", "Around 1546, the uncoordinated forces coalesced into an identifiable group whom he referred to as the libertines, but who preferred to be called either Spirituels or Patriots.", "According to Calvin, these were people who felt that after being liberated through grace, they were exempted from both ecclesiastical and civil law.", "The group consisted of wealthy, politically powerful, and interrelated families of Geneva.", "At the end of January 1546, Pierre Ameaux, a maker of playing cards who had already been in conflict with the Consistory, attacked Calvin by calling him a \"Picard\", an epithet denoting anti-French sentiment, and accused him of false doctrine.", "Ameaux was punished by the council and forced to make expiation by parading through the city and begging God for forgiveness.", "A few months later Ami Perrin, the man who had brought Calvin to Geneva, moved into open opposition.", "Perrin had married Françoise Favre, daughter of François Favre, a well-established Genevan merchant.", "Both Perrin's wife and father-in-law had previous conflicts with the Consistory.", "The court noted that many of Geneva's notables, including Perrin, had breached a law against dancing.", "Initially, Perrin ignored the court when he was summoned, but after receiving a letter from Calvin, he appeared before the Consistory.By 1547, opposition to Calvin and other French refugee ministers had grown to constitute the majority of the syndics, the civil magistrates of Geneva.", "On 27 June an unsigned threatening letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit of St. Pierre Cathedral where Calvin preached.", "Suspecting a plot against both the church and the state, the council appointed a commission to investigate.", "Jacques Gruet, a Genevan member of Favre's group, was arrested and incriminating evidence was found when his house was searched.", "Under torture, he confessed to several crimes including writing the letter left in the pulpit which threatened the church leaders.", "A civil court condemned Gruet to death and he was beheaded on 26 July.", "Calvin was not opposed to the civil court's decision.The libertines continued organizing opposition, insulting the appointed ministers, and challenging the authority of the Consistory.", "The council straddled both sides of the conflict, alternately admonishing and upholding Calvin.", "When Perrin was elected first syndic in February 1552, Calvin's authority appeared to be at its lowest point.", "After some losses before the council, Calvin believed he was defeated; on 24 July 1553 he asked the council to allow him to resign.", "Although the libertines controlled the council, his request was refused.", "The opposition realized that they could curb Calvin's authority, but they did not have enough power to banish him.===Michael Servetus (1553)===280x280pxThe turning point in Calvin's fortunes occurred when Michael Servetus, a brilliant Spanish polymath who introduced the Islamic idea of pulmonary circulation to Europe, and a fugitive from ecclesiastical authorities, appeared in Geneva on 13 August 1553.Servetus was a fugitive on the run after he published ''The Restoration of Christianity'' (1553), Calvin scholar Bruce Gordon commented \"Among its offenses were a denial of original sin and a bizarre and hardly comprehensible view of the Trinity.", "\"Decades earlier, in July 1530 he disputed with Johannes Oecolampadius in Basel and was eventually expelled.", "He went to Strasbourg, where he published a pamphlet against the Trinity.", "Bucer publicly refuted it and asked Servetus to leave.", "After returning to Basel, Servetus published ''Two Books of Dialogues on the Trinity'' () which caused a sensation among Reformers and Catholics alike.", "When John Calvin alerted the Inquisition in Spain about this publication, an order was issued for Servetus's arrest.Calvin and Servetus were first brought into contact in 1546 through a common acquaintance, Jean Frellon of Lyon; they exchanged letters debating doctrine; Calvin used a pseudonym as ''Charles d' Espeville'' and Servetus used the moniker ''Michel de Villeneuve.''", "Eventually, Calvin lost patience and refused to respond; by this time Servetus had written around thirty letters to Calvin.", "Calvin was particularly outraged when Servetus sent him a copy of the ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' heavily annotated with arguments pointing to errors in the book.", "When Servetus mentioned that he would come to Geneva, \"Espeville\" (Calvin) wrote a letter to Farel on 13 February 1546 noting that if Servetus were to come, he would not assure him safe conduct: \"for if he came, as far as my authority goes, I would not let him leave alive.", "\"In 1553 Servetus published ''Christianismi Restitutio'' (English: The Restoration of Christianity), in which he rejected the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the concept of predestination.", "In the same year, Calvin's representative, Guillaume de Trie, sent letters alerting the French Inquisition to Servetus.", "Calling him a \"Spanish-Portuguese\", suspecting and accusing him of his recently proved Jewish converso origin.", "De Trie wrote down that \"his proper name is Michael Servetus, but he currently calls himself Villeneuve, practicing medicine.", "He stayed for some time in Lyon, and now he is living in Vienne.\"", "When the inquisitor-general of France learned that Servetus was hiding in Vienne, according to Calvin under an assumed name, he contacted Cardinal François de Tournon, the secretary of the archbishop of Lyon, to take up the matter.", "Servetus was arrested and taken in for questioning.", "His letters to Calvin were presented as evidence of heresy, but he denied having written them, and later said he was not sure it was his handwriting.", "He said, after swearing before the holy gospel, that \"he was Michel De Villeneuve Doctor in Medicine about 42 years old, native of Tudela of the kingdom of Navarre, a city under the obedience to the Emperor\".", "The following day he said: \"..although he was not Servetus he assumed the person of Servet for debating with Calvin\".", "He managed to escape from prison, and the Catholic authorities sentenced him ''in absentia'' to death by slow burning.On his way to Italy, Servetus stopped in Geneva to visit \"''d'Espeville''\", where he was recognized and arrested.", "Calvin's secretary, Nicholas de la Fontaine, composed a list of accusations that was submitted before the court.", "The prosecutor was Philibert Berthelier, a member of a libertine family and son of a famous Geneva patriot, and the sessions were led by Pierre Tissot, Perrin's brother-in-law.", "The libertines allowed the trial to drag on in an attempt to harass Calvin.", "The difficulty in using Servetus as a weapon against Calvin was that the heretical reputation of Servetus was widespread and most of the cities in Europe were observing and awaiting the outcome of the trial.", "This posed a dilemma for the libertines, so on 21 August the council decided to write to other Swiss cities for their opinions, thus mitigating their own responsibility for the final decision.", "While waiting for the responses, the council also asked Servetus if he preferred to be judged in Vienne or in Geneva.", "He begged to stay in Geneva.", "On 20 October the replies from Zurich, Basel, Bern, and Schaffhausen were read and the council condemned Servetus as a heretic.", "The following day he was sentenced to burning at the stake, the same sentence as in Vienne.", "Some scholars claim that Calvin and other ministers asked that he be beheaded instead of burnt, knowing that burning at the stake was the only legal recourse.", "This plea was refused and on 27 October, Servetus was burnt alive at the Plateau of Champel at the edge of Geneva.===Securing the Protestant Reformation (1553–1555)===After the death of Servetus, Calvin was acclaimed a defender of Christianity, but his ultimate triumph over the libertines was still two years away.", "He had always insisted that the Consistory retain the power of excommunication, despite the council's past decision to take it away.", "During Servetus's trial, Philibert Berthelier asked the council for permission to take communion, as he had been excommunicated the previous year for insulting a minister.", "Calvin protested that the council did not have the legal authority to overturn Berthelier's excommunication.", "Unsure of how the council would rule, he hinted in a sermon on 3 September 1553 that he might be dismissed by the authorities.", "The council decided to re-examine the ''Ordonnances'' and on 18 September it voted in support of Calvin—excommunication was within the jurisdiction of the Consistory.", "Berthelier applied for reinstatement to another Genevan administrative assembly, the ''Deux Cents'' (Two Hundred), in November.", "This body reversed the council's decision and stated that the final arbiter concerning excommunication should be the council.", "The ministers continued to protest, and as in the case of Servetus, the opinions of the Swiss churches were sought.", "The affair dragged on through 1554.Finally, on 22 January 1555, the council announced the decision of the Swiss churches: the original ''Ordonnances'' were to be kept and the Consistory was to regain its official powers.The libertines' downfall began with the February 1555 elections.", "By then, many of the French refugees had been granted citizenship and with their support, Calvin's partisans elected the majority of the syndics and the councilors.", "On 16 May the libertines took to the streets in a drunken protest and attempted to burn down a house that was supposedly full of Frenchmen.", "The syndic Henri Aulbert tried to intervene, carrying with him the baton of office that symbolized his power.", "Perrin seized the baton and waved it over the crowd, which gave the appearance that he was taking power and initiating a ''coup d'état''.", "The insurrection was soon over when another syndic appeared and ordered Perrin to go with him to the town hall.", "Perrin and other leaders were forced to flee the city.", "With the approval of Calvin, the other plotters who remained in the city were found and executed.", "The opposition to Calvin's church polity came to an end.===Final years (1555–1564)===John Calvin at 53 years old in an engraving by René Boyvin.Calvin's authority was practically uncontested during his final years, and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther.", "Initially, Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other.", "A doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zurich reformer Huldrych Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist.", "Calvin's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli's camp.", "Calvin actively participated in the polemics that were exchanged between the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation movement.", "At the same time, Calvin was dismayed by the lack of unity among the reformers.", "He took steps toward rapprochement with Bullinger by signing the ''Consensus Tigurinus'', a concordat between the Zurich and Geneva churches.", "He reached out to England when Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer called for an ecumenical synod of all the evangelical churches.", "Calvin praised the idea, but ultimately Cranmer was unable to bring it to fruition.Calvin sheltered Marian exiles (those who fled the reign of Catholic Mary Tudor in England) in Geneva starting in 1555.Under the city's protection, they were able to form their own reformed church under John Knox and William Whittingham and eventually carried Calvin's ideas on doctrine and polity back to England and Scotland.The Collège Calvin is now a college preparatory school for the Swiss ''Maturité''.\|272x272pxWithin Geneva, Calvin's main concern was the creation of a ''collège'', an institute for the education of children.", "A site for the school was selected on 25 March 1558 and it opened the following year on 5 June 1559.Although the school was a single institution, it was divided into two parts: a grammar school called the ''collège'' or ''schola privata'' and an advanced school called the ''académie'' or ''schola publica''.", "Calvin tried to recruit two professors for the institute, Mathurin Cordier, his old friend and Latin scholar who was now based in Lausanne, and Emmanuel Tremellius, the former Regius professor of Hebrew in Cambridge.", "Neither was available, but he succeeded in obtaining Theodore Beza as rector.", "Within five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school.", "The ''collège'' eventually became the Collège Calvin, one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva; the ''académie'' became the University of Geneva.====Impact on France====Calvin was deeply committed to reforming his homeland, France.", "The Protestant movement had been energetic, but lacked central organizational direction.", "With financial support from the church in Geneva, Calvin turned his enormous energies toward uplifting the French Protestant cause.", "As one historian explains:He supplied the dogma, the liturgy, and the moral ideas of the new religion, and he also created ecclesiastical, political, and social institutions in harmony with it.", "A born leader, he followed up his work with personal appeals.", "His vast correspondence with French Protestants shows not only much zeal but infinite pains and considerable tact and driving home the lessons of his printed treatises.", "Between 1555 and 1562, more than 100 ministers were sent to France.", "Nevertheless French King Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand and when the French authorities complained about the missionary activities, the city fathers of Geneva disclaimed official responsibility.===Last illness===The last moments of Calvin (Barcelona: Montaner y Simón, 1880–1883)Cimetière de Plainpalais in Geneva; the exact location of his grave is unknown.In late 1558, Calvin became ill with a fever.", "Since he was afraid that he might die before completing the final revision of the ''Institutes'', he forced himself to work.", "The final edition was greatly expanded to the extent that Calvin referred to it as a new work.", "The expansion from the 21 chapters of the previous edition to 80 was due to the extended treatment of existing material rather than the addition of new topics.", "Shortly after he recovered, he strained his voice while preaching, which brought on a violent fit of coughing.", "He burst a blood-vessel in his lungs, and his health steadily declined.", "He preached his final sermon in St. Pierre on 6 February 1564.On 25 April, he made his will, in which he left small sums to his family and to the ''collège''.", "A few days later, the ministers of the church came to visit him, and he bade his final farewell, which was recorded in ''Discours d'adieu aux ministres''.", "He recounted his life in Geneva, sometimes recalling bitterly some of the hardships he had suffered.", "Calvin died on 27 May 1564 aged 54.At first his body lay in state, but since so many people came to see it, the reformers were afraid that they would be accused of fostering a new saint's cult.", "On the following day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cimetière des Rois.", "The exact location of the grave is unknown; a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave traditionally thought to be Calvin's." ], [ "Theology", "Calvin developed his theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treatises, but the most comprehensive expression of his views is found in his magnum opus, the ''Institutes of the Christian Religion''.", "He intended that the book be used as a summary of his views on Christian theology and that it be read in conjunction with his commentaries.", "The various editions of that work spanned nearly his entire career as a reformer, and the successive revisions of the book show that his theology changed very little from his youth to his death.", "The first edition from 1536 consisted of only six chapters.", "The second edition, published in 1539, was three times as long because he added chapters on subjects that appear in Melanchthon's ''Loci Communes''.", "In 1543, he again added new material and expanded a chapter on the Apostles' Creed.", "The final edition of the ''Institutes'' appeared in 1559.By then, the work consisted of four books of eighty chapters, and each book was named after statements from the creed: Book 1 on God the Creator, Book 2 on the Redeemer in Christ, Book 3 on receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit, and Book 4 on the Society of Christ or the Church.Title page from the final edition of Calvin's ''magnum opus'', ''Institutio Christiane Religionis'', which summarises his theology.The first statement in the ''Institutes'' acknowledges its central theme.", "It states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts: the knowledge of God and of ourselves.", "Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world.", "The only way to obtain it is to study scripture.", "Calvin writes, \"For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher.\"", "He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it as ''autopiston'' or self-authenticating.", "He defends the trinitarian view of God and, in a strong polemical stand against the Catholic Church, argues that images of God lead to idolatry.", "John Calvin famously said \"the human heart is a perpetual idol factory\".", "At the end of the first book, he offers his views on providence, writing, \"By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his Providence rules its individual Parts.\"", "Humans are unable to fully comprehend why God performs any particular action, but whatever good or evil people may practice, their efforts always result in the execution of God's will and judgments.The second book includes several essays on original sin and the fall of man, which directly refer to Augustine, who developed these doctrines.", "He often cited the Church Fathers to defend the reformed cause against the charge that the reformers were creating new theology.", "In Calvin's view, sin began with the fall of Adam and propagated to all of humanity.", "The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are driven to evil.", "Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can be found in Christ.", "But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine, he described the special situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the Old Testament.", "God made a covenant with Abraham, promising the coming of Christ.", "Hence, the Old Covenant was not in opposition to Christ, but was rather a continuation of God's promise.", "Calvin then describes the New Covenant using the passage from the Apostles' Creed that describes Christ's suffering under Pontius Pilate and his return to judge the living and the dead.", "For Calvin, the whole course of Christ's obedience to the Father removed the discord between humanity and God.In the third book, Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and humanity is achieved.", "He first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ.", "The immediate effects of faith are repentance and the remission of sin.", "This is followed by spiritual regeneration, which returns the believer to the state of holiness before Adam's transgression.", "Complete perfection is unattainable in this life, and the believer should expect a continual struggle against sin.", "Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of justification by faith alone.", "He defined justification as \"the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace.\"", "In this definition, it is clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that people play no role; God is completely sovereign in salvation.", "Near the end of the book, Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of predestination, a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of Pelagius.", "Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther, though Calvin's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that went before him.", "The principle, in Calvin's words, is that \"All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death.\"", "Calvin believed that God's absolute decree was double predestination, but he also confessed that this was a ''horrible decree'': \"The decree is dreadful indeed, I confess.", "(latin.", "''\"Decretum quidem horribile, fateor.", "''\"; French.", "\"''Je confesse que ce decret nous doit epouvanter.", "''\")The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its ministry, authority, and sacraments.", "He denied the papal claim to primacy and the accusation that the reformers were schismatic.", "For Calvin, the Church was defined as the body of believers who placed Christ at its head.", "By definition, there was only one \"catholic\" or \"universal\" Church.", "Hence, he argued that the reformers \"had to leave them in order that we might come to Christ.\"", "The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from Ephesians, and they consisted of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and doctors.", "Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary, limited in their existence to the time of the New Testament.", "The latter two offices were established in the church in Geneva.", "Although Calvin respected the work of the ecumenical councils, he considered them to be subject to God's Word found in scripture.", "He also believed that the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with each other.Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God.", "He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant: baptism and the Lord's Supper (in opposition to the Catholic acceptance of seven sacraments).", "He completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice.", "He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of sacramental union in which Christ was \"in, with and under\" the elements.", "His own view was close to Zwingli's symbolic view, but it was not identical.", "Rather than holding a purely symbolic view, Calvin noted that with the participation of the Holy Spirit, faith was nourished and strengthened by the sacrament.", "In his words, the eucharistic rite was \"a secret too sublime for my mind to understand or words to express.", "I experience it rather than understand it.", "\"===Controversies===Joachim Westphal disagreed with Calvin's theology on the eucharist.Calvin's theology caused controversy.", "Pierre Caroli, a Protestant minister in Lausanne, accused Calvin, as well as Viret and Farel, of Arianism in 1536.Calvin defended his beliefs on the Trinity in ''Confessio de Trinitate propter calumnias P. Caroli''.", "In 1551 Jérôme-Hermès Bolsec, a physician in Geneva, attacked Calvin's doctrine of predestination and accused him of making God the author of sin.", "Bolsec was banished from the city, and after Calvin's death, wrote a biography which severely maligned Calvin's character.", "In the following year, Joachim Westphal, a Gnesio-Lutheran pastor in Hamburg, condemned Calvin and Zwingli as heretics in denying the eucharistic doctrine of the union of Christ's body with the elements.", "Calvin's ''Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis'' (A Defense of the Sober and Orthodox Doctrine of the Sacrament) was his response in 1555.In 1556 Justus Velsius, a Dutch dissident, held a public disputation with Calvin during his visit to Frankfurt, in which Velsius defended free will against Calvin's doctrine of predestination.", "Following the execution of Servetus, a close associate of Calvin, Sebastian Castellio, broke with him on the issue of the treatment of heretics.", "In Castellio's ''Treatise on Heretics'' (1554), he argued for a focus on Christ's moral teachings in place of the vanity of theology, and he afterward developed a theory of tolerance based on biblical principles.===Calvin and the Jews===Scholars have debated Calvin's view of the Jews and Judaism.", "Some have argued that Calvin was the least antisemitic among all the major reformers of his time, especially in comparison to Martin Luther.", "Others have argued that Calvin was firmly within the antisemitic camp.", "Scholars agree that it is important to distinguish between Calvin's views toward the biblical Jews and his attitude toward contemporary Jews.", "In his theology, Calvin does not differentiate between God's covenant with Israel and the New Covenant.", "He stated, \"all the children of the promise, reborn of God, who have obeyed the commands by faith working through love, have belonged to the New Covenant since the world began.\"", "Nevertheless, he was a covenant theologian and argued that the Jews are a rejected people who must embrace Jesus to re-enter the covenant.Most of Calvin's statements on the Jewry of his era were polemical.", "For example, Calvin once wrote, \"I have had much conversation with many Jews: I have never seen either a drop of piety or a grain of truth or ingenuousness—nay, I have never found common sense in any Jew.\"", "In this respect, he differed little from other Protestant and Catholic theologians of his day.", "Among his extant writings, Calvin dealt explicitly with issues of contemporary Jews and Judaism in only one treatise, ''Response to Questions and Objections of a Certain Jew''.", "In it, he argued that Jews misread their own scriptures because they miss the unity of the Old and New Testaments." ], [ "Political thought", "The aim of Calvin's political theory was to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary people.", "Although he was convinced that the Bible contained no blueprint for a certain form of government, Calvin favored a combination of democracy and aristocracy (mixed government).", "He appreciated the advantages of democracy.", "To further minimize the misuse of political power, Calvin proposed to divide it among several political institutions like the aristocracy, lower estates, or magistrates in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers).", "Finally, Calvin taught that if rulers rise up against God they lose their divine right and must be deposed.", "State and church are separate, though they have to cooperate to the benefit of the people.", "Christian magistrates have to make sure that the church can fulfill its duties in freedom.", "In extreme cases, the magistrates have to expel or execute dangerous heretics, but nobody can be forced to become a Protestant.Calvin thought that agriculture and the traditional crafts were normal human activities.", "With regard to trade and the financial world, he was more liberal than Luther, but both were strictly opposed to usury.", "Calvin allowed the charging of modest interest rates on loans.", "Like the other Reformers, Calvin understood work as a means through which the believers expressed their gratitude to God for their redemption in Christ and as a service to their neighbors.", "Everybody was obliged to work; loafing and begging were rejected.", "The idea that economic success was a visible sign of God's grace played only a minor role in Calvin's thinking.", "It became more important in later, partly secularized forms of Calvinism and became the starting-point of Max Weber's theory about the rise of capitalism." ], [ "Libellous attacks by Catholics", "Writing a biography of Calvin in 1577, Jerome Bolsec claimed that Calvin had committed sodomy while in Noyon in 1527 (age 18), and that he only at the last minute escaped the standard punishment of being burnt at the stake, instead receiving the very lenient alternative of being branded with a fleur-de-lis on the shoulder.", "This is today viewed as libellous slander by Bolsec, a former associate who had fallen out with Calvin and returned to Catholicism, and who accused him posthumously and rhetorically of many \"un-Christian\" types of sexual behaviour.", "Bolsec is known to have conflated events from the lives of at least two men from Noyon named Jean Cauvin, adding to that rumours and fiction, and Irena Backus explains his libellous accusations as a reaction to an over-apologetic article by Beza, who had exaggeratedly praised the reformer's moral qualities." ], [ "Selected works", "Calvin's first published work was a commentary of Seneca the Younger's ''De Clementia''.", "Published at his own expense in 1532, it showed that he was a humanist in the tradition of Erasmus with a thorough understanding of classical scholarship.", "His first theological work, the ''Psychopannychia'', attempted to refute the doctrine of soul sleep as promulgated by the Anabaptists.", "Calvin probably wrote it during the period following Cop's speech, but it was not published until 1542 in Strasbourg.Calvin wrote many letters to religious and political leaders throughout Europe, including this one sent to 320x320pxCalvin produced commentaries on most of the books of the Bible.", "His first commentary on Romans was published in 1540, and he planned to write commentaries on the entire New Testament.", "Six years passed before he wrote his second, a commentary on First Epistle to the Corinthians, but after that he devoted more attention to reaching his goal.", "Within four years he had published commentaries on all the Pauline epistles, and he also revised the commentary on Romans.", "He then turned his attention to the general epistles, dedicating them to Edward VI of England.", "By 1555 he had completed his work on the New Testament, finishing with the Acts and the Gospels (he omitted only the brief second and third Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation).", "For the Old Testament, he wrote commentaries on Isaiah, the books of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and Joshua.", "The material for the commentaries often originated from lectures to students and ministers that he reworked for publication.", "From 1557 onwards, he could not find the time to continue this method, and he gave permission for his lectures to be published from stenographers' notes.", "These ''Praelectiones'' covered the minor prophets, Daniel, Jeremiah, Lamentations, and part of Ezekiel.Portrait of Calvin by thumbCalvin (left) and Huldrych Zwingli on a Swiss 20 franc coin commemorating the 500th anniversary of the Reformation.Calvin also wrote many letters and treatises.", "Following the ''Responsio ad Sadoletum'', Calvin wrote an open letter at the request of Bucer to Charles V in 1543, ''Supplex exhortatio ad Caesarem'', defending the reformed faith.", "This was followed by an open letter to the pope (''Admonitio paterna Pauli III'') in 1544, in which Calvin admonished Paul III for depriving the reformers of any prospect of rapprochement.", "The pope proceeded to open the Council of Trent, which resulted in decrees against the reformers.", "Calvin refuted the decrees by producing the ''Acta synodi Tridentinae cum Antidoto (The synod of Trent with Antidote)'' in 1547.When Charles tried to find a compromise solution with the Augsburg Interim, Bucer and Bullinger urged Calvin to respond.", "He wrote the treatise, ''Vera Christianae pacificationis et Ecclesiae reformandae ratio (The true system of Christian pacification and the reformation of the Church)'' in 1549, in which he described the doctrines that should be upheld, including justification by faith.Calvin provided many of the foundational documents for reformed churches, including documents on the catechism, the liturgy, and church governance.", "He also produced several confessions of faith to unite the churches.", "In 1559, he drafted the French confession of faith, the Gallic Confession, and the synod in Paris accepted it with few changes.", "The Belgic Confession of 1561, a Dutch confession of faith, was partly based on the Gallic Confession." ], [ "Legacy", "After the deaths of Calvin and his successor, Beza, the Geneva city council gradually gained control over areas of life that were previously in the ecclesiastical domain.", "Increasing secularization was accompanied by the decline of the church.", "Even the Geneva ''académie'' was eclipsed by universities in Leiden and Heidelberg, which became the new strongholds of Calvin's ideas, first identified as \"Calvinism\" by Joachim Westphal in 1552.By 1585, Geneva, once the wellspring of the reform movement, had become merely its symbol.", "Calvin had always warned against describing him as an \"idol\" and Geneva as a new \"Jerusalem\".", "He encouraged people to adapt to the environments in which they found themselves.", "Even during his polemical exchange with Westphal, he advised a group of French-speaking refugees, who had settled in Wesel, Germany, to integrate with the local Lutheran churches.", "Despite his differences with the Lutherans, he did not deny that they were members of the true Church.", "Calvin's recognition of the need to adapt to local conditions became an important characteristic of the reformation movement as it spread across Europe.Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his program of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands.", "Calvinism was adopted in the Electorate of the Palatinate under Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563.This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571.Several leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, and Jan Laski) and Scotland (John Knox).", "During the English Civil War, the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world.As the Ottoman Empire did not force Muslim conversion on its conquered western territories, reformed ideas were quickly adopted in the two-thirds of Hungary they occupied (the Habsburg-ruled third part of Hungary remained Catholic).", "A Reformed Constitutional Synod was held in 1567 in Debrecen, the main hub of Hungarian Calvinism, where the Second Helvetic Confession was adopted as the official confession of Hungarian Calvinists.Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and Korea.Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character.Calvin is recognized as a Renewer of the Church in Lutheran churches commemorated on 26 May.", "Calvin is also remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 26 May." ], [ "See also", "* Brevitas et facilitas* Corpus Reformatorum* Criticism of Protestantism* Franciscus Junius (the elder)* Genevan psalter* History of Protestantism* Immanuel Tremellius* John Calvin's views on Mary* Otto Zeinenger* Swiss Reformation* Theodore Beza* Wilhelm Heinrich Neuser" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* (originally published 1965).", "* * .", "* * .", "* .", "* * * * .", "* * * * * * * .", "* .", "* .", "* * * * * * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "" ], [ "Further reading", " * .", "* .", "* .", "* * * * * Tamburello, Dennis E. (2007), ''Union with Christ: John Calvin and the Mysticism of St. Bernard'', Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, === Archive sources ===* The State Archives of Neuchâtel preserve the autograph correspondence sent by John Calvin to other reformers" ], [ "External links", " * * * * The John Calvin Bibliography of the H. Henry Meeter Center for Calvin Studies* Calvinism Resources Database* \"John Calvin\" in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''—Roman Catholic criticism of Calvin" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "June 16" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 363 – Emperor Julian marches back up the Tigris and burns his fleet of supply ships.", "During the withdrawal, Roman forces suffer several attacks from the Persians.", "* 632 – Yazdegerd III ascends the throne as king (''shah'') of the Persian Empire.", "He becomes the last ruler of the Sasanian dynasty (modern Iran).", "1407 – Ming–Hồ War: Retired King Hồ Quý Ly and his son King Hồ Hán Thương of Hồ dynasty are captured by the Ming armies.", "1487 – Battle of Stoke Field: King Henry VII of England defeats the leaders of a Yorkist rebellion in the final engagement of the Wars of the Roses.===1601–1900===1632 – The Plymouth Company granted a land patent to Thomas Purchase, the first settler of Pejepscot, Maine, settling at the site of Fort Andross.", "1745 – War of the Austrian Succession: New England colonial troops under the command of William Pepperrell capture the Fortress of Louisbourg in Louisbourg, New France (Old Style date).", "1746 – War of the Austrian Succession: Austria and Sardinia defeat a Franco-Spanish army at the Battle of Piacenza.", "1755 – French and Indian War: The French surrender Fort Beauséjour to the British, leading to the expulsion of the Acadians.", "1760 – French and Indian War: Robert Rogers and his Rangers surprise French held Fort Sainte Thérèse on the Richelieu River near Lake Champlain.", "The fort is raided and burned.", "1779 – American Revolutionary War: Spain declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Great Siege of Gibraltar begins.", "1795 – French Revolutionary Wars: In what became known as Cornwallis's Retreat, a British Royal Navy squadron led by Vice Admiral William Cornwallis strongly resists a much larger French Navy force and withdraws largely intact, setting up the French Navy defeat at the Battle of Groix six days later.", "1811 – Survivors of an attack the previous day by Tla-o-qui-aht on board the Pacific Fur Company's ship ''Tonquin'', intentionally detonate a powder magazine on the ship, destroying it and killing about 100 attackers.", "1815 – Battle of Ligny and Battle of Quatre Bras, two days before the Battle of Waterloo.", "1819 – A major earthquake strikes the Kutch district of western India, killing over 1,543 people and raising a , , ridge, extending for at least , that was known as the Allah Bund (\"Dam of God\").", "1824 – A meeting at Old Slaughter's coffee house in London leads to the formation of what is now the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA).", "1836 – The formation of the London Working Men's Association gives rise to the Chartist Movement.", "1846 – The Papal conclave of 1846 elects Pope Pius IX, beginning the longest reign in the history of the papacy.", "1858 – Abraham Lincoln delivers his ''House Divided'' speech in Springfield, Illinois.", "1871 – The Universities Tests Act 1871 allows students to enter the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Durham without religious tests (except for those intending to study theology).", "1883 – The Victoria Hall theatre panic in Sunderland, England, kills 183 children.", "1884 – The first purpose-built roller coaster, LaMarcus Adna Thompson's \"Switchback Railway\", opens in New York's Coney Island amusement park.", "1897 – A treaty annexing the Republic of Hawaii to the United States is signed; the Republic would not be dissolved until a year later.===1901–present===1903 – The Ford Motor Company is incorporated.", " 1903 – Roald Amundsen leaves Oslo, Norway, to commence the first east–west navigation of the Northwest Passage.", "1904 – Eugen Schauman assassinates Nikolay Bobrikov, Governor-General of Finland.", " 1904 – Irish author James Joyce begins a relationship with Nora Barnacle and subsequently uses the date to set the actions for his novel ''Ulysses''; this date is now traditionally called \"Bloomsday\".", "1911 – IBM founded as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company in Endicott, New York.", "1922 – General election in the Irish Free State: The pro-Treaty Sinn Féin party wins a large majority.", "1925 – Artek, the most famous Young Pioneer camp of the Soviet Union, is established.", "1930 – Sovnarkom establishes decree time in the USSR.", "1933 – The National Industrial Recovery Act is passed in the United States, allowing businesses to avoid antitrust prosecution if they establish voluntary wage, price, and working condition regulations on an industry-wide basis.", "1940 – World War II: Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain becomes Chief of State of Vichy France (''Chef de l'État Français'').", "* 1940 – A Communist government is installed in Lithuania.", "1948 – Members of the Malayan Communist Party kill three British plantation managers in Sungai Siput; in response, British Malaya declares a state of emergency.", "1955 – In a futile effort to topple Argentine President Juan Perón, rogue aircraft pilots of the Argentine Navy drop several bombs upon an unarmed crowd demonstrating in favor of Perón in Buenos Aires, killing 364 and injuring at least 800.At the same time on the ground, some soldiers attempt to stage a coup but are suppressed by loyal forces.", "1958 – Imre Nagy, Pál Maléter and other leaders of the 1956 Hungarian Uprising are executed.", "1961 – While on tour with the Kirov Ballet in Paris, Rudolf Nureyev defects from the Soviet Union.", "1963 – Soviet Space Program: ''Vostok 6'' mission: Cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space.", " 1963 – In an attempt to resolve the Buddhist crisis in South Vietnam, a Joint Communique was signed between President Ngo Dinh Diem and Buddhist leaders.", "1972 – The largest single-site hydroelectric power project in Canada is inaugurated at Churchill Falls Generating Station.", "1976 – Soweto uprising: A non-violent march by 15,000 students in Soweto, South Africa, turns into days of rioting when police open fire on the crowd.", "1977 – Oracle Corporation is incorporated in Redwood Shores, California, as Software Development Laboratories (SDL), by Larry Ellison, Bob Miner and Ed Oates.", "1981 – US President Ronald Reagan awards the Congressional Gold Medal to Ken Taylor, Canada's former ambassador to Iran, for helping six Americans escape from Iran during the hostage crisis of 1979–81; he is the first foreign citizen bestowed the honor.", "1989 – Revolutions of 1989: Imre Nagy, the former Hungarian prime minister, is reburied in Budapest following the collapse of Communism in Hungary.", "1997 – Fifty people are killed in the Daïat Labguer (M'sila) massacre in Algeria.", "2000 – The Secretary-General of the UN reports that Israel has complied with United Nations Security Council Resolution 425, 22 years after its issuance, and completely withdrew from Lebanon.", "The Resolution does not encompass the Shebaa farms, which is claimed by Israel, Syria and Lebanon.", "2002 – Padre Pio is canonized by the Roman Catholic Church.", "2010 – Bhutan becomes the first country to institute a total ban on tobacco.", "2012 – China successfully launches its Shenzhou 9 spacecraft, carrying three astronauts, including the first female Chinese astronaut Liu Yang, to the Tiangong-1 orbital module.", "* 2012 – The United States Air Force's robotic Boeing X-37B spaceplane returns to Earth after a classified 469-day orbital mission.", "2013 – A multi-day cloudburst, centered on the North Indian state of Uttarakhand, causes devastating floods and landslides, becoming the country's worst natural disaster since the 2004 tsunami.", "2015 – American businessman Donald Trump announces his campaign to run for President of the United States in the upcoming election.", "2016 – Shanghai Disneyland Park, the first Disney Park in Mainland China, opens to the public.", "2019 – Upwards of 2,000,000 people participate in the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, the largest in Hong Kong's history." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1139 – Emperor Konoe of Japan (d. 1155)1332 – Isabella de Coucy, English daughter of Edward III of England (d. 1379)1454 – Joanna of Aragon, Queen of Naples (d. 1517)1514 – John Cheke, English academic and politician, English Secretary of State (d. 1557)1516 – Yang Jisheng, Ming dynasty official and Confucian martyr (d. 1555)1583 – Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish politician, Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (d. 1654)1591 – Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, Greek-Italian physician, mathematician, and theorist (d. 1655)===1601–1900===1606 – Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier and politician (d. 1675)1613 – John Cleveland, English poet and educator (d. 1658)1625 – Samuel Chappuzeau, French scholar (d. 1701)1633 – Jean de Thévenot, French linguist and botanist (d. 1667)1644 – Henrietta Anne Stuart, Princess of Scotland, England and Ireland (d. 1670)1653 – James Bertie, 1st Earl of Abingdon, English nobleman (d. 1699)1713 – Meshech Weare, American farmer, lawyer, and politician, 1st Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1786)1723 – Adam Smith, Scottish philosopher and economist (d. 1790)1738 – Mary Katherine Goddard, American publisher (d. 1816)1754 – Salawat Yulayev, Russian poet (d. 1800)1792 – John Linnell, English painter and engraver (d. 1882)1801 – Julius Plücker, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1868)1806 – Edward Davy, English physician and chemist (d. 1885)1813 – Otto Jahn, German archaeologist and philologist (d. 1869)1820 – Athanase Josué Coquerel, Dutch-French preacher and theologian (d. 1875)1821 – Old Tom Morris, Scottish golfer and architect (d. 1908)1826 – Constantin von Ettingshausen, Austrian geologist and botanist (d. 1897)1836 – Wesley Merritt, American general and politician, Military Governor of the Philippines (d. 1910)1837 – Ernst Laas, German philosopher and academic (d. 1885)1838 – Frederic Archer, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1901) 1838 – Cushman Kellogg Davis, American lieutenant and politician, 7th Governor of Minnesota (d. 1900)1840 – Ernst Otto Schlick, German engineer and author (d. 1913)1850 – Max Delbrück, German chemist and academic (d. 1919)* 1850 – William Arnon Henry American academic and agriculturist (d. 1932)1857 – Arthur Arz von Straußenburg, Austrian-Hungarian general (d. 1935)1858 – Gustaf V of Sweden (d. 1950)1863 – Francisco León de la Barra, Mexican politician and diplomat (d. 1939)1866 – Germanos Karavangelis, Greek-Austrian metropolitan (d. 1935)1867 – René Seyssaud, Provençal painter (d. 1952)1874 – Arthur Meighen, Canadian lawyer and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1960)1880 – Otto Eisenschiml, Austrian-American chemist and author (d. 1963)1882 – Mohammad Mosaddegh, Iranian educator and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Iran (d. 1967)1885 – Erich Jacoby, Estonian-Polish architect (d. 1941)1888 – Alexander Friedmann, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1925)* 1888 – Peter Stoner, American mathematician and astronomer (d. 1980)1890 – Stan Laurel, English actor and comedian (d. 1965)1896 – Murray Leinster, American author and screenwriter (d. 1976)1897 – Georg Wittig, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)1899 – Helen Traubel, American operatic soprano (d. 1972)===1901–present===1902 – Barbara McClintock, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992) 1902 – George Gaylord Simpson, American paleontologist and author (d. 1984)1906 – Alan Fairfax, Australian cricketer (d. 1955)1907 – Jack Albertson, American actor (d. 1981)1909 – Archie Carr, American ecologist and zoologist (d. 1987)1910 – Juan Velasco Alvarado, Peruvian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (d. 1977)1912 – Albert Chartier, Canadian illustrator (d. 2004) 1912 – Enoch Powell, English soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Health (d. 1998)1914 – Eleanor Sokoloff, American pianist and teacher (d. 2020)1915 – John Tukey, American mathematician and academic (d. 2000)* 1915 – Marga Faulstich, German glass chemist (d. 1998)1917 – Phaedon Gizikis, Greek general and politician, President of Greece (d. 1999) 1917 – Katharine Graham, American publisher (d. 2001)* 1917 – Aurelio Lampredi, Italian automobile and aircraft engine designer (d. 1989)* 1917 – Irving Penn, American photographer (d. 2009)1920 – Isabelle Holland, Swiss-American author (d. 2002) 1920 – Raymond Lemieux, Canadian chemist and academic (d. 2002)* 1920 – José López Portillo, Mexican lawyer and politician, 31st President of Mexico (d. 2004)* 1920 – Hemanta Mukherjee, Indian singer and music director (d. 1989)1922 – Ilmar Kullam, Estonian basketball player and coach (d. 2011)1923 – Ron Flockhart, Scottish race car driver (d. 1962)1924 – Faith Domergue, American actress (d. 1999)1925 – Jean d'Ormesson, French journalist and author (d. 2017)* 1925 – Otto Muehl, Austrian-Portuguese painter and director (d. 2013)1926 – Efraín Ríos Montt, Guatemalan general and politician, 26th President of Guatemala (d. 2018)1927 – Tom Graveney, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2015)* 1927 – Ya'akov Hodorov, Israeli footballer (d. 2006)* 1927 – Herbert Lichtenfeld, German author and screenwriter (d. 2001)* 1927 – Ariano Suassuna, Brazilian author and playwright (d. 2014)1929 – Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait (d. 2020)1930 – Vilmos Zsigmond, Hungarian-American cinematographer and producer (d. 2016)1934 – Eileen Atkins, English actress and screenwriter 1934 – Roger Neilson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2003)1935 – Jim Dine, American painter and illustrator1937 – Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Bulgarian politician, 48th Prime Minister of Bulgaria* 1937 – Erich Segal, American author and screenwriter (d. 2010)1938 – Thomas Boyd-Carpenter, English general 1938 – Torgny Lindgren, Swedish author and poet (d. 2017)* 1938 – Joyce Carol Oates, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet1939 – Billy \"Crash\" Craddock, American singer-songwriter1940 – Māris Čaklais, Latvian poet, writer, and journalist (d. 2003)* 1940 – Neil Goldschmidt, American lawyer and politician, 33rd Governor of Oregon* 1941 – Lamont Dozier, American songwriter and producer (d. 2022)* 1941 – Tommy Horton, English golfer (d. 2017)* 1941 – Mumtaz Hamid Rao, Pakistani journalist (d. 2011)1942 – Giacomo Agostini, Italian motorcycle racer and manager 1942 – Eddie Levert, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter, musician, and actor 1944 – Henri Richelet, French painter and etcher (d. 2020)1945 – Claire Alexander, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1945 – Lucienne Robillard, Canadian social worker and politician, 59th Secretary of State for Canada1946 – Rick Adelman, American basketball player and coach 1946 – John Astor, 3rd Baron Astor of Hever, English businessman and politician* 1946 – Karen Dunnell, English statistician and academic* 1946 – Tom Harrell, American trumpet player and composer* 1946 – Neil MacGregor, Scottish historian and curator* 1946 – Iain Matthews, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1946 – Jodi Rell, American politician, 87th Governor of Connecticut* 1946 – Mark Ritts, American actor, puppeteer, and producer (d. 2009)* 1946 – Derek Sanderson, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster* 1946 – Simon Williams, English actor and playwright1947 – Al Cowlings, American football player and actor 1947 – Tom Malone, American trombonist, composer, and producer * 1947 – Buddy Roberts, American wrestler (d. 2012)1948 – Ron LeFlore, American baseball player and manager1949 – Caju, Brazilian footballer* 1949 – Ralph Mann, American hurdler and author1950 – Mithun Chakraborty, Indian actor and politician 1950 – Michel Clair, Canadian lawyer and politician* 1950 – Jerry Petrowski, American politician and farmer1951 – Charlie Dominici, American singer and guitarist 1951 – Roberto Durán, Panamanian boxer1952 – George Papandreou, Greek sociologist and politician, 182nd Prime Minister of Greece 1952 – Gino Vannelli, Canadian singer-songwriter1953 – Valerie Mahaffey, American actress 1953 – Ian Mosley, English drummer 1954 – Matthew Saad Muhammad, American boxer and trainer (d. 2014) 1954 – Garry Roberts, Irish guitarist 1955 – Grete Faremo, Norwegian politician, Norwegian Minister of Defence 1955 – Laurie Metcalf, American actress* 1955 – Artemy Troitsky, Russian journalist and critic1957 – Ian Buchanan, Scottish-American actor 1957 – Leeona Dorrian, Lady Dorrian, Scottish lawyer and judge1958 – Darrell Griffith, American basketball player 1958 – Ulrike Tauber, German swimmer* 1958 – Warren Rodwell, Australian soldier, educator and musician 1959 – The Ultimate Warrior, American wrestler (d. 2014)1960 – Peter Sterling, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster1961 – Can Dündar, Turkish journalist and author 1961 – Robbie Kerr, Australian cricketer* 1961 – Steve Larmer, Canadian ice hockey player* 1961 – Margus Metstak, Estonian basketball player and coach1962 – Wally Joyner, American baseball player and coach 1962 – Arnold Vosloo, South African-American actor* 1962 – Anthony Wong, Hong Kong singer1963 – The Sandman, American wrestler1964 – Danny Burstein, American actor and singer1965 – Michael Richard Lynch, Irish computer scientist and entrepreneur; co-founded HP Autonomy 1965 – Richard Madaleno, American politician1966 – Mark Occhilupo, Australian surfer 1966 – Olivier Roumat, French rugby player* 1966 – Phil Vischer, American voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-created ''VeggieTales''* 1966 – Jan Železný, Czech javelin thrower and coach1967 – Charalambos Andreou, Cypriot footballer 1967 – Jürgen Klopp, German footballer and manager1968 – Adam Schmitt, American singer-songwriter, musician, and producer 1969 – Shami Chakrabarti, English lawyer and academic* 1969 – Mark Crossley, English-Welsh footballer and manager1970 – Younus AlGohar, Pakistani poet and academic, co-founded Messiah Foundation International 1970 – Clifton Collins Jr., American actor * 1970 – Cobi Jones, American soccer player and manager* 1970 – Phil Mickelson, American golfer1971 – Tupac Shakur, American rapper and producer (d. 1996)1972 – Kiko Loureiro, Brazilian guitarist* 1972 – John Cho, American actor1973 – Eddie Cibrian, American actor1974 – Glenicia James, Saint Lucian cricketer* 1974 – Joseph May, British-born Canadian-American actor1975 – Anthony Carter, American basketball player and coach1977 – Craig Fitzgibbon, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1977 – Duncan Hames, English accountant and politician* 1977 – Kerry Wood, American baseball player1978 – Daniel Brühl, Spanish-German actor 1978 – Dainius Zubrus, Lithuanian ice hockey player* 1978 – Fish Leong, Malaysian singer1980 – Brandon Armstrong, American basketball player 1980 – Phil Christophers, German-English rugby player* 1980 – Henry Perenara, New Zealand rugby league player and referee* 1980 – Martin Stranzl, Austrian footballer* 1980 – Joey Yung, Hong Kong singer1981 – Benjamin Becker, German tennis player 1981 – Kevin Bieksa, Canadian ice hockey player* 1981 – Alexandre Giroux, Canadian ice hockey player* 1981 – Ola Kvernberg, Norwegian violinist * 1981 – Miguel Villalta, Peruvian footballer1982 – May Andersen, Danish model and actress 1982 – Missy Peregrym, Canadian model and actress1983 – Armend Dallku, Albanian footballer1984 – Rick Nash, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Dan Ryckert, American writer and entertainer* 1984 – Steven Whittaker, Scottish footballer1986 – Rodrigo Defendi, Brazilian footballer 1986 – Urby Emanuelson, Dutch footballer* 1986 – Fernando Muslera, Uruguayan footballer1987 – Diana DeGarmo, American singer-songwriter and actress 1987 – Per Ciljan Skjelbred, Norwegian footballer* 1987 – Christian Tshimanga Kabeya, Belgian footballer1988 – Keshia Chanté, Canadian singer 1988 – Jermaine Gresham, American football player1989 – Odion Ighalo, Nigerian footballer1990 – John Newman, English musician, singer, songwriter and record producer1991 – Joe McElderry, English singer-songwriter1991 – Siya Kolisi, South African rugby player* 1991 – Matt Moylan, Australian rugby league player1992 – Vladimir Morozov, Russian swimmer1993 – Park Bo-gum, South Korean actor* 1993 – Gnash, American singer, songwriter, rapper, DJ and record producer1994 – Grete-Lilijane Küppas, Estonian footballer 1994 – Rezar, Albanian wrestler1995 – Euan Aitken, Australian rugby league player 1995 – Akira Ioane, New Zealand rugby Union player* 1995 – Joseph Schooling, Singaporean swimmer* 1995 – Ki Hui-hyeon, South Korean singer-songwriter and actress1998 – Karman Thandi, Indian tennis player1999 – Justin Jefferson, American football player* 1999 – Ibrahima Koné, Malian footballer2000 – Bianca Andreescu, Canadian tennis player2002 – Sam Walker, English-Australian rugby league player2003 – Anna Cathcart, Canadian actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 840 – Rorgon I, Frankish nobleman (or 839)* 924 – Li Cunshen, general of Later Tang (b.", "862)* 956 – Hugh the Great, Frankish nobleman (b.", "898)1185 – Richeza of Poland, queen of León (b. c. 1140)1286 – Hugh de Balsham, English bishop1332 – Adam de Brome, founder of Oriel College, Oxford1361 – Johannes Tauler, German mystic theologian1397 – Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, French soldier (b.", "1358)1424 – Johannes Ambundii, archbishop of Riga1468 – Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, Burgundian historian and author (b.", "1395)1487 – John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln (b. c. 1463)1540 – Konrad von Thüngen, German nobleman (b. c. 1466)===1601–1900===1622 – Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline, Scottish lawyer, judge, and politician, Lord Chancellor of Scotland (b.", "1555)1626 – Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, German Protestant military leader (b.", "1599)1666 – Sir Richard Fanshawe, 1st Baronet, English poet and diplomat, English Ambassador to Spain (b.", "1608)1674 – Tomás Yepes, Spanish painter (b.", "1595 or 1600)1722 – John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire (b.", "1650)1743 – Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, eldest daughter of King Louis XIV of France (b.", "1673)1752 – Joseph Butler, English bishop and philosopher (b.", "1692)1762 – Anne Russell, Countess of Jersey (formerly Duchess of Bedford) (b. c.1705)1777 – Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset, French poet and playwright (b.", "1709)1779 – Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet, English lawyer and politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (b.", "1712)1804 – Johann Adam Hiller, German composer and conductor (b.", "1728)1824 – Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance, French lawyer and politician (b.", "1739)1849 – Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette, German theologian and scholar (b.", "1780)1850 – William Lawson, English-Australian explorer and politician (b.", "1774)1858 – John Snow, English epidemiologist and physician (b.", "1813)1862 – Hidenoyama Raigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 9th Yokozuna (b.", "1808)1869 – Charles Sturt, Indian-English botanist and explorer (b.", "1795)1872 – Norman MacLeod, Scottish minister and author (b.", "1812)1878 – Crawford Long, American surgeon and pharmacist (b.", "1815)* 1878 – Kikuchi Yōsai, Japanese painter (b.", "1781)1881 – Josiah Mason, English businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1795)1885 – Wilhelm Camphausen, German painter and academic (b.", "1818)1886 – Alexander Stuart, Scottish-Australian politician, 9th Premier of New South Wales (b.", "1824)===1901–present===1902 – Ernst Schröder, German mathematician and academic (b.", "1841)1918 – Bazil Assan, Romanian engineer and explorer (b.", "1860)1925 – Chittaranjan Das, Indian lawyer and politician (b.", "1870)1929 – Bramwell Booth, English 2nd General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1856) 1929 – Vernon Louis Parrington, American historian and scholar (b.", "1871)1930 – Ezra Fitch, American lawyer and businessman, co-founded Abercrombie & Fitch (b.", "1866) 1930 – Elmer Ambrose Sperry, American inventor, co-invented the gyrocompass (b.", "1860)1939 – Chick Webb, American drummer and bandleader (b.", "1905)1940 – DuBose Heyward, American author (b.", "1885)1944 – Marc Bloch, French historian and academic (b.", "1886) 1944 – George Stinney, wrongfully convicted African-American teenager (b.", "1929)1945 – Aris Velouchiotis, Greek general (b.", "1905)1946 – Gordon Brewster, Irish cartoonist (b 1889)1952 – Andrew Lawson, Scottish-American geologist and academic (b.", "1861)1953 – Margaret Bondfield, English politician, Secretary of State for Work and Pensions (b.", "1873)1955 – Ozias Leduc, Canadian painter (b.", "1864)1958 – Pál Maléter, Hungarian general and politician, Minister of Defence of Hungary (b.", "1917)* 1958 – Imre Nagy, Hungarian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Hungary (b.", "1895) 1959 – George Reeves, American actor and director (b.", "1914)1961 – Marcel Junod, Swiss physician and anesthesiologist (b.", "1904)1967 – Reginald Denny, English actor (b.", "1891)1969 – Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, English field marshal and politician, 17th Governor General of Canada (b.", "1891)1970 – Sydney Chapman, English mathematician and geophysicist (b.", "1888) 1970 – Brian Piccolo, American football player (b.", "1943)1971 – John Reith, 1st Baron Reith, Scottish broadcaster, co-founded BBC (b.", "1889)1974 – Amalie Sara Colquhoun, Australian landscape and portrait painter (b.", "1894)1977 – Wernher von Braun, German-American physicist and engineer (b.", "1912)1979 – Ignatius Kutu Acheampong, Ghanaian general and politician, 6th Head of state of Ghana (b.", "1931)* 1979 – Nicholas Ray, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1911)1981 – Thomas Playford IV, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of South Australia (b.", "1896)1982 – James Honeyman-Scott, English guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1956)1984 – Lew Andreas, American football player and coach (b.", "1895) 1984 – Erni Krusten, Estonian author and poet (b.", "1900)1986 – Maurice Duruflé, French organist and composer (b.", "1902)1987 – Marguerite de Angeli, American author and illustrator (b.", "1889)1988 – Miguel Piñero, Puerto Rican-American actor and playwright (b.", "1946)1993 – Lindsay Hassett, Australian cricketer and soldier (b.", "1913)1994 – Kristen Pfaff, American bass player and songwriter (b.", "1967)1996 – Mel Allen, American sportscaster and game show host (b.", "1913)1998 – Fred Wacker, American race car driver and engineer (b.", "1918)1999 – Screaming Lord Sutch, English singer and activist (b.", "1940)2003 – Pierre Bourgault, Canadian journalist and politician (b.", "1934) 2003 – Georg Henrik von Wright, Finnish–Swedish philosopher and author (b.", "1916)2004 – Thanom Kittikachorn, Thai field marshal and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Thailand (b.", "1911) 2004 – Jacques Miquelon, Canadian lawyer and judge (b.", "1911)2005 – Enrique Laguerre, Puerto Rican-American author and critic (b.", "1906)2008 – Mario Rigoni Stern, Italian soldier and author (b.", "1921)2010 – Marc Bazin, Haitian lawyer and politician, 49th President of Haiti (b.", "1932) 2010 – Maureen Forrester, Canadian singer and academic (b.", "1930)* 2010 – Ronald Neame, English director, producer, cinematographer, and screenwriter (b.", "1911)2011 – Östen Mäkitalo, Swedish engineer and academic (b.", "1938)2012 – Nils Karlsson, Swedish skier (b.", "1917)* 2012 – Jorge Lankenau, Mexican banker and businessman (b.", "1944)* 2012 – Sławomir Petelicki, Polish general (b.", "1946)* 2012 – Susan Tyrrell, American actress (b.", "1945) 2013 – Sam Farber, American businessman, co-founded OXO (b.", "1924) 2013 – Hans Hass, Austrian biologist and diver (b.", "1919)* 2013 – Khondakar Ashraf Hossain, Bangladesh poet and academic (b.", "1950)* 2013 – Norman Ian MacKenzie, English journalist and author (b.", "1921)* 2013 – Ottmar Walter, German footballer (b.", "1924)2014 – Tony Gwynn, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1960) 2014 – Cándido Muatetema Rivas (b.", "1960), Equatoguinean politician and diplomat, Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea2015 – Charles Correa, Indian architect and urban planner (b.", "1930) 2015 – Jean Vautrin, French director, screenwriter, and critic (b.", "1933)2016 – Jo Cox, English political activist and MP (b.", "1974)2017 – Helmut Kohl, German politician, Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1930)2020 – Eduardo Cojuangco Jr., Filipino businessman and politician (b.", "1935)2023 – Gino Mäder, Swiss cyclist (b.", "1997)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Birthday of Leonard P. Howell (Rastafari) Bloomsday (Dublin, Ireland)* Christian feast days: Aurelianus of Arles Aureus of Mainz (and his sister Justina) Benno Cettin of Oran Curig of Llanbadarn Ferreolus and Ferrutio George Berkeley and Joseph Butler (Episcopal Church) June 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Lutgardis Quriaqos and Julietta* Engineer's Day (Argentina)* Father's Day (Seychelles)* International Day of the African Child (Organisation of African Unity)* Martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev (Sikhism)* Sussex Day (Sussex)* Youth Day (South Africa)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "June 15" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===763 BC – Assyrians record a solar eclipse that is later used to fix the chronology of Mesopotamian history.", " 844 – Louis II is crowned as king of Italy at Rome by pope Sergius II.", "* 923 – Battle of Soissons: King Robert I of France is killed and King Charles the Simple is arrested by the supporters of Duke Rudolph of Burgundy.", "1184 – The naval Battle of Fimreite is won by the Birkebeiner pretender Sverre Sigurdsson.", "Sigurdsson takes the Norwegian throne and King Magnus V of Norway is killed.", "1215 – King John of England puts his seal to Magna Carta.", "1219 – Northern Crusades: Danish victory at the Battle of Lindanise (modern-day Tallinn) establishes the Danish Duchy of Estonia.", "1246 – With the death of Frederick II, Duke of Austria, the Babenberg dynasty ends in Austria.", "1300 – The city of Bilbao is founded.", "1312 – At the Battle of Rozgony, King Charles I of Hungary wins a decisive victory over the family of Palatine Amade Aba.", "1389 – Battle of Kosovo: The Ottoman Empire defeats Serbs and Bosnians.", "1410 – In a decisive battle at Onon River, the Mongol forces of Oljei Temur were decimated by the Chinese armies of the Yongle Emperor.", "* 1410 – Ottoman Interregnum: Süleyman Çelebi defeats his brother Musa Çelebi outside the Byzantine capital, Constantinople.", "1502 – Christopher Columbus lands on the island of Martinique on his fourth voyage.", "1520 – Pope Leo X threatens to excommunicate Martin Luther in ''Exsurge Domine''.===1601–1900===1607 – Virginia Colonists finished building James's Fort, to defend against Spanish and Indian attacks.", "1648 – Margaret Jones is hanged in Boston for witchcraft in the first such execution for the Massachusetts Bay Colony.", "1667 – The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys.", "1670 – The first stone of Fort Ricasoli is laid down in Malta.", "1752 – Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity (traditional date, the exact date is unknown).", "1776 – Delaware Separation Day: Delaware votes to suspend government under the British Crown and separate officially from Pennsylvania.", "1800 – The Provisional Army of the United States is dissolved.", "1804 – New Hampshire approves the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratifying the document.", "1808 – Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain.", "1836 – Arkansas is admitted as the 25th U.S.", "state.", "1844 – Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.", "1846 – The Oregon Treaty extends the border between the United States and British North America, established by the Treaty of 1818, westward to the Pacific Ocean.", "1859 – Ambiguity in the Oregon Treaty leads to the \"Northwestern Boundary Dispute\" between American and British/Canadian settlers.", "1864 – American Civil War: The Second Battle of Petersburg begins.", "* 1864 – Arlington National Cemetery is established when of the Arlington estate (formerly owned by the family of Confederate General Robert E. Lee) are officially set aside as a military cemetery by U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M.", "Stanton.", "1877 – Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy.", "1878 – Eadweard Muybridge takes a series of photographs to prove that all four feet of a horse leave the ground when it runs; the study becomes the basis of motion pictures.", "1888 – Crown Prince Wilhelm becomes Kaiser Wilhelm II; he will be the last Emperor of the German Empire.", "Due to the death of his predecessors Wilhelm I and Frederick III, 1888 is the Year of the Three Emperors.", "1896 – One of the deadliest tsunamis in Japan's history kills more than 22,000 people.===1901–present===1904 – A fire aboard the steamboat in New York City's East River kills 1,000.", "1916 – United States President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America, making them the only American youth organization with a federal charter.", "1919 – John Alcock and Arthur Brown complete the first nonstop transatlantic flight when they reach Clifden, County Galway, Ireland.", "1920 – Following the 1920 Schleswig plebiscites, Northern Schleswig is transferred from Germany to Denmark.", "1921 – Bessie Coleman earns her pilot's license, becoming the first female pilot of African-American descent.", "1934 – The United States Great Smoky Mountains National Park is founded.", "1936 – First flight of the Vickers Wellington bomber.", "1937 – A German expedition led by Karl Wien loses sixteen members in an avalanche on Nanga Parbat.", "It is the worst single disaster to occur on an 8000m peak.", "1940 – World War II: Operation Aerial begins: Allied troops start to evacuate France, following Germany's takeover of Paris and most of the nation.", "1944 – World War II: The United States invades Saipan, capital of Japan's South Seas Mandate.", "* 1944 – In the Saskatchewan general election, the CCF, led by Tommy Douglas, is elected and forms the first socialist government in North America.", "1970 – Charles Manson goes on trial for the Sharon Tate murders.", "1972 – Red Army Faction co-founder Ulrike Meinhof is captured by police in Langenhagen.", "* 1972 – Cathay Pacific Flight 700Z is destroyed by a bomb over Pleiku, Vietnam (then South Vietnam) kills 81 people.", "1977 – After the death of dictator Francisco Franco in 1975, the first democratic elections took place in Spain.", "1978 – King Hussein of Jordan marries Jordanian-American Lisa Halaby, who takes the name Queen Noor.", "1985 – Rembrandt's painting ''Danaë'' is attacked by a man (later judged insane) who throws sulfuric acid on the canvas and cuts it twice with a knife.", "1991 – In the Philippines, Mount Pinatubo erupts in the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, killing over 800 people.", "1992 – The United States Supreme Court rules in ''United States v. Álvarez-Machaín'' that it is permissible for the United States to forcibly extradite suspects in foreign countries and bring them to the United States for trial, without approval from those other countries.", "1996 – The Troubles: The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonates a powerful truck bomb in the middle of Manchester, England, devastating the city centre and injuring 200 people.", "2001 – Leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan formed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.", "2007 – The Nokkakivi Amusement Park is opened in Lievestuore, Laukaa, Finland.", "2012 – Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to successfully tightrope walk directly over Niagara Falls.", "2013 – A bomb explodes on a bus in the Pakistani city of Quetta, killing at least 25 people and wounding 22 others.", "2022 – Microsoft retires its ubiquitous Internet Explorer after 26 years in favor of its new browser, Microsoft Edge." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1330 – Edward, the Black Prince of England (d. 1376)1479 – Lisa del Giocondo, Italian model, subject of the ''Mona Lisa'' (d. 1542)1519 – Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1536)1542 – Richard Grenville, English captain and explorer (d. 1591)1549 – Elizabeth Knollys, English noblewoman (d. 1605)1553 – Archduke Ernest of Austria (d. 1595)===1601–1900===1605 – Thomas Randolph, English poet and playwright (d. 1635)1623 – Cornelis de Witt, Dutch politician (d. 1672)1624 – Hiob Ludolf, German orientalist and philologist (d. 1704)1640 – Bernard Lamy, French mathematician and theologian (d. 1715)1645 – Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, English politician (d. 1712)1749 – Georg Joseph Vogler, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1814)1754 – Juan José Elhuyar, Spanish chemist and mineralogist (d. 1796)1755 – Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (d. 1809)1763 – Franz Danzi, German cellist, composer, and conductor (d. 1826)* 1763 – Kobayashi Issa, Japanese priest and poet (d. 1827)1765 – Henry Thomas Colebrooke, English orientalist (d. 1837)1767 – Rachel Jackson, American wife of Andrew Jackson (d. 1828)1777 – David Daniel Davis, Welsh physician and academic (d. 1841)1789 – Josiah Henson, American minister, author, and activist (d. 1883)1790 – Charles-Amédée Kohler, Swiss chocolatier (d. 1874)1792 – Thomas Mitchell, Scottish-Australian colonel and explorer (d. 1855)1801 – Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (d. 1883)1805 – William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1877)1809 – François-Xavier Garneau, Canadian poet and historian (d. 1866)1822 – Alfonso Corti, Italian anatomist (d. 1876)1835 – Adah Isaacs Menken, American actress, painter, and poet (d. 1868)1843 – Edvard Grieg, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 1907)1848 – Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala, Indian bishop and saint (d. 1902)1872 – Thomas William Burgess, English swimmer and water polo player (d. 1950)1875 – Herman Smith-Johannsen, Norwegian-Canadian skier (d. 1987)1878 – Margaret Abbott, Indian-American golfer (d. 1955)1881 – Kesago Nakajima, Japanese lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army (d. 1945)1884 – Harry Langdon, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1944)1886 – Frank Clement, British racing driver (d. 1970)1888 – Martin D'Arcy, English Jesuit priest (d. 1976)* 1888 – Ramón López Velarde, Mexican poet and author (d. 1921)1890 – Georg Wüst, German oceanographer and academic (d. 1977)1894 – Robert Russell Bennett, American composer and conductor (d. 1981)* 1894 – Nikolai Chebotaryov, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1947)1898 – Hubertus Strughold, German-American physiologist and academic (d. 1986)1900 – Gotthard Günther, German philosopher and academic (d. 1984)* 1900 – Otto Luening, German-American composer and conductor (d. 1996)===1901–present===1901 – Elmar Lohk, Russian-Estonian architect (d. 1963)1902 – Erik Erikson, German-American psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1994)1906 – Gordon Welchman, English-American mathematician and author (d. 1985) 1906 – Léon Degrelle, Belgian SS officer (d. 1994)1907 – James Robertson Justice, English actor and educator (d. 1975)1909 – Elena Nikolaidi, Greek-American soprano and educator (d. 2002)1910 – David Rose, English-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990)1911 – Wilbert Awdry, English author, created The Railway Series, the basis for Thomas the Tank Engine (d. 1997)1913 – Tom Adair, American songwriter, composer, and screenwriter (d. 1988)1914 – Yuri Andropov, Russian politician (d. 1984)* 1914 – Saul Steinberg, Romanian-American cartoonist (d. 1999)* 1914 – Hilda Terry, American cartoonist (d. 2006)1915 – Nini Theilade, Danish ballet dancer, choreographer, and educator (d. 2018) 1915 – Thomas Huckle Weller, American biologist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008)1916 – Olga Erteszek, Polish-American fashion designer (d. 1989) 1916 – Horacio Salgán, Argentinian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2016)* 1916 – Herbert A. Simon, American political scientist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)1917 – John Fenn, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2010) 1917 – Michalis Genitsaris, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2005)* 1917 – Lash LaRue, American actor and producer (d. 1996)1918 – François Tombalbaye, Chadian politician, 1st President of Chad (d. 1975)1920 – Keith Andrews, American race car driver (d. 1957)* 1920 – Alla Kazanskaya, Russian actress (d. 2008)* 1920 – Sam Sniderman, Canadian businessman, founded Sam the Record Man (d. 2012)* 1920 – Alberto Sordi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2003)1921 – Erroll Garner, American pianist and composer (d. 1977)1922 – Jaki Byard, American pianist and composer (d. 1999)1923 – Erland Josephson, Swedish actor and director (d. 2012) 1923 – Ninian Stephen, English-Australian lieutenant, judge, and politician, 20th Governor-General of Australia (d. 2017)1924 – Hédi Fried, Swedish author and psychologist (d. 2022) 1924 – Ezer Weizman, Israeli general and politician, 7th President of Israel (d. 2005)1925 – Richard Baker, English journalist and author (d. 2018) 1925 – Attilâ İlhan, Turkish poet, author, and critic (d. 2005)1926 – Alfred Duraiappah, Sri Lankan Tamil lawyer and politician (d. 1975)1927 – Ross Andru, American illustrator (d. 1993)* 1927 – Ibn-e-Insha, Indian-Pakistani poet and author (d. 1978)* 1927 – Hugo Pratt, Italian author and illustrator (d. 1995)1930 – Miguel Méndez, American author and academic (d. 2013) 1930 – Marcel Pronovost, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015)1931 – Joseph Gilbert, English air marshal1932 – David Alliance, Baron Alliance, Iranian-English businessman and politician* 1932 – Mario Cuomo, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New York (d. 2015)* 1932 – Zia Fariduddin Dagar, Indian singer (d. 2013)* 1932 – Bernie Faloney, American-Canadian football player and sportscaster (d. 1999)1933 – Mohammad-Ali Rajai, Iranian politician, 2nd President of Iran (d. 1981) 1933 – Predrag Koraksić Corax, Serbian political caricaturist1934 – Ruby Nash Garnett, American R&B singer1936 – William Levada, American cardinal (d. 2019)1937 – Pierre Billon, Swiss-Canadian author and screenwriter 1937 – Waylon Jennings, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)1938 – Billy Williams, American baseball player and coach1939 – Ward Connerly, American activist and businessman, founded the American Civil Rights Institute1941 – Neal Adams, American illustrator (d. 2022) 1941 – Harry Nilsson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1994)1942 – Ian Greenberg, Canadian broadcaster, founded Astral Media 1942 – John E. McLaughlin, American diplomat* 1942 – Peter Norman, Australian sprinter (d. 2006)1943 – Johnny Hallyday, French singer and actor (d. 2017) 1943 – Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, Danish politician, 38th Prime Minister of Denmark1944 – Robert D. Keppel, American police officer and academic (d. 2021)1945 – Miriam Defensor Santiago, Filipino judge and politician (d. 2016)* 1945 – Robert Sarah, Guinean cardinal* 1945 – Lawrence Wilkerson, American colonel 1946 – Noddy Holder, English rock singer-songwriter, musician, and actor 1946 – John Horner, American paleontologist and academic* 1946 – Demis Roussos, Egyptian-Greek singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2015)1947 – John Hoagland, American photographer and journalist (d. 1984)1948 – Mike Holmgren, American football player and coach* 1948 – Alan Huckle, English politician and diplomat, Governor of Anguilla* 1948 – Henry McLeish, Scottish footballer, academic, and politician, 2nd First Minister of Scotland1949 – Dusty Baker, American baseball player and manager 1949 – Simon Callow, English actor and director* 1949 – Russell Hitchcock, Australian singer-songwriter* 1949 – Jim Varney, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter (d. 2000)1950 – Uğur Erdener, Turkish ophthalmologist and professor 1950 – Juliana Azumah-Mensah, Ghanaian nurse and politician* 1950 – Deney Terrio, American choreographer and television host* 1950 – Lakshmi Mittal, Indian-English businessman1951 – Jane Amsterdam, American magazine and newspaper editor (''Manhattan, inc.'', ''New York Post'') 1951 – Vance A. Larson, American painter (d. 2000)* 1951 – John Redwood, English politician, Secretary of State for Wales* 1951 – Steve Walsh, American rock singer-songwriter and musician1952 – Satya Pal Jain, Indian lawyer and politician, Additional Solicitor General of India1953 – Vilma Bardauskienė, Lithuanian long jumper* 1953 – Marc Brickman, American lighting and production designer* 1953 – Eje Elgh, Swedish racing driver and sportscaster* 1953 – Xi Jinping, Chinese engineer and politician, General Secretary of the Communist Party and President of China* 1953 – Raphael Wallfisch, English cellist and educator1954 – Jim Belushi, American actor 1954 – Terri Gibbs, American country music singer and keyboard player* 1954 – Paul Rusesabagina, Rwandan humanitarian* 1954 – Zdeňka Šilhavá, Czech discus thrower and shot putter* 1954 – Beverley Whitfield, Australian swimmer (d. 1996)1955 – Polly Draper, American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1955 – Julie Hagerty, American model and actress1956 – Yevgeny Kiselyov, Russian-Ukrainian journalist 1956 – Lance Parrish, American baseball player, coach, and manager1957 – Brett Butler, American baseball player and coach1958 – Wade Boggs, American baseball player* 1958 – Riccardo Paletti, Italian racing driver (d. 1982)1959 – Alan Brazil, Scottish footballer and sportscaster 1959 – Eileen Davidson, American model and actress1960 – Michèle Laroque, French actress, producer, and screenwriter 1960 – Marieke van Doorn, Dutch field hockey player and coach1961 – Dave McAuley, Northern Irish boxer and sportscaster 1961 – Scott Norton, American wrestler1962 – Brad Armstrong, American wrestler (d. 2012) 1962 – Chris Morris, English actor, satirist, director, and producer* 1962 – Andrea Rost, Hungarian soprano1963 – Mario Gosselin, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1963 – Helen Hunt, American actress, director, and producer* 1963 – Lourdes Valera, Venezuelan actress (d. 2012)1964 – Courteney Cox, American actress and producer 1964 – Michael Laudrup, Danish footballer and manager1965 – Annelies Bredael, Belgian rower 1965 – Karim Massimov, Kazakhstani politician, 7th Prime Minister of Kazakhstan* 1965 – Adam Smith, American lawyer and politician1966 – Raimonds Vējonis, Latvian politician, 9th President of Latvia 1968 – Károly Güttler, Hungarian swimmer1969 – Jesse Bélanger, Canadian ice hockey player 1969 – Ice Cube, American rapper, producer, and actor * 1969 – Idalis DeLeón, American singer and actress * 1969 – Nasos Galakteros, Greek basketball player* 1969 – Oliver Kahn, German footballer and sportscaster* 1969 – Maurice Odumbe, Kenyan cricketer* 1969 – Cédric Pioline, French tennis player1970 – Christian Bauman, American soldier and author 1970 – David Bayssari, Australian rugby league player * 1970 – Gaëlle Méchaly, French soprano* 1970 – Leah Remini, American actress and producer* 1970 – Žan Tabak, Croatian basketball player and coach1971 – Christos Myriounis, Greek basketball player 1971 – Jake Busey, American actor, musician, and film producer1972 – Justin Leonard, American golfer 1972 – Andy Pettitte, American baseball player1973 – Tore Andre Flo, Norwegian footballer and coach 1973 – Neil Patrick Harris, American actor and singer* 1973 – Pia Miranda, Australian actress* 1973 – Greg Vaughan, American actor and model1976 – Jiří Ryba, Czech decathlete1977 – Michael Doleac, American basketball player and manager1978 – Wilfred Bouma, Dutch footballer 1978 – Zach Day, American baseball player1979 – Yulia Nestsiarenka, Belarusian sprinter 1979 – Christian Rahn, German footballer* 1979 – Charles Zwolsman Jr., Dutch racing driver1980 – David Lyons, Australian rugby player 1981 – John Paintsil, Ghanaian footballer1982 – Mike Delany, New Zealand rugby player 1982 – Abdur Razzak, Bangladeshi cricketer1983 – Laura Imbruglia, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1983 – Josh McGuire, Canadian fencer1984 – Luke Hodge, Australian footballer 1984 – Eva Hrdinová, Czech tennis player* 1984 – Tim Lincecum, American baseball player* 1984 – Edison Toloza, Colombian footballer1985 – Ashley Nicole Black, American comedian, actress, and writer1986 – James Maloney, Australian rugby league player* 1986 – Trevor Plouffe, American baseball player1989 – Bayley, American wrestler 1989 – Víctor Cabedo, Spanish cyclist (d. 2012)* 1989 – Bryan Clauson, American race car driver (d. 2016)1992 – Michał Kopczyński, Polish footballer 1992 – Mohamed Salah, Egyptian footballer* 1992 – Dafne Schippers, Dutch heptathlete and sprinter1993 – Cooper Kupp, American football player 1993 – Irfan Hadžić, Bosnian footballer1994 – Inaki Williams, Basque footballer1996 – Tia-Adana Belle, Barbadian athlete1996 – Aurora, Norwegian singer-songwriter1997 – Madison Kocian, American gymnast" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 923 – Robert I of France (b.", "866)* 948 – Romanos I Lekapenos, Byzantine Emperor (b. c. 870)* 952 – Murong Yanchao, Chinese general* 960 – Eadburh of Winchester, English princess and saint* 970 – Adalbert, bishop of Passau* 991 – Theophanu, Byzantine wife of Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "960)1073 – Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (b.", "1034)1184 – Magnus Erlingsson, King of Norway (b.", "1156)1189 – Minamoto no Yoshitsune, Japanese general (b.", "1159)1246 – Frederick II, Duke of Austria (b.", "1219)1337 – Angelo da Clareno, Italian Franciscan and leader of a group of Fraticelli (b.", "1247)1341 – Andronikos III Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1297)1381 – John Cavendish, English lawyer and judge (b.", "1346) 1381 – Wat Tyler, English rebel leader (b.", "1341)1383 – John VI Kantakouzenos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1292) 1383 – Matthew Kantakouzenos, Byzantine emperor1389 – Lazar of Serbia (b.", "1329) 1389 – Murad I, Ottoman Sultan (b.", "1319)* 1389 – Miloš Obilić, Serbian knight.", "1416 – John, Duke of Berry (b.", "1340)1467 – Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (b.", "1396)1521 – Tamás Bakócz, Hungarian cardinal (b.", "1442)===1601–1900===1614 – Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, English courtier and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b.", "1540)1724 – Henry Sacheverell, English minister and politician (b.", "1674)1768 – James Short, Scottish mathematician and optician (b.", "1710)1772 – Louis-Claude Daquin, French organist and composer (b.", "1694)1844 – Thomas Campbell, Scottish poet and academic (b.", "1777)1849 – James K. Polk, American lawyer and politician, 11th President of the United States (b.", "1795)1858 – Ary Scheffer, Dutch-French painter and academic (b.", "1795)1881 – Franjo Krežma, Croatian violinist and composer (b.", "1862)1888 – Frederick III, German Emperor (b.", "1831)1889 – Mihai Eminescu, Romanian journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1850)1890 – Unryū Kyūkichi, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 10th Yokozuna (b.", "1822)===1901–present===1917 – Kristian Birkeland, Norwegian physicist and academic (b.", "1867)1934 – Alfred Bruneau, French cellist and composer (b.", "1857)1938 – Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, German painter and illustrator (b.", "1880)1941 – Otfrid Foerster, German neurologist and physician (b.", "1873)* 1941 – Evelyn Underhill, English mystic and author (b.", "1875)1945 – Count Albert von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein, Austrian diplomat1961 – Giulio Cabianca, Italian racing driver (b.", "1923)* 1961 – Peyami Safa, Turkish journalist and author (b.", "1899)1962 – Alfred Cortot, Swiss pianist and conductor (b.", "1877)1967 – Tatu Kolehmainen, Finnish runner (b.", "1885)1968 – Sam Crawford, American baseball player, coach, and umpire (b.", "1880) 1968 – Wes Montgomery, American guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1925)1971 – Wendell Meredith Stanley, American biochemist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1904)1976 – Jimmy Dykes, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1896)1984 – Meredith Willson, American playwright, composer, and conductor (b.", "1902)1985 – Andy Stanfield, American sprinter (b.", "1927)1989 – Maurice Bellemare, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1912) 1989 – Ray McAnally, Irish actor (b.", "1926)1991 – Happy Chandler, American businessman and politician, 49th Governor of Kentucky (b.", "1898) 1991 – Arthur Lewis, Saint Lucian economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1915)1992 – Chuck Menville, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1940) 1992 – Brett Whiteley, Australian painter (b.", "1939)1993 – John Connally, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 61st United States Secretary of the Treasury (b.", "1917) 1993 – James Hunt, English racing driver and sportscaster (b.", "1947)1994 – Manos Hatzidakis, Greek composer and theorist (b.", "1925)1995 – John Vincent Atanasoff, American physicist and inventor, invented the Atanasoff–Berry computer (b.", "1903)1996 – Ella Fitzgerald, American singer and actress (b.", "1917) 1996 – Sir Fitzroy Maclean, 1st Baronet, Scottish general and politician (b.", "1911)* 1996 – Dick Murdoch, American wrestler (b.", "1946)1999 – Omer Côté, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1906)2000 – Jules Roy, French author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1907)2001 – Henri Alekan, French cinematographer (b.", "1909)2002 – Choi Hong Hi, South Korean general and martial artist, founded Taekwondo (b.", "1918)2003 – Hume Cronyn, Canadian-American actor (b.", "1911)2004 – Ahmet Piriştina, Turkish politician and mayor of İzmir (b.", "1952)2005 – Suzanne Flon, French actress (b.", "1918)2006 – Raymond Devos, Belgian-French comedian and clown (b.", "1922)* 2006 – Herb Pearson, New Zealand cricketer (b.", "1910)2008 – Ray Getliffe, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1914)2011 – Bill Haast, American herpetologist and academic (b.", "1910)2012 – Phillip D. Cagan, American economist and author (b.", "1927) 2012 – Barry MacKay, American tennis player and sportscaster (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Israel Nogueda Otero, Mexican economist and politician, 10th Governor of Guerrero (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Jerry Tubbs, American football player and coach (b.", "1935)2013 – Heinz Flohe, German footballer and manager (b.", "1948) 2013 – José Froilán González, Argentinian racing driver (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Dennis O'Rourke, Australian director and producer (b.", "1945)* 2013 – Kenneth G. Wilson, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1936)2014 – Jacques Bergerac, French actor and businessman (b.", "1927) 2014 – Casey Kasem, American radio host, producer, and voice actor, co-created ''American Top 40'' (b.", "1932)* 2014 – Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Moise Safra, Brazilian businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Banco Safra (b.", "1934)2015 – Kirk Kerkorian, American businessman, founded the Tracinda Corporation (b.", "1917)2016 – Lois Duncan, American author (b.", "1934)2018 – Matt \"Guitar\" Murphy, American Blues guitarist (b.", "1929)2019 – Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film director (b.", "1923)2023 – Glenda Jackson, English actress and politician (b.", "1936)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Arbor Day (Costa Rica)Christian feast day:Abraham of Clermont (or of St Cyriacus)Alice (or Adelaide) of SchaerbeekAugustine of Hippo (Eastern Orthodox Church)Blessed Albertina BerkenbrockBlessed Clement VismaraEdburga of WinchesterEvelyn Underhill (Church of England and The Episcopal Church)Germaine CousinLandelin (of Crespin or of Lobbes)TrilloVitus (Guy), Modestus and CrescentiaJune 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Day of Valdemar and Reunion Day (Flag Day) (Denmark)Engineer's Day (Italy)Global Wind Day (international)National Beer Day (United Kingdom)National Salvation Day (Azerbaijan)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judit Polgár" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Judit Polgár''' (born 23 July 1976) is a Hungarian chess grandmaster, widely regarded as the strongest female chess player of all time.", "In 1991, Polgár achieved the title of Grandmaster at the age of 15 years and 4 months, at the time the youngest to have done so, breaking the record previously held by former world champion Bobby Fischer.", "She was the youngest player ever to break into the FIDE top 100 players rating list, ranking No.", "55 in the January 1989 rating list, at the age of 12.Polgár is the only woman to have been a serious candidate for the World Chess Championship, in which she participated in 2005; she had previously participated in large, 100-player-plus knockout tournaments for the world championship.", "She is also the only woman to have surpassed 2700 Elo, reaching a peak world ranking of No.", "8 in 2004 and peak rating of 2735 in 2005.She is the only woman to be ranked in the top ten of all chess players, first reaching that ranking in 1996.She was the No.", "1 rated woman in the world from January 1989 until her retirement on 13 August 2014.She has won or shared first in the chess tournaments of Hastings 1993, Madrid 1994, León 1996, U.S. Open 1998, Hoogeveen 1999, Sigeman & Co 2000, Japfa 2000, and the Najdorf Memorial 2000.Polgár is the only woman to have won a game against a reigning world number one player, and has defeated eleven current or former world champions in either rapid or classical chess: Magnus Carlsen, Anatoly Karpov, Garry Kasparov, Vladimir Kramnik, Boris Spassky, Vasily Smyslov, Veselin Topalov, Viswanathan Anand, Ruslan Ponomariov, Alexander Khalifman, and Rustam Kasimdzhanov.On 13 August 2014, she announced her retirement from competitive chess.", "In June 2015, Polgár was elected as the new captain and head coach of the Hungarian national men's team.", "On 20 August 2015, she received Hungary's highest decoration, the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary.", "In 2021, Polgár was inducted into the World Chess Hall of Fame." ], [ "Early life", "Judit, Zsuzsa, Zsófia and László Polgár, 1989Polgár was born on 23 July 1976 in Budapest to a Hungarian-Jewish family.", "Polgár and her two older sisters, Grandmaster Susan and International Master Sofia, were part of an educational experiment carried out by their father, László Polgár, in an attempt to prove that children could make exceptional achievements if trained in a specialist subject from a very early age.", "\"Geniuses are made, not born,\" was László's thesis.", "He and his wife Klára educated their three daughters at home, with chess as the specialist subject.", "László also taught his three daughters the international language Esperanto.", "They received resistance from Hungarian authorities as home-schooling was not a \"socialist\" approach.", "They also received criticism at the time from some Western commentators for depriving the sisters of a normal childhood.Traditionally, chess had been a male-dominated activity, and women were often seen as weaker players, thus advancing the idea of a Women's World Champion.", "However, from the beginning, László was against the idea that his daughters had to participate in female-only events.", "\"Women are able to achieve results similar, in fields of intellectual activities, to that of men,\" he wrote.", "\"Chess is a form of intellectual activity, so this applies to chess.", "Accordingly, we reject any kind of discrimination in this respect.\"", "This put the Polgárs in conflict with the Hungarian Chess Federation of the day, whose policy was for women to play in women-only tournaments.", "Polgár's older sister, Susan, first fought the bureaucracy by playing in men's tournaments and refusing to play in women's tournaments.", "In 1985, when she was a 15-year-old International Master, Susan said that it was due to this conflict that she had not been awarded the Grandmaster title despite having made the norm eleven times." ], [ "Career", "Polgár rarely played in women-specific tournaments or divisions and has never competed for the Women's World Championship: \"I always say that women should have the self-confidence that they are as good as male players, but only if they are willing to work and take it seriously as much as male players.\"", "While László Polgár has been credited with being an excellent chess coach, the Polgárs had also employed professional chessplayers to train their daughters, including Hungarian champion IM Tibor Florian, GM Pal Benko, and Russian GM Alexander Chernin.", "Susan Polgár, the eldest of the sisters, 5½ years older than Sophia and 7 years older than Judit, was the first of the sisters to achieve prominence in chess by winning tournaments, and by 1986, she was the world's top-rated female chess player.", "Initially, being the youngest, Judit was separated from her sisters while they were in training.", "However, this only served to increase Judit's curiosity.", "After she had learned the rules, they discovered Judit was able to find solutions to the problems they were studying, and she began to be invited into the group.", "One evening, Susan was studying an endgame with their trainer, a strong International Master.", "Unable to find the solution, they woke Judit, who was asleep in bed and carried her into the training room.", "Still half asleep, Judit showed them how to solve the problem, after which they put her back to bed.", "László Polgár's experiment would produce a family of one international master and two grandmasters and would strengthen the argument for nurture over nature, as well as prove women could be chess grandmasters.===Child prodigy===Trained in her early years by her sister Susan, who ultimately became Women's World Champion, Judit Polgár was a chess prodigy from an early age.", "At age 5, she defeated a family friend without looking at the board.", "After the game, the friend joked: \"You are good at chess, but I'm a good cook.\"", "Judit replied: \"Do you cook without looking at the stove?\"", "However, according to Susan, Judit was not the sister with the most talent, explaining: \"Judit was a slow starter, but very hard-working.\"", "Polgár described herself at that age as \"obsessive\" about chess.", "She first defeated an International Master, Dolfi Drimer, at age 10 and a grandmaster, Lev Gutman, at age 11.Judit started playing in tournaments at 6 years old, and by age 9 her rating with the Hungarian Chess Federation was 2080.She was a member of a chess club in Budapest, where she would get experience from master level players.", "In 1984 in Budapest, Sophia and Judit, at the time 9 and 7 years of age, respectively, played two games of blindfold chess against two masters, which they won.", "At one point the girls complained that one of their opponents was playing too slowly and suggested a clock should be used.In April 1986, 9-year-old Judit played in her first rated tournament in the U.S., finishing first in the unrated section of the New York Open, winning US$1,000.All three Polgár sisters competed.", "Susan, 16, competed in the grandmaster section and had a victory against GM Walter Browne, and Sophia, 11, finished second in her section, but Judit gathered most of the attention in the tournament.", "Grandmasters would drop by to watch the serious, quiet child playing.", "She won her first seven games before drawing the final game.", "Although the unrated section had many of the weaker players in the Open, it also had players of expert strength who were foreign to the United States and had not been rated yet.", "Milorad Boskovic related a conversation with Judit's sixth-round opponent, a Yugoslav player he knew to be a strong expert: \"He told me he took some chances in the game because he couldn't believe she was going to attack so well.\"", "Not able to speak English, her mother interpreted as she told a reporter her goal was to be a chess professional.", "When the reporter asked her if she would be world champion one day, Judit answered: \"I will try.", "\"In late 1986, 10-year-old Judit defeated 52-year-old Romanian IM Dolfi Drimer in the Adsteam Lidums International Tournament in Adelaide, Australia.", "Edmar Mednis said he played his best game of the tournament in beating Judit: \"I was careful in that game... Grandmasters don't like to lose to 10-year-old girls, because then we make the front page of all the papers.", "\"In April 1988, Polgár made her first International Master norm in the International B section of the New York Open.", "In August 1988, she won the under-12 \"Boys\" section of the World Youth Chess and Peace Festival in Timișoara, Romania.", "In October 1988, she finished first in a 10-player round-robin tournament in London, scoring 7–2, for a half point lead over Israeli GM Yair Kraidman.", "With these three results, she completed the requirements for the International Master title; at the time, she was the youngest player ever to have achieved this distinction.", "Both Bobby Fischer and Garry Kasparov were 14 when they were awarded the title; Polgár was 12.It was during this time that former world champion Mikhail Tal said Polgár had the potential to win the World Championship.Sofia at Thessaloniki, 1988Judit was asked about playing against boys instead of in the girls' section of tournaments: \"These other girls are not serious about chess...", "I practice five or six hours a day, but they get distracted by cooking and work around the house.", "\"In November 1988, Judit and her sisters, along with Ildikó Mádl, represented Hungary in the Women's section of the 28th Chess Olympiad in Thessaloniki.", "The International Chess Federation would not permit the Polgárs to play against men in team competitions.", "Prior to the tournament, Eduard Gufeld, Soviet GM and team coach for the Soviet women's team, dismissed the Polgárs: \"I believe that these girls are going to lose a good part of their quickly acquired image in the 28th Olympiad...", "Afterward we are going to know if the Hungarian sisters are geniuses or just women!\"", "However, the Hungarian women's team won the championship, which marked the first time it was not won by the Soviet Union.", "Judit played board 2 and finished the tournament with the highest score of 12½–½ to win the individual gold medal.", "She also won the brilliancy prize for her game against Pavlina Angelova.In the January 1989 Elo rating list, at the age of 12, she was rated 2555, which was number 55 in the world and 35 rating points ahead of the Women's World Champion Maia Chiburdanidze.", "In the six months since the previous list, she had gained a remarkable 190 rating points.", "Judit's quiet and modest demeanour at the board contrasted with the intensity of her playing style.", "David Norwood, British GM, in recalling Judit beating him when he was an established player and she was just a child, described her as \"this cute little auburn-haired monster who crushed you.\"", "British journalist Dominic Lawson wrote about 12-year-old Judit's \"killer\" eyes and how she would stare at her opponent: \"The irises are so grey, so dark they are almost indistinguishable from the pupils.", "Set against her long red hair, the effect is striking.", "\"Before age 13, she had broken into the top 100 players in the world and the ''British Chess Magazine'' declared: \"Judit Polgár's recent results make the performances of Fischer and Kasparov at a similar age pale by comparison.\"", "British GM Nigel Short called Judit \"one of the three or four greatest chess prodigies in history\".", "However, Kasparov expressed early doubts: \"She has fantastic chess talent, but she is, after all, a woman.", "It all comes down to the imperfections of the feminine psyche.", "No woman can sustain a prolonged battle.\"", "Later in life, however, after he had lost a rapid game against Polgár himself in 2002, Kasparov revised his opinion: \"The Polgárs showed that there are no inherent limitations to their aptitude—an idea that many male players refused to accept until they had unceremoniously been crushed by a twelve-year-old with a ponytail.", "\"In 1989, Polgár tied with Boris Gelfand for third in the OHRA Open in Amsterdam, earning her first Grandmaster norm.By now, numerous books and articles had been written about the Polgár sisters, making them famous even outside of the world of chess.", "In 1989, American President George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara met with the Polgárs during their visit to Hungary.", "Although not released until 1996, in 1990 a documentary about children playing chess, ''Chess Kids'', featuring Polgár, was filmed.", "The documentary did not include an interview with Polgár as her father required payment.In 1990, Judit won the Boys section of the under-14 in the World Youth Chess Festival in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin.", "Also in 1990, Judit and her sisters represented Hungary in the Women's Olympiad, winning the gold medal.", "It was the last women-only tournament in which Judit would ever participate.In October 1991, Judit finished with 5½–3½, tied for third for fifth position with Zoltán Ribli and John Nunn, at a tournament in Vienna.===Grandmaster===In December 1991, Polgár achieved the grandmaster title by winning the Hungarian National Championship, at the time the youngest ever at 15 years, 4 months to have achieved the title.", "This beat Fischer's record by a month.", "This made her both the first woman to be the youngest-ever grandmaster and the fourth woman to become a grandmaster (after Nona Gaprindashvili, Maia Chiburdanidze and Polgar's sister Susan).", "With this, Polgar also beat her sister Susan's record for youngest-ever female grandmaster, obtained earlier in January 1991, by over 7 years.", "Hungary, one of the strongest chess-playing countries, had all but one of their strongest players participate in that year's championship, as only Zoltán Ribli was missing.", "Going into the last round, Polgár needed only a draw to achieve the GM title, but she won her game against GM Tibor Tolnai to finish first, with six points in nine games.In 1992, Polgár tied for second, behind Anatoly Karpov at the Madrid International in Linares.", "She and Russian GM Vladimir Epishin finished with 5½–3½.", "In July 1992, she placed second in the Reshevsky Memorial in Manhattan finishing with four wins, five draws and no losses.", "In September 1992, Polgár participated in a tournament held in Aruba in which a team of senior men's players competed against a team of top women players.", "The men's team consisted of Lev Polugaevsky, Wolfgang Uhlmann, Oscar Panno, Efim Geller, Borislav Ivkov and Vasily Smyslov.", "The women's team consisted of Judit and Zsuzsa Polgár, Pia Cramling, Chiburdanidze, Ketevan Arakhamia and Alisa Galliamova.", "The men won the tournament 39–33.The overall high scorer was Polugaevsky, 57 years old with Polgár, 16, finishing second with 7½–4½.In 1993, Polgár defeated former world champion Boris Spassky (pictured here in 1984) in an exhibition match.Polgár then tied for first in the Hastings tournament held over New Year's, 1992–93.Russian GM Evgeny Bareev, at the time ranked eighth in the world, led going into tournament's last round, but was defeated by Polgár in their second individual game, allowing her to share first.", "Immediately following the Hastings tournament, Polgár played an exhibition match in February against former World Champion, Boris Spassky.", "She won the match 5½–4½ and won $110,000, the largest prize money to that point in her career.", "Polgár also participated in the Melody Amber tournament in Monaco which featured a blindfold tournament of 12 grandmasters.", "Anand and Karpov finished first, Ljubojević third, while Polgár finished in clear fourth with 6½ points from 11 rounds, ahead of other strong GMs such as Ivanchuk, Short, Korchnoi and her sister Susan.In 1993, Polgár became the first woman to ever qualify for an Interzonal tournament.", "In March, she finished in a four-way tie for second place in the Budapest Zonal and won the tiebreaking tournament.", "She then confirmed her status as one of the world's leading players, narrowly failing to qualify for the Candidates Tournaments at the rival FIDE and PCA Interzonal tournaments.In the summer of 1993, Bobby Fischer stayed for a time in the Polgár household.", "He had been living in seclusion in Yugoslavia due to an arrest warrant issued by the United States for violating the U.N. blockade of Yugoslavia with his 1992 match against Spassky.", "Susan Polgár met Bobby with her family and persuaded him to come out of hiding \"in a cramped hotel room in a small Yugoslavian village\".", "During his stay, he played many games of Fischer Random Chess and helped the sisters analyse their games.", "Susan said, while he was friendly on a personal level and recalled mostly pleasant moments as their guest, there were conflicts due to his political views.", "On the suggestion of a friend of Fischer, a match of blitz chess between Fischer and Polgár was arranged and announced to the press.", "However, problems ensued between Fischer and László Polgár and Fischer cancelled the match, telling a friend who asked if the match would take place, \"No, they're Jewish.", "\"In the summer of 1994, Polgár had the greatest success of her career to that point, when she won the Madrid International in Spain.", "Against a field which included Gata Kamsky, Evgeny Bareev, Valery Salov and Ivan Sokolov, she finished 7–2 and 1½ points ahead of second place.", "Her performance rating for the tournament was 2778 against an opposition rated at 2672.In October 1994, she played in a tournament in Buenos Aires which was a tribute to an ailing Polugaevsky.", "Eight grandmasters participated, all considered contenders for the world championship: Karpov, Anand, Salov, Ivanchuk, Kamsky, Shirov, Ljubojević and Polgár.", "The tournament was unusual as Black in each game was required to play a Sicilian Defence, since Polugaevsky was considered the all-time authority on the opening.", "This was to Polgár's advantage as it was her favourite.", "Against the elite competition she finished tied for third with Ivanchuk.In September 1995, Polgár finished third with a score of 7–4 in the Donner Memorial in Amsterdam, behind Jan Timman and Julio Granda Zuniga, who tied for first, and ahead of Yasser Seirawan, Alexander Huzman, Alexei Shirov, Alexander Khalifman, Alexander Morozevich and Valery Salov.", "She secured a clear third place with a 21-move win over Shirov in her last game.", "In the Antillean island of Aruba in November 1995, she played in a friendly match against Jeroen Piket of the Netherlands, at the time one of the top players in Europe.", "Despite being closely matched in ratings, Polgár won the match 6–2.Lewis chessmenIn 1995, the Isle of Lewis chess club in Scotland attempted to arrange a game between Polgár and Nigel Short in which the famous Lewis chessmen would be used.", "The Lewis chessmen is a chess set carved in the 12th century.", "However, the British Museum refused to release the set despite assurances that the players would wear gloves.", "Scottish member of parliament Calum MacDonald pointed out that the set would be safe, especially as chess was not a contact sport.", "In the end, the Museum allowed the chess set to be displayed at the Isle of Lewis festival tournament, but they were not used in any games.", "Polgár won the double round-robin tournament of four GMs, scoring five points in the six games and winning both her games against Short.====Kasparov touch-move controversy====At Linares 1994, Polgár lost a controversial game to the World Champion Garry Kasparov.", "The tournament marked the first time the 17-year-old Polgár was invited to compete with the world's strongest players.", "After four games she had two points.", "During her game with Kasparov in the fifth round, Kasparov gradually outplayed her and had a clear advantage after 35 moves.", "On his 36th move, the World Champion reportedly changed his mind about the move of a knight, and moved the piece to a different square.", "According to chess rules, once a player has released a piece, the move must stand, so if Kasparov did remove his hand, he should have been required to play his original move.", "Polgár did not challenge Kasparov in the moment, because, she stated, \"I was playing the World Champion and didn't want to cause unpleasantness during my first invitation to such an important event.", "I was also afraid that if my complaint was overruled I would be penalized on the clock when we were in time pressure.\"", "She did, however, look questioningly at the arbiter, Carlos Falcon, who witnessed the incident and took no action.The incident was caught on tape by a crew from the Spanish television company PVS, and the videotape showed that Kasparov's fingers had left the knight.", "Tournament director Carlos Falcon did not forfeit Kasparov when this evidence was made available to him.", "As U.S. chess journalist Shelby Lyman pointed out, in the majority of sports \"instant replays\" do not overrule a referee's original decision and chess is no exception.", "At the time the video had not been publicly released, at the request of tournament sponsor Luis Rentero, but it is now available on Youtube.", "At one point Polgár reportedly confronted Kasparov in the hotel bar, asking him, \"How could you do this to me?\"", "Following this incident, Kasparov bluntly told an interviewer \"... she just publicly said I was cheating.", "...", "I think a girl of her age should be taught some good manners before making such statements.\"", "Subsequently, Kasparov refused to speak to her for three years.", "Kasparov told reporters that his conscience was clear, as he was not aware of his hand leaving the piece.", "Although Polgár recovered by the end of the tournament, she went into a slump over the next six rounds, gaining only half a point.", "The incident may also have had an effect on Kasparov, who turned out a subpar performance in the tournament.===Strongest female player ever===Polgár is generally considered the strongest female chess player of all time.", "In January 1996, she became the only woman ever to be ranked in the top ten of all chess players.", "In August 1996, she participated in a very strong 10-player tournament in Vienna.", "There was a three-way tie for first between Karpov, Topalov and Boris Gelfand and a three-way tie for fourth between Kramnik, Polgár and Lékó.", "In December 1996, Polgár played a match in São Paulo against Brazil's champion Gilbert Milos.", "The four games were played at 30 moves an hour with 30 minutes for the remainder of the game.", "Polgár won two, drew one and lost one and won $12,000 in prize money.In February 1997, she played in the Linares \"supertournament\" which Kasparov won by edging out Kramnik.", "Polgár finished in clear fifth position in the 12-GM tournament, ahead of Anand, Ivanchuk, Gelfand and Shirov.", "Her result was considered exceptional considering the strength of the tournament, average 2701, and she was praised for her tactical skills in her game against Ivanchuk.", "In April 1997, she played in the Dos Hermanas Chess tournament, a single-round robin category XIX event of 10 of the world's best players.", "She finished in sixth place with an even score of 4½–4½.", "In June 1997, she finished with an even score, 4½–4½, in the Madrid 10-player GM tournament won by Topalov.", "In July 1997, Polgár competed in the elite Dortmund International Tournament.", "She finished in fifth in the strong field of ten, ahead of players such as Anatoly Karpov.", "In the tournament, she won playing with the black pieces against Veselin Topalov, at the time ranked fourth in the world.", "Topalov had the advantage until Polgár executed a deep positional sacrifice.", "In October 1997, she tied for second in a double round-robin tournament of four grandmasters in the VAM International Tournament in Hoogeveen, the Netherlands.", "\"There has long been a lively debate about who is the strongest player of all\", wrote GM Robert Byrne in his ''New York Times'' column of 26 August 1997.", "\"Prominent candidates are Bobby Fischer, Garry Kasparov, Jose Raul Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine or Emanuel Lasker.", "But there is no argument about the greatest female player: she is 21-year-old Judit Polgár.", "\"In 1998 Polgár defeated Anatoly Karpov in a match of \"action\" chess (30 minutes per game).", "At the time Karpov was FIDE World Champion.In January 1998, she played in the category XVII event, the Hoogovens in Wijk aan Zee, Netherlands, in which 14 of the world's top grandmasters participated.", "She finished in the middle of the pack, tied for sixth–tenth position with Karpov, Topalov and Jeroen Piket and an even score of 6½ points in thirteen games.", "Polgár handed co-winner Vishwanathan Anand his only loss of the tournament.", "In June 1998 in Budapest, Polgár played an eight-game match of \"action\" chess, which is 30 minutes for the entire game, against Anatoly Karpov.", "She won the match 5–3 by winning two games with the remaining ending in draws.", "At the time Karpov was the FIDE World Champion.", "In August 1998, Polgár became the first woman to ever win the U.S. Open, which was held at the Kona Surf Resort in Kailua-Kona, Hawaii.", "She shared the tournament victory with GM Boris Gulko as each scored 8–1.Typical of her aggressive style was her victory against GM Georgi Kacheishvili in which she sacrificed her queen for the attack.", "In October 1998, Polgár won the VAM four-grandmaster tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands by 1½ points over Jan Timman.", "In November 1998, Polgár played in the Wydra Memorial Rapid chess tournament in Israel.", "She tied for first with Viswanathan Anand as both scored 11½ out of the 14 games.", "Anand won the tournament in a tie-break game over Polgár.In the two years since Polgár became the first woman to ever break into the top 10, her rating had dropped.", "Although she was in the top 20, this had the effect of her being invited less frequently to the strongest tournaments.In October 1999, Polgár participated in the four-player GM section of the VAM Chess tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands.", "Jan Timman led early in the tournament, but Polgár staged a comeback scoring 3 points in the last 4 games to share first place.", "Anatoly Karpov finished in third and Darmen Sadvakasov fourth.In January 2000, Polgár had, for her, a disappointing result in a tournament in Pamplona, Spain, which was won by Nigel Short.", "She finished with only 4 points from 9 games, tied for 6–7 place with Jan Timman, who had also played below his rating.", "Polgár had another disappointing result later in the month in the category XVIII tournament in Corus Wijk aan Zee which was won by Kasparov.", "She did not win a game until the 11th round and finished with 5 points in 13 games, tied with Victor Korchnoi for 11–12 position among the fourteen GMs.", "However, in the European Teams Championship in Batumi, Georgia, also in January, she won the gold medal playing Board 2, scoring 6½–2½.In April and May 2000, Polgár won one of the strongest tournaments ever held in Asia.", "The Japfa Classic in Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia, was a category XVI event of 10 players which included Alexander Khalifman–at the time FIDE world champion– and Anatoly Karpov–his predecessor.", "Going into the last round four players, Polgár, Khalifman, Karpov and Gilberto Milos were tied, but Polgár won her game over Brazilian GM Milos while Khalifman and Karpov played against each other in a draw.", "Polgár finished clear first with 6½–2½, winning the $20,000 first place prize money.", "At the end of May, she won the Sigeman & Company International Tournament in Malmö, Sweden.", "She finished the four-player double round-robin tournament scoring 4 points, with Jan Timman at 3½ with Ulf Andersson and Tiger Hillarp-Persson finishing in that order.", "In June 2000, she played in the GM Tournament Mérida, State of Yucatán, finishing in second place a half point behind Alexei Shirov.", "In September 2000, she shared first place in the Najdorf Chess Festival with Viktor Bologan, ahead of Nigel Short and Anatoly Karpov.", "In October and November, she represented Hungary playing board 3 in the 34th Chess Olympiad.", "While the Hungarian team narrowly missed winning the bronze medal, Polgár finished 10/13 for the second highest points total of any player in the Olympiad and a rated performance level of 2772.In late February and early March 2001, Polgár played in the elite Linares double round-robin invitational of six of the world's strongest players.", "The tournament was Kasparov's triumph as he scored 7½ points in 10 games.", "The other five participants, Polgár, Karpov, Shirov, Grischuk and Lékó all finished with 4½ for second and last position.", "However, Polgár drew both her games with Kasparov, the first time in her career she had done this under tournament time controls.", "In March 2001, she reached the semifinals of the ''World Cup'' rapid play tournament in Cannes.", "She made it to the final four from the 16 grandmasters in the tournament.", "She lost the semifinal match to Evgeny Bareev, who in turn lost to Kasparov.", "In a quarterfinal playoff blitz game, she forced Joël Lautier, France's strongest player, to resign in 12 moves when she won his queen which resulted in the audience of several hundred bursting into applause.", "In June 2001, Polgár finished fourth in the European Championship in Ohrid, Macedonia, a 13-round Swiss-system tournament of 143 Grandmasters and 38 IMs.", "In October 2001, she tied for first with GM Loek van Wely in the Essent Tourney in Hoogeveen, the Netherlands.===Making history===In September 2002, in the ''Russia versus the Rest of the World Match'', Polgár finally defeated Garry Kasparov in a game.", "The tournament was played under rapid rules with 25 minutes per game and a 10-second bonus increment per move.", "She won the game with exceptional positional play.", "Kasparov with black chose the Berlin Defence instead of his usual Sicilian, and Polgár proceeded with a line which Kasparov had used himself.", "Polgár was able to attack Kasparov's king (which was still in the centre of the board) with her rooks, and when he was two pawns down, Kasparov resigned.", "The game helped the World team win the match 52–48.Upon resigning, Kasparov immediately left by a passageway barred to journalists and photographers.", "Kasparov had once described Polgár as a \"circus puppet\" and asserted that women chess players should stick to having children.", "Polgár called the game \"one of the most remarkable moments of her career\".", "The game was historic as it was the first time in chess history that a female player beat the world's No.", "1 player in competitive play.", "An interview with Polgár including video of the match was included in the BBC Witness radio program in 2016.In October and November 2002, Polgár played on second board (with Péter Lékó on first) for Hungary in the 35th Chess Olympiad.", "While not having the stunning performance as she had in the 2000 Olympiad, she helped Hungary attain the silver medal for the event.", "While the Hungarians had the best win–loss record of the tournament as a team and lost only a single game of the 56 they played, they had won most of their matches by 2½–1½ scores, while the Russian team won gold as they piled up the points.", "However, Hungary gave the gold-winning Russian team its only defeat.", "Polgár's fourth-round game against Azerbaijan's Shakhriyar Mamedyarov included a brilliant 12.Nxf7, drawing his king into the center of the board.By early 2003, Polgár had worked her way back into the top 10 rated players in the world.", "In 2003, Polgár scored one of her best results: an undefeated clear second place in the Category XIX Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee, Netherlands, just a half-point behind future world champion Viswanathan Anand and a full point ahead of then-world champion Vladimir Kramnik.", "One of the highlight games of the tournament was Polgár's fourth round crushing victory over Anatoly Karpov.", "She played a novelty in the opening which she devised over the board.", "The game lasted 33 moves with Karpov down two pawns and his king exposed.", "Polgár admitted to \"enjoying herself\" by the end of the game.", "In April 2003, Polgár finished second in The Hunguest Hotels Super Tournament in Budapest behind Nigel Short.", "She appeared headed for a first-place victory in the tournament, but lost her game against compatriot Péter Lékó.", "In June 2003, Polgár finished tied for third with Boris Gelfand, in the Enghien-les-Bains International Tournament in France, scoring 5½–3½, behind Evgeny Bareev who won the tournament and GM Michael Adams.", "In August 2003, Polgár played an eight-game rapid chess match in Mainz, Germany against Viswanathan Anand, billed as the \"Battle of the Sexes\".", "After six games each player had won three games.", "Anand won the final two games to win the match.", "In October 2003, Polgár won the 4–grandmaster Essent tournament in Hoogeveen, Netherlands.", "In one of her games against Karpov, he blundered, allowing Polgár to utilize a famous double bishop sacrifice first employed by Emanuel Lasker against Bauer in 1889.In 2004, Polgár took some time off from chess to give birth to her son, Olivér.", "She was consequently considered inactive and not listed on the January 2005 FIDE rating list.", "Her sister Susan reactivated her playing status during this period and temporarily became the world's No.", "1 ranked female player again.Polgár returned to chess at the prestigious Corus chess tournament on 15 January 2005.The tournament, which was now considered by some as the most important in Europe, was won by fellow Hungarian Péter Lékó while Polgár scored 7/13 to tie for fourth with Alexander Grischuk, Michael Adams and Kramnik.", "She was therefore relisted in the April 2005 FIDE rating list, gaining a few rating points for her better-than-par performance at Corus.", "In May she also had a better-than-par performance at a strong tournament in Sofia, Bulgaria, finishing third.", "This brought her to her highest ever rating, 2735, in the July 2005 FIDE list and enabled her to retain her spot as the eighth ranked player in the world.In September 2005, Polgár once again made history as she became the first woman to play in the final stages of the World Chess Championship qualification; she had previously participated in large, 100+ player knockout tournaments for the world championship, but this was a small 8-player invitational.", "However, she performed poorly, coming last of the eight competitors.", "However, in her game against Veselin Topalov, Polgár pushed the eventual tournament winner and world champion to a seven-hour marathon before succumbing.She did not play at the 2006 Linares tournament because she was pregnant again.", "On 6 July 2006, she gave birth to a girl, Hanna.Polgár participated in the FIDE world blitz championship on 5–7 September 2006 in Rishon Le Zion, Israel.", "Blitz chess is played with each player having only 5 minutes for all moves.", "The round-robin tournament of 16 of some of the strongest players in the world, concluded with Alexander Grischuk finally edging out Peter Svidler in a tie-break to win the tournament.", "Polgár finished tied for fifth/sixth place, winning $5,625 for the three-day tournament.", "Polgár tied with Boris Gelfand with 9½ points and won her individual game against Viswanathan Anand, at the time the world's No.", "2 player.", "In October 2006, Polgár scored another excellent result: tied for first place in the Essent Chess Tournament, Hoogeveen, the Netherlands.", "She scored 4½ out of 6 in a double round-robin tournament that included two wins against the world's top-rated player, Veselin Topalov.", "In December 2006, Polgár played a six-game match of blindfold rapid chess against former FIDE world champion Veselin Topalov.", "Topalov won the match 3½–2½ with two wins to Polgár's one.", "Nearly 1,000 spectators attended the event.In May–June 2007 she played in the Candidates Tournament for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2007.She was eliminated in the first round, losing 3½–2½ to Evgeny Bareev.", "Some chess pundits said she was \"poorly prepared\" for the tournament; she had played less chess in the last three years as she gave birth to her two children.", "However, she was still credited with the most beautiful attack of the tournament in her fifth game victory.", "In July 2007, Polgár played in the Biel Chess Festival which was won by 16-year-old Magnus Carlsen.", "Polgár finished the 9 round tournament at 5–4 in a four-way tie for third to sixth place.", "A highlight game for her was actually a draw.", "Polgár was playing an endgame of knight against knight and two connected passed pawns of Alexander Grischuk, but she was able to eliminate both pawns.", "In October 2007, Polgár played in the Blindfold World Cup in Bilbao, Spain.", "Polgár finished in fourth place of the six players with three wins, four losses, and three draws.", "The tournament was won by Bu Xiangzhi of China, whose only loss was to Polgár.", "In November 2007, she took part in ''Chess Champions League – Playing for a Better World'' in Vitoria Gasteiz, Spain a tournament to raise funds for equipment for a Hospital in Mbuji-Mayi, DR Congo.", "Polgár finished tied for third in the strong six-player tournament and handed tournament winner Veselin Topalov his only loss.In January 2008 she competed in the strong Corus Wijk aan Zee tournament, scoring a respectable 6/13 and tied 9–11 in the 14 player tournament.", "In November 2008, Polgár had a terrible result in The World Chess Blitz Championship in Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan, finished last of the 16 players with only 2½ points.", "In November 2008, Polgár played the number 2 board for the Hungarian open (\"men's\") team in the 38th Chess Olympiad in Dresden, finishing 3½/8.In November 2009, Polgár participated in the FIDE World Cup at Khanty Mansiysk in Siberia.", "Polgár made it to the third round of the knockout tournament until she was eliminated by tournament winner Boris Gelfand.", "She handed Gelfand his only loss of the tournament.===Return to competition===In 2010, Polgár began her return to competitive chess and would play more than she had in recent years.", "In March 2010, Polgár played a four-game match against GM Gregory Kaidanov at Hilton Head, South Carolina.", "It was required that each game begin with the Sicilian Defense.", "The match was drawn with each player winning two games.", "In April 2010, Polgár played an eight-game rapid chess match against Czech GM David Navara which was part of the ČEZ Chess Trophy 2010 festival of the Prague Chess Society.", "Despite slightly higher ranking, 2708 to Polgár's 2682, Navara lost the match 6–2.Polgár participated in the rapid chess tournament of the Presidential Chess Cup in Baku, Azerbaijan from 29 April to 1 May 2010.She finished with one win, two losses and four draws, tied for fifth position in the eight-player round robin.", "The tournament finished with a three-way tie for first with the winner, Kramnik, being decided by Elo over Mamedyarov and Kamsky.", "In June 2010, it was reported Polgár was assisting GM Zoltán Almási in training for the Olympiad.In September and October 2010, Polgár played 3rd board for the Hungarian Men's team in the 39th Chess Olympiad in Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia.", "The team finished in fourth place, losing the Bronze medal to Israel on tie-break.", "Playing more in 2010 than in recent years, Polgár finished fourth overall among Board three players with a 6/10 score.", "The highlight for the Hungarian Men's team was a fifth-round victory over Russia I.", "In November 2010, Polgár won the four-player rapid tournament which was held to celebrate the National University of Mexico's 100th anniversary.", "Polgár won a close opening match against Vassily Ivanchuk.", "She then crushed Veselin Topalov, a former world champion and ranked No.", "1 in the world in 2009, 3½–½ to win the tournament.On 2 April 2011, Polgár finished in a four-way tie for first in the European Individual Chess Championship in Aix-les-Bains, France.", "The tournament, featuring 393 players of which 167 were Grandmasters, was won by Russian Vladimir Potkin on tie-break; GM Radosław Wojtaszek won the silver, while Polgár placed third, winning the bronze.", "Polgár was praised for her creative attacks and endgame technique.", "Polgár became the first woman ever to finish in the top three of the male championship.", "Continuing Polgár's return to competitive chess, in July 2011 she participated in the 39th Greek Team National Championship, scoring 3½ out of 4 games.", "Also in July 2011, Polgár played Board 3 for Hungary in the World Team Championships.", "Hungary finished in fifth place of the ten teams and individually Polgár finished sixteenth of the fifty players.In September 2011, Polgár competed in the Chess World Cup, a 128-player tournament with a large prize fund and qualification to the top three for the World Championship cycle.", "Polgár made it to the final 8 players before she was eliminated by Peter Svidler.", "A highlight for Polgár was her elimination of the tournament's No.", "1 seed and world's fifth highest rated player, Sergey Karjakin.", "In October 2011, Polgár took part in the Unive 2011 competition.", "She finished last in the elite four-player Crown group, losing games to Vladimir Kramnik and Anish Giri.In September 2011, Polgár finally returned to \"Super GM\" status with a FIDE rating of 2701 and by November she had raised it to 2710 and ranked 35 in the world.To begin 2012, in January Polgár competed in the Tradewise Gibraltar tournament, finishing with 7 points in 10 games.", "For the first time in 22 years since she lost to Nona Gaprindashvili in the 1990 Chess Olympiad, Polgár lost a classical game to a female player as Women's World champion Hou Yifan won their individual game and tied for first before losing the playoff to Nigel Short.In 2013, Polgár received the FIDE Caïssa Award, as Polgár was considered the best female player of 2012.This award, designed and executed by artisans of the Lobortas Classic Jewelry House, was presented on 2 October 2013 during the 84th FIDE Congress in Tallinn.On 5 October 2013, Polgár played Nigel Short in the eighteenth edition of Chess.com's Death Match.", "The final score was 17½-10½ in Polgár's favour.", "They played 28 games in total, separated into three stages of increasingly faster time controls, the first being 5+1, the second 3+1 and finally 1+1.Polgár later remarked on her Facebook page that \"it was great fun to play against Nigel...\" Nigel in turn tweeted in jest, \"Such bad chess.", "I should go and hang myself...\"In 2014, in the World Rapid and Blitz Chess Championship, she came 26th in the Blitz championship and 56th in the Rapid championship.On 13 August 2014, she announced in the London newspaper ''The Times'' her retirement from chess at the highest level." ], [ "Playing style", "While having a strong understanding of positional play, Polgár excels in tactics and is known for an aggressive playing style, striving to maximize the initiative and actively pursuing complications.", "The former world champion Garry Kasparov wrote that, based upon her games, \"if to 'play like a girl' meant anything in chess, it would mean relentless aggression.\"", "In her youth, she was especially popular with chess fans due to her willingness to employ wild gambits and attacks.", "As a teenager, Polgár has been credited with contributing to the popularity of the opening variation King's Bishop's Gambit.", "Polgár prefers aggressive openings, playing 1.e4 as White and the Sicilian or King's Indian Defence with black, but she has also said her opening choices will also depend upon her trainer.", "Jennifer Shahade, writer and two-time U.S. women's chess champion, suggested that the influence of Polgár as a role model may be one of the reasons women play more aggressive chess than men.", "Describing an individual encounter with Polgár, former U.S. Champion Joel Benjamin said, \"It was all-out war for five hours.", "I was totally exhausted.", "She is a tiger at the chessboard.", "She absolutely has a killer instinct.", "You make one mistake and she goes right for the throat.", "\"Polgár is especially adept at faster time controls.", "When she was still young, ''Der Spiegel'' wrote of her, \"her tactical thunderstorms during blitz games have confounded many opponents, who are rated higher.", "\"Polgár has spoken of appreciating the psychological aspect of chess.", "She has stated preferring to learn an opponent's style so she can play intentionally against that player rather than playing \"objective\" chess.", "In her 2002 victory (at 25 minutes time control) over Kasparov, she deliberately chose a line Kasparov had used against Vladimir Kramnik, employing the strategy of forcing the opponent to \"play against himself\".", "Kasparov's response was inadequate and he soon found himself in an inferior position.", "In an interview regarding playing against computers she said, \"Chess is 30 to 40% psychology.", "You don't have this when you play a computer.", "I can't confuse it.\"" ], [ "Chess professional", "Polgár at the 2008 Mainz Chess Classic\"You have to be very selfish sometimes\", said Polgár in speaking of the life of a professional chess player.", "\"If you are in a tournament, you have to think of yourself—you can't think of your wife or children—only about yourself.\"", "When asked in 2002 if she still desired to win the world championship she said, \"Chess is my profession and of course I hope to improve.", "But I'm not going to give up everything to become world champion; I have my life.", "\"Polgár has said she does not have a permanent coach although she does have help from GM Lev Psakhis or GM Mihail Marin.", "She said she rarely uses a second and when she travels to tournaments it is usually her husband who accompanies her.", "Polgár said she has changed how she prepares for tournaments.", "\"I make more use of my experience now and try to work more efficiently so that my efforts aren't wasted\", she said in 2008.Concentrating on her two children left Polgár with little time to train and play competitively and her ranking dropped from eighth in 2005 to the mid 50s in 2009.She played in the 2009 Maccabiah Games in Israel and was named the Outstanding Female Athlete of the Games.", "Polgár remained the only woman in the top 100 until Hou Yifan reached rank 86 in August 2014, just before Polgár played her last rated game in September 2014 and dropped off the top 100 list due to inactivity a year later.", "Polgár is still the only woman to have ever made the top 50.Comparing motherhood to playing chess, Polgár has said that a chess tournament now \"feels like a vacation\".", "When asked why she came back to chess after taking time off to care for her children, she said, \"I cannot live without chess!", "It is an integral part of my life.", "I enjoy the game!", "\"Despite being the highest-rated woman for twenty-five years, Polgár never competed for the women's world championship.", "In a 2011 interview she was asked about this possibility.", "Polgár said that in the past she has never been interested in competing for it, but in recent years \"the mentality of a couple of the women players has changed\".", "Polgár said that for her to consider competing it would have to be a challenge and \"if I get an extremely nice offer just to play for the title\".Polgár authored a series of children's books on chess, ''Chess Playground''.", "Her sister Sofia provided illustrations.In March 2013 she was awarded the Commander's Cross with Star of The Hungarian Order of Merit, one of Hungary's highest awards, \"for her worldwide acknowledged life achievement as an athlete, for promoting the game of chess and for her efforts to promote the educational benefits of chess\".", "In August 2015, she received The Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen, the highest state Order of Hungary." ], [ "Personal life", "In August 2000, Polgár married Hungarian veterinary surgeon Gusztáv Font.", "They have two children, a boy named Olivér (born 2004) and a girl named Hanna (born 2006).", "While Judit remained in Hungary, her sisters and parents eventually emigrated: Sofia to Israel, Susan to the United States, and her parents to Israel and the United States.Several members of Polgár's family were murdered in the Holocaust; her grandmother was a survivor of Auschwitz concentration camp." ], [ "Notable games", "* J. Polgár vs. V. Anand, Dos Hermanas 1999 Sicilian Defense: Scheveningen Variation.", "Delayed Keres Attack Perenyi Gambit (B90) · 1–0 Former trainer for the Polgárs, IM Tibor Károlyi, called this the most beautiful game ever played by a woman.", "* Judit Polgár vs. Ferenc Berkes, Hunguest Hotels Super Chess Tournament 2003 · French Defense: Classical.", "Burn Variation Main Line (C11) · 1–0 Polgár's opponent falls for a clever , expecting her to play 14.Bxa8 and he would reply with 14...g4, but she springs 14.g4* Alexey Shirov vs. Judit Polgar, Buenos Aires ARG 1994 · Sicilian Defense: Paulsen.", "Normal Variation (B45) · 0–1 Polgár uses a to break up Shirov's pawn front.", "She used only 48 minutes to win this game.", "* Polgár vs. Garry Kasparov, Russia vs.", "The Rest of the World match, Moscow 2002 Spanish Game: Berlin Defense.", "l'Hermet Variation (C67) · 1–0 Polgár makes history when, for the first time ever, a woman defeats the world's No.", "1 chess player in a game." ], [ "The Judit Polgar Chess Foundation", "The Judit Polgar Chess Foundation developed two educational programs.", "One is Chess Palace for primary school children (grades 1–4) and the other one is Chess Playground for pre-school children.", "The aim is to improve various skills (problem solving, strategical thinking, etc.)", "with the help of chess.", "The systematic rules of chess are used to process the knowledge of general subjects as well (math, language, etc.).", "The program is very successful in Hungary and it is part of the Hungarian National Curriculum.", "At the 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair the Chess Palace book series received the special prize of the Best European Learning Materials Awards (BELMA)." ], [ "Books", "* ''Judit Polgar: How I Beat Fischer's Record'' (in English, German, French, Hungarian)* ''Judit Polgar: From GM to Top Ten'' (in English, German, French, Hungarian)* ''Judit Polgar: A Game of Queens'' (in English, German, French, Hungarian)Educational chess exercise books for pre-school children and methodological resources for teachers (in Hungarian):* ''Kalandozások a sakktáblán'' (''Adventures on the Chessboard'')* ''Sakklépések'' (''Chess Moves'')* ''Sakk és matt'' (''Check and Mate'')Educational chess books, and exercise books for elementary school children and methodological resources for teachers (in Hungarian):* ''Sakkpalota'' (''Chess Palace''), series 1–4." ], [ "Awards", "* Hungarian Chess Player of the Year (in 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1998–2003, 2005–2012, and 2014)* 8-time Chess Oscar winner - for annual performance: in 1988, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2001, and 2002 - Female Chess Player of the Century: 2001* FIDE Caissa Award (the newly established \"Chess Oscar\"): 2012 * The Knight's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (Budapest, 2003) * The Commander's Cross with Star of the Hungarian Order of Merit (Budapest, 2013)* Prima Primissima (Budapest, 2014)* a Member of the Association of Immortal Hungarian Athletes (Budapest, 2014)* The Hungarian Order of St. Stephen (Budapest, 2015) * Best European Learning Materials Award – for the Chess Palace Program (Frankfurt, 2015)* Honorary Citizen of Budapest (Budapest, 2016) * James Joyce Award from the UCD Literary & Historical Society (Dublin 2017) * ECU European Golden Pawn, \"European Chess Legend\" (Monte Carlo, 2019) * Honorary Doctor of the University of Physical Education (Budapest, 2020) * Inducted into the World Chess Hall of Fame (2021) * FIDE ICON Award (2022)" ], [ "See also", "* List of Jewish chess players" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Literature", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * * 2012 KC-Conference with Judit Polgar for CrestBook" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 22" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 613 – Eight-month-old Constantine is crowned as co-emperor (''Caesar'') by his father Heraclius at Constantinople.", "* 871 – Battle of Basing: The West Saxons led by King Æthelred I are defeated by the Danelaw Vikings at Basing.", "1506 – The first contingent of 150 Swiss Guards arrives at the Vatican.", "1517 – The Ottoman Empire under Selim I defeats the Mamluk Sultanate and captures present-day Egypt at the Battle of Ridaniya.", "1555 – The Ava Kingdom falls to the Taungoo Dynasty in what is now Myanmar.===1601–1900===1689 – The Convention Parliament convenes to determine whether James II and VII, the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Ireland and Scotland, had vacated the thrones of England and Ireland when he fled to France in 1688.", "1808 – The Portuguese royal family arrives in Brazil after fleeing the French army's invasion of Portugal two months earlier.", "1824 – The Ashantis defeat British forces in the Gold Coast.", "1849 – Second Anglo-Sikh War: The Siege of Multan ends after nine months when the last Sikh defenders of Multan, Punjab, surrender.", "1863 – The January Uprising breaks out in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus.", "The aim of the national movement is to regain Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth from occupation by Russia.", "1879 – The Battle of Isandlwana during the Anglo-Zulu War results in a British defeat.", " 1879 – The Battle of Rorke's Drift, also during the Anglo-Zulu War and just some away from Isandlwana, results in a British victory.", "1890 – The United Mine Workers of America is founded in Columbus, Ohio.===1901–present===1901 – Edward VII is proclaimed King of the United Kingdom after the death of his mother, Queen Victoria.", "1905 – Bloody Sunday in Saint Petersburg, beginning of the 1905 revolution.", "1906 – runs aground on rocks on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, killing more than 130.", "1915 – Over 600 people are killed in Guadalajara, Mexico, when a train plunges off the tracks into a deep canyon.", "1917 – American entry into World War I: President Woodrow Wilson of the still-neutral United States calls for \"peace without victory\" in Europe.", "1919 – Act Zluky is signed, unifying the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian National Republic.", "1924 – Ramsay MacDonald becomes the first Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.", "1927 – Teddy Wakelam gives the first live radio commentary of a football match, between Arsenal F.C.", "and Sheffield United at Highbury.", "1941 – World War II: British and Commonwealth troops capture Tobruk from Italian forces during Operation Compass.", "1943 – World War II: Australian and American forces defeat Japanese army and navy units in the bitterly fought Battle of Buna–Gona.", "1944 – World War II: The Allies commence Operation Shingle, an assault on Anzio and Nettuno, Italy.", "1946 – In Iran, Qazi Muhammad declares the independent people's Republic of Mahabad at Chahar Cheragh Square in the Kurdish city of Mahabad; he becomes the new president and Haji Baba Sheikh becomes the prime minister.", " 1946 – Creation of the ''Central Intelligence Group'', forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency.", "1947 – KTLA, the first commercial television station west of the Mississippi River, begins operation in Hollywood.", "1957 – Israel withdraws from the Sinai Peninsula.", "* 1957 – The New York City \"Mad Bomber\", George P. Metesky, is arrested in Waterbury, Connecticut and charged with planting more than 30 bombs.", "1963 – The Élysée Treaty of cooperation between France and West Germany is signed by Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer.", "1967 – Between dozens and hundreds of anti-Somocista demonstrators are killed by the Nicaraguan National Guard in Managua.", "1968 – Apollo Program: Apollo 5 lifts off carrying the first Lunar module into space.", " 1968 – Operation Igloo White, a US electronic surveillance system to stop communist infiltration into South Vietnam begins installation.", "1970 – The Boeing 747, the world's first \"jumbo jet\", enters commercial service for launch customer Pan American Airways with its maiden voyage from New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport to London Heathrow Airport.", "1971 – The Singapore Declaration, one of the two most important documents to the uncodified constitution of the Commonwealth of Nations, is issued.", "1973 – The Supreme Court of the United States delivers its decisions in ''Roe v. Wade'' and ''Doe v. Bolton'', legalizing elective abortion in all fifty states.", " 1973 – The crew of Apollo 17 addresses a joint session of Congress after the completion of the final Apollo Moon landing mission.", "* 1973 – A chartered Boeing 707 explodes in flames upon landing at Kano Airport, Nigeria, killing 176.", "* 1973 – In a bout for the world heavyweight boxing championship in Kingston, Jamaica, challenger George Foreman knocks down champion Joe Frazier six times in the first two rounds before the fight is stopped by referee Arthur Mercante.", "1984 – The Apple Macintosh, the first consumer computer to popularize the computer mouse and the graphical user interface, is introduced during a Super Bowl XVIII television commercial.", "1987 – Philippine security forces open fire on a crowd of 10,000–15,000 demonstrators at Malacañang Palace, Manila, killing 13.", "1992 – Rebel forces occupy Zaire's national radio station in Kinshasa and broadcast a demand for the government's resignation.", " 1992 – Space Shuttle program: The space shuttle ''Discovery'' launches on STS-42 carrying Dr. Roberta Bondar, who becomes the first Canadian woman and the first neurologist in space.", "1995 – Israeli–Palestinian conflict: Beit Lid suicide bombing: In central Israel, near Netanya, two Gazans blow themselves up at a military transit point, killing 19 Israeli soldiers.", "1998 – Space Shuttle program: space shuttle ''Endeavour'' launches on STS-89 to dock with the Russian space station ''Mir''.", "1999 – Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two sons are burned alive by radical Hindus while sleeping in their car in Eastern India.", "2006 – Evo Morales is inaugurated as President of Bolivia, becoming the country's first indigenous president.", "2007 – At least 88 people are killed when two car bombs explode in the Bab Al-Sharqi market in central Baghdad, Iraq.", "2009 – U.S. President Barack Obama signs an executive order to close the Guantanamo Bay detention camp; congressional opposition will prevent it being implemented.", "2024 – Ram Mandir inaugurated by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi at Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh after 500 years of dispute." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1263 – Ibn Taymiyyah, Syrian scholar and theologian (d. 1328)1440 – Ivan III of Russia (d. 1505)1522 – Charles II de Valois, Duke of Orléans, (d. 1545)1552 – Walter Raleigh, English poet, soldier, courtier, and explorer (d. 1618)1561 – Francis Bacon, English philosopher and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (d. 1626)1570 – Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington, English historian and politician, founded the Cotton library (d. 1631)1573 – John Donne, English poet and cleric in the Church of England, wrote the Holy Sonnets (d. 1631)1592 – Pierre Gassendi, French mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (d. 1655)===1601–1900===1645 – William Kidd, Scottish sailor and pirate hunter (probable; d. 1701)1654 – Richard Blackmore, English physician and poet (d. 1729)1690 – Nicolas Lancret, French painter (d. 1743)1729 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German philosopher and author (d. 1781)1733 – Philip Carteret, English admiral and explorer (d. 1796)1740 – Noah Phelps, American soldier, lawyer, and judge (d. 1809)1781 – François Habeneck, French violinist and conductor (d. 1849)1788 – Lord Byron, English poet and playwright (d. 1824)1792 – Lady Lucy Whitmore, English noblewoman, hymn writer (d. 1840)1796 – Karl Ernst Claus, Estonian-Russian chemist, botanist, and academic (d. 1864)1797 – Maria Leopoldina of Austria (d. 1826)1799 – Ludger Duvernay, Canadian journalist, publisher, and politician (d. 1852)1802 – Richard Upjohn, English-American architect (d. 1878)1828 – Dayrolles Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 4th Baron Ventry, Irish hereditary peer (d. 1914)1831 – Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1917)1840 – Ernest Wilberforce, English bishop (d. 1907)1849 – August Strindberg, Swedish novelist, poet, and playwright (d. 1912)1858 – Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (d. 1943) 1861 – George Fuller, Australian politician, 22nd Premier of New South Wales (d. 1940)1865 – Wilbur Scoville, American chemist and pharmacist (d. 1942)1867 – Gisela Januszewska, Jewish-Austrian physician (d. 1943)1869 – José Vicente de Freitas, Portuguese colonel and politician, 97th Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1952)1874 – Edward Harkness, American philanthropist (d. 1940)* 1874 – Jay Hughes, American baseball player and coach (d. 1924)1875 – D. W. Griffith, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1948)1877 – Tom Jones, American baseball player and manager (d. 1923)1879 – Francis Picabia, French painter and poet (d. 1953)1880 – Bill O'Neill, Canadian-American baseball player (d. 1920)* 1880 – Frigyes Riesz, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1956)1881 – Ira Thomas, American baseball player and manager (d. 1958)1886 – John J. Becker, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1961)1887 – Helen Hoyt, American poet and author (d. 1972)1889 – Henri Pélissier, French cyclist (d. 1935)* 1889 – Amos Strunk, American baseball player and manager (d. 1979)1890 – Fred M. Vinson, American judge and politician, 13th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1953)1891 – Antonio Gramsci, Italian philosopher and politician (d. 1937)1892 – Marcel Dassault, French businessman, founded Dassault Aviation (d. 1986)1893 – Conrad Veidt, German-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1943)1897 – Rosa Ponselle, American operatic soprano (d. 1981) 1897 – Dilipkumar Roy, a Bengali Indian musician, musicologist, novelist, poet and essayist.", "(d. 1980)1898 – Ross Barnett, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of Mississippi (d. 1987) 1898 – Sergei Eisenstein, Russian director and screenwriter (d. 1948)* 1898 – Denise Legeay, French actress (d. 1968)1899 – Martti Haavio, Finnish poet and mythologist (d. 1973)1900 – Ernst Busch, German actor and singer (d. 1980)===1901–present===1902 – Daniel Kinsey, American hurdler, coach, and academic (d. 1970)1903 – Fritz Houtermans, Polish-German physicist and academic (d. 1966)1904 – George Balanchine, Georgian-American dancer, choreographer, and director, co-founded the New York City Ballet (d. 1983) 1904 – Arkady Gaidar, Russian journalist and author (d. 1941)1905 – Willy Hartner, German physicist, historian, and academic (d. 1981)1906 – Robert E. Howard, American author and poet (d. 1936)1907 – Douglas Corrigan, American pilot and engineer (d. 1995) 1907 – Dixie Dean, English footballer (d. 1980)1908 – Lev Landau, Azerbaijani-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968)1909 – Martha Norelius, Swedish-born American swimmer (d. 1955)* 1909 – Porfirio Rubirosa, Dominican racing driver, polo player, and diplomat (d. 1965)* 1909 – Ann Sothern, American actress and singer (d. 2001)* 1909 – U Thant, Burmese educator and diplomat, 3rd United Nations Secretary-General (d. 1974)1911 – Bruno Kreisky, Austrian lawyer and politician, 22nd Chancellor of Austria (d. 1990)1913 – Henry Bauchau, Belgian psychoanalyst and author (d. 2012)* 1913 – William Conway, Irish cardinal (d. 1977)* 1913 – Carl F. H. Henry, American theologian and publisher (d. 2003)1914 – Dimitris Dragatakis, Greek violinist and composer (d. 2001)1915 – Heinrich Albertz, German theologian and politician, Mayor of Berlin (d. 1993)1916 – Bill Durnan, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1972) 1916 – Henri Dutilleux, French pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2013)* 1916 – Harilal Upadhyay, Indian author, poet, and astrologist (d. 1994)1918 – Elmer Lach, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015)1919 – Diomedes Olivo, Dominican baseball player and scout (d. 1977)1920 – Irving Kristol, American journalist, author, and academic, founded ''The National Interest'' (d. 2009) 1920 – Alf Ramsey, English footballer and coach (d. 1999)1922 – Howard Moss, American poet, playwright and critic (d. 1987)1923 – Diana Douglas, British-American actress (d. 2015)1924 – J. J. Johnson, American trombonist and composer (d. 2001) 1924 – Ján Chryzostom Korec, Slovak cardinal (d. 2015)* 1924 – Charles Lisanby, American production designer and art director (d. 2013)1927 – Lou Creekmur, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2009) 1927 – Joe Perry, American football player (d. 2011)1928 – Yoshihiko Amino, Japanese historian, author, and academic (d. 2004)1929 – Petr Eben, Czech composer, organist and choirmaster (d. 2007)1930 – Mariví Bilbao, Spanish actress (d. 2013) 1930 – Daniel Camargo Barbosa, Colombian serial killer (d. 1994) * 1930 – Éamon de Buitléar, Irish accordion player and director (d. 2013)1931 – Sam Cooke, American singer-songwriter (d. 1964) 1931 – Galina Zybina, Russian shot putter and javelin thrower1932 – Berthold Grünfeld, Norwegian psychiatrist and academic (d. 2007) 1932 – Piper Laurie, American actress (d. 2023)* 1932 – Tom Railsback, American politician (d. 2020)1933 – Yuri Chesnokov, Russian volleyball player and coach (d. 2010)1934 – Vijay Anand, Indian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)* 1934 – Bill Bixby, American actor and director (d. 1993)1935 – Alexander Men, Russian priest and scholar (d. 1990)1936 – Ong Teng Cheong, Singaporean architect and politician, 5th President of Singapore (d. 2002)* 1936 – Alan J. Heeger, American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate1937 – Alma Delia Fuentes, Mexican actress (d. 2017) 1937 – Edén Pastora, Nicaraguan politician (d. 2020)* 1937 – Joseph Wambaugh, American author1938 – Peter Beard, Australian photographer and author (d. 2020) 1938 – Joe Esposito, American author (d. 2016)* 1938 – Altair Gomes de Figueiredo, Brazilian footballer (d. 2019)1939 – Jørgen Garde, Danish admiral (d. 1996) 1939 – Alfredo Palacio, Ecuadoran physician and politician, President of Ecuador* 1939 – Luigi Simoni, Italian footballer and manager (d. 2020)* 1939 – J. C. Tremblay, Canadian ice hockey player and scout (d. 1994)1940 – John Hurt, English actor (d. 2017) 1940 – George Seifert, American football player and coach* 1940 – Gillian Shephard, English educator and politician, Secretary of State for Education1941 – Jaan Kaplinski, Estonian poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 2021)1942 – Mimis Domazos, Greek footballer1943 – Michael Spicer, English journalist and politician (d. 2019)1944 – Khosrow Golsorkhi, Iranian journalist, poet, and activist (d. 1974)* 1944 – Uto Ughi, Italian violinist and conductor1945 – Christoph Schönborn, Austrian cardinal 1945 – Alojz Uran, Slovenian archbishop (d. 2020)1946 – Malcolm McLaren, English singer-songwriter and manager (d. 2010) 1946 – Serge Savard, Canadian ice hockey player and manager1947 – Vladimir Oravsky, Czech-Swedish author and director1948 – Gilbert Levine, American conductor and academic1949 – Steve Perry, American singer-songwriter and producer1950 – Paul Bew, Northern Irish historian and academic* 1950 – Frank Schade, American basketball player and coach1951 – Ondrej Nepela, Slovak figure skater and coach (d. 1989)1953 – Winfried Berkemeier, German footballer and manager* 1953 – Myung-whun Chung, South Korean pianist and conductor* 1953 – Jim Jarmusch, American director and screenwriter1954 – Tully Blanchard, Canadian-American wrestler1955 – Lester Hayes, American football player* 1955 – Thomas David Jones, American captain, pilot, and astronaut* 1955 – John Wesley Shipp, American actor1956 – Steve Riley, American drummer (d. 2023)1957 – Mike Bossy, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2022)* 1957 – Rita Chatterton, American professional wrestling referee * 1957 – Godfrey Thoma, Nauruan politician* 1957 – Francis Wheen, English journalist and author1958 – Nikos Anastopoulos, Greek footballer and manager 1958 – Filiz Koçali, Turkish journalist and politician* 1958 – Charles White, American football player (d. 2023)1959 – Linda Blair, American actress 1960 – Michael Hutchence, Australian singer-songwriter (d. 1997)1961 – Quintin Dailey, American basketball player (d. 2010)1962 – Mizan Zainal Abidin of Terengganu, Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia1964 – Nigel Benn, English-Australian boxer 1964 – Stojko Vranković, Croatian basketball player1965 – Steven Adler, American rock drummer 1965 – DJ Jazzy Jeff, American DJ and producer* 1965 – Diane Lane, American actress1968 – Guy Fieri, American chef, author, and television host 1968 – Heath, Japanese singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2023)* 1968 – Frank Leboeuf, French footballer, sportscaster, and actor* 1968 – Mauricio Serna, Colombian footballer1969 – Olivia d'Abo, English-American singer-songwriter and actress1970 – Abraham Olano, Spanish cyclist1971 – Stan Collymore, English footballer and sportscaster 1971 – Katie Finneran, American actress1972 – Gabriel Macht, American actor1973 – Rogério Ceni, Brazilian footballer1974 – Cameron McConville, Australian racing driver and sportscaster 1974 – Joseph Muscat, Maltese journalist and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Malta1975 – Balthazar Getty, American actor and musician 1975 – David Výborný, Czech ice hockey player1977 – Mario Domm, Mexican singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer 1977 – Anna Linkova, Russian tennis player* 1977 – Hidetoshi Nakata, Japanese footballer1978 – Robert Esche, American ice hockey player and sports executive 1978 – Chone Figgins, American baseball player1979 – Carlos Ruiz, Panamanian baseball player1980 – Christopher Masterson, American actor* 1980 – Jonathan Woodgate, English footballer* 1980 – Lizz Wright, American singer-songwriter1981 – Willa Ford, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1981 – Beverley Mitchell, American actress* 1981 – Ben Moody, American musician, songwriter, and producer* 1981 – Ibrahima Sonko, French footballer1982 – Fabricio Coloccini, Argentine footballer 1982 – Jason Peters, American football player1983 – Étienne Bacrot, French chess player1984 – Ben Eager, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Ubaldo Jiménez, Dominican baseball player* 1984 – Leon Powe, American basketball player* 1984 – Maceo Rigters, Dutch footballer1985 – Nicklas Grossmann, Swedish ice hockey player 1985 – Fotios Papoulis, Greek footballer* 1985 – Yan Xu, Singaporean table tennis player1986 – Maher Magri, Tunisian footballer 1986 – Matt Simon, Australian footballer1987 – Astrid Jacobsen, Norwegian skier 1987 – Shane Long, Irish footballer* 1987 – Ray Rice, American football player1988 – Greg Oden, American basketball player 1988 – Marcel Schmelzer, German footballer1989 – Oscar Möller, Swedish ice hockey player 1989 – Theo Robinson, English footballer1990 – Alizé Cornet, French tennis player 1990 – Logic, American rapper1991 – Stefan Kolb, German footballer1992 – Vincent Aboubakar, Cameroonian footballer1996 – Dillon Brooks, Canadian basketball player 1996 – Sami Gayle, American actress* 1996 – Joshua Ho-Sang, Canadian ice hockey player * 1996 – Kumi Sasaki, Japanese singer and model1997 – Fan Zhendong, Chinese table tennis player1998 – Silento, American rapper, singer and songwriter * 1998 – Walid Cheddira, Moroccan footballer1999 – Andrew Thomas, American football player2000 – Laia Codina, Spanish footballer2007 – Pau Cubarsí, Spanish footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 239 – Cao Rui, Chinese emperor (b.", "205)* 628 – Anastasius of Persia, monk* 906 – He, empress of the Tang Dynasty* 935 – Ma, empress of Southern Han1001 – Al-Muqallad ibn al-Musayyab, Uqaylid emir of Mosul1051 – Ælfric Puttoc, archbishop of York1170 – Wang Chongyang, Chinese Daoist and co-founder of the Quanzhen School (b.", "1113)1188 – Ferdinand II of León (b.", "1137)1341 – Louis I, Duke of Bourbon (b.", "1279)1517 – Hadım Sinan Pasha, Ottoman politician, 32nd Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "?", ")1536 – Bernhard Knipperdolling, German religious leader (b.", "1495) 1536 – John of Leiden, Anabaptist leader from the Dutch city of Leiden (b.", "1509)1552 – Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, English general and politician, Lord High Treasurer of England (b.", "1500)1560 – Wang Zhi, Chinese pirate1575 – James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault (b.", "1516)1599 – Cristofano Malvezzi, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1547)===1601–1900===1666 – Shah Jahan, Mughal emperor (b.", "1592)1750 – Franz Xaver Josef von Unertl, Bavarian politician (b.", "1675)1763 – John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1690)1767 – Johann Gottlob Lehmann, German meteorologist and geologist (b.", "1719)1779 – Jeremiah Dixon, English surveyor and astronomer (b.", "1733) 1779 – Claudius Smith, American guerrilla leader (b.", "1736)1798 – Lewis Morris, American judge and politician (b.", "1726)1840 – Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, German physician, physiologist, and anthropologist (b.", "1752)1850 – Vincent Pallotti, Italian missionary and saint (b.", "1795)1879 – Anthony Durnford, Irish colonel (b.", "1830)* 1879 – Henry Pulleine, English colonel (b.", "1838)1892 – Joseph P. Bradley, American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1813)1900 – David Edward Hughes, Welsh-American physicist, co-invented the microphone (b.", "1831)===1901–present===1901 – Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom (b.", "1819)1906 – George Holyoake, English secularist, co-operator and newspaper editor (b.", "1817)1909 – Emil Erlenmeyer, German chemist and academic (b.", "1825)1921 – George Streeter, American captain and businessman (b.", "1837)1922 – Fredrik Bajer, Danish educator and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1837) 1922 – Pope Benedict XV (b.", "1854)* 1922 – Camille Jordan, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1838)1925 – Fanny Bullock Workman, American geographer and mountain climber (b.", "1859)1927 – James Ford Rhodes, American historian and author (b.", "1848)1929 – R. C. Lehmann, English journalist, author, and politician (b.", "1856)1930 – Stephen Mather, American businessman and conservationist, co-founded the Thorkildsen-Mather Borax Company (b.", "1867)1931 – László Batthyány-Strattmann, Hungarian physician and ophthalmologist (b.", "1870)1945 – Else Lasker-Schüler, German poet and playwright (b.", "1869)1949 – William Thomas Walsh, American author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1891)1950 – Alan Hale, Sr., American actor and director (b.", "1892)1951 – Harald Bohr, Danish mathematician and footballer (b.", "1887) 1951 – Lawson Robertson, Scottish-American sprinter and high jumper (b.", "1883)1955 – Jonni Myyrä, Finnish-American athlete (b.", "1892)1957 – Ralph Barton Perry, American philosopher and academic (b.", "1876)1959 – Mike Hawthorn, English racing driver (b.", "1929)1964 – Marc Blitzstein, American pianist and composer (b.", "1905)1966 – Herbert Marshall, English actor (b.", "1890)1968 – Duke Kahanamoku, American swimmer and water polo player (b.", "1890)1971 – Harry Frank Guggenheim, American businessman and publisher, co-founded ''Newsday'' (b.", "1890)1973 – Lyndon B. Johnson, American lieutenant and politician, 36th President of the United States (b.", "1908)1977 – Ibrahim bin Abdullah Al Suwaiyel, Saudi Arabian diplomat (b.", "1916)1978 – Oliver Leese, English general (b.", "1894)* 1978 – Herbert Sutcliffe, English cricketer and soldier (b.", "1894)1979 – Ali Hassan Salameh, Palestinian rebel leader (b.", "1940)1980 – Yitzhak Baer, German-Israeli historian and academic (b.", "1888)1981 – Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Pakistani historian and academic (b.", "1903)1982 – Eduardo Frei Montalva, Chilean lawyer and politician, 28th President of Chile (b.", "1911)1985 – Arthur Bryant, English historian and journalist (b.", "1899)1987 – R. Budd Dwyer, American educator and politician, 30th Treasurer of Pennsylvania (b.", "1939)1989 – S. Vithiananthan, Sri Lankan author and academic (b.", "1924)1991 – Robert Choquette, Canadian author, poet and diplomat (b.", "1905)1993 – Kōbō Abe, Japanese playwright and photographer (b.", "1924)1994 – Jean-Louis Barrault, French actor and director (b.", "1910)* 1994 – Telly Savalas, American actor (b.", "1922)1996 – Israel Eldad, Polish-Israeli philosopher and author (b.", "1910)1997 – Billy Mackenzie, Scottish singer-songwriter (b.", "1957)1999 – Graham Staines, Australian-Indian missionary and translator (b.", "1941)2000 – Craig Claiborne, American journalist, author, and critic (b.", "1920)* 2000 – Anne Hébert, Canadian author and poet (b.", "1916)2001 – Tommie Agee, American baseball player (b.", "1942) 2001 – Roy Brown, American clown and puppeteer (b.", "1932)2003 – Bill Mauldin, American soldier and cartoonist (b.", "1921)2004 – Billy May, American trumpet player and composer (b.", "1916)* 2004 – Tom Mead, Australian journalist and politician (b.", "1918)* 2004 – Ann Miller, American actress, singer, and dancer (b.", "1923)2005 – César Gutiérrez, Venezuelan baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1943) 2005 – Carlo Orelli, Italian soldier (b.", "1894)* 2005 – Consuelo Velázquez, Mexican pianist and songwriter (b.", "1924)2006 – Aydın Güven Gürkan, Turkish academic and politician, Turkish Minister of Labor and Social Security (b.", "1941)2007 – Ngô Quang Trưởng, Vietnamese general (b.", "1929)* 2007 – Abbé Pierre, French priest and activist (b.", "1912)* 2007 – Liz Renay, American actress, author and performer (b.", "1926)2008 – Heath Ledger, Australian actor and director (b.", "1979) 2008 – Miles Lerman, Polish Holocaust survivor and activist (b.", "1920)2009 – Billy Werber, American baseball player (b.", "1908)2010 – Louis R. Harlan, American historian and author (b.", "1922)* 2010 – Jean Simmons, English-American actress (b.", "1929)2012 – Simon Marsden, English photographer and author (b.", "1948) 2012 – Joe Paterno, American football player and coach (b.", "1926)* 2012 – Clarence Tillenius, Canadian painter and environmentalist (b.", "1913)* 2012 – Dick Tufeld, American actor (b.", "1926)2013 – Robert Bonnaud, French historian and academic (b.", "1929) 2013 – Hinton Mitchem, American businessman and politician (b.", "1938)2014 – Maziar Partow, Iranian cinematographer (b.", "1933)2015 – Fabrizio de Miranda, Italian engineer and academic, co-designed the Rande Bridge (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Wendell H. Ford, American lieutenant and politician, 53rd Governor of Kentucky (b.", "1924)* 2015 – Margaret Bloy Graham, Canadian author and illustrator (b.", "1920)2016 – Homayoun Behzadi, Iranian footballer and coach (b.", "1942) 2016 – Cecil Parkinson, English politician (b.", "1931)* 2016 – Lois Ramsey, Australian actress (b.", "1922)* 2016 – Kamer Genç, Turkish politician (b.", "1940)2017 – Masaya Nakamura, Japanese businessman (b.", "1925) 2017 – Yordano Ventura, Dominican baseball player (b.", "1991)2018 – Ursula K. Le Guin, American sci-fi and fantasy novelist (b.", "1929) 2018 – William B. Jordan, American art historian (b.", "1940)2021 – Hank Aaron, American baseball player (b.", "1934)2022 – Thích Nhất Hạnh, Vietnamese Thiền Buddhist monk, peace activist, and founder of the Plum Village Tradition (b.", "1926)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Anastasius of PersiaGaudentius of NovaraLászló Batthyány-StrattmannLaura VicunaVincent PallottiVincent of SaragossaVincent, Orontius, and VictorBlessed William Joseph ChaminadeJanuary 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Day of Unity of Ukraine (Ukraine)Grandfather's Day (Poland)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 22" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jean-Jacques Rousseau" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean-Jacques Rousseau''' (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher (''philosophe''), writer, and composer.", "His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic, and educational thought.His ''Discourse on Inequality'', which argues that private property is the source of inequality, and ''The Social Contract'', which outlines the basis for a legitimate political order, are cornerstones in modern political and social thought.", "Rousseau's sentimental novel ''Julie, or the New Heloise'' (1761) was important to the development of preromanticism and romanticism in fiction.", "His ''Emile, or On Education'' (1762) is an educational treatise on the place of the individual in society.", "Rousseau's autobiographical writings—the posthumously published ''Confessions'' (completed in 1770), which initiated the modern autobiography, and the unfinished ''Reveries of the Solitary Walker'' (composed 1776–1778)—exemplified the late 18th-century \"Age of Sensibility\", and featured an increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern writing." ], [ "Biography", "===Youth===Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state and a Protestant associate of the Swiss Confederacy (now a canton of Switzerland).", "Since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism.", "Five generations before Rousseau, his ancestor Didier, a bookseller who may have published Protestant tracts, had escaped persecution from French Catholics by fleeing to Geneva in 1549, where he became a wine merchant.The house where Rousseau was born at number 40, Grand-Rue, GenevaRousseau was proud that his family, of the ''moyen'' order (or middle-class), had voting rights in the city.", "Throughout his life, he generally signed his books \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Citizen of Geneva\".", "The citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants (\"inhabitants\") and their descendants (\"natives\").There was much political debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople.", "Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, of which the ruling class oligarchy was making a mockery.", "In 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying \"A sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being\".", "He was shot by order of the Little Council.", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau's father, Isaac, was not in the city then, but Jean-Jacques's grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it.Rousseau's father, Isaac Rousseau, followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the watchmaking business.", "He also taught dance for a short period.", "Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well-educated and a lover of music.", "Rousseau wrote that \"A Genevan watchmaker is a man who can be introduced anywhere; a Parisian watchmaker is only fit to talk about watches\".In 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him.", "After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, as Geneva was concerned with maintaining its ties to foreign powers.Rousseau's mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family.", "She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher.", "He cared for Suzanne after her father, Jacques, who had run into trouble with the legal and religious authorities for fornication and having a mistress, died in his early 30s.", "In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theatre disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, whom she fancied despite his continuing marriage.", "After a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again.", "She married Rousseau's father at the age of 31.Isaac's sister had married Suzanne's brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory.", "The child died at birth.", "The young Rousseau was told a fabricated story about the situation in which young love had been denied by a disapproving patriarch but later prevailed, resulting in two marriages uniting the families on the same day.", "Rousseau never learnt the truth.Rousseau was born on 28 June 1712, and he would later relate: \"I was born almost dying, they had little hope of saving me\".", "He was baptized on 4 July 1712, in the great cathedral.", "His mother died of puerperal fever nine days after his birth, which he later described as \"the first of my misfortunes\".He and his older brother François were brought up by their father and a paternal aunt, also named Suzanne.", "When Rousseau was five, his father sold the house the family had received from his mother's relatives.", "While the idea was that his sons would inherit the principal when grown up and he would live off the interest in the meantime, in the end, the father took most of the substantial proceeds.", "With the selling of the house, the Rousseau family moved out of the upper-class neighbourhood and into an apartment house in a neighbourhood of craftsmen—silversmiths, engravers, and other watchmakers.", "Growing up around craftsmen, Rousseau would later contrast them favourably to those who produced more aesthetic works, writing \"those important persons who are called artists rather than artisans, work solely for the idle and rich, and put an arbitrary price on their baubles\".", "Rousseau was also exposed to class politics in this environment, as the artisans often agitated in a campaign of resistance against the privileged class running Geneva.Rousseau had no recollection of learning to read, but he remembered how when he was five or six his father encouraged his love of reading: Rousseau's reading of escapist stories (such as ''L'Astrée'' by Honoré d'Urfé) affected him; he later wrote that they \"gave me bizarre and romantic notions of human life, which experience and reflection have never been able to cure me of\".", "After they had finished reading the novels, they began to read a collection of ancient and modern classics left by his mother's uncle.", "Of these, his favourite was Plutarch's ''Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans'', which he would read to his father while he made watches.", "Rousseau saw Plutarch's work as another kind of novel—the noble actions of heroes—and he would act out the deeds of the characters he was reading about.", "In his ''Confessions'', Rousseau stated that the reading of Plutarch's works and \"the conversations between my father and myself to which it gave rise, formed in me the free and republican spirit\".Witnessing the local townsfolk participate in militias made a big impression on Rousseau.", "Throughout his life, he would recall one scene where, after the volunteer militia had finished its manoeuvres, they began to dance around a fountain and most of the people from neighbouring buildings came out to join them, including him and his father.", "Rousseau would always see militias as the embodiment of popular spirit in opposition to the armies of the rulers, whom he saw as disgraceful mercenaries.When Rousseau was ten, his father, an avid hunter, got into a legal quarrel with a wealthy landowner on whose lands he had been caught trespassing.", "To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him.", "He remarried, and from that point, Jean-Jacques saw little of him.", "Jean-Jacques was left with his maternal uncle, who packed him and his son, Abraham Bernard, away to board for two years with a Calvinist minister in a hamlet outside Geneva.", "Here, the boys picked up the elements of mathematics and drawing.", "Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed of becoming a Protestant minister.Les Charmettes, where Rousseau lived with Françoise-Louise de Warens from 1735 to 1736, now a museum dedicated to RousseauVirtually all our information about Rousseau's youth has come from his posthumously published ''Confessions'', in which the chronology is somewhat confused, though recent scholars have combed the archives for confirming evidence to fill in the blanks.", "At age 13, Rousseau was apprenticed first to a notary and then to an engraver who beat him.", "At 15, he ran away from Geneva (on 14 March 1728) after returning to the city and finding the city gates locked due to the curfew.In adjoining Savoy he took shelter with a Roman Catholic priest, who introduced him to Françoise-Louise de Warens, age 29.She was a noblewoman of a Protestant background who was separated from her husband.", "As a professional lay proselytizer, she was paid by the King of Piedmont to help bring Protestants to Catholicism.", "They sent the boy to Turin, the capital of Savoy (which included Piedmont, in what is now Italy), to complete his conversion.", "This resulted in his having to give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert to Calvinism to regain it.In converting to Catholicism, both de Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to Calvinism's insistence on the total depravity of man.", "Leo Damrosch writes: \"An eighteenth-century Genevan liturgy still required believers to declare 'that we are miserable sinners, born in corruption, inclined to evil, incapable by ourselves of doing good.", "De Warens, a deist by inclination, was attracted to Catholicism's doctrine of forgiveness of sins.Finding himself on his own, since his father and uncle had more or less disowned him, the teenage Rousseau supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor, wandering in Italy (Piedmont and Savoy) and France.", "During this time, he lived on and off with de Warens, whom he idolized and called his ''maman''.", "Flattered by his devotion, de Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him.", "At one point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest.===Early adulthood===Françoise-Louise de WarensWhen Rousseau reached 20, de Warens took him as her lover, while intimate also with the steward of her house.", "The sexual aspect of their relationship (a ''ménage à trois'') confused Rousseau and made him uncomfortable, but he always considered de Warens the greatest love of his life.", "A rather profligate spender, she had a large library and loved to entertain and listen to music.", "She and her circle, comprising educated members of the Catholic clergy, introduced Rousseau to the world of letters and ideas.", "Rousseau had been an indifferent student, but during his 20s, which were marked by long bouts of hypochondria, he applied himself in earnest to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and music.", "At 25, he came into a small inheritance from his mother and used a portion of it to repay de Warens for her financial support of him.", "At 27, he took a job as a tutor in Lyon.In 1742, Rousseau moved to Paris to present the Académie des Sciences with a new system of numbered musical notation he believed would make his fortune.", "His system, intended to be compatible with typography, is based on a single line, displaying numbers representing intervals between notes and dots and commas indicating rhythmic values.", "Believing the system was impractical, the Academy rejected it, though they praised his mastery of the subject, and urged him to try again.", "He befriended Denis Diderot that year, connecting over the discussion of literary endeavors.Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio Venice that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the AmbassadorFrom 1743 to 1744, Rousseau had an honorable but ill-paying post as a secretary to the Comte de Montaigue, the French ambassador to Venice.", "This awoke in him a lifelong love for Italian music, particularly opera:Rousseau's employer routinely received his stipend as much as a year late and paid his staff irregularly.", "After 11 months, Rousseau quit, taking from the experience a profound distrust of government bureaucracy.===Return to Paris===Returning to Paris, the penniless Rousseau befriended and became the lover of Thérèse Levasseur, a seamstress who was the sole support of her mother and numerous ne'er-do-well siblings.", "At first, they did not live together, though later Rousseau took Thérèse and her mother in to live with him as his servants, and himself assumed the burden of supporting her large family.", "According to his ''Confessions'', before she moved in with him, Thérèse bore him a son and as many as four other children (there is no independent verification for this number).Rousseau wrote that he persuaded Thérèse to give each of the newborns up to a foundling hospital, for the sake of her \"honor\".", "\"Her mother, who feared the inconvenience of a brat, came to my aid, and she Thérèse allowed herself to be overcome\" (''Confessions'').", "In his letter to Madame de Francueil in 1751, he first pretended that he was not rich enough to raise his children, but in Book IX of the ''Confessions'' he gave the true reasons of his choice: \"I trembled at the thought of intrusting them to a family ill brought up, to be still worse educated.", "The risk of the education of the foundling hospital was much less\".A portrait of Thérèse Levasseur from 1791Ten years later, Rousseau made inquiries about the fate of his son, but no record could be found.", "When Rousseau subsequently became celebrated as a theorist of education and child-rearing, his abandonment of his children was used by his critics, including Voltaire and Edmund Burke, as the basis for arguments ''ad hominem''.Beginning with some articles on music in 1749, Rousseau contributed numerous articles to Diderot and D'Alembert's great ''Encyclopédie'', the most famous of which was an article on political economy written in 1755.Rousseau's ideas were the result of an almost obsessive dialogue with writers of the past, filtered in many cases through conversations with Diderot.", "In 1749, Rousseau was paying daily visits to Diderot, who had been thrown into the fortress of Vincennes under a ''lettre de cachet'' for opinions in his \"Lettre sur les aveugles\", that hinted at materialism, a belief in atoms, and natural selection.", "According to science historian Conway Zirkle, Rousseau saw the concept of natural selection \"as an agent for improving the human species.", "\"Rousseau had read about an essay competition sponsored by the Académie de Dijon to be published in the ''Mercure de France'' on the theme of whether the development of the arts and sciences had been morally beneficial.", "He wrote that while walking to Vincennes (about three miles from Paris), he had a revelation that the arts and sciences were responsible for the moral degeneration of mankind, who were basically good by nature.", "Rousseau's 1750 ''Discourse on the Arts and Sciences'' was awarded the first prize and gained him significant fame.Rousseau continued his interest in music.", "He wrote both the words and music of his opera ''Le devin du village'' (''The Village Soothsayer''), which was performed for King Louis XV in 1752.The king was so pleased by the work that he offered Rousseau a lifelong pension.", "To the exasperation of his friends, Rousseau turned down the great honor, bringing him notoriety as \"the man who had refused a king's pension\".", "He also turned down several other advantageous offers, sometimes with a brusqueness bordering on truculence that gave offense and caused him problems.", "The same year, the visit of a troupe of Italian musicians to Paris, and their performance of Giovanni Battista Pergolesi's ''La serva padrona'', prompted the Querelle des Bouffons, which pitted protagonists of French music against supporters of the Italian style.", "Rousseau, as noted above, was an enthusiastic supporter of the Italians against Jean-Philippe Rameau and others, making an important contribution with his ''Letter on French Music''.===Return to Geneva===On returning to Geneva in 1754, Rousseau reconverted to Calvinism and regained his official Genevan citizenship.", "In 1755, Rousseau completed his second major work, the ''Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men'' (the ''Discourse on Inequality''), which elaborated on the arguments of the ''Discourse on the Arts and Sciences''.A contemporary portrait of the Countess of HoudetotHe also pursued an unconsummated romantic attachment with the 25-year-old Sophie d'Houdetot, which partly inspired his epistolary novel ''Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse'' (also based on memories of his idyllic youthful relationship with Mme de Warens).", "Sophie was the cousin and houseguest of Rousseau's patroness and landlady Madame d'Épinay, whom he treated rather high-handedly.", "He resented being at Mme.", "d'Épinay's beck and call and detested the insincere conversation and shallow atheism of the ''Encyclopédistes'' whom he met at her table.", "Wounded feelings gave rise to a bitter three-way quarrel between Rousseau and Madame d'Épinay; her lover, the journalist Grimm; and their mutual friend, Diderot, who took their side against Rousseau.", "Diderot later described Rousseau as being \"false, vain as Satan, ungrateful, cruel, hypocritical, and wicked...", "He sucked ideas from me, used them himself, and then affected to despise me\".Mme d'Épinay by Jean-Étienne Liotard, ''ca'' 1759 (Musée d'art et d'histoire, Geneva)Rousseau's break with the ''Encyclopédistes'' coincided with the composition of his three major works, in all of which he emphasized his fervent belief in a spiritual origin of man's soul and the universe, in contradistinction to the materialism of Diderot, La Mettrie and D'Holbach.", "During this period, Rousseau enjoyed the support and patronage of Charles II François Frédéric de Montmorency-Luxembourg and the Prince de Conti, two of the richest and most powerful nobles in France.", "These men truly liked Rousseau and enjoyed his ability to converse on any subject, but they also used him as a way of getting back at Louis XV and the political faction surrounding his mistress, Madame de Pompadour.", "Even with them, however, Rousseau went too far, courting rejection when he criticized the practice of tax farming, in which some of them engaged.Rousseau's 800-page novel of sentiment, ''Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse'', was published in 1761 to immense success.", "The book's rhapsodic descriptions of the natural beauty of the Swiss countryside struck a chord in the public and may have helped spark the subsequent nineteenth-century craze for Alpine scenery.", "In 1762, Rousseau published ''Du Contrat Social, Principes du droit politique'' (in English, literally ''Of the Social Contract, Principles of Political Right'') in April.", "Even his friend Antoine-Jacques Roustan felt impelled to write a polite rebuttal of the chapter on Civil Religion in the ''Social Contract'', which implied that the concept of a Christian republic was paradoxical since Christianity taught submission rather than participation in public affairs.", "Rousseau helped Roustan find a publisher for the rebuttal.Rousseau published ''Emile, or On Education'' in May.", "A famous section of ''Emile'', \"The Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar\", was intended to be a defense of religious belief.", "Rousseau's choice of a Catholic vicar of humble peasant background (plausibly based on a kindly prelate he had met as a teenager) as a spokesman for the defense of religion was in itself a daring innovation for the time.", "The vicar's creed was that of Socinianism (or Unitarianism as it is called today).", "Because it rejected original sin and divine revelation, both Protestant and Catholic authorities took offense.Moreover, Rousseau advocated the opinion that, insofar as they lead people to virtue, all religions are equally worthy, and that people should therefore conform to the religion in which they have been brought up.", "This religious indifferentism caused Rousseau and his books to be banned from France and Geneva.", "He was condemned from the pulpit by the Archbishop of Paris, his books were burned and warrants were issued for his arrest.", "Former friends such as Jacob Vernes of Geneva could not accept his views and wrote violent rebuttals.A sympathetic observer, David Hume \"professed no surprise when he learned that Rousseau's books were banned in Geneva and elsewhere\".", "Rousseau, he wrote, \"has not had the precaution to throw any veil over his sentiments; and, as he scorns to dissemble his contempt for established opinions, he could not wonder that all the zealots were in arms against him.", "The liberty of the press is not so secured in any country... as not to render such an open attack on popular prejudice somewhat dangerous.", "\"===Voltaire and Frederick the Great===After Rousseau's ''Emile'' had outraged the French parliament, an arrest order was issued by parliament against him, causing him to flee to Switzerland.", "Subsequently, when the Swiss authorities also proved unsympathetic to him—condemning both ''Emile'', and also ''The Social Contract''—Voltaire issued an invitation to Rousseau to come and reside with him, commenting that: \"I shall always love the author of the 'Vicaire savoyard' whatever he has done, and whatever he may do...Let him come here to Ferney!", "He must come!", "I shall receive him with open arms.", "He shall be master here more than I. I shall treat him like my own son.", "\"1766 portrait of Rousseau wearing an Armenian papakha and costume, Allan RamsayRousseau later expressed regret that he had not replied to Voltaire's invitation.", "In July 1762, after Rousseau was informed that he could not continue to reside in Bern, D'Alembert advised him to move to the Principality of Neuchâtel, ruled by Frederick the Great of Prussia.", "Subsequently, Rousseau accepted an invitation to reside in Môtiers, fifteen miles from Neuchâtel.", "On 11 July 1762, Rousseau wrote to Frederick, describing how he had been driven from France, from Geneva, and from Bern; and seeking Frederick's protection.", "He also mentioned that he had criticized Frederick in the past and would continue to be critical of Frederick in the future, stating however: \"Your Majesty may dispose of me as you like.\"", "Frederick, still in the middle of the Seven Years' War, then wrote to the local governor of Neuchâtel, Marischal Keith, who was a mutual friend of theirs:Rousseau, touched by the help he received from Frederick, stated that from then onwards he took a keen interest in Frederick's activities.", "As the Seven Years' War was about to end, Rousseau wrote to Frederick again, thanking him for the help received and urging him to put an end to military activities and to endeavor to keep his subjects happy instead.", "Frederick made no known reply but commented to Keith that Rousseau had given him a \"scolding\".===Fugitive===For more than two years (1762–1765) Rousseau lived at Môtiers, spending his time in reading and writing and meeting visitors such as James Boswell (December 1764).", "In the meantime, the local ministers had become aware of the apostasies in some of his writings and resolved not to let him stay in the vicinity.", "The Neuchâtel Consistory summoned Rousseau to answer a charge of blasphemy.", "He wrote back asking to be excused due to his inability to sit for a long time due to his ailment.", "Subsequently, Rousseau's own pastor, Frédéric-Guillaume de Montmollin, started denouncing him publicly as an Antichrist.", "In one inflammatory sermon, Montmollin quoted Proverbs 15:8: \"The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord, but the prayer of the upright is his delight\"; this was interpreted by everyone to mean that Rousseau's taking communion was detested by the Lord.", "The ecclesiastical attacks inflamed the parishioners, who proceeded to pelt Rousseau with stones when he would go out for walks.", "Around midnight of 6–7 September 1765, stones were thrown at the house Rousseau was staying in, and some glass windows were shattered.", "When a local official, Martinet, arrived at Rousseau's residence he saw so many stones on the balcony that he exclaimed \"My God, it's a quarry!\"", "At this point, Rousseau's friends in Môtiers advised him to leave the town.Since he wanted to remain in Switzerland, Rousseau decided to accept an offer to move to a tiny island, the Île de St.-Pierre, having a solitary house.", "Although it was within the Canton of Bern, from where he had been expelled two years previously, he was informally assured that he could move into this island house without fear of arrest, and he did so (10 September 1765).", "Here, despite the remoteness of his retreat, visitors sought him out as a celebrity.", "However, on 17 October 1765, the Senate of Bern ordered Rousseau to leave the island and all Bernese territory within fifteen days.", "He replied, requesting permission to extend his stay, and offered to be incarcerated in any place within their jurisdiction with only a few books in his possession and permission to walk occasionally in a garden while living at his own expense.", "The Senate's response was to direct Rousseau to leave the island, and all Bernese territory, within twenty-four hours.", "On 29 October 1765 he left the Île de St.-Pierre and moved to Strasbourg.", "At this point he received invitations from several parties in Europe, and soon decided to accept Hume's invitation to go to England.On 9 December 1765, having secured a passport from the French government, Rousseau left Strasbourg for Paris where he arrived a week later and lodged in a palace of his friend, the Prince of Conti.", "Here he met Hume, and also numerous friends and well-wishers, and became a conspicuous figure in the city.", "At this time, Hume wrote: \"It is impossible to express or imagine the enthusiasm of this nation in Rousseau's favor...No person ever so much enjoyed their attention...Voltaire and everybody else are quite eclipsed.Although Diderot at this time desired a reconciliation with Rousseau, both of them expected an initiative by the other, and the two did not meet.====Letter of Walpole====On 1 January 1766, Grimm included in his \"Correspondance littéraire\" a letter said to have been written by Frederick the Great to Rousseau.", "It had actually been composed by Horace Walpole as a playful hoax.", "Walpole had never met Rousseau, but he was well acquainted with Diderot and Grimm.", "The letter soon found wide publicity; Hume is believed to have been present, and to have participated in its creation.", "On 16 February 1766, Hume wrote to the Marquise de Brabantane: \"The only pleasantry I permitted myself in connection with the pretended letter of the King of Prussia was made by me at the dinner table of Lord Ossory.\"", "This letter was one of the reasons for the later rupture in Hume's relations with Rousseau.===In Britain===On 4 January 1766 Rousseau left Paris with Hume, the merchant De Luze (an old friend of Rousseau), and Rousseau's pet dog Sultan.", "After a four-day journey to Calais, where they stayed for two nights, the travelers embarked on a ship to Dover.", "On 13 January 1766 they arrived in London.", "Soon after their arrival, David Garrick arranged a box at the Drury Lane Theatre for Hume and Rousseau on a night when the King and Queen also attended.", "Garrick was himself performing in a comedy by himself, and also in a tragedy by Voltaire.", "Rousseau became so excited during the performance that he leaned too far and almost fell out of the box; Hume observed that the King and Queen were looking at Rousseau more than at the performance.", "Afterwards, Garrick served supper for Rousseau, who commended Garrick's acting: \"Sir, you have made me shed tears at your tragedy, and smile at your comedy, though I scarce understood a word of your language.", "\"At this time, Hume had a favorable opinion of Rousseau; in a letter to Madame de Brabantane, Hume wrote that after observing Rousseau carefully he had concluded that he had never met a more affable and virtuous person.", "According to Hume, Rousseau was \"gentle, modest, affectionate, disinterested, of extreme sensitivity\".", "Initially, Hume lodged Rousseau in the house of Madam Adams in London, but Rousseau began receiving so many visitors that he soon wanted to move to a quieter location.", "An offer came to lodge him in a Welsh monastery, and he was inclined to accept it, but Hume persuaded him to move to Chiswick.", "Rousseau now asked for Thérèse to rejoin him.Meanwhile, James Boswell, then in Paris, offered to escort Thérèse to Rousseau.", "(Boswell had earlier met Rousseau and Thérèse at Motiers; he had subsequently also sent Thérèse a garnet necklace and had written to Rousseau seeking permission to communicate occasionally with her.)", "Hume foresaw what was going to happen: \"I dread some event fatal to our friend's honor.\"", "Boswell and Thérèse were together for more than a week, and as per notes in Boswell's diary they consummated the relationship, having intercourse several times.", "On one occasion, Thérèse told Boswell: \"Don't imagine you are a better lover than Rousseau.", "\"Since Rousseau was keen to relocate to a more remote location, Richard Davenport—a wealthy and elderly widower who spoke French—offered to accommodate Thérèse and Rousseau at Wootton Hall in Staffordshire.", "On 22 March 1766 Rousseau and Thérèse set forth for Wootton, against Hume's advice.", "Hume and Rousseau would never meet again.", "Initially Rousseau liked his new accommodation at Wootton Hall and wrote favorably about the natural beauty of the place, and how he was feeling reborn, forgetting past sorrows.====Quarrel with Hume====On 3 April 1766 a daily newspaper published the letter constituting Horace Walpole's hoax on Rousseau—without mentioning Walpole as the actual author; that the editor of the publication was Hume's personal friend compounded Rousseau's grief.", "Gradually articles critical of Rousseau started appearing in the British press; Rousseau felt that Hume, as his host, ought to have defended him.", "Moreover, in Rousseau's estimate, some of the public criticism contained details to which only Hume was privy.", "Further, Rousseau was aggrieved to find that Hume had been lodging in London with François Tronchin, son of Rousseau's enemy in Geneva.About this time, Voltaire anonymously (as always) published his ''Letter to Dr. J.-J.", "Pansophe'' in which he gave extracts from many of Rousseau's prior statements which were critical of life in England; the most damaging portions of Voltaire's writeup were reprinted in a London periodical.", "Rousseau now decided that there was a conspiracy afoot to defame him.", "A further cause for Rousseau's displeasure was his concern that Hume might be tampering with his mail.", "The misunderstanding had arisen because Rousseau tired of receiving voluminous correspondence whose postage he had to pay.", "Hume offered to open Rousseau's mail himself and to forward the important letters to Rousseau; this offer was accepted.", "However, there is some evidence of Hume intercepting even Rousseau's outgoing mail.After some correspondence with Rousseau, which included an eighteen-page letter from Rousseau describing the reasons for his resentment, Hume concluded that Rousseau was losing his mental balance.", "On learning that Rousseau had denounced him to his Parisian friends, Hume sent a copy of Rousseau's long letter to Madame de Boufflers.", "She replied stating that, in her estimate, Hume's alleged participation in the composition of Horace Walpole's ''faux'' letter was the reason for Rousseau's anger.When Hume learnt that Rousseau was writing the ''Confessions'', he assumed that the present dispute would feature in the book.", "Adam Smith, Turgot, Marischal Keith, Horace Walpole, and Mme de Boufflers advised Hume not to make his quarrel with Rousseau public; however, many members of Holbach's coterie—particularly D'Alembert—urged him to reveal his version of the events.", "In October 1766 Hume's version of the quarrel was translated into French and published in France; in November it was published in England.", "Grimm included it in his ''Correspondance littéraire''; ultimately:After the dispute became public, due in part to comments from notable publishers like Andrew Millar, Walpole told Hume that quarrels such as this only end up becoming a source of amusement for Europe.", "Diderot took a charitable view of the mess: \"I knew these two philosophers well.", "I could write a play about them that would make you weep, and it would excuse them both.\"", "Amidst the controversy surrounding his quarrel with Hume, Rousseau maintained a public silence; but he resolved now to return to France.", "To encourage him to do so swiftly, Thérèse advised him that the servants at Wootton Hall sought to poison him.", "On 22 May 1767 Rousseau and Thérèse embarked from Dover for Calais.===In Grenoble===On 22 May 1767, Rousseau reentered France even though an arrest warrant against him was still in place.", "He had taken an assumed name, but was recognized, and a banquet in his honor was held by the city of Amiens.", "French nobles offered him a residence at this time.", "Initially, Rousseau decided to stay in an estate near Paris belonging to Mirabeau.", "Subsequently, on 21 June 1767, he moved to a chateau of the Prince of Conti in Trie.Around this time, Rousseau started developing feelings of paranoia, anxiety, and of a conspiracy against him.", "Most of this was just his imagination at work, but on 29 January 1768, the theatre at Geneva was destroyed through burning, and Voltaire mendaciously accused Rousseau of being the culprit.", "In June 1768, Rousseau left Trie, leaving Thérèse behind, and went first to Lyon, and subsequently to Bourgoin.", "He now invited Thérèse to this place and ''married'' her, under his alias \"Renou\" in a faux civil ceremony in Bourgoin on 30 August 1768.In January 1769, Rousseau and Thérèse went to live in a farmhouse near Grenoble.", "Here he practiced botany and completed the ''Confessions''.", "At this time he expressed regret for placing his children in an orphanage.", "On 10 April 1770, Rousseau and Thérèse left for Lyon where he befriended Horace Coignet, a fabric designer and amateur musician.", "At Rousseau's suggestion, Coignet composed musical interludes for Rousseau's prose poem ''Pygmalion''; this was performed in Lyon together with Rousseau's romance ''The Village Soothsayer'' to public acclaim.", "On 8 June, Rousseau and Thérèse left Lyon for Paris; they reached Paris on 24 June.In Paris, Rousseau and Thérèse lodged in an unfashionable neighborhood of the city, the Rue Platrière—now called the Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau.", "He now supported himself financially by copying music, and continued his study of botany.", "At this time also, he wrote his ''Letters on the Elements of Botany''.", "These consisted of a series of letters Rousseau wrote to Mme Delessert in Lyon to help her daughters learn the subject.", "These letters received widespread acclaim when they were eventually published posthumously.", "\"It's a true pedagogical model, and it complements ''Emile'',\" commented Goethe.In order to defend his reputation against hostile gossip, Rousseau had begun writing the ''Confessions'' in 1765.In November 1770, these were completed, and although he did not wish to publish them at this time, he began to offer group readings of certain portions of the book.", "Between December 1770, and May 1771, Rousseau made at least four group readings of his book with the final reading lasting seventeen hours.", "A witness to one of these sessions, Claude Joseph Dorat, wrote: After May 1771, there were no more group readings because Madame d'Épinay wrote to the chief of police, who was her friend, to put a stop to Rousseau's readings so as to safeguard her privacy.", "The police called on Rousseau, who agreed to stop the readings.", "His ''Confessions'' were finally published posthumously in 1782.In 1772, Rousseau was invited to present recommendations for a new constitution for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the ''Considerations on the Government of Poland'', which was to be his last major political work.Also in 1772, Rousseau began writing ''Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques'', which was another attempt to reply to his critics.", "He completed writing it in 1776.The book is in the form of three dialogues between two characters; a \"Frenchman\" and \"Rousseau\", who argue about the merits and demerits of a third character—an author called ''Jean-Jacques''.", "It has been described as his most unreadable work; in the foreword to the book, Rousseau admits that it may be repetitious and disorderly, but he begs the reader's indulgence on the grounds that he needs to defend his reputation from slander before he dies.===Final years===In 1766, Rousseau had impressed Hume with his physical prowess by spending ten hours at night on the deck in severe weather during the journey by ship from Calais to Dover while Hume was confined to his bunk.", "\"When all the seamen were almost frozen to death...he caught no harm...He is one of the most robust men I have ever known,\" Hume noted.", "His urinary disease had also been greatly alleviated after he stopped listening to the advice of doctors.", "At that time, notes Damrosch, it was often better to let nature take its own course rather than subject oneself to medical procedures.", "His general health had also improved.", "However, on 24 October 1776, as he was walking on a narrow street in Paris, a nobleman's carriage came rushing by from the opposite direction; flanking the carriage was a galloping Great Dane belonging to the nobleman.", "Rousseau was unable to dodge both the carriage and the dog and was knocked down by the Great Dane.", "He seems to have suffered a concussion and neurological damage.", "His health began to decline; Rousseau's friend Corancez described the appearance of certain symptoms which indicate that Rousseau started suffering from epileptic seizures after the accident.Panthéon, ParisIn 1777, Rousseau received a royal visitor, when the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II came to meet him.", "His free entry to the Opera had been renewed by this time and he would go there occasionally.", "At this time also (1777–1778), he composed one of his finest works, ''Reveries of a Solitary Walker'', ultimately interrupted by his death.In the spring of 1778, the Marquis Girardin invited Rousseau to live in a cottage in his château at Ermenonville.", "Rousseau and Thérèse went there on 20 May.", "Rousseau spent his time at the château in collecting botanical specimens, and teaching botany to Girardin's son.", "He ordered books from Paris on grasses, mosses and mushrooms and made plans to complete his unfinished ''Emile and Sophie'' and ''Daphnis and Chloe''.On 1 July, a visitor commented that \"men are wicked,\" to which Rousseau replied with \"men are wicked, yes, but man is good\"; in the evening there was a concert in the château in which Rousseau played on the piano his own composition of the Willow Song from ''Othello''.", "On this day also, he had a hearty meal with Girardin's family; the next morning, as he was about to go teach music to Girardin's daughter, he died of cerebral bleeding resulting in an apoplectic stroke.", "It is now believed that repeated falls, including the accident involving the Great Dane, may have contributed to Rousseau's stroke.Following his death, Grimm, Madame de Staël and others spread the false news that Rousseau had committed suicide; according to other gossip, Rousseau was insane when he died.", "All those who met him in his last days agree that he was in a serene frame of mind at this time.On 4 July 1778, Rousseau was buried on the Île des Peupliers, a tiny, wooded island in a lake at Ermenonville, which became a place of pilgrimage for his many admirers.", "On 11 October 1794, his remains were moved to the Panthéon, where they were placed near those of Voltaire." ], [ "Philosophy", "=== Influences ===Rousseau later noted, that when he read the question for the essay competition of the Academy of Dijon, which he would go on to win: \"Has the rebirth of the arts and sciences contributed to the purification of the morals?", "\", he felt that \"the moment I read this announcement I saw another universe and became a different man\".", "The essay he wrote in response led to one of the central themes of Rousseau's thought, which was that perceived social and cultural progress had in fact led only to the moral degradation of humanity.", "His influences to this conclusion included Montesquieu, François Fénelon, Michel de Montaigne, Seneca the Younger, Plato, and Plutarch.Rousseau based his political philosophy on contract theory and his reading of Thomas Hobbes.", "Reacting to the ideas of Samuel von Pufendorf and John Locke was also driving his thought.", "All three thinkers had believed that humans living without central authority were facing uncertain conditions in a state of mutual competition.", "In contrast, Rousseau believed that there was no explanation for why this would be the case, as there would have been no conflict or property.", "Rousseau especially criticized Hobbes for asserting that since man in the \"state of nature... has no idea of goodness he must be naturally wicked; that he is vicious because he does not know virtue\".", "On the contrary, Rousseau holds that \"uncorrupted morals\" prevail in the \"state of nature\".=== Human nature ===Statue of Rousseau on the Île Rousseau, GenevaIn common with other philosophers of the day, Rousseau looked to a hypothetical \"state of nature\" as a normative guide.", "In the original condition, humans would have had \"no moral relations with or determinate obligations to one another\".", "Because of their rare contact with each other, differences between individuals would have been of little significance.", "Living separately, there would have been no feelings of envy or distrust, and no existence of property or conflict.According to Rousseau, humans have two traits in common with other animals: the ''amour de soi'', which describes the self-preservation instinct; and ''pitié'', which is empathy for the rest of one's species, both of which precede reason and sociability.", "Only humans who are morally deprived would care only about their relative status to others, leading to ''amour-propre'', or vanity.", "He did not believe humans to be innately superior to other species.", "However, human beings did have the unique ability to change their nature through free choice, instead of being confined to natural instincts.Another aspect separating humans from other animals is the ability of ''perfectability'', which allows humans to choose in a way that improves their condition.", "These improvements could be lasting, leading not only to individual, but also collective change for the better.", "Together with human freedom, the ability to improve makes possible the historic evolution of humanity.", "However, there is no guarantee that this evolution will be for the better.===Human development===Rousseau asserted that the stage of human development associated with what he called \"savages\" was the best or optimal in human development, between the less-than-optimal extreme of brute animals on the one hand and the extreme of decadent civilization on the other.", "\"...Nothing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes and the fatal enlightenment of civil man\".", "This has led some critics to attribute to Rousseau the invention of the idea of the noble savage, which Arthur Lovejoy claimed misrepresents Rousseau's thought.", "According to Rousseau, as savages had grown less dependent on nature, they had instead become dependent on each other, with society leading to the loss of freedom through the misapplication of perfectibility.", "When living together, humans would have gone from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one, leading to the invention of private property.", "However, the resulting inequality was not a natural outcome, but rather the product of human choice.Rousseau's ideas of human development were highly interconnected with forms of mediation, or the processes that individual humans use to interact with themselves and others while using an alternate perspective or thought process.", "According to Rousseau, these were developed through the innate perfectibility of humanity.", "These include a sense of self, morality, pity, and imagination.", "Rousseau's writings are purposely ambiguous concerning the formation of these processes to the point that mediation is always intrinsically part of humanity's development.", "An example of this is the notion that an individual needs an alternative perspective to come to the realization that he or she is a 'self'.As long as differences in wealth and status among families were minimal, the first coming together in groups was accompanied by a fleeting golden age of human flourishing.", "The development of agriculture, metallurgy, private property, and the division of labour and resulting dependency on one another, however, led to economic inequality and conflict.", "As population pressures forced them to associate more and more closely, they underwent a psychological transformation: they began to see themselves through the eyes of others and came to value the good opinion of others as essential to their self-esteem.As humans started to compare themselves with each other, they began to notice that some had qualities differentiating them from others.", "However, only when moral significance was attached to these qualities did they start to create esteem and envy, and thereby, social hierarchies.", "Rousseau noted that whereas \"the savage lives within himself, sociable man, always outside himself, can only live in the opinion of others\".", "This then resulted in the corruption of humankind, \"producing combinations fatal to innocence and happiness\".Following the attachment of importance to human difference, they would have started forming social institutions, according to Rousseau.", "Metallurgy and agriculture would have subsequently increased the inequalities between those with and without property.", "After all land had been converted into private properties, a zero-sum game would have resulted in competition for it, leading to conflict.", "This would have led to the creation and perpetuation of the 'hoax' of the political system by the rich, which perpetuated their power.===Political theory===Île Rousseau, GenevaAccording to Rousseau, the original forms of government to emerge: monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, were all products of the differing levels of inequality in their societies.", "However, they would always end up with ever worse levels of inequality, until a revolution would have overthrown it and new leaders would have emerged with further extremes of injustice.", "Nevertheless, the human capacity for self-improvement remained.", "As the problems of humanity were the product of political choice, they could also be improved by a better political system.", "''The Social Contract'' outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism.", "Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition.", "It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article ''Économie Politique'' (''Discourse on Political Economy''), featured in Diderot's ''Encyclopédie''.", "In the book, Rousseau sketched the image of a new political system for regaining human freedom.Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation.", "As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law.", "In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them.", "This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom.According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free.", "This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law.Although Rousseau argues that sovereignty (or the power to make the laws) should be in the hands of the people, he also makes a sharp distinction between the sovereign and the government.", "The government is composed of magistrates, charged with implementing and enforcing the general will.", "The \"sovereign\" is the rule of law, ideally decided on by direct democracy in an assembly.Rousseau opposed the idea that the people should exercise sovereignty via a representative assembly (Book III, chapter XV).", "He approved the form of republican government of the city-state, for which Geneva provided a model—or would have done if renewed on Rousseau's principles.", "France could not meet Rousseau's criterion of an ideal state because it was too big.", "Much subsequent controversy about Rousseau's work has hinged on disagreements concerning his claims that citizens constrained to obey the general will are thereby rendered free:The notion of the general will is wholly central to Rousseau's theory of political legitimacy.", "...", "It is, however, an unfortunately obscure and controversial notion.", "Some commentators see it as no more than the dictatorship of the proletariat or the tyranny of the urban poor (such as may perhaps be seen in the French Revolution).", "Such was not Rousseau's meaning.", "This is clear from the ''Discourse on Political Economy'', where Rousseau emphasizes that the general will exists to protect individuals against the mass, not to require them to be sacrificed to it.", "He is, of course, sharply aware that men have selfish and sectional interests which will lead them to try to oppress others.", "It is for this reason that loyalty to the good of all alike must be a supreme (although not exclusive) commitment by everyone, not only if a truly general will is to be heeded but also if it is to be formulated successfully in the first place.A remarkable peculiarity of ''Social Contract'' is its logical rigor, which Rousseau had learned in his twenties from mathematics:===Economic theory===Rousseau offers a wealth of economic thought in his writings, especially the ''Discourse on Inequality'', ''Discourse on Political Economy'', the ''Social Contract'', as well as his constitutional projects for Corsica and Poland.", "Rousseau's economic theory has been criticised as sporadic and unrigorous by later economists such as Joseph Schumpeter, but has been praised by historians of economic thought for its nuanced view of finance and mature thought on development.", "Scholars generally accept that Rousseau offers a critique of modern wealth and luxury.", "Moreover, Rousseau's economic thought is associated with agrarianism and Autarkism.", "Historian Istvan Hont modifies this reading, however, by suggesting that Rousseau is both a critic and a thinker of commerce, leaving room for well-regulated commerce within a well-governed civil space.", "Political theorists Ryan Hanley and Hansong Li further argue that as a modern legislator, Rousseau seeks not to reject, but to tame utility, self-love, and even trade, finance, and luxury to serve the health of the republic.===Education and child rearing===Jean-Jacques Rousseau on a Romanian stamp, 1962Rousseau's philosophy of education concerns itself not with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupil's character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live.", "A hypothetical boy, Émile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor.", "Today we would call this the disciplinary method of \"natural consequences\".", "Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment.", "The tutor will make sure that no harm results to Émile through his learning experiences.Rousseau became an early advocate of developmentally appropriate education; his description of the stages of child development mirrors his conception of the evolution of culture.", "He divides childhood into stages:# The first to the age of about 12, when children are guided by their emotions and impulses# During the second stage, from 12 to about 16, reason starts to develop# Finally the third stage, from the age of 16 onwards, when the child develops into an adultRousseau recommends that the young adult learn a manual skill such as carpentry, which requires creativity and thought, will keep him out of trouble, and will supply a fallback means of making a living in the event of a change of fortune (the most illustrious aristocratic youth to have been educated this way may have been Louis XVI, whose parents had him learn the skill of locksmithing).Rousseau was a believer in the moral superiority of the patriarchal family on the antique Roman model.", "Sophie, the young woman Émile is destined to marry, as his representative of ideal womanhood, is educated to be governed by her husband while Émile, as his representative of the ideal man, is educated to be self-governing.", "This is not an accidental feature of Rousseau's educational and political philosophy; it is essential to his account of the distinction between private, personal relations and the public world of political relations.", "The private sphere, as Rousseau imagines it, depends on the subordination of women for both it and the public political sphere (upon which it depends) to function as Rousseau imagines it could and should.", "Rousseau anticipated the modern idea of the bourgeois nuclear family, with the mother at home taking responsibility for the household and for childcare and early education.Feminists, beginning in the late 18th century with Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, have criticized Rousseau for his confinement of women to the domestic sphere.", "Unless women were domesticated and constrained by modesty and shame, he feared \"men would be tyrannized by women ... For, given the ease with which women arouse men's senses—men would finally be their victims ...\" Rousseau also believed that Mothers were to breastfeed their children rather than using wet-nurses.", "Marmontel wrote that his wife thought, \"We must pardon him Rousseau something\" she used to say, \"who has taught us to be mothers.", "\"\"Rousseau's ideas have influenced progressive \"child-centered\" education.", "John Darling's 1994 book ''Child-Centered Education and its Critics'' portrays the history of modern educational theory as a series of footnotes to Rousseau, a development he regards as bad.", "The theories of educators such as Rousseau's near contemporaries Pestalozzi, Mme.", "de Genlis and, later, Maria Montessori and John Dewey, which have directly influenced modern educational practices, have significant points in common with those of Rousseau." ], [ "Religion", "Having converted to Roman Catholicism early in life and returned to the austere Calvinism of his native Geneva as part of his period of moral reform, Rousseau maintained a profession of that religious philosophy and of John Calvin as a modern lawgiver throughout the remainder of his life.", "Unlike many of the more agnostic Enlightenment philosophers, Rousseau affirmed the necessity of religion.", "His views on religion presented in his works of philosophy, however, may strike some as discordant with the doctrines of both Catholicism and Calvinism.Rousseau's strong endorsement of religious toleration, as expounded in ''Émile'', was interpreted as advocating indifferentism, a heresy, and led to the condemnation of the book in both Calvinist Geneva and Catholic Paris.", "Although he praised the Bible, he was disgusted by the Christianity of his day.", "Rousseau's assertion in ''The Social Contract'' that true followers of Christ would not make good citizens may have been another reason for his condemnation in Geneva.", "He also repudiated the doctrine of original sin, which plays a large part in Calvinism.", "In his \"Letter to Beaumont\", Rousseau wrote, \"there is no original perversity in the human heart.", "\"In the 18th century, many deists viewed God merely as an abstract and impersonal creator of the universe, likened to a giant machine.", "Rousseau's deism differed from the usual kind in its emotionality.", "He saw the presence of God in the creation as good, and separate from the harmful influence of society.", "Rousseau's attribution of a spiritual value to the beauty of nature anticipates the attitudes of 19th-century Romanticism towards nature and religion.", "(Historians—notably William Everdell, Graeme Garrard, and Darrin McMahon—have additionally situated Rousseau within the Counter-Enlightenment.)", "Rousseau was upset that his deism was so forcefully condemned, while those of the more atheistic philosophers were ignored.", "He defended himself against critics of his religious views in his \"Letter to Mgr de Beaumont, the Archbishop of Paris\", \"in which he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by force.\"" ], [ "Composer", "Rousseau was a moderately successful composer of music, who wrote seven operas as well as music in other forms, and contributed to music theory.", "As a composer, his music was a blend of the late Baroque style and the emergent Classical fashion, i.e.", "Galant, and he belongs to the same generation of transitional composers as Christoph Willibald Gluck and C. P. E. Bach.", "One of his more well-known works is the one-act opera ''The Village Soothsayer''.", "It contains the duet \"Non, Colette n'est point trompeuse,\" which was later rearranged as a standalone song by Beethoven, and the gavotte in scene no.", "8 is the source of the tune of the folk song \"Go Tell Aunt Rhody\".", "He also composed several noted motets, some of which were sung at the Concert Spirituel in Paris.", "Rousseau's Aunt Suzanne was passionate about music and heavily influenced Rousseau's interest in music.", "In his ''Confessions'', Rousseau claims he is \"indebted\" to her for his passion of music.", "Rousseau took formal instruction in music at the house of Françoise-Louise de Warens.", "She housed Rousseau on and off for about 13 years, giving him jobs and responsibilities.", "In 1742, Rousseau developed a system of musical notation that was compatible with typography and numbered.", "He presented his invention to the Academie Des Sciences, but they rejected it, praising his efforts and pushing him to try again.", "In 1743, Rousseau wrote his first opera, '''', which was first performed in 1745.Rousseau and Jean-Philippe Rameau argued over the superiority of Italian music over French.", "Rousseau argued that Italian music was superior based on the principle that melody must have priority over harmony.", "Rameau argued that French music was superior based on the principle that harmony must have priority over melody.", "Rousseau's plea for melody introduced the idea that in art, the free expression of a creative person is more important than the strict adherence to traditional rules and procedures.", "This is known today as a characteristic of Romanticism.", "Rousseau argued for musical freedom and changed people's attitudes towards music.", "His works were acknowledged by composers such as Christoph Willibald Gluck and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.", "After composing ''The Village Soothsayer'' in 1752, Rousseau felt he could not go on working for the theater because he was a moralist who had decided to break from worldly values.", "''Avril'', p. 2'''Musical compositions'''* '''' (1743)* ''Les Fetes de Remire'' (1745)* ''Symphonie à Cors de Chasse'' (1751)* ''Le Devin du village'' (1752) – opera in 1 act* ''Salve Regina'' (1752) – antiphone* ''Chansons de Bataille'' (1753)* ''Pygmalion'' (1762/1770) – melodrama* ''Avril'' – aire a poesía de Rémy Belleau* ''Les Consolations des Misères de Ma Vie'' (1781)* ''Daphnis et Chloé''* ''Que le jour me dure!", "''* ''Le Printemps de Vivaldi'' (1775)" ], [ "Legacy", "Letter to d'Alembert where Rousseau recalls witnessing the popular celebrations following the exercises of the St Gervais regiment.===General will===Rousseau's idea of the ''volonté générale'' (\"general will\") was not original but rather belonged to a well-established technical vocabulary of juridical and theological writings in use at the time.", "The phrase was used by Diderot and also by Montesquieu (and by his teacher, the Oratorian friar Nicolas Malebranche).", "It served to designate the common interest embodied in legal tradition, as distinct from and transcending people's private and particular interests at any particular time.", "It displayed a rather democratic ideology, as it declared that the citizens of a given nation should carry out whatever actions they deem necessary in their own sovereign assembly.The concept was also an important aspect of the more radical 17th-century republican tradition of Spinoza, from whom Rousseau differed in important respects, but not in his insistence on the importance of equality:===French Revolution===Allegory of the French Revolution in honor of Rousseau, by Nicolas Henri Jeaurat de Bertry (1794).", "The final version of the painting was offered to the National ConventionRobespierre and Saint-Just, during the Reign of Terror, regarded themselves to be principled egalitarian republicans, obliged to do away with superfluities and corruption; in this they were inspired most prominently by Rousseau.", "According to Robespierre, the deficiencies in individuals were rectified by upholding the 'common good' which he conceptualized as the collective will of the people; this idea was derived from Rousseau's ''General Will''.", "The revolutionaries were also inspired by Rousseau to introduce Deism as the new official civil religion of France:Rousseau's influence on the French Revolution was noted by Edmund Burke, who critiqued Rousseau in ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'', and this critique reverberated throughout Europe, leading Catherine the Great to ban his works.", "This connection between Rousseau and the French Revolution (especially the Terror) persisted through the next century.", "As François Furet notes that \"we can see that for the whole of the nineteenth century Rousseau was at the heart of the interpretation of the Revolution for both its admirers and its critics.", "\"===Effect on the American Revolution===According to some scholars, Rousseau exercised minimal influence on the Founding Fathers of the United States, despite similarities between their ideas.", "They shared beliefs regarding the self-evidence that \"all men are created equal,\" and the conviction that citizens of a republic be educated at public expense.", "A parallel can be drawn between the United States Constitution's concept of the \"general welfare\" and Rousseau's concept of the \"general will\".", "Further commonalities exist between Jeffersonian democracy and Rousseau's praise of Switzerland and Corsica's economies of isolated and independent homesteads, and his endorsement of a well-regulated civic militia, such as a navy for Corsica, and the militia of the Swiss cantons.However, Will and Ariel Durant have opined that Rousseau had a definite political influence on America.", "According to them: One of Rousseau's most important American followers was textbook writer Noah Webster (1758–1843), who was influenced by Rousseau's ideas on pedagogy in ''Emile'' (1762).", "Webster structured his ''Speller'' in accord with Rousseau's ideas about the stages of a child's intellectual development.Rousseau's writings perhaps had an indirect influence on American literature through the writings of Wordsworth and Kant, whose works were important to the New England transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson, as well as on Unitarians such as theologian William Ellery Channing.", "''The Last of the Mohicans'' and other American novels reflect republican and egalitarian ideals present alike in Thomas Paine and in English Romantic primitivism.===Criticisms of Rousseau===A portrait of Rousseau in later lifeThe first to criticize Rousseau were his fellow ''Philosophes'', above all, Voltaire.", "According to Jacques Barzun, Voltaire was annoyed by the first discourse and outraged by the second.", "Voltaire's reading of the second discourse was that Rousseau would like the reader to \"walk on all fours\" befitting a savage.Samuel Johnson told his biographer James Boswell, \"I think him one of the worst of men; a rascal, who ought to be hunted out of society, as he has been\".Jean-Baptiste Blanchard was his leading Catholic opponent.", "Blanchard rejects Rousseau's negative education, in which one must wait until a child has grown to develop reason.", "The child would find more benefit from learning in his earliest years.", "He also disagreed with his ideas about female education, declaring that women are a dependent lot.", "So, removing them from their motherly path is unnatural, as it would lead to the unhappiness of both men and women.Historian Jacques Barzun states that, contrary to myth, Rousseau was no primitivist; for him:The model man is the independent farmer, free of superiors and self-governing.", "This was cause enough for the ''philosophes''' hatred of their former friend.", "Rousseau's unforgivable crime was his rejection of the graces and luxuries of civilized existence.", "Voltaire had sung \"The superfluous, that most necessary thing.\"", "For the high bourgeois standard of living Rousseau would substitute the middling peasant's.", "It was the country versus the city—an exasperating idea for them, as was the amazing fact that every new work of Rousseau's was a huge success, whether the subject was politics, theater, education, religion, or a novel about love.As early as 1788, Madame de Staël published her ''Letters on the works and character of J.-J.", "Rousseau''.", "In 1819, in his famous speech \"On Ancient and Modern Liberty\", the political philosopher Benjamin Constant, a proponent of constitutional monarchy and representative democracy, criticized Rousseau, or rather his more radical followers (specifically the Abbé de Mably), for allegedly believing that \"everything should give way to collective will, and that all restrictions on individual rights would be amply compensated by participation in social power.", "\"Frédéric Bastiat severely criticized Rousseau in several of his works, most notably in \"The Law\", in which, after analyzing Rousseau's own passages, he stated that: And what part do persons play in all this?", "They are merely the machine that is set in motion.", "In fact, are they not merely considered to be the raw material of which the machine is made?", "Thus the same relationship exists between the legislator and the prince as exists between the agricultural expert and the farmer; and the relationship between the prince and his subjects is the same as that between the farmer and his land.", "How high above mankind, then, has this writer on public affairs been placed?Bastiat believed that Rousseau wished to ignore forms of social order created by the people—viewing them as a thoughtless mass to be shaped by philosophers.", "Bastiat, who is considered by thinkers associated with the Austrian School of Economics to be one of the precursors of the \"spontaneous order\", presented his own vision of what he considered to be the \"Natural Order\" in a simple economic chain in which multiple parties might interact without necessarily even knowing each other, cooperating and fulfilling each other's needs in accordance with basic economic laws such as supply and demand.", "In such a chain, to produce clothing, multiple parties have to act independently—''e.g.,'' farmers to fertilize and cultivate land to produce fodder for the sheep, people to shear them, transport the wool, turn it into cloth, and another to tailor and sell it.", "Those persons engage in economic exchange by nature, and don't need to be ordered to, nor do their efforts need to be centrally coordinated.", "Such chains are present in every branch of human activity, in which individuals produce or exchange goods and services, and together, naturally create a complex social order that does not require external inspiration, central coordination of efforts, or bureaucratic control to benefit society as a whole.Bastiat also believed that Rousseau contradicted himself when presenting his views concerning human nature; if nature is \"sufficiently invincible to regain its empire\", why then would it need philosophers to direct it back to a natural state?", "Another point of criticism Bastiat raised was that living purely in nature would doom mankind to suffer unnecessary hardships.The Marquis de Sade's ''Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue'' (1791) partially parodied and used as inspiration Rousseau's sociological and political concepts in the ''Discourse on Inequality'' and ''The Social Contract''.", "Concepts such as the state of nature, civilization being the catalyst for corruption and evil, and humans \"signing\" a contract to mutually give up freedoms for the protection of rights, particularly referenced.", "The Comte de Gernande in ''Justine'', for instance, after Thérèse asks him how he justifies abusing and torturing women, states: The necessity mutually to render one another happy cannot legitimately exist save between two persons equally furnished with the capacity to do one another hurt and, consequently, between two persons of commensurate strength: such an association can never come into being unless a contract ''un pacte'' is immediately formed between these two persons, which obligates each to employ against each other no kind of force but what will not be injurious to either.", ".", ".", "What sort of a fool would the stronger have to be to subscribe to such an agreement?Edmund Burke formed an unfavorable impression of Rousseau when the latter visited England with Hume and later drew a connection between Rousseau's egoistic philosophy and his personal vanity, saying Rousseau \"entertained no principle... but vanity.", "With this vice he was possessed to a degree little short of madness\".Thomas Carlyle said that Rousseau possessed \"the face of what is called a Fanatic .", ".", ".", "his Ideas ''possessed'' him like demons\".", "He continued:The fault and misery of Rousseau was what we easily name by a single word, ''Egoism'' .", ".", ".", "He had not perfected himself into victory over mere Desire; a mean Hunger, in many sorts, was still the motive principle of him.", "I am afraid he was a very vain man; hungry for the praises of men.", ".", ".", ".", "His Books, like himself, are what I call unhealthy; not the good sort of Books.", "There is a sensuality in Rousseau.", "Combined with such an intellectual gift as his, it makes pictures of a certain gorgeous attractiveness: but they are not genuinely poetical.", "Not white sunlight: something ''operatic''; a kind of rose-pink, artificial bedizenment.Charles Dudley Warner wrote about Rousseau in his essay, ''Equality''; \"Rousseau borrowed from Hobbes as well as from Locke in his conception of popular sovereignty; but this was not his only lack of originality.", "His discourse on primitive society, his unscientific and unhistoric notions about the original condition of man, were those common in the middle of the eighteenth century.", "\"In 1919, Irving Babbitt, founder of a movement called the \"New Humanism\", wrote a critique of what he called \"sentimental humanitarianism\", for which he blamed Rousseau.", "Babbitt's depiction of Rousseau was countered in a celebrated and much reprinted essay by A.O.", "Lovejoy in 1923.In France, conservative theorist Charles Maurras, founder of ''Action Française'', \"had no compunctions in laying the blame for both ''Romantisme et Révolution'' firmly on Rousseau in 1922.", "\"During the Cold War, Rousseau was criticized for his association with nationalism and its attendant abuses, for example in .", "This came to be known among scholars as the \"totalitarian thesis\".", "Political scientist J.S.", "Maloy states that \"the twentieth century added Nazism and Stalinism to Jacobinism on the list of horrors for which Rousseau could be blamed.", "... Rousseau was considered to have advocated just the sort of invasive tampering with human nature which the totalitarian regimes of mid-century had tried to instantiate.\"", "But he adds that \"The totalitarian thesis in Rousseau studies has, by now, been discredited as an attribution of real historical influence.\"", "Arthur Melzer, however, while conceding that Rousseau would not have approved of modern nationalism, observes that his theories do contain the \"seeds of nationalism\", insofar as they set forth the \"politics of identification\", which are rooted in sympathetic emotion.", "Melzer also believes that in admitting that people's talents are unequal, Rousseau therefore tacitly condones the tyranny of the few over the many.", "For Stephen T. Engel, on the other hand, Rousseau's nationalism anticipated modern theories of \"imagined communities\" that transcend social and religious divisions within states.On similar grounds, one of Rousseau's strongest critics during the second half of the 20th century was political philosopher Hannah Arendt.", "Using Rousseau's thought as an example, Arendt identified the notion of sovereignty with that of the general will.", "According to her, it was this desire to establish a single, unified will based on the stifling of opinion in favor of public passion that contributed to the excesses of the French Revolution.===Appreciation and influence===The book ''Rousseau and Revolution'', by Will and Ariel Durant, begins with the following words about Rousseau:Les dernières paroles de Jean-Jacques RousseauThe German writers Goethe, Schiller, and Herder have stated that Rousseau's writings inspired them.", "Herder regarded Rousseau to be his \"guide\", and Schiller compared Rousseau to Socrates.", "Goethe, in 1787, stated: \"''Emile'' and its sentiments had a universal influence on the cultivated mind.\"", "The elegance of Rousseau's writing is held to have inspired a significant transformation in French poetry and drama—freeing them from rigid literary norms.Other writers who were influenced by Rousseau's writings included Leopardi in Italy; Pushkin and Tolstoy in Russia; Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats, and Blake in England; and Hawthorne and Thoreau in America.", "According to Tolstoy: \"At sixteen I carried around my neck, instead of the usual cross, a medallion with Rousseau's portrait.", "\"Rousseau's ''Discourse on the Arts and Sciences'', emphasizing individualism and repudiating \"civilization\", was appreciated by, among others, Thomas Paine, William Godwin, Shelley, Tolstoy, and Edward Carpenter.", "Rousseau's contemporary Voltaire appreciated the section in ''Emile'' titled ''Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar''.Despite his criticisms, Carlyle admired Rousseau's sincerity: \"with all his drawbacks, and they are many, he has the first and chief characteristic of a Hero: he is heartily ''in earnest''.", "In earnest, if ever man was; as none of these French Philosophers were.\"", "He also admired his repudiation of atheism:Strangely through all that defacement, degradation and almost madness, there is in the inmost heart of poor Rousseau a spark of real heavenly fire.", "Once more, out of the element of that withered mocking Philosophism, Scepticism and Persiflage, there has arisen in this man the ineradicable feeling and knowledge that this Life of ours is true: not a Scepticism, Theorem, or Persiflage, but a Fact, an awful Reality.", "Nature had made that revelation to him; had ordered him to speak it out.", "He got it spoken out; if not well and clearly, then ill and dimly,—as clearly as he could.Modern admirers of Rousseau include John Dewey and Claude Lévi-Strauss.", "According to Matthew Josephson, Rousseau has remained controversial for more than two centuries, and has continued to gain admirers and critics down to the present time.", "However, in their own way, both critics and admirers have served to underscore the significance of the man, while those who have evaluated him with fairness have agreed that he was the finest thinker of his time on the question of civilization." ], [ "Works", "===Major works===* '''', 1743* ''Discourse on the Arts and Sciences'' (''Discours sur les sciences et les arts''), 1750* ''Narcissus, or The Self-Admirer: A Comedy'', 1752* ''Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men'' (''Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes''), 1754* ''Letter on French Music'', 1753 ('''')* ''Discourse on Political Economy'', 1755 ('''')* ''Letter to M. D'Alembert on Spectacles'', 1758 (''Lettre à D'Alembert sur les spectacles'')* ''Julie; or, The New Heloise'' (''Julie ou la nouvelle Héloïse''), 1761* ''Emile or On Education'' (''Émile ou de l'éducation''), 1762 (includes \"The Creed of a Savoyard Priest\")* ''The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right'' (''Du contrat social''), 1762* ''Four Letters to M. de Malesherbes'', 1762* ''Letters Written from the Mountain'', 1764 ('''')* ''Dictionary of Music''.", "1767 (''Dictionnaire de la musique'')* ''Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau'' (''Les Confessions''), 1770, published 1782* ''Constitutional Project for Corsica'', 1772* ''Considerations on the Government of Poland'', 1772* ''Letters on the Elements of Botany''* ''Essay on the Origin of Languages'', published 1781 (''Essai sur l'origine des langues'')* ''Rousseau Judge of Jean-Jacques'', published 1782 (''Rousseau juge de Jean-Jacques'')* ''Reveries of the Solitary Walker'', incomplete, published 1782 (''Rêveries du promeneur solitaire'')===Editions in English===* ''Basic Political Writings'', trans.", "Donald A. Cress.", "Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987.", "* ''Collected Writings'', ed.", "Roger Masters and Christopher Kelly, Dartmouth: University Press of New England, 1990–2010, 13 vols.", "* ''The Confessions'', trans.", "Angela Scholar.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.", "* ''Émile or On Education'', trans.", "with an introd.", "by Allan Bloom, New York: Basic Books, 1979.", "* \"On the Origin of Language\", trans.", "John H. Moran.", "In ''On the Origin of Language: Two Essays''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.", "* ''Reveries of a Solitary Walker'', trans.", "Peter France.", "London: Penguin Books, 1980.", "* '' 'The Discourses' and Other Early Political Writings'', trans.", "Victor Gourevitch.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.", "* '' 'The Social Contract' and Other Later Political Writings'', trans.", "Victor Gourevitch.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.", "* '' 'The Social Contract'', trans.", "Maurice Cranston.", "Penguin: Penguin Classics Various Editions, 1968–2007.", "* ''The Political writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau'', edited with introduction and notes by C.E.Vaughan, Blackwell, Oxford, 1962.", "(In French but the introduction and notes are in English).", "* ''Rousseau on Women, Love, and Family'', Christopher Kelly and Eve Grace (eds.", "), Dartmouth College Press, 2009." ], [ "See also", "* Boustrophedon* Château de Chenonceau* Eat the rich, a saying attributed to Rousseau* Georges Hébert, a physical culturist influenced by Rousseau's teachings* Let them eat cake, a saying of Rousseau's* List of abolitionist forerunners* List of political systems in France* Rousseau Institute* Rousseau's educational philosophy* Schutterij – civil militia===Notes, references and sources======Notes======References====== Sources ===* .", "* * * * * .", "* .", "* * * * * * * * .", "Reprinted in ''Essays in the History of Ideas'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press).", "\"A classic treatment of the ''Second Discourse''\" – Nicholas Dent.", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * Raymond Birn, \"Forging Rousseau: print, commerce and cultural manipulation in the late Enlightenment\" (''SVEC'' 2001:08).", "* * * * Cooper, Laurence (1999).''", "Rousseau, Nature and the Problem of the Good Life''.", "Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press* * Cranston, Maurice (1982).", "''Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work''.", "New York: Norton* * Dent, Nicholas J. H. (1988).", "''Rousseau: An Introduction to his Psychological, Social, and Political Theory''.", "Oxford: Blackwell* .", "* * Derathé, Robert (1948)''.", "Le Rationalism de J.-J.", "Rousseau''.", "Press Universitaires de France* * Derrida, Jacques (1976).", "''Of Grammatology'', trans.", "Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press* Farrell, John (2006).", "''Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau.''", "New York: Cornell University Press* * Garrard, Graeme (2003).", "''Rousseau's Counter-Enlightenment: A Republican Critique of the Philosophes''.", "Albany: State University of New York Press* Garrard, Graeme (2014).", "\"Rousseau, Happiness and Human Nature,\" ''Political Studies'', Vol.", "62, No.", "1, pp. 70–82.", "* Garrard, Graeme (2021).", "\"Children of the State: Rousseau's Republican Educational Theory and Child Abandonment,\" ''Educational History'', Vol.", "50, No.", "2, pp. 147–160.", "* Gauthier, David (2006).", "''Rousseau: The Sentiment of Existence''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* Hendel, Charles W. (1934).", "''Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Moralist''.", "2 Vols.", "(1934) Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs Merrill* * Kanzler, Peter.", "The Leviathan (1651), The Two Treatises of Government (1689), The Social Contract (1762), The Constitution of Pennsylvania (1776), 2020.", "* Kateb, George (1961).", "\"Aspects of Rousseau's Political Thought\", ''Political Science Quarterly'', December 1961* Christopher Kelly, ''Rousseau's Exemplary Life: the \"Confessions\" as political philosophy'', Ithaca: Cornell, 1987.", "* Christopher Kelly, ''Rousseau as Author'', University of Chicago Press, 2003.", "* Kitsikis, Dimitri (2006).", "''Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les origines françaises du fascisme''.", "Nantes: Ars Magna Editions* * LaFreniere, Gilbert F. (1990).", "\"Rousseau and the European Roots of Environmentalism.\"", "''Environmental History Review'' 14 (No.", "4): 41–72* Lange, Lynda (2002).", "''Feminist Interpretations of Jean-Jacques Rousseau''.", "University Park: Penn State University Press* Maguire, Matthew (2006).", "''The Conversion of the Imagination: from Pascal through Rousseau to Tocqueville''.", "Harvard University Press* Marks, Jonathan (2005).", "''Perfection and Disharmony in the Thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* Masters, Roger (ed.", "), 1964.", "''The First and Second Discourses by Jean-Jacques Rousseau'', translated by Roger D Masters and Judith R Masters.", "New York: St. Martin's Press.", "* Masters, Roger 1968.", "''The Political Philosophy of Rousseau''.", "Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press (), also available in French ()* * Christie McDonald and Stanley Hoffman (eds.", "), ''Rousseau and Freedom'', Cambridge University Press, 2010.", "* Melzer, Arthur (1990).", "''The Natural Goodness of Man: On the System of Rousseau's Thought''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press* Paiva, Wilson (2019).", "''Discussing human connectivity in Rousseau as a pedagogical issue''.", "Article available at: * Pateman, Carole (1979).", "''The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critical Analysis of Liberal Theory''.", "Chichester: John Wiley & Sons* * * Riley, Patrick (ed.)", "(2001).", "''The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003).", "''Introducing Political Philosophy''.", "Icon Books.", "* * * * Schaeffer, Denise.", "(2014) ''Rousseau on Education, Freedom, and Judgment''.", "Pennsylvania State University Press* Simpson, Matthew (2006).", "''Rousseau's Theory of Freedom''.", "London: Continuum Books* * Starobinski, Jean (1988).", "''Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Transparency and Obstruction''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press* Strauss, Leo (1953).", "''Natural Right and History''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, chap.", "6A* * Strong, Tracy B.", "(2002).", "''Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Politics of the Ordinary''.", "Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield* Talmon, Jacob R. (1952).", "''The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy''.", "New York: W.W.", "Norton.", "* * Williams, David Lay (2007).", "''Rousseau's Platonic Enlightenment''.", "Pennsylvania State University Press* * Wokler, Robert.", "(1995).", "''Rousseau''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* * Wraight, Christopher D. (2008), ''Rousseau's The Social Contract: A Reader's Guide''.", "London: Continuum Books." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John von Neumann" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John von Neumann''' ( ; ; December 28, 1903 – February 8, 1957) was a Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, computer scientist, engineer and polymath.", "He had perhaps the widest coverage of any mathematician of his time, integrating pure and applied sciences and making major contributions to many fields, including mathematics, physics, economics, computing, and statistics.", "He was a pioneer in building the mathematical framework of quantum physics, in the development of functional analysis, and in game theory, introducing or codifying concepts including cellular automata, the universal constructor and the digital computer.", "His analysis of the structure of self-replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA.During World War II, von Neumann worked on the Manhattan Project.", "He developed the mathematical models behind the explosive lenses used in the implosion-type nuclear weapon.", "Before and after the war, he consulted for many organizations including the Office of Scientific Research and Development, the Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.", "At the peak of his influence in the 1950s, he chaired a number of Defense Department committees including the Strategic Missile Evaluation Committee and the ICBM Scientific Advisory Committee.", "He was also a member of the influential Atomic Energy Commission in charge of all atomic energy development in the country.", "He played a key role alongside Bernard Schriever and Trevor Gardner in the design and development of the United States' first ICBM programs.", "At that time he was considered the nation's foremost expert on nuclear weaponry and the leading defense scientist at the Pentagon.Von Neumann's contributions and intellectual ability drew praise from colleagues in physics, mathematics, and beyond.", "Accolades he received range from the Medal of Freedom to a crater on the Moon named in his honor." ], [ "Life and education", "=== Family background ===Von Neumann was born in Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary (then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire), on December 28, 1903, to a wealthy, non-observant Jewish family.", "His birth name was Neumann János Lajos.", "In Hungarian, the family name comes first, and his given names are equivalent to John Louis in English.He was the eldest of three brothers; his two younger siblings were Mihály (Michael) and Miklós (Nicholas).", "His father Neumann Miksa (Max von Neumann) was a banker and held a doctorate in law.", "He had moved to Budapest from Pécs at the end of the 1880s.", "Miksa's father and grandfather were born in Ond (now part of Szerencs), Zemplén County, northern Hungary.", "John's mother was Kann Margit (English: Margaret Kann); her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels of the Meisels family.", "Three generations of the Kann family lived in spacious apartments above the Kann-Heller offices in Budapest; von Neumann's family occupied an 18-room apartment on the top floor.On February 20, 1913, Emperor Franz Joseph elevated John's father to the Hungarian nobility for his service to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "The Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation ''Margittai'', meaning \"of Margitta\" (today Marghita, Romania).", "The family had no connection with the town; the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret, as was their chosen coat of arms depicting three marguerites.", "Neumann János became margittai Neumann János (John Neumann de Margitta), which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann.=== Child prodigy ===Von Neumann was a child prodigy who at six years old could divide two eight-digit numbers in his head and converse in Ancient Greek.", "He, his brothers and his cousins were instructed by governesses.", "Von Neumann's father believed that knowledge of languages other than their native Hungarian was essential, so the children were tutored in English, French, German and Italian.", "By age eight, von Neumann was familiar with differential and integral calculus, and by twelve he had read Borel's ''La Théorie des Fonctions''.", "He was also interested in history, reading Wilhelm Oncken's 46-volume world history series (''General History in Monographs'').", "One of the rooms in the apartment was converted into a library and reading room.Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium in 1914.Eugene Wigner was a year ahead of von Neumann at the school and soon became his friend.Although von Neumann's father insisted that he attend school at the grade level appropriate to his age, he agreed to hire private tutors to give von Neumann advanced instruction.", "At 15, he began to study advanced calculus under the analyst Gábor Szegő.", "By 19, von Neumann had published two major mathematical papers, the second of which gave the modern definition of ordinal numbers, which superseded Georg Cantor's definition.", "At the conclusion of his education at the gymnasium, he applied for and won the Eötvös Prize, a national award for mathematics.=== University studies ===According to his friend Theodore von Kármán, von Neumann's father wanted John to follow him into industry, and asked von Kármán to persuade his son not to take mathematics.", "Von Neumann and his father decided that the best career path was chemical engineering.", "This was not something that von Neumann had much knowledge of, so it was arranged for him to take a two-year, non-degree course in chemistry at the University of Berlin, after which he sat for the entrance exam to ETH Zurich, which he passed in September 1923.Simultaneously von Neumann entered Pázmány Péter University in Budapest, as a Ph.D. candidate in mathematics.", "For his thesis, he produced an axiomatization of Cantor's set theory.", "He graduated as a chemical engineer from ETH Zurich in 1926, and simultaneously passed his final examinations ''summa cum laude'' for his Ph.D. in mathematics (with minors in experimental physics and chemistry).", "He then went to the University of Göttingen on a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to study mathematics under David Hilbert.", "Hermann Weyl remembers how in the winter of 1926–1927 von Neumann, Emmy Noether, and he would walk through \"the cold, wet, rain-wet streets of Göttingen\" after class discussing hypercomplex number systems and their representations." ], [ "Career and private life", "Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin announcing Neumann's lectures on the theory of functions II, axiomatic set theory and mathematical logic, the mathematical colloquium, review of recent work in quantum mechanics, special functions of mathematical physics and Hilbert's proof theory.", "He also lectured on the theory of relativity, set theory, integral equations and analysis of infinitely many variables.Von Neumann's habilitation was completed on December 13, 1927, and he began to give lectures as a ''Privatdozent'' at the University of Berlin in 1928.He was the youngest person elected ''Privatdozent'' in the university's history.", "He began writing nearly one major mathematics paper per month.", "In 1929, he briefly became a ''Privatdozent'' at the University of Hamburg, where the prospects of becoming a tenured professor were better, then in October of that year moved to Princeton University as a visiting lecturer in mathematical physics.Von Neumann was baptized a Catholic in 1930.Shortly afterward, he married Marietta Kövesi, who had studied economics at Budapest University.", "Von Neumann and Marietta had a daughter, Marina, born in 1935; she would become a professor.", "The couple divorced on November 2, 1937.On November 17, 1938, von Neumann married Klara Dan.In 1933 Von Neumann accepted a tenured professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study in New Jersey, when that institution's plan to appoint Hermann Weyl appeared to have failed.", "His mother, brothers and in-laws followed von Neumann to the United States in 1939.Von Neumann anglicized his name to John, keeping the German-aristocratic surname von Neumann.", "Von Neumann became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1937, and immediately tried to become a lieutenant in the U.S. Army's Officers Reserve Corps.", "He passed the exams but was rejected because of his age.Klara and John von Neumann were socially active within the local academic community.", "His white clapboard house on Westcott Road was one of Princeton's largest private residences.", "He always wore formal suits.", "He enjoyed Yiddish and \"off-color\" humor.", "In Princeton, he received complaints for playing extremely loud German march music; Von Neumann did some of his best work in noisy, chaotic environments.", "Per Churchill Eisenhart, von Neumann could attend parties until the early hours of the morning and then deliver a lecture at 8:30.He was known for always being happy to provide others of all ability levels with scientific and mathematical advice.", "Wigner wrote that he perhaps supervised more work (in a casual sense) than any other modern mathematician.", "His daughter wrote that he was very concerned with his legacy in two aspects: her life and the durability of his intellectual contributions to the world.Many considered him an excellent chairman of committees, deferring rather easily on personal or organizational matters but pressing on technical ones.", "Herbert York described the many \"Von Neumann Committees\" that he participated in as \"remarkable in style as well as output\".", "The way the committees von Neumann chaired worked directly and intimately with the necessary military or corporate entities became a blueprint for all Air Force long-range missile programs.", "Many people who had known von Neumann were puzzled by his relationship to the military and to power structures in general.", "Stanisław Ulam suspected that he had a hidden admiration for people or organizations that could influence the thoughts and decision making of others.He also maintained his knowledge of languages learnt in his youth.", "He knew Hungarian, French, German and English fluently, and maintained a conversational level of Italian, Yiddish, Latin and Ancient Greek.", "His Spanish was less perfect.", "He had a passion for and encyclopedic knowledge of ancient history, and he enjoyed reading Ancient Greek historians in the original Greek.", "Ulam suspected they may have shaped his views on how future events could play out and how human nature and society worked in general.Von Neumann's closest friend in the United States was the mathematician Stanisław Ulam.", "Von Neumann believed that much of his mathematical thought occurred intuitively; he would often go to sleep with a problem unsolved and know the answer upon waking up.", "Ulam noted that von Neumann's way of thinking might not be visual, but more aural.", "Ulam recalled, \"Quite independently of his liking for abstract wit, he had a strong appreciation (one might say almost a hunger) for the more earthy type of comedy and humor\".=== Illness and death ===Von Neumann's gravestoneIn 1955, a mass was found near von Neumann's collarbone, which turned out to be cancer originating in the skeleton, pancreas or prostate.", "(While there is general agreement that the tumour had metastasised, sources differ on the location of the primary cancer.)", "The malignancy may have been caused by exposure to radiation at Los Alamos National Laboratory.", "Father Strittmatter recalled that even after receiving the last rites, von Neumann did not receive much peace or comfort from it, as he remained terrified of death and unable to accept his circumstances.", "Of his religious views, Von Neumann reportedly said, \"So long as there is the possibility of eternal damnation for nonbelievers it is more logical to be a believer at the end,\" referring to Pascal's wager.", "He confided to his mother, \"There probably has to be a God.", "Many things are easier to explain if there is than if there isn't.", "\"He died on February 8, 1957, at Walter Reed Army Medical Hospital and was buried at Princeton Cemetery." ], [ "Mathematics", "=== Set theory ===History of approaches that led to NBG set theoryAt the beginning of the 20th century, efforts to base mathematics on naive set theory suffered a setback due to Russell's paradox (on the set of all sets that do not belong to themselves).", "The problem of an adequate axiomatization of set theory was resolved implicitly about twenty years later by Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel.", "Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory provided a series of principles that allowed for the construction of the sets used in the everyday practice of mathematics, but did not explicitly exclude the possibility of the existence of a set that belongs to itself.", "In his 1925 doctoral thesis, von Neumann demonstrated two techniques to exclude such sets—the ''axiom of foundation'' and the notion of ''class.", "''The axiom of foundation proposed that every set can be constructed from the bottom up in an ordered succession of steps by way of the Zermelo–Fraenkel principles.", "If one set belongs to another, then the first must necessarily come before the second in the succession.", "This excludes the possibility of a set belonging to itself.", "To demonstrate that the addition of this new axiom to the others did not produce contradictions, von Neumann introduced the ''method of inner models'', which became an essential demonstration instrument in set theory.The second approach to the problem of sets belonging to themselves took as its base the notion of class, and defines a set as a class that belongs to other classes, while a ''proper class'' is defined as a class that does not belong to other classes.", "On the Zermelo–Fraenkel approach, the axioms impede the construction of a set of all sets that do not belong to themselves.", "In contrast, on von Neumann's approach, the class of all sets that do not belong to themselves can be constructed, but it is a ''proper class'', not a set.Overall, von Neumann's major achievement in set theory was an \"axiomatization of set theory and (connected with that) elegant theory of the ordinal and cardinal numbers as well as the first strict formulation of principles of definitions by the transfinite induction\".====Von Neumann paradox====Building on the Hausdorff paradox of Felix Hausdorff (1914), Stefan Banach and Alfred Tarski in 1924 showed how to subdivide a three-dimensional ball into disjoint sets, then translate and rotate these sets to form two identical copies of the same ball; this is the Banach–Tarski paradox.", "They also proved that a two-dimensional disk has no such paradoxical decomposition.", "But in 1929, von Neumann subdivided the disk into finitely many pieces and rearranged them into two disks, using area-preserving affine transformations instead of translations and rotations.", "The result depended on finding free groups of affine transformations, an important technique extended later by von Neumann in his work on measure theory.=== Proof theory ===With the contributions of von Neumann to sets, the axiomatic system of the theory of sets avoided the contradictions of earlier systems and became usable as a foundation for mathematics, despite the lack of a proof of its consistency.", "The next question was whether it provided definitive answers to all mathematical questions that could be posed in it, or whether it might be improved by adding stronger axioms that could be used to prove a broader class of theorems.By 1927, von Neumann was involving himself in discussions in Göttingen on whether elementary arithmetic followed from Peano axioms.", "Building on the work of Ackermann, he began attempting to prove (using the finistic methods of Hilbert's school) the consistency of first-order arithmetic.", "He succeeded in proving the consistency of a fragment of arithmetic of natural numbers (through the use of restrictions on induction).", "He continued looking for a more general proof of the consistency of classical mathematics using methods from proof theory.A strongly negative answer to whether it was definitive arrived in September 1930 at the Second Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences, in which Kurt Gödel announced his first theorem of incompleteness: the usual axiomatic systems are incomplete, in the sense that they cannot prove every truth expressible in their language.", "Moreover, every consistent extension of these systems necessarily remains incomplete.", "At the conference, von Neumann suggested to Gödel that he should try to transform his results for undecidable propositions about integers.Less than a month later, von Neumann communicated to Gödel an interesting consequence of his theorem: the usual axiomatic systems are unable to demonstrate their own consistency.", "Gödel replied that he had already discovered this consequence, now known as his second incompleteness theorem, and that he would send a preprint of his article containing both results, which never appeared.", "Von Neumann acknowledged Gödel's priority in his next letter.", "However, von Neumann's method of proof differed from Gödel's, and he was also of the opinion that the second incompleteness theorem had dealt a much stronger blow to Hilbert's program than Gödel thought it did.", "With this discovery, which drastically changed his views on mathematical rigor, von Neumann ceased research in the foundations of mathematics and metamathematics and instead spent time on problems connected with applications.=== Ergodic theory ===In a series of papers published in 1932, von Neumann made foundational contributions to ergodic theory, a branch of mathematics that involves the states of dynamical systems with an invariant measure.", "Of the 1932 papers on ergodic theory, Paul Halmos wrote that even \"if von Neumann had never done anything else, they would have been sufficient to guarantee him mathematical immortality\".", "By then von Neumann had already written his articles on operator theory, and the application of this work was instrumental in his mean ergodic theorem.The theorem is about arbitrary one-parameter unitary groups and states that for every vector in the Hilbert space, exists in the sense of the metric defined by the Hilbert norm and is a vector which is such that for all .", "This was proven in the first paper.", "In the second paper, von Neumann argued that his results here were sufficient for physical applications relating to Boltzmann's ergodic hypothesis.", "He also pointed out that ergodicity had not yet been achieved and isolated this for future work.Later in the year he published another influential paper that began the systematic study of ergodicity.", "He gave and proved a decomposition theorem showing that the ergodic measure preserving actions of the real line are the fundamental building blocks from which all measure preserving actions can be built.", "Several other key theorems are given and proven.", "The results in this paper and another in conjunction with Paul Halmos have significant applications in other areas of mathematics.=== Measure theory ===In measure theory, the \"problem of measure\" for an -dimensional Euclidean space may be stated as: \"does there exist a positive, normalized, invariant, and additive set function on the class of all subsets of ?\"", "The work of Felix Hausdorff and Stefan Banach had implied that the problem of measure has a positive solution if or and a negative solution (because of the Banach–Tarski paradox) in all other cases.", "Von Neumann's work argued that the \"problem is essentially group-theoretic in character\": the existence of a measure could be determined by looking at the properties of the transformation group of the given space.", "The positive solution for spaces of dimension at most two, and the negative solution for higher dimensions, comes from the fact that the Euclidean group is a solvable group for dimension at most two, and is not solvable for higher dimensions.", "\"Thus, according to von Neumann, it is the change of group that makes a difference, not the change of space.\"", "Around 1942 he told Dorothy Maharam how to prove that every complete σ-finite measure space has a multiplicative lifting; he did not publish this proof and she later came up with a new one.In a number of von Neumann's papers, the methods of argument he employed are considered even more significant than the results.", "In anticipation of his later study of dimension theory in algebras of operators, von Neumann used results on equivalence by finite decomposition, and reformulated the problem of measure in terms of functions.", "A major contribution von Neumann made to measure theory was the result of a paper written to answer a question of Haar regarding whether there existed an algebra of all bounded functions on the real number line such that they form \"a complete system of representatives of the classes of almost everywhere-equal measurable bounded functions\".", "He proved this in the positive, and in later papers with Stone discussed various generalizations and algebraic aspects of this problem.", "He also proved by new methods the existence of disintegrations for various general types of measures.", "Von Neumann also gave a new proof on the uniqueness of Haar measures by using the mean values of functions, although this method only worked for compact groups.", "He had to create entirely new techniques to apply this to locally compact groups.", "He also gave a new, ingenious proof for the Radon–Nikodym theorem.", "His lecture notes on measure theory at the Institute for Advanced Study were an important source for knowledge on the topic in America at the time, and were later published.=== Topological groups ===Using his previous work on measure theory, von Neumann made several contributions to the theory of topological groups, beginning with a paper on almost periodic functions on groups, where von Neumann extended Bohr's theory of almost periodic functions to arbitrary groups.", "He continued this work with another paper in conjunction with Bochner that improved the theory of almost periodicity to include functions that took on elements of linear spaces as values rather than numbers.", "In 1938, he was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in analysis in relation to these papers.In a 1933 paper, he used the newly discovered Haar measure in the solution of Hilbert's fifth problem for the case of compact groups.", "The basic idea behind this was discovered several years earlier when von Neumann published a paper on the analytic properties of groups of linear transformations and found that closed subgroups of a general linear group are Lie groups.", "This was later extended by Cartan to arbitrary Lie groups in the form of the closed-subgroup theorem.=== Functional analysis ===Von Neumann was the first to axiomatically define an abstract Hilbert space.", "He defined it as a complex vector space with a Hermitian scalar product, with the corresponding norm being both separable and complete.", "In the same papers he also proved the general form of the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality that had previously been known only in specific examples.", "He continued with the development of the spectral theory of operators in Hilbert space in three seminal papers between 1929 and 1932.This work cumulated in his ''Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics'' which alongside two other books by Stone and Banach in the same year were the first monographs on Hilbert space theory.", "Previous work by others showed that a theory of weak topologies could not be obtained by using sequences.", "Von Neumann was the first to outline a program of how to overcome the difficulties, which resulted in him defining locally convex spaces and topological vector spaces for the first time.", "In addition several other topological properties he defined at the time (he was among the first mathematicians to apply new topological ideas from Hausdorff from Euclidean to Hilbert spaces) such as boundness and total boundness are still used today.", "For twenty years von Neumann was considered the 'undisputed master' of this area.", "These developments were primarily prompted by needs in quantum mechanics where von Neumann realized the need to extend the spectral theory of Hermitian operators from the bounded to the unbounded case.", "Other major achievements in these papers include a complete elucidation of spectral theory for normal operators, the first abstract presentation of the trace of a positive operator, a generalisation of Riesz's presentation of Hilbert's spectral theorems at the time, and the discovery of Hermitian operators in a Hilbert space, as distinct from self-adjoint operators, which enabled him to give a description of all Hermitian operators which extend a given Hermitian operator.", "He wrote a paper detailing how the usage of infinite matrices, common at the time in spectral theory, was inadequate as a representation for Hermitian operators.", "His work on operator theory lead to his most profound invention in pure mathematics, the study of von Neumann algebras and in general of operator algebras.His later work on rings of operators lead to him revisiting his work on spectral theory and providing a new way of working through the geometric content by the use of direct integrals of Hilbert spaces.", "Like in his work on measure theory he proved several theorems that he did not find time to publish.", "He told Nachman Aronszajn and K. T. Smith that in the early 1930s he proved the existence of proper invariant subspaces for completely continuous operators in a Hilbert space while working on the invariant subspace problem.With I. J. Schoenberg he wrote several items investigating translation invariant Hilbertian metrics on the real number line which resulted in their complete classification.", "Their motivation lie in various questions related to embedding metric spaces into Hilbert spaces.With Pascual Jordan he wrote a short paper giving the first derivation of a given norm from an inner product by means of the parallelogram identity.", "His trace inequality is a key result of matrix theory used in matrix approximation problems.", "He also first presented the idea that the dual of a pre-norm is a norm in the first major paper discussing the theory of unitarily invariant norms and symmetric gauge functions (now known as symmetric absolute norms).", "This paper leads naturally to the study of symmetric operator ideals and is the beginning point for modern studies of symmetric operator spaces.Later with Robert Schatten he initiated the study of nuclear operators on Hilbert spaces, tensor products of Banach spaces, introduced and studied trace class operators, their ideals, and their duality with compact operators, and preduality with bounded operators.", "The generalization of this topic to the study of nuclear operators on Banach spaces was among the first achievements of Alexander Grothendieck.", "Previously in 1937 von Neumann published several results in this area, for example giving 1-parameter scale of different cross norms on and proving several other results on what are now known as Schatten–von Neumann ideals.=== Operator algebras ===Von Neumann founded the study of rings of operators, through the von Neumann algebras (originally called W-algebras).", "While his original ideas for rings of operators existed already in 1930, he did not begin studying them in depth until he met F. J. Murray several years later.", "A von Neumann algebra is a -algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space that is closed in the weak operator topology and contains the identity operator.", "The von Neumann bicommutant theorem shows that the analytic definition is equivalent to a purely algebraic definition as being equal to the bicommutant.", "After elucidating the study of the commutative algebra case, von Neumann embarked in 1936, with the partial collaboration of Murray, on the noncommutative case, the general study of factors classification of von Neumann algebras.", "The six major papers in which he developed that theory between 1936 and 1940 \"rank among the masterpieces of analysis in the twentieth century\"; they collect many foundational results and started several programs in operator algebra theory that mathematicians worked on for decades afterwards.", "An example is the classification of factors.", "In addition in 1938 he proved that every von Neumann algebra on a separable Hilbert space is a direct integral of factors; he did not find time to publish this result until 1949.Von Neumann algebras relate closely to a theory of noncommutative integration, something that von Neumann hinted to in his work but did not explicitly write out.", "Another important result on polar decomposition was published in 1932.=== Lattice theory ===Between 1935 and 1937, von Neumann worked on lattice theory, the theory of partially ordered sets in which every two elements have a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound.", "As Garrett Birkhoff wrote, \"John von Neumann's brilliant mind blazed over lattice theory like a meteor\".", "Von Neumann combined traditional projective geometry with modern algebra (linear algebra, ring theory, lattice theory).", "Many previously geometric results could then be interpreted in the case of general modules over rings.", "His work laid the foundations for some of the modern work in projective geometry.His biggest contribution was founding the field of continuous geometry.", "It followed his path-breaking work on rings of operators.", "In mathematics, continuous geometry is a substitute of complex projective geometry, where instead of the dimension of a subspace being in a discrete set it can be an element of the unit interval .", "Earlier, Menger and Birkhoff had axiomatized complex projective geometry in terms of the properties of its lattice of linear subspaces.", "Von Neumann, following his work on rings of operators, weakened those axioms to describe a broader class of lattices, the continuous geometries.While the dimensions of the subspaces of projective geometries are a discrete set (the non-negative integers), the dimensions of the elements of a continuous geometry can range continuously across the unit interval .", "Von Neumann was motivated by his discovery of von Neumann algebras with a dimension function taking a continuous range of dimensions, and the first example of a continuous geometry other than projective space was the projections of the hyperfinite type II factor.In more pure lattice theoretical work, he solved the difficult problem of characterizing the class of (continuous-dimensional projective geometry over an arbitrary division ring ) in abstract language of lattice theory.", "Von Neumann provided an abstract exploration of dimension in completed complemented modular topological lattices (properties that arise in the lattices of subspaces of inner product spaces): Dimension is determined, up to a positive linear transformation, by the following two properties.", "It is conserved by perspective mappings (\"perspectivities\") and ordered by inclusion.", "The deepest part of the proof concerns the equivalence of perspectivity with \"projectivity by decomposition\"—of which a corollary is the transitivity of perspectivity.For any integer every -dimensional abstract projective geometry is isomorphic to the subspace-lattice of an -dimensional vector space over a (unique) corresponding division ring .", "This is known as the Veblen–Young theorem.", "Von Neumann extended this fundamental result in projective geometry to the continuous dimensional case.", "This coordinatization theorem stimulated considerable work in abstract projective geometry and lattice theory, much of which continued using von Neumann's techniques.", "Birkhoff described this theorem as follows: Any complemented modular lattice having a \"basis\" of pairwise perspective elements, is isomorphic with the lattice of all principal right-ideals of a suitable regular ring .", "This conclusion is the culmination of 140 pages of brilliant and incisive algebra involving entirely novel axioms.", "Anyone wishing to get an unforgettable impression of the razor edge of von Neumann's mind, need merely try to pursue this chain of exact reasoning for himself—realizing that often five pages of it were written down before breakfast, seated at a living room writing-table in a bathrobe.This work required the creation of regular rings.", "A von Neumann regular ring is a ring where for every , an element exists such that .", "These rings came from and have connections to his work on von Neumann algebras, as well as AW-algebras and various kinds of C-algebras.Many smaller technical results were proven during the creation and proof of the above theorems, particularly regarding distributivity (such as infinite distributivity), von Neumann developing them as needed.", "He also developed a theory of valuations in lattices, and shared in developing the general theory of metric lattices.Birkhoff noted in his posthumous article on von Neumann that most of these results were developed in an intense two-year period of work, and that while his interests continued in lattice theory after 1937, they became peripheral and mainly occurred in letters to other mathematicians.", "A final contribution in 1940 was for a joint seminar he conducted with Birkhoff at the Institute for Advanced Study on the subject where he developed a theory of σ-complete lattice ordered rings.", "He never wrote up the work for publication.=== Mathematical statistics ===Von Neumann made fundamental contributions to mathematical statistics.", "In 1941, he derived the exact distribution of the ratio of the mean square of successive differences to the sample variance for independent and identically normally distributed variables.", "This ratio was applied to the residuals from regression models and is commonly known as the Durbin–Watson statistic for testing the null hypothesis that the errors are serially independent against the alternative that they follow a stationary first order autoregression.Subsequently, Denis Sargan and Alok Bhargava extended the results for testing whether the errors on a regression model follow a Gaussian random walk (''i.e.", "'', possess a unit root) against the alternative that they are a stationary first order autoregression.=== Other work ===In his early years, von Neumann published several papers related to set-theoretical real analysis and number theory.", "In a paper from 1925, he proved that for any dense sequence of points in , there existed a rearrangement of those points that is uniformly distributed.", "In 1926 his sole publication was on Prüfer's theory of ideal algebraic numbers where he found a new way of constructing them, thus extending Prüfer's theory to the field of all algebraic numbers, and clarified their relation to p-adic numbers.", "In 1928 he published two additional papers continuing with these themes.", "The first dealt with partitioning an interval into countably many congruent subsets.", "It solved a problem of Hugo Steinhaus asking whether an interval is -divisible.", "Von Neumann proved that indeed that all intervals, half-open, open, or closed are -divisible by translations (i.e.", "that these intervals can be decomposed into subsets that are congruent by translation).", "His next paper dealt with giving a constructive proof without the axiom of choice that algebraically independent reals exist.", "He proved that are algebraically independent for .", "Consequently, there exists a perfect algebraically independent set of reals the size of the continuum.", "Other minor results from his early career include a proof of a maximum principle for the gradient of a minimizing function in the field of calculus of variations, and a small simplification of Hermann Minkowski's theorem for linear forms in geometric number theory.Later in his career together with Pascual Jordan and Eugene Wigner he wrote a foundational paper classifying all finite-dimensional formally real Jordan algebras and discovering the Albert algebras while attempting to look for a better mathematical formalism for quantum theory.", "In 1936 he attempted to further the program of replacing the axioms of his previous Hilbert space program with those of Jordan algebras in a paper investigating the infinite-dimensional case; he planned to write at least one further paper on the topic but never did.", "Nevertheless, these axioms formed the basis for further investigations of algebraic quantum mechanics started by Irving Segal." ], [ "Physics", "=== Quantum mechanics ===Von Neumann was the first to establish a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics, known as the Dirac–von Neumann axioms, in his influential 1932 work ''Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics''.", "After having completed the axiomatization of set theory, he began to confront the axiomatization of quantum mechanics.", "He realized in 1926 that a state of a quantum system could be represented by a point in a (complex) Hilbert space that, in general, could be infinite-dimensional even for a single particle.", "In this formalism of quantum mechanics, observable quantities such as position or momentum are represented as linear operators acting on the Hilbert space associated with the quantum system.The ''physics'' of quantum mechanics was thereby reduced to the ''mathematics'' of Hilbert spaces and linear operators acting on them.", "For example, the uncertainty principle, according to which the determination of the position of a particle prevents the determination of its momentum and vice versa, is translated into the ''non-commutativity'' of the two corresponding operators.", "This new mathematical formulation included as special cases the formulations of both Heisenberg and Schrödinger.Von Neumann's abstract treatment permitted him to confront the foundational issue of determinism versus non-determinism, and in the book he presented a proof that the statistical results of quantum mechanics could not possibly be averages of an underlying set of determined \"hidden variables\", as in classical statistical mechanics.", "In 1935, Grete Hermann published a paper arguing that the proof contained a conceptual error and was therefore invalid.", "Hermann's work was largely ignored until after John S. Bell made essentially the same argument in 1966.In 2010, Jeffrey Bub argued that Bell had misconstrued von Neumann's proof, and pointed out that the proof, though not valid for all hidden variable theories, does rule out a well-defined and important subset.", "Bub also suggests that von Neumann was aware of this limitation and did not claim that his proof completely ruled out hidden variable theories.", "The validity of Bub's argument is, in turn, disputed.", "Gleason's theorem of 1957 provided an argument against hidden variables along the lines of von Neumann's, but founded on assumptions seen as better motivated and more physically meaningful.Von Neumann's proof inaugurated a line of research that ultimately led, through Bell's theorem and the experiments of Alain Aspect in 1982, to the demonstration that quantum physics either requires a ''notion of reality'' substantially different from that of classical physics, or must include nonlocality in apparent violation of special relativity.In a chapter of ''The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics'', von Neumann deeply analyzed the so-called measurement problem.", "He concluded that the entire physical universe could be made subject to the universal wave function.", "Since something \"outside the calculation\" was needed to collapse the wave function, von Neumann concluded that the collapse was caused by the consciousness of the experimenter.", "He argued that the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows the collapse of the wave function to be placed at any position in the causal chain from the measurement device to the \"subjective consciousness\" of the human observer.", "In other words, while the line between observer and observed could be drawn in different places, the theory only makes sense if an observer exists somewhere.", "Although the idea of consciousness causing collapse was accepted by Eugene Wigner, the Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation never gained acceptance among the majority of physicists.Though theories of quantum mechanics continue to evolve, a basic framework for the mathematical formalism of problems in quantum mechanics underlying most approaches can be traced back to the mathematical formalisms and techniques first used by von Neumann.", "Discussions about interpretation of the theory, and extensions to it, are now mostly conducted on the basis of shared assumptions about the mathematical foundations.Viewing von Neumann's work on quantum mechanics as a part of the fulfilment of Hilbert's sixth problem, mathematical physicist Arthur Wightman said in 1974 his axiomization of quantum theory was perhaps the most important axiomization of a physical theory to date.", "With his 1932 book, quantum mechanics became a mature theory in the sense it had a precise mathematical form, which allowed for clear answers to conceptual problems.", "Nevertheless, von Neumann in his later years felt he had failed in this aspect of his scientific work as despite all the mathematics he developed, he did not find a satisfactory mathematical framework for quantum theory as a whole.==== Von Neumann entropy ====Von Neumann entropy is extensively used in different forms (conditional entropy, relative entropy, etc.)", "in the framework of quantum information theory.", "Entanglement measures are based upon some quantity directly related to the von Neumann entropy.", "Given a statistical ensemble of quantum mechanical systems with the density matrix , it is given by Many of the same entropy measures in classical information theory can also be generalized to the quantum case, such as Holevo entropy and conditional quantum entropy.", "Quantum information theory is largely concerned with the interpretation and uses of von Neumann entropy, a cornerstone in the former's development; the Shannon entropy applies to classical information theory.==== Density matrix ====The formalism of density operators and matrices was introduced by von Neumann in 1927 and independently, but less systematically by Lev Landau and Felix Bloch in 1927 and 1946 respectively.", "The density matrix is an alternative way to represent the state of a quantum system including statistical probabilities, which are not easily represented using wavefunctions.==== Von Neumann measurement scheme ====The von Neumann measurement scheme, the ancestor of quantum decoherence theory, represents measurements projectively by taking into account the measuring apparatus which is also treated as a quantum object.", "The 'projective measurement' scheme introduced by von Neumann led to the development of quantum decoherence theories.==== Quantum logic ====Von Neumann first proposed a quantum logic in his 1932 treatise ''Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics'', where he noted that projections on a Hilbert space can be viewed as propositions about physical observables.", "The field of quantum logic was subsequently inaugurated in a 1936 paper by von Neumann and Garrett Birkhoff, the first to introduce quantum logics, wherein von Neumann and Birkhoff first proved that quantum mechanics requires a propositional calculus substantially different from all classical logics and rigorously isolated a new algebraic structure for quantum logics.", "The concept of creating a propositional calculus for quantum logic was first outlined in a short section in von Neumann's 1932 work, but in 1936, the need for the new propositional calculus was demonstrated through several proofs.", "For example, photons cannot pass through two successive filters that are polarized perpendicularly (e.g., horizontally and vertically), and therefore, ''a fortiori'', it cannot pass if a third filter polarized diagonally is added to the other two, either before or after them in the succession, but if the third filter is added ''between'' the other two, the photons will indeed pass through.", "This experimental fact is translatable into logic as the ''non-commutativity'' of conjunction .", "It was also demonstrated that the laws of distribution of classical logic, and , are not valid for quantum theory.The reason for this is that a quantum disjunction, unlike the case for classical disjunction, can be true even when both of the disjuncts are false and this is in turn attributable to the fact that it is frequently the case in quantum mechanics that a pair of alternatives are semantically determinate, while each of its members is necessarily indeterminate.", "Consequently, the distributive law of classical logic must be replaced with a weaker condition.", "Instead of a distributive lattice, propositions about a quantum system form an orthomodular lattice isomorphic to the lattice of subspaces of the Hilbert space associated with that system.Nevertheless, he was never satisfied with his work on quantum logic.", "He intended it to be a joint synthesis of formal logic and probability theory and when he attempted to write up a paper for the Henry Joseph Lecture he gave at the Washington Philosophical Society in 1945 he found that he could not, especially given that he was busy with war work at the time.", "During his address at the 1954 International Congress of Mathematicians he gave this issue as one of the unsolved problems that future mathematicians could work on.=== Fluid dynamics ===Von Neumann made fundamental contributions in the field of fluid dynamics, including the classic flow solution to blast waves, and the co-discovery (independently by Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Werner Döring) of the ZND detonation model of explosives.", "During the 1930s, von Neumann became an authority on the mathematics of shaped charges.Later with Robert D. Richtmyer, von Neumann developed an algorithm defining ''artificial viscosity'' that improved the understanding of shock waves.", "When computers solved hydrodynamic or aerodynamic problems, they put too many computational grid points at regions of sharp discontinuity (shock waves).", "The mathematics of artificial viscosity smoothed the shock transition without sacrificing basic physics.Von Neumann soon applied computer modelling to the field, developing software for his ballistics research.", "During World War II, he approached R. H. Kent, the director of the US Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, with a computer program for calculating a one-dimensional model of 100 molecules to simulate a shock wave.", "Von Neumann gave a seminar on his program to an audience which included his friend Theodore von Kármán.", "After von Neumann had finished, von Kármán said \"Of course you realize Lagrange also used digital models to simulate continuum mechanics.\"", "Von Neumann had been unaware of Lagrange's .=== Other work ===Von Neumann's memorial plaque on the wall of his birthplace in Budapest, 5th district Báthory u.", "26.While not as prolific in physics as he was in mathematics, he nevertheless made several other notable contributions.", "His pioneering papers with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar on the statistics of a fluctuating gravitational field generated by randomly distributed stars were considered a ''tour de force''.", "In this paper they developed a theory of two-body relaxation and used the Holtsmark distribution to model the dynamics of stellar systems.", "He wrote several other unpublished manuscripts on topics in stellar structure, some of which were included in Chandrasekhar's other works.", "In earlier work led by Oswald Veblen von Neumann helped develop basic ideas involving spinors that would lead to Roger Penrose's twistor theory.", "Much of this was done in seminars conducted at the IAS during the 1930s.", "From this work he wrote a paper with A. H. Taub and Veblen extending the Dirac equation to projective relativity, with a key focus on maintaining invariance with regards to coordinate, spin, and gauge transformations, as a part of early research into potential theories of quantum gravity in the 1930s.", "In the same time period he made several proposals to colleagues for dealing with the problems in the newly created quantum field theory and for quantizing spacetime; however, both his colleagues and he did not consider the ideas fruitful and did not pursue them.", "Nevertheless, he maintained at least some interest, in 1940 writing a manuscript on the Dirac equation in de Sitter space." ], [ "Economics", "=== Game theory ===Von Neumann founded the field of game theory as a mathematical discipline.", "He proved his minimax theorem in 1928.It establishes that in zero-sum games with perfect information (i.e., in which players know at each time all moves that have taken place so far), there exists a pair of strategies for both players that allows each to minimize his maximum losses.", "Such strategies are called ''optimal''.", "Von Neumann showed that their minimaxes are equal (in absolute value) and contrary (in sign).", "He improved and extended the minimax theorem to include games involving imperfect information and games with more than two players, publishing this result in his 1944 ''Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'', written with Oskar Morgenstern.", "The public interest in this work was such that ''The New York Times'' ran a front-page story.", "In this book, von Neumann declared that economic theory needed to use functional analysis, especially convex sets and the topological fixed-point theorem, rather than the traditional differential calculus, because the maximum-operator did not preserve differentiable functions.Von Neumann's functional-analytic techniques—the use of duality pairings of real vector spaces to represent prices and quantities, the use of supporting and separating hyperplanes and convex sets, and fixed-point theory—have been primary tools of mathematical economics ever since.=== Mathematical economics ===Von Neumann raised the mathematical level of economics in several influential publications.", "For his model of an expanding economy, he proved the existence and uniqueness of an equilibrium using his generalization of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem.", "Von Neumann's model of an expanding economy considered the matrix pencil '' '''A''' − λ'''B''''' with nonnegative matrices '''A''' and '''B'''; von Neumann sought probability vectors ''p'' and ''q'' and a positive number ''λ'' that would solve the complementarity equation along with two inequality systems expressing economic efficiency.", "In this model, the (transposed) probability vector ''p'' represents the prices of the goods while the probability vector q represents the \"intensity\" at which the production process would run.", "The unique solution ''λ'' represents the growth factor which is 1 plus the rate of growth of the economy; the rate of growth equals the interest rate.Von Neumann's results have been viewed as a special case of linear programming, where his model uses only nonnegative matrices.", "The study of his model of an expanding economy continues to interest mathematical economists.", "This paper has been called the greatest paper in mathematical economics by several authors, who recognized its introduction of fixed-point theorems, linear inequalities, complementary slackness, and saddlepoint duality.", "In the proceedings of a conference on von Neumann's growth model, Paul Samuelson said that many mathematicians had developed methods useful to economists, but that von Neumann was unique in having made significant contributions to economic theory itself.", "The lasting importance of the work on general equilibria and the methodology of fixed point theorems is underscored by the awarding of Nobel prizes in 1972 to Kenneth Arrow, in 1983 to Gérard Debreu, and in 1994 to John Nash who used fixed point theorems to establish equilibria for non-cooperative games and for bargaining problems in his Ph.D. thesis.", "Arrow and Debreu also used linear programming, as did Nobel laureates Tjalling Koopmans, Leonid Kantorovich, Wassily Leontief, Paul Samuelson, Robert Dorfman, Robert Solow, and Leonid Hurwicz.Von Neumann's interest in the topic began while he was lecturing at Berlin in 1928 and 1929.He spent his summers in Budapest, as did the economist Nicholas Kaldor; Kaldor recommended that von Neumann read a book by the mathematical economist Léon Walras.", "Von Neumann noticed that Walras's General Equilibrium Theory and Walras's law, which led to systems of simultaneous linear equations, could produce the absurd result that profit could be maximized by producing and selling a negative quantity of a product.", "He replaced the equations by inequalities, introduced dynamic equilibria, among other things, and eventually produced his paper.=== Linear programming ===Building on his results on matrix games and on his model of an expanding economy, von Neumann invented the theory of duality in linear programming when George Dantzig described his work in a few minutes, and an impatient von Neumann asked him to get to the point.", "Dantzig then listened dumbfounded while von Neumann provided an hourlong lecture on convex sets, fixed-point theory, and duality, conjecturing the equivalence between matrix games and linear programming.Later, von Neumann suggested a new method of linear programming, using the homogeneous linear system of Paul Gordan (1873), which was later popularized by Karmarkar's algorithm.", "Von Neumann's method used a pivoting algorithm between simplices, with the pivoting decision determined by a nonnegative least squares subproblem with a convexity constraint (projecting the zero-vector onto the convex hull of the active simplex).", "Von Neumann's algorithm was the first interior point method of linear programming." ], [ "Computer science", "Von Neumann was a founding figure in computing, with significant contributions to computing hardware design, to theoretical computer science to scientific computing, and to the philosophy of computer science.===Hardware===Von Neumann consulted for the Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory, most notably on the ENIAC project, as a member of its Scientific Advisory Committee.", "Although the single-memory, stored program architecture is commonly called von Neumann architecture, the architecture was based on the work of J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, inventors of ENIAC and its successor, EDVAC.While consulting for the EDVAC project at the University of Pennsylvania, von Neumann wrote an incomplete ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''.", "The paper, whose premature distribution nullified the patent claims of Eckert and Mauchly, described a computer that stored both its data and its program in the same address space, unlike the earliest computers which stored their programs separately on paper tape or plugboards.", "This architecture became the basis of most modern computer designs.Next, von Neumann designed the IAS machine at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.", "He arranged its financing, and the components were designed and built at the RCA Research Laboratory nearby.", "Von Neumann recommended that the IBM 701, nicknamed ''the defense computer'', include a magnetic drum.", "It was a faster version of the IAS machine and formed the basis for the commercially successful IBM 704.=== Algorithms ===Flow chart from von Neumann's \"Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument\", published in 1947Von Neumann was the inventor, in 1945, of the merge sort algorithm, in which the first and second halves of an array are each sorted recursively and then merged.As part of Von Neumann's hydrogen bomb work, he and Stanisław Ulam developed simulations for hydrodynamic computations.", "He also contributed to the development of the Monte Carlo method, which used random numbers to approximate the solutions to complicated problems.Von Neumann's algorithm for simulating a fair coin with a biased coin is used in the \"software whitening\" stage of some hardware random number generators.", "Because obtaining \"truly\" random numbers was impractical, von Neumann developed a form of pseudorandomness, using the middle-square method.", "He justified this crude method as faster than any other method at his disposal, writing that \"Anyone who considers arithmetical methods of producing random digits is, of course, in a state of sin.\"", "He also noted that when this method went awry it did so obviously, unlike other methods which could be subtly incorrect.Stochastic computing was introduced by von Neumann in 1953, but could not be implemented until advances in computing of the 1960s.", "Around 1950 he was also among the first to talk about the time complexity of computations, which eventually evolved into the field of computational complexity theory.=== Cellular automata, DNA and the universal constructor ===The first implementation of von Neumann's self-reproducing universal constructor.", "Three generations of machine are shown: the second has nearly finished constructing the third.", "The lines running to the right are the tapes of genetic instructions, which are copied along with the body of the machines.A simple configuration in von Neumann's cellular automaton.", "A binary signal is passed repeatedly around the blue wire loop, using excited and quiescent ''ordinary transmission states''.", "A confluent cell duplicates the signal onto a length of red wire consisting of ''special transmission states''.", "The signal passes down this wire and constructs a new cell at the end.", "This particular signal (1011) codes for an east-directed special transmission state, thus extending the red wire by one cell each time.", "During construction, the new cell passes through several sensitised states, directed by the binary sequence.Von Neumann's mathematical analysis of the structure of self-replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA.", "Ulam and von Neumann are also generally credited with creating the field of cellular automata, beginning in the 1940s, as a simplified mathematical model of biological systems.In lectures in 1948 and 1949, von Neumann proposed a kinematic self-reproducing automaton.", "By 1952, he was treating the problem more abstractly.", "He designed an elaborate 2D cellular automaton that would automatically make a copy of its initial configuration of cells.", "The Von Neumann universal constructor based on the von Neumann cellular automaton was fleshed out in his posthumous ''Theory of Self Reproducing Automata''.The von Neumann neighborhood, in which each cell in a two-dimensional grid has the four orthogonally adjacent grid cells as neighbors, continues to be used for other cellular automata.=== Scientific computing and numerical analysis ===Considered to be possibly \"the most influential researcher in scientific computing of all time\", von Neumann made several contributions to the field, both technically and administratively.", "He developed the Von Neumann stability analysis procedure, still commonly used to avoid errors from building up in numerical methods for linear partial differential equations.", "His paper with Herman Goldstine in 1947 was the first to describe backward error analysis, although implicitly.", "He was also one of the first to write about the Jacobi method.", "At Los Alamos, he wrote several classified reports on solving problems of gas dynamics numerically.", "However, he was frustrated by the lack of progress with analytic methods for these nonlinear problems.", "As a result, he turned towards computational methods.", "Under his influence Los Alamos became the leader in computational science during the 1950s and early 1960s.From this work von Neumann realized that computation was not just a tool to brute force the solution to a problem numerically, but could also provide insight for solving problems analytically, and that there was an enormous variety of scientific and engineering problems towards which computers would be useful, most significant of which were nonlinear problems.", "In June 1945 at the First Canadian Mathematical Congress he gave his first talk on general ideas of how to solve problems, particularly of fluid dynamics numerically.", "He also described how wind tunnels were actually analog computers, and how digital computers would replace them and bring a new era of fluid dynamics.", "Garrett Birkhoff described it as \"an unforgettable sales pitch\".", "He expanded this talk with Goldstine into the manuscript \"On the Principles of Large Scale Computing Machines\" and used it to promote the support of scientific computing.", "His papers also developed the concepts of inverting matrices, random matrices and automated relaxation methods for solving elliptic boundary value problems.=== Weather systems and global warming ===As part of his research into possible applications of computers, von Neumann became interested in weather prediction, noting similarities between the problems in the field and those he had worked on during the Manhattan Project.", "In 1946 von Neumann founded the \"Meteorological Project\" at the Institute for Advanced Study, securing funding for his project from the Weather Bureau, the US Air Force and US Navy weather services.", "With Carl-Gustaf Rossby, considered the leading theoretical meteorologist at the time, he gathered a group of twenty meteorologists to work on various problems in the field.", "However, given his other postwar work he was not able to devote enough time to proper leadership of the project and little was accomplished.This changed when a young Jule Gregory Charney took up co-leadership of the project from Rossby.", "By 1950 von Neumann and Charney wrote the world's first climate modelling software, and used it to perform the world's first numerical weather forecasts on the ENIAC computer that von Neumann had arranged to be used; von Neumann and his team published the results as ''Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation''.", "Together they played a leading role in efforts to integrate sea-air exchanges of energy and moisture into the study of climate.", "Though primitive, news of the ENIAC forecasts quickly spread around the world and a number of parallel projects in other locations were initiated.In 1955 von Neumann, Charney and their collaborators convinced their funders to open the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit (JNWPU) in Suitland, Maryland, which began routine real-time weather forecasting.", "Next up, von Neumann proposed a research program for climate modeling: The approach is to first try short-range forecasts, then long-range forecasts of those properties of the circulation that can perpetuate themselves over arbitrarily long periods of time, and only finally to attempt forecast for medium-long time periods which are too long to treat by simple hydrodynamic theory and too short to treat by the general principle of equilibrium theory.", "Positive results of Norman A. Phillips in 1955 prompted immediate reaction and von Neumann organized a conference at Princeton on \"Application of Numerical Integration Techniques to the Problem of the General Circulation\".", "Once again he strategically organized the program as a predictive one to ensure continued support from the Weather Bureau and the military, leading to the creation of the General Circulation Research Section (now the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory) next to the JNWPU.", "He continued work both on technical issues of modelling and in ensuring continuing funding for these projects.During the late 19th century, Svante Arrhenius suggested that human activity could cause global warming by adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.", "In 1955, von Neumann observed that this may already have begun: \"Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by industry's burning of coal and oil – more than half of it during the last generation – may have changed the atmosphere's composition sufficiently to account for a general warming of the world by about one degree Fahrenheit.\"", "His research into weather systems and meteorological prediction led him to propose manipulating the environment by spreading colorants on the polar ice caps to enhance absorption of solar radiation (by reducing the albedo).", "However, he urged caution in any program of atmosphere modification: What ''could'' be done, of course, is no index to what ''should'' be done...", "In fact, to evaluate the ultimate consequences of either a general cooling or a general heating would be a complex matter.", "Changes would affect the level of the seas, and hence the habitability of the continental coastal shelves; the evaporation of the seas, and hence general precipitation and glaciation levels; and so on...", "But there is little doubt that one ''could'' carry out the necessary analyses needed to predict the results, intervene on any desired scale, and ultimately achieve rather fantastic results.", "He also warned that weather and climate control could have military uses, telling Congress in 1956 that they could pose an even bigger risk than ICBMs.===Technological singularity hypothesis===The first use of the concept of a singularity in the technological context is attributed to von Neumann, who according to Ulam discussed the \"ever accelerating progress of technology and changes in the mode of human life, which gives the appearance of approaching some essential singularity in the history of the race beyond which human affairs, as we know them, could not continue.\"", "This concept was fleshed out later in the book ''Future Shock'' by Alvin Toffler." ], [ "Defense work", "Los Alamos ID badge photo=== Manhattan Project ===Beginning in the late 1930s, von Neumann developed an expertise in explosions—phenomena that are difficult to model mathematically.", "During this period, he was the leading authority of the mathematics of shaped charges, leading him to a large number of military consultancies and consequently his involvement in the Manhattan Project.", "The involvement included frequent trips to the project's secret research facilities at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico.Von Neumann made his principal contribution to the atomic bomb in the concept and design of the explosive lenses that were needed to compress the plutonium core of the Fat Man weapon that was later dropped on Nagasaki.", "While von Neumann did not originate the \"implosion\" concept, he was one of its most persistent proponents, encouraging its continued development against the instincts of many of his colleagues, who felt such a design to be unworkable.", "He also eventually came up with the idea of using more powerful shaped charges and less fissionable material to greatly increase the speed of \"assembly\".When it turned out that there would not be enough uranium-235 to make more than one bomb, the implosive lens project was greatly expanded and von Neumann's idea was implemented.", "Implosion was the only method that could be used with the plutonium-239 that was available from the Hanford Site.", "He established the design of the explosive lenses required, but there remained concerns about \"edge effects\" and imperfections in the explosives.", "His calculations showed that implosion would work if it did not depart by more than 5% from spherical symmetry.", "After a series of failed attempts with models, this was achieved by George Kistiakowsky, and the construction of the Trinity bomb was completed in July 1945.In a visit to Los Alamos in September 1944, von Neumann showed that the pressure increase from explosion shock wave reflection from solid objects was greater than previously believed if the angle of incidence of the shock wave was between 90° and some limiting angle.", "As a result, it was determined that the effectiveness of an atomic bomb would be enhanced with detonation some kilometers above the target, rather than at ground level.Implosion mechanismVon Neumann was included in the target selection committee that was responsible for choosing the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as the first targets of the atomic bomb.", "Von Neumann oversaw computations related to the expected size of the bomb blasts, estimated death tolls, and the distance above the ground at which the bombs should be detonated for optimum shock wave propagation.", "The cultural capital Kyoto was von Neumann's first choice, a selection seconded by Manhattan Project leader General Leslie Groves.", "However, this target was dismissed by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson.On July 16, 1945, von Neumann and numerous other Manhattan Project personnel were eyewitnesses to the first test of an atomic bomb detonation, which was code-named Trinity.", "The event was conducted as a test of the implosion method device, at the Alamogordo Bombing Range in New Mexico.", "Based on his observation alone, von Neumann estimated the test had resulted in a blast equivalent to but Enrico Fermi produced a more accurate estimate of 10 kilotons by dropping scraps of torn-up paper as the shock wave passed his location and watching how far they scattered.", "The actual power of the explosion had been between 20 and 22 kilotons.", "It was in von Neumann's 1944 papers that the expression \"kilotons\" appeared for the first time.Von Neumann continued unperturbed in his work and became, along with Edward Teller, one of those who sustained the hydrogen bomb project.", "He collaborated with Klaus Fuchs on further development of the bomb, and in 1946 the two filed a secret patent outlining a scheme for using a fission bomb to compress fusion fuel to initiate nuclear fusion.", "The Fuchs–von Neumann patent used radiation implosion, but not in the same way as is used in what became the final hydrogen bomb design, the Teller–Ulam design.", "Their work was, however, incorporated into the \"George\" shot of Operation Greenhouse, which was instructive in testing out concepts that went into the final design.", "The Fuchs–von Neumann work was passed on to the Soviet Union by Fuchs as part of his nuclear espionage, but it was not used in the Soviets' own, independent development of the Teller–Ulam design.", "The historian Jeremy Bernstein has pointed out that ironically, \"John von Neumann and Klaus Fuchs, produced a brilliant invention in 1946 that could have changed the whole course of the development of the hydrogen bomb, but was not fully understood until after the bomb had been successfully made.", "\"For his wartime services, von Neumann was awarded the Navy Distinguished Civilian Service Award in July 1946, and the Medal for Merit in October 1946.=== Post war ===In 1950, von Neumann became a consultant to the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, whose function was to advise the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the United States Secretary of Defense on the development and use of new technologies.", "He also became an adviser to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, which was responsible for the military aspects on nuclear weapons.", "Over the following two years, he became a consultant across the US government.", "This included the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), a member of the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, a consultant to the newly established Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and a member of the Scientific Advisory Group of the United States Air Force During this time he became a \"superstar\" defense scientist at the Pentagon.", "His authority was considered infallible at the highest levels of the US government and military.During several meetings of the advisory board of the US Air Force, von Neumann and Edward Teller predicted that by 1960 the US would be able to build a hydrogen bomb light enough to fit on top of a rocket.", "In 1953 Bernard Schriever, who was present at the meeting, paid a personal visit to von Neumann at Princeton to confirm this possibility.", "Schriever enlisted Trevor Gardner, who in turn visited von Neumann several weeks later to fully understand the future possibilities before beginning his campaign for such a weapon in Washington.", "Now either chairing or serving on several boards dealing with strategic missiles and nuclear weaponry, von Neumann was able to inject several crucial arguments regarding potential Soviet advancements in both these areas and in strategic defenses against American bombers into government reports to argue for the creation of ICBMs.", "Gardner on several occasions brought von Neumann to meetings with the US Department of Defense to discuss with various senior officials his reports.", "Several design decisions in these reports such as inertial guidance mechanisms would form the basis for all ICBMs thereafter.", "By 1954, von Neumann was also regularly testifying to various Congressional military subcommittees to ensure continued support for the ICBM program.However, this was not enough.", "To have the ICBM program run at full throttle they needed direct action by the President of the United States.", "They convinced President Eisenhower in a direct meeting in July 1955, which resulted in a presidential directive on September 13, 1955.It stated that \"there would be the gravest repercussions on the national security and on the cohesion of the free world\" if the Soviet Union developed the ICBM before the US and therefore designated the ICBM project \"a research and development program of the highest priority above all others.\"", "The Secretary of Defense was ordered to commence the project with \"maximum urgency\".", "Evidence would later show that the Soviets indeed were already testing their own intermediate-range ballistic missiles at the time.", "Von Neumann would continue to meet the President, including at his home in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and other high-level government officials as a key advisor on ICBMs until his death.=== Atomic Energy Commission ===In 1955, von Neumann became a commissioner of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which at the time was the highest official position available to scientists in the government.", "(While his appointment formally required that he sever all his other consulting contracts, an exemption was made for von Neumann to continue working with several critical military committees after the Air Force and several key senators raised concerns.)", "He used this position to further the production of compact hydrogen bombs suitable for intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) delivery.", "He involved himself in correcting the severe shortage of tritium and lithium 6 needed for these weapons, and he argued against settling for the intermediate-range missiles that the Army wanted.", "He was adamant that H-bombs delivered deep into enemy territory by an ICBM would be the most effective weapon possible, and that the relative inaccuracy of the missile would not be a problem with an H-bomb.", "He said the Russians would probably be building a similar weapon system, which turned out to be the case.", "While Lewis Strauss was away in the second half of 1955 von Neumann took over as acting chairman of the commission.In his final years before his death from cancer, von Neumann headed the United States government's top-secret ICBM committee, which would sometimes meet in his home.", "Its purpose was to decide on the feasibility of building an ICBM large enough to carry a thermonuclear weapon.", "Von Neumann had long argued that while the technical obstacles were sizable, they could be overcome.", "The SM-65 Atlas passed its first fully functional test in 1959, two years after his death.", "The more advanced Titan rockets were deployed in 1962.Both had been proposed in the ICBM committees von Neumann chaired.", "The feasibility of the ICBMs owed as much to improved, smaller warheads that did not have guidance or heat resistance issues as it did to developments in rocketry, and his understanding of the former made his advice invaluable.Von Neumann entered government service primarily because he felt that, if freedom and civilization were to survive, it would have to be because the United States would triumph over totalitarianism from Nazism, Fascism and Soviet Communism.", "During a Senate committee hearing he described his political ideology as \"violently anti-communist, and much more militaristic than the norm\"." ], [ "Personality", "=== Work habits ===Herman Goldstine commented on von Neumann's ability to intuit hidden errors and remember old material perfectly.", "When he had difficulties he would not labor on; instead, he would go home and sleep on it and come back later with a solution.", "This style, 'taking the path of least resistance', sometimes meant that he could go off on tangents.", "It also meant that if the difficulty was great from the very beginning, he would simply switch to another problem, not trying to find weak spots from which he could break through.", "At times he could be ignorant of the standard mathematical literature, finding it easier to rederive basic information he needed rather than chase references.After World War II began, he became extremely busy with both academic and military commitments.", "His habit of not writing up talks or publishing results worsened.", "He did not find it easy to discuss a topic formally in writing unless it was already mature in his mind; if it was not, he would, in his own words, \"develop the worst traits of pedantism and inefficiency\".=== Mathematical range ===The mathematician Jean Dieudonné said that von Neumann \"may have been the last representative of a once-flourishing and numerous group, the great mathematicians who were equally at home in pure and applied mathematics and who throughout their careers maintained a steady production in both directions\".", "According to Dieudonné, his specific genius was in analysis and \"combinatorics\", with combinatorics being understood in a very wide sense that described his ability to organize and axiomize complex works that previously seemed to have little connection with mathematics.", "His style in analysis followed the German school, based on foundations in linear algebra and general topology.", "While von Neumann had an encyclopedic background, his range in pure mathematics was not as wide as Poincaré, Hilbert or even Weyl: von Neumann never did significant work in number theory, algebraic topology, algebraic geometry or differential geometry.", "However, in applied mathematics his work equalled that of Gauss, Cauchy or Poincaré.According to Wigner, \"Nobody knows all science, not even von Neumann did.", "But as for mathematics, he contributed to every part of it except number theory and topology.", "That is, I think, something unique.\"", "Halmos noted that while von Neumann knew lots of mathematics, the most notable gaps were in algebraic topology and number theory; he recalled an incident where von Neumann failed to recognize the topological definition of a torus.", "Von Neumann admitted to Herman Goldstine that he had no facility at all in topology and he was never comfortable with it, with Goldstine later bringing this up when comparing him to Hermann Weyl, who he thought was deeper and broader.In his biography of von Neumann, Salomon Bochner wrote that much of von Neumann's works in pure mathematics involved finite and infinite dimensional vector spaces, which at the time, covered much of the total area of mathematics.", "However he pointed out this still did not cover an important part of the mathematical landscape, in particular, anything that involved geometry \"in the global sense\", topics such as topology, differential geometry and harmonic integrals, algebraic geometry and other such fields.", "Von Neumann rarely worked in these fields and, as Bochner saw it, had little affinity for them.In one of von Neumann's last articles, he lamented that pure mathematicians could no longer attain deep knowledge of even a fraction of the field.", "In the early 1940s, Ulam had concocted for him a doctoral-style examination to find weaknesses in his knowledge; von Neumann was unable to answer satisfactorily a question each in differential geometry, number theory, and algebra.", "They concluded that doctoral exams might have \"little permanent meaning\".", "However, when Weyl turned down an offer to write a history of mathematics of the 20th century, arguing that no one person could do it, Ulam thought von Neumann could have aspired to do so.=== Preferred problem-solving techniques ===Ulam remarked that most mathematicians could master one technique that they then used repeatedly, whereas von Neumann had mastered three:# A facility with the symbolic manipulation of linear operators;# An intuitive feeling for the logical structure of any new mathematical theory;# An intuitive feeling for the combinatorial superstructure of new theories.Although he was commonly described as an analyst, he once classified himself an algebraist, and his style often displayed a mix of algebraic technique and set-theoretical intuition.", "He loved obsessive detail and had no issues with excess repetition or overly explicit notation.", "An example of this was a paper of his on rings of operators, where he extended the normal functional notation, to .", "However, this process ended up being repeated several times, where the final result were equations such as .", "The 1936 paper became known to students as \"von Neumann's onion\" because the equations \"needed to be peeled before they could be digested\".", "Overall, although his writings were clear and powerful, they were not clean or elegant.", "Although powerful technically, his primary concern was more with the clear and viable formation of fundamental issues and questions of science rather than just the solution of mathematical puzzles.According to Ulam, von Neumann surprised physicists by doing dimensional estimates and algebraic computations in his head with fluency Ulam likened to blindfold chess.", "His impression was that von Neumann analyzed physical situations by abstract logical deduction rather than concrete visualization.=== Lecture style ===Goldstine compared his lectures to being on glass, smooth and lucid.", "By comparison, Goldstine thought his scientific articles were written in a much harsher manner, and with much less insight.", "Halmos described his lectures as \"dazzling\", with his speech clear, rapid, precise and all encompassing.", "Like Goldstine, he also described how everything seemed \"so easy and natural\" in lectures but puzzling on later reflection.", "He was a quick speaker: Banesh Hoffmann found it very difficult to take notes, even in shorthand, and Albert Tucker said that people often had to ask von Neumann questions to slow him down so they could think through the ideas he was presenting.", "Von Neumann knew about this and was grateful for his audience telling him when he was going too quickly.", "Although he did spend time preparing for lectures, he rarely used notes, instead jotting down points of what he would discuss and for how long.=== Eidetic memory ===Von Neumann was also noted for his eidetic memory, particularly of the symbolic kind.", "Herman Goldstine writes:Von Neumann was reportedly able to memorize the pages of telephone directories.", "He entertained friends by asking them to randomly call out page numbers; he then recited the names, addresses and numbers therein.", "Per Stanisław Ulam, von Neumann's memory was auditory rather than visual.=== Mathematical quickness ===Von Neumann's mathematical fluency, calculation speed, and general problem-solving ability were widely noted by his peers.", "Paul Halmos called his speed \"awe-inspiring.\"", "Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim described him as the \"fastest mind I ever met\".", "Enrico Fermi told physicist Herbert L. Anderson: \"You know, Herb, Johnny can do calculations in his head ten times as fast as I can!", "And I can do them ten times as fast as you can, Herb, so you can see how impressive Johnny is!\"", "Edward Teller admitted that he \"never could keep up with him\", and Israel Halperin described trying to keep up as like riding a \"tricycle chasing a racing car.", "\"He had an unusual ability to solve novel problems quickly.", "George Pólya, whose lectures at ETH Zürich von Neumann attended as a student, said, \"Johnny was the only student I was ever afraid of.", "If in the course of a lecture I stated an unsolved problem, the chances were he'd come to me at the end of the lecture with the complete solution scribbled on a slip of paper.\"", "When George Dantzig brought von Neumann an unsolved problem in linear programming \"as I would to an ordinary mortal\", on which there had been no published literature, he was astonished when von Neumann said \"Oh, that!", "\", before offhandedly giving a lecture of over an hour, explaining how to solve the problem using the hitherto unconceived theory of duality.A story about von Neumann's encounter with the famous fly puzzle has entered mathematical folklore.", "In this puzzle, two bicycles begin 20 miles apart, and each travels toward the other at 10 miles per hour until they collide; meanwhile, a fly travels continuously back and forth between the bicycles at 15 miles per hour until it is squashed in the collision.", "The questioner asks how far the fly traveled in total; the \"trick\" for a quick answer is to realize that the fly's individual transits do not matter, only that it has been traveling at 15 miles per hour for one hour.", "As Eugene Wigner tells it, Max Born posed the riddle to von Neumann.", "The other scientists to whom he had posed it had laboriously computed the distance, so when von Neumann was immediately ready with the correct answer of 15 miles, Born observed that he must have guessed the trick.", "\"What trick?\"", "von Neumann replied.", "\"All I did was sum the geometric series.", "\"=== Self-doubts ===Rota wrote that von Neumann had \"deep-seated and recurring self-doubts\".", "As an example on one occasion he said in the future he would be forgotten while Gödel would be remembered with Pythagoras.", "Ulam suggests that some of his self-doubts with regard for his own creativity may have come from the fact he had not discovered several important ideas that others had, even though he was more than capable of doing so, giving the incompleteness theorems and Birkhoff's pointwise ergodic theorem as examples.", "Von Neumann had a virtuosity in following complicated reasoning and had supreme insights, yet he perhaps felt he did not have the gift for seemingly irrational proofs and theorems or intuitive insights.", "Ulam describes how during one of his stays at Princeton while von Neumann was working on rings of operators, continuous geometries and quantum logic he felt that von Neumann was not convinced of the importance of his work, and only when finding some ingenious technical trick or new approach that he took some pleasure in it.", "However, according to Rota, von Neumann still had an \"incomparably stronger technique\" compared to his friend, despite describing Ulam as the more creative mathematician." ], [ "Legacy", "===Accolades===Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe said \"I have sometimes wondered whether a brain like von Neumann's does not indicate a species superior to that of man\".", "Edward Teller observed \"von Neumann would carry on a conversation with my 3-year-old son, and the two of them would talk as equals, and I sometimes wondered if he used the same principle when he talked to the rest of us.\"", "Peter Lax wrote \"Von Neumann was addicted to thinking, and in particular to thinking about mathematics\".", "Eugene Wigner said, \"He understood mathematical problems not only in their initial aspect, but in their full complexity.\"", "Claude Shannon called him \"the smartest person I've ever met\", a common opinion.", "Jacob Bronowski wrote \"He was the cleverest man I ever knew, without exception.", "He was a genius.", "\"\"It seems fair to say that if the influence of a scientist is interpreted broadly enough to include impact on fields beyond science proper, then John von Neumann was probably the most influential mathematician who ever lived,\" wrote Miklós Rédei.", "Peter Lax commented that von Neumann would have won a Nobel Prize in Economics had he lived longer, and that \"if there were Nobel Prizes in computer science and mathematics, he would have been honored by these, too.\"", "Rota writes that \"he was the first to have a vision of the boundless possibilities of computing, and he had the resolve to gather the considerable intellectual and engineering resources that led to the construction of the first large computer\" and consequently that \"No other mathematician in this century has had as deep and lasting an influence on the course of civilization.\"", "He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential mathematicians and scientists of the 20th century.Neurophysiologist Leon Harmon described him in a similar manner, calling him the only \"true genius\" he had ever met: \"von Neumann's mind was all-encompassing.", "He could solve problems in any domain.", "... And his mind was always working, always restless.\"", "While consulting for non-academic projects von Neumann's combination of outstanding scientific ability and practicality gave him a high credibility with military officers, engineers, and industrialists that no other scientist could match.", "In nuclear missilery he was considered \"the clearly dominant advisory figure\" according to Herbert York.", "Economist Nicholas Kaldor said he was \"unquestionably the nearest thing to a genius I have ever encountered.\"", "Likewise, Paul Samuelson wrote, \"We economists are grateful for von Neumann's genius.", "It is not for us to calculate whether he was a Gauss, or a Poincaré, or a Hilbert.", "He was the incomparable Johnny von Neumann.", "He darted briefly into our domain and it has never been the same since.", "\"=== Honors and awards ===The von Neumann crater, on the far side of the MoonEvents and awards named in recognition of von Neumann include the annual John von Neumann Theory Prize of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, IEEE John von Neumann Medal, and the John von Neumann Prize of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.", "Both the crater von Neumann on the Moon and the asteroid 22824 von Neumann are named in his honor.Von Neumann received awards including the Medal for Merit in 1947, the Medal of Freedom in 1956, and the Enrico Fermi Award also in 1956.He was elected a member of multiple honorary societies, including the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, and he held eight honorary doctorates.", "On May 4, 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the ''American Scientists'' commemorative postage stamp series, designed by artist Victor Stabin.", "The scientists depicted were von Neumann, Barbara McClintock, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Richard Feynman.", "was established in Kecskemét, Hungary in 2016, as a successor to Kecskemét College." ], [ "Selected works", "Von Neumann's first published paper was ''On the position of zeroes of certain minimum polynomials'', co-authored with Michael Fekete and published when von Neumann was 18.At 19, his solo paper ''On the introduction of transfinite numbers'' was published.", "He expanded his second solo paper, ''An axiomatization of set theory'', to create his PhD thesis.", "His first book, ''Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics'', was published in 1932.Following this, von Neumann switched from publishing in German to publishing in English, and his publications became more selective and expanded beyond pure mathematics.", "His 1942 ''Theory of Detonation Waves'' contributed to military research, his work on computing began with the unpublished 1946 ''On the principles of large scale computing machines'', and his publications on weather prediction began with the 1950 ''Numerical integration of the barotropic vorticity equation''.", "Alongside his later papers were informal essays targeted at colleagues and the general public, such as his 1947 ''The Mathematician'', described as a \"farewell to pure mathematics\", and his 1955 ''Can we survive technology?", "'', which considered a bleak future including nuclear warfare and deliberate climate change.", "His complete works have been compiled into a six-volume set." ], [ "See also", "* List of pioneers in computer science* Teapot Committee* ''The MANIAC'', 2023 book about von Neumann" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Description, contents, incl.", "arrow-scrollable preview, & review.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "''' Books''' * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Popular periodicals'''* ''Good Housekeeping Magazine'', September 1956, \"Married to a Man Who Believes the Mind Can Move the World\"'''Journals'''* " ], [ "External links", " A more or less complete bibliography of publications of John von Neumann by Nelson H. F. Beebe* * von Neumann's profile at Google Scholar* Oral History Project - The Princeton Mathematics Community in the 1930s, contains many interviews that describe contact and anecdotes of von Neumann and others at the Princeton University and Institute for Advanced Study community.", "* Oral history interviews (from the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota) with: Alice R. Burks and Arthur W. Burks; Eugene P. Wigner; and Nicholas C.", "Metropolis.", "* zbMATH profile* Query for \"von neumann\" on the digital repository of the Institute for Advanced Study.", "* Von Neumann vs. Dirac on Quantum Theory and Mathematical Rigor – from ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Quantum Logic and Probability Theory - from ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* FBI files on John von Neumann released via FOI* Biographical video by David Brailsford (John Dunford Professor Emeritus of computer science at the University of Nottingham)* John von Neumann: Prophet of the 21st Century 2013 Arte documentary on John von Neumann and his influence in the modern world (in German and French with English subtitles).", "* John von Neumann - A Documentary 1966 detailed documentary by the Mathematical Association of America containing remarks by several of his colleagues including Ulam, Wigner, Halmos, Morgenstern, Bethe, Goldstine, Strauss and Teller." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Newton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Newton''' (; – 21 December 1807) was an English evangelical Anglican cleric and slavery abolitionist.", "He had previously been a captain of slave ships and an investor in the slave trade.", "He served as a sailor in the Royal Navy (after forced recruitment) and was himself enslaved for a time in West Africa.", "He is noted for being author of the hymns ''Amazing Grace'' and ''Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken''.Newton went to sea at a young age and worked on slave ships in the slave trade for several years.", "In 1745, he himself became a slave of Princess Peye, a woman of the Sherbro people in what is now Sierra Leone.", "He was rescued, returned to sea and the trade, becoming Captain of several slave ships.", "After retiring from active sea-faring, he continued to invest in the slave trade.", "Some years after experiencing a conversion to Christianity, Newton later renounced his trade and became a prominent supporter of abolitionism.", "Now an evangelical, he was ordained as a Church of England cleric and served as parish priest at Olney, Buckinghamshire, for two decades and wrote hymns.Newton lived to see the British Empire's abolition of the African slave trade in 1807, just months before his death." ], [ "Early life", "John Newton was born in Wapping, London, in 1725, the son of John Newton the Elder, a shipmaster in the Mediterranean service, and Elizabeth (née Scatliff).", "Elizabeth was the only daughter of Simon Scatliff, an instrument maker from London.", "Elizabeth was brought up as a Nonconformist.", "She died of tuberculosis (then called consumption) in July 1732, about two weeks before her son's seventh birthday.", "Newton spent two years at a boarding school, before going to live at Aveley in Essex, the home of his father's new wife.At age eleven he first went to sea with his father.", "Newton sailed six voyages before his father retired in 1742.At that time, Newton's father made plans for him to work at a sugarcane plantation in Jamaica.", "Instead, Newton signed on with a merchant ship sailing to the Mediterranean Sea.===Impressment into naval service===In 1743, while going to visit friends, Newton was pressed into the Royal Navy.", "He became a midshipman aboard HMS ''Harwich''.", "At one point Newton tried to desert and was punished in front of the crew.", "Stripped to the waist and tied to the grating, he received a flogging and was reduced to the rank of a common seaman.Following that disgrace and humiliation, Newton initially contemplated murdering the captain and committing suicide by throwing himself overboard.", "He recovered, both physically and mentally.", "Later, while ''Harwich'' was en route to India, he transferred to ''Pegasus'', a slave ship bound for West Africa.", "The ship carried goods to Africa and traded them for slaves to be shipped to the colonies in the Caribbean and North America.===Enslavement and rescue===Newton did not get along with the crew of ''Pegasus''.", "In 1745, they left him in West Africa with Amos Clowe, a slave dealer.", "Clowe took Newton to the coast and gave him to his wife, Princess Peye of the Sherbro people.", "According to Newton, she abused and mistreated him just as much as she did her other slaves.", "Newton later recounted this period as the time he was \"once an infidel and libertine, a servant of slaves in West Africa.", "\"Early in 1748, he was rescued by a sea captain who had been asked by Newton's father to search for him, and returned to England on the merchant ship ''Greyhound'', which was carrying beeswax and dyer's wood, now referred to as camwood." ], [ "Christian conversion", "Statue of Newton in County Donegal, on a wintry dayIn 1748, during his return voyage to England aboard the ship ''Greyhound'', Newton had a Christian conversion.", "He awoke to find the ship caught in a severe storm off the coast of County Donegal, Ireland and about to sink.", "In response, Newton began praying for God's mercy, after which the storm began to die down.", "After four weeks at sea, the ''Greyhound'' made it to port in Lough Swilly (Ireland).", "This experience marked the beginning of his conversion to Christianity.He began to read the Bible and other Christian literature.", "By the time he reached Britain, he had accepted the doctrines of evangelical Christianity.", "The date was 21 March 1748, an anniversary he marked for the rest of his life.", "From that point on, he avoided profanity, gambling and drinking.", "Although he continued to work in the slave trade, he had gained sympathy for the slaves during his time in Africa.", "He later said that his true conversion did not happen until some time later: he wrote in 1764 \"I cannot consider myself to have been a believer in the full sense of the word, until a considerable time afterwards.\"" ], [ "Slave trading", "Newton returned in 1748 to Liverpool, a major port for the Triangle Trade.", "Partly due to the influence of his father's friend Joseph Manesty, he obtained a position as first mate aboard the slave ship ''Brownlow,'' bound for the West Indies via the coast of Guinea.", "After his return to England in 1750, he made three voyages as captain of the slave ships ''Duke of Argyle'' (1750) and ''African'' (1752–53 and 1753–54).", "After suffering a severe stroke in 1754, he gave up seafaring, while continuing to invest in Manesty's slaving operations.After Newton moved to the City of London as rector of St Mary Woolnoth Church, he contributed to the work of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, formed in 1787.During this time he wrote ''Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade''.", "In it he states, \"So much light has been thrown upon the subject, by many able pens; and so many respectable persons have already engaged to use their utmost influence, for the suppression of a traffic, which contradicts the feelings of humanity; that it is hoped, this stain of our National character will soon be wiped out.\"" ], [ "Marriage and family", "On 12 February 1750, Newton married his childhood sweetheart, Mary Catlett, at St. Margaret's Church, Rochester.Newton adopted his two orphaned nieces, Elizabeth Cunningham and Eliza Catlett, both from the Catlett side of the family.", "Newton's niece Alys Newton later married Mehul, a prince from India." ], [ "Anglican priest", "The parish church of St Peter and St Paul, Olney, where Newton became curate in 1764.St Mary Woolnoth in the City of London, where Newton was rector from 1779.In 1755, Newton was appointed as tide surveyor (a tax collector) of the Port of Liverpool, again through the influence of Manesty.", "In his spare time, he studied Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac, preparing for serious religious study.", "He became well known as an evangelical lay minister.", "In 1757, he applied to be ordained as a priest in the Church of England, but it was more than seven years before he was eventually accepted.During this period, he also applied to the Independents and Presbyterians.", "He mailed applications directly to the Bishops of Chester and Lincoln and the Archbishops of Canterbury and York.Eventually, in 1764, he was introduced by Thomas Haweis to The 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, who was influential in recommending Newton to William Markham, Bishop of Chester.", "Haweis suggested Newton for the living of Olney, Buckinghamshire.", "On 29 April 1764 Newton received deacon's orders, and finally was ordained as a priest on 17 June.As curate of Olney, Newton was partly sponsored by John Thornton, a wealthy merchant and evangelical philanthropist.", "He supplemented Newton's stipend of £60 a year with £200 a year \"for hospitality and to help the poor\".", "Newton soon became well known for his pastoral care, as much as for his beliefs.", "His friendship with Dissenters and evangelical clergy led to his being respected by Anglicans and Nonconformists alike.", "He spent sixteen years at Olney.", "His preaching was so popular that the congregation added a gallery to the church to accommodate the many persons who flocked to hear him.Some five years later, in 1772, Thomas Scott took up the curacy of the neighbouring parishes of Stoke Goldington and Weston Underwood.", "Newton was instrumental in converting Scott from a cynical 'career priest' to a true believer, a conversion which Scott related in his spiritual autobiography ''The Force of Truth'' (1779).", "Later Scott became a biblical commentator and co-founder of the Church Missionary Society.In 1779, Newton was invited by John Thornton to become Rector of St Mary Woolnoth, Lombard Street, London, where he officiated until his death.", "The church had been built by Nicholas Hawksmoor in 1727 in the fashionable Baroque style.", "Newton was one of only two evangelical Anglican priests in the capital, and he soon found himself gaining in popularity amongst the growing evangelical party.", "He was a strong supporter of evangelicalism in the Church of England.", "He remained a friend of Dissenters (such as Methodists post-Wesley, and Baptists) as well as Anglicans.Young churchmen and people struggling with faith sought his advice, including such well-known social figures as the writer and philanthropist Hannah More, and the young William Wilberforce, a member of parliament (MP) who had recently suffered a crisis of conscience and religious conversion while contemplating leaving politics.", "The younger man consulted with Newton, who encouraged Wilberforce to stay in Parliament and \"serve God where he was\".In 1792, Newton was presented with the degree of Doctor of Divinity by the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University)." ], [ "Writer and hymnist", "The vicarage in Olney, where Newton wrote the hymn that would become \"Amazing Grace\".In 1767, William Cowper, the poet, moved to Olney.", "He worshipped in Newton's church, and collaborated with the priest on a volume of hymns; it was published as ''Olney Hymns'' in 1779.This work had a great influence on English hymnology.", "The volume included Newton's well-known hymns: \"Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken\", \"How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds!", "\", and \"Faith's Review and Expectation\", which has come to be known by its opening phrase, \"Amazing Grace\".Memorial plaque to Newton and his wife at St Mary Woolnoth in the City of LondonMany of Newton's (as well as Cowper's) hymns are preserved in the ''Sacred Harp,'' a hymnal used in the American South during the Second Great Awakening.", "Hymns were scored according to the tonal scale for shape note singing.", "Easily learnt and incorporating singers into four-part harmony, shape note music was widely used by evangelical preachers to reach new congregants.In 1776, Newton contributed a preface to an annotated version of John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress''.Newton also contributed to the Cheap Repository Tracts.", "He wrote an autobiography entitled ''An Authentic Narrative of Some Remarkable And Interesting Particulars in the Life of ------ Communicated, in a Series of Letters, to the Reverend T. Haweis, Rector of Aldwinckle, And by him, at the request of friends, now made public'', which he published anonymously in 1764 with a Preface by Haweis.", "It was later described as \"written in an easy style, distinguished by great natural shrewdness, and sanctified by the Lord God and prayer\"." ], [ "Abolitionist", "Painting of John Newton published in 1807In 1788, 34 years after he had retired from the slave trade, Newton broke a long silence on the subject with the publication of a forceful pamphlet ''Thoughts Upon the Slave Trade'', in which he described the horrific conditions of the slave ships during the Middle Passage.", "He apologised for \"a confession, which ... comes too late ...", "It will always be a subject of humiliating reflection to me, that I was once an active instrument in a business at which my heart now shudders.\"", "He had copies sent to every MP, and the pamphlet sold so well that it swiftly required reprinting.Newton became an ally of William Wilberforce, leader of the Parliamentary campaign to abolish the African slave trade.", "He lived to see the British passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807, which enacted this event.Newton came to believe that during the first five of his nine years as a slave trader he had not been a Christian in the full sense of the term.", "In 1763 he wrote: \"I was greatly deficient in many respects ...", "I cannot consider myself to have been a believer in the full sense of the word, until a considerable time afterwards.\"" ], [ "Final years", "Newton's wife Mary Catlett died in 1790, after which he published ''Letters to a Wife'' (1793), in which he expressed his grief.", "Plagued by ill health and failing eyesight, Newton died on 21 December 1807 in London.", "He was buried beside his wife in St. Mary Woolnoth in London.", "Both were reinterred at the Church of Saints Peter and Paul, Olney in 1893." ], [ "Commemoration", "Newton's tomb at Olney, Buckinghamshire, bearing his self-penned epitaph.Stained-glass image of John Newton at St Peter and Paul Church in Olney, Buckinghamshire, where Newton served as parish priest.", "* When he was initially interred in London, a memorial plaque to Newton, containing his self-penned epitaph, was installed on the wall of St Mary Woolnoth.", "At the bottom of the plaque are the words: \"The above Epitaph was written by the Deceased who directed it to be inscribed on a plain Marble Tablet.", "He died on Dec. the 21st, 1807.Aged 82 Years, and his mortal Remains are deposited in the Vault beneath this Church.", "\"* Newton is memorialised with his self-penned epitaph on the side of his tomb at Olney: JOHN NEWTON.", "Clerk.", "Once an infidel and libertine a servant of slaves in Africa was by the rich mercy of our LORD and SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST preserved, restored, pardoned and appointed to preach the faith he had long laboured to destroy.", "Near 16 years as Curate of this parish and 28 years as Rector of St. Mary Woolnoth.", "The town of Newton in Sierra Leone is named after him.", "To this day his former town of Olney provides philanthropy for the African town.", "In 1982, Newton was recognised for his influential hymns by the Gospel Music Association when he was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame.", "A memorial to him was erected in Buncrana in Inishowen, County Donegal, in Ulster in 2013.Buncrana is located on the shores of Lough Swilly." ], [ "Portrayals in media", "===Film=== The film ''Amazing Grace'' (2006) highlights Newton's influence on William Wilberforce.", "Albert Finney portrays Newton, Ioan Gruffudd is Wilberforce, and the film was directed by Michael Apted.", "The film portrays Newton as a penitent haunted by the ghosts of 20,000 slaves.", "* The Nigerian film ''The Amazing Grace'' (2006), the creation of Nigerian director/writer/producer Jeta Amata, provides an African perspective on the slave trade.", "Nigerian actors Joke Silva, Mbong Odungide, and Fred Amata (brother of the director) portray Africans who are captured and taken away from their homeland by slave traders.", "Newton is played by Nick Moran.", "* The 2014 film ''Freedom'' tells the story of an American slave (Samuel Woodward, played by Cuba Gooding, Jr.) escaping to freedom via the Underground Railroad.", "A parallel earlier story depicts John Newton (played by Bernhard Forcher) as the captain of a slave ship bound for America carrying Samuel's grandfather.", "Newton's conversion is explored as well.", "* The film ''Newton's Grace'' (2017) depicts Newton's life including his early years and time as a slave himself.===Stage productions===''African Snow'' (2007), a play by Murray Watts, takes place in the mind of John Newton.", "It was first produced at the York Theatre Royal as a co-production with Riding Lights Theatre Company, transferring to the Trafalgar Studios in London's West End and a National Tour.", "Newton was played by Roger Alborough and Olaudah Equiano by Israel Oyelumade.", "The musical ''Amazing Grace'' is a dramatisation of Newton's life.", "The 2014 pre-Broadway and 2015 Broadway productions starred Josh Young as Newton.===Television===Newton is portrayed by actor John Castle in the British television miniseries, ''The Fight Against Slavery'' (1975).===Novels===Caryl Phillips' novel, ''Crossing the River'' (1993), includes nearly verbatim excerpts of Newton's logs from his ''Journal of a Slave Trader''.", "* In the chapter 'Blind, But Now I See' of the novel ''Jerusalem'' by Alan Moore (2016), an African-American whose favourite hymn is \"Amazing Grace\" visits Olney where a local churchman relates the facts of Newton's life to him.", "He is disturbed by Newton's involvement in the slave trade.", "Newton's life and circumstances, and the lyrics of \"Amazing Grace\" are described in detail." ], [ "See also", "* The Cowper and Newton Museum in Olney, Buckinghamshire" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * ** * * * * * * (More legible (and machine-readable) transcription.", "For the facsimile edition at archive.org, see below.", ")* * * * * * * * ===Further reading===* * * * * * .", "Preface by Haweis* " ], [ "External links", " * * Newton, John (1788).", "''Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade'' (Internet Archive with funding by Associates of the Boston Public Library ed.).", "London: J. Buckland & J. Johnson.", "Retrieved 24 May 2019.", "(Facsimile of original book at Archive.org.", "For more legible (and machine-readable) transcription, see Sources (above).)", "* The John Newton Project* Biography & Articles on Newton * * John Newton Papers Collection from the Digital Library of Georgia* John Newton on Poeticous*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jet engine" ], [ "Introduction", "Jet engine during take-off showing visible hot exhaust (Germanwings Airbus A319)A '''jet engine''' is a type of reaction engine, discharging a fast-moving jet of heated gas (usually air) that generates thrust by jet propulsion.", "While this broad definition may include rocket, water jet, and hybrid propulsion, the term typically refers to an internal combustion air-breathing jet engine such as a turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, pulse jet, or scramjet.", "In general, jet engines are internal combustion engines.Air-breathing jet engines typically feature a rotating air compressor powered by a turbine, with the leftover power providing thrust through the propelling nozzle—this process is known as the Brayton thermodynamic cycle.", "Jet aircraft use such engines for long-distance travel.", "Early jet aircraft used turbojet engines that were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight.", "Most modern subsonic jet aircraft use more complex high-bypass turbofan engines.", "They give higher speed and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aeroengines over long distances.", "A few air-breathing engines made for high-speed applications (ramjets and scramjets) use the ram effect of the vehicle's speed instead of a mechanical compressor.The thrust of a typical jetliner engine went from (de Havilland Ghost turbojet) in the 1950s to (General Electric GE90 turbofan) in the 1990s, and their reliability went from 40 in-flight shutdowns per 100,000 engine flight hours to less than 1 per 100,000 in the late 1990s.", "This, combined with greatly decreased fuel consumption, permitted routine transatlantic flight by twin-engined airliners by the turn of the century, where previously a similar journey would have required multiple fuel stops." ], [ "History", "The principle of the jet engine is not new; however, the technical advances necessary to make the idea work did not come to fruition until the 20th century.A rudimentary demonstration of jet power dates back to the aeolipile, a device described by Hero of Alexandria in 1st-century Egypt.", "This device directed steam power through two nozzles to cause a sphere to spin rapidly on its axis.", "It was seen as a curiosity.", "Meanwhile, practical applications of the turbine can be seen in the water wheel and the windmill.", "Historians have further traced the theoretical origin of the principles of jet engines to traditional Chinese firework and rocket propulsion systems.", "Such devices' use for flight is documented in the story of Ottoman soldier Lagâri Hasan Çelebi, who reportedly achieved flight using a cone-shaped rocket in 1633.The earliest attempts at airbreathing jet engines were hybrid designs in which an external power source first compressed air, which was then mixed with fuel and burned for jet thrust.", "The Italian Caproni Campini N.1, and the Japanese Tsu-11 engine intended to power Ohka kamikaze planes towards the end of World War II were unsuccessful.Even before the start of World War II, engineers were beginning to realize that engines driving propellers were approaching limits due to issues related to propeller efficiency, which declined as blade tips approached the speed of sound.", "If aircraft performance were to increase beyond such a barrier, a different propulsion mechanism was necessary.", "This was the motivation behind the development of the gas turbine engine, the most common form of jet engine.The key to a practical jet engine was the gas turbine, extracting power from the engine itself to drive the compressor.", "The gas turbine was not a new idea: the patent for a stationary turbine was granted to John Barber in England in 1791.The first gas turbine to successfully run self-sustaining was built in 1903 by Norwegian engineer Ægidius Elling.", "Such engines did not reach manufacture due to issues of safety, reliability, weight and, especially, sustained operation.The first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 1921 by Maxime Guillaume.", "His engine was an axial-flow turbojet, but was never constructed, as it would have required considerable advances over the state of the art in compressors.", "Alan Arnold Griffith published ''An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design'' in 1926 leading to experimental work at the RAE.The Whittle W.2/700 engine flew in the Gloster E.28/39, the first British aircraft to fly with a turbojet engine, and the Gloster MeteorIn 1928, RAF College Cranwell cadet Frank Whittle formally submitted his ideas for a turbojet to his superiors.", "In October 1929, he developed his ideas further.", "On 16 January 1930, in England, Whittle submitted his first patent (granted in 1932).", "The patent showed a two-stage axial compressor feeding a single-sided centrifugal compressor.", "Practical axial compressors were made possible by ideas from A.A.Griffith in a seminal paper in 1926 (\"An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design\").", "Whittle would later concentrate on the simpler centrifugal compressor only.", "Whittle was unable to interest the government in his invention, and development continued at a slow pace.Heinkel He 178, the world's first aircraft to fly purely on turbojet powerIn Spain, pilot and engineer Virgilio Leret Ruiz was granted a patent for a jet engine design in March 1935.Republican president Manuel Azaña arranged for initial construction at the Hispano-Suiza aircraft factory in Madrid in 1936, but Leret was executed months later by Francoist Moroccan troops after unsuccessfully defending his seaplane base on the first days of the Spanish Civil War.", "His plans, hidden from Francoists, were secretly given to the British embassy in Madrid a few years later by his wife, Carlota O'Neill, upon her release from prison.", "In 1935, Hans von Ohain started work on a similar design to Whittle's in Germany, both compressor and turbine being radial, on opposite sides of the same disc, initially unaware of Whittle's work.", "Von Ohain's first device was strictly experimental and could run only under external power, but he was able to demonstrate the basic concept.", "Ohain was then introduced to Ernst Heinkel, one of the larger aircraft industrialists of the day, who immediately saw the promise of the design.", "Heinkel had recently purchased the Hirth engine company, and Ohain and his master machinist Max Hahn were set up there as a new division of the Hirth company.", "They had their first HeS 1 centrifugal engine running by September 1937.Unlike Whittle's design, Ohain used hydrogen as fuel, supplied under external pressure.", "Their subsequent designs culminated in the gasoline-fuelled HeS 3 of , which was fitted to Heinkel's simple and compact He 178 airframe and flown by Erich Warsitz in the early morning of August 27, 1939, from Rostock-Marienehe aerodrome, an impressively short time for development.", "The He 178 was the world's first jet plane.", "Heinkel applied for a US patent covering the Aircraft Power Plant by Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain on May 31, 1939; patent number US2256198, with M Hahn referenced as inventor.", "Von Ohain´s design, an axial-flow engine, as opposed to Whittle's centrifugal flow engine, was eventually adopted by most manufacturers by the 1950's.A cutaway of the Junkers Jumo 004 engineAustrian Anselm Franz of Junkers' engine division (''Junkers Motoren'' or \"Jumo\") introduced the axial-flow compressor in their jet engine.", "Jumo was assigned the next engine number in the RLM 109-0xx numbering sequence for gas turbine aircraft powerplants, \"004\", and the result was the Jumo 004 engine.", "After many lesser technical difficulties were solved, mass production of this engine started in 1944 as a powerplant for the world's first jet-fighter aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 (and later the world's first jet-bomber aircraft, the Arado Ar 234).", "A variety of reasons conspired to delay the engine's availability, causing the fighter to arrive too late to improve Germany's position in World War II, however this was the first jet engine to be used in service.Gloster Meteor F.3s.", "The Gloster Meteor was the first British jet fighter and the Allies' only jet aircraft to achieve combat operations during World War II.Meanwhile, in Britain the Gloster E28/39 had its maiden flight on 15 May 1941 and the Gloster Meteor finally entered service with the RAF in July 1944.These were powered by turbojet engines from Power Jets Ltd., set up by Frank Whittle.", "The first two operational turbojet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 and then the Gloster Meteor entered service within three months of each other in 1944, the Me 262 in April and the Gloster Meteor in July, so the Meteor only saw around 15 aircraft enter World War II action , while up to 1400 Me 262 were produced, with 300 entering combat, delivering the first ground attacks and air combat victories of jet planes.Following the end of the war the German jet aircraft and jet engines were extensively studied by the victorious allies and contributed to work on early Soviet and US jet fighters.", "The legacy of the axial-flow engine is seen in the fact that practically all jet engines on fixed-wing aircraft have had some inspiration from this design.By the 1950s, the jet engine was almost universal in combat aircraft, with the exception of cargo, liaison and other specialty types.", "By this point, some of the British designs were already cleared for civilian use, and had appeared on early models like the de Havilland Comet and Avro Canada Jetliner.", "By the 1960s, all large civilian aircraft were also jet powered, leaving the piston engine in low-cost niche roles such as cargo flights.The efficiency of turbojet engines was still rather worse than piston engines, but by the 1970s, with the advent of high-bypass turbofan jet engines (an innovation not foreseen by the early commentators such as Edgar Buckingham, at high speeds and high altitudes that seemed absurd to them), fuel efficiency was about the same as the best piston and propeller engines." ], [ "Uses", "JT9D turbofan jet engine installed on a Boeing 747 aircraft.Jet engines power jet aircraft, cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles.", "In the form of rocket engines they power model rocketry, spaceflight, and military missiles.Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly drag racers, with the all-time record held by a rocket car.", "A turbofan powered car, ThrustSSC, currently holds the land speed record.Jet engine designs are frequently modified for non-aircraft applications, as industrial gas turbines or marine powerplants.", "These are used in electrical power generation, for powering water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives.", "Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower.", "Many of these engines are derived from older military turbojets such as the Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models.", "There is also a derivative of the P&W JT8D low-bypass turbofan that creates up to 35,000 horsepower (HP).Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft." ], [ "Types of jet engine", "There are a large number of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from the principle of ''jet propulsion''.===Airbreathing===Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines.", "Most airbreathing jet engines that are in use are turbofan jet engines, which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound.==== Turbojet ====Turbojet engineA turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and a compressor (axial, centrifugal, or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air, burning the mixture in the combustor, and then passing the hot, high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle.", "The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it.", "The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to increased momentum of the gas flowing through the engine, producing thrust.", "All the air entering the compressor is passed through the combustor, and turbine, unlike the turbofan engine described below.", "==== Turbofan ====Schematic diagram illustrating the operation of a low-bypass turbofan engine.Turbofans differ from turbojets in that they have an additional fan at the front of the engine, which accelerates air in a duct bypassing the core gas turbine engine.", "Turbofans are the dominant engine type for medium and long-range airliners.Turbofans are usually more efficient than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but at high speeds their large frontal area generates more drag.", "Therefore, in supersonic flight, and in military and other aircraft where other considerations have a higher priority than fuel efficiency, fans tend to be smaller or absent.Because of these distinctions, turbofan engine designs are often categorized as low-bypass or high-bypass, depending upon the amount of air which bypasses the core of the engine.", "Low-bypass turbofans have a bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less.==== Advanced technology engine ====The term Advanced technology engine refers to the modern generation of jet engines.", "The principle is that a turbine engine will function more efficiently if the various sets of turbines can revolve at their individual optimum speeds, instead of at the same speed.", "The true advanced technology engine has a triple spool, meaning that instead of having a single drive shaft, there are three, in order that the three sets of blades may revolve at different speeds.", "An interim state is a twin-spool engine, allowing only two different speeds for the turbines.==== Ram compression ====Ram compression jet engines are airbreathing engines similar to gas turbine engines in so far as they both use the Brayton cycle.", "Gas turbine and ram compression engines differ, however, in how they compress the incoming airflow.", "Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed in the inlet or diffuser.", "A ram engine thus requires a substantial initial forward airspeed before it can function.", "Ramjets are considered the simplest type of air breathing jet engine because they have no moving parts in the engine proper, only in the accessories.Scramjets differ mainly in the fact that the air does not slow to subsonic speeds.", "Rather, they use supersonic combustion.", "They are efficient at even higher speed.", "Very few have been built or flown.====Non-continuous combustion===='''Type''''''Description''''''Advantages''''''Disadvantages'''MotorjetWorks like a turbojet but a piston engine drives the compressor instead of a turbine.Higher exhaust velocity than a propeller, offering better thrust at high speedHeavy, inefficient and underpowered.", "Example: Caproni Campini N.1.PulsejetAir is compressed and combusted intermittently instead of continuously.", "Some designs use valves.Very simple design, used for the V-1 flying bomb and more recently on model aircraftNoisy, inefficient (low compression ratio), works poorly on a large scale, valves on valved designs wear out quicklyPulse detonation engineSimilar to a pulsejet, but combustion occurs as a detonation instead of a deflagration, may or may not need valvesMaximum theoretical engine efficiencyExtremely noisy, parts subject to extreme mechanical fatigue, hard to start detonation, not practical for current use" ], [ "Other types of jet propulsion", "===Rocket===Rocket engine propulsionThe rocket engine uses the same basic physical principles of thrust as a form of reaction engine, but is distinct from the jet engine in that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen; the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass.", "However some definitions treat it as a form of jet propulsion.Because rockets do not breathe air, this allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in space.This type of engine is used for launching satellites, space exploration and crewed access, and permitted landing on the Moon in 1969.Rocket engines are used for high altitude flights, or anywhere where very high accelerations are needed since rocket engines themselves have a very high thrust-to-weight ratio.However, the high exhaust speed and the heavier, oxidizer-rich propellant results in far more propellant use than turbofans.", "Even so, at extremely high speeds they become energy-efficient.An approximate equation for the net thrust of a rocket engine is::Where is the net thrust, is the specific impulse, is a standard gravity, is the propellant flow in kg/s, is the cross-sectional area at the exit of the exhaust nozzle, and is the atmospheric pressure.", "Type Description Advantages DisadvantagesRocketCarries all propellants and oxidants on board, emits jet for propulsionVery few moving parts.", "Mach 0 to Mach 25+; efficient at very high speed (> Mach 5.0 or so).", "Thrust/weight ratio over 100.No complex air inlet.", "High compression ratio.", "Very high-speed (hypersonic) exhaust.", "Good cost/thrust ratio.", "Fairly easy to test.", "Works in a vacuum; indeed, works best outside the atmosphere, which is kinder on vehicle structure at high speed.", "Fairly small surface area to keep cool, and no turbine in hot exhaust stream.", "Very high-temperature combustion and high expansion-ratio nozzle gives very high efficiency, at very high speeds.Needs lots of propellant.", "Very low specific impulse – typically 100–450 seconds.", "Extreme thermal stresses of combustion chamber can make reuse harder.", "Typically requires carrying oxidizer on-board which increases risks.", "Extraordinarily noisy.===Hybrid===Combined-cycle engines simultaneously use two or more different principles of jet propulsion.", "'''Type''''''Description''''''Advantages''''''Disadvantages'''TurborocketA turbojet where an additional oxidizer such as oxygen is added to the airstream to increase maximum altitudeVery close to existing designs, operates in very high altitude, wide range of altitude and airspeedAirspeed limited to same range as turbojet engine, carrying oxidizer like LOX can be dangerous.", "Much heavier than simple rockets.Air-augmented rocketEssentially a ramjet where intake air is compressed and burnt with the exhaust from a rocketMach 0 to Mach 4.5+ (can also run exoatmospheric), good efficiency at Mach 2 to 4Similar efficiency to rockets at low speed or exoatmospheric, inlet difficulties, a relatively undeveloped and unexplored type, cooling difficulties, very noisy, thrust/weight ratio is similar to ramjets.Precooled jets / LACEIntake air is chilled to very low temperatures at inlet in a heat exchanger before passing through a ramjet and/or turbojet and/or rocket engine.Easily tested on ground.", "Very high thrust/weight ratios are possible (~14) together with good fuel efficiency over a wide range of airspeeds, Mach 0–5.5+; this combination of efficiencies may permit launching to orbit, single stage, or very rapid, very long distance intercontinental travel.Exists only at the lab prototyping stage.", "Examples include RB545, Reaction Engines SABRE, ATREX.", "Requires liquid hydrogen fuel which has very low density and requires heavily insulated tankage.===Water jet===A water jet, or pump-jet, is a marine propulsion system that uses a jet of water.", "The mechanical arrangement may be a ducted propeller with nozzle, or a centrifugal compressor and nozzle.", "The pump-jet must be driven by a separate engine such as a Diesel or gas turbine.A pump jet schematic.", "'''Type''''''Description''''''Advantages''''''Disadvantages'''Water jetFor propelling water rockets and jetboats; squirts water out the back through a nozzleIn boats, can run in shallow water, high acceleration, no risk of engine overload (unlike propellers), less noise and vibration, highly maneuverable at all boat speeds, high speed efficiency, less vulnerable to damage from debris, very reliable, more load flexibility, less harmful to wildlifeCan be less efficient than a propeller at low speed, more expensive, higher weight in boat due to entrained water, will not perform well if boat is heavier than the jet is sized for" ], [ "General physical principles", "All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by emitting a jet of fluid rearwards at relatively high speed.", "The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create this jet give a strong thrust on the engine which pushes the craft forwards.Jet engines make their jet from propellant stored in tanks that are attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') as well as in '''duct engines''' (those commonly used on aircraft) by ingesting an external fluid (very typically air) and expelling it at higher speed.===Propelling nozzle===A propelling nozzle produces a high velocity exhaust jet.", "Propelling nozzles turn internal and pressure energy into high velocity kinetic energy.", "The total pressure and temperature don't change through the nozzle but their static values drop as the gas speeds up.The velocity of the air entering the nozzle is low, about Mach 0.4, a prerequisite for minimizing pressure losses in the duct leading to the nozzle.", "The temperature entering the nozzle may be as low as sea level ambient for a fan nozzle in the cold air at cruise altitudes.", "It may be as high as the 1000K exhaust gas temperature for a supersonic afterburning engine or 2200K with afterburner lit.", "The pressure entering the nozzle may vary from 1.5 times the pressure outside the nozzle, for a single stage fan, to 30 times for the fastest manned aircraft at Mach 3+.Convergent nozzles are only able to accelerate the gas up to local sonic (Mach 1) conditions.", "To reach high flight speeds, even greater exhaust velocities are required, and so a convergent-divergent nozzle is needed on high-speed aircraft.The engine thrust is highest if the static pressure of the gas reaches the ambient value as it leaves the nozzle.", "This only happens if the nozzle exit area is the correct value for the nozzle pressure ratio (npr).", "Since the npr changes with engine thrust setting and flight speed this is seldom the case.", "Also at supersonic speeds the divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag.", "Whitford gives the F-16 as an example.", "Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71.The nozzle size, together with the area of the turbine nozzles, determines the operating pressure of the compressor.=== Thrust ======Energy efficiency relating to aircraft jet engines===This overview highlights where energy losses occur in complete jet aircraft powerplants or engine installations.A jet engine at rest, as on a test stand, sucks in fuel and generates thrust.", "How well it does this is judged by how much fuel it uses and what force is required to restrain it.", "This is a measure of its efficiency.", "If something deteriorates inside the engine (known as performance deterioration) it will be less efficient and this will show when the fuel produces less thrust.", "If a change is made to an internal part which allows the air/combustion gases to flow more smoothly the engine will be more efficient and use less fuel.", "A standard definition is used to assess how different things change engine efficiency and also to allow comparisons to be made between different engines.", "This definition is called specific fuel consumption, or how much fuel is needed to produce one unit of thrust.", "For example, it will be known for a particular engine design that if some bumps in a bypass duct are smoothed out the air will flow more smoothly giving a pressure loss reduction of x% and y% less fuel will be needed to get the take-off thrust, for example.", "This understanding comes under the engineering discipline Jet engine performance.", "How efficiency is affected by forward speed and by supplying energy to aircraft systems is mentioned later.The efficiency of the engine is controlled primarily by the operating conditions inside the engine which are the pressure produced by the compressor and the temperature of the combustion gases at the first set of rotating turbine blades.", "The pressure is the highest air pressure in the engine.", "The turbine rotor temperature is not the highest in the engine but is the highest at which energy transfer takes place ( higher temperatures occur in the combustor).", "The above pressure and temperature are shown on a Thermodynamic cycle diagram.The efficiency is further modified by how smoothly the air and the combustion gases flow through the engine, how well the flow is aligned (known as incidence angle) with the moving and stationary passages in the compressors and turbines.", "Non-optimum angles, as well as non-optimum passage and blade shapes can cause thickening and separation of Boundary layers and formation of Shock waves.", "It is important to slow the flow (lower speed means less pressure losses or Pressure drop) when it travels through ducts connecting the different parts.", "How well the individual components contribute to turning fuel into thrust is quantified by measures like efficiencies for the compressors, turbines and combustor and pressure losses for the ducts.", "These are shown as lines on a Thermodynamic cycle diagram.The engine efficiency, or thermal efficiency, known as .", "is dependent on the Thermodynamic cycle parameters, maximum pressure and temperature, and on component efficiencies, , and and duct pressure losses.The engine needs compressed air for itself just to run successfully.", "This air comes from its own compressor and is called secondary air.", "It does not contribute to making thrust so makes the engine less efficient.", "It is used to preserve the mechanical integrity of the engine, to stop parts overheating and to prevent oil escaping from bearings for example.", "Only some of this air taken from the compressors returns to the turbine flow to contribute to thrust production.", "Any reduction in the amount needed improves the engine efficiency.", "Again, it will be known for a particular engine design that a reduced requirement for cooling flow of x% will reduce the specific fuel consumption by y%.", "In other words, less fuel will be required to give take-off thrust, for example.", "The engine is more efficient.All of the above considerations are basic to the engine running on its own and, at the same time, doing nothing useful, i.e.", "it is not moving an aircraft or supplying energy for the aircraft's electrical, hydraulic and air systems.", "In the aircraft the engine gives away some of its thrust-producing potential, or fuel, to power these systems.", "These requirements, which cause installation losses, reduce its efficiency.", "It is using some fuel that does not contribute to the engine's thrust.Finally, when the aircraft is flying the propelling jet itself contains wasted kinetic energy after it has left the engine.", "This is quantified by the term propulsive, or Froude, efficiency and may be reduced by redesigning the engine to give it bypass flow and a lower speed for the propelling jet, for example as a turboprop or turbofan engine.", "At the same time forward speed increases the by increasing the Overall pressure ratio.The overall efficiency of the engine at flight speed is defined as .The at flight speed depends on how well the intake compresses the air before it is handed over to the engine compressors.", "The intake compression ratio, which can be as high as 32:1 at Mach 3, adds to that of the engine compressor to give the Overall pressure ratio and for the Thermodynamic cycle.", "How well it does this is defined by its pressure recovery or measure of the losses in the intake.", "Mach 3 manned flight has provided an interesting illustration of how these losses can increase dramatically in an instant.", "The North American XB-70 Valkyrie and Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird at Mach 3 each had pressure recoveries of about 0.8, due to relatively low losses during the compression process, i.e.", "through systems of multiple shocks.", "During an 'unstart' the efficient shock system would be replaced by a very inefficient single shock beyond the inlet and an intake pressure recovery of about 0.3 and a correspondingly low pressure ratio.The propelling nozzle at speeds above about Mach 2 usually has extra internal thrust losses because the exit area is not big enough as a trade-off with external afterbody drag.Although a bypass engine improves propulsive efficiency it incurs losses of its own inside the engine itself.", "Machinery has to be added to transfer energy from the gas generator to a bypass airflow.", "The low loss from the propelling nozzle of a turbojet is added to with extra losses due to inefficiencies in the added turbine and fan.", "These may be included in a transmission, or transfer, efficiency .", "However, these losses are more than made up by the improvement in propulsive efficiency.", "There are also extra pressure losses in the bypass duct and an extra propelling nozzle.With the advent of turbofans with their loss-making machinery what goes on inside the engine has been separated by Bennett, for example, between gas generator and transfer machinery giving .Dependence of propulsion efficiency (η) upon the vehicle speed/exhaust velocity ratio (v/ve) for air-breathing jet and rocket engines.The energy efficiency () of jet engines installed in vehicles has two main components:* ''propulsive efficiency'' (): how much of the energy of the jet ends up in the vehicle body rather than being carried away as kinetic energy of the jet.", "* ''cycle efficiency'' (): how efficiently the engine can accelerate the jetEven though overall energy efficiency is::for all jet engines the ''propulsive efficiency'' is highest as the exhaust jet velocity gets closer to the vehicle speed as this gives the smallest residual kinetic energy.", "For an airbreathing engine an exhaust velocity equal to the vehicle velocity, or a equal to one, gives zero thrust with no net momentum change.", "The formula for air-breathing engines moving at speed with an exhaust velocity , and neglecting fuel flow, is::And for a rocket::In addition to propulsive efficiency, another factor is ''cycle efficiency''; a jet engine is a form of heat engine.", "Heat engine efficiency is determined by the ratio of temperatures reached in the engine to that exhausted at the nozzle.", "This has improved constantly over time as new materials have been introduced to allow higher maximum cycle temperatures.", "For example, composite materials, combining metals with ceramics, have been developed for HP turbine blades, which run at the maximum cycle temperature.", "The efficiency is also limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved.", "Cycle efficiency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%), as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures.", "Cycle efficiency in turbojet and similar is nearer to 30%, due to much lower peak cycle temperatures.Typical combustion efficiency of an aircraft gas turbine over the operational range.Typical combustion stability limits of an aircraft gas turbine.The combustion efficiency of most aircraft gas turbine engines at sea level takeoff conditionsis almost 100%.", "It decreases nonlinearly to 98% at altitude cruise conditions.", "Air-fuel ratio ranges from 50:1 to 130:1.For any type of combustion chamber there is a ''rich'' and ''weak limit'' to the air-fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished.", "The range of air-fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an increase of air velocity.", "If theincreasing air mass flow reduces the fuel ratio below certain value, flame extinction occurs.Specific impulse as a function of speed for different jet types with kerosene fuel (hydrogen Isp would be about twice as high).", "Although efficiency plummets with speed, greater distances are covered.", "Efficiency per unit distance (per km or mile) is roughly independent of speed for jet engines as a group; however, airframes become inefficient at supersonic speeds.===Consumption of fuel or propellant===A closely related (but different) concept to energy efficiency is the rate of consumption of propellant mass.", "Propellant consumption in jet engines is measured by '''specific fuel consumption''', '''specific impulse''', or '''effective exhaust velocity'''.", "They all measure the same thing.", "Specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity are strictly proportional, whereas specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the others.For air-breathing engines such as turbojets, energy efficiency and propellant (fuel) efficiency are much the same thing, since the propellant is a fuel and the source of energy.", "In rocketry, the propellant is also the exhaust, and this means that a high energy propellant gives better propellant efficiency but can in some cases actually give ''lower'' energy efficiency.It can be seen in the table (just below) that the subsonic turbofans such as General Electric's CF6 turbofan use a lot less fuel to generate thrust for a second than did the Concorde's Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojet.", "However, since energy is force times distance and the distance per second was greater for the Concorde, the actual power generated by the engine for the same amount of fuel was higher for the Concorde at Mach 2 than the CF6.Thus, the Concorde's engines were more efficient in terms of energy per mile.===Thrust-to-weight ratio===The thrust-to-weight ratio of jet engines with similar configurations varies with scale, but is mostly a function of engine construction technology.", "For a given engine, the lighter the engine, the better the thrust-to-weight is, the less fuel is used to compensate for drag due to the lift needed to carry the engine weight, or to accelerate the mass of the engine.As can be seen in the following table, rocket engines generally achieve much higher thrust-to-weight ratios than duct engines such as turbojet and turbofan engines.", "This is primarily because rockets almost universally use dense liquid or solid reaction mass which gives a much smaller volume and hence the pressurization system that supplies the nozzle is much smaller and lighter for the same performance.", "Duct engines have to deal with air which is two to three orders of magnitude less dense and this gives pressures over much larger areas, which in turn results in more engineering materials being needed to hold the engine together and for the air compressor.===Comparison of types===Propulsive efficiency comparison for various gas turbine engine configurationsPropeller engines handle larger air mass flows, and give them smaller acceleration, than jet engines.", "Since the increase in air speed is small, at high flight speeds the thrust available to propeller-driven aeroplanes is small.", "However, at low speeds, these engines benefit from relatively high propulsive efficiency.On the other hand, turbojets accelerate a much smaller mass flow of intake air and burned fuel, but they then reject it at very high speed.", "When a de Laval nozzle is used to accelerate a hot engine exhaust, the outlet velocity may be locally supersonic.", "Turbojets are particularly suitable for aircraft travelling at very high speeds.Turbofans have a mixed exhaust consisting of the bypass air and the hot combustion product gas from the core engine.", "The amount of air that bypasses the core engine compared to the amount flowing into the engine determines what is called a turbofan's bypass ratio (BPR).While a turbojet engine uses all of the engine's output to produce thrust in the form of a hot high-velocity exhaust gas jet, a turbofan's cool low-velocity bypass air yields between 30% and 70% of the total thrust produced by a turbofan system.The net thrust ('''''FN''''') generated by a turbofan can also be expanded as::where:'''''ṁ e'''''= the mass rate of hot combustion exhaust flow from the core engine'''''ṁo'''''= the mass rate of total air flow entering the turbofan = '''''ṁc''''' + '''''ṁf''''''''''ṁc'''''= the mass rate of intake air that flows to the core engine'''''ṁf'''''= the mass rate of intake air that bypasses the core engine'''''vf'''''= the velocity of the air flow bypassed around the core engine'''''vhe'''''= the velocity of the hot exhaust gas from the core engine'''''vo'''''= the velocity of the total air intake = the true airspeed of the aircraft'''''BPR'''''= Bypass RatioRocket engines have extremely high exhaust velocity and thus are best suited for high speeds (hypersonic) and great altitudes.", "At any given throttle, the thrust and efficiency of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the back-pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet (or turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the nozzle) causes the net thrust to decrease with increasing altitude.", "Rocket engines are more efficient than even scramjets above roughly Mach 15.===Altitude and speed===With the exception of scramjets, jet engines, deprived of their inlet systems can only accept air at around half the speed of sound.", "The inlet system's job for transonic and supersonic aircraft is to slow the air and perform some of the compression.The limit on maximum altitude for engines is set by flammability – at very high altitudes the air becomes too thin to burn, or after compression, too hot.", "For turbojet engines altitudes of about 40 km appear to be possible, whereas for ramjet engines 55 km may be achievable.", "Scramjets may theoretically manage 75 km.", "Rocket engines of course have no upper limit.At more modest altitudes, flying faster compresses the air at the front of the engine, and this greatly heats the air.", "The upper limit is usually thought to be about Mach 5–8, as above about Mach 5.5, the atmospheric nitrogen tends to react due to the high temperatures at the inlet and this consumes significant energy.", "The exception to this is scramjets which may be able to achieve about Mach 15 or more, as they avoid slowing the air, and rockets again have no particular speed limit.===Noise===The noise emitted by a jet engine has many sources.", "These include, in the case of gas turbine engines, the fan, compressor, combustor, turbine and propelling jet/s.The propelling jet produces jet noise which is caused by the violent mixing action of the high speed jet with the surrounding air.", "In the subsonic case the noise is produced by eddies and in the supersonic case by Mach waves.", "The sound power radiated from a jet varies with the jet velocity raised to the eighth power for velocities up to 2,000 ft/sec and varies with the velocity cubed above 2,000 ft/sec.", "Thus, the lower speed exhaust jets emitted from engines such as high bypass turbofans are the quietest, whereas the fastest jets, such as rockets, turbojets, and ramjets, are the loudest.", "For commercial jet aircraft the jet noise has reduced from the turbojet through bypass engines to turbofans as a result of a progressive reduction in propelling jet velocities.", "For example, the JT8D, a bypass engine, has a jet velocity of 1450 ft/sec whereas the JT9D, a turbofan, has jet velocities of 885 ft/sec (cold) and 1190 ft/sec (hot).The advent of the turbofan replaced the very distinctive jet noise with another sound known as \"buzz saw\" noise.", "The origin is the shockwaves originating at the supersonic fan blades at takeoff thrust.===Cooling===Adequate heat transfer away from the working parts of the jet engine is critical to maintaining strength of engine materials and ensuring long life for the engine.After 2016, research is ongoing in the development of transpiration cooling techniques to jet engine components." ], [ "Operation", "Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM) DisplayIn a jet engine, each major rotating section usually has a separate gauge devoted to monitoring its speed of rotation.", "Depending on the make and model, a jet engine may have an N gauge that monitors the low-pressure compressor section and/or fan speed in turbofan engines.", "The gas generator section may be monitored by an N gauge, while triple spool engines may have an N gauge as well.", "Each engine section rotates at many thousands RPM.", "Their gauges therefore are calibrated in percent of a nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation." ], [ "See also", "* Air turboramjet* Balancing machine* Components of jet engines* Rocket engine nozzle* Rocket turbine engine* Spacecraft propulsion* Thrust reversal* Turbojet development at the RAE* Variable cycle engine* Water injection (engine)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * " ], [ "External links", " * * Media about jet engines from Rolls-Royce* How Stuff Works article on how a Gas Turbine Engine works* Influence of the Jet Engine on the Aerospace Industry* ''An Overview of Military Jet Engine History'', Appendix B, pp.", "97–120, in ''Military Jet Engine Acquisition'' (Rand Corp., 24 pp, PDF)* Basic jet engine tutorial (QuickTime Video)* An article on how reaction engine works*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 16" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 622 – The Hijrah of Muhammad begins, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar.", "* 997 – Battle of Spercheios: Bulgarian forces of Tsar Samuel are defeated by a Byzantine army under general Nikephoros Ouranos at the Spercheios River in Greece.", "1054 – Three Roman legates break relations between Western and Eastern Christian Churches through the act of placing a Papal bull (of doubtful validity) of Excommunication on the altar of Hagia Sophia during Saturday afternoon divine liturgy.", "Historians frequently describe the event as the formal start of the East–West Schism.", "1212 – Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa: After Pope Innocent III calls European knights to a crusade, forces of Kings Alfonso VIII of Castile, Sancho VII of Navarre, Peter II of Aragon and Afonso II of Portugal defeat those of the Berber Muslim leader Almohad, thus marking a significant turning point in the ''Reconquista'' and in the medieval history of Spain.", "1228 – The canonization of Saint Francis of Assisi1232 – The Spanish town of Arjona declares independence and names its native Muhammad ibn Yusuf as ruler.", "This marks the Muhammad's first rise to prominence; he would later establish the Nasrid Emirate of Granada, the last independent Muslim state in Spain.", "1251 – Celebrated by the Carmelite Order–but doubted by modern historians–as the day when Saint Simon Stock had a vision of the Virgin Mary.", "1377 – King Richard II of England is crowned.", "1536 – Jacques Cartier, navigator and explorer, returns home to St. Malo after claiming Stadacona (Quebec), Hochelaga (Montereal) and the River of Canada (St. Lawrence River) region for France.===1601–1900===1661 – The first banknotes in Europe are issued by the Swedish bank Stockholms Banco.", "1683 – Manchu Qing dynasty naval forces under traitorous commander Shi Lang defeat the Kingdom of Tungning in the Battle of Penghu near the Pescadores Islands.", "1769 – Father Junípero Serra founds California's first mission, Mission San Diego de Alcalá.", "Over the following decades, it evolves into the city of San Diego, California.", "1779 – American Revolutionary War: Light infantry of the Continental Army seize a fortified British Army position in a midnight bayonet attack at the Battle of Stony Point.", "1790 – The District of Columbia is established as the capital of the United States after signature of the Residence Act.", "1809 – The city of La Paz, in what is today Bolivia, declares its independence from the Spanish Crown during the La Paz revolution and forms the Junta Tuitiva, the first independent government in Spanish America, led by Pedro Domingo Murillo.", "1849 – Antonio María Claret y Clará founds the Congregation of the Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, popularly known as the Claretians in Vic, in the province of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.", "1858 – The last apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary to Bernadette Soubirous in Lourdes, France.", "1861 – American Civil War: At the order of President Abraham Lincoln, Union troops begin a 25-mile march into Virginia for what will become the First Battle of Bull Run, the first major land battle of the war.", "1862 – American Civil War: David Farragut is promoted to rear admiral, becoming the first officer in United States Navy to hold an admiral rank.===1901–present===1909 – Persian Constitutional Revolution: Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar is forced out as Shah of Persia and is replaced by his son Ahmad Shah Qajar.", "1910 – John Robertson Duigan makes the first flight of the Duigan pusher biplane, the first aircraft built in Australia.", "1915 – Henry James becomes a British citizen to highlight his commitment to Britain during the first World War.", "* 1915 – At Treasure Island on the Delaware River in the United States, the First Order of the Arrow ceremony takes place and the Order of the Arrow is founded to honor American Boy Scouts who best exemplify the Scout Oath and Law.", "1927 – Augusto César Sandino leads a raid on U.S. Marines and Nicaraguan Guardia Nacional that had been sent to apprehend him in the village of Ocotal, but is repulsed by one of the first dive-bombing attacks in history.", "1931 – Emperor Haile Selassie signs the first constitution of Ethiopia.", "1935 – The world's first parking meter is installed in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.", "1941 – Joe DiMaggio hits safely for the 56th consecutive game, a streak that still stands as an MLB record.", "1942 – Holocaust: Vel' d'Hiv Roundup (''Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv''): The government of Vichy France orders the mass arrest of 13,152 Jews who are held at the Vélodrome d'Hiver in Paris before deportation to Auschwitz.", "1945 – Manhattan Project: The Atomic Age begins when the United States successfully detonates a plutonium-based test nuclear weapon near Alamogordo, New Mexico.", "* 1945 – World War II: The heavy cruiser leaves San Francisco with parts for the atomic bomb \"Little Boy\" bound for Tinian Island.", "1948 – Following token resistance, the city of Nazareth, revered by Christians as the hometown of Jesus, capitulates to Israeli troops during Operation Dekel in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", " 1948 – The storming of the cockpit of the ''Miss Macao'' passenger seaplane, operated by a subsidiary of the Cathay Pacific Airways, marks the first aircraft hijacking of a commercial plane.", "1950 – Chaplain–Medic massacre: American POWs are massacred by North Korean Army.", "1951 – King Leopold III of Belgium abdicates in favor of his son, Baudouin I of Belgium.", "* 1951 – J. D. Salinger publishes his popular yet controversial novel, ''The Catcher in the Rye''.", "1956 – Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus closes its last \"Big Tent\" show in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; due to changing economics, all subsequent circus shows will be held in arenas.", "1957 – KLM Flight 844 crashes off the Schouten Islands in present day Indonesia (then Netherlands New Guinea), killing 58 people.", "1965 – The Mont Blanc Tunnel linking France and Italy opens.", " 1965 – South Vietnamese Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo, a formerly undetected communist spy and double agent, is hunted down and killed by unknown individuals after being sentenced to death ''in absentia'' for a February 1965 coup attempt against Nguyễn Khánh.", "1969 – Apollo program: Apollo 11, the first mission to land astronauts on the Moon, is launched from the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Kennedy, Florida.", "1979 – Iraqi President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr resigns and is replaced by Saddam Hussein.", "1983 – Sikorsky S-61 disaster: A helicopter crashes off the Isles of Scilly, causing 20 fatalities.", "1990 – The Luzon earthquake strikes the Philippines with an intensity of 7.7, affecting Benguet, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, La Union, Aurora, Bataan, Zambales and Tarlac.", "* 1990 – The Parliament of the Ukrainian SSR declares state sovereignty over the territory of the Ukrainian SSR.", "1994 – The comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 is destroyed in a head-on collision with Jupiter.", "1999 – John F. Kennedy Jr., his wife, Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy, and her sister, Lauren Bessette, die when the aircraft he is piloting crashes into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Martha's Vineyard.", "2004 – Millennium Park, considered Chicago's first and most ambitious early 21st-century architectural project, is opened to the public by Mayor Richard M.", "Daley.", "2005 – An Antonov An-24 crashes near Baney in Bioko Norte, Equatorial Guinea, killing 60 people.", "2007 – An earthquake of magnitude 6.8 and 6.6 aftershock occurs off the Niigata coast of Japan killing eight people, injuring at least 800 and damaging a nuclear power plant.", "2009 – Teoh Beng Hock, an aide to a politician in Malaysia is found dead on the rooftop of a building adjacent to the offices of the Anti-Corruption Commission, sparking an inquest that gains nationwide attention.", "2013 – As many as 27 children die and 25 others are hospitalized after eating lunch served at their school in eastern India.", " 2013 – Syrian civil war: The Battle of Ras al-Ayn resumes between the People's Protection Units (YPG) and Islamist forces, beginning the Rojava–Islamist conflict.", "2015 – Four U.S. Marines and one gunman die in a shooting spree targeting military installations in Chattanooga, Tennessee.", "2019 – A 100-year-old building in Mumbai, India, collapses, killing at least 10 people and leaving many others trapped." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1194 – Clare of Assisi, Italian nun and saint (d. 1253)1486 – Andrea del Sarto, Italian painter (d. 1530)1517 – Frances Grey, Duchess of Suffolk, English duchess (d. 1559)1529 – Petrus Peckius the Elder, Dutch jurist, writer on international maritime law (d. 1589)===1601–1900===1611 – Cecilia Renata of Austria (d. 1644)1661 – Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, Canadian captain, explorer, and politician (d. 1706)1714 – Marc René, marquis de Montalembert, French engineer and author (d. 1800)1722 – Joseph Wilton, English sculptor and academic (d. 1803)1723 – Joshua Reynolds, English painter and academic (d. 1792)1731 – Samuel Huntington, American jurist and politician, 18th Governor of Connecticut (d. 1796)1749 – Cyrus Griffin, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 16th President of the Continental Congress (d. 1810)1796 – Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, French painter and etcher (d. 1875)1821 – Mary Baker Eddy, American religious leader and author, founded Christian Science (d. 1910)1841 – Nikolai von Glehn, Estonian-German architect and activist (d. 1923)1858 – Eugène Ysaÿe, Belgian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1931)1862 – Ida B.", "Wells, American journalist and activist (d. 1931)1863 – Anderson Dawson, Australian politician, 14th Premier of Queensland (d. 1910)1870 – Lambert McKenna, Irish priest, lexicographer, and scholar (d. 1956)1871 – John Maxwell, American golfer (d. 1906)1872 – Roald Amundsen, Norwegian pilot and explorer (d. 1928)* 1872 – Frank Cooper, Australian politician, 25th Premier of Queensland (d. 1949)1880 – Kathleen Norris, American journalist and author (d. 1966)1882 – Violette Neatley Anderson, American judge (d. 1937)1883 – Charles Sheeler, American photographer and painter (d. 1965)1884 – Anna Vyrubova, Russian author (d. 1964)1887 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player and manager (d. 1951)1888 – Percy Kilbride, American actor (d. 1964)* 1888 – Frits Zernike, Dutch physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1966)1889 – Arthur Bowie Chrisman, American author (d. 1953)1895 – Wilfrid Hamel, Canadian businessman and politician, 35th Mayor of Quebec City (d. 1968)1896 – Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, German biologist and eugenicist (d. 1969) 1896 – Trygve Lie, Norwegian trade union leader and politician, 1st Secretary-General of the United Nations (d. 1968)1898 – Lady Eve Balfour, British farmer, educator, and founding figure in the organic movement (d. 1990)===1901–present===1902 – Alexander Luria, Russian psychologist and physician (d. 1977)* 1902 – Mary Philbin, American actress (d. 1993)1903 – Fritz Bauer, German lawyer and judge (d. 1968) 1903 – Carmen Lombardo, Canadian singer-songwriter (d. 1971)* 1903 – Irmgard Flügge-Lotz, German mathematician and engineer (d. 1974)1904 – Goffredo Petrassi, Italian composer and conductor (d. 2003)1906 – Vincent Sherman, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2006)1907 – Frances Horwich, American educator and television host (d. 2001) 1907 – Orville Redenbacher, American farmer and businessman, founded Orville Redenbacher's (d. 1995)* 1907 – Barbara Stanwyck, American actress (d. 1990)1910 – Stan McCabe, Australian cricketer (d. 1968) 1910 – Gordon Prange, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1980)1911 – Ginger Rogers, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1995) 1911 – Sonny Tufts, American actor (d. 1970)1912 – Milt Bocek, American baseball player (d. 2007) 1912 – Amy Patterson, Argentine composer, singer, poet, and teacher (d. 2019) 1915 – Barnard Hughes, American actor (d. 2006) 1915 – Elaine Barrie, American actress (d. 2003)1918 – Denis Edward Arnold, English soldier (d. 2015) 1918 – Paul Farnes, British Royal Air Force (RAF) fighter pilot (d. 2020)* 1918 – Samuel Victor Perry, English biochemist and rugby player (d. 2009)1919 – Hermine Braunsteiner, Austrian SS officer (d. 1999) 1919 – Choi Kyu-hah, South Korean politician, 4th President of South Korea (d. 2006)1920 – Anatole Broyard, American critic and editor (d. 1990)1923 – Chris Argyris, American psychologist, theorist, and academic (d. 2013)* 1923 – Bola Sete, Brazilian guitarist (d. 1987)1924 – James L. Greenfield, American journalist and politician 1924 – Bess Myerson, American model, actress, game show panelist, and politician, Miss America 1945 (d. 2014)* 1924 – Rupert Deese, Northern Mariana Islander ceramic artist (d. 2010)1925 – Frank Jobe, American sergeant and surgeon (d. 2014) 1925 – Rosita Quintana, Argentine actress (d. 2021)* 1925 – Cal Tjader, American jazz musician (d. 1982)1926 – Ivica Horvat, Croatian footballer and manager (d. 2012) 1926 – Irwin Rose, American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)1927 – Pierre F. Côté, Canadian lawyer and civil servant (d. 2013) 1927 – Shirley Hughes, English author and illustrator (d. 2022)* 1927 – Derek Hawksworth, English footballer (d. 2021)1928 – Anita Brookner, English novelist and art historian (d. 2016) 1928 – Bella Davidovich, Soviet-American pianist* 1928 – Robert Sheckley, American author and screenwriter (d. 2005)* 1928 – Jim Rathmann, American race car driver (d. 2011)* 1928 – Dave Treen, American lawyer and politician, 51st Governor of Louisiana (d. 2009)* 1928 – Andrzej Zawada, Polish mountaineer and author (d. 2000)1929 – Charles Ray Hatcher, American serial killer (d. 1984) 1929 – Sheri S. Tepper, American author and poet (d. 2016)* 1929 – Gaby Tanguy, French swimmer (d. 1981)1930 – Guy Béart, Egyptian-French singer-songwriter (d. 2015) 1930 – Michael Bilirakis, American lawyer and politician* 1930 – Bert Rechichar, American football defensive back and kicker (d. 2019)1931 – Fergus Gordon Kerr, Scottish Roman Catholic priest of the English Dominican Province 1931 – Norm Sherry, American baseball player, manager, and coach (d. 2021)1932 – John Chilton, English trumpet player and composer (d. 2016) 1932 – Max McGee, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2007)* 1932 – Dick Thornburgh, American lawyer and politician, 76th United States Attorney General (d. 2020)1933 – Julian A. Brodsky, American businessman1934 – Denise LaSalle, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2018)* 1934 – Tomás Eloy Martínez, Argentine journalist (d. 2010)* 1934 – Katherine D. Ortega, 38th Treasurer of the United States* 1934 – Donald M. Payne, American educator and politician (d. 2012)1935 – Carl Epting Mundy Jr., American general (d. 2014) 1935 – Lynn Wyatt, American socialite and philanthropist1936 – Yasuo Fukuda, Japanese politician, 91st Prime Minister of Japan 1936 – Buddy Merrill, American guitarist (d. 2021)* 1936 – Jerry Norman, American sinologist and linguist (d. 2012)* 1936 – Venkataraman Subramanya, Indian-Australian cricketer1937 – Richard Bryan, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of Nevada 1937 – John Daly, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)1938 – Cynthia Enloe, American author and academic 1938 – Tony Jackson, English singer and bass player (d. 2003)1939 – William Bell, American singer-songwriter 1939 – Ali Khamenei, Iranian cleric and politician, 2nd Supreme Leader of Iran* 1939 – Lido Vieri, Italian football manager and football player* 1939 – Ruth Perry, president of Liberia (d. 2017)* 1939 – Shringar Nagaraj, Indian actor and producer (d. 2013)* 1939 – Corin Redgrave, English actor and activist (d. 2010)* 1939 – Mariele Ventre, Italian singer and conductor (d. 1995)1941 – Desmond Dekker, Jamaican singer-songwriter (d. 2006) 1941 – Dag Solstad, Norwegian author and playwright* 1941 – Hans Wiegel, Dutch journalist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands* 1941 – Sir George Young, 6th Baronet, English banker and politician, Secretary of State for Transport1942 – Margaret Court, Australian tennis player and minister1943 – Reinaldo Arenas, Cuban-American author, poet, and playwright (d. 1990)* 1943 – Vernon Bogdanor, English political scientist and academic* 1943 – Jimmy Johnson, American football player and coach1944 – Angharad Rees, English-Welsh actress and jewellery designer (d. 2012)1946 – Louise Fréchette, Canadian civil servant and diplomat, Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations1947 – Don Burke, Australian television host and producer 1947 – Alexis Herman, American businesswoman and politician, 23rd United States Secretary of Labor* 1947 – Assata Shakur, American-Cuban criminal and activist1948 – Rubén Blades, Panamanian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1948 – Lars Lagerbäck, Swedish footballer and manager* 1948 – Kevin McKenzie, South African cricketer* 1948 – Pinchas Zukerman, Israeli violinist and conductor1950 – Pierre Paradis, Canadian lawyer and politician 1950 – Dennis Priestley, English darts player* 1950 – Frances Spalding, English historian and academic* 1950 – Tom Terrell, American journalist and photographer (d. 2007)1951 – Jean-Luc Mongrain, Canadian journalist 1951 – Che Rosli, Malaysian politician1952 – Stewart Copeland, American drummer and songwriter 1952 – Marc Esposito, French director and screenwriter* 1952 – Ken McEwan, South African cricketer1953 – Douglas J. Feith, American lawyer and politician, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy1955 – Susan Wheeler, American poet and academic* 1955 – Saw Swee Leong, Malaysian badminton player1956 – Tony Kushner, American playwright and screenwriter1957 – Faye Grant, American actress* 1957 – Alexandra Marinina, Ukrainian-Russian colonel and author1958 – Mick Cornett, American politician 1958 – Michael Flatley, American-Irish dancer and choreographer1959 – Gary Anderson, South African-American football player 1959 – James MacMillan, Scottish composer and conductor* 1959 – Jürgen Ligi, Estonian economist and politician, 25th Estonian Minister of Defence1960 – Terry Pendleton, American baseball player and coach1962 – Grigory Leps, Russian singer-songwriter1963 – Phoebe Cates, American actress 1963 – Srečko Katanec, Slovenian footballer and coach* 1963 – Mikael Pernfors, Swedish tennis player1964 – Phil Hellmuth, American poker player 1964 – Miguel Induráin, Spanish cyclist1965 – Michel Desjoyeaux, French sailor 1965 – Claude Lemieux, Canadian ice hockey player1966 – Jyrki Lumme, Finnish ice hockey player1967 – Will Ferrell, American actor, comedian, and producer1968 – Dhanraj Pillay, Indian field hockey player and manager 1968 – Barry Sanders, American football player* 1968 – Larry Sanger, American philosopher and businessman, co-founded Wikipedia and Citizendium* 1968 – Michael Searle, Australian rugby league player and businessman* 1968 – Robert Sherman, American songwriter and businessman* 1968 – Olga Souza, Brazilian singer and dancer1969 – Kathryn Harby-Williams, Australian netball player and sportscaster1970 – Raimonds Miglinieks, Latvian basketball player and coach* 1970 – Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Thai director, producer, and screenwriter1971 – Corey Feldman, American actor 1971 – Ed Kowalczyk, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1972 – Ben Cahoon, American-Canadian football player and coach 1972 – François Drolet, Canadian speed skater1973 – Shaun Pollock, South African cricketer 1973 – Graham Robertson, American director and producer* 1973 – Tim Ryan, American politician1974 – Maret Maripuu, Estonian politician, Estonian Minister of Social Affairs 1974 – Wendell Sailor, Australian rugby player1976 – Tomasz Kuchar, Polish racing driver 1976 – Bobby Lashley, American professional wrestler and mixed martial artist* 1976 – Carlos Humberto Paredes, Paraguayan footballer* 1976 – Anna Smashnova, Belarusian-Israeli tennis player1977 – Bryan Budd, Northern Ireland-born English soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 2006)1979 – Jayma Mays, American actress* 1979 – Chris Mihm, American basketball player* 1979 – Kim Rhode, American sport shooter* 1979 – Nathan Rogers, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1979 – Konstantin Skrylnikov, Russian footballer1980 – Adam Scott, Australian golfer1981 – Giuseppe Di Masi, Italian footballer* 1981 – Robert Kranjec, Slovenian ski jumper* 1981 – Zach Randolph, American basketball player* 1981 – Vicente Rodríguez, Spanish footballer1982 – André Greipel, German cyclist 1982 – Carli Lloyd, American soccer player* 1982 – Michael Umaña, Costa Rican footballer1983 – Katrina Kaif, British Indian actress and model 1983 – Duncan Keith, Canadian ice hockey player1984 – Hayanari Shimoda, Japanese racing driver 1984 – Attila Szabó, Hungarian decathlete1985 – Mārtiņš Kravčenko, Latvian basketball player1986 – Misako Uno, Japanese actress, singer, and fashion designer 1987 – Mousa Dembélé, Belgian footballer 1987 – AnnaLynne McCord, American actress and producer* 1987 – Knowshon Moreno, American football player1988 – Sergio Busquets, Spanish footballer1989 – Gareth Bale, Welsh footballer1990 – Bureta Faraimo, New Zealand rugby league player 1990 – Wizkid, Nigerian singer and songwriter* 1990 – Johann Zarco, French motorcycle racer1991 – Dylan Grimes, Australian Rules footballer 1991 – Nate Schmidt, American ice hockey player* 1991 – Andros Townsend, English footballer1996 – Luke Hemmings, Australian singer and musician 1996 – Daniel Pearson, English actor and presenter" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 784 – Fulrad, Frankish diplomat and saint (b.", "710)* 851 – Sisenandus, Cordoban deacon and martyr (b. c. 825)* 866 – Irmgard, Frankish abbess1212 – William de Brus, 3rd Lord of Annandale1216 – Pope Innocent III (b.", "1160)1324 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (b.", "1267)1342 – Charles I of Hungary (b.", "1288)1344 – An-Nasir Ahmad, Sultan of Egypt (b.", "1316)1509 – João da Nova, Portuguese explorer (b.", "1460)1546 – Anne Askew, English author and poet (b.", "1520)1557 – Anne of Cleves, Queen consort of England (b.", "1515)1576 – Isabella de' Medici, Italian noble (b.", "1542)===1601–1900===1647 – Masaniello, Italian rebel (b.", "1622)1664 – Andreas Gryphius, German poet and playwright (b.", "1616)1686 – John Pearson, English bishop and scholar (b.", "1612)1691 – François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, French politician, French Secretary of State for War (b.", "1641)1729 – Johann David Heinichen, German composer and theorist (b.", "1683)1747 – Giuseppe Crespi, Italian painter (b.", "1665)1770 – Francis Cotes, English painter and academic (b.", "1726)1796 – George Howard, English field marshal and politician (b.", "1718)1831 – Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron, French-Russian general (b.", "1763)1849 – Sarah Allen, African-American missionary for the African Methodist Episcopal Church (b.", "1764)1868 – Dmitry Pisarev, Russian author and critic (b.", "1840)1879 – Edward Deas Thomson, Scottish-Australian politician, 3rd Chief Secretary of New South Wales (b.", "1800)1882 – Mary Todd Lincoln, First Lady of the United States 1861–1865 (b.", "1818)1885 – Rosalía de Castro, Spanish poet (b.", "1837)1886 – Ned Buntline, American journalist and author (b.", "1823)1896 – Edmond de Goncourt, French critic and publisher, founded Académie Goncourt (b.", "1822)===1901–present===1915 – Ellen G. White, American theologian and author (b.", "1827)1917 – Philipp Scharwenka, German composer and educator (b.", "1847)1935 – Zheng Zhengqiu, Chinese filmmaker (b.", "1889)1939 – Bartholomeus Roodenburch, Dutch swimmer (b.", "1866)1943 – Saul Raphael Landau, Polish Jewish lawyer, journalist, publicist and Zionist activist (b.", "1870)1949 – Vyacheslav Ivanov, Russian poet and playwright (b.", "1866)1953 – Hilaire Belloc, French-born British writer and historian (b.", "1870)1954 – Herms Niel, German soldier, trombonist, and composer (b.", "1888)1960 – Albert Kesselring, German field marshal (b.", "1881)* 1960 – John P. Marquand, American author (b.", "1893)1964 – Rauf Orbay, Turkish colonel and politician, Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1881)1965 – Boris Artzybasheff, Ukrainian-American illustrator (b.", "1899)1969 – James Scott Douglas, English-born Scottish race car driver and 6th Baronet Douglas (b.", "1930)1981 – Harry Chapin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1942)1982 – Charles Robberts Swart, South African lawyer and politician, 1st State President of South Africa (b.", "1894)1985 – Heinrich Böll, German novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1917)* 1985 – Wayne King, American saxophonist, songwriter, and bandleader (b.", "1901)1989 – Herbert von Karajan, Austrian conductor and manager (b.", "1908)1990 – Robert Blackburn, Irish educator (b.", "1927)* 1990 – Miguel Muñoz, Spanish footballer and manager (b.", "1922)1991 – Meindert DeJong, Dutch-American soldier and author (b.", "1906) 1991 – Robert Motherwell, American painter and academic (b.", "1915)* 1991 – Frank Rizzo, American police officer and politician, 93rd Mayor of Philadelphia (b.", "1920)1992 – Buck Buchanan, American football player and coach (b.", "1940)1994 – Julian Schwinger, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)1995 – May Sarton, American playwright and novelist (b.", "1912) 1995 – Stephen Spender, English author and poet (b.", "1909)1996 – Adolf von Thadden, German lieutenant and politician (b.", "1921)1998 – John Henrik Clarke, American historian and scholar (b.", "1915)1999 – John F. Kennedy Jr., American lawyer and publisher (b.", "1960) 1999 – Alan Macnaughton, Canadian lawyer and politician, Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons (b.", "1903)2001 – Morris, Belgian cartoonist (b.", "1923)2002 – John Cocke, American computer scientist and engineer (b.", "1925)2003 – Celia Cruz, Cuban-American singer and actress (b.", "1925) 2003 – Carol Shields, American-Canadian novelist and short story writer (b.", "1935)2004 – George Busbee, American lawyer and politician, 77th Governor of Georgia (b.", "1927) 2004 – Charles Sweeney, American general and pilot (b.", "1919)2005 – Pietro Consagra, Italian sculptor (b.", "1920) 2005 – Camillo Felgen, Luxembourgian singer-songwriter and radio host (b.", "1920)2006 – Winthrop Paul Rockefeller, American businessman and politician, 13th Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas (b.", "1948)2007 – Caterina Bueno, Italian singer and historian (b.", "1943)2008 – Jo Stafford, American singer (b.", "1917) 2008 – Lindsay Thompson, Australian politician, 40th Premier of Victoria (b.", "1923)2011 – Forrest Blue, American football player (b.", "1944)2012 – William Asher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Stephen Covey, American businessman and author (b.", "1932)* 2012 – Gilbert Esau, American businessman and politician (b.", "1919)* 2012 – Ed Lincoln, Brazilian bassist, pianist, and composer (b.", "1932)* 2012 – Masaharu Matsushita, Japanese businessman (b.", "1913)* 2012 – Kitty Wells, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1919)2013 – Talia Castellano, American internet celebrity (b.", "1999) 2013 – Alex Colville, Canadian painter and academic (b.", "1920)* 2013 – Marv Rotblatt, American baseball player (b.", "1927)2014 – Karl Albrecht, German businessman, co-founded Aldi (b.", "1920) 2014 – Mary Ellen Otremba, American educator and politician (b.", "1950)* 2014 – Johnny Winter, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Heinz Zemanek, Austrian computer scientist and academic (b.", "1920)2015 – Denis Avey, English soldier, engineer, and author (b.", "1919) 2015 – Evelyn Ebsworth, English chemist and academic (b.", "1933)* 2015 – Alcides Ghiggia, Uruguayan footballer and manager (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Jack Goody, English anthropologist, author, and academic (b.", "1919)2017 – George Romero, American filmmaker (b.", "1940)2019 – John Paul Stevens, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (b.", "1920)2020 – Tony Taylor, Cuban baseball player (b.", "1935)2021 – Biz Markie, American rapper (b.", "1964)2023 – Kevin Mitnick, American hacker (b.", "1963)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", " Christian feast day: Gondulphus of Tongeren Helier Our Lady of Mount CarmelFiesta de La Tirana (Tarapacá Region, Chile) * Reineldis** July 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Engineer's Day (Honduras)Holocaust Memorial Day (France)Guinea Pig Appreciation Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jack L. Chalker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jack Laurence Chalker''' (December 17, 1944 – February 11, 2005) was an American science fiction author.", "Chalker was also a Baltimore City Schools history teacher in Maryland for 12 years, retiring during 1978 to write full-time.", "He also was a member of the Washington Science Fiction Association and was involved in the founding of the Baltimore Science Fiction Society." ], [ "Career and family life", "Chalker was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland.", "Some of his books said that he was born in Norfolk, Virginia although he later claimed that was a mistake; he attended high school at the Baltimore City College.", "Chalker earned a BA degree in English from Towson University in Towson, Maryland, where he was a theater critic for the school newspaper, The Towerlight.", "During 2003, Towson University named Chalker their Liberal Arts Alumnus of the Year.", "He received a Master of Arts in Liberal Studies from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.Chalker intended to become a lawyer, but financial problems caused him to become a teacher instead.", "He taught history and geography in the Baltimore City Public Schools from 1966 to 1978, most notably at Baltimore City College and the now defunct Southwest Senior High School.", "Chalker lectured on science fiction and technology at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, and numerous universities.Chalker was a member of the Maryland Air National Guard's 135th Special Operations Group, where he was a member of the group information office.", "He was deployed into Baltimore during the Baltimore riot of 1968.Chalker was married in 1978 and had two children, David, a game designer, and Samantha, a computer security consultant.Chalker's hobbies included esoteric audio, travel, and working on science-fiction convention committees.", "He also had a great interest in ferryboats; at his fiancée's suggestion, their marriage was performed on the Roaring Bull boat, part of the Millersburg Ferry, in the middle of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania." ], [ "Science fiction", "Chalker joined the Washington Science Fiction Association during 1958, and during 1963 he and two friends founded the Baltimore Science Fiction Society.", "Chalker attended every World Science Fiction Convention, except one, from 1965 until 2004.He published an amateur SF journal, ''Mirage'', from 1960 to 1971 (a finalist nominee for the 1963 Hugo Award for Best Fanzine), producing ten issues.", "Another journal, ''Interjection'', was published 1968–1987 in association with the Fantasy Amateur Press Association.", "Chalker also initiated a publishing house, Mirage Press, Ltd., for releasing nonfiction and bibliographic works concerning science fiction and fantasy.Chalker's awards included the Daedalus Award (1983), The Gold Medal of the West Coast Review of Books (1984), Skylark Award (1980), and the Hamilton-Brackett Memorial Award (1979).", "He was twice a nominee for the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer and for the Hugo Award twice.", "Chalker was posthumously awarded the Phoenix Award by the Southern Fandom Confederation on April 9, 2005.Chalker was a three-term treasurer of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America.", "Chalker was also the co-author (with Mark Owings) of ''The Science Fantasy Publishers'' (third edition during 1991, updated annually), published by Mirage Press, Ltd, a bibliographic guide to genre small press publishers which was a Hugo Award nominee during 1992.The Maryland Young Writers Contest, sponsored by the Baltimore Science Fiction Society, was renamed \"'The Jack L. Chalker Young Writers Contest\" effective April 8, 2006.===Novels===Chalker is best known for his ''Well World'' series of novels, but he also wrote many other novels (most, but not all, part of a series, or large novels which were split into 'series' by the publishers), and at least nine short stories.Many of Chalker's works involve some physical transformation of the main characters.", "For instance, in the ''Well World'' novels, immigrants to the Well World are transformed from their original form to become a member of one of the 1,560 sentient species that inhabit that artificial planet.", "Another example would be that the ''Wonderland Gambit'' series resembles traditional Buddhist jataka-type reincarnation stories set in a science fiction environment.", "Samantha Chalker announced that ''Wonderland Gambit'' might be made into a movie, but supposedly its close resemblance to ''The Matrix'' resulted in the project being canceled.At the time of his death, Chalker left one unfinished novel, ''Chameleon''.", "He was planning to write another novel, ''Ripsaw'', after ''Chameleon''." ], [ "Illness and death", "On September 18, 2003, during Hurricane Isabel, Chalker passed out and was taken to a hospital where he was diagnosed with a coronary occlusion.", "He was later released, but was severely weakened.", "On December 6, 2004, he was again taken to hospital with breathing problems and disorientation, and was diagnosed with congestive heart failure and a pneumothorax.", "Chalker was hospitalized in critical condition, then upgraded to stable condition on December 9, although he did not regain consciousness until December 15.After several more weeks in deteriorating condition and in a persistent vegetative state, with several transfers to different hospitals, Chalker died on February 11, 2005, of kidney failure and sepsis at Bon Secours Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland.Some of Chalker's remains are interred in the family plot at Loudon Park Cemetery in Baltimore.", "The remainder were distributed off the ferry between Hainan Island and the Chinese mainland, a ferry in Vietnam, White's Ferry on the Potomac River in Virginia on Father's Day 2007, and on author H. P. Lovecraft's grave in Providence, Rhode Island on December 17, 2005." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "See also", "* :Category:Novels by Jack L. Chalker" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Jack L. Chalker Young Writers' Contest* Jack L. Chalker at ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Blish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Benjamin Blish''' () was an American science fiction and fantasy writer.", "He is best known for his ''Cities in Flight'' novels and his series of ''Star Trek'' novelizations written with his wife, J.", "A. Lawrence.", "His novel ''A Case of Conscience'' won the Hugo Award.", "He is credited with creating the term \"gas giant\" to refer to large planetary bodies.His first published stories appeared in ''Super Science Stories'' and ''Amazing Stories''.Blish wrote literary criticism of science fiction using the pen name '''William Atheling Jr.''' His other pen names included '''Donald Laverty''', '''John MacDougal''', and '''Arthur Lloyd Merlyn'''." ], [ "Life", "Blish was born on May 23, 1921, at East Orange, New Jersey.", "While in high school, Blish self-published a fanzine, called ''The Planeteer'', using a hectograph.", "The fanzine ran for six issues.", "Blish was a member of the Futurians.Blish attended meetings of the Futurian Science Fiction Society in New York City during this period.Futurian members Damon Knight and Cyril M. Kornbluth became close friends.", "However, Blish's relationships with other members were often bitter.", "A personal target was fellow member Judith Merril, with whom he would debate politics.", "Merril would frequently dismiss Blish's self-description of being a \"paper fascist\".", "She wrote in ''Better to Have Loved'' (2002), \"Of course Blish was not fascist, antisemitic, or any of those terrible things, but every time he used the phrase, I saw red.", "\"James Blish's grave marker.Blish studied microbiology at Rutgers University, graduating in 1942.He was drafted into Army service, and he served briefly as a medical laboratory technician.", "The United States Army discharged him for refusing orders to clean a grease trap in 1944.Following discharge, Blish entered Columbia University as a masters student of zoology.", "He did not complete the program, opting to write fiction full-time.In 1947, he married Virginia Kidd, a fellow Futurian.", "They divorced in 1963.Blish then married artist J.", "A. Lawrence in 1964, moving to England that same year.From 1962 to 1968, Blish worked for the Tobacco Institute as a writer and critic.", "Much of his work for the institute went uncredited.Blish died on July 30, 1975, from complications related to lung cancer.", "He was buried in Holywell Cemetery, Oxford.", "The Bodleian Library at Oxford is the custodian of Blish's papers.", "The library also has a complete catalog of Blish's published works.Blish's ''The Warriors of Day'' was originally published in ''Two Complete Science-Adventure Books'' in 1951 as \"Sword of Xota\"" ], [ "Career", "Throughout the 1940s, Blish published most of his stories in the few pulp magazines still in circulation.", "His first story was sold to fellow Futurian Frederik Pohl for ''Super Science Stories'' (1940), called \"Emergency Refueling\".", "Other stories were published intermittently, but with little circulation.", "Blish's \"Chaos, Co-Ordinated\", co-written with Robert A. W. Lowndes, was sold to ''Astounding Science Fiction'', appearing in the October 1946 issue, earning Blish national circulation for the first time.=== Pantropy (1942–1956) ===Blish was what Andrew Litpack called a \"practical writer\".", "He would revisit, revise, and often expand on previously written stories.", "An example is \"Sunken Universe\" published in ''Super Science Stories'' in 1942.The story reappeared in ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' as \"Surface Tension\", in an altered form in 1952.The premise emphasized Blish's understanding of microbiology, and featured microscopic humans engineered to live on a hostile planet's shallow pools of water.", "The story proved to be among Blish's more popular and was anthologized in the first volume of Robert Silverberg ''The Science Fiction Hall of Fame''.", "It was also anthologized in ''The Big Book of Science Fiction'' (2016), edited by Ann and Jeff VanderMeer.The world of microscopic humans continued in \"The Thing in the Attic\" in 1954, and \"Watershed\" the following year.", "The fourth entry, \"A Time to Survive\", was published by ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'' in 1957.The stories were collected, edited together, and published as the fix-up ''The Seedling Stars'' (1956), by Gnome Press.", "John Clute said all of Blish's \"deeply felt work\" explored \"confronting the Faustian (or Frankensteinian) man\".=== ''Cities in Flight'' (1950–1958) ===''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'' asserts that not until the 1950s, and the Okie sequence of stories beginning their run, \"did it become clear Blish would become a science fiction writer of unusual depth\".", "The stories were loosely based on the Okie migration following the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, and were influenced by Oswald Spengler's two-part ''Der Untergang des Abendlandes'' (''The Decline of the West'')''.", "''The stories detail the life of the Okies, humans who migrate throughout space looking for work in vast city-ships, powered by spindizzies, a type of anti-gravity engine.", "The premise and plot reflected Blish's feelings on the state of western civilization, and his personal politics.", "The first two stories, \"Okie\", and \"Bindlestiff\", were published in 1950, by ''Astounding''.", "\"Sargasso of Lost Cities\" appeared in ''Two Complete Science-Adventure Books'' in April 1953.", "\"Earthman, Come Home\" followed a few months later, published by ''Astounding''.", "In 1955, Blish collected the four stories together into an omnibus titled ''Earthman, Come Home'', published by Putnam.More stories followed: In 1956, ''They Shall Have Stars'', which edited together \"Bridge\" and \"At Death’s End\", and in 1958, Blish published ''The Triumph of Time''.", "Four years later, he published a new Okies novel, ''A Life for the Stars''.", "The Okies sequence was edited together and published as ''Cities In Flight'' (1970).Clute notes, \"the brilliance of ''Cities in Flight'' does not lie in the assemblage of its parts, but in the momentum of the ideas embodied in it (albeit sometimes obscurely).", "\"The novella ''Sargasso of Lost Cities'', Blish's third ''Cities in Flight'' story, was published in ''Two Complete Science-Adventure Books'' in 1953.=== ''After Such Knowledge'' (1958–1971) ===Blish continued to rework older stories, and did so for one of his best known works, ''A Case of Conscience'' (1958).", "The novel originated as a novella, originally published in an issue of ''If'', in 1953.The story follows a Jesuit priest, Ramon Ruiz-Sanchez, who visits the planet Lithia as a technical member of an expedition.", "While on the planet they discover a race of bipedal reptilians that have perfected morality in what Ruiz-Sanchez says is \"the absence of God\", and theological complications ensue.", "The book is one of the first major works in the genre to explore religion and its implications.", "It was the first of a series including ''Doctor Mirabilis'' (1964) and the two-part story ''Black Easter'' (1968) and ''The Day After Judgment'' (1971).", "The latter two were collected as ''The Devil's Day'' (1980).", "An omnibus of all four entries in the series was published by Legend in 1991, titled ''After Such Knowledge''.", "''A Case of Conscience'' won the 1959 Hugo Award for Best Novel, and was collected as part of Library of America’s omnibus ''American Science Fiction: Five Classic Novels 1956-1958''.=== ''Star Trek'' (1967–1977) ===Bantam Books commissioned Blish to adapt episodes of ''Star Trek''.", "The adapted short stories were generally based on draft scripts and contained different plot elements from the aired television episodes.The stories were collected into twelve volumes and published as a title series of the same name from 1967 to 1977.The adaptations were largely written by Blish; however, his declining health during this period proved problematic.", "His wife, J.", "A. Lawrence, wrote a number of installments.", "Her work remained uncredited until the final volume, ''Star Trek 12'', published in 1977, two years after Blish's death.The first original novel for adults based on the television series, ''Spock Must Die!''", "(1970), was also written by Blish, and he planned to release more.", "According to Lawrence, two episodes featuring popular character Harry Mudd, \"I, Mudd\" and \"Mudd's Women\", were held back by Blish for adaptation to be included in the follow-up to ''Spock Must Die!''.", "However, Blish died before a novel could be completed.", "Lawrence did eventually adapt the two episodes, as ''Mudd's Angels'' (1978), which included an original novella ''The Business, as Usual, During Altercations'' by Lawrence.", "In her introduction to ''Star Trek 12'', Lawrence states that Blish \"did indeed write\" adaptations of the two episodes.", "The introduction to ''Mudd's Angels'' acknowledges this, stating that Blish left the two stories in various stages of completion and they were finished by Lawrence; Blish does not receive author credit on the book.Blish credited his financial stability later in life to the ''Star Trek'' commission and the advance he received for ''Spock Must Die!", "''." ], [ "Literary criticism and legacy", "Blish was among the first literary critics of science fiction, and he judged works in the genre by the standards applied to \"serious\" literature.", "He took to task his fellow authors for deficiencies, such as bad grammar and a misunderstanding of scientific concepts, and the magazine editors who accepted and published such material without editorial intervention.", "His critism was published in \"fanzines\" in the 1950s under the pseudonym William Atheling Jr.The essays were collected in ''The Issue at Hand'' (1964) and ''More Issues at Hand'' (1970).", "Reviewing ''The Issue at Hand'', Algis Budrys said that Atheling had, along with Damon Knight, \"transformed the reviewer's trade in this field\".", "He described the persona of Atheling as \"acidulous, assertive, categorical, conscientious and occasionally idiosyncratic\".Blish was a fan of the works of James Branch Cabell, and for a time edited ''Kalki'', the journal of the Cabell Society.In his works of science fiction, Blish developed many ideas and terms which have influenced other writers and on occasion have been adopted more widely, such as faster than light communication via the Dirac communicator, introduced in the short story \"Beep\" (1954).", "The Dirac is comparable to Ursula K. Le Guin's ansible.Blish is also credited with coining the term gas giant, first used in the story \"Solar Plexus\", collected in the anthology ''Beyond Human Ken'', edited by Judith Merril.", "The story was originally published in 1941, but did not contain the term.", "Blish reworked the story, changing the description of a large magnetic field to \"a magnetic field of some strength nearby, one that didn't belong to the invisible ''gas giant'' revolving half a million miles away\"." ], [ "Honors, awards and recognition", "The British Science Fiction Foundation inaugurated the James Blish Award for science fiction criticism in 1977, recognizing Brian W. Aldiss.", "The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2002.=== Awards and nominations ===* 1959 Hugo Award for Best Novel, for ''A Case of Conscience.", "''* 1965 Nebula Award nomination for Best Novelette, for \"The Shipwrecked Hotel\", with Norman L.", "Knight.", "* 1968 Nebula Award nomination for Best Novel, for ''Black Easter''.", "* 1970 Hugo Award nomination for Best Novella, for ''We All Die Naked''.", "* 1970 Nebula Award nomination for Best Novella, for ''A Style in Treason''.=== Posthumous Awards and nominations ===* 2001 1951 Retro-Hugo Award nomination for Best Novelette, for \"Okie\".", "* 2004 1954 Retro-Hugo Award for Best Novella, for ''A Case of Conscience''.", "* 2004 1954 Retro-Hugo Award for Best Novelette, for \"Earthman, Come Home\".=== Guest of Honor ===* 1960 Guest of Honor, 18th World Science Fiction Convention.", "* 1970 Guest of Honor, Scicon 70." ], [ "Bibliography", "Blish's work was published by a variety of publishers in the United Kingdom and the United States, often with variations between editions, and with different titles.", "Blish also expanded and re-published his older work on numerous occasions.", "His works continued to be re-published after his death.Very few of Blish's first editions were assigned ISBN numbers.=== Short fiction and novellas (1935–1986) ===Novels published in complete form, or serialized, in fiction magazines are included for completeness, and to avoid confusion.", "Novelette, Novella, Novel.==== ''The Planeteer'' (1935–1936) ====* \"Neptunian Refuge\" (November 1935)* \"Mad Vision\" (December 1935)* \"Pursuit into Nowhere\" (January 1936)* \"Threat from Copernicus\" (February 1936)* \"Trail of the Comet\" (March 1936)* \"Bat-Shadow Shroud\" (April 1936)==== ''Super Science Stories'' (1940) ====* \"Emergency Refueling\" (March 1940)* \"Bequest of the Angel\" (May 1940)* \"Sunken Universe\" (May 1942), rewritten as \"Surface Tension\" (1952)==== ''Stirring Science Stories'' (1941) ====* \"Citadel of Thought\" (February 1941)* \"Callistan Cabal\" (April 1941)==== ''Science Fiction Quarterly'' (1941) ====* \"Weapon Out of Time\" (April 1941)* \"When Anteros Came\" (December 1941)==== ''Cosmic Stories'' (1941) ====* \"Phoenix Planet\" (May 1941)* \"The Real Thrill\" (July 1941)==== ''Future'' (1941–1953) ====* \"The Topaz Gate\" (August 1941)* \"The Solar Comedy\" (June 1942)* \"The Air Whale\" (August 1942)* \"Struggle in the Womb\" (May 1950)* \"The Secret People\" (November 1950)* \"Elixir\" (September 1951)* \"Testament of Andros\" (January 1953)==== ''Astonishing Stories'' (1941) ====* \"Solar Plexus\" (September 1941)==== ''Super Science and Fantastic Stories'' (1944) ====* \"The Bounding Crown\" (December 1944)==== ''ScienceFiction'' (1946) ==== \"Knell\", as by Arthur Lloyd Merlyn (January 1946)==== ''Astounding Science Fiction'' (1946–1957) ====* \"Chaos, Co-Ordinated\" as by John MacDougal, with Robert A. W. Lowndes (October 1946)* \"Tiger Ride\" with Damon Knight (October 1948)* \"Okie\" (April 1950)* \"Bindlestiff\" (December 1950)* \"Bridge\" (February 1952)* \"Earthman, Come Home\" (November 1953)* \"At Death's End\" (May 1954)* \"One-Shot\" (August 1955)* \"Tomb Tapper\" (July 1956)* ''Get Out of My Sky'' (January 1957), included in ''Get out of My Sky'' Panther ed.", "(1980)==== ''Startling Stories'' (1948) ====* \"Mistake Inside\" (April 1948)==== ''Planet Stories'' (1948–1951) ====* \"Against the Stone Beasts\" (August 1948)* \"Blackout in Cygni\" (July 1951)==== ''Thrilling Wonder Stories'' (1948–1950) ====* \"No Winter, No Summer\" as by Donald Laverty, with Damon Knight (October 1948)* \"The Weakness of RVOG\" (February 1949), expanded as ''VOR'' (1958)* \"The Box\" (April 1949)* \"The Homesteader\" (June 1949)* ''Let the Finder Beware'' (December 1949)* \"There Shall Be No Darkness\" (April 1950), included in ''Get Out of My Sky'' Panther ed.", "(1980)==== ''Jungle Stories'' (1948) ====* \"Serpent's Fetish\" (December 1948)==== ''Fantastic Story Quarterly'' (1950) ====* \"The Bore\" (July 1950)==== ''Imagination'' (1951) ====* \"The Void Is My Coffin\" (June 1951)==== ''Two Complete Science-Adventure Books'' (1951) ====* ''The Warriors of Day'' (August 1951)* ''Sargasso of Lost Cities'' (April 1953)==== ''Other Worlds Science Stores'' (1952) ====* \"Nightride and Sunrise\" with Jerome Bixby (June 1952)==== ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' (1952–1970) ====* \"Surface Tension\" (August 1952), collected in ''The Seedling Stars'' (1957)* \"Beep\" (February 1954), expanded as ''The Quincunx of Time'' (1973)* \"The Writing of the Rat\" (July 1956)* \"The Genius Heap\" (August 1956)* \"On the Wall of the Lodge\" with Virginia Kidd (June 1962)* \"The Shipwrecked Hotel\" with Norman L. Knight, (August 1965), expanded as ''A Torrent of Faces'' (1967)* \"The Piper of Dis\" with Norman L. Knight, (August 1966), expanded as ''A Torrent of Faces'' (1967)* \"Our Binary Brothers\" (February 1969)* \"The City That Was the World\" (July 1969)* \"A Style in Treason\" (May 1970)* ''The Day After Judgment'' (September 1970), collected in ''The Devil's Day'' (1990)* \"Darkside Crossing\" (December 1970)* \"The Glitch\" (June 1974)* \"The Art of the Sneeze\" (November 1982)==== ''Dynamic Science Fiction'' (1953) ====* \"Turn of a Century\" (March 1953)* ''The Duplicated Man'' with Robert A. W. Lowndes (August 1953)==== ''Worlds of If'' (1953–1968) ====* ''A Case of Conscience'' (September 1953), expanded as ''A Case of Conscience'' (1958)* \"The Thing in the Attic\" (July 1954), collected in ''The Seedling Stars'' (1957)* \"Watershed\" (May 1955), collected in ''The Seedling Stars'' (1957)* \"To Pay the Piper\" (February 1956)* ''Welcome to Mars'' (July 1966)* ''Black Easter'' (August 1967), collected in ''The Devil's Day'' (1990)* \"Now That Man Is Gone\" (November 1968)==== ''Star Science Fiction Stories'' (1953) ====First publication of ''A Case of Conscience'', September 1953.", "* \"F.Y.I.\"", "(December 1953)==== ''The Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy'' (1953–1980) ====* \"First Strike\" (June 1953)* \"The Book of Your Life\" (March 1955)* \"With Malice to Come (3 vignettes)\" (May 1955)* \"A Time to Survive\" (February 1956), collected in ''The Seedling Stars'' Signet ed.", "(1959)* \"This Earth of Hours\" (June 1959)* \"The Masks\" (November 1959)* \" The Oath\" (October 1960)* \"Who's in Charge Here?\"", "(May 1962)* \"No Jokes on Mars\" (October 1965)* ''Midsummer Century'' (November 1982)==== ''Fantastic Universe'' (1955) ====* \"Translation\" (March 1955)==== ''Infinity Science Fiction'' (1955–1957) ====* \"King of the Hill\" (November 1955)* \"Sponge Dive\" (June 1956)* \"Detour to the Stars\" (December 1956)* \"Nor Iron Bars\" (November 1957), expanded as ''Galactic Cluster'' (1959)==== ''Science Fiction Stories'' (1956) ====* \"A Work of Art\" (July 1956)==== ''Science Fiction Adventures'' (1957) ====* ''Two Worlds in Peril'' (February 1957)==== ''Amazing Stories'' (1960–1961) ====* ''… And All the Stars a Stage'' (June 1960)* \"And Some Were Savages\" (November 1960)* \"A Dusk of Idols\" (March 1961)==== ''Impulse'' (1966) ====* \"A Hero's Life\" (March 1966)==== ''Analog'' (1967–1968) ====* \"To Love Another\" (April 1967), expanded as ''A Torrent of Faces'' (1967)* \"Skysign\" with Norman L. Knight, (May 1968)==== ''Penthouse'' (1972) ====* \"A Light to Fight by\" (June 1972)==== ''Fantasy Book'' (1986) ====* \"The White Empire\" (September 1986)=== Anthologized short fiction (1952–2008) ===* ''Beanstalk'', ''Future Tense'' (1952), ed.", "Kendell Foster Crossen.", "Greenberger.", "expanded in ''Titan's Daughter'' (1961).", "* \"Common Time\", ''Shadows of Tomorrow'' (August 1953), ed.", "Frederik Pohl.", "Permabooks #P236.", "* \"A Matter of Energy\", ''The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Fifth Series'' (January 1956), ed.", "Anthony Boucher.", "Doubleday.", "* \"Nor Iron Bars\" (expanded), ''Galactic Cluster'' (October 1959), ed.", "James Blish.", "Signet #S1719.", "* \"The Abattoir Effect\", ''So Close to Home'' (February 27, 1961), ed.", "James Blish.", "Ballantine Books #465K.", "* \"None So Blind\", ''Anywhen'' (July 1970), ed.", "James Blish.", "Doubleday.", "* \"How Beautiful With Banners\", ''Orbit 1'' (1966), ed.", "Damon Knight.", "Whiting & Wheaton.", "* \"We All Die Naked\", ''Three for Tomorrow'' (August 1969), ed.", "Arthur C. Clarke.", "Meredith Press.", "* \"More Light\", ''Alchemy and Academe'' (November 1970), ed.", "Anne McCaffrey.", "Doubleday.", "* \"Statistician's Day\", ''Science Against Man'' (December 1970), ed.", "Anthony Cheetham.", "Avon #V2374.", "* \"Getting Along\", ''Again, Dangerous Visions'' (March 17, 1972), ed.", "Harlan Ellison.", "Doubleday.", "* \"A True Bill: A Chancel Drama in One Act\", ''Ten Tomorrows'' (September 1973), ed.", "Roger Elwood.", "Fawcett Gold Medal #M2820.", "* \"The Price of a Drink\", ''The Berserkers'' (January 1974), ed.", "Roger Elwood.", "Trident .", "* \"Making Waves\", ''Works of Art'' (January 30, 2008).", "NESFA Press .=== Novels (1952–1990) ===* ''Jack of Eagles'' (1952).", "Greenberg., also published as ''ESPer'' (1952).", "Avon.", "* ''The Frozen Year'' (March 19, 1957).", "Ballantine Books #197, also published as ''Fallen Star'' (1957).", "Faber & Faber.", "* ''VOR'' (April 1958).", "Avon #T-238.", "* ''The Duplicated Man'' (1959).", "Avalon Books.", "* ''A Torrent of Faces'' (1967), with Norman L. Knight.", "Doubleday.", "* ''The Warriors of Day'' (1967).", "Lancer Books #73-580.", "* ''The Star Dwellers'' (1961).", "G. P. Putnam's Sons.", "* ''Titan's Daughter'' (March 1961).", "Berkley Medallion #G507.", "* ''The Night Shapes'' (October 1962).", "Ballantine Books #F647.", "* ''Mission to the Heart Stars'' (November 11, 1965).", "Faber & Faber.", "* ''Welcome to Mars'' (July 1966).", "G. P. Putnam's Sons.", "* ''The Vanished Jet'' (1968).", "Weybright and Talley.", "* ''… And All the Stars a Stage'' (July 1971).", "Doubleday.", "* ''Midsummer Century'' (May 1972).", "Doubleday, included in ''Midsummer Century'' Daw ed.", "(1974).", "* ''The Quincunx of Time'' (October 1973).", "Dell #07244.==== ''Cities in Flight'' series (1955–1962) ====* ''Earthman, Come Home'' (1955).", "G. P. Putnam's Sons.", "* ''They Shall Have Stars'' (1956).", "Faber & Faber, also published as ''Year 2018!''", "(1957).", "Avon Books.", "* ''The Triumph of Time'' (October 1958).", "Avon #T-279, also published as ''A Clash of Cymbals'' (1959).", "Faber & Faber.", "* ''A Life for the Stars'' (1962).", "G. P. Putnam's Sons.==== ''After Such Knowledge'' series (1958–1990) ====* ''A Case of Conscience'' (April 1958).", "Ballantine Books #256.", "* ''Doctor Mirabilis'' (1964).", "Faber & Faber #55198.", "* ''The Devil's Day'' (February 1990).", "Baen .=== Collections (1957–2009) ===* ''The Seedling Stars'' (1957).", "Gnome Press.", "* ''The Seedling Stars'' (February 1959).", "Signet #S1622.", "* ''Best Science Fiction Stories of James Blish'' (1965).", "Faber & Faber, also published as ''The Testament of Andros'' (August 1977).", "Arrow Books .", "* ''Midsummer Century'' (February 1974).", "Daw #UQ1094.", "* ''The Best of James Blish'' (August 1979).", "Ballantine/Del Rey * ''Get Out of My Sky'' (April 1980).", "Panther .", "* ''A Work of Art and Other Stories'' (July 1993).", "Severn House .", "* ''With All Love: Selected Poems'' (March 1995).", "Anamnesis Press .", "* ''A Dusk of Idols and Other Stories'' (May 1996).", "Severn House .", "* ''In This World, or Another'' (July 2, 2003).", "Five Star .", "* ''Works of Art'' (January 30, 2008).", "NESFA Press .", "* ''Flights of Eagles'' (October 20, 2009).", "NESFA Press .=== Anthologies (1959–1970) ===* ''Galactic Cluster'' (October 1959).", "Signet #S1719.", "* ''So Close to Home'' (February 27, 1961).", "Ballantine Books #465K.", "* ''New Dreams This Morning'' (October 1966).", "Ballantine Books #U233.", "* ''Anywhen'' (1970).", "Doubleday.", "* ''Nebula Award Stories 5'' (1970).", "Gollancz.Blish's novelette \"And Some Were Savages\" was the cover story for the November 1960 issue of ''Amazing Stories'', illustrated by Ed Emshwiller.", "=== Nonfiction (1964–1987) ===* ''The Issue at Hand'' (1964), as by William Atheling Jr.", "Advent Publishers.", "* ''More Issues at Hand'' (December 1970), as by William Atheling Jr.", "Advent Publishers .", "* ''The Tale That Wags the God'' (July 1987).", "Advent Publishers .=== ''Star Trek'' (1967–1977) ===* ''Star Trek'' (January 1967).", "Bantam Books #F3459.", "* ''Star Trek 2'' (February 1968).", "Bantam Books #F3439.", "* ''Star Trek 3'' (April 1969).", "Bantam Books #F4371.", "* ''Spock Must Die!''", "(February 1970).", "Bantam Books #H5515.", "* ''Star Trek 4'' (July 1971).", "Bantam Books #S7009.", "* ''Star Trek 5'' (February 1972).", "Bantam Books #S7300.", "* ''Star Trek 6'' (April 1972).", "Bantam Books #S7364.", "* ''Star Trek 7'' (July 1972).", "Bantam Books #S7480.", "* ''Star Trek 8'' (November 1972).", "Bantam Books #SP7550.", "* ''Star Trek 9'' (August 1973).", "Bantam Books #SP7808.", "* ''Star Trek 10'' (February 1974).", "Bantam Books #SP8401.", "* ''Star Trek 11'' (April 1975).", "Bantam Books #Q8717, also published as ''The Day of the Dove'' (October 1985).", "Spectra .", "* ''Star Trek 12'' (November 1977), with J.", "A. Lawrence.", "Bantam Books .=== Omnibuses (1970–2013) ===* ''Cities in Flight'' (February 1970).", "Avon #W187.", "* ''After Such Knowledge'' (July 1991).", "Legend ).", "* ''The Seedling Stars / Galactic Cluster'' (April 1983).", "Signet .", "* ''Black Easter / The Day After Judgement / The Seedling Stars'' (September 26, 2013) ." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * \"Special James Blish Issue\" (April 1972) ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction''.", ".", "" ], [ "External links", " * * * * * * * * Audio of Blish giving the Guest of Honor speech at Pittcon 1960* Audio of Blish giving the Guest of Honour speech at Eastercon 1970" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Madison" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Madison Jr.''' (March 16, 1751June 28, 1836) was an American statesman, diplomat, and Founding Father who served as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817.Madison was popularly acclaimed the \"Father of the Constitution\" for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the Constitution of the United States and the Bill of Rights.Madison was born into a prominent slave-owning planter family in Virginia.", "He served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress during and after the American Revolutionary War.", "Dissatisfied with the weak national government established by the Articles of Confederation, he helped organize the Constitutional Convention, which produced a new constitution designed to strengthen republican government against democratic assembly.", "Madison's Virginia Plan was the basis for the convention's deliberations, and he was an influential voice at the convention.", "He became one of the leaders in the movement to ratify the Constitution and joined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing ''The Federalist Papers'', a series of pro-ratification essays that remains prominent among works of political science in American history.", "Madison emerged as an important leader in the House of Representatives and was a close adviser to President George Washington.During the early 1790s, Madison opposed the economic program and the accompanying centralization of power favored by Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton.", "Alongside Thomas Jefferson, he organized the Democratic–Republican Party in opposition to Hamilton's Federalist Party.", "After Jefferson was elected president in 1800, Madison served as his Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809 and supported Jefferson in the case of ''Marbury v. Madison''.", "While Madison was Secretary of State, Jefferson made the Louisiana Purchase, and later, as President, Madison oversaw related disputes in the Northwest Territories.Madison was elected president in 1808.Motivated by desire to acquire land held by Britain, Spain, and Native Americans, and after diplomatic protests with a trade embargo failed to end British seizures of American shipped goods, Madison led the United States into the War of 1812.Although the war ended inconclusively, many Americans viewed the war's outcome as a successful \"second war of independence\" against Britain.", "Madison was re-elected in 1812, albeit by a smaller margin.", "The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government.", "He presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816.By treaty or through war, Native American tribes ceded of land to the United States under Madison's presidency.Retiring from public office at the end of his presidency in 1817, Madison returned to his plantation, Montpelier, and died there in 1836.During his lifetime, Madison was a slave owner.", "In 1783, to prevent a slave rebellion at Montpelier, Madison freed one of his slaves.", "He did not free any slaves in his will.", "Among historians, Madison is considered one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States.", "Leading historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president, although they are critical of his endorsement of slavery and his leadership during the War of 1812.Madison's name is commemorated in many landmarks across the nation, both publicly and privately, with prominent examples including Madison Square Garden, James Madison University, the James Madison Memorial Building, and the ." ], [ "Early life and education", "James Madison Jr. was born on March 16, 1751 (March 5, 1750, Old Style), at Belle Grove Plantation near Port Conway in the Colony of Virginia, to James Madison Sr. and Eleanor Madison.", "His family had lived in Virginia since the mid-17th century.", "Madison's maternal grandfather, Francis Conway, was a prominent planter and tobacco merchant.", "His father was a tobacco planter who grew up on a plantation, then called Mount Pleasant, which he inherited upon reaching adulthood.", "With an estimated 100 slaves and a plantation, Madison's father was among the largest landowners in Virginia's Piedmont.In the early 1760s, the Madison family moved into a newly built house that they named Montpelier.", "Madison grew up as the oldest of twelve children, with seven brothers and four sisters, though only six lived to adulthood.", "Of the surviving three brothers (Francis, Ambrose, and William) and three sisters (Nelly, Sarah, and Frances), it was Ambrose who would eventually help to manage Montpelier for both his father and older brother until his own death in 1793.President Zachary Taylor was a descendant of Elder William Brewster, a Pilgrim leader of the Plymouth Colony, a ''Mayflower'' immigrant, and a signer of the Mayflower Compact; and Isaac Allerton Jr., a colonial merchant, colonel, and son of ''Mayflower'' Pilgrim Isaac Allerton and Fear Brewster.", "Taylor's second cousin through that line was Madison.Virginia historic marker for Birthplace of President James Madison in Port Conway, VirginiaFrom age 11 to 16, Madison studied under Donald Robertson, a Scottish instructor who served as a tutor for several prominent planter families in the South.", "Madison learned mathematics, geography, and modern and classical languages, becoming exceptionally proficient in Latin.", "At age 16, Madison returned to Montpelier, where he studied under the Reverend Thomas Martin to prepare for college.", "Unlike most college-bound Virginians of his day, Madison did not attend the College of William and Mary, where the lowland Williamsburg climate—thought to be more likely to harbor infectious disease—might have strained his sensibilities concerning his own health.", "Instead, in 1769, he enrolled at the College of New Jersey (later renamed Princeton University).James Sharples\|alt=Madison as a young man at PrincetonHis college studies included Latin, Greek, theology, and the works of the Enlightenment.", "Emphasis was placed on both speech and debate; Madison was a leading member of the American Whig–Cliosophic Society, which competed on campus with a political counterpart, the Cliosophic Society.", "During his time at Princeton, Madison's closest friend was future Attorney General William Bradford.", "Along with classmate Aaron Burr, Madison undertook an intense program of study and completed the college's three-year Bachelor of Arts degree in two years, graduating in 1771.Madison had contemplated either entering the clergy or practicing law after graduation but instead remained at Princeton to study Hebrew and political philosophy under the college's president, John Witherspoon.", "He returned home to Montpelier in early 1772.Madison's ideas on philosophy and morality were strongly shaped by Witherspoon, who converted him to the philosophy, values, and modes of thinking of the Age of Enlightenment.", "Biographer Terence Ball wrote that at Princeton, Madison \"was immersed in the liberalism of the Enlightenment, and converted to eighteenth-century political radicalism.", "From then on James Madison's theories would advance the rights of happiness of man, and his most active efforts would serve devotedly the cause of civil and political liberty.", "\"After returning to Montpelier, without a chosen career, Madison served as a tutor to his younger siblings.", "He began to study law books in 1773, asking his friend Bradford, a law apprentice, to send him a written plan of study.", "Madison had acquired an understanding of legal publications by 1783.He saw himself as a law student but not a lawyer.", "Madison did not apprentice himself to a lawyer and never joined the bar.", "Following the Revolutionary War, he spent time at Montpelier in Virginia studying ancient democracies of the world in preparation for the Constitutional Convention.", "Madison suffered from episodes of mental exhaustion and illness with associated nervousness, which often caused temporary short-term incapacity after periods of stress.", "However, he enjoyed good physical health until his final years." ], [ "American Revolution and Articles of Confederation", "During the 1760s and 1770s, American Colonists protested tightened British tax, monetary, and military laws forced on them by Parliament.", "In 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which caused strong opposition by the colonists and began a conflict that would culminate in the American Revolution.", "The American Revolutionary War broke out on April 19, 1775, and was ended by the Treaty of Paris signed on September 3, 1783.The colonists formed three prominent factions: Loyalists, who continued to back King George III of the United Kingdom; a significant neutral faction without firm commitments to either Loyalists or Patriots; and the Patriots, whom Madison joined, under the leadership of the Continental Congress.", "Madison believed that Parliament had overstepped its bounds by attempting to tax the American colonies, and he sympathized with those who resisted British rule.", "Historically, debate about the consecration of bishops was ongoing and eventual legislation was passed in the British Parliament (subsequently called the Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786) to allow bishops to be consecrated for an American church outside of allegiance to the British Crown.", "Both in the United States and in Canada, the new Anglican churches began incorporating more active forms of polity in their own self-government, collective decision-making, and self-supported financing; these measures would be consistent with separation of religious and secular identities.", "Madison believed these measures to be insufficient, and also favored disestablishing the Anglican Church in Virginia; Madison believed that tolerance of an established religion was detrimental not only to freedom of religion but also because it encouraged excessive deference to any authority which might be asserted by an established church.Madison's portrait as congressional delegate at age 32 when he was already recognized as a contributor to politics and government.", "Portrait by alt=Madison portrait as a young man.After returning to Montpelier in 1774, Madison took a seat on the local Committee of Safety, a pro-revolution group that oversaw the local Patriot militia.", "In October 1775, he was commissioned as the colonel of the Orange County militia, serving as his father's second-in-command until he was elected as a delegate to the Fifth Virginia Convention, which was charged with producing Virginia's first constitution.", "Although Madison never battled in the Revolutionary War, he did rise to prominence in Virginia politics as a wartime leader.", "At the Virginia constitutional convention, he convinced delegates to alter the Virginia Declaration of Rights originally drafted on May 20, 1776, to provide for \"equal entitlement\", rather than mere \"tolerance\", in the exercise of religion.", "With the enactment of the Virginia constitution, Madison became part of the Virginia House of Delegates, and he was subsequently elected to the Virginia governor's Council of State, where he became a close ally of Governor Thomas Jefferson.", "On July 4, 1776, the United States Declaration of Independence was formally printed, declaring the 13 American states an independent nation.Madison participated in the debates concerning the Articles of Confederation in November 1777, contributing to the discussion of religious freedom affecting the drafting of the Articles, though his signature was not required for adopting the Articles of Confederation.", "Madison had proposed liberalizing the article on religious freedom, but the larger Virginia Convention stripped the proposed constitution of the more radical language of \"free expression\" of faith to the less controversial mention of highlighting \"tolerance\" within religion.", "Other amendments by the committee and the entire Convention included the addition of a section on the right to a uniform government.", "Madison again served on the Council of State, from 1777 to 1779, when he was elected to the Second Continental Congress, the governing body of the United States.During Madison's term in Congress from 1780 to 1783, the U.S. faced a difficult war against Great Britain, as well as runaway inflation, financial troubles, and a lack of cooperation between the different levels of government.", "According to historian J. C. A. Stagg, Madison worked to become an expert on financial issues, becoming a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary coalition building.", "Frustrated by the failure of the states to supply needed requisitions, Madison proposed to amend the Articles of Confederation to grant Congress the power to independently raise revenue through tariffs on imports.", "Though General George Washington, Congressman Alexander Hamilton, and other leaders also favored the tariff amendment, it was defeated because it failed to win the ratification of all thirteen states.", "While a member of Congress, Madison was an ardent supporter of a close alliance between the United States and France.", "As an advocate of westward expansion, he insisted that the new nation had to ensure its right to navigation on the Mississippi River and control of all lands east of it in the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War.", "Following his term in Congress, Madison won election to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1784." ], [ "Ratification of the Constitution", "As a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, Madison continued to advocate for religious freedom, and, along with Jefferson, drafted the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom.", "That amendment, which guaranteed freedom of religion and disestablished the Church of England, was passed in 1786.Madison also became a land speculator, purchasing land along the Mohawk River in partnership with another Jefferson protégé, James Monroe.", "Throughout the 1780s, Madison became increasingly worried about the disunity of the states and the weakness of the central government after the end of the Revolutionary War.", "He believed that direct democracy caused social decay and that a Republican government would be effective against partisanship and factionalism.", "He was particularly troubled by laws that legalized paper money and denied diplomatic immunity to ambassadors from other countries.", "Madison was also concerned about the lack of ability in Congress to capably create foreign policy, protect American trade, and foster the settlement of the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.", "As Madison wrote, \"a crisis had arrived which was to decide whether the American experiment was to be a blessing to the world, or to blast for ever the hopes which the republican cause had inspired.\"", "Madison committed to an intense study of law and political theory and also was influenced by Enlightenment texts sent by Jefferson from France.", "Madison especially sought out works on international law and the constitutions of \"ancient and modern confederacies\" such as the Dutch Republic, the Swiss Confederation, and the Achaean League.", "He came to believe that the United States could improve upon past republican experiments by its size which geographically combined 13 colonies; with so many competing interests, Madison hoped to minimize the abuses of majority rule.", "Additionally, navigation rights to the major trade routes accessed by the Mississippi River highly concerned Madison.", "He opposed the proposal by John Jay that the United States concede claims to the river for 25 years, and, according to historian Ralph Ketcham, Madison's desire to fight the proposal was a major motivation in his to return to Congress in 1787.First page of the original handwritten copy of the alt=Image of handwritten copy of the Constitution.George Washington witnesses Gouverneur Morris sign the Constitution while Madison sits in front of Benjamin Franklin and next to Robert Morris in John Henry Hintermeister's 1925 painting, ''Foundation of the American Government''.\|alt=Supportive image of signing of the Constitution with various signers.Leading up to the 1787 ratification debates for the Constitution, Madison worked with other members of the Virginia delegation, especially Edmund Randolph and George Mason, to create and present the Virginia Plan, an outline for a new federal constitution.", "It called for three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial), a bicameral Congress (consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives) apportioned by population, and a federal Council of Revision that would have the right to veto laws passed by Congress.", "The Virginia Plan did not explicitly lay out the structure of the executive branch, but Madison himself favored a strong single executive.", "Many delegates were surprised to learn that the plan called for the abrogation of the Articles and the creation of a new constitution, to be ratified by special conventions in each state, rather than by the state legislatures.", "With the assent of prominent attendees such as Washington and Benjamin Franklin, the delegates agreed in a secret session that the abrogation of the Articles and the creation of a new constitution was a plausible option and began scheduling the process of debating its ratification in the individual states.", "As a compromise between small and large states, large states got a proportional House, while the small states got equal representation in the Senate.After the Philadelphia Convention ended in September 1787, Madison convinced his fellow congressmen to remain neutral in the ratification debate and allow each state to vote on the Constitution.", "Those who supported the Constitution were called Federalists, that included Madison.", "Throughout the United States, opponents of the Constitution, known as Anti-Federalists, began a public campaign against ratification.", "In response, starting in October 1787, Hamilton and John Jay, both Federalists, began publishing a series of pro-ratification newspaper articles in New York.", "After Jay dropped out of the project, Hamilton approached Madison, who was in New York on congressional business, to write some of the essays.", "The essays were published under the pseudonym of Publius.", "The trio produced 85 essays known as ''The Federalist Papers''.", "The 85 essays were divided into two parts, 36 letters were against the Articles of Confederation, and 49 letters that favored the new Constitution.", "The articles were also published in book form and used by the supporters of the Constitution in the ratifying conventions.", "Federalist No.", "10, Madison's first contribution to ''The Federalist Papers'', became highly regarded in the 20th century for its advocacy of representative democracy.", "In it, Madison describes the dangers posed by the majority factions and argues that their effects can be limited through the formation of a large republic.", "He theorizes that in large republics the large number of factions that emerge will control their influence because no single faction can become a majority.", "In Federalist No.", "51, he goes on to explain how the separation of powers between three branches of the federal government, as well as between state governments and the federal government, establishes a system of checks and balances that ensures that no one institution would become too powerful.As the Virginia ratification convention began, Madison focused his efforts on winning the support of the relatively small number of undecided delegates.", "His long correspondence with Randolph paid off at the convention, as Randolph announced that he would support unconditional ratification of the Constitution, with amendments to be proposed after ratification.", "Though former Virginia governor Patrick Henry gave several persuasive speeches arguing against ratification, Madison's expertise on the subject he had long argued for allowed him to respond with rational arguments to Henry's anti-Federalist appeals.", "Madison was also a defender of federal veto rights and, according to historian Ron Chernow \"pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws\".", "In his final speech to the ratifying convention, Madison implored his fellow delegates to ratify the Constitution as it had been written, arguing that failure to do so would lead to the collapse of the entire ratification effort, as each state would seek favorable amendments.", "On June 25, 1788, the convention voted 89–79 in favor of ratification.", "The vote came a week after New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, thereby securing the Constitution's adoption and with that, a new form of government.", "The following January, Washington was elected the nation's first president." ], [ "Congressman and party leader (1789–1801)", "===Election to Congress===After Virginia ratified the constitution, Madison returned to New York and resumed his duties in the Congress of the Confederation.", "After Madison was defeated in his bid for the Senate, and with concerns for both his political career and the possibility that Patrick Henry and his allies would arrange for a second constitutional convention, Madison ran for the House of Representatives.", "Henry and the Anti-Federalists were in firm control of the General Assembly in the autumn of 1788.At Henry's behest, the Virginia legislature designed to deny Madison a seat, and created congressional districts.", "Henry and his supporters ensured that Orange County was in a district heavily populated with Anti-Federalists, roughly three to one, to oppose Madison.", "This practice is called ''gerrymandering''.", "Henry also recruited James Monroe, a strong challenger to Madison.", "Locked in a difficult race against Monroe, Madison promised to support a series of constitutional amendments to protect individual liberties.", "In an open letter, Madison wrote that, while he had opposed requiring alterations to the Constitution before ratification, he now believed that \"amendments, if pursued with a proper moderation and in a proper mode ... may serve the double purpose of satisfying the minds of well-meaning opponents, and of providing additional guards in favor of liberty.\"", "Madison's promise paid off, as in Virginia's 5th district election, he gained a seat in Congress with 57 percent of the vote.Madison became a key adviser to Washington, who valued Madison's understanding of the Constitution.", "Madison helped Washington write his first inaugural address and also prepared the official House response to Washington's speech.", "He played a significant role in establishing and staffing the three Cabinet departments, and his influence helped Thomas Jefferson become the first Secretary of State.", "At the start of the first Congress, he introduced a tariff bill similar to the one he had advocated for under the Articles of the Confederation, and Congress established a federal tariff on imports by enacting the Tariff of 1789.The following year, Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton introduced an ambitious economic program that called for the federal assumption of state debts and the funding of that debt through the issuance of federal securities.", "Hamilton's plan favored Northern speculators and was disadvantageous to states, such as Virginia, that had already paid off most of their debt; Madison emerged as one of the principal congressional opponents of the plan.", "After prolonged legislative deadlock, Madison, Jefferson, and Hamilton agreed to the Compromise of 1790, which provided for the enactment of Hamilton's assumption plan, as part of the Funding Act of 1790.In return, Congress passed the Residence Act, which established the federal capital district of Washington, D.C., on the Potomac River.===Bill of Rights===During the first Congress, Madison took the lead in advocating for several constitutional amendments to the Bill of Rights.", "His primary goals were to fulfill his 1789 campaign pledge and to prevent the calling of a second constitutional convention, but he also hoped to safeguard the rights and liberties of the people against broad actions of Congress and individual states.", "He believed that the enumeration of specific rights would fix those rights in the public mind and encourage judges to protect them.", "After studying more than two hundred amendments that had been proposed at the state ratifying conventions, Madison introduced the Bill of Rights on June 8, 1789.His amendments contained numerous restrictions on the federal government and would protect, among other things, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and the right to peaceful assembly.", "While most of his proposed amendments were drawn from the ratifying conventions, Madison was largely responsible for proposals to guarantee freedom of the press, protect property from government seizure, and ensure jury trials.", "He also proposed an amendment to prevent states from abridging \"equal rights of conscience, or freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases\".To prevent a permanent standing federal army, Madison proposed the Second Amendment, which gave state-regulated militia groups and private citizens, the \"right to bear arms.\"", "Madison and the Republicans desired a free government to be established by the consent of the governed, rather than by national military force.", "Madison's Bill of Rights faced little opposition; he had largely co-opted the Anti-Federalist goal of amending the Constitution but had avoided proposing amendments that would alienate supporters of the Constitution.", "His amendments were mostly adopted by the House of Representatives as proposed, but the Senate made several changes.", "Madison's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states was eliminated, as was his change to the Constitution's preamble which he thought would be enhanced by including a prefatory paragraph indicating that governmental power is vested by the people.", "He was disappointed that the Bill of Rights did not include protections against actions by state governments, but the passage of the document mollified some critics of the original constitution and shored up his support in Virginia.", "Ten amendments were finally ratified on December 15, 1791, becoming known in their final form as the Bill of Rights.===Founding the Democratic–Republican Party===Thomas Jefferson founded the Democratic-Republican Party with Madison and broadly represented Southern interests.\|alt=Image of Jefferson who was a close friend and confidant of Madison.After 1790, the Washington administration became polarized into two main factions.", "One faction, led by Jefferson and Madison, broadly represented Southern interests and sought close relations with France.", "This faction became the Democratic-Republican Party opposition to Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton.", "The other faction, led by Hamilton and the Federalists, broadly represented Northern financial interests and favored close relations with Britain.", "In 1791, Hamilton introduced a plan that called for the establishment of a national bank to provide loans to emerging industries and oversee the money supply.", "Madison and the Democratic-Republican Party fought back against Hamilton's attempt to expand the power of the Federal Government with the formation of a national bank.", "Therefore, they opposed Hamilton's plan and Madison argued that under the Constitution, Congress did not have the power to create a federally empowered national bank.", "Despite Madison's opposition, Congress passed a bill to create the First Bank of the United States, which Washington signed into law in February 1791.As Hamilton implemented his economic program and Washington continued to enjoy immense prestige as president, Madison became increasingly concerned that Hamilton would seek to abolish the federal republic in favor of a centralized monarchy.When Hamilton submitted his ''Report on Manufactures'', which called for federal action to stimulate the development of a diversified economy, Madison once again challenged Hamilton's proposal.", "Along with Jefferson, Madison helped Philip Freneau establish the ''National Gazette'', a Philadelphia newspaper that attacked Hamilton's proposals.", "In an essay published in the newspaper in September 1792, Madison wrote that the country had divided into two factions: his faction, which believed \"that mankind are capable of governing themselves\", and Hamilton's faction, which allegedly sought the establishment of an aristocratic monarchy and was biased in favor of the wealthy.", "Those opposed to Hamilton's economic policies, including many former Anti-Federalists, continued to strengthen the ranks of the Democratic–Republican Party, while those who supported the administration's policies supported Hamilton's Federalist Party.", "In the 1792 presidential election, both major parties supported Washington for re-election, but the Democratic–Republicans sought to unseat Vice President John Adams.", "Because the Constitution's rules essentially precluded Jefferson from challenging Adams, the party backed New York Governor George Clinton for the vice presidency, but Adams won nonetheless.With Jefferson out of office after 1793, Madison became the de facto leader of the Democratic–Republican Party.", "When Britain and France went to war in 1793, the U.S. needed to determine which side to support.", "While the differences between the Democratic–Republicans and the Federalists had previously centered on economic matters, foreign policy became an increasingly important issue, as Madison and Jefferson favored France and Hamilton favored Britain.", "War with Britain became imminent in 1794 after the British seized hundreds of American ships that were trading with French colonies.", "Madison believed that a trade war with Britain would probably succeed, and would allow Americans to assert their independence fully.", "The British West Indies, Madison maintained, could not live without American foodstuffs, but Americans could easily do without British manufacturers.", "Washington then secured friendly trade relations with Britain through the Jay Treaty of 1794.Madison and his Democratic–Republican allies were outraged by the treaty; the Democratic–Republican Robert R. Livingston wrote to Madison that the treaty \"sacrifices every essential interest and prostrates the honor of our country\".", "Madison's strong opposition to the treaty led to a permanent break with Washington, ending their friendship.=== Marriage and family ===On September 15, 1794, Madison married Dolley Payne Todd, the 26-year-old widow of John Todd, a Quaker farmer who died during a yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia.", "Earlier that year, Madison and Dolley Todd had been formally introduced at Madison's request by Aaron Burr.", "Burr had become friends with her when staying at the same Philadelphia boardinghouse.", "After an arranged meeting in early 1794, the two quickly became romantically engaged and prepared for a wedding that summer, but Todd suffered recurring illnesses because of her exposure to yellow fever in Philadelphia.", "They eventually traveled to Harewood in Virginia for their wedding.", "Only a few close family members attended, and Winchester reverend Alexander Balmain presided.", "Dolley became a renowned figure in Washington, D.C., and excelled at hosting dinners and other important political occasions.", "She subsequently helped to establish the modern image of the first lady of the United States as an individual who has a leading role in the social affairs of the nation.Throughout his life, Madison maintained a close relationship with his father, James Sr.", "Eventually at age 50, Madison inherited the large plantation of Montpelier and other possessions, including his father's numerous slaves.", "While Madison never had children with Dolley, he adopted her one surviving son, John Payne Todd (known as Payne), after the couple's marriage.", "Some of his colleagues, such as Monroe and Burr, believed Madison's lack of offspring weighed on his thoughts, though he never spoke of any distress.", "Meanwhile, oral history has suggested Madison may have fathered a child with his enslaved half-sister, a cook named Coreen, but researchers were unable to gather the DNA evidence needed to determine the validity of the accusation.===Adams presidency===Washington chose to retire after serving two terms and, in advance of the 1796 presidential election, Madison helped convince Jefferson to run for the presidency.", "Despite Madison's efforts, Federalist candidate John Adams defeated Jefferson, taking a narrow majority of the electoral vote.", "Under the rules of the Electoral College then in place, Jefferson became vice president because he finished with the second-most electoral votes.", "Madison, meanwhile, had declined to seek re-election to the House, and he returned to Montpelier.", "On Jefferson's advice, Adams considered appointing Madison to an American delegation charged with ending French attacks on American shipping, but Adams's cabinet members strongly opposed the idea.Though he was out of office, Madison remained a prominent Democratic–Republican leader in opposition to the Adams administration.", "Madison and Jefferson believed that the Federalists were using the Quasi-War with France to justify the violation of constitutional rights by passing the Alien and Sedition Acts, and they increasingly came to view Adams as a monarchist.", "Both Madison and Jefferson, as leaders of the Democratic–Republican Party, expressed the belief that natural rights were non-negotiable even during a time of war.", "Madison believed that the Alien and Sedition Acts formed a dangerous precedent, by giving the government the power to look past the natural rights of its people in the name of national security.", "In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Jefferson argued that the states had the power to nullify federal law on the basis of the Constitution was a compact among the states.", "Madison rejected this view of nullification and urged that states respond to unjust federal laws through interposition, a process by which a state legislature declared a law to be unconstitutional but did not take steps to actively prevent its enforcement.", "Jefferson's doctrine of nullification was widely rejected, and the incident damaged the Democratic–Republican Party as attention was shifted from the Alien and Sedition Acts to the unpopular nullification doctrine.In 1799, Madison was elected to the Virginia legislature.", "At the same time, Madison planned for Jefferson's campaign in the 1800 presidential election.", "Madison issued the Report of 1800, which attacked the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional.", "That report held that Congress was limited to legislating on its enumerated powers and that punishment for sedition violated freedom of speech and freedom of the press.", "Jefferson embraced the report, and it became the unofficial Democratic–Republican platform for the 1800 election.", "With the Federalists divided between supporters of Hamilton and Adams, and with news of the end of the Quasi-War not reaching the United States until after the election, Jefferson and his running mate, Aaron Burr, defeated Adams, allowing Jefferson to prevail as president." ], [ "Secretary of State (1801–1809)", "Madison was one of two major influences in Jefferson's Cabinet, the other being Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin.", "Madison was appointed secretary of state despite lacking foreign policy experience.", "An introspective individual, he received assistance from his wife, relying deeply on her in dealing with the social pressures of being a public figure both in his own Cabinet appointment as secretary of state and afterward.", "As the ascent of Napoleon in France had dulled Democratic–Republican enthusiasm for the French cause, Madison sought a neutral position in the ongoing Coalition Wars between France and Britain.", "Domestically, the Jefferson administration and the Democratic–Republican Congress rolled back many Federalist policies; Congress quickly repealed the Alien and Sedition Act, abolished internal taxes, and reduced the size of the army and navy.", "Gallatin, however, did convince Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States.", "Though the Federalist political power was rapidly fading away at the national level, Chief Justice John Marshall ensured that Federalist ideology retained an important presence in the judiciary.", "In the case of ''Marbury v. Madison'', Marshall simultaneously ruled that Madison had unjustly refused to deliver federal commissions to individuals who had been appointed by the previous administration, but that the Supreme Court did not have jurisdiction over the case.", "Most importantly, Marshall's opinion established the principle of judicial review.", "While attaining the position of secretary of state and throughout his life, Madison maintained contact with his father, James Sr., who died in 1801 and which allowed Madison to inherit the large plantation of Montpelier.alt=Map of Louisiana Purchase under Jefferson as supported by Madison.Jefferson took office and was sympathetic to the westward expansion of Americans who had settled as far west as the Mississippi River; his sympathy for expansion was supported by his concern for the sparse regional demographics in the far west compared to the more populated eastern states, the far west being inhabited almost exclusively by Native Americans.", "Jefferson promoted such western expansion and hoped to acquire the Spanish territory of Louisiana, west of the Mississippi River, for expansionist purposes.", "Early in Jefferson's presidency, the administration learned that Spain planned to retrocede the Louisiana territory to France, raising fears of French encroachment on U.S. territory.", "In 1802, Jefferson and Madison sent Monroe, a sympathetic fellow Virginian, to France to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans, which controlled access to the Mississippi River and thus was immensely important to the farmers of the American frontier.", "Rather than merely selling New Orleans, Napoleon's government, having already given up on plans to establish a new French empire in the Americas, offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana.", "Despite lacking explicit authorization from Jefferson, Monroe, along with Livingston, whom Jefferson had appointed as America's minister to France, negotiated the Louisiana Purchase, in which France sold more than of land in exchange for $15 million ().", "James Madison as Secretary of State painted by alt=Portrait of Madison by Gilbert StuartDespite the time-sensitive nature of negotiations with the French, Jefferson was concerned about the constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase, and he privately favored introducing a constitutional amendment explicitly authorizing Congress to acquire new territories.", "Madison convinced Jefferson to refrain from proposing the amendment, and the administration ultimately submitted the Louisiana Purchase Treaty for approval by the Senate, without an accompanying constitutional amendment.", "Unlike Jefferson, Madison was not seriously concerned with the constitutionality of the purchase.", "He believed that the circumstances did not warrant a strict interpretation of the Constitution, because the expansion was in the country's best interest.", "The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, passed enabling legislation.Early in his tenure, Jefferson was able to maintain cordial relations with both France and Britain, but relations with Britain deteriorated after 1805.The British ended their policy of tolerance towards American shipping and began seizing American goods headed for French ports.", "They also impressed American sailors, some of whom had originally defected from the British navy, but some of whom had never been British subjects.", "In response to the attacks, Congress passed the Non-importation Act, which restricted many, but not all, British imports.", "Tensions with Britain were heightened due to the ''Chesapeake–Leopard'' affair, a June 1807 naval confrontation between American and British naval forces, while the French also began attacking American shipping.", "Madison believed that economic pressure could force the British to end their seizure of American shipped goods, and he and Jefferson convinced Congress to pass the Embargo Act of 1807, which banned all exports to foreign nations.", "The embargo proved ineffective, unpopular, and difficult to enforce, especially in New England.", "In March 1809, Congress replaced the embargo with the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with nations other than Britain and France.===1808 presidential election===alt=Election maps by state for election of 1808.Speculation regarding Madison's potential succession to Jefferson commenced early in Jefferson's first term.", "Madison's status in the party was damaged by his association with the embargo, which was unpopular throughout the country and especially in the Northeast.", "With the Federalists collapsing as a national party after 1800, the chief opposition to Madison's candidacy came from other members of the Democratic–Republican Party.", "Madison became the target of attacks from Congressman John Randolph, a leader of a faction of the party known as the tertium quids.Randolph recruited Monroe, who had felt betrayed by the administration's rejection of the proposed Monroe–Pinkney Treaty with Britain, to challenge Madison for leadership of the party.", "Many Northerners, meanwhile, hoped that Vice President Clinton could unseat Madison as Jefferson's successor.", "Despite this opposition, Madison won his party's presidential nomination at the January 1808 congressional nominating caucus.", "The Federalist Party mustered little strength outside New England, and Madison easily defeated Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in the general election." ], [ "Presidency (1809–1817)", "===Inauguration and cabinet===James Madison as President, engraving by alt=Madison engraving circa 1809.Madison's inauguration took place on March 4, 1809, in the House chamber of the U.S. Capitol.", "Chief Justice Marshall administered the presidential oath of office to Madison while outgoing President Jefferson watched from a seat close by.", "Vice President George Clinton was sworn in for a second term, making him the first U.S. vice president to serve under two presidents.", "Unlike Jefferson, who enjoyed relatively unified support, Madison faced political opposition from previous political allies such as Monroe and Clinton.", "Additionally, the Federalist Party was resurgent owing to opposition to the embargo.", "Aside from his planned nomination of Gallatin for secretary of state, the remaining members of Madison's Cabinet were chosen merely to further political harmony, and, according to historians Ketcham and Rutland, were largely unremarkable or incompetent.", "Due to the opposition of Monroe and Clinton, Madison immediately faced opposition to his planned nomination of Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin as secretary of state.", "Madison eventually chose not to nominate Gallatin, keeping him in the treasury department.Madison settled instead for Robert Smith, the brother of Maryland Senator Samuel Smith, to be the secretary of state.", "However, for the next two years, Madison performed most of the job of the secretary of state due to Smith's incompetence.", "After bitter intra-party contention, Madison finally replaced Smith with Monroe in April 1811.With a Cabinet full of those he distrusted, Madison rarely called Cabinet meetings and instead frequently consulted with Gallatin alone.", "Early in his presidency, Madison sought to continue Jefferson's policies of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt.", "In 1811, Congress allowed the charter of the First Bank of the United States to lapse after Madison declined to take a strong stance on the issue.===War of 1812======= Prelude to war ====Congress had repealed the Embargo Act of 1807 shortly before Madison became president, but troubles with the British and French continued.", "Madison settled on a new strategy that was designed to pit the British and French against each other, offering to trade with whichever country would end their attacks against American shipping.", "The gambit almost succeeded, but negotiations with the British collapsed in mid-1809.Seeking to drive a wedge between the Americans and the British, Napoleon offered to end French attacks on American shipping so long as the United States punished any countries that did not similarly end restrictions on trade.", "Madison accepted Napoleon's proposal in the hope that it would convince the British to finally end their policy of commercial warfare.", "Notwithstanding, the British refused to change their policies, and the French reneged on their promise and continued to attack American shipping.With sanctions and other policies having failed, Madison determined that war with Britain was the only remaining option.", "Many Americans called for a \"second war of independence\" to restore honor and stature to their new nation, and an angry public elected a \"war hawk\" Congress, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun.", "With Britain already engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, many Americans including Madison believed that the United States could easily capture Canada, using it as a bargaining chip for other disputes or simply retaining control of it.", "On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war, stating that the United States could no longer tolerate Britain's \"state of war against the United States\".", "The declaration of war was passed along sectional and party lines, with opposition to the declaration coming from Federalists and from some Democratic–Republicans in the Northeast.", "In the years prior to the war, Jefferson and Madison had reduced the size of the military, leaving the country with a military force consisting mostly of poorly trained militia members.", "Madison asked Congress to quickly put the country \"into an armor and an attitude demanded by the crisis\", specifically recommending expansion of the army and navy.====Military actions====HMS ''Guerriere'', a significant event during the war.", "U.S. nautical victories boosted American morale.\|alt=Naval warfare of USS Constitution in battle.Given the circumstances involving Napoleon in Europe Madison initially believed the war would result in a quick American victory.", "Madison ordered three landed military spearhead incursions into Canada, starting from Fort Detroit, designed to loosen British control around American-held Fort Niagara and destroy the British supply lines from Montreal.", "These actions would gain leverage for concessions to protect American shipping in the Atlantic.", "Without a standing army, Madison counted on regular state militias to rally to the flag and invade Canada: still, governors in the Northeast failed to cooperate.", "The British army was more organized, used professional soldiers, and fostered an alliance with Native American tribes led by Tecumseh.", "On August 16, during the British siege of Detroit, Major General William Hull panicked, after the British fired on the fort, killing two American officers.", "Terrified of an Indian attack, drinking heavily, Hull quickly ordered a white tablecloth out a window and unconditionally surrendered Fort Detroit and his entire army to British Major-General Sir Issac Brock.", "Hull was court-martialed for cowardness, but Madison intervened and saved him from being shot.", "On October 13, a separate force from the United States was defeated at Queenston Heights, although Brock was killed.", "Commanding General Henry Dearborn, hampered by mutinous New England infantry, retreated to winter quarters near Albany, failing to destroy Montreal's vulnerable British supply lines.", "Lacking adequate revenue to fund the war, the Madison administration was forced to rely on high-interest loans furnished by bankers based in New York City and Philadelphia.In the 1812 presidential election, held during the early stages of the war, Madison was re-nominated without opposition.", "A dissident group of New York Democratic-Republicans nominated DeWitt Clinton, the lieutenant governor of New York and a nephew of recently deceased Vice President George Clinton, to oppose Madison in the 1812 election.", "This faction of Democratic-Republicans hoped to unseat the president by forging a coalition among Democratic-Republicans opposed to the coming war, as well as those party faithful angry with Madison for not moving more decisively toward war, northerners weary of the Virginia dynasty and southern control of the White House, and many New Englanders wanted Madison replaced.", "Dismayed about their prospects of beating Madison, a group of top Federalists met with Clinton's supporters to discuss a unification strategy.", "Difficult as it was for them to join forces, they nominated Clinton for President and Jared Ingersoll, a Philadelphia lawyer, for vice president.", "Hoping to shore up his support in the Northeast, where the War of 1812 was unpopular, Madison selected Governor Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts as his running mate, though Gerry would only survive two years after the election due to advanced old age.", "Despite the maneuverings of Clinton and the Federalists, Madison won re-election, though by the narrowest margin of any election since that of 1800 in the popular vote as later supported by the electoral vote as well.", "He received 128 electoral votes to 89 for Clinton.", "With Clinton winning most of the Northeast, Madison won Pennsylvania in addition to having swept the South and the West which ensured his victory.U.S.", "Capitol among other buildings in the capital while Madison was President on August 24, 1814.\|alt=British action against Madison in 1814.After the disastrous start to the war, Madison accepted Russia's invitation to arbitrate and sent a delegation led by Gallatin and John Quincy Adams (the first son of former President John Adams) to Europe to negotiate a peace treaty.", "While Madison worked to end the war, the United States experienced some impressive naval successes, by the and other warships, that boosted American morale.", "Victorious in the Battle of Lake Erie, the U.S. crippled the supply and reinforcement of British military forces in the western theater of the war.", "In the aftermath of the Battle of Lake Erie, General William Henry Harrison defeated the forces of the British and of Tecumseh's confederacy at the Battle of the Thames.", "The death of Tecumseh in that battle marked the permanent end of armed Native American resistance in the Old Northwest and any hope of a united Indian nation.", "In March 1814, Major General Andrew Jackson broke the resistance of the British-allied Muscogee Creek in the Old Southwest with his victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.", "Despite those successes, the British continued to repel American attempts to invade Canada, and a British force captured Fort Niagara and burned the American city of Buffalo in late 1813.alt=Military action in New Orleans under Madison.On August 24, 1814, the British landed a large force on the shores of Chesapeake Bay and routed General William Winder's army at the Battle of Bladensburg.", "Madison, who had earlier inspected Winder's army, escaped British capture by fleeing to Virginia on a fresh horse, though the British captured Washington and burned many of its buildings, including the White House.", "Escaping capture by the British, Dolley had abandoned the capital and fled to Virginia, but only after securing the portrait of George Washington.", "The charred remains of the capital signified a humiliating defeat for James Madison and America.", "On August 27, Madison returned to Washington to view the carnage of the city.", "Dolley returned the next day, and on September 8, the Madisons moved into the Octagon House.", "The British army next advanced on Baltimore, but the U.S. repelled the British attack in the Battle of Baltimore, and the British army departed from the Chesapeake region in September.", "That same month, U.S. forces repelled a British invasion from Canada with a victory at the Battle of Plattsburgh.", "The British public began to turn against the war in North America, and British leaders began to look for a quick exit from the conflict.In January 1815, Jackson's troops defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans.", "Just more than a month later, Madison learned that his negotiators led by John Quincy Adams had concluded the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, which ended the war.Madison quickly sent the treaty to the Senate, which ratified it on February 16, 1815.Although the overall result of the war ended in a standoff, the quick succession of events at the end of the war, including the burning of the capital, the Battle of New Orleans, and the Treaty of Ghent, made it appear as though American valor at New Orleans had forced the British to surrender.", "This view, while inaccurate, strongly contributed to bolstering Madison's reputation as president.", "Native Americans lost the most, including their land and independence.", "Napoleon's defeat at the June 1815 Battle of Waterloo brought a final close to the Napoleonic Wars and thus an end to the hostile seizure of American shipping by British and French forces.===Postwar period and decline of the Federalist opposition===The postwar period of Madison's second term saw the transition into the \"Era of Good Feelings\" between mid-1815 and 1817, with the Federalists experiencing a further decline in influence.", "During the war, delegates from the New England states held the Hartford Convention, where they asked for several amendments to the Constitution.", "Though the Hartford Convention did not explicitly call for the secession of New England, the Convention became an adverse political millstone around the Federalist Party as general American sentiment had moved towards a celebrated unity among the states in what they saw as a successful \"second war of independence\" from Britain.Madison hastened the decline of the Federalists by adopting several programs he had previously opposed.", "Recognizing the difficulties of financing the war and the necessity of an institution to regulate American currency, Madison proposed the re-establishment of a national bank.", "He also called for increased spending on the army and the navy, a tariff designed to protect American goods from foreign competition, and a constitutional amendment authorizing the federal government to fund the construction of internal improvements such as roads and canals.", "Madison's initiatives to now act on behalf of a national bank appeared to reverse his earlier opposition to Hamilton and were opposed by strict constructionists such as John Randolph, who stated that Madison's proposals now \"out-Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton\".", "Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history.", "Congress granted the Second Bank of the United States a twenty-five-year charter and passed the Tariff of 1816, which set high import duties for all goods that were produced outside the United States.", "Madison approved federal spending on the Cumberland Road, which provided a link to the country's western lands; still, in his last act before leaving office, he blocked further federal spending on internal improvements by vetoing the Bonus Bill of 1817 arguing that it unduly exceeded the limits of the General Welfare Clause concerning such improvements.===Native American policy===alt=Tippecanoe and Native American Policy under Madison.Upon becoming president, Madison said the federal government's duty was to convert Native Americans by the \"participation of the improvements of which the human mind and manners are susceptible in a civilized state\".", "In 1809, General Harrison began to push for a treaty to open more land for white American settlement.", "The Miami, Wea, and Kickapoo were vehemently opposed to selling any more land around the Wabash River.", "To motivate those groups to sell their land, Harrison decided, against the wishes of Madison, to first conclude a treaty with the tribes who were willing to sell and use those treaties to help influence those who held out.", "In September 1809, Harrison invited the Potawatomie, Delaware, Eel Rivers, and the Miami to a meeting in Fort Wayne.", "During the negotiations, Harrison promised large subsidies and direct payments to the tribes if they would cede the other lands under discussion.", "On September 30, 1809, little more than six months into his first term, Madison agreed to the Treaty of Fort Wayne, negotiated and signed by Indiana Territory's Governor Harrison.", "In the treaty, the American Indian tribes were compensated $5,200 () in goods and $500 in cash (), with $250 in annual payments (), in return for the cession of 3 million acres of land (approximately 12,140 square kilometers) with incentivized subsidies paid to individual tribes for exerting their influence over less cooperative tribes.", "The treaty angered Shawnee leader Tecumseh, who said, \"Sell a country!", "Why not sell the air, the clouds and the great sea, as well as the earth?\"", "Harrison responded that tribes were the owners of their land and could sell it to whomever they wished.Like Jefferson, Madison had a paternalistic attitude toward American Indians, encouraging them to become farmers.", "Madison believed the adoption of European-style agriculture would help Native Americans assimilate the values of British–U.S.", "civilization.", "As pioneers and settlers moved West into large tracts of Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw territory, Madison ordered the U.S. Army to protect Native lands from intrusion by settlers.", "This was done to the chagrin of his military commander Andrew Jackson, who wanted Madison to ignore Indian pleas to stop the invasion of their lands.", "Tensions continued to mount between the United States and Tecumseh over the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne, which ultimately led to Tecumseh's alliance with the British and the Battle of Tippecanoe, on November 7, 1811, in the Northwest Territory.", "The divisions among the Native American leaders were bitter and before leaving the discussions, Tecumseh informed Harrison that unless the terms of the negotiated treaty were largely nullified, he would seek an alliance with the British.The situation continued to escalate, eventually leading to the outbreak of hostilities between Tecumseh's followers and American settlers later that year.", "Tensions continued to rise, leading to the Battle of Tippecanoe during a period sometimes called Tecumseh's War.", "Tecumseh was defeated and Indians were pushed off their tribal lands, replaced entirely by white settlers.", "In addition to the Battle of the Thames and the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, other wars with American Indians took place, including the Peoria War, and the Creek War.", "Negotiated by Jackson, in the aftermath of the Creek War, the Treaty of Fort Jackson of August 9, 1814, added approximately 23 million acres of land to the United States (93,000 square kilometers) in Georgia and Alabama.", "Privately, Madison did not believe American Indians could be fully assimilated to the values of Euro-American culture.", "He believed that Native Americans may have been unwilling to make \"the transition from the hunter, or even the herdsman state, to the agriculture\".", "Madison feared that Native Americans had too great an influence on the settlers they interacted with, who in his view was \"irresistibly attracted by that complete liberty, that freedom from bonds, obligations, duties, that absence of care and anxiety which characterize the savage state\".", "Later in Madison's term, in March 1816, Madison's Secretary of War William Crawford advocated for the government to encourage intermarriages between Native Americans and whites as a way of assimilating the former.", "This prompted public outrage and exacerbated anti-indigenous bigotry among white Americans, as seen in hostile letters sent to Madison, who remained publicly silent on the issue.===Election of 1816===In the 1816 presidential election, Madison and Jefferson both favored the candidacy of Secretary of State James Monroe, who defeated Secretary of War William H. Crawford in the party's congressional nominating caucus.", "As the Federalist Party continued to collapse, Monroe easily defeated Federalist candidate, New York Senator Rufus King, in the 1816 election.", "Madison left office as a popular president; former president Adams wrote that Madison had \"acquired more glory, and established more union, than all his three predecessors, Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, put together\"." ], [ "Post-presidency (1817–1836)", "''Portrait of James Madison'' after the completion of his two terms as president 1821, by alt=Stuart portrait of Madison in 1821.When Madison left office in 1817 at age 65, he retired to Montpelier, not far from Jefferson's Monticello.", "As with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when he came in.", "His plantation experienced a steady financial collapse, due to price declines in tobacco and his stepson's mismanagement.", "In his retirement, Madison occasionally became involved in public affairs, advising Andrew Jackson and other presidents.", "He remained out of the public debate over the Missouri Compromise, though he privately complained about the North's opposition to the extension of slavery.", "Madison had warm relations with all four of the major candidates in the 1824 presidential election, but, like Jefferson, largely stayed out of the race.", "During Jackson's presidency, Madison publicly disavowed the Nullification movement and argued that no state had the right to secede.", "Madison also helped Jefferson establish the University of Virginia.", "In 1826, after the death of Jefferson, Madison was appointed as the second rector of the university.", "He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years until his death in 1836.In 1829, at the age of 78, Madison was chosen as a representative to the Virginia Constitutional Convention for revision of the commonwealth's constitution.", "It was his last appearance as a statesman.", "Apportionment of adequate representation was the central issue at the convention for the western districts of Virginia.", "The increased population in the Piedmont and western parts of the state were not proportionately represented in the legislature.", "Western reformers also wanted to extend suffrage to all white men, in place of the prevailing property ownership requirement.", "Madison made modest gains but was disappointed at the failure of Virginians to extend suffrage to all white men.In his later years, Madison became highly concerned about his historical legacy.", "He resorted to modifying letters and other documents in his possession, changing days and dates, and adding and deleting words and sentences.", "By his late seventies, Madison's self-editing of his own archived letters and older materials had become almost an obsession.", "As an example, he edited a letter written to Jefferson criticizing Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette; Madison not only inked out original passages but in other correspondence he even forged Jefferson's handwriting.", "Historian Drew R. McCoy wrote that \"During the final six years of his life, amid a sea of personal financial troubles that were threatening to engulf him ... At times mental agitation issued in physical collapse.", "For the better part of a year in 1831 and 1832 he was bedridden, if not silenced ...", "Literally sick with anxiety, he began to despair of his ability to make himself understood by his fellow citizens.", "\"=== Death ===Madison's health slowly deteriorated through the early-to-mid-1830s.", "Approaching the Fourth of July, he died of congestive heart failure at Montpelier on the morning of June 28, 1836, at the age of 85.According to one common account of his final moments, he was given his breakfast, which he tried eating but was unable to swallow.", "His favorite niece, who sat by to keep him company, asked him, \"What is the matter, Uncle James?\"", "Madison died immediately after he replied, \"Nothing more than a change of mind, my dear.\"", "He was buried in the family cemetery at Montpelier.", "He was one of the last prominent members of the Revolutionary War generation to die.", "His last will and testament left significant sums to the American Colonization Society, Princeton, and the University of Virginia, as well as $30,000 ($897,000 in 2021) to his wife, Dolley.", "Left with a smaller sum than James had intended, Dolley suffered financial troubles until her death in 1849.In the 1840s Dolley sold Montpelier, its remaining slaves, and the furnishings to pay off outstanding debts.", "Paul Jennings, one of Madison's younger slaves, later recalled in his memoir,In the last days of her life, before Congress purchased her husband's papers, she was in a state of absolute poverty, and I think sometimes suffered for the necessaries of life.", "While I was a servant to Mr. Webster, he often sent me to her with a market-basket full of provisions, and told me whenever I saw anything in the house that I thought she was in need of, to take it to her.", "I often did this, and occasionally gave her small sums from my own pocket, though I had years before bought my freedom of her." ], [ "Political and religious views", "===Federalism===During his first stint in Congress in the 1780s, Madison came to favor amending the Articles of Confederation to provide for a stronger central government.", "In the 1790s, he led the opposition to Hamilton's centralizing policies and the Alien and Sedition Acts.", "Madison's support of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in the 1790s has been referred to as \"a breathtaking evolution for a man who had pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws\".===Religion===Although baptized as an Anglican and educated by Presbyterian clergymen, young Madison was an avid reader of English deist tracts.", "As an adult, Madison paid little attention to religious matters.", "Though most historians have found little indication of his religious leanings after he left college, some scholars indicate he leaned toward deism.", "Others maintain that Madison accepted Christian tenets and formed his outlook on life with a Christian worldview.", "Regardless of his own religious beliefs, Madison believed in religious liberty, and he advocated for Virginia's disestablishment of religious institutions sponsored by the state.", "He also opposed the appointments of chaplains for Congress and the armed forces, arguing that the appointments produce religious exclusion as well as political disharmony." ], [ "Slavery", "Throughout his life, Madison's views on slavery were conflicted.", "He was born into a plantation society that relied on slave labor, and both sides of his family profited from tobacco farming.", "While he viewed slavery as essential to the Southern economy, he was troubled by the instability of a society that depended on a large slave population.", "Madison also believed slavery was incompatible with American Revolutionary principles, though he owned over one hundred African American slaves.===History===Madison grew up on Montpelier, his family's plantation in Virginia.", "Like other southern plantations, Montpelier depended on slave labor.", "When Madison left for college on August 10, 1769, he arrived at Princeton accompanied by his slave Sawney, who was charged with Madison's expenses and with relaying messages to his family back home.", "In 1783, fearing the possibility of a slave rebellion at Montpelier, Madison emancipated one slave, Billey, selling him into a seven-year apprentice contract.", "After his manumission, Billey changed his name to William Gardner, married and had a family, and became a shipping agent, representing Madison in Philadelphia.", "In 1795, Gardner was swept overboard and drowned on a voyage to New Orleans.", "Madison inherited Montpelier and its more than one hundred slaves, after his father's death in 1801.That same year, Madison was appointed Secretary of State by President Jefferson, and he moved to Washington D.C., running Montpelier from afar making no effort to free his slaves.", "After his election to the presidency in 1808, Madison brought his slaves to the White House.", "During the 1820s and 1830s, Madison sold some of his land and slaves to repay debt.", "In 1836, at the time of Madison's death, he owned 36 taxable slaves.", "In his will, Madison gave his remaining slaves to his wife Dolley and charged her not to sell the slaves without their permission.", "For reasons of necessity, Dolley did not comply and sold the slaves without their permission to pay off debts.===Treatment of slaves===As was consistent with the \"established social norms of Virginia society\", Madison was known from his farm papers for advocating the humane treatment of his slaves at Montpelier.", "He instructed an overseer to \"treat the Negroes with all the humanity and kindness consistent with their necessary subordination and work.\"", "Madison also ensured that his slaves had milk cows and meals for their daily food.", "By the 1790s, Madison's slave Sawney was an overseer of part of the plantation.", "Madison ordered Sawney by letter to ready fields for growing apples, corn, tobacco, and Irish potatoes.", "Like Sawney, some slaves at Montpelier could read.", "Enslaved people at Montpelier worked six days a week from dawn to dusk, with a mid-day break, and got Sundays off.", "Paul Jennings was a slave of the Madisons for 48 years.", "Jennings, born into slavery in 1799 at the Montpelier plantation, served as Madison's footman at the White House.", "In his memoir ''A Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison'', published in 1865, Jennings said that he \"never knew Madison to strike a slave, although he had over one hundred; neither would he allow an overseer to do it.\"", "As a house slave, Jennings had a basic education and was literate, taught in mathematics, and played the violin.", "Although Jennings condemned slavery, he said that James was \"one of the best men that ever lived\", and that Dolley was \"a remarkably fine woman.", "\"=== Views on slavery ===Madison called slavery \"the most oppressive dominion\" that ever existed, and he had a \"lifelong abhorrence\" for it.", "In 1785 Madison spoke in the Virginia Assembly favoring a bill that Thomas Jefferson had proposed for the gradual abolition of slavery, and he also helped defeat a bill designed to outlaw the manumission of individual slaves.", "As a slaveholder, Madison was aware that owning slaves was not consistent with revolutionary values, but, as a pragmatist, this sort of self-contradiction was a common feature in his political career.", "Historian Drew R. McCoy said that Madison's antislavery principles were indeed \"impeccable.\"", "Historian Ralph Ketcham said, \"although Madison abhorred slavery, he nonetheless bore the burden of depending all his life on a slave system that he could never square with his republican beliefs.\"", "There is no evidence Madison thought black people were inferior.", "Madison believed blacks and whites were unlikely to co-exist peacefully due to \"the prejudices of the whites\" as well as feelings on both sides \"inspired by their former relation as oppressors and oppressed.\"", "As such, he became interested in the idea of freedmen establishing colonies in Africa and later served as the president of the American Colonization Society, which relocated former slaves to Liberia.", "Madison believed that this solution offered a gradual, long-term, but potentially feasible means of eradicating slavery in the United States.", "Madison nevertheless thought that peaceful co-existence between the two racial groups could eventually be achieved in the long run.Madison initially opposed the Constitution's 20-year protection of the foreign slave trade, but he eventually accepted it as a necessary compromise to get the South to ratify the document.", "He also proposed that apportionment in the House of Representatives be according to each state's free and enslaved population, eventually leading to the adoption of the Three-fifths Compromise.", "Madison supported the extension of slavery into the West during the Missouri crisis of 1819–1821, asserting that the spread of slavery would not lead to more slaves, but rather diminish their generative increase through dispersing them, thus substantially improving their condition, accelerating emancipation, easing racial tensions, and increasing \"partial manumissions.\"", "Madison thought of slaves as \"wayward (but still educable) students in need of regular guidance.\"", "According to historian Paris Spies-Gans, Madison's anti-slavery thought was strongest \"at the height of Revolutionary politics.", "But by the early 1800s, when in a position to truly impact policy, he failed to follow through on these views.\"", "Spies-Gans concluded, \"ultimately, Madison's personal dependence on slavery led him to question his own, once enlightened, definition of liberty itself.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "===Historical reputation===alt=Madison portrait in advanced age.Regarded as one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, Madison had a wide influence on the founding of the nation and upon the early development of American constitutional government and foreign policy.", "Historian J.C.A.", "Stagg writes that \"in some ways—because he was on the winning side of every important issue facing the young nation from 1776 to 1816—Madison was the most successful and possibly the most influential of all the Founding Fathers.\"", "Though he helped found a major political party and served as the fourth president, his legacy has largely been defined by his contributions to the Constitution; even in his own life he was hailed as the \"Father of the Constitution\".", "Law professor Noah Feldman writes that Madison \"invented and theorized the modern ideal of an expanded, federal constitution that combines local self-government with an overarching national order\".", "Feldman adds that Madison's \"model of liberty-protecting constitutional government\" is \"the most influential American idea in global political history\".", "Various rankings of historians and political scientists tend to rank Madison as an above average president with a 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranking Madison as the twelfth best president.Various historians have criticized Madison's tenure as president.", "In 1968, Henry Steele Commager and Richard B. Morris said the conventional view of Madison was of an \"incapable President\" who \"mismanaged an unnecessary war\".", "A 2006 poll of historians ranked Madison's failure to prevent the War of 1812 as the sixth-worst mistake made by a sitting president.", "Regarding Madison's consistency and adaptability of policy-making during his many years of political activity, historian Gordon S. Wood says that Lance Banning, as in his ''Sacred Fire of Liberty'' (1995), is the \"only present-day scholar to maintain that Madison did not change his views in the 1790s\".During and after the War of 1812, Madison came to support several of the policies that he opposed in the 1790s, including the national bank, a strong navy, and direct taxes.", "Wood notes that many historians struggle to understand Madison, but Wood looks at him in the terms of Madison's own times—as a nationalist but one with a different conception of nationalism than that of the Federalists.", "Gary Rosen uses other approaches to suggest Madison's consistency.", "Historian Garry Wills wrote, \"Madison's claim on our admiration does not rest on a perfect consistency, any more than it rests on his presidency.", "He has other virtues.", "... As a framer and defender of the Constitution he had no peer.", "... No man could do everything for the country—not even Washington.", "Madison did more than most, and did some things better than any.", "That was quite enough.", "\"===Popular culture===Madison, portrayed by Burgess Meredith, is a key protagonist in the 1946 Hollywood film ''Magnificent Doll'', which focuses on a fictionalized account of Dolley Madison's romantic life.", "Madison is also portrayed in the popular musical ''Hamilton'', played by Joshua Henry in the original 2013 Vassar version and then revised by Okieriete Onaodowan for the 2015 Broadway opening.", "In the Broadway musical, Madison, joined by Jefferson and Burr, confront Hamilton about his ''affaire de cœur'' in the Reynolds affair by intoning the rap lyrics to the song \"We Know\".", "Onaodowan won a Grammy Award for his portrayal of Madison.===Memorials===Montpelier, the Madison family's plantation, has been designated a National Historic Landmark.", "The James Madison Memorial Building is part of the United States Library of Congress and serves as the official memorial to Madison.", "In 1986, Congress created the James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation as part of the bicentennial celebration of the Constitution.", "Other memorials include Madison, Wisconsin and Madison County, Alabama which were both named for Madison, as were Madison Square Garden, James Madison University, and the USS ''James Madison''.", "In 2021, the Madison Metropolitan School District renamed James Madison Memorial High School following community opposition to commemorating someone who used slave labor." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * At Internet Archive.", "* * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * " ], [ "External links", " Scholarly coverage of Madison at Miller Center, U of Virginia * James Madison: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 24" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===41 – Claudius is proclaimed Roman emperor by the Praetorian Guard after they assassinate the previous emperor, his nephew Caligula.", " 914 – Start of the First Fatimid invasion of Egypt.", "1438 – The Council of Basel suspends Pope Eugene IV.", "1458 – Matthias Corvinus is elected King of Hungary.", "1536 – King Henry VIII of England suffers an accident while jousting, leading to a brain injury that historians say may have influenced his later erratic behaviour and possible impotence.===1601–1900===1651 – Arauco War: Spanish and Mapuche authorities meet in the Parliament of Boroa renewing the fragile peace established at the parliaments of Quillín in 1641 and 1647.", "1679 – King Charles II of England dissolves the Cavalier Parliament.", "1742 – Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor.", "1758 – During the Seven Years' War the leading burghers of Königsberg submit to Elizabeth of Russia, thus forming Russian Prussia (until 1763).", "1817 – Crossing of the Andes: Many soldiers of Juan Gregorio de las Heras are captured during the action of Picheuta.", "1835 – Slaves in Salvador da Bahia, Brazil, stage a revolt, which is instrumental in ending slavery there 50 years later.", "1848 – California Gold Rush: James W. Marshall finds gold at Sutter's Mill near Sacramento.", "1857 – The University of Calcutta is formally founded as the first fully fledged university in South Asia.", "1859 – The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (later named Romania) is formed as a personal union under the rule of Domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza.", "1900 – Second Boer War: Boers stop a British attempt to break the Siege of Ladysmith in the Battle of Spion Kop.===1901–present===1908 – The first Boy Scout troop is organized in England by Robert Baden-Powell.", "1915 – World War I: British Grand Fleet battle cruisers under Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty engage Rear-Admiral Franz von Hipper's battle cruisers in the Battle of Dogger Bank.", "1916 – In ''Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co.'', the Supreme Court of the United States declares the federal income tax constitutional.", "1918 – The Gregorian calendar is introduced in Russia by decree of the Council of People's Commissars effective February 14 (New Style).", "1933 – The 20th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, changing the beginning and end of terms for all elected federal offices.", "1935 – Gottfried Krueger Brewing Company starts selling the first canned beer.", "1939 – The deadliest earthquake in Chilean history strikes Chillán, killing approximately 28,000 people.", "1942 – World War II: The Allies bombard Bangkok, leading Thailand, then under Japanese control, to declare war against the United States and United Kingdom.", "1943 – World War II: Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill conclude a conference in Casablanca.", "1946 – The United Nations General Assembly passes its first resolution to establish the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission.", "1960 – Algerian War: Some units of European volunteers in Algiers stage an insurrection known as the \"barricades week\", during which they seize government buildings and clash with local police.", "1961 – Goldsboro B-52 crash: A bomber carrying two H-bombs breaks up in mid-air over North Carolina.", "The uranium core of one weapon remains lost.", "1966 – Air India Flight 101 crashes into Mont Blanc.", "1968 – Vietnam War: The 1st Australian Task Force launches Operation Coburg against the North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong during wider fighting around Long Bình and Biên Hòa.", "1972 – Japanese Sgt.", "Shoichi Yokoi is found hiding in a Guam jungle, where he had been since the end of World War II.", "1977 – The Atocha massacre occurs in Madrid during the Spanish transition to democracy.", "1978 – Soviet satellite Kosmos 954, with a nuclear reactor on board, burns up in Earth's atmosphere, scattering radioactive debris over Canada's Northwest Territories.", "Only 1% is recovered.", "1984 – Apple Computer places the Macintosh personal computer on sale in the United States.", "1986 – The Voyager 2 space probe makes its closest approach to Uranus.", "1987 – About 20,000 protestors march in a civil rights demonstration in Forsyth County, Georgia, United States.", "1989 – Notorious serial killer Ted Bundy, with over 30 known victims, is executed by the electric chair at the Florida State Prison.", "1990 – Japan launches Hiten, the country's first lunar probe, the first robotic lunar probe since the Soviet Union's Luna 24 in 1976, and the first lunar probe launched by a country other than Soviet Union or the United States.", "2003 – The United States Department of Homeland Security officially begins operation.", "2009 – Cyclone Klaus makes landfall near Bordeaux, France, causing 26 deaths as well as extensive disruptions to public transport and power supplies.", "2011 – At least 35 are killed and 180 injured in a bombing at Moscow's Domodedovo Airport.", "2018 – Former doctor Larry Nassar is sentenced up to 175 years in prison after being found guilty of using his position to sexually abuse female gymnasts." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===76 – Hadrian, Roman emperor (d. 138)1287 – Richard de Bury, English bishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1345)1444 – Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1476)1547 – Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Austrian Archduchess (d. 1578)===1601–1900===1602 – Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland, English politician (d. 1666)1619 – Yamazaki Ansai, Japanese philosopher (d. 1682)1643 – Charles Sackville, 6th Earl of Dorset, English poet and politician, Lord Chamberlain of Great Britain (d. 1706)1664 – John Vanbrugh, English architect and dramatist (d. 1726)1670 – William Congreve, English playwright and poet (d. 1729)1672 – Margrave Albert Frederick of Brandenburg-Schwedt, German Lieutenant General (d. 1731)1674 – Thomas Tanner, English bishop (d. 1735)1679 – Christian Wolff, German philosopher and academic (d. 1754)1684 – Charles Alexander, Duke of Württemberg, German noble (d. 1737)1705 – Farinelli, Italian castrato singer (d. 1782)1709 – Dom Bédos de Celles, French monk and organist (d. 1779)1712 – Frederick the Great, Prussian king (d. 1786)1732 – Pierre Beaumarchais, French playwright and financier (d. 1799)1739 – Jean Nicolas Houchard, French General of the French Revolution (d. 1793)1746 – Gustav III of Sweden (d. 1792)1749 – Charles James Fox, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (d. 1806)1754 – Andrew Ellicott, American soldier and surveyor (d. 1820)1761 – Louis Klein, French general (d. 1845)1763 – Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron, French-Ukrainian general and politician (d. 1831)1776 – E. T. A. Hoffmann, German jurist, author, and composer (d. 1822)1787 – Christian Ludwig Brehm, German pastor and ornithologist (d. 1864)1804 – Delphine de Girardin, French author (d. 1855)1814 – Duchess Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, French Crown Princess (d. 1858)* 1814 – John Colenso, British mathematician (d. 1883)1816 – Wilhelm Henzen, German philologist and epigraphist (d. 1887)1828 – Ferdinand Cohn, German biologist (d. 1898)1829 – Yechiel Michel Epstein, Rabbi and posek (d. 1908)1836 – Signe Rink, Greenland-born Danish writer and ethnologist (d. 1909)1843 – Josip Stadler, Croatian archbishop (d. 1918)1848 – Vasily Surikov, Russian painter (d. 1916)1850 – Hermann Ebbinghaus, German psychologist (d. 1909)1853 – Sigbert Josef Maria Ganser, German psychiatrist (d. 1931)1856 – Friedrich Grünanger, Transylvanian Hungarian-German architect (d. 1929)1858 – Constance Naden, English poet and philosopher (d. 1889)1862 – Edith Wharton, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1937)1863 – August Adler, Czech and Austrian mathematician (d. 1923)1864 – Marguerite Durand, French actress, journalist, and activist (d. 1936) 1864 – Gaetano Giardino, Italian soldier and Marshal of Italy (d. 1935)1866 – Jaan Poska, Estonian lawyer and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1920)1869 – Helena Maud Brown Cobb, American educator and missionary (d. 1922)1870 – Herbert Kilpin, English footballer (d. 1916)1871 – Jiří Karásek ze Lvovic, Czech poet, writer and literary critic (d. 1951)* 1871 – Thomas Jaggar, American volcanologist (d. 1953)1872 – Yuly Aykhenvald, Russian literary critic (d. 1928) 1872 – Konstantin Bogaevsky, Russian painter (d. 1943)* 1872 – Morris Travers, English chemist and academic (d. 1961)1873 – Dmitry Ushakov, Russian philologist and lexicographer (d. 1942)1882 – Harold D. Babcock, American astronomer (d. 1968)* 1882 – Ödön Bodor, Hungarian athlete (d. 1927)1886 – Henry King, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1982)1887 – Jean-Henri Humbert, French botanist (d. 1967)1888 – Vicki Baum, Austrian author and screenwriter (d. 1960) 1888 – Ernst Heinkel, German engineer and businessman, founded the Heinkel Aircraft Manufacturing Company (d. 1958)1889 – Victor Eftimiu, Romanian poet and playwright (d. 1972) 1889 – Charles Hawes, American historian and author (d. 1923)* 1889 – Hermann-Bernhard Ramcke, German general of paratroop forces during World War II (d. 1968)1891 – Walter Model, German field marshal (d. 1945)1892 – Franz Aigner, Austrian weightlifter (d. 1970)1895 – Eugen Roth, German poet and songwriter (d. 1976)1897 – Paul Fejos, Hungarian-born American director (d. 1963)1899 – Hoyt Vandenberg, U.S. Air Force general (d. 1954) 1900 – René Guillot, French writer (d. 1969)===1901–present===1901 – Harry Calder, South African cricketer (d. 1995) 1901 – Cassandre, French painter (d. 1968)* 1901 – Edward Turner, English engineer (d. 1973)1905 – J. Howard Marshall, American lawyer and businessman (d. 1995)1906 – Wilfred Jackson, American animator and composer (d. 1988)1907 – Maurice Couve de Murville, French soldier and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1999) 1907 – Jean Daetwyler, Swiss composer and musician (d. 1994)* 1907 – Ismail Nasiruddin of Terengganu, fourth Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia (d. 1979)1909 – Martin Lings, English author and scholar (d. 2005) 1909 – Ester Šimerová-Martinčeková, Slovak painter (d. 2005)1910 – Doris Haddock, American political activist (d. 2010)1912 – Frederick Ashworth, American admiral (d. 2005)1913 – Norman Dello Joio, American organist and composer (d. 2008)1915 – Vítězslava Kaprálová, Czech composer and conductor (d. 1940)* 1915 – Robert Motherwell, American painter and academic (d. 1991)1916 – Rafael Caldera, Venezuelan lawyer and politician, 65th President of Venezuela (d. 2009) 1916 – Gene Mako, Hungarian-American tennis player and actor (d. 2013)1917 – Ernest Borgnine, American actor (d. 2012) 1917 – Wilhelmus Demarteau, Dutch prelate of the Roman Catholic Church (d. 2012)1918 – Oral Roberts, American evangelist, founded Oral Roberts University and Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association (d. 2009) 1918 – Gottfried von Einem, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1996)1919 – Coleman Francis, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1973) 1919 – Leon Kirchner, American composer and educator (d. 2009)1920 – Jimmy Forrest, American saxophonist (d. 1980) 1920 – Jerry Maren, American actor (d. 2018)1922 – Daniel Boulanger, French actor and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1922 – Neil Franklin, English footballer (d. 1996)1924 – Brian Bevan, Australian rugby league player (d. 1991) 1924 – Karpoori Thakur, Indian politician, 11th Chief Minister of Bihar (d. 1988)1925 – Gus Mortson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015) 1925 – Maria Tallchief, American ballerina and actress (d. 2013)1926 – Ruth Asawa, American sculptor (d. 2013) 1926 – Georges Lautner, French director and screenwriter (d. 2013)1927 – Paula Hawkins, American politician (d. 2009)1928 – Desmond Morris, English zoologist, ethologist, and painter* 1928 – Michel Serrault, French actor (d. 2007)1930 – Terence Bayler, New Zealand actor (d. 2016) 1930 – Mahmoud Farshchian, Iranian-Persian painter and academic* 1930 – John Romita Sr., American comic book artist (d. 2023)1931 – Lars Hörmander, Swedish mathematician and academic (d. 2012) 1931 – Ib Nørholm, Danish composer and organist (d. 2019)1932 – Éliane Radigue, French electronic music composer1933 – Kamran Baghirov, the 12th First Secretary of Azerbaijan Communist Party (d. 2000)* 1933 – Asim Ferhatović, Bosnian footballer (d. 1987)1934 – Leonard Goldberg, American producer (d. 2019) 1934 – Stanisław Grochowiak, Polish poet and dramatist (d. 1976)1935 – Shivabalayogi, Indian religious leader (d. 1994)1936 – Doug Kershaw, American fiddle player and singer1937 – Trevor Edwards, Welsh footballer1938 – Julius Hemphill, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1995)1939 – Renate Garisch-Culmberger, German shot putter (d. 2023) 1939 – Ray Stevens, American singer-songwriter and actor1940 – Vito Acconci, American designer (d. 2017) 1940 – Joachim Gauck, German pastor and politician, 11th President of Germany1941 – Neil Diamond, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1941 – Aaron Neville, American singer * 1941 – Dan Shechtman, Israeli chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1942 – Ingo Friedrich, German Member of the European Parliament 1942 – Gary Hart, American wrestler and manager (d. 2008)1943 – Barry Mealand, English footballer (d. 2013) 1943 – Peter Struck, German lawyer and politician, 13th German Federal Minister of Defence (d. 2012)* 1943 – Sharon Tate, American model and actress (d. 1969)* 1943 – Tony Trimmer, English race car driver* 1943 – Manuel Velázquez, Spanish footballer (d. 2016)1944 – David Gerrold, American science fiction screenwriter and author 1944 – Gian-Franco Kasper, Swiss ski official (d. 2021)1945 – John Garamendi, American football player and politician, 1st United States Deputy Secretary of the Interior 1945 – Subhash Ghai, Indian director, producer and screenwriter* 1945 – Eva Janko, Austrian javelin thrower1946 – Michael Ontkean, Canadian actor1947 – Giorgio Chinaglia, Italian footballer (d. 2012)* 1947 – Michio Kaku, American physicist and academic* 1947 – Masashi Ozaki, Japanese baseball player and golfer* 1947 – Warren Zevon, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003)1948 – Michael Des Barres, the 26th Marquis Des Barres, English musician, actor, and DJ1949 – John Belushi, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1982)* 1949 – Bart Gordon, American lawyer* 1949 – Nadezhda Ilyina, Russian athlete and mother of Russian tennis player Nadia Petrova (d. 2013)* 1949 – Rihoko Yoshida, Japanese voice actress1950 – Daniel Auteuil, French actor, director, and screenwriter1951 – Yakov Smirnoff, Ukrainian-American comedian and actor1953 – Yuri Bashmet, Russian violinist, viola player, and conductor 1953 – Moon Jae-in, South Korean politician, 19th President of South Korea1954 – Jo Gartner, Austrian race car driver (d. 1986)1955 – Jim Montgomery, American swimmer* 1955 – Alan Sokal, American physicist and author* 1955 – Lynda Weinman, American businesswoman and author1956 – Agus Martowardojo, governor of Bank Indonesia1957 – Mark Eaton, American basketball player and sportscaster (d. 2021)* 1957 – Ade Edmondson, English comedian and musician1958 – Kim Eui-kon, Korean wrestler (d. 2014) 1958 – Jools Holland, English singer-songwriter and pianist* 1958 – Frank Ullrich, German biathlete1959 – Akira Maeda, Japanese wrestler, mixed martial artist, and actor 1959 – Michel Preud'homme, Belgian footballer and manager1960 – Jack Neo, Singaporean filmmaker, director and actor1961 – Jorge Barrios, Uruguayan footballer* 1961 – Guido Buchwald, German footballer and manager* 1961 – Christa Kinshofer, German ski racer* 1961 – Nastassja Kinski, German-American actress and producer* 1961 – William Van Dijck, Belgian runner1963 – Arnold Vanderlyde, Dutch boxer1965 – Mike Awesome, American wrestler (d. 2007)* 1965 – Carlos Saldanha, Brazilian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1965 – Margaret Urlich, New Zealand singer-songwriter (d. 2022)* 1965 – Pagonis Vakalopoulos, Greek footballer and manager1966 – Julie Dreyfus, French actress 1966 – Karin Viard, French actress1967 – Michael Kiske, German singer 1967 – Phil LaMarr, American actor and comedian1968 – Fernando Escartín, Spanish cyclist 1968 – Tymerlan Huseynov, Ukrainian footballer* 1968 – Antony Garrett Lisi, American theoretical physicist* 1968 – Mary Lou Retton, American gymnast1969 – Yoo Ho-jeong, South Korean actress 1969 – Carlos Rômulo Gonçalves e Silva, Brazilian religious leader, Bishop of Montenegro1970 – Roberto Bonano, Argentine footballer 1970 – Luke Egan, Australian surfer* 1970 – Neil Johnson, Zimbabwean cricketer * 1970 – Matthew Lillard, American actor1971 – José Carlos Fernandez, Bolivian footballer1972 – Beth Hart, American singer-songwriter and musician1974 – Cyril Despres, French rally racer 1974 – Ed Helms, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1974 – Melissa Tkautz, Australian actress and singer* 1974 – Rokia Traoré, Malian singer1975 – Gianluca Basile, Italian former professional basketball player 1975 – Rónald Gómez, Costa Rican footballer and manager* 1975 – Reto Hug, Swiss triathlete* 1975 – Henna Raita, Finnish alpine skier1976 – Shae-Lynn Bourne, Canadian ice dancer, coach, and choreographer 1976 – Cindy Pieters, Belgian cyclist1977 – Andrija Gerić, Serbian volleyball player 1977 – Michelle Hunziker, Swiss-Dutch actress, model and singer1978 – Veerle Baetens, Belgian actress and singer 1978 – Mark Hildreth, Canadian actor and musician* 1978 – Kristen Schaal, American actress, voice artist, comedian and writer1979 – Tatyana Ali, American actress and singer 1979 – Leandro Desábato, Argentinian footballer* 1979 – Busy Signal, Jamaican dancehall reggae artist* 1979 – Nik Wallenda, American acrobat1980 – Jofre Mateu, Spanish footballer 1980 – Suzy, Portuguese singer1981 – Carrie Coon, American actress 1981 – Mario Eggimann, Swiss footballer* 1981 – Zaur Hashimov, Azerbaijani footballer and manager* 1981 – Elena Kolomina, Kazakhstani cross country skier1982 – Céline Deville, French footballer 1982 – Daveed Diggs, American actor, rapper and singer* 1982 – Claudia Heill, Austrian judoka (d. 2011)* 1982 – Aitor Hernández, Spanish racing cyclist1983 – Davide Biondini, Italian footballer 1983 – Wyatt Crockett, New Zealand rugby player* 1983 – Evgeny Drattsev, Russian swimmer* 1983 – Craig Horner, Australian actor and musician* 1983 – Shaun Maloney, Scottish footballer* 1983 – Scott Speed, American race car driver1984 – Justin Baldoni, American actor, director, and producer 1984 – Emerse Faé, French-Ivorian footballer* 1984 – Yotam Halperin, Israeli basketball player* 1984 – Jung Jin-sun, South Korean fencer* 1984 – Scott Kazmir, American baseball player* 1984 – Paulo Sérgio, Portuguese footballer1985 – Fabiana Claudino, Brazilian volleyball player 1985 – Trey Gilder, American basketball player1986 – Cristiano Araújo, Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 2015) 1986 – Mischa Barton, English-American actress* 1986 – Tyler Flowers, American baseball player* 1986 – Vladislav Ivanov, Russian footballer* 1986 – Michael Kightly, English footballer* 1986 – Sean McVay, American football coach* 1986 – Mohammad Bagheri Motamed, Iranian taekwondo practitioner* 1986 – Ricky Ullman, Israeli-American actor1987 – Brian Cushing, American football player 1987 – Wayne Hennessey, Welsh footballer* 1987 – Luis Suárez, Uruguayan footballer* 1987 – Davide Valsecchi, Italian racing driver* 1987 – Kia Vaughn, American-Czech basketball player* 1987 – Guan Xin, Chinese basketball player1988 – Selina Jörg, German snowboarder 1988 – DaJuan Summers, American basketball player1989 – Serdar Kesimal, Turkish footballer 1989 – Gong Lijiao, Chinese shot putter* 1989 – Whit Merrifield, American baseball player* 1989 – José Quintana, Colombian baseball player* 1989 – Ki Sung-yueng, South Korean footballer1990 – Mao Abe, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist1991 – Zhan Beleniuk, Ukrainian Greco-Roman wrestler* 1991 – Tatiana Kashirina, Russian weightlifter* 1991 – Zack Kassian, Canadian ice hockey player* 1991 – Zé Luís, Cape Verdean footballer* 1991 – Li Xuerui, Chinese badminton player1992 – Phiwa Nkambule, South African entrepreneur 1992 – Felitciano Zschusschen, Curaçao footballer1994 – Tommie Hoban, English footballer1995 – Dylan Everett, Canadian actor1997 – Nirei Fukuzumi, Japanese racer1999 – Vitalie Damașcan, Moldovan footballer* 1999 – Tristan Wirfs, American football player2003 – Johnny Orlando, Canadian singer and songwriter2012 – Princess Athena of Denmark" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===41 – Caligula, Roman emperor (b.", "12) 817 – Pope Stephen IV (b.", "770)* 901 – Liu Jishu, general of the Tang Dynasty1046 – Eckard II, Margrave of Meissen (b. c. 985)1125 – David IV of Georgia (b.", "1073)1336 – Alfonso IV of Aragon (b.", "1299)1376 – Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel, English commander (b.", "1306)1473 – Conrad Paumann, German organist and composer (b.", "1410)1525 – Franciabigio, Florentine painter (b.", "1482)1595 – Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria (b.", "1529)===1601–1900===1626 – Samuel Argall, English captain and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b.", "1572)1639 – Jörg Jenatsch, Swiss pastor and politician (b.", "1596)1666 – Johann Andreas Herbst, German composer and theorist (b.", "1588)1709 – George Rooke, English admiral and politician (b.", "1650)1877 – Johann Christian Poggendorff, German physicist and journalist (b.", "1796)1881 – James Collinson, English painter (b.", "1825)1883 – Friedrich von Flotow, German composer (b.", "1812)1895 – Lord Randolph Churchill, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1849)===1901–present===1920 – Percy French, Irish songwriter, entertainer and artist (b.", "1854)1920 – Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (b.", "1884)1939 – Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician, created Muesli (b.", "1867)1943 – John Burns, English trade union leader and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (b.", "1858)1960 – Edwin Fischer, Swiss pianist and conductor (b.", "1886)1961 – Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American pole vaulter and businessman, founded the A. C. Gilbert Company (b.", "1884)1962 – André Lhote, French sculptor and painter (b.", "1885)* 1962 – Stanley Lord, English naval captain (b.", "1877)* 1962 – Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Turkish author, poet, and scholar (b.", "1901)1965 – Winston Churchill, English statesman, soldier, and writer, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1874)1966 – Homi J. Bhabha, Indian physicist and academic (b.", "1909)1970 – Caresse Crosby, American fashion designer and publisher, co-founded the Black Sun Press (b.", "1891)1971 – Bill W., American activist, co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (b.", "1895)1973 – J. Carrol Naish, American actor (b.", "1896)1975 – Larry Fine, American comedian (b.", "1902)1982 – Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (b.", "1918)1983 – George Cukor, American director and producer (b.", "1899)1986 – L. Ron Hubbard, American religious leader and author, founded the Church of Scientology (b.", "1911) 1986 – Gordon MacRae, American actor and singer (b.", "1921)1988 – Werner Fenchel, German-Danish mathematician and academic (b.", "1905)1989 – Ted Bundy, American serial killer (b.", "1946)1990 – Madge Bellamy, American actress (b.", "1899)1991 – Jack Schaefer, American journalist and author (b.", "1907)1992 – Ken Darby, American composer and conductor (b.", "1909)1993 – Gustav Ernesaks, Estonian composer and conductor (b.", "1908)* 1993 – Thurgood Marshall, American lawyer and jurist, 32nd United States Solicitor General (b.", "1908)* 1993 – Uğur Mumcu, Turkish investigative journalist (b.", "1942)2001 – Gaffar Okkan, Turkish police chief (b.", "1952)2002 – Elie Hobeika, Lebanese commander and politician (b.", "1956)2003 – Gianni Agnelli, Italian businessman (b.", "1921)2004 – Leônidas, Brazilian footballer and manager (b.", "1913)2006 – Schafik Handal, Salvadoran politician (b.", "1930)2007 – Krystyna Feldman, Polish actress (b.", "1916)* 2007 – İsmail Cem İpekçi, Turkish journalist and politician, 45th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1940)* 2007 – Guadalupe Larriva, Ecuadorian academic and politician (b.", "1956)* 2007 – Emiliano Mercado del Toro, Puerto Rican-American soldier (b.", "1891)* 2008 – Usha Narayanan, Burmese-born First Lady of India (b.", "1922)* 2010 – Pernell Roberts, American actor (b.", "1928)2011 – Bernd Eichinger, German director and producer (b.", "1949)2014 – Shulamit Aloni, Israeli lawyer and politician, 11th Israeli Minister of Education (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Rafael Pineda Ponce, Honduran academic and politician (b.", "1930)2015 – Otto Carius, German lieutenant and pharmacist (b.", "1922)2016 – Fredrik Barth, German-Norwegian anthropologist and academic (b.", "1928)* 2016 – Marvin Minsky, American computer scientist and academic (b.", "1927)* 2016 – Henry Worsley, English colonel and explorer (b.", "1960)2017 – Butch Trucks, American drummer (b.", "1947)2018 – Mark E. Smith, British singer-songwriter (b.", "1957)2019 – Rosemary Bryant Mariner, American United States Naval Aviator (b.", "1953)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Babylas of AntiochCadoc (Wales)Exuperantius of CingoliFelician of FolignoFrancis de SalesPratulin Martyrs (Greek Catholic Church)*January 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Day of the Unification of the Romanian Principalities (Romania)Feast of Our Lady of Peace (Roman Catholic Church), and its related observances:''Feria de Alasitas'' (La Paz)Uttar Pradesh Day (Uttar Pradesh, India)National Girl Child Day (India)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 24" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Journal of the Travellers Aid Society" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society''''' is a role-playing game magazine devoted to Traveller, commonly abbreviated '''JTAS'''." ], [ "History", "Loren K. Wiseman created a magazine in 1979 to support ''Traveller'', with Game Designers' Workshop publishing ''The Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society'' (JTAS), which Wiseman would continue to develop as its editor.", "J. Andrew Keith wrote so much material for ''JTAS'' that he used the pseudonyms John Marshal and Keith Douglass (although a reader performed a word-use analysis of these articles and realized that the same person wrote them all).", "Marc Miller decided that, rather than using modern dates for the magazine, each issue would instead be based on the in-game calendar of the Imperium, which advanced roughly 90 days for each quarterly issue.", "''JTAS'' #2 (1979) began to include in-universe excerpts from the fictional 'Traveller News Service', which talked about 'current' events going on in the Imperium; that issue was dated 274–1105, and included two news excerpts from Regina sector, which were dated 097-1105 and 101–1105 on the Imperium calendar.", "''JTAS'' #9 (1981) contributed to the development of the ''Traveller'' metaplot by detailing the beginning of a war with the alien Zhodani species.", "The original run of the magazine ended with ''The Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society'' #24 (1984), but GDW replaced it with the magazine ''Challenge'', continuing the numbering from ''JTAS'' with issue #25 (1986) but included material for all games published by GDW rather than just ''Traveller''.Imperium Games published ''Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society'' #25 in 1996, and published their second and final issue of the ''Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society'' in 1997.Steve Jackson Games obtained a license for the ''Traveller'' setting, so they brought back ''Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society'' as an online magazine in 2000.Mongoose Publishing produced six volumes of ''Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society'' in 2020 as part of their ''Traveller'' licence." ], [ "Name", "The Journal of the Travellers Aid Society takes its name from the fictional Travellers' Aid Society (TAS) that was first mentioned in the original incarnation of the Traveller game published by Game Designers Workshop GDW.", "In the original Traveller game, it was not too uncommon for characters to obtain membership in the TAS during character creation.", "The idea of the TAS is that it is an organization that exists to support what are basically 'transients,' or 'wanderers' 'Travellers' in the game's terminology around the galaxy.", "It does so by maintaining low-cost hostels at many of the large starports, and, most importantly, by maintaining its 'rating system,' which warns of the dangers inherent in visiting certain worlds.", "Under this system, a world which should be approached with caution is denoted an 'Amber Zone,' and a world that should not be approached at all is denoted a 'Red Zone.", "'x§" ], [ "Issues", "===GDW===* 01 Annic Nova (1979) * 02 Victoria (1979) * 03 Asteroids (1979) * 04 Gazelle Class Close Escorts (1980) * 05 Imperium (1980) * 06 Scouts (1980) * 07 Starports (1981) * 08 Broadsword Class Mercenary Cruisers (1981) * 09 WAR!", "(1981) * 10 Planet Building (1981) * 11 Striker (1981) * 12 Merchant Prince, including Special Supplement 1, Merchant Prince (1982 * 13 Hivers (1982) * 14 Laws and Lawbreakers (1982) * 15 Azun (1983) * 16 SuSAG (1983) * 17 Atmospheres , including Special Supplement 2, Atmospheres (1983) * 18 Travelling without Jumping (1983) * 19 Skyport Authority (1983) * 20 Prologue (1984) * 21 Vargr, including Special Supplement 3: Missiles in Traveller (1984) * 22 Port to Jumppoint (1985) * 23 Zhodani Philosophies (1985) * 24 Religion in the 2000 Worlds (1985) * Best of JTAS Volume 1 Issues 1-4 (1981) * Best of JTAS Volume 2 Issues 5-8 (1980) * Best of JTAS Volume 3 Issues 9-12 (1982) * Best of JTAS Volume 4 Issues 13-16 (1983) ===GDW JTAS in Challenge Magazine===* Challenge Magazine 25 Fleet Escort Lisiani (1986) * Challenge Magazine 26 Cargo (A Merchant Prince Variant) (1986) * Challenge Magazine 27 Grandfather's Worlds (1986) * Challenge Magazine 28 K'kree Starships (1987) * Challenge Magazine 29 The Sabmiqys (1987) * Challenge Magazine 30 The Fall of the Imperium (1987) * Challenge Magazine 31 Hazardous Cargoes (1987) * Challenge Magazine 32 A World On Its Own (1988) * Challenge Magazine 33 IRIS 1 (1988) * Challenge Magazine 34 IRIS 2 (1988) * Challenge Magazine 35 The Spice of Life (1988)* Challenge Magazine 36 IRIS 3 (1988) ===Imperium Games T4 - Marc Miller's Traveller===* Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society #25 (1996) * Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society #26 (1997) ===The Best of JTAS===right* The Best of JTAS, Volume 1 (2000)* The Best of the Journal of the Travellers' Aid Society, Volume 2: a collection of articles originally published in issues 5 through 8 of the journal.", "William A. Barton reviewed it in ''The Space Gamer'' No.", "53.Barton commented that \"''The Best of the JTAS'', Vol.", "2 should prove welcome to anyone who missed any ''Journals'' from 5 through 8.", "\"===Far Future Enterprises===These are collections of the earlier GDW publications.", "* Journal of the Travellers Aid Society Issues #1-12* Journal of the Travellers Aid Society Issues #13-24 * Journal of the Travellers Aid Society Issues #25-33 (2004)" ], [ "Reception", "The ''Journal of the Travellers Aid Society'' won the H.G.", "Wells award for Best Magazine Covering Roleplaying of 1979.William A. Barton reviewed the \"Merchant Prince\" supplement from ''Journal of the Travellers Aid Society'' #12 in ''The Space Gamer'' No.", "53.Barton commented that \"Although it probably won't totally supplant ''Merchants & Merchandise'' as ''the'' book for generating merchant characters, ''Merchant Prince'' is a well-conceived and viable alternative to M&M.", "Its inclusion in the ''Journal'' makes it a special bargain.", "I recommend it to every ''Traveller'' player, especially those who find the merchant life the most appealing.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* JTAS web magazine" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Judicial Committee of the Privy Council''' ('''JCPC''') is the highest court of appeal for the Crown Dependencies, the British Overseas Territories, some Commonwealth countries and a few institutions in the United Kingdom.", "Established on 14 August 1833 to hear appeals formerly heard by the King-in-Council, the Privy Council formerly acted as the court of last resort for the entire British Empire, other than for the United Kingdom itself.Formally a statutory committee of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, the Judicial Committee consists of senior judges who are Privy Councillors; they are predominantly justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and senior judges from the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Although it is often simply referred to as the \"Privy Council\", the Judicial Committee is only one constituent part of the Council.", "In Commonwealth realms, appeals are nominally made to \"His Majesty in Council\" (i.e.", "the British monarch as formally advised by his privy counsellors), who then refers the case to the Judicial Committee for \"advice\", while in republics in the Commonwealth of Nations retaining the JCPC as their final court of appeal, appeals are made directly to the Judicial Committee itself.", "The panel of judges (typically five in number) hearing a particular case is known as \"the Board\".", "The report of the Board is, by convention, always accepted by the King-in-Council as judgment.Court 3 in Middlesex Guildhall, the normal location for Privy Council hearings." ], [ "History", "The origins of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council can be traced back to the , or royal council.", "In theory, the King was the fount of justice, and petitions for redress of wrongs arising from his courts were addressed to him.", "That power was gradually taken over by Parliament (which evolved out of the ) within England, but the King-in-Council (which also evolved out of the '''') retained jurisdiction to hear petitions from the King's non-English possessions, such as the Channel Islands and, later on, from England's colonies.The task of hearing appeals was given to a series of short-lived committees of the Privy Council.", "In 1679, appellate jurisdiction was given to the Board of Trade, before being transferred to a standing Appeals Committee of the Privy Council in 1696.By the early nineteenth century, the growth of the British Empire, which had greatly expanded the appellate jurisdiction of the Privy Council (despite the loss of appeals from the American colonies), had put great strains on the existing arrangements.", "In particular, the Appeals Committee had to hear cases arising from a variety of different legal systems in the colonies, such as Hindu law, with which its members were unfamiliar.", "Another serious problem was that the Appeals Committee was technically a committee of the whole of the entire Privy Council, of which a minimum of three were required for a quorum.", "Since many members of the Privy Council were not lawyers, all members of the Appeals Committee had equal votes, and there was no requirement that any of the Privy Counsellors actually hearing a particular appeal had to be a lawyer, it became possible for certain parties to appeal to secure desired judgments by persuading nonlawyer Privy Counsellors to attend the hearings on their appeals.", "For these reasons, the Appeals Committee fell into disrepute among better-informed lawyers and judges in the colonies.In 1833, at the instigation of Lord Brougham, the Lord Chancellor, Parliament passed the '''Judicial Committee Act 1833'''.", "The Act established a statutory committee of the Privy Council, known as '''The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council''', to hear appeals to the King-in-Council.", "In addition to colonial appeals, later legislation gave the Judicial Committee appellate jurisdiction over a range of miscellaneous matters, such as patents, ecclesiastical matters, and prize suits.", "At its height, the Judicial Committee was said to be the court of final appeal for over a quarter of the world.In the twentieth century, the jurisdiction of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council shrank considerably, as British dominions established their own courts of final appeal and as British colonies became independent, although many retained appeals to the Privy Council post-independence.", "Canada abolished Privy Council appeals in 1949, India and South Africa in 1950, and New Zealand in 2003.Currently, eleven Commonwealth countries outside of the United Kingdom retain Privy Council appeals, in addition to various British and New Zealand territories.", "The Judicial Committee also retains jurisdiction over a small number of domestic matters in the United Kingdom, reduced by the creation of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in 2009." ], [ "Jurisdiction", "===Domestic jurisdiction===The United Kingdom does not have a single highest national court; the Judicial Committee is the highest court of appeal in some cases, while in most others the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.", "(In Scotland the highest court in criminal cases is the High Court of Justiciary; the Supreme Court is the highest court in civil cases and matters arising from Scottish devolution, the latter previously having been dealt with by the Judicial Committee.", ")The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has jurisdiction in the following domestic matters:Appeals against schemes of the Church Commissioners (who control the estate of the Church of England).", "Appeals from the ecclesiastical courts (the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York) in non-doctrinal faculty cases.", "Appeals from the High Court of Chivalry.", "Appeals from the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports.", "Appeals from prize courts.", "Appeals from the Disciplinary Committee of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.", "Disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975.Additionally, the government may (through the King) refer any issue to the committee for \"consideration and report\" under section 4 of the Judicial Committee Act 1833.The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the court of final appeal for the Church of England.", "It hears appeals from the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York, except on matters of doctrine, ritual or ceremony, which go to the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved.", "By the Church Discipline Act 1840 and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 all archbishops and bishops of the Church of England became eligible to be members of the Judicial Committee.Prior to the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Privy Council was the court of last resort for devolution issues.", "On 1 October 2009 this jurisdiction was transferred to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.==== Authority of Privy Council decisions in domestic British courts ====Judgments of the Judicial Committee are not generally binding on courts within the United Kingdom, having only persuasive authority, but are binding on all courts within any other Commonwealth country which still allows for appeals to the Judicial Committee.", "Where a binding precedent of the UK Supreme Court, or of the House of Lords, or of the Court of Appeal conflicts with that of a decision of the Judicial Committee on English law, English courts are required to follow the domestic decision over that of the Judicial Committee except when the Judicial Committee has in its decision expressly directed the domestic court to follow its new decision.", "However, given the overlap between the membership of the Judicial Committee and of the Supreme Court, the decisions of the former are extremely persuasive and usually followed.===Overseas jurisdiction===The Judicial Committee holds jurisdiction in appeals from the following 32 jurisdictions (including eleven independent nations):+JurisdictionType of jurisdictionType of appealBritish Overseas TerritoryAppeal is to \"His Majesty in Council\"Sovereign Base AreasCrown DependencyParts of the Bailiwick of GuernseyCommonwealth RealmStates in Association with a Commonwealth Realm (New Zealand)Independent Commonwealth monarchyAppeal is to the Sultan as head of state.", "(By agreement with the United Kingdom the Judicial Committee hears cases in which such an appeal has been made, and reports back to him.", ")Republic in the Commonwealth of NationsAppeal is directly made to the Judicial Committee.Appeal is directly made to the Judicial Committee if the case involves constitutional rights.===Jurisdiction removed===Judicial appeal of final resort has been assumed by other bodies in some current and former Commonwealth countries: Country Date Abolishing statute New court of final appeal Notes 1933 Constitution (Amendment No.", "22) Act 1933 Supreme Court The 1937 constitution renamed the state ''Ireland'' on 29 December 1937 and reconstituted the Supreme Court from 29 September 1961.Ireland left the Commonwealth on 18 April 1949 when the Republic of Ireland was declared.", "1949 ''An Act to Amend the Supreme Court Act'', S.C. 1949 (2nd sess.", "), c. 37, s. 3.Supreme Court Criminal appeals ended in 1933.1949 Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act, 1949 Federal Court Replaced by the Supreme Court on 28 January 1950.1950 Privy Council Appeals Act, 1950 Supreme Court Appellate Division Replaced by the Supreme Court of Appeal in 1997.1950 Privy Council (Abolition of Jurisdiction) Act, 1950 Federal Court Replaced by the Supreme Court under the 1956 Constitution.", "1960 Constitution (Consequential Provisions) Act 1960 Supreme Court 1962 Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1962 East African Court of Appeal 1963 1963 Constitution Supreme Court 1964 Constitution of Kenya (Amendment) Act, 1965 East African Court of Appeal 1965 Constitution of Malawi (Amendment) Act, 1965 Supreme Court of Appeal of Malawi 1966 1966 Constitution East African Court of Appeal Criminal and civil appeals ended in 1964.1968 Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act 1968 High Court Abolished appeals of cases originating in federal and territory courts.", "1970 Court of Appeal and High Court Order 1970 Court of Appeal of Lesotho 1971 1971 Constitution Supreme Court 1971 Court of Appeal Act No.", "44 of 1971 Court of Appeal 1972 Constitution of Malta (Amendment) Act, 1972 Constitutional Court of Malta 1973 Constitution (Amendment) Act 1973 Court of Appeal of Guyana \tCriminal and civil appeals ended in 1970.Since 2005 the Caribbean Court of Justice hears appeals from Guyana's Court of Appeal.", "1973 Judicial Committee (Abolition of Appeals) Act 1973 Court of Appeal 1985 Constitution (Amendment) Act 1983Courts of Judicature (Amendment) Act 1984 Supreme Court The Supreme Court was called the Federal Court until the 1985 change and reverted to the old name in 1994.1986 Australia Act 1986 High Court Abolished appeals of cases originating in state courts.", "1987 Fiji Judicature Decree 1987 Court of Appeal 1994 Judicial Committee (Repeal) Act 1994 Court of Appeal 1998 1997 Constitution of the Gambia Supreme Court A restructure of the Gambian judiciary by Yahya Jammeh, which made the Supreme Court of The Gambia the highest court instead of being below the Court of Appeal of the Gambia as was the case under the 1970 Constitution of the Gambia.", "2004 Supreme Court Act 2003 Supreme Court 2005 Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2003 Caribbean Court of Justice 2010 Belize Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 2010 2015 Constitution of Dominica (Amendment) Act, 2014 2023 Constitution of Saint Lucia (Amendment) Act, 2023 The following countries or territories did not retain the jurisdiction of the Judicial Committee at the time of independence or of the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom: Burma (1948), Israel (1948), Somaliland (1960), Cyprus (1960), Zanzibar (1963), Zambia (1964), Rhodesia (1965), South Yemen (1967), Swaziland (1968), Papua New Guinea (1975), Seychelles (1976), Solomon Islands (1978), Vanuatu (1980), Hong Kong (1997)." ], [ "Composition", "===Members===The following are members of the Judicial Committee:Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (before the establishment of that court in 2009, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary)Other Lords of Appeal (senior judges) from within the United KingdomPrivy Counsellors who are (or have been) judges of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, the Inner House of the Court of Session in Scotland, or of the Court of Appeal in Northern IrelandJudges of certain superior courts in Commonwealth nations, who are appointed Privy Counsellors for the purpose of sitting in the JCPCThe bulk of the Committee's work is done by the Supreme Court Justices, who are paid to work full-time in both the Supreme Court and the Privy Council.", "Overseas judges may not sit when certain UK domestic matters are being heard, but will often sit when appeals from their own countries are being heard.=== Registrars === Henry Reeve, 1853–1887* Denison Faber, 1st Baron Wittenham, 1887–1896* Sir Thomas Raleigh, 1896–1899* Edward Stanley Hope, KCB, 1899–1909* Sir Charles Henry Lawrence Neish KBE CB, 1909–1934* Colin Smith MVO OBE, 1934–1940* Lieutenant-Colonel John Dallas Waters, CB, DSO, 1940–1954* Aylmer J. N. Paterson, 1954–1963* Leslie Upton CBE, 1963–1966* Eric Mills, 1966–1983* D. H. O. Owen, 1983–1998* John Watherston, 1998–2005* Mary Macdonald, 2005–2010* Louise di Mambro, 2011–2022* Laura Angus 2022-Present* Celia Cave 2023-PresentUntil 1904 the Registrar of the Admiralty court was also Registrar to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in ecclesiastical and maritime causes." ], [ "Procedure", "Most appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council are formally appeals to \"His Majesty in Council\".", "Appeals from Brunei are formally to the Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan, while appeals from republics within the Commonwealth are directly to the Judicial Committee.", "Appeals are generally by leave of the local Court of Appeal, although the Judicial Committee retains discretionary power to grant leave to appeal as well.After hearing an appeal, the panel of judges which heard the case (known as \"the Board\") issues its decision in writing.", "For appeals to His Majesty in Council, the Board submits its decision to the King as advice for his consideration.", "By convention, the advice is always accepted by the King and given effect via an Order in Council.Historically, the Judicial Committee could only give a unanimous report, but since the Judicial Committee (Dissenting Opinions) Order 1966, dissenting opinions have been allowed.The Judicial Committee is not bound by its own previous decisions, but may depart from them in exceptional circumstances if following its previous decisions would be unjust or contrary to public policy." ], [ "Location", "The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is based in London.", "From its establishment to 2009, it mainly met in the Privy Council Chamber in Downing Street, although increase in the Judicial Committee's business in the twentieth century required it to sit simultaneously in several panels, which met elsewhere.", "The Chamber, designed by John Soane, was often criticised for its interior design, and was extensively remodelled in 1845 by Sir Charles Barry.", "On 1 October 2009, the Judicial Committee moved to the former Middlesex Guildhall building, which had been refurbished in 2007 to provide a home for both the JCPC and the newly created Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.", "In this renovated building, Court 3 is used for Privy Council sittings.In recent years, the Judicial Committee has occasionally sat outside of London.", "Between 2005 and 2010 it sat twice in Mauritius and three times in the Bahamas." ], [ "Decline in Commonwealth appeals", "Initially, all Commonwealth realms and their territories maintained a right of appeal to the Privy Council.", "Many of those Commonwealth countries that became republics, or which had indigenous monarchies, preserved the Judicial Committee's jurisdiction by agreement with the United Kingdom.", "However, retention of a right of appeal to a court located overseas, made up mostly of British judges who may be out of tune with local values, has often come to be seen as incompatible with notions of an independent nation's sovereign status, and so a number of Commonwealth members have ended the right of appeal from their jurisdiction.", "The Balfour Declaration of 1926, while not considered to be ''lex scripta'', severely limited the conditions under which the Judicial Committee might hear cases:From these discussions it was clear that it was no part of the policy of His Majesty's Government in Great Britain that questions affecting judicial appeals should be determined otherwise than in accordance with the wishes of the part of the Empire primarily affected ...===Australia===In 1901, the Constitution of Australia limited appeals from the new federal High Court of Australia to the Privy Council, by prohibiting appeals on constitutional matters unless leave is granted by the High Court on ''inter se'' questions.", "Appeals on non-constitutional matters were not prohibited, but the federal Parliament of Australia had the power to legislate to limit them.", "The right of appeal from federal courts (including territory supreme courts) was abolished through the Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act 1968.Appeals from state courts, a continuation of the right to appeal decisions of colonial courts before 1901, continued, until they were also abolished by the Australia Act 1986, which was enacted by both the UK and Australian parliaments, on the request of all the state governments.", "The Australian Constitution retains the provision allowing the High Court of Australia to permit appeals to the Privy Council on ''inter se'' questions.", "However, the High Court has stated that it will not give such permission, that the jurisdiction to do so \"has long since been spent\", and that it is obsolete.===Canada===Canada created its own Supreme Court in 1875 and abolished appeals to the Privy Council in criminal cases in 1933.Despite this, some decisions by the Supreme Court of Canada went on to appeal in the JCPC, including notably the Persons Case (''Edwards v Canada (AG)''), which affirmed that women had always been \"qualified persons\" under the British North America Act, 1867 (Canada's Constitution) eligible to sit in the Senate of Canada.", "In this case, it also used a metaphor in the ''obiter dicta'', later reinterpreted and employed by the Supreme Court of Canada in the 1980s to establish what came to be known as the \"living tree doctrine\" in Canadian Constitutional law, which says that a constitution is organic and must be read in a broad and liberal manner so as to adapt it to changing times.In 1949, all appeals to the Privy Council were abolished, but prior to this, there were several factors that served to limit the effectiveness of measures to reduce appeals:Appeals of rulings from the various provincial courts of appeal could still be made directly to the Privy Council, without first going to the Supreme Court of Canada.", "In ''Cushing v. Dupuy'' (1885), the Privy Council held that the ability to grant special leave to appeal to the Privy Council was unaffected, as the prerogative of the Crown cannot be taken away except by express words.", "In ''Nadan v The King'' (1926), the Privy Council ruled that the provision of the Criminal Code barring appeals to the Privy Council was ''ultra vires'' of the Parliament of Canada as it was contrary to s. 2 of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865.", "''Nadan'', together with the King–Byng Affair, was a major irritant for Canada and provoked the discussion at the 1926 Imperial Conference which led to the Balfour Declaration, which declared the United Kingdom and the dominions to beWith that Declaration and its statutory confirmation in the Statute of Westminster 1931 (Imp, 22–23 Geo 5, c.4) the impediment to abolishing appeals to the Privy Council, whether or not it had been legitimate, was comprehensively removed.", "Criminal appeals to the Privy Council were ended in 1933.Moves to extend the abolition to civil matters were shelved during the growing international crisis of the 1930s but re-tabled after the Second World War, and civil appeals ended in 1949, with an amendment of the Supreme Court Act.", "Cases begun before 1949 were still allowed to appeal after 1949, and the final case to make it to the Council was not until 1959 with the case of ''Ponoka-Calmar Oils v Wakefield''.The JCPC played a controversial role in the evolution of Canadian federalism in that, whereas some Fathers of Confederation in negotiating the union of the British North American colonies against the backdrop of the American Civil War wished to ensure a strong central government vis-à-vis relatively weak provinces, appeals to the JCPC in constitutional matters progressively shifted the balance in favour of the provinces.", "While a few commentators have suggested that Canadian First Nations retain the right to appeal to the Privy Council because their treaties predate their relationship to Canada, the JCPC has not entertained any such appeal since 1867 and the dominant view is that no such appeal right exists.===Caribbean Community===The nations of the Caribbean Community voted in 2001 to abolish the right of appeal to the Privy Council in favour of a Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ).", "Some debate between member countries and also the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council had repeatedly delayed the court's date of inauguration.", "As of 2005, Barbados replaced the process of appeals to Her Majesty in Council with the CCJ, which had then come into operation.", "The Co-operative Republic of Guyana also enacted local legislation allowing the CCJ to have jurisdiction over their sovereign final court of appeals system.", "Belize acceded to the Appellate Jurisdiction of the CCJ on 1 June 2010.As it stands, a few other CARICOM states appear to be ready for the abolition of appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the immediate future.", "The government of Jamaica in particular had come close and attempted to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee without the support of the opposition in Parliament; however, it was ruled by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council that the procedure used in Jamaica to bypass the opposition was incorrect and unconstitutional.", "Another attempt will also be forthcoming.Caribbean governments have been coming under increased pressure from their electorates to devise ways to override previous rulings by the JCPC such as ''Pratt v A-G'' (Jamaica, 1993), ''R v Hughes'' (Saint Lucia, 2002), ''Fox v R'' (Saint Kitts and Nevis, 2002), ''Reyes v R'' (2002, Belize), ''Boyce v R'' (Barbados, 2004), and ''Matthew v S'' (Trinidad and Tobago, 2004), all of which are Privy Council judgments concerning the death penalty in the Caribbean region.The then President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, has voiced displeasure with Caribbean and other Commonwealth countries continuing to rely on the British JCPC.", "During an interview Lord Phillips was quoted by the ''Financial Times'' as saying that in an ideal world' Commonwealth countries—including those in the Caribbean—would stop using the Privy Council and set up their own final courts of appeal instead\".On 18 December 2006, the Judicial Committee made history when for the first time in more than 170 years it ventured outside London, holding a five-day sitting in the Bahamas.", "Lords Bingham, Brown, Carswell, and Scott, and Baroness Hale of Richmond, travelled to the Bahamas for the special sitting at the invitation of Dame Joan Sawyer, then the President of the Court of Appeal of the Bahamas; the Committee returned to the Bahamas in December 2007 for a second sitting.", "On the latter occasion, Lords Hope, Rodger, Walker, and Mance, and Sir Christopher Rose, heard several cases.", "At the end of the sitting, Lord Hope indicated that there may be future sittings of the Committee in the Bahamas, and the Committee has indeed sat in the Bahamas again, in 2009.The 2018 Antiguan constitutional referendum saw the proposal to replace the JCPC with the CCJ rejected by a 52.04% majority.On 28 February 2023, the parliament of Saint Lucia approved the Constitution of St Lucia Amendment Bill 2023, which would replace the JCPC with the CCJ.", "An injunction against Saint Lucia's accession to the CCJ was filed on 3 March 2023 against the bill in Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court in the High Court of Justice of Saint Lucia, and is currently pending.", "===Sri Lanka (Ceylon)===Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, abolished appeals to the Privy Council under the Court of Appeal Act, 1971, which came into effect on 15 November 1971.Previously, the Privy Council had ruled in ''Ibralebbe v The Queen'' that it remained the highest court of appeal in Ceylon notwithstanding the country's independence as a dominion in 1948.===The Gambia===The Gambia retained the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council under the Gambia Independence Act 1964, even after The Gambia became a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations in April 1970 under Sir Dawda Jawara.", "Appeals were still taken to the JCPC from 1994 to 1998, when Yahya Jammeh, the then dictator and President of the Gambia decided to restructure the Gambian judiciary under the 1997 Constitution of the Gambia to replace the JCPC with the Supreme Court of the Gambia.The last case from The Gambia to the JCPC was ''West Coast Air Limited v. Gambia Civil Aviation Authority and Others'' UKPC 39 (15 September 1998).===Grenada===Grenadian appeals to the Privy Council were temporarily abolished from 1979 until 1991, as a result of the Grenadian Revolution, which brought Prime Minister Maurice Bishop to power.", "People's Law 84 was enacted to this effect.", "In 1985, ''Mitchell v DPP'' affirmed Grenada's right to unilaterally abolish appeals to the Privy Council.", "In 1991, Grenada restored the JCPC's jurisdiction.In 2016, there was a proposal in the 2016 Grenadian constitutional referendum to terminate appeals from Grenada to the JCPC and to replace the JCPC with the Caribbean Court of Justice.", "This was rejected by a 56.73% majority, which means the JCPC remains Grenada's highest court.Another referendum, the 2018 Grenadian constitutional referendum also rejected terminating appeals to the JCPC by a 55.2% majority.===Guyana===Guyana retained the right of appeal to the Privy Council until the government of Prime Minister Forbes Burnham passed the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (Termination of Appeals) Act 1970 and the Constitution (Amendment) Act 1973.===Hong Kong===Hong Kong's court system changed following the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China on 1 July 1997, with the Court of Final Appeal serving as the highest judicial authority of the Special Administrative Region (SAR), and (pursuant to Article 158 of the Basic Law, the constitutional instrument of the SAR) the power of final interpretation vested not in the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong but in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China.Decisions of the Privy Council on Hong Kong appeals before 1 July 1997 remain binding on the courts of Hong Kong.", "This accords with the principle of continuity of the legal system enshrined in Article 8 of the Basic Law.", "Decisions of the Privy Council on non-Hong Kong appeals are of persuasive authority only.", "Such decisions were not binding on the courts in Hong Kong under the doctrine of precedent before 1 July 1997 and are not binding today.", "Decisions of the House of Lords before 1 July 1997 stand in a similar position.", "It is of the greatest importance that the courts of Hong Kong should derive assistance from overseas jurisprudence, particularly from the final appellate courts of other common law jurisdictions.", "This is recognised by Article 84 of the Basic Law.Pursuant to Article 158 of the Basic Law, the power of final interpretation of the Basic Law is vested not in the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong but in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, which, unlike the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, is a political body rather than an independent and impartial tribunal of last resort.===India===India retained the right of appeal from the Federal Court of India to the Privy Council after the establishment of the Dominion of India.", "Following the replacement of the Federal Court with the Supreme Court of India in January 1950, the Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act 1949 came into effect, ending the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.===Irish Free State===The right of appeal to the Privy Council was provided for in the Constitution of the Irish Free State until its abolition in 1933 by an Act of the Oireachtas of the Irish Free State, amending said constitution.In ''Moore v Attorney-General of the Irish Free State'' the right of the Oireachtas to abolish appeals to the Privy Council was challenged as a violation of the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty.", "The then Attorney General for England and Wales (Sir Thomas Inskip) is reported to have warned the then Attorney-General of the Irish Free State (Conor Maguire) that the Irish Free State had no right to abolish appeals to the Privy Council.", "The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council itself ruled that the Irish Free State Government had that right under the Statute of Westminster 1931 (Imp.", ").===Jamaica===In May 2015, the Jamaican House of Representatives approved, with the necessary two-thirds majority, bills to end legal appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and make the Caribbean Court of Justice Jamaica's final court of appeal.", "The reform will be debated by the Jamaican Senate; however, the government needed the support of at least one opposition Senator for the measures to be approved by the required two-thirds majority.", "The 2016 general election was called before the reforms could be brought to the Senate for a final vote.", "The Jamaican Labour Party, which opposed the changes, won the election and has promised to hold a referendum on the issue.===Malaysia===Malaysia abolished appeals to the Privy Council in criminal and constitutional matters in 1978, and in civil matters in 1984.===New Zealand===New Zealand was the last of the original dominions to remove appeals to the Privy Council from its legal system.", "Proposals to abolish appeals to the Privy Council in New Zealand were first put forward in the early 1980s.The Privy Council's respect for local decisions was noted by Lord Brightman in 1985 in regard to the possible adoption of a New Zealand decision, in the case of ''Archer v. Cutler'' (1980), as a precedent, where he stated that:In October 2003, with respect to all cases heard by the Court of Appeal of New Zealand, New Zealand law was changed to abolish appeals to the Privy Council, after the end of 2003.The old system was replaced by the Supreme Court of New Zealand.", "In 2008, Prime Minister John Key ruled out any abolition of the Supreme Court and return to the Privy Council.However, judgment on the last appeal from New Zealand to be heard by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was not delivered until 3 March 2015.===Pakistan===The Dominion of Pakistan retained the right of appeal to the Privy Council from the Federal Court of Pakistan until the Privy Council (Abolition of Jurisdiction) Act, 1950 was passed.", "The Federal Court of Pakistan remained the highest court until 1956, when the Supreme Court of Pakistan was established.===Rhodesia===Despite the Rhodesian Constitution of 1965 coming into effect as a result of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence, appeals continued to be accepted by the Privy Council as late as 1969 due to the fact that under international law, Rhodesia remained a British colony until gaining its independence as Zimbabwe in April 1980.===Singapore===Singapore abolished Privy Council appeals in all cases save those involving the death penalty, or in civil cases where the parties had agreed to such a right of appeal, in 1989.The remaining rights of appeal were abolished in April 1994.One notable case in Singapore where an appeal against the death sentence was allowed by the Privy Council was a murder case that occurred in Pulau Ubin between 22 and 23 April 1972.In this case, Mohamed Yasin bin Hussein, who was 19 at the time of the murder, was sentenced to death by the High Court for murdering and raping a 58-year-old elderly woman named Poon Sai Imm, while his 25-year-old accomplice Harun bin Ripin went to ransack the elderly woman's house for items to rob (Harun, who also stood trial for murder together with Yasin, was instead sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment and received 12 strokes of the cane for a lesser charge of robbery at night).", "The Privy Council found that there was no evidence to show that Yasin had intended to cause death or any fatal bodily injury when he caused the fatal rib fractures on Poon while forcibly performing sexual intercourse with the struggling victim.", "As such, they found him guilty of committing a rash/negligent act not amounting to culpable homicide and sentenced him to 2 years' imprisonment.", "As an aftermath of this appeal, Yasin was brought back to court to be charged with rape, and he was eventually jailed for another 8 years for attempted rape of the elderly victim.Another notable case heard by the Privy Council was the case of Haw Tua Tau, a hawker who was sentenced to death in 1978 for the double murder of two hawkers Phoon Ah Leong and his mother Hu Yuen Keng.", "After his appeal was dismissed, Haw was granted special leave to appeal to the Privy Council against his sentence and conviction, but his appeal was dismissed by the Privy Council, which issued a landmark ruling that decreed the prosecution shall be allowed to present its case against an accused in court, as long as there is sufficient evidence to back a charge against the accused and hence present a case for the accused to answer.", "After losing his final appeal, Haw was eventually hanged in 1982 for the hawker killings.===South Africa===South Africa abolished the right of appeal to the Privy Council from the Appellate Division of the then Supreme Court of South Africa in 1950 under the terms of the Privy Council Appeals Act, 1950." ], [ "See also", "Constitutional Reform Act 2005List of Judicial Committee of the Privy Council cases" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Judicial Committee Act 1833* National Archives, Records of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council* Privy Council Office site, including JCPC* The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and the Canadian Constitution" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jötunheimr" ], [ "Introduction", "10th-century picture stone from the Hunnestad Monument that is believed to depict a female (or ) riding on a wolf with vipers as reins, which has been proposed to be Hyrrokkin.The terms '''Jötunheimr''' (in Old Norse orthography: '''Jǫtunheimr''' ; often anglicised as '''Jotunheim''') or '''Jötunheimar''' refer to either a land or multiple lands respectively in Nordic mythology inhabited by the jötnar (relatives of the gods, in English sometimes inaccurately called \"giants\").", "are typically, but not exclusively, presented in Eddic sources as prosperous lands located to the north and are commonly separated from the lands inhabited by gods and humans by barriers that cannot be traversed by usual means." ], [ "Etymology", " is a compound word formed from and , meaning a 'home' or 'world'.", "When attested in Eddic sources, the word is typically found in its plural form, ('-lands')." ], [ "Attestations", "===Poetic Edda===Thrym's Wedding-feast by W.G.", "Collingwood are mentioned in three poems of the Poetic Edda.", "In the beginning of Völuspá, the coming of three women out of marks the end of the Age of Gold for the gods.", "Towards the end of the poem, in the section describing the onset of Ragnarök, they are mentioned as follows: Old Norse text Bellows translation:::::::::Yggdrasil shakes, and shiver on high:The ancient limbs, and the giant is loose;:To the head of Mim does Othin give heed,:But the kinsman of Surt shall slay him soon.", ":How fare the gods?", "how fare the elves?", ":All Jotunheim groans, the gods are at council;:Loud roar the dwarfs by the doors of stone,:The masters of the rocks: would you know yet more?In the prose prologue Skírnismál, while sitting on Hliðskjálf, Freyr sees Gerðr, the daughter of Gymir, in and falls in love with her.", "A further prose section then describes that he his servant Skírnir his horse and sends him to her home at Gymisgarðar in , which he reaches after travelling through wet mountains, a flickering flame and darkness.", "After his journey, Skírnir meets Gerðr and her family living in a hall and tending to animals in the daylight, protected by a fence and dogs.", "Upon his return, Freyr asks in a stanza of the tidings from , to which his servant replies that she will meet him in nine nights at Barri.In Þrymskviða, Loki uses Freyja's fjaðrhamr to fly to Þrymr's home in to find Thor's hammer.", "The tells the god that he will only return the hammer in exchange for Freyja's hand in marriage.", "When she refuses to go to , Thor goes in her place, disguised in a wedding veil, with Loki as his handmaid.", "In this account, Þrymr's estate is presented as wealthy, with him holding dogs on golden leashes and telling that has cattle with golden horns in his stables and many jewels, with Freyja being the only thing he lacked.===Gylfaginning===''Giant Skrymir and Thor'' by Louis Huard are referenced throughout Gylfaginning such as when Gefjun takes four oxen, who were her sons with a , out of the to the north and uses them to plough land out of Sweden, forming Zealand.", "and are also described as living in such as the father of Night, Narfi and Angrboða, the mother of Fenrir.", "Beings may also come out from to interact with others, such as the wright who, with the help of his horse Svaðilfari, builds fortifications for the gods to protect them from .===Skáldskaparmál===Skáldskaparmál tells of how Loki was once coerced into helping the Þjazi abduct Iðunn who carried her northwards, back to his home in named Þrymheimr.", "Using Freyja's fjaðrhamr, Loki became a hawk and flew to Þjazi's home while the was away, having rowed out to sea.", "Upon reaching Iðunn, Loki turned her into a nut and flew away with her in his talons.", "Þjazi later finds out that Iðunn is gone and he chases after them as an eagle, but is killed as he reached Asgard when he flies into a fire that the gods made.Later in Skáldskaparmál, Odin rides to on Sleipnir where he meets the made of stone Hrungnir and wagers that no horse there was as good as his.", "Angered, Hrungnir chases Odin back to Asgard on his horse Gullfaxi whereupon the gods invite him to drink with them.", "Becoming drunk, he boasts that he will perform a number of acts including carrying Valhall to and abduct both Sif and Freyja.", "When the gods tired of his bragging, they called for Thor.", "Hrungnir claimed that as he was unarmed, Thor would gain no honour from killing him and so challenged him to a fight in , at his home Grjótúnagarðar.", "Thor later meets him there and kills him with Mjölnir, which on its way to Hrungnir, hits the hone that the was fighting with, shattering it.", "One of the pieces flies into Thor's head, becoming stuck.", "To remove it, he went to the völva Gróa, who began a to loosen it.", "While she was singing, Thor told her that he had carried her husband Aurvandil as he travelled southwards out of and that he would soon be with her.", "In her excitement, she forgot the and the shard remained lodged in Thor's head." ], [ "Position in cosmology", ", along with other lands such as Hel, constitute \"the otherworld\" in Eddic sources that is either journeyed to or from, often leading to a confrontation that forms the basis for the narrative.", "There is no single location that are found in Nordic cosmology however, instead being travelled to by a number of different directions and often separated from the lands of humans and gods by a barrier that is difficult to cross such as bodies of water, fells, fire or forests.", "are typically found in the North and East, with explicit references to locating them in the North, however in Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson writes that after the killing of Ymir, the gods gave the shores around the world to the to settle, suggesting a worldview in which Midgard is located centrally and that the dwell in the periphery, likely in contrast with how contemporary Icelanders would have viewed wilderness.", "Later in Gylfaginning, Thor journeys with Loki, Thjálfi and Röskva to which is located to the east and over the deep sea.", "They then travel through a great forest before eventually reaching the hall of Útgarða-Loki.", "Sometimes are positioned in specific geographical locations such as Ægir on the island of Læsø.", "It has been proposed that rather than being conceived of as a physical land that can be located geographically relative to the regions of the world inhabited by humans, should be seen as connected to other realms by a number of passageways that cannot be traversed by ordinary means, and may seem contradictory from a naturalistic viewpoint in that a single location could be reached from a start point in a number of distinct directions.", "In this model, the would not be located in these opposing directions, only the passageways by which they are reached.", "It has been further noted that in Eddic sources, it seems that are located to some extent in all directions and that they can be reached if one travels sufficiently far away from the area inhabited by people.", "From this, it has been suggested that it may be an intrinsic quality of as the \"other\" that they cannot be restricted to a single location, however, it is to be noted that not all these lands inhabited by are explicitly described as being ." ], [ "See also", "* List of jötnar in Norse mythology* Otherworld" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Primary===* * * * * * * * * ===Secondary===* * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Friedrich Agricola" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johann Friedrich Agricola''' (4 January 1720 – 2 December 1774) was a German composer, organist, singer, pedagogue, and writer on music.", "He sometimes wrote under the pseudonym '''Flavio Anicio Olibrio'''." ], [ "Biography", "Agricola was born in Dobitschen, Thuringia.===Leipzig===While a student of law at Leipzig (1738–41) he studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach.===Berlin===In 1741 Agricola went to Berlin, where he studied musical composition under Johann Joachim Quantz.", "He was soon generally recognized as one of the most skillful organists of his time.", "The success of his comic opera, ''Il filosofo convinto in amore'', performed at Potsdam in 1750, led to an appointment as court composer to Frederick the Great.", "In 1759, on the death of Carl Heinrich Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra.", "He married the noted court operatic soprano Benedetta Emilia Molteni, despite the king's prohibition of court employees marrying each other.", "Because of this trespass, the king reduced Molteni's and Agricola's combined salaries to a single annual salary of 1,000 ''Thalers'' (Agricola's annual salary alone had been 1,500 ''Thalers'').", "Agricola died in Berlin at age 54." ], [ "Legacy", "Agricola wrote a number of Italian operas, as well as ''Lieder,'' chorale preludes, various other keyboard pieces and church music, especially oratorios and cantatas.", "His reputation chiefly rests, however, on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects.===Author===In 1754 he co-authored, with Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, J. S. Bach's obituary.", "His 1757 ''Anleitung zur Singekunst'' (''Introduction to the Art of Singing'') is a translation of Pier Francesco Tosi's 1723 treatise ''Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni'' with Agricola's own extensive comments.", "He edited and added extensive commentary to the 1768 (posthumous) edition of Jakob Adlung's ''Musica mechanica organoedi'' ( English translation).", "His annotations are considered an important source of information on J. S. Bach's views on the fortepiano designs of Gottfried Silbermann, on the lute-harpsichord, and on organ building.===Copyist===Agricola is also noted in Bach studies as one of the copyists for both books of the Well-Tempered Clavier and the St. Matthew Passion.===Composer=======Keyboard====Ach, was soll ich Sünder machenJauchzet, ihr Erlösten dem HerrenHarpsichord Sonata in F major====Organ====Jesu, meine FreudeEin feste Burg ist unser GottAuf meinen lieben GottErbarm dich mein, o Herre GottEs ist das Heil uns kommen herJauchzt, ihr Erlösten, dem HerrenO Ewigkeit, du DonnerwortHerr, ich habe mißgehandeltHerr Jesu Christ, ich weiß gar wohlWer nur den lieben Gott läßt waltenAch, was soll ich Sünder machenO Traurigkeit, o HerzeleidKeinen hat Gott verlassenHerzliebster Jesu, was hast du verbrochenFreu dich sehr, o meine SeeleIch hab mein Sach Gott heimgestellt====Chamber works====Flute Sonata in A major====Vocal works====A la mignonne de fortune (song)L'accorto nocchiero (aria)Canzonetta, Les Rois d'Égypte6 CanzonettesCleofide Torna aprile e l'aure scherzano (aria)====Choral works====Die Hirten bei der Krippe, cantata for 4 voices, chorus & orchestraKündlich gross ist das gottselige Geheimnis, cantata for 4 voices, chorus & orchestraUns ist ein Kind geboren, cantata for 4 voices, chorus & orchestra Die Hirten bey der Krippe zu Bethlehem, sacred cantata* Der König jauchzt, sacred cantata* Il tempio d'amore, serenata* Magnificat in D major====Opera====''Alessandro nell'Indie'' (1754)''Achille in Sciro'', (1765)* ''L'Ippocondriaco''" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution'''" ], [ "External links", "* Agricola, Johann Friedrich at Bach Digital" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Hutton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Hutton''' (; 3 June O.S.", "1726 – 26 March 1797) was a Scottish geologist, agriculturalist, chemical manufacturer, naturalist and physician.", "Often referred to as the \"Father of Modern Geology,\" he played a key role in establishing geology as a modern science.Hutton advanced the idea that the physical world's remote history can be inferred from evidence in present-day rocks.", "Through his study of features in the landscape and coastlines of his native Scottish lowlands, such as Salisbury Crags or Siccar Point, he developed the theory that geological features could not be static but underwent continuing transformation over indefinitely long periods of time.", "From this he argued, in agreement with many other early geologists, that the Earth could not be young.", "He was one of the earliest proponents of what in the 1830s became known as uniformitarianism, the science which explains features of the Earth's crust as the outcome of continuing natural processes over the long geologic time scale.", "Hutton also put forward a thesis for a 'system of the habitable Earth' proposed as a deistic mechanism designed to keep the world eternally suitable for humans, an early attempt to formulate what today might be called one kind of anthropic principle.Some reflections similar to those of Hutton can be found in publications of his contemporaries, such as the French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon, but it is chiefly Hutton's pioneering work that established the field." ], [ "Early life and career", "Hutton was born in Edinburgh on 3 June O.S.", "1726, as one of five children of Sarah Balfour and William Hutton, a merchant who was Edinburgh City Treasurer.", "Hutton's father died in 1729, when he was three.He was educated at the High School of Edinburgh where he was particularly interested in mathematics and chemistry, then when he was 14 he attended the University of Edinburgh as a \"student of humanity\", studying the classics.", "He was apprenticed to the lawyer George Chalmers WS when he was 17, but took more interest in chemical experiments than legal work.", "At the age of 18, he became a physician's assistant, and attended lectures in medicine at the University of Edinburgh.After a two-year stay in Paris, James Hutton arrived in Leiden in 1749, where he enrolled at the University of Leiden on 14 August 1749, at the home of the then rector magnificus Joachim Schwartz to obtain a doctorate in medicine.", "He stayed with the widow Van der Tas (née Judith Bouvat) at the Langebrug, which corresponds to the current address Langebrug 101 in Leiden.", "His supervisor was Professor Frederik Winter, who was not only a professor at Leiden University, but also court physician to the Stadholder.", "The Latin manuscript of Hutton's dissertation also contained 92 theses, two of which were successfully defended in public by James Hutton on 3 September 1749.On 12 September 1749, James Hutton obtained his doctorate in medicine from Leiden University with a physico-medical thesis entitled ''Sanguine et Circulatione Microcosmi.''", "The thesis was printed by Wilhelmus Boot, book printer in Leiden.", "It is believed that James Hutton returned to Britain shortly after his promotion.After his degree Hutton went to London, then in mid-1750 returned to Edinburgh and resumed chemical experiments with close friend, John Davie.", "Their work on production of sal ammoniac from soot led to their partnership in a profitable chemical works, manufacturing the crystalline salt which was used for dyeing, metalworking and as smelling salts and had been available only from natural sources and had to be imported from Egypt.", "Hutton owned and rented out properties in Edinburgh, employing a factor to manage this business.===Farming and geology===Hutton inherited from his father the Berwickshire farms of ''Slighhouses'', a lowland farm which had been in the family since 1713, and the hill farm of ''Nether Monynut''.", "In the early 1750s he moved to ''Slighhouses'' and set about making improvements, introducing farming practices from other parts of Britain and experimenting with plant and animal husbandry.", "He recorded his ideas and innovations in an unpublished treatise on ''The Elements of Agriculture''.Front entrance to Hutton's farm Slighhouses.", "Location: This developed his interest in meteorology and geology.", "In a 1753 letter he wrote that he had \"become very fond of studying the surface of the earth, and was looking with anxious curiosity into every pit or ditch or bed of a river that fell in his way\".", "Clearing and draining his farm provided ample opportunities.", "The mathematician John Playfair described Hutton as having noticed that \"a vast proportion of the present rocks are composed of materials afforded by the destruction of bodies, animal, vegetable and mineral, of more ancient formation\".", "His theoretical ideas began to come together in 1760.While his farming activities continued, in 1764 he went on a geological tour of the north of Scotland with George Maxwell-Clerk, ancestor of the famous James Clerk Maxwell.===Edinburgh and canal building===In 1768, Hutton returned to Edinburgh, letting his farms to tenants but continuing to take an interest in farm improvements and research which included experiments carried out at ''Slighhouses''.", "He developed a red dye made from the roots of the madder plant.He had a house built in 1770 at St John's Hill, Edinburgh, overlooking Salisbury Crags.", "This later became the Balfour family home and, in 1840, the birthplace of the psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne.", "Hutton was one of the most influential participants in the Scottish Enlightenment, and fell in with numerous first-class minds in the sciences including mathematician John Playfair, philosopher David Hume and economist Adam Smith.", "Hutton held no position in the University of Edinburgh and communicated his scientific findings through the Royal Society of Edinburgh.", "He was particularly friendly with physician and chemist Joseph Black, and together with Adam Smith they founded the ''Oyster Club'' for weekly meetings.Between 1767 and 1774 Hutton had close involvement with the construction of the Forth and Clyde canal, making full use of his geological knowledge, both as a shareholder and as a member of the committee of management, and attended meetings including extended site inspections of all the works.", "At this time he is listed as living on Bernard Street in Leith.", "In 1777 he published a pamphlet on ''Considerations on the Nature, Quality and Distinctions of Coal and Culm'' which successfully helped to obtain relief from excise duty on carrying small coal.In 1783, he was a joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh." ], [ "Later life and death", "The memorial to James Hutton at his grave in Greyfriars Kirkyard in Edinburgh.", "Location: From 1791 Hutton suffered extreme pain from stones in the bladder and gave up field work to concentrate on finishing his books.", "A dangerous and painful operation failed to resolve his illness.", "He died in Edinburgh and was buried in the vault of Andrew Balfour, opposite the vault of his friend Joseph Black, in the now sealed south-west section of Greyfriars Kirkyard in Edinburgh, commonly known as the Covenanter's Prison.Hutton did not marry and had no legitimate children.", "Around 1747, he had a son by a Miss Edington, and though he gave his child, James Smeaton Hutton, financial assistance, he had little to do with the boy, who went on to become a post-office clerk in London." ], [ "Theory of rock formations", "Hutton developed several hypotheses to explain the rock formations he saw around him, but according to Playfair he \"was in no haste to publish his theory; for he was one of those who are much more delighted with the contemplation of truth, than with the praise of having discovered it\".", "After some 25 years of work, his ''Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe'' was read to meetings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in two parts, the first by his friend Joseph Black on 7 March 1785, and the second by himself on 4 April 1785.Hutton subsequently read an abstract of his dissertation ''Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration and Stability'' to Society meeting on 4 July 1785, which he had printed and circulated privately.", "In it, he outlined his theory as follows;===Search for evidence===Hutton's Glen Tilt exposure at collapsed Dail-an-eas Bridge upstream from Forest Lodge, drawn by John Clerk of Eldin in 1785.The bridge collapsed in approximately 1973.Location: Intrusive dike eroded by the River Tay near Stobhall described by Hutton.", "Location: River Garry at Dalnacardoch described by Hutton and drawn by Clerk.", "Location: Hutton's Section on Edinburgh's Salisbury Crags.", "Location: In the summer of 1785 at Glen Tilt and other sites in the Cairngorm mountains in the Scottish Highlands, Hutton found granite penetrating metamorphic schists, in a way which indicated that the granite had been molten at the time.", "This was Hutton's first geological field trip and he was invited by the Duke of Atholl to his hunting lodge, Forest Lodge.", "The exposures at the Dail-an-eas Bridge demonstrated to him that granite formed from the cooling of molten rock rather than it precipitating out of water as others at the time believed, and therefore the granite must be younger than the schists.", "Hutton presented his theory of the earth on 4 March and 7 April 1785, at the Royal Society of Edinburgh.He went on to find a similar penetration of volcanic rock through sedimentary rock in Edinburgh, at Salisbury Crags, adjoining Arthur's Seat – this area of the Crags is now known as Hutton's Section.", "Scottish Geology – Hutton's Rock at Salisbury Crags He found other examples in Galloway in 1786, and on the Isle of Arran in 1787.Hutton's Unconformity on ArranHutton Unconformity at Jedburgh.", "Photograph (2003) below Clerk of Eldin illustration (1787).", "Location: The existence of angular unconformities had been noted by Nicolas Steno and by French geologists including Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, who interpreted them in terms of Neptunism as \"primary formations\".", "Hutton wanted to examine such formations himself to see \"particular marks\" of the relationship between the rock layers.", "On the 1787 trip to the Isle of Arran he found his first example of Hutton's Unconformity to the north of Newton Point near Lochranza, but the limited view meant that the condition of the underlying strata was not clear enough for him, and he incorrectly thought that the strata were conformable at a depth below the exposed outcrop.Later in 1787 Hutton noted what is now known as the Hutton or \"Great\" Unconformity at Inchbonny, Jedburgh, in layers of sedimentary rock.", "As shown in the illustrations to the right, layers of greywacke in the lower layers of the cliff face are tilted almost vertically, and above an intervening layer of conglomerate lie horizontal layers of Old Red Sandstone.", "He later wrote of how he \"rejoiced at my good fortune in stumbling upon an object so interesting in the natural history of the earth, and which I had been long looking for in vain.\"", "That year, he found the same sequence in Teviotdale.An eroded outcrop at Siccar Point showing sloping red sandstone above vertical greywacke was sketched by Sir James Hall in 1788.Location: In the Spring of 1788 he set off with John Playfair to the Berwickshire coast and found more examples of this sequence in the valleys of the Tour and Pease Burns near Cockburnspath.", "They then took a boat trip from Dunglass Burn east along the coast with the geologist Sir James Hall of Dunglass.", "They found the sequence in the cliff below St. Helens, then just to the east at Siccar Point found what Hutton called \"a beautiful picture of this junction washed bare by the sea\".", "Playfair later commented about the experience, \"the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time\".", "Continuing along the coast, they made more discoveries including sections of the vertical beds showing strong ripple marks which gave Hutton \"great satisfaction\" as a confirmation of his supposition that these beds had been laid horizontally in water.", "He also found conglomerate at altitudes that demonstrated the extent of erosion of the strata, and said of this that \"we never should have dreamed of meeting with what we now perceived\".Hutton reasoned that there must have been innumerable cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed, uplift with tilting and erosion then undersea again for further layers to be deposited.", "On the belief that this was due to the same geological forces operating in the past as the very slow geological forces seen operating at the present day, the thicknesses of exposed rock layers implied to him enormous stretches of time." ], [ "Publication", "Though Hutton circulated privately a printed version of the abstract of his Theory (''Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration, and Stability'') which he read at a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 4 July 1785; the full account of his theory as read at 7 March 1785 and 4 April 1785 meetings did not appear in print until 1788.It was titled ''Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe'' and appeared in ''Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh'', vol.", "I, Part II, pp.", "209–304, plates I and II, published 1788.He put forward the view that \"from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter.\"", "This restated the Scottish Enlightenment concept which David Hume had put in 1777 as \"all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past\", and Charles Lyell memorably rephrased in the 1830s as \"the present is the key to the past\".", "Hutton's 1788 paper concludes; \"The result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning,–no prospect of an end.\"", "His memorably phrased closing statement has long been celebrated.", "(It was quoted in the 1989 song \"No Control\" by songwriter and professor Greg Graffin.", ")Following criticism, especially the arguments from Richard Kirwan who thought Hutton's ideas were atheistic and not logical, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795, consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite.", "It included a review of alternative theories, such as those of Thomas Burnet and Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon.The whole was entitled ''An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy'' when the third volume was completed in 1794.Its 2,138 pages prompted Playfair to remark that \"The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves.\"" ], [ "Opposing theories", "His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular Neptunist theories of the German geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner, that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood.", "Hutton proposed that the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands.", "This theory was dubbed \"Plutonist\" in contrast to the flood-oriented theory.As well as combating the Neptunists, he also accepted the growing consensus on the concept of deep time for scientific purposes.", "Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the Earth must be much older, with a history extending indefinitely into the distant past.", "His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them.", "As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, to allow time for the changes.", "Contemporary investigations had shown that the geologic record required vast time, but no good way of assigning actual years was found for over a century (Rudwick, ''Bursting the Limits of Time'').", "Hutton's idea of infinite cycles with humans present throughout is quite different from modern geology, with a definite time of formation and directional change through time, but his supporting evidence for the long-term effects of geological processes was valuable in the development of historical geology." ], [ "Acceptance of geological theories", "It has been claimed that the prose of ''Principles of Knowledge'' was so obscure that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton's geological theories.", "Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his thoughts on evolution) by John Playfair in 1802 and then Charles Lyell in the 1830s popularised the concept of an infinitely repeating cycle, though Lyell tended to dismiss Hutton's views as giving too much credence to catastrophic changes.John Kay's caricature of James Hutton studying the \"faces\" of rock (1787)." ], [ "Other contributions", "===Meteorology===It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention.", "He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere.", "The same volume in which his ''Theory of the Earth'' appeared contained also a ''Theory of Rain''.", "He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form.", "He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different air currents in the higher atmosphere on the other.===Earth as a living entity===Hutton taught that biological and geological processes are interlinked.", "James Lovelock, who developed the Gaia hypothesis in the 1970s, cites Hutton as saying that the Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study should be physiology.", "Lovelock writes that Hutton's view of the Earth was rejected because of the intense reductionism among 19th-century scientists.===Evolution===Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures evolution, in a senseand even suggested natural selection as a possible mechanism affecting them::...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must be assured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race.", "''Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge'', volume 2.Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through \"swiftness of foot and quickness of sight... the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would remain, to preserve themselves, and to continue the race\".", "Equally, if an acute sense of smell became \"more necessary to the sustenance of the animal... the same principle would change the qualities of the animal, and.. produce a race of well scented hounds, instead of those who catch their prey by swiftness\".", "The same \"principle of variation\" would influence \"every species of plant, whether growing in a forest or a meadow\".", "He came to his ideas as the result of experiments in plant and animal breeding, some of which he outlined in an unpublished manuscript, the ''Elements of Agriculture''.", "He distinguished between heritable variation as the result of breeding, and non-heritable variations caused by environmental differences such as soil and climate.Though he saw his \"principle of variation\" as explaining the development of varieties, Hutton rejected the idea that evolution might originate species as a \"romantic fantasy\", according to palaeoclimatologist Paul Pearson.", "Influenced by deism, Hutton thought the mechanism allowed species to form varieties better adapted to particular conditions and provided evidence of benevolent design in nature.", "Studies of Charles Darwin's notebooks have shown that Darwin arrived separately at the idea of natural selection which he set out in his 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species'', but it has been speculated that he had some half-forgotten memory from his time as a student in Edinburgh of ideas of selection in nature as set out by Hutton, and by William Charles Wells and Patrick Matthew who had both been associated with the city before publishing their ideas on the topic early in the 19th century." ], [ "Works", "* 1785.", "''Abstract of a dissertation read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the seventh of March, and fourth of April, MDCCLXXXV, Concerning the System of the Earth, Its Duration, and Stability''.", "Edinburgh.", "30pp.", "at Oxford Digital Library.", "* 1788.", "''The theory of rain''.", "Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol.", "1, Part 2, pp. 41–86.", "* 1788.", "''Theory of the Earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition, dissolution, and restoration of land upon the Globe''.", "Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol.", "1, Part 2, pp.", "209–304.at Internet Archive.", "* 1792.", "''Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy.''", "Edinburgh & London: Strahan & Cadell.", "at Google Books* 1794.", "''Observations on granite''.", "Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol.", "3, pp. 77–81.", "* 1794.", "''A dissertation upon the philosophy of light, heat, and fire.''", "Edinburgh: Cadell, Junior, Davies.", "at e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek)* 1794.", "''An investigation of the principles of knowledge and of the progress of reason, from sense to science and philosophy''.", "Edinburgh: Strahan & Cadell.", "at (VIRGO) University of Virginia Library)* 1795.", "''Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations''.", "Edinburgh: Creech.", "3 vols.", "at e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek)* 1797.", "''Elements of Agriculture''.", "Unpublished manuscript.", "* 1899.", "''Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations, vol III'', Edited by Sir Archibald Geikie.", "Geological Society, Burlington House, London.", "at Internet Archive" ], [ "Recognition", "Street sign in the Kings Buildings complex in Edinburgh to the memory of James Hutton* A street was named after Hutton in the Kings Buildings complex (a series of science buildings linked to Edinburgh University) in the early 21st century.", "* The punk band Bad Religion quoted James Hutton with \"no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end\" in their song \"No Control\".", "* Mount Hutton in the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range is named after Hutton." ], [ "See also", "Deep historyJames Hutton InstituteClimate of ScotlandGeology of ScotlandShen Kuo''Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle'', a book by Stephen Jay Gould that reassesses Hutton's work" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Baxter, Stephen (2003).", "''Ages in Chaos: James Hutton and the Discovery of Deep Time.''", "New York: Tor Books, 2004..", "Published in the UK as ''Revolutions in the Earth: James Hutton and the True Age of the World.''", "London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", "* * * Repcheck, Jack (2003).", "''The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity.''", "London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster.", "(UK), (US)" ], [ "External links", "* James-Hutton.org, links to ''James HuttonThe Man'' and ''The James Hutton Trail''.", "* James Hutton and Uniformitarianism (scroll down)* James Hutton's memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh* First Publication of Theory of the Earth*** * * * Digitized volumes at the Linda Hall Library: Hutton's (1788), \"Theory of the Earth.\"", "''Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh'', Vol.", "1, no.", "20.", " Hutton's (1795–1899), ''Theory of the earth, with proofs and illustrations, 3 vols.", "'' John Playfair (1802), ''Illustrations of the Huttonian theory of the Earth'' John Playfair (1815), ''Explication de Playfair sur la théorie de la terre par Hutton'' (French)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jakob Abbadie" ], [ "Introduction", "Jakob Abbadie (1654–1727) Protestant divine and writer'''Jakob Abbadie''' (; 25 September 1727), also known as '''Jacques''' or ''' James Abbadie''', was a French Protestant minister and writer.", "He became Dean of Killaloe, in Ireland." ], [ "Life", "Jacques Abbadie was born at Nay, Béarn, probably in 1654, although 1657 and 1658 have been given; he is \"most probably the Jacques Abbadie who was the third child of Violente de Fortaner and Pierre Abbadie, baptized on 27 April 1654.\"", "Samuel Smiles stated that he was \"the scion of a distinguished Béarnese family\"; although it is probable that the poverty of his parents would have excluded him from a learned career if some of the leading Protestants of the district had not charged themselves with the expenses of his education, which was begun under M. Jean de la Placette, the minister of Nay, He studied at Puylaurens, the Academy of Saumur, and the Academy of Sedan, receiving the degree of doctor in theology, it is said, at the age of seventeen.", "An obituary notice, however, which appeared in the ''Daily Courant'' for 5 October 1727, says: \"He was not above twenty-two when he undertook of himself his admirable treatise on the ''Truth of the Christian Religion''\".About the same time he was sent for by Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, to be minister of the French church at Berlin; the electoral summons found Abbadie at Paris, and it was conveyed through the Count d'Espense, who had been commissioned by his master to make the selection.", "The congregation of refugees, small enough at first to be accommodated in an apartment of the Count d'Espense's residence, grew gradually from increased emigration to Brandenburg, caused by the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685.The elector ordered the ancient chapel of his palace to be prepared for the congregation, and the services were frequently attended by the younger members of his family.", "Abbadie's arrival in Berlin has been variously assigned to the years 1680 and 1681.During seven or eight years he used his increasing favour with the elector to relieve the distress of the refugees from France, and especially from his native province of Béarn.", "Abbadie continued to occupy his pastorate at Berlin until the death of the great elector, which took place 29 April 1688.He then accompanied Marshal Schomberg to England in 1688, and the following year became minister of the French Church of the Savoy, London.", "In the autumn of 1689 he went to Ireland with the marshal.After the Battle of the Boyne, Abbadie returned to London.", "He subsequently published a revised version of the French translation of the English liturgy used at this church, with an epistle dedicatory to George I.", "He was often appointed to deliver occasional discourses, both in London and Dublin, but his lack of facility in English prevented his preferment in England, and also excluded him from the deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin, to which William III wished to promote him.", "Abbadie's health suffered from devotion to his duties in the Savoy and from the English climate.", "He therefore settled in Ireland, and in 1699 the deanery of Killaloe was conferred on him by the king.", "whose favour he had attracted by a vindication of the Revolution of 1688.The remainder of Abbadie's life was spent in writing and preaching, and in the performance—not too sedulous, for he was frequently absent from his benefice—of the ordinary duties of his office, varied by visits to England and to Holland, where most of his books were printed.", "Abbadie visited Holland to see his ''La Vérité'' through the press, and stayed more than three years in Amsterdam, 1720–23, during the preparation of ''Le Triomphe'' and other works.", "He returned to Ireland in 1723.Abbadie's income as dean of Killaloe was so small that he could not afford a literary amanuensis; and Hugh Boulter, archbishop of Armagh, having appealed in vain to Lord Carteret, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, on Abbadie's behalf, gave him a letter of introduction to Dr. Edmund Gibson, bishop of London, and Abbadie left Ireland.", "He established himself at Marylebone.", "He died at his lodgings at Marylebone on Monday, 25 September 1727, aged 73." ], [ "Works", "Abbadie is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were translated from the original French into other languages and had a wide circulation throughout Europe.", "The most important of these are ''Traite de la verité de la religion chrétienne'' (1684); its continuation, ''Traité de la divinité de Jesus-Christ'' (1689); and ''L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme'' (1692).While at Berlin, he made several visits to the Netherlands, in 1684, 1686, and 1688, chiefly for the purpose of superintending the printing of several of his works, including the ''Traité de la Vérité'', 1684.The book went through a vast number of editions and was translated into several languages, an English version, by Henry Lussan, appearing in 1694.Completed by a third volume, the ''Traité de la Divinité de Nôtre Seigneur Jésus-Christ'', it appeared at Rotterdam, 1689.An English translation, entitled ''A Sovereign Antidote against Arian Poyson'', appeared in London, 1719, and again \"revised, corrected, and, in a few places, abridged\", by Abraham Booth, under the title of ''The Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian Religion'', 1777.The entire apology for Christianity formed by the three volumes of the ''Traité'', which combated severally the heresies of atheism, deism, and Socinianism, was received with praise.", "''La Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne Réformée'' (1717) was a controversial treatise which in its four parts attacks the characteristic doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church; it was translated into English, for the use of the Roman Catholics of his diocese of Dromore, by Dr. Ralph Lambert, afterwards bishop of Meath.", "The work was completed in 1723 in ''Le Triomphe de la Providence et de la Religion; ou, l'Ouverture des sept Seaux par le Fils de Dieu, où l'on trouvera la première partie de l'Apocalypse clairement expliquée par ce qu'il y a de plus connu dans l'Histoire et de moins contesté dans la Parole de Dieu.", "Avec une nouvelle et très-sensible Démonstration de la Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne''.It was in the Irish camp with Schomberg that Abbadie commenced one of his most successful works, which was published at Rotterdam in 1692, as ''L'Art de se connoître soi-même; ou, La Recherche des Sources de la Morale'', and went through many editions and amplifications.", "Translations of this work into other languages include a popular English version by the Rev.", "Thomas Woodcock, ''The Art of Knowing One-self'', 1694.The last 50 pages of this 274-page work deals with pride, which he divided into five branches: love of esteem, presumptuousness, vanity, ambition and arrogance.Among the early writings of Abbadie were four ''Sermons sur divers Textes de l'Ecriture'', 1680; ''Réflexions sur la Présence réelle du Corps de Jésus-Christ dans l'Eucharistie'', 1685; and two highly adulatory addresses on persons in high stations, entitled respectively ''Panégyrique de Monseigneur l'Electeur de Brandebourg'', 1684; and ''Panégyrique de Marie Stuart, Reine d'Angleterre, d'Ecosse, de France, et d'Irlande, de glorieuse et immortelle mémoire, décédée à Kensington le 28 décembre 1694'', 1695, also published in England as ''A Panegyric on our late Sovereign Lady'', 1695.These four productions, with other occasional sermons, were in 1760 republished collectively, in three volumes, at Amsterdam, and preceded by an ''Essai historique sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Abbadie''.", "The pamphlet on the Eucharist was also reprinted at Toulouse, in 1835, under the title of ''Quatre Lettres sur la Trans-substantiation'', and appeared in an English translation, by John W. Hamersley, as the ''Chemical Change in the Eucharist'', 1867.", "''Défense de la Nation Britannique'', 1693 was an elaborate defence of the Glorious Revolution, written in answer to Pierre Bayle's ''Avis important aux Réfugiés'', 1690.He gave a funeral oration on Queen Mary.", "Abbadie had also written, at the request of the king, ''Histoire de la dernière Conspiration d'Angleterre'', 1696, a history of the conspiracy of 1696, which was reprinted in Holland and translated into English, and for which the Earl of Portland and Secretary Sir William Trumbull placed original documents at the author's disposal.", "This work helped Abbadie's preferment.", "After its production, \"his majesty sent him to Ireland, with an order to the lords justices to confer upon him some dignity in the church, which order was complied with by his promotion to the deanery of Killalow\" (''Daily Courant,'' 5 October 1727).He revised his works for a complete edition in four volumes, in which were also to be included two unpublished treatises, ''Nouvelle Manière de prouver l'Immortalité de l'Ame'', and ''Notes sur le Commentaire philosophique de M. Bayle''.", "No trace of them could be found after his death." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", " Abbadie, Jacques in the Christian Cyclopedia** Works by Jacques Abbadie at Early English Books Online" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jerry Lewis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerry Lewis''' (born '''Joseph Levitch'''; March 16, 1926 – August 20, 2017) was an American comedian, filmmaker, actor, humanitarian and singer who was famously nicknamed \"The King of Comedy,\" with a career lasting eight decades.", "He appeared in more than 60 motion pictures, starting in 1949 including sixteen Martin and Lewis musical comedy films with Dean Martin, as his partner.", "Lewis transitioned into a solo leading star acting in ''The Bellboy'' (1960), ''Cinderfella'' (1960), ''The Errand Boy'' (1961), ''The Ladies Man'' (1961), and ''The Nutty Professor'' (1963).", "He portrayed Jerry Langford in Martin Scorsese's drama ''The King of Comedy'' (1982) earning a BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination.", "He was also an early and prominent user of video assist, while as director, producer and writer.After becoming national chairman of the Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA), Lewis focused on muscular dystrophy activism and between 1966 and 2010, hosted 45 live Labor Day telecasts of ''The Jerry Lewis Telethon.''", "benefiting the organization.", "His work won him several accolades, including two stars on the Walk of Fame and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award.", "Lewis performed in concert stages, nightclubs, music recordings and starred in 43 television programs throughout his career." ], [ "Early life", "Lewis was born on March 16, 1926, in Newark, New Jersey, to a Jewish family.", "His parents were Daniel \"Danny\" Levitch (1902–1980), a master of ceremonies and vaudevillian who performed under the stage name Danny Lewis, whose parents immigrated to the United States from the Russian Empire to New York, and Rachael \"Rae\" Levitch (née Brodsky; 1903–1983), a WOR radio pianist and Danny's music director, from Warsaw.", "Reports about his birth name are conflicting; in Lewis's 1982 autobiography, he claimed his birth name was Joseph, after his maternal grandfather, but his birth certificate, the 1930 U. S. Census, and the 1940 U. S. Census all named him as Jerome.", "Reports about the hospital where he was born conflict as well; biographer Shawn Levy claims Lewis was born at Clinton Private Hospital and others report it as Newark Beth Israel Hospital.", "Other aspects of his early life conflict with accounts made by family members, burial records, and vital records.In his teenage years, Lewis was known for pulling pranks in his neighborhood, including sneaking into kitchens to steal fried chicken and pies.", "He was expelled from Weequahic High School in the ninth grade and dropped out of Irvington High School in the tenth grade.", "Lewis said that he ceased using the names Joseph and Joey as an adult to avoid being confused with Joe E. Lewis and Joe Louis.", "By age 15, Lewis had developed his \"Record Act,\" miming lyrics to songs while a phonograph played offstage.", "He landed a gig at a burlesque house in Buffalo, but his performance fell flat and he was unable to book any more shows.", "To make ends meet, Lewis worked as a soda jerk and a theater usher for Suzanne Pleshette's father, Gene Pleshette, at the Paramount Theatre as well as at Loew's Capitol Theatre, both in New York City.", "A veteran burlesque comedian, Max Coleman, who had worked with Lewis's father years before, persuaded him to try again.", "Irving Kaye, a Borscht Belt comedian, saw Lewis's mime act at Brown's Hotel in Loch Sheldrake, New York, the following summer, and the audience was so enthusiastic that Kaye became Lewis's manager and guardian for Borscht Belt appearances.", "During World War II, Lewis was rejected from military service because of a heart murmur." ], [ "Career", "===1945–1956: Teaming with Dean Martin===Lewis with Dean Martin in 1950In 1945, Lewis was 19 when he met 27-year-old singer Dean Martin at the Glass Hat Club in New York City, where the two performed until they debuted at Atlantic City's 500 Club as Martin and Lewis on July 25, 1946.The duo gained attention as a double act with Martin serving as the straight man to Lewis's zany antics.", "The inclusion of ad-libbed improvisational segments in their planned routines added a unique quality to their act and separated them from previous comedy duos.", "Martin and Lewis quickly rose to national prominence, first with their popular nightclub act, then as stars of their radio program ''The Martin and Lewis Show.''", "The two made their television debut on CBS' ''Toast of the Town'' (later renamed as ''The Ed Sullivan Show'') June 20, 1948.This was followed by an appearance on ''Welcome Aboard'' on October 3, 1948, and by a guest stint on ''Texaco Star Theater'' in 1949.In 1950, they signed with NBC to be one of a series of weekly rotating hosts of ''The Colgate Comedy Hour,'' a live Sunday evening broadcast.", "Lewis, writer for the team's nightclub act, hired Norman Lear and Ed Simmons as regular writers for their ''Comedy Hour'' material.", "By 1951, with an appearance at the Paramount Theatre in New York, they were a hit.", "The duo began their film careers at Paramount Pictures as ensemble players, in ''My Friend Irma'' (1949) and its sequel ''My Friend Irma Goes West'' (1950).", "Followed by their own series of 14 new movies, ''At War with the Army'' (1950), ''That's My Boy'' (1951), ''Sailor Beware'' (1952), ''Jumping Jacks'' (1952), ''The Stooge'' (1952), ''Scared Stiff'' (1953), ''The Caddy'' (1953), ''Money from Home'' (1953), ''Living It Up'' (1954), ''3 Ring Circus'' (1954), ''You're Never Too Young'' (1955), ''Artists and Models'' (1955), ''Pardners'' (1956) and ''Hollywood or Bust'' (1956).", "The two appeared on the ''Olympic Fund Telethon'' and cameoed in ''Road to Bali'' (1952).Crosby and Hope would do the same in ''Scared Stiff'' a year later.", "Attesting to the duo's popularity, DC Comics published ''The Adventures of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis'' from 1952 to 1957.The team appeared on ''What's My Line?''", "in 1954, the 27th annual Academy Awards in 1955, ''The Steve Allen Show'' and ''The Today Show'' in 1956.Martin's participation became an embarrassment in 1954 when ''Look'' magazine published a publicity photo of the team for the magazine cover but cropped Martin out.", "The boys did their final live nightclub act at the Copacabana on July 24, 1956.Both Lewis and Martin went on to have successful solo careers, but neither would comment on the split nor consider a reunion.", "Martin surprised Lewis on his appearance on ''The Eddie Fisher Show'' on September 30, 1958, appeared together at the 1959 Academy Awards closing, reunited several times publicly and sometimes privately according to interviews they gave to magazines.===1957–1959: Solo performances and live shows ===After ending his partnership with Martin in 1956, Lewis and his wife Patty took a vacation in Las Vegas to consider the direction of his career.", "He felt his life was in a crisis state: \"I was unable to put one foot in front of the other with any confidence.", "I was completely unnerved to be alone.\"", "While there, he received an urgent request from his friend Sid Luft, who was Judy Garland's husband and manager, saying that she couldn't perform that night in Las Vegas because of strep throat, and asking Lewis to fill in.", "Lewis had not sung alone on stage since he was five years old, twenty-five years before.", "He delivered jokes and clowned with the audience while Garland sat off-stage, watching.", "He then sang a rendition of a song he'd learned as a child, \"Rock-a-Bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody\" along with \"Come Rain or Come Shine\".", "Lewis recalled, \"When I was done, the place exploded.", "I walked off the stage knowing I could make it on my own.\"", "At his wife's urging, Lewis used his own money to record the songs on a single.", "Decca Records heard it, liked it and insisted he record an album for them.", "The single of ''Rock-a-Bye Your Baby'' went to No.", "10 and the album ''Jerry Lewis Just Sings'' went to No.", "3 on the ''Billboard'' charts, staying near the top for four months and selling a million and a half copies.Lewis in 1958With the success of that album, he recorded additional albums ''More Jerry Lewis'' (an EP of songs from this release was released as ''Somebody Loves Me''), and ''Jerry Lewis Sings Big Songs for Little People'' (later reissued with fewer tracks as ''Jerry Lewis Sings for Children'').", "Non-album singles were released, and ''It All Depends On You'' hit the charts in April and May 1957, but peaked at only No.", "68.Further singles were recorded and released by Lewis into the mid-1960s.", "But these were not Lewis's first forays into recording, nor his first appearance on the hit charts.", "During his partnership with Martin, they made several recordings together, charting at No.", "22 in 1948 with the 1920s ''That Certain Party'' and later mostly re-recording songs highlighted in their films.", "Also during the time of their partnership, but without Martin, he recorded numerous novelty-comedy numbers for adults as well as records specifically intended for the children's market.", "In late 1956, Lewis began performing regularly at the Sands Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, which marked a turning point in his life and career.", "The Sands signed him for five years to perform six weeks each year and paid him the same amount they had paid Martin and Lewis as a team.", "The critics gave him positive reviews: \"Jerry was wonderful.", "He has proved that he can be a success by himself,\" wrote one.Live performances became a staple of Lewis's career and over the years he performed at casinos, theaters, and state fairs.", "In February 1957, Lewis followed Garland at the Palace Theater in New York and Martin called on the phone during this period to wish him the best of luck.", "\"I've never been happier,\" said Lewis.", "\"I have peace of mind for the first time.\"", "Lewis established himself as a solo act, starting with the first of six appearances on ''What's My Line?''", "from 1956 to 1966, then guest starred on ''The Tennessee Ernie Ford Show,'' ''Tonight Starring Jack Paar,'' ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' and beginning in January 1957, did a number of solo specials for NBC and starred in his adaptation of \"The Jazz Singer\" for ''Startime.''", "Lewis hosted the Academy Awards three times, in 1956, 1957 and 1959.The third telecast, which ran twenty minutes short, forced Lewis to improvise to fill time.", "DC Comics published a new comic book series titled ''The Adventures of Jerry Lewis,'' a sequel to ''The Adventures of Dean Martin & Jerry Lewis'' series, running from 1957 to 1971.Lewis remained at Paramount and started with his first solo film ''The Delicate Delinquent'' (1957) then starred in ''The Sad Sack'' (1957).", "Frank Tashlin, whose background as a ''Looney Tunes'' cartoon director suited Lewis's brand of humor and came on board.", "The pair did new films, first with ''Rock-A-Bye Baby'' (1958) and then ''The Geisha Boy'' (1958).", "Billy Wilder asked Lewis to play the lead role of an uptight jazz musician, who winds up on the run from a mob in ''Some Like It Hot,'' but turned it down.", "Lewis then appeared in ''Don't Give Up The Ship'' (1959) and cameoed in ''Li'l Abner'' (1959).", "A 1959 contract between Paramount and Jerry Lewis Productions specified a payment of $10 million plus 60% of the profits for 14 films over seven years.", "This made Lewis the highest paid individual Hollywood talent to date and was unprecedented in that he had unlimited creative control, including final cut and the return of film rights after 30 years.", "Lewis's clout and box office were so strong that Barney Balaban, head of production at Paramount, told the press, \"If Jerry wants to burn down the studio I'll give him the match!", "\"=== 1960–1965: Paramount films ===Publicity photo of Lewis for ''The Jerry Lewis Show''Lewis had finished his film contract with Wallis with ''Visit to a Small Planet'' (1960) and wrapped up production on his own film ''Cinderfella'' (1960), directed by Tashlin and was postponed for a Christmas 1960 release.", "Paramount Pictures, needing a quickie movie for its summer 1960 schedule, held Lewis to his contract to produce one.", "As a result, he made his debut as film director of ''The Bellboy'' (1960), which he also starred in.", "Using the Fontainebleau Hotel in Miami as his setting — on a small budget, with a very tight shooting schedule — Lewis shot the film during the day and performed at the hotel in the evenings.", "Bill Richmond collaborated with him on many of the sight gags.", "Lewis later revealed that Paramount was not happy about financing a \"silent movie\" and withdrew backing.", "Lewis used his own funds to cover the movie's $950,000 budget.", "Meanwhile, he directed an unsold pilot for ''Permanent Waves.", "''Lewis continued to direct more films that he had co-written with Richmond, including ''The Ladies Man'' (1961), where Lewis constructed a three-story dollhouse-like set spanning two sound stages, with the set equipped with state of the art lighting and sound, eliminating the need for boom mics in each room and his next movie ''The Errand Boy'' (1961), was one of the earliest films about movie-making, using all of the Paramount backlot and offices.", "Lewis appeared in ''The Wacky World of Jerry Lewis,'' ''Celebrity Golf,'' ''The Garry Moore Show,'' ''The Soupy Sales Show,'' ''It's Only Money'' (1962) and guest hosted ''The Tonight Show'' during the transition from Jack Paar to Johnny Carson in 1962, and his appearance on the show scored the highest ratings thus far in late night, surpassing other guest hosts and Paar.", "The three major networks began a bidding war, wooing Lewis for his own talk show.", "Lewis then directed, co-wrote and starred in ''The Nutty Professor'' (1963).", "A parody of ''Dr.", "Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,'' it featured him as Professor Kelp, a socially inept scientist who invents a serum that turns him into a handsome but obnoxious ladies' man.", "It is often considered to be Lewis's best film.Professor Kelp, with co-star Stella Stevens, in ''The Nutty Professor'' (1963)In 1963, he had a cameo in ''It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World'' (1963), fully starred in ''Who's Minding the Store?''", "(1963) and hosted ''The Jerry Lewis Show,'' a lavish 13-week, big-budget show which aired on ABC from September to December in 1963.Lewis next starred in ''The Patsy'' (1964), his satire about the Hollywood star-making industry, ''The Disorderly Orderly'' (1964), his final collaboration with Tashlin, appeared in a cameo on ''The Joey Bishop Show'' and ''The Family Jewels'' (1965) about a young heiress who must choose among six uncles, one of whom is up to no good and out to harm the girl's beloved bodyguard who practically raised her.", "In 1965, Lewis went on ''The David Susskind Show,'' starred in ''Boeing Boeing'' (1965), his final film for Paramount in which he received a Golden Globe nomination, an episode of ''Ben Casey,'' ''The Andy Williams Show'' and ''Hullabaloo'' with son Gary Lewis.", "Lewis left Paramount in 1966, after 17 years, with no explanation and signed with Columbia Pictures where he tried to reinvent himself with more serious roles.=== 1966–1980: Post-Paramount===Lewis in 1973Lewis starred in ''Three on a Couch'' (1966), ''The Merv Griffin Show'', ''Way...Way Out'' (1966), ''The Sammy Davis Jr. Show,'' ''Batman,'' ''Laugh In,'' ''Password,'' a pilot for ''Sheriff Who,'' a second version of ''The Jerry Lewis Show,'' this time as a one-hour variety show for NBC, which ran from 1967 to 1969, ''The Big Mouth'' (1967) and ''The Danny Thomas Hour.''", "Lewis appeared in ''Don't Raise the Bridge, Lower the River'' (1968), ''Playboy After Dark,'' ''Hook, Line & Sinker'' (1969), ''Jimmy Durante's The Lennon Sisters Hour,'' ''The Red Skelton Show,'' ''The Jack Benny Birthday Special,'' contributed to some scripts for Filmation's ''Will the Real Jerry Lewis Please Sit Down,'' appeared on ''The Mike Douglas Show'' and directed an episode of ''The Bold Ones.''", "Lewis guested on ''The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour,'' ''The Hollywood Palace,'' ''The Engelbert Humperdinck Show,'' ''The Irv Kupcinet Show,'' ''The Linkletter Show'' and ''The Real Tom Kennedy Show'', directed ''One More Time'' (1970), in which he played his first (and only) off-screen voice as a bandleader, starred in ''Which Way to the Front?''", "(1970) and appeared on ''The Carol Burnett Show'' and ''The Kraft Music Hall.", "''Lewis directed and appeared in the partly unreleased ''The Day the Clown Cried'' (1972), a drama set in a Nazi concentration camp.", "The film was rarely discussed by Lewis, but he said that litigation over post-production finances and copyright prevented its completion and theatrical release.", "He also said a factor for the film's burial was that he was not proud of the effort.", "It was the earliest attempt by an American film director to address the subject of The Holocaust.", "Following this, Lewis took a break from the movie business for several years.", "Lewis appeared on ''Good Morning America,'' ''The Dick Cavett Show,'' ''NBC Follies,'' ''Celebrity Sportsman,'' ''Cher,'' ''Dinah!,'' ''Tony Orlando and Dawn,'' after being reunited with Martin on the 1976 MDA telethon, Lewis surprised him and Sinatra after walking onto the stage at the Aladdin in Las Vegas during their show, exchanging jokes for several minutes, Lewis would later star in a revival of ''Hellzapoppin'' with Lynn Redgrave, until closing on the road before reaching Broadway, guest hosted as ringmaster of the annual CBS special ''Circus of the Stars'' in 1979 and appeared on ''Pink Lady'' in 1980.=== 1981–2018: Later roles and final work ===Lewis made a comeback to the silver screen in ''Hardly Working'' (1981), after an 11-year absence from film and despite being panned by critics, it eventually earned $50 million.", "In 1982, Lewis appeared on ''Late Night with David Letterman'' and then in ''The King of Comedy'' (1982), as a late-night TV host, plagued by two obsessive fans, in which he received wide critical acclaim and a BAFTA nomination for this serious dramatic role.", "Lewis appeared on ''Saturday Night Live,'' ''Star Search,'' starred in ''Cracking Up'' (1983), ''Slapstick (Of Another Kind)'' (1984), two French movies ''To Catch a Cop'' (1984) and ''How Did You Get In?", "We Didn't See You Leave'' (1984), which had their distribution under Lewis's control and stated that they would never be released in American movie theaters and on home media.Lewis at the Cannes Film Festival, 2013Lewis hosted a third and final version of ''The Jerry Lewis Show,'' this time as a syndicated talk show for Metromedia, which was not continued beyond the scheduled five shows, directed an episode of ''Brothers'' in 1985, appeared at the first Comic Relief in 1986, where he was the only performer to receive a standing ovation, was interviewed on ''Classic Treasures'' and starred in the ABC televised movie ''Fight for Life'' (1987).", "In 1987, Lewis performed a second double act with Davis Jr. at Bally's in Las Vegas, then after learning of the death of Martin's son Dean Paul Martin, he attended his funeral, which led to a more substantial reconciliation with Martin.", "In 1988, Lewis hosted ''America's All-Time Favorite Movies'', then interviewed by Howard Cosell on ''Speaking of Everything'' and starred in five episodes of ''Wiseguy.''", "The filming schedule of the show forced Lewis to miss the Museum of the Moving Image's opening with a retrospective of his work.", "In 1989, Lewis joined Martin on stage, for what would be Martin's final live performance, at Bally's Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.", "Lewis wheeled out a cake on Martin's 72nd birthday, sang \"Happy Birthday\" to him and joked, \"Why we broke up, I'll never know.\"", "Lewis starred in ''Cookie'' (1989), handled two years directing episodes of ''Super Force'' in 1990 and ''Good Grief'' in 1991, then starred in ''Mr.", "Saturday Night'' (1992), ''The Arsenio Hall Show,'' ''The Whoopi Goldberg Show,'' ''Inside The Comedy Mind,'' ''Mad About You'' and made film appearances in ''Arizona Dream'' (1993) and ''Funny Bones'' (1995).Lewis made his Broadway debut in a revival of ''Damn Yankees,'' as a replacement cast member playing the devil and was reportedly paid the highest sum in Broadway history for performing in both the musical's national and London runs but due to attending Martin's funeral, he missed only three shows in more than four years.", "Lewis appeared on ''Inside the Actors Studio'' in 1996, the 12th annual American Comedy Awards in 1998, ''The Martin Short Show'', ''The Simpsons'', ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien,'' ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'', the song \"Time After Time\" with Deana Martin on her album ''Memories Are Made of This'', a sequel to ''The Nutty Professor'' (2008), ''Curious George 2: Follow That Monkey!''", "(2009), the 81st Academy Awards, ''Till Luck Do Us Part 2'' (2013), ''The Talk'', ''The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon'', ''The Trust'' (2016), his final film ''Max Rose'' (2016) and ''Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee''." ], [ "Style and reception", "=== Comedic style ===Lewis \"single-handedly created a style of humor that was half anarchy, half excruciation.", "Even comics who never took a pratfall in their careers owe something to the self-deprecation Jerry introduced into American show business.\"", "His comedy style was physically uninhibited, expressive, and potentially volatile.", "He was known especially for his distinctive voice, facial expressions, pratfalls, and physical stunts.", "His improvisations and ad-libbing, especially in nightclubs and early television were revolutionary among performers.", "It was \"marked by a raw, edgy energy that would distinguish him within the comedy landscape\".", "Will Sloan, of ''Flavorwire'' wrote, \"In the late '40s and early '50s, nobody had ever seen a comedian as wild as Jerry Lewis.\"", "Placed in the context of the conservative era, his antics were radical and liberating, paving the way for future comedians Steve Martin, Richard Pryor, Andy Kaufman, Paul Reubens, and Jim Carrey.", "Carrey wrote: \"Through his comedy, Jerry would stretch the boundaries of reality so far that it was an act of anarchy ...", "I learned from Jerry\", and \"I am because he was\".Acting the bumbling everyman, Lewis used tightly choreographed, sophisticated sight gags, physical routines, verbal double-talk and malapropisms.", "\"You cannot help but notice Lewis's incredible sense of control in regards to performing—they may have looked at times like the ravings of a madman but his best work had a genuine grace and finesse behind it that would put most comedic performers of any era to shame.\"", "They are \"choreographed as exactly as any ballet, each movement and gesture coming on natural beats and conforming to the overall rhythmic form which is headed to a spectacular finale: absolute catastrophe.", "\"Although Lewis made it no secret that he was Jewish, he was criticized for hiding his Jewish heritage.", "In several of his films — both with Martin and solo — Lewis's Jewish identity is hinted at in passing, and was never made a defining characteristic of his onscreen persona.", "Aside from the 1959 television movie ''The Jazz Singer'' and the unreleased 1972 film ''The Day the Clown Cried'', Lewis never appeared in a film or film role that had any ties to his Jewish heritage.", "When asked about this lack of Jewish portrayal in a 1984 interview, Lewis stated, \"I never hid it, but I wouldn't announce it and I wouldn't exploit it.", "Plus the fact it had no room in the visual direction I was taking in my work.", "\"Lewis's physical movements in films received some criticism because he was perceived as imitating or mocking those with a physical disability.", "Through the years, the disability that has been attached to his comedic persona has not been physical, but mental.", "Neuroticism and schizophrenia have been a part of Lewis's persona since his partnership with Dean Martin; however, it was in his solo career that these disabilities became important to the plots of his films and the characters.", "In films such as ''The Ladies Man'' (1961), ''The Disorderly Orderly'' (1964), ''The Patsy'' (1964) and ''Cracking Up'' (1983), there is either neuroticism, schizophrenia, or both that drive the plot.", "Lewis was able to explore and dissect the psychological side of his persona, which provided a depth to the character and the films that was not present in his previous efforts.=== Directorial technique ===During the 1960 production of ''The Bellboy,'' Lewis pioneered the technique of using video cameras and multiple closed circuit monitors, which allowed him to review his performance instantly.", "This was necessary since he was acting as well as directing.", "His techniques and methods of filmmaking, documented in his book and his USC class, enabled him to complete most of his films on time and under budget since reshoots could take place immediately instead of waiting for the dailies.", "''Man in Motion,'' a featurette for ''Three on a Couch,'' features the video system, named \"Jerry's Noisy Toy\" and shows Lewis receiving the Golden Light Technical Achievement award for its development.", "Lewis stated he worked with the head of Sony to produce the prototype.", "While he initiated its practice and use, and was instrumental in its development, he did not hold a patent.", "This practice is now commonplace in filmmaking.", "Starting in 1967, Lewis taught a film directing class at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles for a number of years.", "His students included George Lucas, whose friend Steven Spielberg sometimes sat in on classes.Lewis screened Spielberg's early film ''Amblin''' and told his students, \"That's what filmmaking is all about.\"", "The class covered all topics related to filmmaking, including pre and post production, marketing and distribution and filming comedy with rhythm and timing.", "His 1971 book ''The Total Film Maker'', was based on 480 hours of his class lectures.", "Lewis also traveled to medical schools for seminars on laughter and healing with Dr. Clifford Kuhn and also did corporate and college lectures, motivational speaking and promoted the pain-treatment company Medtronic.=== Exposure in France ===While Lewis was popular in France for his duo films with Dean Martin and his solo comedy films, his reputation and stature increased after the Paramount contract, when he began to exert total control over all aspects of his films.", "His involvement in directing, writing, editing and art direction coincided with the rise of auteur theory in French intellectual film criticism and the French New Wave movement.", "He earned consistent praise from French critics in the influential magazines ''Cahiers du Cinéma'' and ''Positif,'' where he was hailed as an ingenious auteur.His singular ''mise-en-scène,'' and skill behind the camera, were aligned with Howard Hawks, Alfred Hitchcock and Satyajit Ray.", "Appreciated too, was the complexity of his also being in front of the camera.", "The new French criticism viewed cinema as an art form unto itself, and comedy as part of this art.", "Lewis is then fitted into a historical context and seen as not only worthy of critique, but as an innovator and satirist of his time.", "Jean-Pierre Coursodon states in a 1975 ''Film Comment'' article, \"The merit of the French critics, auteurist excesses notwithstanding, was their willingness to look at what Lewis was doing as a filmmaker for what it was, rather than with some preconception of what film comedy should be.", "\"Not yet curricula at universities or art schools, film studies and film theory were avant-garde in early 1960s America.", "Mainstream movie reviewers such as Pauline Kael, were dismissive of auteur theory, and others, seeing only absurdist comedy, criticized Lewis for his ambition and \"castigated him for his self-indulgence\" and egotism.", "Despite this criticism often being held by American film critics, admiration for Lewis and his comedy continued to grow in France.Appreciation of Lewis became a misunderstood stereotype about \"the French,\" and it was often the object of jokes in American pop culture.", "\"That Americans can't see Jerry Lewis's genius is bewildering,\" says N. T. Binh, a French film magazine critic.", "Such bewilderment was the basis of the book ''Why the French Love Jerry Lewis.''", "In response to the lingering perception that French audiences adored him, Lewis stated in interviews he was more popular in Germany, Japan and Australia." ], [ "Acting credits and accolades", "Lewis's motion picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6821 Hollywood Blvd.Lewis received numerous honorary awards including the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences's Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 2008, the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences' Governor's Award in 2005, and the Venice International Film Festival's Career Golden Lion in 1999.He was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Best Comedian or Comedienne in 1952 and the Best Actor in a Comedy or Musical Film for his performance in ''Boeing, Boeing'' (1965).", "For his Broadway debut he received a Theatre World Award nomination.", "Lewis was nominated for ten Golden Laurel Awards winning twice.", "Lewis also received a nomination for the Razzie Award for Worst Actor for his performance in ''Slapstick of Another Kind'' (1985), as well as two Stinker Award nominations for Worst Director and Worst Actor for ''Hardly Working'' (1981)." ], [ "Charity and activism", "Lewis with President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan meeting with MDA poster child Christi Bartlett in The Oval Office, March 1981After meeting with Paul Cohen, founder of the Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA), Lewis and Martin made their first appeal in early December 1951 on the finale of ''The Colgate Comedy Hour,'' followed by another in 1952.Lewis fought Rocky Marciano in a boxing bout for MDA's fund drive in 1954.Then in 1956, Martin and Lewis hosted their first MDA telethon from June 29 to June 30 of that year.After being named national chairman in 1956 and helming two Thanksgiving specials in 1957 and 1959, Lewis began hosting and emceeing ''The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon'' in late 1966.Since its first broadcast on one station that year, the annual telethon aired live every Labor Day weekend for six decades, with Ed McMahon as co-host and announcer from 1973 to 2008.The show originated from different locations including New York, Las Vegas, Hollywood and Chicago, becoming the most watched and most successful fundraising event in the history of television.", "The songs \"Smile\" (by Charlie Chaplin), \"What the World Needs Now Is Love\" (by Jackie DeShannon) and \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" (by Rodgers and Hammerstein) have been used for the telethon's intro, tote board totals and outro.It was the first to: raise over $1 million, in 1966; be shown entirely in color, in 1967; become a networked telethon, in 1968; go coast-to-coast, in 1970; be seen outside the continental U.S., in 1972.It: raised the largest sum ever in a single event for humanitarian purposes, in 1974; had the greatest amount ever pledged to a televised charitable event, in 1980 (from the ''Guinness Book of World Records''); was the first to be seen by 100 million people, in 1985; celebrated its 25th anniversary, in 1990; saw its highest pledge in history, in 1992; and was the first seen worldwide via internet simulcast, in 1998.By 1990, societal views of disabled individuals and the telethon format had shifted.", "Lewis's and the telethon's methods were criticized by disabled-rights activists who believed the show was \"designed to evoke pity rather than empower the disabled\".", "The activists said the telethon perpetuated prejudices and stereotypes, that Lewis treated those he claimed to be helping with little respect, and that he used offensive language when describing them.", "Lewis rebutted the criticism and defended his methods saying, \"If you don't tug at their heartstrings, then you're on the air for nothing.\"", "The activist protests represented a very small minority of countless MDA patients and clients who had directly benefitted from Lewis's MDA fundraising.", "During Lewis's lifetime, MDA-funded scientists discovered the causes of most of the diseases in the Muscular Dystrophy Association's program, developing treatments, therapies and standards of care that have allowed many people living with these diseases to live longer and grow stronger.", "Over 200 research and treatment facilities were built with donations raised by the Jerry Lewis telethons.", "For significant and lasting contributions to the health and welfare of humanity, Lewis received a Nobel Peace Prize nomination, a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Medical Association, a Governors Award and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award.", "Lewis hosted his final telethon in 2010.On August 3, 2011, MDA announced that Lewis would no longer host its telethons and that he was no longer associated with MDA.", "The 2011 telethon (which originally was to be Lewis's 46th and final show with MDA) featured a tribute to Lewis.", "In May 2015, MDA said it was discontinuing its telethon in view of \"the new realities of television viewing and philanthropic giving\".", "Lewis's goal of raising \"one dollar more\" than the previous year's amount has been more than met almost every year, thanks to the generosity and compassion of the American public.", "Through his work on the telethon, Lewis has effectively led the battle to increase life expectancy and improve the quality of life for children and adults suffering from neuromuscular diseases.", "In early 2016, at MDA's brand relaunch event at Carnegie Hall in New York City, Lewis broke a five-year silence during a special taped message for the organization on its website, marking his first (and as it turned out, his final) appearance in support of MDA since his final telethon in 2010 and the end of his tenure as national chairman in 2011.MDA's website states, \"Jerry's love, passion and brilliance are woven throughout this organization, which he helped build from the ground up, courted sponsors for MDA, appeared at openings of MDA care and research centers, addressed meetings of civic organizations, volunteers and the MDA Board of Directors, successfully lobbied Congress for federal neuromuscular disease research funds, made countless phone calls and visits to families served by MDA." ], [ "Personal life", "===Relationships and children===Lewis wed Patti Palmer (née Esther Grace Calonico; 1921–2021), a singer with Ted Fio Rito, on October 3, 1944.They had six sons together; five biological: Gary (born 1945), Scott (born 1956), Christopher (born 1957), Anthony (born 1959) and Joseph (1964–2009); and one adopted: Ronald (born 1949).", "It was an interfaith marriage; Lewis was Jewish and Palmer was Catholic.While married to Palmer, Lewis likely fathered a daughter, Suzan (born 1952) with Lynn Dixon Kleinman.", "DNA testing indicated an 88.7 percent probability that Suzan is related to Lewis' acknowledged son Gary.", "Lewis openly pursued relationships with other women and gave unapologetic interviews about his infidelity, revealing his affairs with Marilyn Monroe and Marlene Dietrich to ''People'' in 2011.Palmer filed for divorce from Lewis in 1980, after 35 years of marriage, citing Lewis's extravagant spending and infidelity on his part, and it was finalized in 1983.All of Lewis's children and grandchildren from his marriage to Palmer were excluded from inheriting any part of his estate.", "His eldest son, Gary, publicly called his father a \"mean and evil person\" and said that Lewis never showed him or his siblings any love or care.Lewis's second wife was Sandra \"SanDee\" Pitnick, a University of North Carolina School of the Arts professionally trained ballerina and stewardess, who met Lewis after winning a bit part in a dancing scene on his film ''Hardly Working''.", "They wed on February 13, 1983, in Key Biscayne, Florida, adopted a daughter, Danielle (born 1992), and were married for 34 years until Lewis's death.=== Interests ===After opening a camera shop in 1950, Lewis agreed to lend his name to \"Jerry Lewis Cinemas\" in 1969, offered by National Cinema Corporation, as a franchise business opportunity for those interested in theatrical movie exhibition.", "Jerry Lewis Cinemas stated that their theaters could be operated by a staff of as few as two with the aid of automation and support provided by the franchiser in booking film and other aspects of film exhibition.", "A forerunner of the smaller rooms typical of later multi-screen complexes, a Jerry Lewis Cinema was billed in franchising ads as a \"mini-theatre\" with a seating capacity of between 200 and 350.In addition to Lewis's name, each Jerry Lewis Cinema bore a sign with a cartoon logo of Lewis in profile.", "Initially 158 territories were franchised, with a buy-in fee of $10,000 or $15,000 depending on the territory, for what was called an \"individual exhibitor\".", "For $50,000, Jerry Lewis Cinemas offered an opportunity known as an \"area directorship\", in which investors controlled franchising opportunities in a territory as well as their own cinemas.", "The success of the chain was hampered by a policy of only booking second-run, family-friendly films.", "Eventually the policy was changed, and the Jerry Lewis Cinemas were allowed to show more competitive movies.", "But after a decade the chain failed and both Lewis and National Cinema Corporation declared bankruptcy in 1980.In 1973, Lewis appeared on the 1st Annual 20-hour Highway Safety Foundation Telethon, then in 1990, wrote and directed ''Boy'', a short film for UNICEF's ''How Are The Children?''", "anthology, meeting up with seven-year-old Lochie Graham in 2010, who shared his idea for \"Jerry's House\", a place for vulnerable and traumatized children and in 2016, would lent his name and star power to Criss Angel's HELP (Heal Every Life Possible) charity event.=== Political views ===Lewis kept a low political profile for many years, having taken advice reportedly given to him by President John F. Kennedy, who told him, \"Don't get into anything political.", "Don't do that because they will usurp your energy.\"", "Nevertheless, he campaigned and performed on behalf of both JFK and Robert F. Kennedy, and was a supporter of the civil rights movement.", "For his 1957 NBC special, Lewis held his ground when southern affiliates objected to his friendship with Sammy Davis, Jr.", "In a 1971 ''Movie Mirror'' magazine article, Lewis spoke out against the Vietnam War when his son Gary returned from service traumatized.", "He vowed to leave the country rather than send another of his sons.Lewis observed that political speeches should not be at the Oscars.", "He stated, \"I think we are the most dedicated industry in the world.", "And I think that we have to present ourselves that night as hard-working, caring and important people to the industry.", "We need to get more self-respect as an industry\".", "In a 2004 interview with ''The Guardian'', Lewis was asked what he was least proud of, to which he answered, \"Politics\".He mocked citizens' lack of pride in their country, stating, \"President Bush is my president.", "I will not say anything negative about the president of the United States.", "I don't do that.", "And I don't allow my children to do that.", "Likewise, when I come to England don't you do any jokes about 'Mum' to me.", "That is the Queen of England, you moron.", "Do you know how tough a job it is to be the Queen of England?", "\"In a December 2015 interview on EWTN's ''World Over'' with Raymond Arroyo, Lewis expressed opposition to the United States letting in Syrian refugees, saying, \"No one has worked harder for the human condition than I have, but they're not part of the human condition if 11 guys in that group of 10,000 are ISIS.", "How can I take that chance?\"", "In the same interview, he criticized President Barack Obama for not being prepared for ISIS, while expressing support for Donald Trump, saying he would make a good president because he was a good \"showman\".", "He also added that he admired Ronald Reagan's presidency.===Stalking incident===In February 1994, a man named Gary Benson was revealed to have been stalking Lewis and his family.", "Benson subsequently served four years in prison.=== Allegations of sexual assault ===In February 2022, ''Vanity Fair'' reported that several of Lewis's co-stars from the 1960s had come forward to share allegations of sexual assault, harassment, and verbal abuse.", "Those whose accounts were made public included Karen Sharpe, Hope Holiday, Anna Maria Alberghetti, and Lainie Kazan.=== Illness and death ===Lewis suffered from a number of chronic health problems, illnesses and addictions related both to aging and a back injury sustained in a comedic pratfall.", "The fall has been stated as being either from a piano while performing at the Sands Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip on March 20, 1965, or during an appearance on ''The Andy Williams Show''.", "In its aftermath, Lewis became addicted to the painkiller Percodan for thirteen years.", "He said he had been off the drug since 1978.In April 2002, Lewis had a Medtronic \"Synergy\" neurostimulator implanted in his back, which helped reduce the discomfort.", "He was one of the company's leading spokesmen.Lewis suffered numerous heart problems throughout his life; he revealed in the 2011 documentary ''Method to the Madness of Jerry Lewis'' that he suffered his first heart attack at age 34 while filming ''Cinderfella'' in 1960.In December 1982, at age 56, he suffered his second heart attack.", "Two months later, in February 1983, Lewis underwent open-heart double-bypass surgery.", "En route to San Diego from New York City on a cross-country commercial airline flight on June 11, 2006, Lewis suffered his third heart attack at age 80.It was discovered that he had pneumonia, as well as a severely damaged heart.", "He underwent a cardiac catheterization days after the heart attack, and two stents were inserted into one of his coronary arteries, which was 90 percent blocked.", "The surgery resulted in increased blood flow to his heart and allowed him to continue his rebound from earlier lung problems.", "Having the cardiac catheterization required him to cancel several major events from his schedule, but Lewis fully recuperated in a matter of weeks.In 1999, Lewis's Australian tour was cut short when he had to be hospitalized in Darwin with viral meningitis.", "He was ill for more than five months.", "It was reported in the Australian press that he had failed to pay his medical bills.", "However, Lewis maintained that the payment confusion was the fault of his health insurer.", "The resulting negative publicity caused him to sue his insurer for US$100 million.In addition to his decades-long heart problems, Lewis had prostate cancer, type 1 diabetes, and pulmonary fibrosis.", "In the late 1990s, Lewis was treated with prednisone for pulmonary fibrosis, which caused considerable weight gain and a startling change in his appearance.", "In September 2001, Lewis was unable to perform at a planned London charity event at the London Palladium.", "He was the headlining act, and was introduced, but did not appear onstage.", "He had suddenly become unwell, apparently with cardiac problems.He was subsequently taken to a hospital.", "Some months thereafter, Lewis began an arduous, months-long therapy that weaned him off prednisone, and he lost much of the weight gained while on the drug.", "The treatment enabled him to return to work.", "On June 12, 2012, he was treated and released from a hospital after collapsing from hypoglycemia at a New York Friars Club event.", "This forced him to cancel a show in Sydney.", "In an October 2016 interview with ''Inside Edition'', Lewis acknowledged that he might not star in any more films, given his advanced age, while admitting, through tears, that he was afraid of dying, as it would leave his wife and daughter alone.", "In June 2017, Lewis was hospitalized at a Las Vegas hospital for a urinary tract infection.Lewis died at his home in Las Vegas, Nevada, on August 20, 2017, at the age of 91.The cause was end-stage cardiac disease and peripheral artery disease.", "Lewis was cremated.", "In his will, Lewis left his estate to his second wife of 34 years, SanDee Pitnick, and their daughter, and explicitly disinherited his children from his first marriage and their children." ], [ "Controversies", "In 1998, at the Aspen U.S.", "Comedy Arts Festival, when asked which women comics he admired, Lewis answered, \"I don't like any female comedians.", "A woman doing comedy doesn't offend me but sets me back a bit.", "I, as a viewer, have trouble with it.", "I think of her as a producing machine that brings babies in the world.\"", "He went on to praise Lucille Ball as \"brilliant\" and said Carol Burnett is \"the greatest female entrepreneur of comedy\".", "On other occasions, Lewis expressed admiration for female comedians Totie Fields, Phyllis Diller, Kathleen Freeman, Elayne Boosler, Whoopi Goldberg and Tina Fey.", "During the 2007 MDA Telethon, Lewis used the slur \"fag\" in a joke, for which he apologized.", "Lewis used the same word the following year on Australian television." ], [ "Tributes and legacy", "From the late 1940s to the mid-1960s, \"Lewis was a major force in American popular culture.\"", "Widely acknowledged as a comic genius, Lewis influenced generations of comedians, comedy writers, performers and film makers.", "As Lewis was often referred to as the bridge from Vaudeville to modern comedy, Carl Reiner wrote after Lewis's death, \"All comedians watch other comedians, and every generation of comedians going back to those who watched Jerry on the ''Colgate Comedy Hour'' were influenced by Jerry.", "They say that mankind goes back to the first guy ... which everyone tries to copy.", "In comedy that guy was Jerry Lewis.", "\"Lewis's films, especially his self-directed films, have warranted steady reappraisal.", "Richard Brody of ''The New Yorker'' said Lewis was \"one of the most original, inventive, ... profound directors of the time\" and \"one of the most skilled and original comic performers, verbal and physical, ever to appear on screen\".", "Dave Kehr, a film critic and film curator for the Museum of Modern Art, wrote in ''The New York Times'' of Lewis's \"fierce creativity\" and \"the extreme formal sophistication of his direction\".", "Kehr wrote that Lewis was \"one of the great American filmmakers\".", "\"Lewis was an explosive experimenter with a dazzling skill, and an audacious, innovatory flair for the technique of the cinema.", "He knew how to frame and present his own adrenaline-fuelled, instinctive physical comedy for the camera.", "\"Lewis was at the forefront in the transition to independent filmmaking, which came to be known as New Hollywood in the late 1960s.", "Writing for the ''Los Angeles Times'' in 2005, screenwriter David Weddle lauded Lewis's audacity in 1959 \"daring to declare his independence from the studio system\".", "Lewis came along to a studio system in which the industry was regularly stratified between players and coaches.", "The studios tightly controlled the process and they wanted their people directing.", "Yet Lewis regularly led, often flouting the power structure to do so.Steven Zeitchik of the LA Times wrote of Lewis, \"Control over material was smart business, and it was also good art.", "Neither the entrepreneur nor the auteur were common types among actors in mid-20th century Hollywood.", "But there Lewis was, at a time of strict studio control, doing both.", "\"No other comedic star, with the exceptions of Chaplin and Keaton in the silent era, dared to direct himself.", "\"Not only would Lewis's efforts as a director pave the way for the likes of Mel Brooks and Woody Allen, but it would reveal him to be uncommonly skilled in that area as well.\"", "\"Most screen comedies until that time were not especially cinematic—they tended to plop down the camera where it could best capture the action and that was it.", "Lewis, on the other hand, was interested in exploring the possibilities of the medium by utilizing the tools he had at his disposal in formally innovative and oftentimes hilarious ways.\"", "\"In Lewis's work the way the scene is photographed is an integral part of the joke.", "His purposeful selection of lenses, for example, expands and contracts space to generate laughs that aren't necessarily inherent in the material, and he often achieves his biggest effects via what he leaves off screen, not just visually but structurally.", "\"As a director, Lewis advanced the genre of film comedy with innovations in the areas of fragmented narrative, experimental use of music and sound technology, and near surrealist use of color and art direction.", "This prompted his peer, filmmaker Jean Luc Godard to proclaim, \"Jerry Lewis ... is the only one in Hollywood doing something different, the only one who isn't falling in with the established categories, the norms, the principles.", "... Lewis is the only one today who's making courageous films.", "He's been able to do it because of his personal genius\".", "Jim Hemphill for ''American Cinematheque'' wrote, \"They are films of ambitious visual and narrative experimentation, provocative and sometimes conflicted commentaries on masculinity in post-war America, and unsettling self-critiques and analyses of the performer's neuroses.", "\"Intensely personal and original, Lewis's films were groundbreaking in their use of dark humor for psychological exploration.", "Justin Chang of the ''Los Angeles Times'' said, \"The idea of comedians getting under the skin and tapping into their deepest, darkest selves is no longer especially novel, but it was far from a universally accepted notion when Lewis first took the spotlight.", "Few comedians before him had so brazenly turned arrested development into art, or held up such a warped fun house mirror to American identity in its loudest, ugliest, vulgarest excesses.", "Fewer still had advanced the still-radical notion that comedy doesn't always have to be funny, just fearless, in order to strike a nerve\".Before 1960, Hollywood comedies were screwball or farce.", "Lewis, from his earliest 'home movies, such as ''How to Smuggle a Hernia Across the Border'', made in his playhouse in the early 1950s, was one of the first to introduce satire as a full-length film.", "This \"sharp-eyed\" satire continued in his mature work, commenting on the cult of celebrity, the machinery of 'fame', and \"the dilemma of being true to oneself while also fitting into polite society\".", "Stephen Dalton in ''The Hollywood Reporter'' wrote, Lewis had \"an agreeably bitter streak, offering self-lacerating insights into celebrity culture which now look strikingly modern.", "Even post-modern in places.\"", "Speaking of ''The King of Comedy'', \"More contemporary satirists like Garry Shandling, Steve Coogan and Ricky Gervais owe at least some of their self-deconstructing chops to Lewis's generously unappetizing turn in Scorsese's cult classic.", "\"Lewis was an early master of deconstruction to enhance comedy.", "From the first ''Comedy Hour''s he exposed the artifice of on-stage performance by acknowledging the lens, sets, malfunctioning props, failed jokes, and tricks of production.", "As Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote: Lewis had \"the impulse to deconstruct and even demolish the fictional \"givens\" of any particular sketch, including those that he might have dreamed up himself, a kind of perpetual auto-destruction that becomes an essential part of his filmmaking as he steadily gains more control over the writing and direction of his features.\"", "His self directed films abound in behind-the-scene reveals, demystifying movie-making.", "Daniel Fairfax writes in ''Deconstructing Jerry: Lewis as a Director'', \"Lewis deconstructs the very functioning of the joke itself\".", "... quoting Chris Fujiwara, \"''The Patsy'' is a film so radical that it makes comedy out of the situation of a comedian who isn't funny.\"", "The final scene of ''The Patsy'' is famous for revealing to the audience the movie as a movie, and Lewis as actor/director.", "Lewis wrote in ''The Total Filmmaker'', his belief in breaking the fourth wall, actors looking directly into the camera, despite industry norms.Robert De Niro and Sandra Bernhard, both of whom starred with Lewis in ''The King of Comedy'', reflected on his death.", "Bernhard said: \"It was one of the great experiences of my career, he was tough but one of a kind\".", "De Niro said: \"Jerry was a pioneer in comedy and film.", "And he was a friend.", "I was fortunate to have seen him a few times over the past couple of years.", "Even at 91, he didn't miss a beat ... or a punchline.", "You'll be missed.\"", "There was also a New York Friars Club roast in honor of Lewis with Sarah Silverman and Amy Schumer.", "Martin Scorsese recalls working with him on ''The King of Comedy'', \"It was like watching a virtuoso pianist at the keyboard\".", "Lewis was the subject of a documentary ''Jerry Lewis: Method to the Madness''.Peter Chelsom, director of ''Funny Bones'' wrote, \"Working with him was a masterclass in comic acting – and in charm.", "From the outset he was generous.\"", "\"There's a very thin line between a talent for being funny and being a great actor.", "Jerry Lewis epitomized that.", "Jerry embodied the term \"funny bones\": a way of differentiating between comedians who ''tell'' funny and those who ''are'' funny.\"", "Director Daniel Noah recalling his relationship with Lewis during production of ''Max Rose'' wrote, \"He was kind and loving and patient and limitlessly generous with his genius.", "He was unbelievably complicated and shockingly self-aware.", "\"Actor and comedian Jeffrey Tambor wrote after Lewis's death, \"You invented the whole thing.", "Thank you doesn't even get close.", "\"Actor and comedian Jim Carrey tweeted after Lewis's death, \"I am because he was.", "\"There have been numerous retrospectives of Lewis's films in the U.S. and abroad, most notably ''Jerry Lewis: A Film and Television Retrospective'' at Museum of the Moving Image, the 2013 Viennale, the 2016 Melbourne International Film Festival, ''The Innovator: Jerry Lewis at Paramount'', at American Cinematheque in Los Angeles, ''Happy Birthday Mr. Lewis: The Kid Turns 90'', at MOMA and \"Jerry Lewis, cinéaste\" at the French Cinémathèque in 2023.In 2017, Lewis with others inaugurated and founded Legionnaires of Laughter and Legacy Awards, and the first Legacy Award held in Downtown, New York.", "On August 21, 2017, multiple hotel marquees on the Las Vegas Strip honored Lewis with a coordinated video display of images of his career as a Las Vegas performer and resident.", "From 1949, as part of Martin and Lewis, and from 1956 as a solo, Lewis was a casino showroom headliner, playing numerous dates over the decades.", "Las Vegas was also the home of his annual Labor Day MDA telethon." ], [ "In popular culture", "Between 1952 and 1971, DC Comics published a 124-issue comic book series with Lewis as one (later, the only) main protagonist, titled ''The Adventures of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis''.", "In ''The Simpsons'', the character of Professor Frink is based on Lewis's Julius Kelp from ''The Nutty Professor.''", "Lewis himself would later voice the character's father in the episode \"Treehouse of Horror XIV\".", "In ''Animaniacs'', Lewis is parodied in a number of episodes, including ''Clown and Out/Bubba Bo Bob Brain.", "''In ''Family Guy'', Peter recreates Lewis's 'chairman of the board' scene from ''The Errand Boy''.", "Comedian, actor and friend of Lewis, Martin Short, satirized him on the series ''SCTV'' in the sketches \"The Nutty Lab Assistant\", \"Martin Scorsese presents Jerry Lewis Live on the Champs Elysees!", "\", \"The Tender Fella\", and \"Scenes From an Idiots Marriage\", as well as on ''Saturday Night Live''s \"Celebrity Jeopardy!", "\".Also on ''SNL'', the Martin and Lewis reunion on the 1976 MDA Telethon is reported by Chevy Chase on ''Weekend Update''.", "Comedians Eddie Murphy and Joe Piscopo both parodied Lewis when he hosted SNL in 1983.Piscopo also channeled Jerry Lewis while performing as a 20th-century stand-up comedian in ''Star Trek: The Next Generation''; in the second-season episode \"The Outrageous Okona\", Piscopo's Holodeck character, The Comic, tutors android Lieutenant Commander Data on humor and comedy.", "Comedian and actor Jim Carrey satirized Lewis on ''In Living Color'' in the sketch \"Jheri's Kids Telethon\".", "Carrey had an uncredited cameo playing Lewis in the series ''Buffalo Bill'' on the episode \"Jerry Lewis Week\".", "He also played Lewis, with impersonator Rich Little as Dean Martin, on stage.", "Actor Sean Hayes portrayed Lewis in the made-for-TV movie ''Martin and Lewis'', with Jeremy Northam as Dean Martin.", "Actor Kevin Bacon plays the Lewis character in the 2005 film ''Where The Truth Lies,'' based on a fictionalized version of Martin and Lewis.", "In the satiric novel, ''Funny Men'', about singer/wild comic double act, the character Sigmund \"Ziggy\" Blissman, is based on Lewis.John Saleeby, writer for ''National Lampoon'' has a humor piece \"Ten Things You Should Know About Jerry Lewis\".", "In the animated cartoon ''Popeye's 20th Anniversary'', Martin and Lewis are portrayed on the dais.", "The animated series ''Animaniacs'' satirized Lewis in several episodes.", "The voice and boyish, naive cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants is partially based on Lewis, with particular inspiration from his film ''The Bellboy''.", "In 1998, The MTV animated show ''Celebrity Deathmatch'' had a clay-animated fight to the death between Dean Martin and Lewis.", "In a 1975 re-issue of ''MAD Magazine'' the contents of Lewis's wallet is satirized in their on-going feature \"Celebrities' Wallets\".Lewis, and Martin & Lewis, as himself or his films, have been referenced by directors and performers of differing genres spanning decades, including Andy Warhol's ''Soap Opera'' (1964), John Frankenheimer's ''I Walk the Line'' (1970), Francis Ford Coppola's ''The Godfather'' (1972), Randal Kleiser's ''Grease'' (1978), Rainer Werner Fassbinder's ''In a Year of 13 Moons'' (1978), Robert Zemeckis's ''Back to the Future'' (1985), Quentin Tarantino's ''Four Rooms'' (1995), Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994), Martin Scorsese's ''Gangs of New York'' (2002), ''Hitchcock'' (2012), Ben Stiller's ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty'' (2013), Jay Roach's ''Trumbo'' (2015), ''The Comedians'' (2015), ''Baskets'' (2016), ''The Sopranos'' (1999), ''Seinfeld'' (1996, 1998), and ''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'' (2017, 2018).Similarly, varied musicians have mentioned Lewis in song lyrics including, Ice Cube, The Dead Milkmen, Queen Latifah, and Frank Zappa.", "The hip hop music band Beastie Boys have an unreleased single \"The Jerry Lewis\", which they mention, and danced to, on stage in Asheville, North Carolina in 2009.In their film ''Paul's Boutique — A Visual Companion'', clips from ''The Nutty Professor'' play to \"The Sounds of Science\".Apple iOS 10 includes an auto-text emoji for 'professor' with a Lewis lookalike portrayal from ''The Nutty Professor''.The word \"flaaaven!", "\", with its many variations and rhymes, is a Lewis-ism often used as a misspoken word or a person's mis-pronounced name.", "In a 2016 episode of the podcast ''West Wing Weekly'', Joshua Malina is heard saying \"flaven\" when trying to remember a character's correct last name.", "Lewis's signature catchphrase \"Hey, Laaady!\"", "is ubiquitously used by comedians and laypersons alike.Sammy Petrillo bore a coincidental resemblance to Lewis, so much so that Lewis at first tried to catch and kill Petrillo's career by signing him to a talent contract and then not giving him any work.", "When that failed (as Petrillo was under 18 at the time), Lewis tried to blackball Petrillo by pressuring television outlets and then nightclubs, also threatening legal action after Petrillo used his Lewis impersonation in the film ''Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla''.Over the years, countless actors and performers have regularly impersonated or portrayed Lewis in various tribute shows, most notably Nicholas Arnold, Tony Lewis, David Wolf, and Matt Macis." ], [ "Bibliography", "* (ISBN is for the 2004 Mass Market Edition)* * " ], [ "Biography", " Levy, Shawn (1997).", "King of Comedy: The Life and Art of Jerry Lewis.", "New York: St. Martin's Press.", "ISBN 9781250122605" ], [ "Documentaries", "* Annett Wolf (Director) (1972) ''The World of Jerry Lewis'' (unreleased)* Robert Benayoun (Director) (1982) ''Bonjour Monsieur Lewis'' (Hello Mr. Lewis)* Burt Kearns (Director) (1989) ''Telethon'' (Released in US, 2014)* Carole Langer (Director) (1996) ''Jerry Lewis: The Last American Clown''* Eckhart Schmidt (Director) (2006) ''König der Komödianten'' (King of Comedy)** Gregg Barson (Director) (2011).", "''Method to the Madness of Jerry Lewis''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * Also, Film Quarterly, Vol.", "48, No.", "1 (Autumn, 1994), pp.", "12–26 University of California Press* * * * * * * * * Lamarca, Manuel (2017).", "''Jerry Lewis.", "El día en el que el cómico filmó''.", "Barcelona, Spain.", "Ediciones Carena." ], [ "Film criticism links", "* Bright Lights Film Online Journal* Film School Rejects* la furia umana (Multilingual Film Quarterly)* ‘jerrython’ at MUBI* Museum of the Moving Image* An American Original: The RogerEbert.com Staff Remembers Jerry Lewis* Senses of Cinema" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Jerry Lewis Interview video at Directors Guild of America* Lewis interview video with Peter Bogdanovich Museum of the Moving Image Pinewood Dialogues* Jerry Lewis Interview Podcast WTF with Marc Maron* Drum Solo Battle (1955) with Buddy Rich at" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 29" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===587 BC – The Neo-Babylonian Empire sacks Jerusalem and destroys the First Temple.", " 615 – Pakal ascends the throne of Palenque at the age of 12.", "* 904 – Sack of Thessalonica: Saracen raiders under Leo of Tripoli sack Thessaloniki, the Byzantine Empire's second-largest city, after a short siege, and plunder it for a week.", "* 923 – Battle of Firenzuola: Lombard forces under King Rudolph II and Adalbert I, margrave of Ivrea, defeat the dethroned Emperor Berengar I of Italy at Firenzuola (Tuscany).", "1014 – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat on the Bulgarian army, and his subsequent treatment of 15,000 prisoners reportedly causes Tsar Samuil of Bulgaria to die of a heart attack less than three months later, on October 6.", "1018 – Count Dirk III defeats an army sent by Emperor Henry II in the Battle of Vlaardingen.", "1030 – Ladejarl-Fairhair succession wars: Battle of Stiklestad: King Olaf II fights and dies trying to regain his Norwegian throne from the Danes.", "1148 – The Siege of Damascus ends in a decisive crusader defeat and leads to the disintegration of the Second Crusade.", "1565 – The widowed Mary, Queen of Scots marries Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, Duke of Albany, at Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, Scotland, in a Catholic ceremony.", "1567 – The infant James VI is crowned King of Scotland at Stirling.", "1588 – Anglo-Spanish War: Battle of Gravelines: English naval forces under the command of Lord Charles Howard and Sir Francis Drake defeat the Spanish Armada off the coast of Gravelines, France.===1601–1900===1693 – War of the Grand Alliance: Battle of Landen: France wins a victory over Allied forces in the Netherlands.", "1775 – Founding of the U.S. Army Judge Advocate General's Corps: General George Washington appoints William Tudor as Judge Advocate of the Continental Army.", "1818 – French physicist Augustin Fresnel submits his prizewinning \"Memoir on the Diffraction of Light\", precisely accounting for the limited extent to which light spreads into shadows, and thereby demolishing the oldest objection to the wave theory of light.", "1836 – Inauguration of the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, France.", "1848 – Great Famine of Ireland: Tipperary Revolt: In County Tipperary, Ireland, then in the United Kingdom, an unsuccessful nationalist revolt against British rule is put down by police.", "1851 – Annibale de Gasparis discovers asteroid 15 Eunomia.", "1858 – United States and Japan sign the Harris Treaty.", "1862 – American Civil War: Confederate spy Belle Boyd is arrested by Union troops and detained at the Old Capitol Prison in Washington, D.C.1871 – The Connecticut Valley Railroad opens between Old Saybrook, Connecticut and Hartford, Connecticut in the United States.", "1899 – The First Hague Convention is signed.", "1900 – In Italy, King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by the anarchist Gaetano Bresci.", "His son, Victor Emmanuel III, 31 years old, succeeds to the throne.===1901–present===1901 – Land lottery begins in Oklahoma.", "1907 – Sir Robert Baden-Powell sets up the Brownsea Island Scout camp in Poole Harbour on the south coast of England.", "The camp runs from August 1 to August 9 and is regarded as the foundation of the Scouting movement.", "1914 – The Cape Cod Canal opened.", "1920 – Construction of the Link River Dam begins as part of the Klamath Reclamation Project.", "1921 – Adolf Hitler becomes leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party.", "1932 – Great Depression: In Washington, D.C., troops disperse the last of the \"Bonus Army\" of World War I veterans.", "1937 – Tongzhou mutiny: In Tongzhou, China, the East Hebei Army attacks Japanese troops and civilians.", "1945 – The BBC Light Programme radio station is launched for mainstream light entertainment and music.", "1948 – Olympic Games: The Games of the XIV Olympiad: After a hiatus of 12 years caused by World War II, the first Summer Olympics to be held since the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, open in London.", "1950 – Korean War: After four days, the No Gun Ri Massacre ends when the US Army 7th Cavalry Regiment is withdrawn.", "1957 – The International Atomic Energy Agency is established.", " 1957 – Tonight Starring Jack Paar premieres on NBC with Jack Paar beginning the modern day talk show.", "1958 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs into law the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which creates the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).", "1959 – First United States Congress elections in Hawaii as a state of the Union.", "1965 – Vietnam War: The first 4,000 101st Airborne Division paratroopers arrive in Vietnam, landing at Cam Ranh Bay.", "1967 – Vietnam War: Off the coast of North Vietnam the catches on fire in the worst U.S. naval disaster since World War II, killing 134.", "* 1967 – During the fourth day of celebrating its 400th anniversary, the city of Caracas, Venezuela is shaken by an earthquake, leaving approximately 500 dead.", "1973 – Greeks vote to abolish the monarchy, beginning the first period of the Metapolitefsi.", " 1973 – Driver Roger Williamson is killed during the Dutch Grand Prix, after a suspected tire failure causes his car to pitch into the barriers at high speed.", "1976 – In New York City, David Berkowitz (a.k.a.", "the \"Son of Sam\") kills one person and seriously wounds another in the first of a series of attacks.", "1980 – Iran adopts a new \"holy\" flag after the Islamic Revolution.", "1981 – A worldwide television audience of around 750 million people watch the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer at St Paul's Cathedral in London.", " 1981 – After impeachment on June 21, Abolhassan Banisadr flees with Massoud Rajavi to Paris, in an Iranian Air Force Boeing 707, piloted by Colonel Behzad Moezzi, to form the National Council of Resistance of Iran.", "1987 – British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and President of France François Mitterrand sign the agreement to build a tunnel under the English Channel (Eurotunnel).", " 1987 – Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi and President of Sri Lanka J. R. Jayewardene sign the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord on ethnic issues.", "1993 – The Supreme Court of Israel acquits alleged Nazi death camp guard John Demjanjuk of all charges and he is set free.", "1996 – The child protection portion of the Communications Decency Act is struck down by a U.S. federal court as too broad.", "2005 – Astronomers announce their discovery of the dwarf planet Eris.", "2010 – An overloaded passenger ferry capsizes on the Kasai River in Bandundu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, resulting in at least 80 deaths.", "2013 – Two passenger trains collide in the Swiss municipality of Granges-près-Marnand near Lausanne injuring 25 people.", "2015 – The first piece of suspected debris from Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 is discovered on Réunion Island.", "2019 – The 2019 Altamira prison riot between rival Brazilian drug gangs leaves 62 dead.", "2021 – The International Space Station temporarily spins out of control, moving the ISS 45 degrees out of attitude, following an engine malfunction of Russian module Nauka." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 869 – Muhammad al-Mahdi, The 12th Imam of Muslims (Shiites) (d. 941)* 996 – Fujiwara no Norimichi, Japanese nobleman (d. 1075) 1166 – Henry II, French nobleman and king of Jerusalem (d. 1197)1356 – Martin the Elder, king of Aragon, Valencia and Majorca (d. 1410)1537 – Pedro Téllez-Girón, Spanish nobleman (d. 1590)1573 – Philip II, duke of Pomerania-Stettin (d. 1618)1580 – Francesco Mochi, Italian sculptor (d. 1654)===1601–1900===1605 – Simon Dach, German poet and hymn-writer (d. 1659)1646 – Johann Theile, German organist and composer (d. 1724)1744 – Giulio Maria della Somaglia, Italian cardinal (d. 1830)1763 – Philip Charles Durham, Scottish admiral and politician (d. 1845)1797 – Daniel Drew, American businessman and financier (d. 1879)1801 – George Bradshaw, English cartographer and publisher (d. 1853)1805 – Alexis de Tocqueville, French historian and philosopher (d. 1859)1806 – Horace Abbott, American businessman and banker (d. 1887)1817 – Ivan Aivazovsky, Armenian-Russian painter and illustrator (d. 1900)* 1817 – Martin Körber, German pastor, composer, and conductor (d. 1893) 1841 – Gerhard Armauer Hansen, Norwegian physician (d. 1912)1843 – Johannes Schmidt, German linguist and academic (d. 1901)1846 – Sophie Menter, German pianist and composer (d. 1918) 1846 – Isabel, Brazilian princess (d. 1921)1849 – Max Nordau, Hungarian physician, author, and critic, co-founded the World Zionist Organization (d. 1923)1859 – Francisco Rodrigues da Cruz, Portuguese priest (d. 1948)1860 – Charles Cochrane-Baillie, 2nd Baron Lamington, English politician, 8th Governor of Queensland (d. 1940)1867 – Berthold Oppenheim, Moravian rabbi (d. 1942)1869 – Booth Tarkington, American novelist and dramatist (d. 1946)1871 – Jakob Mändmets, Estonian writer and journalist (d. 1930)1872 – Eric Alfred Knudsen, American author, lawyer, and politician (d. 1957)1874 – J. S. Woodsworth, Canadian minister and politician (d. 1942)1876 – Maria Ouspenskaya, Russian-American actress and acting teacher (d. 1949)1878 – Don Marquis, American author, poet, and playwright (d. 1937)1883 – Porfirio Barba-Jacob, Colombian poet and author (d. 1942) 1883 – Benito Mussolini, Italian fascist revolutionary and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1945)1884 – Ralph Austin Bard, American financier and politician, 2nd Under Secretary of the Navy (d. 1975)1885 – Theda Bara, American actress (d. 1955)1887 – Sigmund Romberg, Hungarian-American pianist and composer (d. 1951)1891 – Bernhard Zondek, German-Israeli gynecologist and academic (d. 1966)1892 – William Powell, American actor and singer (d. 1984)1896 – Maria L. de Hernández, Mexican-American rights activist (d. 1986)1897 – Neil Ritchie, Guyanese-English general (d. 1983)1898 – Isidor Isaac Rabi, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1988)1899 – Walter Beall, American baseball player (d. 1959)1900 – Mary V. Austin, Australian community worker and political activist (d. 1986) * 1900 – Eyvind Johnson, Swedish novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1976)* 1900 – Teresa Noce, Italian labor leader, activist, and journalist (d. 1980)* 1900 – Don Redman, American composer, and bandleader (d. 1964)===1901–present===1904 – Mahasi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (d. 1982) 1904 – J. R. D. Tata, French-Indian pilot and businessman, founded Tata Motors and Tata Global Beverages (d. 1993)1905 – Clara Bow, American actress (d. 1965) 1905 – Dag Hammarskjöld, Swedish economist and diplomat, 2nd Secretary-General of the United Nations, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1961)* 1905 – Stanley Kunitz, American poet and translator (d. 2006)1906 – Thelma Todd, American actress and singer (d. 1935)1907 – Melvin Belli, American lawyer (d. 1996)1909 – Samm Sinclair Baker, American author (d. 1997) 1909 – Chester Himes, American-Spanish author (d. 1984)1910 – Gale Page, American actress (d. 1983)1911 – Foster Furcolo, American lawyer and politician, 60th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1995)* 1911 – Archbishop Iakovos of America (d. 2005)1913 – Erich Priebke, German war criminal, leader of the 1944 Ardeatine massacre (d. 2013)1914 – Irwin Corey, American actor and activist (d. 2017)1915 – Bruce R. McConkie, American colonel and religious leader (d. 1985) 1915 – Francis W. Sargent, American soldier and politician, 64th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1998)1916 – Budd Boetticher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1916 – Charlie Christian, American guitarist (d. 1942)* 1916 – Rupert Hamer, Australian politician, 39th Premier of Victoria (d. 2004)1917 – Rochus Misch, German SS officer (d. 2013)1918 – Don Ingalls, American writer and producer (d. 2014)* 1918 – Edwin O'Connor, American journalist and author (d. 1968)* 1918 – Mary Lee Settle, American novelist, essayist, and memoirist (d. 2005)1920 – Neville Jeffress, Australian businessman (d. 2007)1921 – Richard Egan, American actor (d. 1987)* 1921 – Chris Marker, French photographer and journalist (d. 2012)1923 – George Burditt, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2013) 1923 – Edgar Cortright, American scientist and engineer (d. 2014)* 1923 – Jim Marshall, English businessman, founded Marshall Amplification (d. 2012)* 1923 – Gordon Mitchell, American bodybuilder and actor (d. 2003)1924 – Lloyd Bochner, Canadian-American actor (d. 2005) 1924 – Robert Horton, American actor (d. 2016)1925 – Harold W. Kuhn, American mathematician and academic (d. 2014) 1925 – Ted Lindsay, Canadian ice hockey player, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2019)* 1925 – Mikis Theodorakis, Greek composer (d. 2021)1926 – Robert Kilpatrick, Baron Kilpatrick of Kincraig, Scottish physician, academic, and politician (d. 2015)1927 – Harry Mulisch, Dutch author, poet, and playwright (d. 2010)1930 – Paul Taylor, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2018)1931 – Kjell Karlsen, Norwegian pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2020)1932 – Leslie Fielding, English diplomat (d. 2021) 1932 – Nancy Kassebaum, American businesswoman and politician1933 – Lou Albano, Italian-American wrestler, manager, and actor (d. 2009) 1933 – Colin Davis, English race car driver (d. 2012)* 1933 – Robert Fuller, American actor and rancher* 1933 – Randy Sparks, American folk singer-songwriter and musician1935 – Peter Schreier, German tenor and conductor (d. 2019)1936 – Elizabeth Dole, American lawyer and politician, 20th United States Secretary of Labor1937 – Daniel McFadden, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate1938 – Peter Jennings, Canadian-American journalist and author (d. 2005)* 1938 – Jean Rochon, Canadian physician and politician (d. 2021)1940 – Betty Harris, American chemist 1940 – Winnie Monsod, Filipina economist and political commentator1941 – Jennifer Dunn, American engineer and politician (d. 2007) 1941 – Goenawan Mohamad, Indonesian poet and playwright* 1941 – David Warner, English actor (d. 2022)1942 – Doug Ashdown, Australian singer-songwriter 1942 – Tony Sirico, American actor (d. 2022)1943 – David Taylor, English snooker player and sportscaster1944 – Jim Bridwell, American rock climber and mountaineer (d. 2018)1945 – Sharon Creech, American author and educator 1945 – Mircea Lucescu, Romanian footballer, coach, and manager1946 – Ximena Armas, Chilean painter 1946 – Stig Blomqvist, Swedish race car driver* 1946 – Neal Doughty, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer * 1946 – Alessandro Gogna, Italian mountaineer and adventurer* 1946 – Diane Keen, English actress* 1946 – Aleksei Tammiste, Estonian basketball player1947 – Dick Harmon, American golfer and coach (d. 2006)1948 – John Clarke, New Zealand-Australian comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017)1949 – Leslie Easterbrook, American actress 1949 – Jamil Mahuad, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician, 51st President of Ecuador1950 – Jenny Holzer, American painter, author, and dancer1951 – Susan Blackmore, English psychologist and theorist* 1951 – Dan Driessen, American baseball player and coach* 1951 – Dean Pitchford, American actor, director, screenwriter, and composer1952 – Norman Blackwell, Baron Blackwell, English businessman and politician 1952 – Joe Johnson, English snooker player and sportscaster* 1952 – Marie Panayotopoulos-Cassiotou, Greek politician1953 – Ken Burns, American director and producer 1953 – Tim Gunn, American television host and actor* 1953 – Geddy Lee, Canadian musician* 1953 – Frank McGuinness, Irish poet and playwright1954 – Patti Scialfa, American musician 1955 – Jean-Hugues Anglade, French actor, director, and screenwriter* 1955 – Dave Stevens, American illustrator (d. 2008)* 1955 – Stephen Timms, English politician, Minister of State for Competitiveness1956 – Teddy Atlas, American boxer, trainer, and sportscaster 1956 – Ronnie Musgrove, American lawyer and politician, 62nd Governor of Mississippi* 1956 – Faustino Rupérez, Spanish cyclist1957 – Liam Davison, Australian author and educator (d. 2014) 1957 – Viktor Gavrikov, Lithuanian-Swiss chess player (d. 2016)* 1957 – Nellie Kim, Russian gymnast and coach1958 – Gail Dines, English-American author, activist, and academic 1958 – Simon Nye, English screenwriter and producer* 1958 – Cynthia Rowley, American fashion designer1959 – Sanjay Dutt, Indian actor, singer, and producer 1959 – Ruud Janssen, Dutch blogger and illustrator* 1959 – Dave LaPoint, American baseball player and manager* 1959 – John Sykes, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1960 – Didier Van Cauwelaert, French author1962 – Carl Cox, English DJ and producer* 1962 – Frank Neubarth, German footballer and manager* 1962 – Vincent Rousseau, Belgian runner* 1962 – Scott Steiner, American wrestler1963 – Hans-Holger Albrecht, Belgian-German businessman 1963 – Jim Beglin, Irish footballer and sportscaster* 1963 – Julie Elliott, English politician* 1963 – Azeem Hafeez, Pakistani cricketer* 1963 – Alexandra Paul, American actress and producer* 1963 – Graham Poll, English footballer, referee, and journalist1964 – Jaanus Veensalu, Estonian footballer1965 – Luis Alicea, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and coach* 1965 – Dean Haglund, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1965 – Adam Holloway, English captain and politician* 1965 – Stan Koziol, American soccer player (d. 2014)* 1965 – Chang-Rae Lee, South Korean-American author and academic* 1965 – Xavier Waterkeyn, Australian author* 1965 – Woody Weatherman, American guitarist and songwriter 1966 – Sally Gunnell, English hurdler and sportscaster 1966 – Stuart Lampitt, English cricketer* 1966 – Martina McBride, American singer-songwriter and producer1968 – Gideon Henderson, English geologist and academic 1968 – Paavo Lötjönen, Finnish cellist and educator 1970 – Adele Griffin, American author 1970 – Andi Peters, English journalist, actor, and producer* 1970 – John Rennie, Zimbabwean cricketer1971 – Andrea Philipp, German sprinter1972 – Anssi Kela, Finnish singer and songwriter* 1972 – Wil Wheaton, American actor, producer, and screenwriter1973 – Stephen Dorff, American actor and producer 1973 – Denis Urubko, Kazakh mountaineer1974 – Josh Radnor, American actor and musician1975 – Yoshihiro Akiyama, Japanese mixed martial artist* 1975 – Lanka de Silva, Sri Lankan cricketer* 1975 – Corrado Grabbi, Italian footballer* 1975 – Jaanus Sirel, Estonian footballer1978 – Mike Adams, American baseball player 1978 – Marina Lazarovska, Macedonian tennis player1979 – Karim Essediri, Tunisian footballer 1979 – Ronald Murray, American basketball player* 1979 – Juris Umbraško, Latvian basketball player1980 – Ryan Braun, Canadian-American baseball player 1980 – Fernando González, Chilean tennis player* 1980 – Ben Koller, American drummer * 1980 – John Morris, Australian rugby league player1981 – Fernando Alonso, Spanish race car driver 1981 – Andrés Madrid, Argentinian footballer* 1981 – Troy Perkins, American soccer player1982 – Janez Aljančič, Slovenian footballer 1982 – Jônatas Domingos, Brazilian footballer* 1982 – Allison Mack, American actress and criminal1983 – Jason Belmonte, Australian bowler 1983 – Inés Gómez Mont, Mexican journalist and actress* 1983 – Alexei Kaigorodov, Russian ice hockey player* 1983 – Jerious Norwood, American football player* 1983 – Elise Testone, American singer-songwriter1984 – Oh Beom-seok, South Korean footballer 1984 – Chad Billingsley, American baseball player* 1984 – Wilson Palacios, Honduran footballer1985 – Okinoumi Ayumi, Japanese sumo wrestler 1985 – Besart Berisha, Albanian footballer* 1985 – Simon Santoso, Indonesian badminton player1988 – Tarjei Bø, Norwegian biathlete1989 – Grit Šadeiko, Estonian heptathlete1990 – Shin Se-kyung, South Korean actress, singer and model1991 – Dale Copley, Australian rugby league player* 1991 – Irakli Logua, Russian footballer1992 – Karen Torrez, Bolivian swimmer1993 – Nicole Melichar, American tennis player* 1993 – Dak Prescott, American football player1994 – Liam O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player1998 – Mirjam Björklund, Swedish tennis player* 1998 – Clayton Keller, American ice hockey player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 238 – Balbinus, Roman emperor (b.", "165)* 238 – Pupienus, Roman emperor (b.", "178)* 451 – Tuoba Huang, prince of Northern Wei (b.", "428)* 796 – Offa of Mercia (b.", "730)* 846 – Li Shen, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty1030 – Olaf II of Norway (b.", "995)1095 – Ladislaus I of Hungary (b.", "1040)1099 – Pope Urban II (b.", "1042)1108 – Philip I of France (b.", "1052)1236 – Ingeborg of Denmark, Queen of France (b.", "1175)1326 – Richard Óg de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster (b.", "1259)1504 – Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby (b.", "1435)1507 – Martin Behaim, German-Bohemian geographer and astronomer (b.", "1459)1573 – John Caius, English physician and academic (b.", "1510)===1601–1900===1612 – Jacques Bongars, French scholar and diplomat (b.", "1554)1644 – Pope Urban VIII (b.", "1568)1752 – Peter Warren, Irish admiral and politician (b.", "1703)1781 – Johann Kies, German astronomer and mathematician (b.", "1713)1792 – René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, French lawyer and politician, Chancellor of France (b.", "1714)1813 – Jean-Andoche Junot, French general (b.", "1771)1833 – William Wilberforce, English philanthropist and politician (b.", "1759)1839 – Gaspard de Prony, French mathematician and engineer (b.", "1755)1844 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1791)1856 – Robert Schumann, German composer and critic (b.", "1810)1857 – Thomas Dick, Scottish minister, astronomer, and author (b.", "1774)1887 – Agostino Depretis, Italian politician, 9th Prime Minister of Italy (b.", "1813)1890 – Vincent van Gogh, Dutch painter and illustrator (b.", "1853)1895 – Floriano Peixoto, Brazilian general and politician, 2nd President of Brazil (b.", "1839)1900 – Umberto I of Italy (b.", "1844)===1901–present===1908 – Marie Adam-Doerrer, Swiss women's rights activist and unionist (b.", "1838)1913 – Tobias Asser, Dutch lawyer and jurist, Nobel Prize Laureate (b.", "1838)1918 – Ernest William Christmas, Australian-American painter (b.", "1863)1924 – Sotirios Krokidas, Greek educator and politician, 110th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1852)1934 – Didier Pitre, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1883)1938 – Nikolai Krylenko, Russian lawyer, jurist, and politician, Prosecutor General of the Russian SFSR (b.", "1885)1950 – Joe Fry, English race car driver (b.", "1915)1951 – Ali Sami Yen, Turkish footballer and manager, founded Galatasaray S.K.", "(b.", "1886)1954 – Coen de Koning, Dutch speed skater (b.", "1879)1960 – Hasan Saka, Turkish politician, 7th Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1885)1962 – Ronald Fisher, English biologist and statistician (b.", "1890) 1962 – Leonardo De Lorenzo, Italian-American flute player and educator (b.", "1875)1964 – Vean Gregg, American baseball player (b.", "1885)1966 – Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, Nigerian general and politician, 2nd Head of State of Nigeria (b.", "1924)* 1966 – Adekunle Fajuyi, Nigerian colonel (b.", "1926)1970 – John Barbirolli, English cellist and conductor (b.", "1899)1973 – Norm Smith, Australian footballer and coach (b.", "1915)* 1973 – Roger Williamson, English race car driver (b.", "1948)1974 – Cass Elliot, American singer (b.", "1941) 1974 – Erich Kästner, German author and poet (b.", "1899)1976 – Mickey Cohen, American gangster (b.", "1913)1978 – Andrzej Bogucki, Polish actor, operetta singer, and songwriter (b.", "1904)1979 – Herbert Marcuse, German sociologist and philosopher (b.", "1898) 1979 – Bill Todman, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1916)1981 – Robert Moses, American urban planner, designed the Northern State Parkway and Southern State Parkway (b.", "1888)1982 – Harold Sakata, American wrestler and actor (b.", "1920)* 1982 – Vladimir K. Zworykin, Russian-American engineer, invented the Iconoscope (b.", "1889)1983 – Luis Buñuel, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1900) 1983 – Raymond Massey, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1896)* 1983 – David Niven, English military officer and actor (b.", "1910)1984 – Fred Waring, American television host and bandleader (b.", "1900)1987 – Bibhutibhushan Mukhopadhyay, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1894)1990 – Bruno Kreisky, Austrian academic and politician, 22nd Chancellor of Austria (b.", "1911)1991 – Christian de Castries, French general (b.", "1902)1992 – Michel Larocque, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (b.", "1952)1994 – John Britton, American physician (b.", "1925)* 1994 – Dorothy Hodgkin, Egyptian-English biochemist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1910)1995 – Les Elgart, American trumpet player and bandleader (b.", "1917)1996 – Ric Nordman, Canadian businessman and politician (b.", "1919)* 1996 – Marcel-Paul Schützenberger, French mathematician and theorist (b.", "1920)* 1996 – Jason Thirsk, American singer and bass player (b.", "1967)1998 – Jerome Robbins, American director, producer, and choreographer (b.", "1918)2001 – Edward Gierek, Polish soldier and politician (b.", "1913)* 2001 – Wau Holland, German computer scientist, co-founded Chaos Computer Club (b.", "1951)2003 – Foday Sankoh, Sierra Leonean soldier, founded the Revolutionary United Front (b.", "1937)2004 – Rena Vlahopoulou, Greek actress and singer (b.", "1923)2007 – Mike Reid, English comedian, actor, and author (b.", "1940) 2007 – Michel Serrault, French actor (b.", "1928)* 2007 – Tom Snyder, American journalist and talk show host (b.", "1936)* 2007 – Marvin Zindler, American journalist (b.", "1921)2008 – Bruce Edward Ivins, American scientist and bio-defense researcher (b.", "1946) 2010 – Charles E. Wicks, American chemist and academic (b.", "1925)2012 – Tatiana Egorova, Russian footballer and manager (b.", "1970) 2012 – August Kowalczyk, Polish actor and director (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Chris Marker, French photographer and journalist (b.", "1921)* 2012 – James Mellaart, English archaeologist and author (b.", "1925)* 2012 – John Stampe, Danish footballer and coach (b.", "1957)2013 – Christian Benítez, Ecuadorian footballer (b.", "1986) 2013 – Peter Flanigan, American banker and civil servant (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Tony Gaze, Australian soldier, pilot, and race car driver (b.", "1920)* 2013 – Munir Hussain, Indian cricketer and sportscaster (b.", "1929)2014 – M. Caldwell Butler, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1925) 2014 – Jon R. Cavaiani, English-American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1943)* 2014 – Giorgio Gaslini, Italian pianist and composer (b.", "1929)* 2014 – María Antonia Iglesias, Spanish journalist and author (b.", "1945)* 2014 – Péter Kiss, Hungarian engineer and politician (b.", "1959)* 2014 – Idris Muhammad, American drummer and composer (b.", "1939)* 2014 – Thomas R. St. George, American soldier and author (b.", "1919)2015 – Antony Holland, English-Canadian actor, director, and playwright (b.", "1920) 2015 – Peter O'Sullevan, Anglo-Irish sportscaster (b.", "1918)* 2015 – Mike Pyle, American football player and sportscaster (b.", "1939)* 2015 – Franklin H. Westervelt, American computer scientist, engineer, and academic (b.", "1930)2018 – Oliver Dragojević, Croatian recording artist (b.", "1947) 2018 – Nikolai Volkoff, Yugoslav-born American professional wrestler (b.", "1947)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Lazarus of BethanyLupus of TroyesMartha of Bethany (Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran Church)Mary of BethanyOlaf II of NorwaySimplicius, Faustinus and BeatrixJuly 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Earliest day on which Somer's Day can fall, while August 4 is the latest; celebrated on Friday before the first Monday in August.", "(Bermuda)International Tiger DayMohun Bagan Day (India)National Anthem Day (Romania)National Thai Language Day (Thailand)Ólavsøka or Olsok, opening of the Løgting session.", "(Faroe Islands and the Nordic countries)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johannes Agricola" ], [ "Introduction", "Johannes Agricola'''Johann''' or '''Johannes Agricola''' (originally Schneider, then Schnitter; 20 April 1494 – 22 September 1566) was a German Protestant Reformer during the Protestant Reformation.", "He was a follower and friend of Martin Luther, who became his antagonist in the matter of the binding obligation of the law on Christians." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Agricola was born at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes called Magister Islebius.", "He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Martin Luther.", "In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording secretary.", "After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went to Frankfurt in 1525 to establish the Protestant mode of worship.", "He had resided there only a month when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained until 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church.===Controversy===Private letter in which Luther says Agricola is \"a liar\".In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by Luther.", "Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever.", "Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize by the name Antinomian, maintaining that while non-Christians were still held to the Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under the gospel alone.", "(See also: Law and Gospel).", "The controversy made the two theologians break apart.===Restoration and later life===As a consequence of the bitter controversy with Luther, in 1540 Agricola left Wittenberg secretly for Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of his prior views.", "Luther, however, seems not to have so accepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin.Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg, having taken Agricola into his favour, appointed him court preacher and general superintendent.", "He held both offices until his death in 1566, and his career in Brandenburg was one of great activity and influence.Along with Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael Helding, titular bishop of Sidon, he prepared the Augsburg Interim of 1548, a proposed settlement under which Protestants would accept all Catholic authority, being permitted to retain the Protestant teaching on communion under both kinds and married clergy, but otherwise compelled to accept Catholic doctrine and practice, including the rejection of justification by faith alone.", "From that time, he was an outcast among Protestant theologians.", "It was an irony that one of the most radical Reformers ended his life viewed as having capitulated to Catholics.He endeavored in vain to appease the Adiaphoristic controversy.He died during an epidemic of plague on 22 September 1566 in Berlin." ], [ "Writings", "Agricola wrote a number of theological works.", "He was among the first to make a commentated collection of German proverbs.", "The first volume contains 300 proverbs and was published in 1529 (''Drey hundert Gemeyner Sprichworter, der wir Deutschen vns gebrauchen, vnd doch nicht wissen woher sie kommen''; first published in Low German the year before); the second volume contains 450 proverbs and was published in 1530 (''Das ander teyl gemainer Tewtscher Sprichwörter, mit jhrer außlegung : hat fünffthalb hundert newer Wörtter'').", "A revised edition containing the seven hundred and fifty proverbs of the previous two volumes was published in 1534 (''Sybenhundert und fünfftzig teütscher Sprichwörter, verneüwert und gebessert'') and later republished with updated orthography, for example, in Wittenberg in 1592." ], [ "In literature", "In 1836, Robert Browning used him as the subject of an early poetic soliloquy, \"Johannes Agricola in Meditation\"." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 12" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===70 – The armies of Titus attack the walls of Jerusalem after a six-month siege.", "Three days later they breach the walls, which enables the army to destroy the Second Temple.", " 927 – King Constantine II of Scotland, King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Ealdred of Bamburgh and King Owain of the Cumbrians accepted the overlordship of King Æthelstan of England, leading to seven years of peace in the north.", "1191 – Third Crusade: Saladin's garrison surrenders to Philip Augustus, ending the two-year siege of Acre.", "1470 – The Ottomans capture Euboea.", "1488 – Joseon Dynasty official Choe Bu returned to Korea after months of shipwrecked travel in China.", "1493 – Hartmann Schedel's ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', one of the best-documented early printed books, is published.", "1527 – Lê Cung Hoàng ceded the throne to Mạc Đăng Dung, ending the Lê dynasty and starting the Mạc dynasty.", "1543 – King Henry VIII of England marries his sixth and last wife, Catherine Parr, at Hampton Court Palace.", "1562 – Fray Diego de Landa, acting Bishop of Yucatán, burns the sacred idols and books of the Maya.", "1576 – Mughal Empire annexes Bengal after defeating the Bengal Sultanate at the Battle of Rajmahal.", "1580 – The Ostrog Bible, one of the early printed Bibles in a Slavic language, is published.===1601–1900===1691 – Battle of Aughrim (Julian calendar): The decisive victory of William III of England's forces in Ireland.", "1776 – Captain James Cook begins his third voyage.", "1789 – In response to the dismissal of the French finance minister Jacques Necker, the radical journalist Camille Desmoulins gives a speech which results in the storming of the Bastille two days later.", "1790 – The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is passed in France by the National Constituent Assembly.", "1799 – Ranjit Singh conquers Lahore and becomes Maharaja of the Punjab (Sikh Empire).", "1801 – British ships inflict heavy damage on Spanish and French ships in the Second Battle of Algeciras.", "1806 – At the insistence of Napoleon, Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and thirteen minor principalities leave the Holy Roman Empire and form the Confederation of the Rhine.", "1812 – The American Army of the Northwest briefly occupies the Upper Canadian settlement at what is now at Windsor, Ontario.", "1862 – The Medal of Honor is authorized by the United States Congress.===1901–present===1913 – Serbian forces begin their siege of the Bulgarian city of Vidin; the siege is later called off when the war ends.", " 1913 – The Second Revolution breaks out against the Beiyang government, as Li Liejun proclaims Jiangxi independent from the Republic of China.", "1917 – The Bisbee Deportation occurs as vigilantes kidnap and deport nearly 1,300 striking miners and others from Bisbee, Arizona.", "1918 – The Imperial Japanese Navy battleship ''Kawachi'' blows up at Shunan, western Honshu, Japan, killing at least 621.", "1920 – The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty is signed, by which Soviet Russia recognizes the independence of Lithuania.", "1943 – World War II: Battle of Kursk: German and Soviet forces engage in the Battle of Prokhorovka, one of the largest armored engagements of all time.", "1948 – Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion orders the expulsion of Palestinians from the towns of Lod and Ramla.", "1960 – Orlyonok, the main Young Pioneer camp of the Russian SFSR, is founded.", "1961 – Indian city Pune floods due to failure of the Khadakwasla and Panshet dams, killing at least two thousand people.", " 1961 – ČSA Flight 511 crashes at Casablanca–Anfa Airport in Morocco, killing 72.", "1963 – Pauline Reade, 16, disappears in Gorton, England, the first victim in the Moors murders.", "1967 – Riots begin in Newark, New Jersey.", "1971 – The Australian Aboriginal Flag is flown for the first time.", "1973 – A fire destroys the entire sixth floor of the National Personnel Records Center of the United States.", "1975 – São Tomé and Príncipe declare independence from Portugal.", "1979 – The island nation of Kiribati becomes independent from the United Kingdom.", "1995 – Chinese seismologists successfully predict the 1995 Myanmar–China earthquake, reducing the number of casualties to 11.", "1998 – The Ulster Volunteer Force attacked a house in Ballymoney, County Antrim, Northern Ireland with a petrol bomb, killing the Quinn brothers.", "2001 – Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' is launched on mission STS-104, carrying the ''Quest'' Joint Airlock to the International Space Station.", "2006 – The 2006 Lebanon War begins.", "2007 – U.S. Army Apache helicopters engage in airstrikes against armed insurgents in Baghdad, Iraq, where civilians are killed; footage from the cockpit is later leaked to the Internet.", "2012 – Syrian Civil War: Government forces target the homes of rebels and activists in Tremseh and kill anywhere between 68 and 150 people.", "* 2012 – A tank truck explosion kills more than 100 people in Okobie, Nigeria.", "2013 – Six people are killed and 200 injured in a French passenger train derailment in Brétigny-sur-Orge." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===100 BC – Julius Caesar, Roman politician and general (d. 44 BC)1394 – Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shōgun (d. 1441)1468 – Juan del Encina, Spanish poet, playwright, and composer (probable; d. 1530)1477 – Jacopo Sadoleto, Italian cardinal (d. 1547)1549 – Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland (d. 1587)===1601–1900===1628 – Henry Howard, 6th Duke of Norfolk (d. 1684)1651 – Margaret Theresa of Spain (d. 1673)1675 – Evaristo Felice Dall'Abaco, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1742)1712 – Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet, Colonial governor of New Jersey and Massachusetts Bay (d. 1779)1730 – Josiah Wedgwood, English potter, founded the Wedgwood Company (d. 1795)1803 – Peter Chanel, French priest and saint (d. 1841)1807 – Thomas Hawksley, English engineer and academic (d. 1893)1813 – Claude Bernard, French physiologist and academic (d. 1878)1817 – Henry David Thoreau, American essayist, poet, and philosopher (d. 1862) 1817 – Alvin Saunders, Territorial Governor and Senator from Nebraska (d. 1899)1821 – D. H. Hill, American general and academic (d. 1889)1824 – Eugène Boudin, French painter (d. 1898)1849 – William Osler, Canadian physician and author (d. 1919)1850 – Otto Schoetensack, German anthropologist and academic (d. 1912)1852 – Hipólito Yrigoyen, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 19th President of Argentina (d. 1933)1854 – George Eastman, American businessman, founded Eastman Kodak (d. 1933)1855 – Ned Hanlan, Canadian rower, academic, and businessman (d. 1908)1857 – George E. Ohr, American potter (d. 1918)1861 – Anton Arensky, Russian pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1906)1863 – Albert Calmette, French physician, bacteriologist, and immunologist (d. 1933)* 1863 – Paul Drude, German physicist and academic (d. 1906)1868 – Stefan George, German poet and translator (d. 1933)1870 – Louis II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1949)1872 – Emil Hácha, Czech lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Czechoslovakia (d. 1945)1876 – Max Jacob, French poet, painter, and critic (d. 1944)* 1876 – Alphaeus Philemon Cole, American artist, engraver and etcher (d. 1988)1878 – Peeter Põld, Estonian scientist and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of Education (d. 1930)1879 – Margherita Piazzola Beloch, Italian mathematician (d. 1976)* 1879 – Han Yong-un, Korean poet (d. 1944)1880 – Tod Browning, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1962)1881 – Natalia Goncharova, Russian theatrical costume and set designer, painter and illustrator (d. 1962)1884 – Bob Diry, Austrian-born wrestler and boxer (d. 1935) 1884 – Louis B. Mayer, Russian-born American film producer, co-founded Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (d. 1957)* 1884 – Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1920)1886 – Jean Hersholt, Danish-American actor and director (d. 1956)1888 – Zygmunt Janiszewski, Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1920)1892 – Bruno Schulz, Ukrainian-Polish author and painter (d. 1942)1895 – Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian soprano (d. 1962)* 1895 – Buckminster Fuller, American architect and engineer, designed the Montreal Biosphère (d. 1983)* 1895 – Oscar Hammerstein II, American director, producer, and songwriter (d. 1960)1899 – E.D.", "Nixon, American civil rights leader (d. 1987)1900 – Marcel Paul, French communist politician and Holocaust survivor (d. 1982)===1901–present===1902 – Günther Anders, German philosopher and journalist (d. 1992) 1902 – Tony Lovink, Dutch politician; Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1995)* 1902 – Vic Armbruster, Australian rugby league player (d. 1984)1904 – Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)1907 – Weary Dunlop, Australian colonel and surgeon (d. 1993)1908 – Milton Berle, American comedian and actor (d. 2002) 1908 – Alain Cuny, French actor (d. 1994)* 1908 – Paul Runyan, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 2002)1909 – Joe DeRita, American actor (d. 1993) 1909 – Motoichi Kumagai, Japanese photographer and illustrator (d. 2010)* 1909 – Fritz Leonhardt, German engineer, designed Fernsehturm Stuttgart (d. 1999)* 1909 – Herbert Zim, American naturalist, author, and educator (d. 1994)1911 – Evald Mikson, Estonian footballer (d. 1993)1913 – Willis Lamb, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008)1914 – Mohammad Moin, Iranian linguist and lexicographer (d. 1971)1915 – Emanuel Papper, American anesthesiologist, professor, and author (d. 2002)* 1915 – Princess Catherine Ivanovna of Russia, (d. 2007)1916 – Lyudmila Pavlichenko, Ukrainian-Russian soldier and sniper (d. 1974)1917 – Luigi Gorrini, Italian soldier and pilot (d. 2014)* 1917 – Satyendra Narayan Sinha, Indian statesman (d. 2006)* 1917 – Andrew Wyeth, American artist (d. 2009)1918 – Mary Glen-Haig, English fencer (d. 2014) 1918 – Vivian Mason, American actress (d. 2009)* 1918 – Doris Grumbach, American novelist, memoirist, biographer, literary critic, and essayist (d. 2022)* 1918 – Rusty Dedrick, American swing and bebop jazz trumpeter (d. 2009)1920 – Pierre Berton, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2004) 1920 – Bob Fillion, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 2015)* 1920 – Paul Gonsalves, American saxophonist (d. 1974)* 1920 – Randolph Quirk, Manx linguist and academic (d. 2017)* 1920 – Beah Richards, American actress (d. 2000)1922 – Mark Hatfield, American soldier and politician, 29th Governor of Oregon (d. 2011)1923 – James E. Gunn, American science fiction author (d. 2020)1924 – Faidon Matthaiou, Greek basketball player and coach (d. 2011)1925 – Albert Lance, Australian-French tenor (d. 2013)* 1925 – Roger Smith, American businessman (d. 2007)1926 – Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali, wife of the Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad1927 – Françoys Bernier, Canadian pianist, conductor, and educator (d. 1993) * 1927 – Conte Candoli, American trumpet player (d. 2001)* 1927 – Jack Harshman, American baseball player (d. 2013)* 1927 – Harley Hotchkiss, Canadian businessman (d. 2011)1928 – Alastair Burnet, English journalist (d. 2012) 1928 – Elias James Corey, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1928 – Imero Fiorentino, American lighting designer (d. 2013)1930 – Gordon Pinsent, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2023) 1930 – Guy Ligier, French race car driver and team owner (d. 2015)1931 – Eric Ives, English historian and academic (d. 2012) 1931 – Geeto Mongol, Canadian-American wrestler and trainer (d. 2013)1932 – Rene Goulet, Canadian professional wrestler (d. 2019) 1932 – Monte Hellman, American director and producer (d. 2021)* 1932 – Otis Davis, American sprinter1933 – Victor Poor, American engineer, developed the Datapoint 2200 (d. 2012) 1933 – Donald E. Westlake, American author and screenwriter (d. 2008)1934 – Thomas Charlton, American competition rower and Olympic champion 1934 – Van Cliburn, American pianist and composer (d. 2013)1935 – Satoshi Ōmura, Japanese biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1936 – Jan Němec, Czech director and screenwriter (d. 2016)* 1936 – Frank Ryan, American football player and mathematician (d. 2024)1937 – Bill Cosby, American actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter 1937 – Mickey Edwards, American lawyer and politician* 1937 – Lionel Jospin, French civil servant and politician, 165th Prime Minister of France* 1937 – Robert McFarlane, American colonel and diplomat, 13th United States National Security Advisor (d. 2022)* 1937 – Guy Woolfenden, English composer and conductor (d. 2016)1938 – Ron Fairly, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2019) 1938 – Wieger Mensonides, Dutch swimmer* 1938 – Eiko Ishioka, Japanese art director and graphic designer (d. 2012)1939 – Phillip Adams, Australian journalist and producer 1939 – Arlen Ness, American motorcycle designer and entrepreneur (d. 2019)* 1939 – Bill Cooper, American football player player1941 – Benny Parsons, American race car driver and sportscaster (d. 2007)1942 – Swamp Dogg, American R&B singer-songwriter and musician* 1942 – Roy Palmer, English cricketer and umpire* 1942 – Billy Smith, Australian rugby league player and coach* 1942 – Steve Young, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)1943 – Christine McVie, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2022) 1943 – Paul Silas, American basketball player and coach (d. 2022) 1944 – Simon Blackburn, English philosopher and academic 1944 – Delia Ephron, American author, playwright, and screenwriter* 1944 – Pat Woodell, American actress and singer (d. 2015)1945 – Butch Hancock, American country-folk singer-songwriter and musician1947 – Gareth Edwards, Welsh rugby player and sportscaster* 1947 – Wilko Johnson, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2022)* 1947 – Carl Lundgren, American artist and illustrator* 1947 – Richard C. McCarty, American psychologist and academic1948 – Ben Burtt, American director, screenwriter, and sound designer 1948 – Walter Egan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1948 – Richard Simmons, American fitness trainer and actor1949 – Simon Fox, English drummer 1949 – Rick Hendrick, American businessman, founded Hendrick Motorsports1950 – Eric Carr, American drummer and songwriter (d. 1991) 1950 – Gilles Meloche, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1951 – Joan Bauer, American author 1951 – Brian Grazer, American screenwriter and producer, founded Imagine Entertainment* 1951 – Cheryl Ladd, American actress* 1951 – Piotr Pustelnik, Polish mountaineer* 1951 – Jamey Sheridan, American actor 1952 – Voja Antonić, Serbian computer scientist and journalist, designed the Galaksija computer 1952 – Irina Bokova, Bulgarian politician, Bulgarian Minister of Foreign Affairs* 1952 – Philip Taylor Kramer, American bass player (d. 1995)1954 – Eric Adams, American singer-songwriter 1954 – Robert Carl, American pianist and composer* 1954 – Wolfgang Dremmler, German footballer and coach1955 – Timothy Garton Ash, English historian and author 1955 – Jimmy LaFave, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017)1956 – Mel Harris, American actress 1956 – Sandi Patty, American singer and pianist* 1956 – Mario Soto, Dominican baseball player1957 – Rick Husband, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2003) 1957 – Dave Semenko, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2017)1958 – J. D. Hayworth, American politician and radio host 1958 – Tonya Lee Williams, English-Canadian actress and producer1959 – David Brown, Australian meteorologist 1959 – Tupou VI, King of Tonga* 1959 – Karl J. Friston, English psychiatrist and neuroscientist* 1959 – Charlie Murphy, American actor and comedian (d. 2017)1961 – Heikko Glöde, German footballer and manager 1961 – Shiva Rajkumar, Indian actor, singer, and producer1962 – Julio César Chávez, Mexican boxer 1962 – Luc De Vos, Belgian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014)* 1962 – Joanna Shields, American-English businesswoman* 1962 – Dean Wilkins, English footballer and manager1964 – Gaby Roslin, English television host and actress1965 – Sanjay Manjrekar, Indian cricketer and sportscaster* 1965 – Robin Wilson, American singer and guitarist 1966 – Jeff Bucknum, American race car driver 1966 – Annabel Croft, English tennis player and sportscaster* 1966 – Taiji, Japanese bass player and songwriter (d. 2011)1967 – Richard Herring, English comedian and screenwriter 1967 – Mac McCaughan, American singer and guitarist * 1967 – John Petrucci, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1967 – Bruny Surin, Canadian sprinter1968 – Catherine Plewinski, French swimmer1969 – Lisa Nicole Carson, American actress * 1969 – Chantal Jouanno, French politician, French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports* 1969 – Alan Mullally, English cricketer and sportscaster* 1969 – Anne-Sophie Pic, French chef* 1969 – Jesse Pintado, Mexican-American guitarist (d. 2006)1970 – Aure Atika, Portuguese-French actress, director, and screenwriter 1970 – Lee Byung-hun, South Korean actor, singer, and dancer* 1970 – Susan Tyler Witten, American politician1971 – Joel Casamayor, Cuban-American former professional boxer 1971 – Andriy Kovalenco, Ukrainian-Spanish rugby player* 1971 – Loni Love, American comedian, actress, and talk show host* 1971 – Kristi Yamaguchi, American figure skater1972 – Travis Best, American basketball player 1972 – Jake Wood, English actor1973 – Christian Vieri, Italian footballer1974 – Sharon den Adel, Dutch singer-songwriter * 1974 – Stelios Giannakopoulos, Greek footballer and manager* 1974 – Gregory Shane Helms, American professional wrestler1975 – Phil Lord, American filmmaker 1975 – Carolina Kasting, Brazilian actress1976 – Dan Boyle, Canadian ice hockey player 1976 – Anna Friel, English actress* 1976 – Tracie Spencer, American singer-songwriter and actress1977 – Neil Harris, English footballer and manager 1977 – Steve Howey, American actor* 1977 – Brock Lesnar, American mixed martial artist and wrestler* 1977 – Francesca Lubiani, Italian tennis player* 1977 – Marco Silva, Portuguese football manager1978 – Topher Grace, American actor 1978 – Michelle Rodriguez, American actress1979 – Brooke Baldwin, American journalist and television news anchor 1979 – Nikos Barlos, Greek basketball player* 1979 – Maya Kobayashi, Japanese journalist1980 – Kristen Connolly, American actress 1981 – Adrienne Camp, South African singer-songwriter* 1981 – Pradeepan Raveendran, Sri Lankan director, producer, and screenwriter1982 – Antonio Cassano, Italian footballer 1982 – Jason Wright, American football player, businessman, and executive1984 – Gareth Gates, English singer-songwriter 1984 – Jonathan Lewis, American football player* 1984 – Natalie Martinez, American actress * 1984 – Michael McGovern, Irish footballer* 1984 – Sami Zayn, Canadian professional wrestler1985 – Paulo Vitor Barreto, Brazilian footballer 1985 – Gianluca Curci, Italian footballer* 1985 – Keven Lacombe, Canadian cyclist* 1985 – Ismael Londt, Surinamese-Dutch kickboxer1986 – 360, Australian rapper 1986 – Didier Digard, French footballer* 1986 – Hannaliis Jaadla, Estonian footballer* 1986 – JP Pietersen, South African rugby player* 1986 – Simone Laudehr, German footballer1988 – LeSean McCoy, American football player 1988 – Inbee Park, South Korean golfer1989 – Nick Palmieri, American ice hockey player1990 – Bebé, Portuguese footballer* 1990 – Rachel Brosnahan, American actress1991 – Salih Dursun, Turkish footballer 1991 – James Rodríguez, Colombian footballer* 1991 – Pablo Carreño Busta, Spanish tennis player1992 – Bartosz Bereszyński, Polish footballer 1992 – Luke Berry, English footballer 1993 – Kurt Capewell, Australian rugby league player1994 – Kanako Momota, Japanese singer-songwriter 1995 – Evania Pelite, Australian rugby union player 1995 – Luke Shaw, English footballer* 1995 – Jordyn Wieber, American gymnast* 1995 – Moses Simon, Nigerian footballer1996 – Moussa Dembélé, French footballer 1996 – Jordan Romero, American mountaineer1997 – Jean-Kévin Duverne, French footballer 1997 – Malala Yousafzai, Pakistani-English activist, Nobel Prize laureate1998 – Shai Gilgeous-Alexander, American basketball player2000 – Vinícius Júnior, Brazilian footballer2001 – Kaylee McKeown, Australian swimmer2002 – Bertuğ Yıldırım, Turkish footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 524 – Viventiolus, archbishop of Lyon (b.", "460)* 783 – Bertrada of Laon, Frankish queen (b.", "720)* 965 – Meng Chang, emperor of Later Shu (b.", "919)* 981 – Xue Juzheng, Chinese scholar-official and historian1067 – John Komnenos, Byzantine general1441 – Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1394)* 1441 – Kyōgoku Takakazu, Japanese nobleman1489 – Bahlul Lodi, sultan of Delhi1536 – Desiderius Erasmus, Dutch priest and philosopher (b.", "1466)1584 – Steven Borough, English navigator and explorer (b.", "1525)===1601–1900===1623 – William Bourchier, 3rd Earl of Bath (b.", "1557)1664 – Stefano della Bella, Italian illustrator and engraver (b.", "1610)1682 – Jean Picard, French priest and astronomer (b.", "1620)1691 – Marquis de St Ruth, French general1693 – John Ashby, English admiral (b.", "1640)1712 – Richard Cromwell, English academic and politician (b.", "1626)1742 – Evaristo Felice Dall'Abaco, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1675)1749 – Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois, French navy officer and politician, Governor General of New France (b.", "1671)1773 – Johann Joachim Quantz, German flute player and composer (b.", "1697)1804 – Alexander Hamilton, American general, economist, and politician, 1st United States Secretary of the Treasury (b.", "1755)1845 – Henrik Wergeland, Norwegian linguist, poet, and playwright (b.", "1808)1850 – Robert Stevenson, Scottish engineer (b.", "1772)1855 – Pavel Nakhimov, Russian admiral (b.", "1802)1870 – John A. Dahlgren, American admiral (b.", "1809)1892 – Alexander Cartwright, American firefighter, invented baseball (b.", "1820)===1901–present===1908 – William D. Coleman, 13th President of Liberia (b.", "1842)1910 – Charles Rolls, English engineer and businessman, co-founded Rolls-Royce Limited (b.", "1877)1926 – Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist and spy (b.", "1868) 1926 – Charles Wood Irish composer (b.", "1866)1929 – Robert Henri, American painter and educator (b.", "1865)1931 – Nathan Söderblom, Swedish archbishop, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1866)1934 – Ole Evinrude, Norwegian-American inventor and businessman, invented the outboard motor (b.", "1877)1935 – Alfred Dreyfus, French colonel (b.", "1859)1944 – Theodore Roosevelt Jr., American general and politician, Governor of Puerto Rico (b.", "1887)1945 – Boris Galerkin, Russian mathematician and engineer (b.", "1871)* 1945 – Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen, German field marshal (b.", "1895)1946 – Ray Stannard Baker, American journalist and author (b.", "1870)1947 – Jimmie Lunceford, American saxophonist and bandleader (b.", "1902)1949 – Douglas Hyde, Irish scholar and politician, 1st President of Ireland (b.", "1860)1950 – Elsie de Wolfe, American actress, author, and interior decorator (b.", "1865)1956 – John Hayes, Australian politician, 25th Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1868)1961 – Mazo de la Roche, Canadian author and playwright (b.", "1879)1962 – Roger Wolfe Kahn, American composer and bandleader (b.", "1907)1965 – Christfried Burmeister, Estonian speed skater (b.", "1898)1966 – D. T. Suzuki, Japanese philosopher and author (b.", "1870)1969 – Henry George Lamond, Australian farmer and author (b.", "1885)1971 – Yvon Robert, Canadian wrestler (b.", "1914)1973 – Lon Chaney Jr., American actor (b.", "1906)1975 – James Ormsbee Chapin, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1887)1979 – Olive Morris, Jamaican-English civil rights activist (b.", "1952)* 1979 – Minnie Riperton, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1947)1980 – John Warren Davis, American educator, college administrator, and civil rights leader (b.", "1888)1982 – Kenneth More, English actor (b.", "1914)1983 – Chris Wood, English saxophonist (b.", "1944)1990 – João Saldanha, Brazilian footballer, manager, and journalist (b.", "1917)1992 – Caroline Pafford Miller, American journalist and author (b.", "1903)1993 – Dan Eldon, English photographer and journalist (b.", "1970)1994 – Eila Campbell, English geographer and cartographer (b.", "1915)1996 – John Chancellor, American journalist (b.", "1927)1997 – François Furet, French historian and author (b.", "1927)1998 – Jimmy Driftwood, American singer-songwriter and banjo player (b.", "1907)* 1998 – Arkady Ostashev, Soviet/Russian scientist and engineer (b.", "1925)* 1998 – Serge Lemoyne, Canadian painter (b.", "1941)1999 – Rajendra Kumar, Indian actor (b.", "1921)2000 – Charles Merritt, Canadian colonel and politician, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1908)2001 – Fred Marcellino, American author and illustrator (b.", "1939)2003 – Benny Carter, American trumpet player, saxophonist, and composer (b.", "1907)* 2003 – Mark Lovell, English race car driver (b.", "1960)2004 – Betty Oliphant, English-Canadian ballerina, co-founded the National Ballet School of Canada (b.", "1918)2005 – John King, Baron King of Wartnaby, English businessman (b.", "1917)2007 – Robert Burås, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1975) 2007 – Stan Zemanek, Australian radio and television host (b.", "1947)2008 – Bobby Murcer, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (b.", "1946) 2008 – Tony Snow, American journalist, 26th White House Press Secretary (b.", "1955)2010 – Olga Guillot, Cuban-American singer (b.", "1922) 2010 – James P. Hogan, English-American author (b.", "1941)* 2010 – Paulo Moura, Brazilian clarinetist and saxophonist (b.", "1932)* 2010 – Pius Njawé, Cameroonian journalist (b.", "1957)* 2010 – Harvey Pekar, American author and critic (b.", "1939)2011 – Sherwood Schwartz, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1916)2012 – Alimuddin, Pakistani cricketer (b.", "1930)* 2012 – Dara Singh, Indian wrestler, actor, and politician (b.", "1928)* 2012 – Eddy Brown, English footballer and manager (b.", "1926)* 2012 – Else Holmelund Minarik, Danish-American author and illustrator (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Roger Payne, English mountaineer (b.", "1956)* 2012 – Hamid Samandarian, Iranian director and playwright (b.", "1931)* 2012 – George C. Stoney, American director and producer (b.", "1916)2013 – Amar Bose, American businessman, founded the Bose Corporation (b.", "1929) 2013 – Takako Takahashi, Japanese author (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Elaine Morgan, Welsh writer (b.", "1920)* 2013 – Alan Whicker, Egyptian-English journalist (b.", "1921)2014 – Jamil Ahmad, Pakistani author (b.", "1931) 2014 – Nestor Basterretxea, Spanish painter and sculptor (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Emil Bobu, Romanian politician (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Alfred de Grazia, American political scientist and author (b.", "1919)* 2014 – Kenneth J.", "Gray, American soldier and politician (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Valeriya Novodvorskaya, Russian journalist and politician (b.", "1950)2015 – D'Army Bailey, American lawyer, judge, and actor (b.", "1941) 2015 – Chenjerai Hove, Zimbabwean journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1956)* 2015 – Tenzin Delek Rinpoche, Tibetan monk and activist (b.", "1950)* 2015 – Cheng Siwei, Chinese engineer, economist, and politician (b.", "1935)2016 – Goran Hadžić, Serbian politician (b.", "1958)2019 – Emily Hartridge, English YouTuber and television presenter (b.", "1984)2020 – Kelly Preston, American actress and model (b.", "1962) 2020 – Wim Suurbier, a Dutch football player, (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Birthday of the Heir to the Crown of Tonga (Tonga)Christian feast day:Feast of Saints Peter and Paul (Eastern Orthodox)Hermagoras and FortunatusJason of Thessalonica (Catholic Church)John GualbertLouis Martin and Marie-Azélie GuérinNabor and FelixNathan Söderblom (Lutheran, Episcopal Church (USA))VeronicaViventiolusJuly 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)The second day of Naadam (Mongolia)The Twelfth, also known as Orangemen's Day (Northern Ireland, Scotland, Newfoundland and Labrador)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Georg Albrechtsberger" ], [ "Introduction", "Albrechtsberger; portrait by Leopold Kupelwieser'''Johann Georg Albrechtsberger''' (3 February 1736 – 7 March 1809) was an Austrian composer, organist, and music theorist, and one of the teachers of Ludwig van Beethoven.", "He was a friend of Haydn and Mozart." ], [ "Biography", "Albrechtsberger was born at Klosterneuburg, near Vienna.", "He originally studied music at Melk Abbey and philosophy at a Benedictine seminary in Vienna, and became one of the most learned and skilful contrapuntists of his age.", "Albrechtsberger's earliest classmates included Michael Haydn and Franz Joseph Aumann.", "After being employed as organist at Raab in 1755 and Maria Taferl in 1757, he was appointed Thurnermeister back at Melk Abbey.", "In 1772 he was appointed organist to the court of Vienna, and in 1792 Kapellmeister of St. Stephen's Cathedral.His fame as a theorist attracted to him in the Austrian capital a large number of pupils, some of whom afterwards became eminent musicians.", "Among these were Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ignaz Moscheles, Josef Weigl, Ludwig-Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson, Antonio Casimir Cartellieri, Ludwig van Beethoven, Anton Reicha and Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart.", "Beethoven had arrived in Vienna in 1792 to study with Joseph Haydn, but quickly became infuriated when his work was not being given attention or corrected.", "Haydn recommended his friend Albrechtsberger, with whom Beethoven then studied harmony and counterpoint.", "On completion of his studies, the young student noted, \"Patience, diligence, persistence, and sincerity will lead to success\", which reflects upon Albrechtsberger's own compositional philosophy.Albrechtsberger died in Vienna; his grave is in St. Marx cemetery." ], [ "Compositions", "Holograph manuscript of a folio from ''VII Canoni a piu voci in partitura''His published compositions consist of preludes, fugues and sonatas for the piano and organ, string quartets, etc.", "; but the greater proportion of his works, vocal and instrumental, exists only in manuscript.", "They are in the library of the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.", "Around 1765, he wrote at least seven concerti for Jew's harp and strings (three survive in the Hungarian National Library in Budapest).", "They are pleasant, well-written works in the ''galant'' style.", "One of his most notable works is his Concerto for Alto Trombone and Orchestra in B Major (1759).", "As the trombone has few works dating back to the classical period, his concerto is often highlighted by the trombone community.", "He also wrote a Concerto for the Mandola, Op.", "27, discussed positively in the 1914 book ''The Guitar and Mandolin''.Possibly the most valuable service he rendered to music was in his theoretical works.", "In 1790 he published at Leipzig a treatise on composition, of which a third edition appeared in 1821.A collection of his writings on harmony, in three volumes, was published under the care of his pupil Ignaz von Seyfried (1776–1841) in 1826.An English version of this was published by Novello in 1855.His compositional style derives from the counterpoint of Johann Joseph Fux, who was Kapellmeister at St Stephen's Cathedral from 1713 to 1741; Albrechtsberger later held the same position.A continuous thread can be traced from his teaching through that of his pupil Anton Reicha, who went on to become the first Professor of Counterpoint and Fugue at the Paris Conservatoire from 1818 until his death in 1836, and who in turn reached a wide audience through both his own teaching and his theoretical writings, which were standard reference at the Conservatoire for most of the 19th century, and translated into German by Carl Czerny." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Catholic Encyclopedia article* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Alden" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Alden''' (c. 1598 - September 12, 1687) was a crew member on the historic 1620 voyage of the ''Mayflower'' which brought the English settlers commonly known as Pilgrims to Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts.", "He was hired in Southampton, England as the ship's cooper, responsible for maintaining the ship's barrels.", "He was a member of the ship's crew and not a settler, yet he decided to remain in Plymouth Colony when the ''Mayflower'' returned to England.", "He was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact.He married fellow ''Mayflower'' passenger Priscilla Mullins, whose entire family perished in the first winter in Plymouth Colony.", "The marriage of the young couple became prominent in Victorian popular culture after the 1858 publication of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's fictitious narrative poem ''The Courtship of Miles Standish.''", "The book inspired widespread depictions of John and Priscilla Alden in art and literature during the 19th and 20th centuries.Alden was one of Plymouth Colony's most active public servants and played a prominent role in colonial affairs.", "He was annually elected to the Governor's Council nearly every year from 1640 to 1686.He served as Treasurer of Plymouth Colony, Deputy to the General Court of Plymouth, a member of the colony's Council of War, and a member of the colony's Committee on Kennebec Trade, among other posts.He was the last surviving signer of the Mayflower Compact upon his death in 1687.The approximate location of his grave in the Myles Standish Burial Ground was marked with a memorial stone in 1930.The site of his first house in Duxbury is preserved and marked with interpretative signs.", "The Alden Kindred of America began as a society of John and Priscilla's descendants, and it maintains the Alden House Historic Site in Duxbury, Massachusetts—likely built by Alden's son Capt.", "Jonathan Alden." ], [ "English origins", "alt=Line drawing of a man in antiquated clothing holding a hammer in one hand and with many large hoops held over his shoulder.", "He has several tools of his trade at his feet and on his beltHistorians and genealogists have advanced many theories to the English origin of John Alden.", "According to the \"American Ancestors\" project of the New England Historic Genealogical Society, Alden genealogical expert Alicia Crane Williams has called two of the hypothesized origins \"tempting\"; however, she asserts that none are definitively proven.The only definite primary source evidence regarding Alden's background comes from Plymouth Colony Governor William Bradford's history ''Of Plymouth Plantation''.", "Bradford wrote that Alden \"was hired for a cooper, at South-Hampton, wher the ship victuled; and being a hopefull yong man, was much desired, but left to his owne liking to go or stay when he came here; but he stayed, and maryed here\".", "Charles Edward Banks states that the employment of Alden \"at Southampton\" does not necessarily mean that he was a resident of the seaport and may have only been there to work temporarily when the ''Mayflower'' arrived.Banks cited research by certain historians and genealogists who offered theories as to Alden's origin based on inconclusive but possibly relevant evidence.", "One such theory was proposed by historian and genealogist B. Carlyon-Hughes who found evidence of an Alden family living in Harwich in Essex, England during the 17th century.", "Harwich is an ancient North Sea port, northeast of London, which was the home port of the ship ''Mayflower'' and home of its captain Christopher Jones.", "Carlyon-Hughes asserted that the Aldens of Harwich were related to Jones and also that a young John Alden of the Harwich Aldens was about the same age as the ''Mayflower'' passenger.", "A prior association with the captain of the ''Mayflower'' (although not definitively proven) could account, according to Banks, for Alden joining the crew.", "Historian George F. Willison subscribed to the Harwich origin theory and wrote that Alden's children \"remembered him as tall, blond, and very powerful in physique\".", "Willison, however, offers no specific source material for this description.Another theory cited by Banks, which he called \"a fair presumption\", involves a John Alden of Southampton who \"may have been the son of George Alden the fletcher, who disappeared—probably dying in that year—leaving John, an orphan, free to take employment overseas.", "Jane, the widow, may have been his mother and Richard and Avys his grandparents\".", "The tax list of Holyrood Ward, Southampton in 1602 lists the names of George Alden and John's future father-in-law William Mullins.", "Banks even went so far as to postulate that, if the Alden and Mullins families both originated from Southampton, then perhaps their courtship began in Southampton.Alicia Crane Williams analyzed these and several other theories in ''The Mayflower Descendant'', a scholarly journal of Pilgrim history and genealogy.", "She pointed out that some genealogists have connected John Alden of the ''Mayflower'' with John Alden, \"son and heir of John Alden of Swanscomb, Kent\" who obtained a Patent of Arms in 1607.There is no evidence that John Alden of the ''Mayflower'' was connected to this family or inherited this coat of arms.", "Williams states, \"This Alden coat of arms was published in the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' and has led many unsuspecting genealogists astray.\"" ], [ "Voyage of the ''Mayflower''", "''The Mayflower Compact 1620'': an 1899 painting by alt=A group of men in antiquated clothing gathered around a desk in a ship's cabin with one woman looking on.", "A large piece of paper is on the desk and one man is signing.Alden was hired by Capt.", "Christopher Jones in Southampton when he was about 21 years old to work as the ship's cooper during the ''Mayflower's'' voyage to America.", "According to historian Nathaniel Philbrick, the colonists encouraged him during the voyage to remain with them in America due to his useful skills as a barrel-maker and carpenter.The ''Mayflower'' departed Plymouth, England on September 6, 1620.The 100-foot ship had aboard 102 passengers and a crew of about 20 to 30 in extremely cramped conditions.", "A lack of proper rations and unsanitary conditions for months caused illnesses that eventually proved fatal for many, particularly to women and children.", "There were two deaths during the ocean crossing, a crew member and a passenger.The ship spotted Cape Cod on November 9, 1620 after about two months at sea.", "Their original destination had been the mouth of the Hudson River, which was then part of the Colony of Virginia.", "Capt.", "Jones made an attempt to round the southern end of Cape Cod, but he lacked an adequate chart of the area known as Pollock's Rip, and the strong currents and dangerous shoals there forced him to turn back.", "Jones determined that the colonists would have to disembark and settle in New England rather than the Hudson River due to widespread illness aboard ship and dwindling supplies.", "The ''Mayflower'' eventually came to anchor on November 11 in Provincetown Harbor at the northern tip of Cape Cod.The decision to settle outside of Virginia Colony raised some problems.", "The group carried a patent which granted authority to their elected leaders and entitled them to establish their own plantation within the bounds of Virginia Colony.", "They were settling in New England, however, so the patent became irrelevant and some members began to question the authority of their leaders.", "To settle these questions, the colony's leadership drew up the Mayflower Compact, an agreement that they would work together, acting as \"a civil body politic\" in obedience to such laws as the colony might enact.", "The Mayflower Compact was signed by all free male settlers on November 11, the same day that they set anchor at Provincetown.", "John Alden signed the document, which is an indication that he had already made the decision to remain with the settlers.", "He was the youngest of the signers and the last survivor." ], [ "Establishing Plymouth Colony", "alt=A modern-day photograph of a village consisting of small, primitive wooden houses.", "Most of the houses have thatched roofs.", "In the distance is a large expanse of ocean and a clear blue sky.After exploring the inner shoreline of Cape Cod, the colonists chose to settle in Plymouth.", "The site offered a good harbor, several fresh water springs, and a large hill overlooking the harbor (which they would later name Burial Hill) suitable for a fort.", "A tribe known as the Patuxet (part of the Wampanoag peoples) had settled the site and cleared a large area of land for planting corn.", "By the time the ''Mayflower'' arrived, the Patuxet tribe had been wiped out by plagues, likely as a result of contact with English fishermen.During their first winter in Plymouth, most of the settlers fell ill and half died of disease.", "Priscilla Mullins (John Alden's future wife) lost her entire family—her father William, her mother Alice, and her brother Joseph.", "The fifty colonists who survived began building a fort atop Burial Hill and small wooden houses on either side of a \"street\" now known as Leyden Street, named in 1823 after the town in Holland where the Pilgrims lived for several years.", "A small plot of land at the foot of Burial Hill near the top of the street was designated for John Alden.", "He built a primitive house in this location and lived there for about seven years with his wife Priscilla and his growing family.", "The site of Alden's first house in Plymouth was marked in 1930 with a boulder and bronze plaque placed by the Alden Kindred of America.", "A recreation of this house stands today at Plimoth Plantation, a living history museum which replicates the original Pilgrim settlement." ], [ "Marriage to Priscilla Mullins", "alt=A drawing of a couple in inaccurate, stereotypical \"Pilgrim\" costume.", "The man holds one of the woman's hands in both of his.", "A ship is on the horizon, presumably the ''Mayflower''.The exact date of John Alden's marriage to Priscilla Mullins was not noted in colonial records.", "According to the Pilgrim Society, it was likely in 1622 as Priscilla Mullins is not listed separately in the 1623 Division of Land.", "It was either the second or third marriage to take place in the colony.The marriage of the two young colonists has been widely depicted in art and literature primarily due to the extraordinary popularity of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's narrative poem ''The Courtship of Miles Standish,'' published in 1858.The fictionalized story tells of a love triangle involving John Alden, Priscilla Mullins, and Myles Standish (the captain of the colony's militia).", "In the story, Standish is too timid to express his feelings to Priscilla Mullins and therefore asks Alden to speak for him.", "Alden's words of courtship on Standish's behalf prompt Mullins to offer an often-quoted quip, \"Why don't you speak for yourself, John?\"", "The book sold 10,000 copies in London in a single day.", "In the United States, the story brought the Pilgrims to the forefront of American culture, contributing to the establishment of a national Thanksgiving holiday in 1863.The book made John and Priscilla Alden celebrated figures in American popular culture.While some historians state that the courtship story is \"loosely based\" on Alden family oral history, others dismiss it as complete fiction.", "A brief account of a rivalry between John Alden and Myles Standish for Priscilla's hand was first published in ''A Collection of American Epitaphs and Inscriptions'' by Timothy Alden in 1814.Longfellow, therefore, was not the originator of the story but he greatly embellished it.", "No part of the tale is supported by 17th century documentation.", "Historian John Goodwin pointed out several anachronisms and inconsistencies, asserting, there was no \"reason for believing any part of it.\"" ], [ "Service to Plymouth Colony", "In 1626, the colony's financial backers in London, known as the Merchant Adventurers, disbanded.", "This left the colonists with no means of settling their significant debts to those who had funded the effort.", "Eight of the Plymouth colonists, including John Alden, agreed to collectively assume, or undertake, the debt in exchange for a monopoly on the fur trade from the colony.", "These men who averted financial ruin for the colony became known as the \"Undertakers\".", "This agreement to grant the Undertakers a monopoly was signed by the 37 freemen of Plymouth Colony.", "The fact that Alden was among the Undertakers is indicative of his growing stature in the colony.Alden was elected Governor's Assistant (one of a small council of advisors to the Governor) in 1632 and was regularly reelected to that office until 1640 and then again from 1650 to 1686, because he was deputy from Duxbury from 1641 to 1642, and from 1645 to 1649, and a member of Captain Miles Standish's militia company from 1643.He also served as Deputy Governor on two occasions in the absence of the Governor in 1665 and 1677.The colonists elected him Treasurer annually from 1656 to 1658.Alden served on the colony's Council of War, an important committee to decide on matters pertaining to the defense of the colony, in 1642, 1643, 1646, 1653, 1658 and 1667.The Plymouth General Court appointed Alden to a number of important committees including the Committee to Revise Laws, the Committee on the Kennebec Trade, and a number of additional minor posts.", "He then served for several years as magistrate.Plymouth Colony held a patent entitling them to a monopoly on the fur trade at the Kennebec River in what would later become Maine.", "In 1634, a man named John Hocking from Piscataqua Plantation in New Hampshire interloped in the trade provoking a confrontation between him and traders from Plymouth Colony at Kennebec.", "Hocking shot a Plymouth colonist named Moses Talbot and, in turn, a Plymouth man shot Hocking.", "When the Plymouth traders arrived by boat at Boston, authorities there decided to imprison John Alden who was aboard the Plymouth vessel, even though he had not been present during the violence.", "It was only through the intervention of William Bradford that Alden was eventually released." ], [ "Settlement of Duxbury", "alt=A modern photograph of an old, unadorned two story house clad in weathered shinglesIn January 1628, the land along Plymouth Bay was divided up into farm lots with each individual receiving 20 acres plus an additional 20 acres for each family member.", "John and Priscilla Alden, who had three children at that time, received 100 acres along the Bluefish River in the area known as Duxbury (sometimes spelled Duxburough or Duxborrow at that time).", "Grants were drawn by lot, so the location of Alden's farm was not his selection.", "By chance, as historian Dorothy Wentworth observed, the location was ideal as it included upland that had been partially cleared by Native Americans, woodland, and salt marshes (a good source of hay).", "Alden built their first small house in 1628.As they were required to travel to Plymouth every Sunday for Sabbath services (10 miles away), they lived seasonally on their Duxbury farm for the first few years, staying in Plymouth during the winter to avoid long travels in harsh weather.", "The site was professionally excavated by Roland Wells Robbins in 1960, unearthing many artifacts including a halberd blade which is now exhibited at Pilgrim Hall Museum in Plymouth.", "The site is now part of the Duxbury school campus and is located next to a playing field.", "The footprint of the house is evident as a depression in the ground and is marked by a boulder, plaque, and other interpretive signage.The historic marker at John Alden HouseIn 1632, Alden was one of several men who petitioned the colony to have Duxbury set off as a separate church congregation with their own minister.", "This would allow those with Duxbury grants to reside on their farms year-round.", "William Bradford and other colonial officials were reluctant to break apart the \"mother\" church congregation in Plymouth but nonetheless gave permission.", "Duxbury was incorporated as a separate town in 1637.John Alden became one of the leading men of the new town of Duxbury and a key figure in the colony.", "He served as Deputy from Duxbury to the General Court for most of the 1640s.Local historians of the 19th and 20th centuries asserted that a later Alden house in Duxbury was the second home of John and Priscilla Alden and was constructed in 1653.As local historian Dorothy Wentworth wrote, the tradition \"has been accepted for so long that there seems no point in doubting it.\"", "This house is now owned by the Alden Kindred of America and maintained as a museum known as the Alden House Historic Site.", "Long-standing assumptions about the house turned out to be incorrect as Dendrochronological and architectural analysis conducted in 2003 suggest that the house was likely built about 1700 and therefore was not the home of John and Priscilla Alden.", "It was likely built by one of their children (possibly Jonathan Alden) or grandchildren.The Alden's first Duxbury home site and the Alden House Historic Site were together granted National Historic Landmark status in 2008." ], [ "Family", "Early-20th-century depiction of Priscilla and John AldenJohn and Priscilla Alden had ten children.", "The first, Elizabeth, was born in 1623 in Plymouth and died in Little Compton, Rhode Island, on May 31, 1717.She married William Pabodie on December 26, 1644 in Duxbury and had thirteen children.", "Her grave and that of her husband are in the Old Commons Cemetery in Little Compton.John Jr. was born about 1626 in Plymouth and died in Boston on March 14, 1701/2.He married Elizabeth (Phillips) Everill on April 1, 1660, and had fourteen children.", "He became a prosperous maritime merchant.", "He also played a controversial role in dealings with Native Americans in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia during King William's War.", "In 1692, he was accused of being a witch during the Salem witch trials and jailed, though he later escaped and fled to Duxbury.Joseph was born about 1628 and died in Bridgewater, Massachusetts on February 8, 1696/7.He married Mary Simmons about 1660 and had seven children.Priscilla was born about 1630.Little is known about her life except for a record which indicates she was alive and unmarried in 1688.Jonathan was born about 1632 and died in Duxbury on February 14, 1697.He married Abigail Hallett on December 10, 1672, and had six children.", "Jonathan was buried in the Old Burying Ground in Duxbury.", "He was captain of the Plymouth Colony militia and documentation indicates that at his burial, the militia company attended in formation.", "During his burial, Rev.", "Ichabod Wiswall of Duxbury delivered a sermon.", "It is the first known instance of a sermon being delivered at a Plymouth Colony burial indicated changing religious customs.", "Prior to this, burials were simple affairs without religious ritual.Sarah was born about 1634 and died before the settlement of her father's estate in 1688.She married Alexander Standish, son of Myles Standish, about 1660 and had eight children.Ruth was born about 1636 and died in Braintree, Massachusetts on October 12, 1674.She married John Bass in Braintree on February 3, 1658, and had seven children.", "Among her children was Hannah Bass, paternal grandmother of future United States President John Adams.Mary was born about 1638.She was alive and unmarried in 1688.Rebecca was born about 1640.She married Thomas Delano in 1677 and had nine children.", "She died between June 12, 1696 and October 5, 1722.She is buried in Old Burying Ground in Duxbury.David was born about 1642 and died in Duxbury between July 2, 1718, and April 1, 1719.He married Mary Southworth by 1674 and had six children." ], [ "Final days and legacy", "alt=Two gravestones partly covered with moss and a small sign which reads \"John Alden Burial Place\"John Alden was the last survivor of the signers of the Mayflower Compact.", "He died in Duxbury on September 12, 1687.Both he and his wife Priscilla were buried in the Old Burying Ground in South Duxbury.", "The precise location of their graves is not known as markers either were not placed or have crumbled away.", "In 1930, the Alden Kindred of America placed commemorative slate stones at the estimated location of their graves near the headstone of their son, Capt.", "Jonathan Alden.Several artifacts attributed to John Alden are exhibited at major museums.", "These include the halberd blade discovered in the 1960 archaeological dig at the Alden first house site in Duxbury, the Alden family bible, and a mortar and pestle attributed to John and Priscilla Alden, all of which are displayed at Pilgrim Hall Museum.", "A wheel-lock carbine attributed to John Alden is housed at the National Firearms Museum.", "Of early-17th-century Italian make, the carbine was found in the Alden House during a 1924 restoration.The Alden Kindred of America, initially a society composed strictly of Alden descendants, was established in 1906.It is now an incorporated non-profit organization welcoming both Alden descendants and non-descendants to its membership.", "The organization manages the Alden House Historic Site in Duxbury, Massachusetts." ], [ "References", ";Citations;Sources*** * ************** ***'''Attribution:'''" ], [ "External links", "* John Alden at MayflowerHistory.com page with vital facts and references.", "* Alden House Historic Site & Alden Kindred of America" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Japanese cuisine" ], [ "Introduction", ", new year special dishes'''Japanese cuisine''' encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have developed through centuries of political, economic, and social changes.", "The traditional cuisine of Japan (Japanese: ) is based on rice with miso soup and other dishes; there is an emphasis on seasonal ingredients.", "Side dishes often consist of fish, pickled vegetables, and vegetables cooked in broth.", "Seafood is common, often grilled, but also served raw as sashimi or in sushi.", "Seafood and vegetables are also deep-fried in a light batter, as ''''.", "Apart from rice, a staple includes noodles, such as soba and udon.", "Japan also has many simmered dishes, such as fish products in broth called , or beef in and .Historically influenced by Chinese cuisine, Japanese cuisine has also opened up to influence from Western cuisines in the modern era.", "Dishes inspired by foreign food—in particular Chinese food—like ramen and , as well as foods like spaghetti, curry and hamburgers, have been adapted to Japanese tastes and ingredients.", "Traditionally, the Japanese shunned meat as a result of adherence to Buddhism, but with the modernization of Japan in the 1880s, meat-based dishes such as and have become common.", "Since this time, Japanese cuisine, particularly sushi and ramen, has become popular globally.In 2011, Japan overtook France to become the country with the most 3-starred Michelin restaurants; , the capital of Tokyo has maintained the title of the city with the most 3-starred restaurants in the world.", "In 2013, Japanese cuisine was added to the UNESCO Intangible Heritage List." ], [ "History", ", new year dishesRice is a staple in Japanese cuisine.", "Wheat and soybeans were introduced shortly after rice.", "All three act as staple foods in Japanese cuisine today.", "At the end of the Kofun Period and beginning of the Asuka Period, Buddhism became the official religion of the country.", "Therefore, eating meat and fish was prohibited.", "In 675 AD, Emperor Tenmu prohibited the eating of horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens.", "In the 8th and 9th centuries, many emperors continued to prohibit killing many types of animals.", "The number of regulated meats increased significantly, leading to the banning of all mammals except whale, which were categorized as fish.", "During the Asuka period, chopsticks were introduced to Japan.", "Initially, they were only used by the nobility.", "The general population used their hands, as utensils were quite expensive.Due to the lack of meat products Japanese people minimized spice utilization.", "Spices were rare to find at the time.", "Spices like pepper and garlic were only used in a minimalist amount.", "In the absence of meat, fish was served as the main protein, as Japan is an island nation.", "Fish has influenced many iconic Japanese dishes today.", "In the 9th century, grilled fish and sliced raw fish were widely popular.", "Japanese people who could afford it would eat fish at every meal; others would have to make do without animal protein for many of their meals.", "In traditional Japanese cuisine, oil and fat are usually avoided within the cooking process, because Japanese people were trying to keep a healthy lifestyle.Preserving fish became a sensation; sushi was originated as a means of preserving fish by fermenting it in boiled rice.", "Fish that are salted and then placed in rice are preserved by lactic acid fermentation, which helps prevent the proliferation of the bacteria that bring about putrefaction.", "During the 15th century, advancement and development helped shorten the fermentation of sushi to about one to two weeks.", "Sushi thus became a popular snack food and main entrée, combining fish with rice.", "During the late Edo period (early-19th century), sushi without fermentation was introduced.", "Sushi was still being consumed with and without fermentation till the 19th century when the hand-rolled and nigri-type sushi was invented.In 1854, Japan started to gain new trade deals with Western countries when a new Japanese ruling order took over (known as the Meiji Restoration).", "Emperor Meiji, the new ruler, staged a New Years' feast designed to embrace the Western world and countries in 1872.The feast contained food that had a lot of European emphases.", "For the first time in a thousand years, people were allowed to consume meat in public.", "After this New Years feast, the general population from Japan started to consume meat again." ], [ "Culture", "=== Terminology ===A Japanese meal including tempura, sashimi, and miso soupThe word is now the common word for traditional Japanese cooking.", "The term is synonymous with \"cooking\", but became a reference to mostly Japanese cooking, or restaurants, and was much used in the Meiji and Taishō eras.", "It has come to connote a certain standard, perhaps even of the highest caliber, a restaurant with the most highly trained chefs.", "However, is generally seen as an eating establishment which is slightly more casual or informal compared to the .The is tied with the Japanese tea ceremony.", "The is considered a (simplified) form of , which was formal banquet dining where several trays of food was served.", "The homophone term originally referred to a gathering of composers of haiku or , and the simplified version of the dishes served at the poem parties became .", "However, the meaning of degenerated to become just another term for a sumptuous carousing banquet, or .===Traditional table settings===The traditional Japanese table setting has varied considerably over the centuries, depending primarily on the type of table common during a given era.", "Before the 19th century, small individual box tables (''hakozen'', 箱膳) or flat floor trays were set before each diner.", "Larger low tables (''chabudai'', ちゃぶ台) that accommodated entire families were gaining popularity by the beginning of the 20th century, but these gave way to Western-style dining tables and chairs by the end of the 20th century.The traditional Japanese table setting is to place a bowl of rice on the diner’s left and to place a bowl of miso soup on the diner’s right side at the table.", "Behind these, each ''okazu'' is served on its own individual plate.", "Based on the standard three ''okazu'' formula, behind the rice and soup are three flat plates to hold the three ''okazu''; one to far back left, one at far back right, and one in the center.", "Pickled vegetables are often served on the side but are not counted as part of the three ''okazu''.", "Chopsticks are generally placed at the very front of the tray near the diner with pointed ends facing left and supported by a chopstick rest, or ''hashioki''.===Dining etiquette===Many restaurants and homes in Japan are equipped with Western-style chairs and tables.", "However, traditional Japanese low tables and cushions, usually found on tatami floors, are also very common.", "Tatami mats, which are made of straw, can be easily damaged and are hard to clean, thus shoes or any type of footwear are always taken off when stepping on tatami floors.When dining in a traditional tatami room, sitting upright on the floor is common.", "In a casual setting, men usually sit with their feet crossed and women sit with both legs to one side.", "Only men are supposed to sit cross-legged.", "The formal way of sitting for both sexes is a kneeling style known as ''seiza''.", "To sit in a ''seiza'' position, one kneels on the floor with legs folded under the thighs and the buttocks resting on the heels.When dining out in a restaurant, the customers are guided to their seats by the host.", "The honored or eldest guest will usually be seated at the center of the table farthest from the entrance.", "In the home, the most important guest is also seated farthest away from the entrance.", "If there is a tokonoma, or alcove, in the room, the guest is seated in front of it.", "The host sits next to or closest to the entrance.In Japan, it is customary to say ''itadakimasu'' (\"I humbly receive\") before starting to eat a meal.", "When saying ''itadakimasu'', both hands are put together in front of the chest or on the lap.", "''Itadakimasu'' is preceded by complimenting the appearance of food.", "The Japanese attach as much importance to the aesthetic arrangement of the food as its actual taste.", "Before touching the food, it is polite to compliment the host on his artistry.", "It is also a polite custom to wait for the eldest guest at the table to start eating before the other diners start.", "Another customary and important etiquette is to say ''go-chisō-sama deshita'' (\"It was a feast\") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving.===Traditional cuisine===Japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food, which is steamed white rice or , with one or more , \"main\" or \"side\" dishes.", "This may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup and (pickles).", "The phrase refers to the makeup of a typical meal served but has roots in classic , , and cuisine.", "The term is also used to describe the first course served in standard cuisine nowadays.The origin of Japanese \"one soup, three sides\" cuisine is a dietary style called Ichiju-Issai (一汁一菜, \"one soup, one dish\"), tracing back to the Five Great Zen Temples of the 12-century Kamakura period (Kamakura Gozan), developed as a form of meal that emphasized frugality and simplicity.Rice is served in its own small bowl (), and each main course item is placed on its own small plate () or bowl () for each individual portion.", "This is done even in Japanese homes.", "This contrasts with Western-style home dinners in which each individual takes helpings from large serving dishes of food placed in the middle of the dining table.", "Japanese style traditionally abhors different flavored dishes touching each other on a single plate, so different dishes are given their own individual plates as mentioned or are partitioned using, for example, leaves.", "Placing main dishes on top of rice, thereby \"soiling\" it, is also frowned upon by traditional etiquette.Breakfast at a ryokan (Japanese inn), featuring grilled mackerel, Kansai-style egg, tofu in (paper pot)Although this tradition of not placing other foods on rice originated from classical Chinese dining formalities, especially after the adoption of Buddhist tea ceremonies; it became most popular and common during and after the Kamakura period, such as in the .", "Although present-day Chinese cuisine has abandoned this practice, Japanese cuisine retains it.", "One exception is the popular , in which toppings are directly served on rice.The small , literally \"tea bowl\", doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea ceremonies.", "Thus in common speech, the drinking cup is referred to as or for the purpose of distinction.", "Among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese meal would be brought on serving napkins called , which were originally platformed trays or small dining tables.", "In the modern age, faldstool trays or stackup-type legged trays may still be seen used in , i.e.", "tatami-mat rooms, for large banquets or at a type inn.", "Some restaurants might use the suffix as a more sophisticated though dated synonym to the more familiar , since the latter basically is a term for a combo meal served at a , akin to a diner.", "means a meal of fixed menu (for example, grilled fish with rice and soup), a dinner ''à prix fixe'' served at or , which is somewhat vague ( can mean a diner-type restaurant or a corporate lunch hall); writer on Japanese popular culture Ishikawa Hiroyoshi defines it as fare served at , and comparable diner-like establishments.===Seasonality===Kaiseki appetizers on a wooden plateEmphasis is placed on seasonality of food or , and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of the four seasons or calendar months.Seasonality means taking advantage of the (for example, bamboo shoots in spring, chestnuts in the autumn) as well as the as they come into season.", "Thus that arrives with the Kuroshio Current has traditionally been greatly prized.If something becomes available rather earlier than what is usual for the item in question, the first crop or early catch is called ''hashiri''.Use of tree leaves and branches as decor is also characteristic of Japanese cuisine.", "Maple leaves are often floated on water to exude coolness or ; sprigs of nandina are popularly used.", "The ''haran'' (''Aspidistra'') and sasa bamboo leaves were often cut into shapes and placed underneath or used as separators.===UNESCO recognition===In February 2012, the Agency for Cultural Affairs recommended that 'Washoku: Traditional Dietary Cultures of the Japanese' be added to the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.", "On December 4, 2013, \"Washoku, traditional dietary cultures of the Japanese, notably for the celebration of New Year\" was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage, bringing the number of Japanese assets listed on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list to 22." ], [ "Traditional ingredients", "A characteristic of traditional Japanese food is the sparing use of red meat, oils and fats, and dairy products.", "Use of ingredients such as soy sauce, miso, and umeboshi tends to result in dishes with high salt content, though there are low-sodium versions of these available.===Meat consumption===YakinikuAs Japan is an island nation surrounded by an ocean, its people have always taken advantage of the abundant seafood supply.", "It is the opinion of some food scholars that the Japanese diet always relied mainly on \"grains with vegetables or seaweeds as main, with poultry secondary, and red meat in slight amounts\" even before the advent of Buddhism which placed an even stronger taboo.", "The eating of was spoken of as taboo, unclean or something to be avoided by personal choice through the Edo period.", "The consumption of whale and terrapin meat were not forbidden under this definition.", "Despite this, the consumption of red meat did not completely disappear in Japan.", "Eating wild game—as opposed to domesticated livestock—was tolerated; in particular, trapped hare was counted using the measure word , a term normally reserved for birds.Beef hot pot being made at a party in JapanIn 1872 of the Meiji restoration, as part of the opening up of Japan to Western influence, Emperor Meiji lifted the ban on the consumption of red meat.", "The removal of the ban encountered resistance and in one notable response, ten monks attempted to break into the Imperial Palace.", "The monks asserted that due to foreign influence, large numbers of Japanese had begun eating meat and that this was \"destroying the soul of the Japanese people.\"", "Several of the monks were killed during the break-in attempt, and the remainder were arrested.", "On the other hand, the consumption of meat was accepted by the common people.", "'''''Gyūnabe''''' (beef hot pot), the prototype of Sukiyaki, became the rage of the time.", "Western restaurants moved in, and some of them changed their form to '''''Yōshoku'''''.Vegetable consumption has dwindled while processed foods have become more prominent in Japanese households due to the rising costs of general foodstuffs.", "Nonetheless, Kyoto vegetables, or Kyoyasai, are rising in popularity and different varieties of Kyoto vegetables are being revived.===Cooking oil===Generally speaking, traditional Japanese cuisine is prepared with little cooking oil.", "A major exception is the deep-frying of foods.", "This cooking method was introduced during the Edo period due to influence from Western (formerly called ) and Chinese cuisine, and became commonplace with the availability of cooking oil due to increased productivity.", "Dishes such as tempura, aburaage, and satsuma age are now part of established traditional Japanese cuisine.", "Words such as ''tempura'' or ''hiryōzu'' (synonymous with ganmodoki) are said to be of Portuguese origin.Also, certain rustic sorts of traditional Japanese foods such as kinpira, hijiki, and ''kiriboshi'' daikon usually involve stir-frying in oil before stewing in soy sauce.", "Some standard ''osōzai'' or obanzai dishes feature stir-fried Japanese greens with either age or , dried sardines.===Seasonings===The use of soy sauce is prevalent in Japanese cuisine.Traditional Japanese food is typically seasoned with a combination of dashi, soy sauce, sake and mirin, vinegar, sugar, and salt.", "A modest number of herbs and spices may be used during cooking as a hint or accent, or as a means of neutralizing fishy or gamy odors present.", "Examples of such spices include ginger, perilla and red pepper.Intense condiments such as wasabi or Japanese mustard are provided as condiments to raw fish, due to their effect on the mucus membrane which paralyze the sense of smell, particularly from fish odors.", "A sprig of mitsuba or a piece of yuzu rind floated on soups are called ''ukimi''.", "Minced shiso leaves and myoga often serve as ''yakumi'', a type of condiment paired with tataki of katsuo or soba.", "Shichimi is also a very popular spice mixture often added to soups, noodles and rice cakes.", "Shichimi is a chilli-based spice mix which contains seven spices: chilli, sansho, orange peel, black sesame, white sesame, hemp, ginger, and nori.=== Garnishes ===Once a main dish has been cooked, spices such as minced ginger and various pungent herbs may be added as a garnish, called ''tsuma''.", "Finally, a dish may be garnished with minced seaweed in the form of crumpled nori or flakes of aonori.Inedible garnishes are featured in dishes to reflect a holiday or the season.", "Generally these include inedible leaves, flowers native to Japan or with a long history of being grown in the country, as well as their artificial counterparts.===Salads===Japanese boiled spinach salad (''ohitashi'')The is boiled green-leaf vegetables bunched and cut to size, steeped in dashi broth, eaten with dashes of soy sauce.", "Another item is , which could be made with wakame seaweed, or be something like a made from thin toothpick slices of daikon and carrot.", "The so-called vinegar that is blended with the ingredient here is often which is a blend of vinegar, mirin, and soy sauce.", "A adds katsuo dashi to this.An is another group of items, describable as a sort of \"tossed salad\" or \"dressed\" (though ''aemono'' also includes thin strips of squid or fish sashimi (''itozukuri'') etc.", "similarly prepared).", "One type is where usually vegetables such as green beans are tossed with white or black sesame seeds ground in a suribachi mortar bowl, flavored additionally with sugar and soy sauce.", "adds tofu (bean curd) in the mix.", "An ''aemono'' is tossed with vinegar-white miso mix and uses ''wakegi'' scallion and as standard.===Rice===''Gyūdon'' beef rice bowl (right) and ''niku shoyu ramen'' beef noodle (left)Rice has historically been the staple food of the Japanese people.", "Its fundamental importance is evident from the fact that the word for cooked rice, ''gohan'' or ''meshi'', also stands for a \"meal\".", "While rice has an ancient history of cultivation in Japan, its use as a staple has not been universal.", "Notably, in northern areas (northern Honshū and Hokkaidō), other grains such as wheat were more common into the 19th century.In most of Japan, rice used to be consumed for almost every meal, and although a 2007 survey showed that 70% of Japanese still eat it once or twice a day, its popularity is now declining.", "In the 20th century there has been a shift in dietary habits, with an increasing number of people choosing wheat-based products (such as bread and noodles) over rice.Japanese rice is short-grained and becomes sticky when cooked.", "Most rice is sold as ''hakumai'' (白米, \"white rice\"), with the outer portion of the grains (糠, ''nuka'') polished away.", "Unpolished brown rice (玄米, ''genmai'') is considered less desirable, but its popularity has been increasing.===Noodles===Udon noodlesSoba noodlesJapanese noodles often substitute for a rice-based meal.", "''Soba'' (thin, grayish-brown noodles containing buckwheat flour) and ''udon'' (thick wheat noodles) are the main traditional noodles, while ramen is a modern import and now very popular.", "There are also other, less common noodles, such as ''somen'' (thin, white noodles containing wheat flour).Japanese noodles, such as soba and udon, are eaten as a standalone, and usually not with a side dish, in terms of general custom.", "It may have toppings, but they are called .", "The fried battered shrimp tempura sitting in a bowl of tempura-soba would be referred to as \"the shrimp\" or \"the tempura\", and not so much be referred to as a topping (''gu'').", "The identical toppings, if served as a dish to be eaten with plain white rice could be called ''okazu'', so these terms are context-sensitive.", "Some noodle dishes derive their name from Japanese folklore, such as kitsune and tanuki, reflecting dishes in which the noodles can be changed, but the broth and garnishes correspond to their respective legend.Hot noodles are usually served in a bowl already steeped in their broth and are called ''kakesoba'' or ''kakeudon''.", "Cold soba arrive unseasoned and heaped atop a ''zaru'' or ''seiro'', and are picked up with a chopstick and dunked in their dipping sauce.", "The broth can consist of many ingredients but is generally based on dashi; the sauce, called tsuyu, is usually more concentrated and made from soy sauce, dashi and mirin, sake or both.In the simple form, ''yakumi'' (condiments and spices) such as shichimi, nori, finely chopped scallions, wasabi, etc.", "are added to the noodles, besides the broth/dip sauce.Udon may also be eaten in ''kama-age'' style, piping hot straight out of the boiling pot, and eaten with plain soy sauce and sometimes with raw egg also.Japanese noodles are traditionally eaten by bringing the bowl close to the mouth, and sucking in the noodles with the aid of chopsticks.", "The resulting loud slurping noise is considered normal in Japan, although in the 2010s concerns began to be voiced about the slurping being offensive to others, especially tourists.", "The word ''nuuhara'' (ヌーハラ, from \"nuudoru harasumento\", noodle harassment) was coined to describe this.===Sweets===Traditional Japanese sweets are known as ''wagashi''.", "Ingredients such as red bean paste and mochi are used.", "More modern-day tastes includes green tea ice cream, a very popular flavor.", "Almost all manufacturers produce a version of it.", "Kakigōri is a shaved ice dessert flavored with syrup or condensed milk.", "It is usually sold and eaten at summer festivals.", "A dessert very popular amongst children in Japan is dorayaki.", "They are sweet pancakes filled with a sweet red bean paste.", "They are mostly eaten at room temperature but are also considered very delicious hot." ], [ "Drinks", "===Tea===Green tea may be served with most Japanese dishes.", "It is produced in Japan and prepared in various forms such as matcha, the tea used in the Japanese tea ceremony.===Beer=== Beer production started in Japan in the 1860s.", "The most commonly consumed beers in Japan are pale-colored light lagers, with an alcohol strength of around 5.0% ABV.", "Lager beers are the most commonly produced beer style in Japan, but beer-like beverages, made with lower levels of malts called ''Happoshu'' (発泡酒, literally, \"bubbly alcohol\") or non-malt Happousei (発泡性, literally \"effervescence\") have captured a large part of the market as tax is substantially lower on these products.", "Beer and its varieties have a market share of almost 2/3 of alcoholic beverages.Small local microbreweries have also gained increasing popularity since the 1990s, supplying distinct tasting beers in a variety of styles that seek to match the emphasis on craftsmanship, quality, and ingredient provenance often associated with Japanese food.===Sake===Sake is a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 15–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice.", "At traditional formal meals, it is considered an equivalent to rice and is not simultaneously taken with other rice-based dishes, although this notion is typically no longer applied to modern, refined, premium (\"ginjo\") sake, which bear little resemblance to the sakes of even 100 years ago.", "Side dishes for sake are particularly called ''sakana'' or ''otsumami''.Sake is brewed in a highly labor-intensive process more similar to beer production than winemaking, hence, the common description of sake as rice \"wine\" is misleading.Sake is made with, by legal definition, strictly just four ingredients: special rice, water, koji, and special yeast.As of 2014, Japan has some 1500 registered breweries, which produce thousands of different sakes.", "Sake characteristics and flavor profiles vary with regionality, ingredients, and the styles (maintained by brewmaster guilds) that brewery leaders want to produce.Sake flavor profiles lend extremely well to pairing with a wide variety of cuisines, including non-Japanese cuisines.===Shōchū===''Shōchū'' is a distilled spirit that is typically made from barley, sweet potato, buckwheat, or rice.", "''Shōchū'' is produced everywhere in Japan, but its production started in Kyushu.===Whisky===Japanese whisky began commercial production in the early 20th century, and is now extremely popular, primarily consumed in .", "It is produced in the Scottish style, with malt whisky produced since the 1980s, and has won top international awards since the 2000s.===Wine===A domestic wine production exists since the 1860s yet most wine is imported.", "The total market share of wine on alcoholic beverages is about 3%." ], [ "Specialty food", "Wagyu is the collective name for the four principal Japanese breeds of beef cattle.", "All wagyū cattle derive from cross-breeding in the early twentieth century of native Japanese cattle with imported stock, mostly from Europe.In several areas of Japan, Wagyu beef is shipped carrying area names.", "Some examples are Matsusaka beef, Kobe beef, Yonezawa beef, Ōmi beef, and Sanda beef.", "In recent years, Wagyu beef has increased in fat percentage due to a decrease in grazing and an increase in using feed, resulting in larger, fattier cattle.Specialty eggs – compared to ordinary eggs, eggs produced with special feed and poultry-raising.The is a cantaloupe cultivar farmed in greenhouses in Yūbari, Hokkaido, a small city close to Sapporo'''Square''' or '''cube watermelons''' are watermelons grown into the shape of a cube.", "Cube watermelons are commonly sold in Japan, where they are essentially ornamental and are often very expensive, with prices as high as ." ], [ "Cooking techniques", "Different cooking techniques are applied to each of the three ''okazu''; they may be raw (sashimi), grilled, simmered (sometimes called boiled), steamed, deep-fried, vinegared, or dressed." ], [ "Dishes", "In , the word has the basic meaning of \"vegetable\", but secondarily means any accompanying dish (whether it uses fish or meat), with the more familiar combined form , which is a term for any side dish, such as the vast selections sold at Japanese supermarkets or .It figures in the Japanese word for appetizer, ; main dish, ; or (formal synonym for ''okazu''), but the latter is considered somewhat of a ladies' term or ''nyōbō kotoba''.", "''Tempura'' battered and deep fried seafood and vegetables ''Yakitori'' grilled chickenBelow are listed some of the most common categories for prepared food:* ''Yakimono'' (焼き物), grilled and pan-fried dishes* ''Nimono'' (煮物), stewed/simmered/cooked/boiled dishes* ''Itamemono'' (炒め物), stir-fried dishes * ''Mushimono'' (蒸し物), steamed dishes* ''Agemono'' (揚げ物), deep-fried dishes* ''Sashimi'' (刺身), sliced raw fish* ''Suimono'' (吸い物) and ''shirumono'' (汁物), soups* ''Tsukemono'' (漬け物), pickled/salted vegetables* ''Aemono'' (和え物), dishes dressed with various kinds of sauce* ''Sunomono'' (酢の物), vinegared dishes* ''Chinmi'' (珍味), delicacies" ], [ "Classification", "===Kaiseki===''Kaiseki'', closely associated with tea ceremony (''chanoyu''), is a high form of hospitality through cuisine.", "The style is minimalist, extolling the aesthetics of wabi-sabi.", "Like the tea ceremony, appreciation of the diningware and vessels is part of the experience.", "In the modern standard form, the first course consists of ''ichijū-sansai'' (one soup, three dishes), followed by the serving of sake accompanied by dish(es) plated on a square wooden bordered tray of sorts called .", "Sometimes another element called is served to complement the sake, for guests who are heavier drinkers.===Vegetarian===Nattō, Japanese soybean-based vegetarian foodStrictly vegetarian food is rare since even vegetable dishes are flavored with the ubiquitous dashi stock, usually made with katsuobushi (dried skipjack tuna flakes), and are therefore pescetarian more often than carnivorous.", "An exception is ''shōjin-ryōri'' (精進料理), vegetarian dishes developed by Buddhist monks.", "However, the advertised ''shōjin-ryōri'' at public eating places includes some non-vegetarian elements.", "Vegetarianism, was introduced from China by the Ōbaku sect (a sub-sect of Zen Buddhism), and which some sources still regard as part of \"Japanese cuisine\".", "The sect in Japan was founded by the priest Ingen (d. 1673), and is headquartered in Uji, Kyoto.", "The Japanese name for the common green bean takes after this priest who allegedly introduced the New World crop via China.", "One aspect of the fucha-ryōri practiced at the temple is the wealth of , one example being mock-eel, made from strained tofu, with nori seaweed used expertly to mimic the black skin.", "The secret ingredient used is grated ''gobō'' (burdock) roots.Masakazu Tada, Honorary Vice-President of the International Vegetarian Union for 25 years from 1960, stated that \"Japan was vegetarian for 1,000 years\".", "The taboo against eating meat was lifted in 1872 by the Meiji Emperor as part of an effort towards westernizing Japan.", "British journalist J. W. Robertson Scott reported in the 1920s that the society was still 90% vegetarian, and 50–60% of the population ate fish only on festive occasions, probably due to poverty more than for any other reason.===Regional cuisine===Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties known as ''kyōdo-ryōri'' (郷土料理), many of them originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes with local ingredients.", "Foods from the Kantō region taste very strong.", "For example, the dashi-based broth for serving udon noodles is heavy on dark soy sauce, similar to soba broth.", "On the other hand, Kansai region foods are lightly seasoned, with clear udon noodles.", "made with light soy sauce." ], [ "Dishes for special occasions", "In Japanese tradition some dishes are strongly tied to a festival or event.", "These dishes include:* Botamochi, a sticky rice dumpling with sweet azuki paste served in spring, while a similar sweet Ohagi is served in autumn.", "* Chimaki (steamed sweet rice cake): Tango no sekku and Gion Festival.", "* Hamo (a type of fish, often eel) and sōmen: Gion Festival.", "* Osechi: New Year.", "* Sekihan is red rice, which is served for any celebratory occasion.", "It is usually sticky rice cooked with azuki, or red bean, which gives the rice its distinctive red color.", "* Soba: New Year's Eve.", "This is called ''toshi koshi soba'' (literally \"year crossing soba\").", "* Chirashizushi, Ushiojiru (clear soup of clams) and amazake: Hinamatsuri.In some regions, on every first and fifteenth day of the month, people eat a mixture of rice and azuki (''azuki meshi'' (小豆飯); see Sekihan)." ], [ "Imported and adapted foods", "Japan has a long history of importing food from other countries, some of which are now part of Japan's most popular cuisine.", "Ramen is considered an important part to their culinary history, to the extent where in survey of 2,000 Tokyo residents, instant ramen came up many times as a product they thought was an outstanding Japanese invention.", "Believed to have originated in China, ramen became popular in Japan after the Second Sino-Japanese war (1937–1945), when many Chinese students were displaced to Japan.Curry is so widely consumed that it can be called a national dish.Curry is another popular imported dish and is ranked near the top of nearly all Japanese surveys for favorite foods.", "The average Japanese person eats curry at least once a week.", "The origins of curry, as well many other foreign imports such as ''pan'' or bread, are linked to the emergence of ''yōshoku'', or western cuisine.", "''Yōshoku'' can be traced as far back as the late Muromachi period (1336–1573) during a culinary revolution called ''namban ryori'' (南蛮料理), which means \"Southern barbarian cooking\", as it is rooted in European cuisine.", "This cuisine style was first seen in Nagasaki, which served as the point of contact between Europe and Japan at that point in time.", "Food items such as potatoes, corn, dairy products, as well as the hard candy ''kompeito'' (金平糖), spread during this time.", "This cuisine became popular in the Meiji period, which is considered by many historians to be when Japan first opened itself to the outside world.", "Bread was not a traditional food in Japan, but ''shokupan'', or Japanese milk bread, was developed and came into broad use after the American response to post-World War II Japanese rice shortages included relief shipments of wheat.Today, many of these imported items still hold a heavy presence in Japan.", "* Foods imported from Portugal in the 16th century* Other adapted cuisines in Japan===Yōshoku – Foreign (Western) food, dishes===Japan today abounds with home-grown, loosely Western-style food.", "Many of these were invented in the wake of the 1868 Meiji Restoration and the end of national seclusion, when the sudden influx of foreign (in particular, Western) culture led to many restaurants serving Western food, known as ''yōshoku'' (洋食), a shortened form of ''seiyōshoku'' (西洋食, \"Western cuisine\"), opening up in cities.", "Restaurants that serve these foods are called ''yōshokuya'' (洋食屋, \"Western cuisine restaurants\").Many ''yōshoku'' items from that time have been adapted to a degree that they are now considered Japanese and are an integral part of any Japanese family menu.", "Many are served alongside rice and miso soup, and eaten with chopsticks.", "Yet, due to their origins these are still categorized as ''yōshoku'' as opposed to the more traditional ''washoku'' (和食, \"Japanese cuisine\").=== Chūka ryōri – Japanese Chinese cuisine ===Chinese cuisine is one of the oldest and most common foreign cuisines in Japan, predating the introduction of Western food dishes into the country.", "Many Chinese dishes have been altered to suit Japanese palates in a type of cuisine known as \"chuka ryori\".", "Iconic dishes of chuka ryori include ramen, gyoza, and chukaman.===Okonomiyaki===Japanese pancake, OkonomiyakiOkonomiyaki is a savoury pancake containing a variety of ingredients in a wheat-flour-based batter.===Tonkatsu===''Tonkatsu'' pork cutletTonkatsu is a breaded, deep-fried pork cutlet.", "It is frequently served with tonkatsu sauce.===Curry===Curry was introduced by Anglo-Indian officers of the Royal Navy from India who brought curry powder to Japan in the Meiji period.", "The Imperial Japanese Navy adopted curry to prevent beriberi.", "Overtime it was reinvented and adapted to suit Japanese tastes that it became uniquely Japanese.", "It is consumed so much that it is considered a national dish.", "Many recipes are on the menu of the JMSDF.", "A variety of vegetables and meats are used to make Japanese curry, usually vegetables like onions, carrots, and potatoes.", "The types of meat used are beef, pork, and chicken.", "A popular dish is ''Katsu-karē'' which is a breaded deep-fried cutlet (''tonkatsu''; usually pork or chicken) with Japanese curry sauce.", "Japanese curry can be found in foods such as curry udon, curry bread, and ''katsukarē'', tonkatsu served with curry.", "It's very commonly made with rice beside the curry on the dish called .", "This can be eaten during dinner.===Wafū burgers (Japanese-style burgers)===Hamburger chains active in Japan include McDonald's, Burger King, First Kitchen, Lotteria and MOS Burger.", "Many chains developed uniquely Japanese versions of American fast food such as the teriyaki burger, kinpira (sauté) rice burger, fried shrimp burgers, and green tea milkshakes.===Italian===High-class Japanese chefs have preserved many Italian seafood dishes that are forgotten in other countries.", "These include pasta with prawns, lobster (a specialty known in Italy as pasta all'aragosta), crab (an Italian specialty; in Japan it is served with a different species of crab), and pasta with sea urchin sauce (sea urchin pasta being a specialty of the Puglia region)." ], [ "Outside Japan", "California roll, a fusion makizushi created outside of JapanMany countries have imported portions of Japanese cuisine.", "Some may adhere to the traditional preparations of the cuisines, but in some cultures the dishes have been adapted to fit the palate of the local populace.", "In 1970s sushi travelled from Japan to Canada and the United States, it was modified to suit the American palate, and re-entered the Japanese market as \"American Sushi\".", "An example of this phenomenon is the California roll, which was created in North America in the 1970s, rose in popularity across the United States through the 1980s, and thus sparked Japanese food's – more precisely, sushi's – global popularity.In 2014, Japanese Restaurant Organization has selected potential countries where Japanese food is becoming increasingly popular, and conducted research concerning the Japanese restaurants abroad.", "These key nations or region are Taiwan, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia.", "This was meant as an effort to promote Japanese cuisine and to expand the market of Japanese ingredients, products and foodstuffs.", "Numbers of Japanese foodstuff and seasoning brands such as Ajinomoto, Kikkoman, Nissin and Kewpie mayonnaise, are establishing production base in other Asian countries, such as China, Thailand and Indonesia.===Australia===Japanese cuisine is very popular in Australia, and Australians are becoming increasingly familiar with traditional Japanese foods.", "Restaurants serving Japanese cuisine feature prominently in popular rankings, including Gourmet Traveller and The Good Food Guide.Sushi in particular has been described as being \"as popular as sandwiches\", particularly in large cities like Melbourne, Sydney, or Brisbane.", "As such, sushi bars are a mainstay in shopping centre food courts, and are extremely common in cities and towns all over the country.===Brazil===In Brazil, Japanese food is widespread due to the large Japanese-Brazilian population living in the country, which represents the largest Japanese community living outside Japan.", "Over the past years, many restaurant chains such as Koni Store have opened, selling typical dishes such as the popular temaki.", "Yakisoba, which is readily available in all supermarkets, and often included in non-Japanese restaurant menus.===Canada===In Canada, Japanese cuisine has become quite popular.", "Sushi, sashimi, and instant ramen are highly popular at opposite ends of the income scale, with instant ramen being a common low-budget meal.", "Sushi and sashimi takeout began in Vancouver and Toronto, and is now common throughout Canada.", "The largest supermarket chains all carry basic sushi and sashimi, and Japanese ingredients and instant ramen are readily available in most supermarkets.", "Most mid-sized mall food courts feature fast-food teppan cooking.", "Izakaya restaurants have surged in popularity.", "Higher-end ramen restaurants (as opposed to instant ramen noodles of variable quality) are increasingly common.===Indonesia===Chicken teriyaki bento set, including salmon sashimi, gyoza, salad and miso soup, served in a Japanese restaurant in JakartaIn the ASEAN region, Indonesia is the second largest market for Japanese food, after Thailand.", "Japanese cuisine has been increasingly popular as the growth of the Indonesian middle-class expecting higher quality foods.", "This is also contributed to the fact that Indonesia has large numbers of Japanese expatriates.", "The main concern is the halal issue.", "As a Muslim majority country, Indonesians expected that Japanese food served there are halal according to Islamic dietary law, which means no pork and alcohol allowed.", "Japanese restaurants in Indonesia often offer a set menu which include rice served with an array of Japanese favourites in a single setting.", "A set menu might include a choice of yakiniku or sukiyaki, including a sample of sushi, tempura, gyoza and miso soup.", "Quite authentic Japanese style izakaya and ramen shops can be found in Little Tokyo (Melawai) area in Blok M, South Jakarta, serving both Japanese expats and local clienteles.", "Today, Japanese restaurants can be found in most of Indonesian major cities, with high concentration in Greater Jakarta area, Bandung, Surabaya and Bali.In some cases, Japanese cuisine in Indonesia is often slanted to suit Indonesian taste.", "Hoka Hoka Bento in particular is an Indonesian-owned Japanese fast food restaurant chain that cater to the Indonesian clientele.", "As a result the foods served there have been adapted to suit Indonesians' taste.", "Examples of the change include stronger flavours compared to the authentic subtle Japanese taste, the preference for fried food, as well as the addition of sambal to cater to the Indonesians' preference for hot and spicy food.Okonomiyaki and takoyaki served in a festival of 2018 Asian Games in JakartaJapanese food popularity also had penetrated street food culture, as modest ''Warjep'' or ''Warung Jepang'' (Japanese food stall) offer Japanese food such as tempura, okonomiyaki and takoyaki, at very moderately low prices.", "Today, okonomiyaki and takoyaki are popular street fare in Jakarta and other Indonesian cities.", "This is also pushed further by the Japanese convenience stores operating in Indonesia, such as 7-Eleven and Lawson offering Japanese favourites such as oden, chicken katsu (deep-fried chicken cutlet), chicken teriyaki and onigiri.Some chefs in Indonesian sushi establishment has created a Japanese-Indonesian fusion cuisine, such as krakatau roll, gado-gado roll, rendang roll and gulai ramen.", "The idea of fusion cuisine between spicy Indonesian Padang and Japanese cuisine was thought because both cuisine traditions are well-liked by Indonesians.", "Nevertheless, some of these Japanese eating establishments might strive to serve authentic Japanese cuisine abroad.", "Numbers of Japanese chain restaurants has established their business in Indonesia, such as Yoshinoya gyūdon restaurant chain, Gyu-Kaku yakiniku restaurant chain and Ajisen Ramen restaurant chain.===Mexico===In Mexico, certain Japanese restaurants have created what is known as \"sushi Mexicano\", in which spicy sauces and ingredients accompany the dish or are integrated in sushi rolls.", "The habanero and serrano chiles have become nearly standard and are referred to as chiles toreados, as they are fried, diced and tossed over a dish upon request.===Philippines===In the Philippines, Japanese cuisine is also popular among the local population.", "The Philippines have been exposed to the influences from the Japanese, Indian and Chinese.", "The cities of Davao and Metro Manila probably have the most Japanese influence in the country.", "The popular dining spots for Japanese nationals are located in Makati, which is called as \"Little Tokyo\", a small area filled with restaurants specializing in different types of Japanese food.", "Some of the best Japanese no-frills restaurants in the Philippines can be found in Makati's \"Little Tokyo\" area.", "In the Philippines, Halo-halo is derived from Japanese Kakigori.", "Halo-halo is believed to be an indigenized version of the Japanese ''kakigori'' class of desserts, originating from pre-war Japanese migrants into the islands.", "The earliest versions were composed only of cooked red beans or mung beans in crushed ice with sugar and milk, a dessert known locally as \"''mongo-ya''\".", "Over the years, more native ingredients were added, resulting in the development of the modern ''halo-halo''.", "Some authors specifically attribute it to the 1920s or 1930s Japanese migrants in the Quinta Market of Quiapo, Manila, due to its proximity to the now defunct Insular Ice Plant, which was the source of the city's ice supply.", "In Cebu City, the Little Kyoto district let's you experience the feel of being in Kyoto, Japan with a statue of the reclining Buddha overlooking the city.", "The Little Kyoto district also features Japanese food stalls serving various Japanese dishes like Takoyaki, Tempura, and various other Japanese cuisine that is enjoyed by the people of Cebu City, Philippines.", "Odong, also called '''pancit odong''', is a Visayan noodle soup made with noodles, canned smoked sardines (''tinapa'') in tomato sauce, bottle gourd (), loofah (), chayote, ginger, garlic, red onions, and various other vegetables.", "It is garnished and spiced with black pepper, scallions, toasted garlic, calamansi, or labuyo chilis.", "The dish is usually prepared as a soup, but it can also be cooked with minimal water, in which case, it is known as '''odong guisado'''.", "It is a common simple and cheap meal in Mindanao (particularly the Davao Region) and the Visayas Islands.", "It is almost always eaten with white rice, rarely on its own.It is named after the round flour noodles called which are closest in texture and taste to the Okinawa soba.", "These noodles are characteristically sold dried into straight sticks around long.", "The name is derived from the Japanese ''udon'' noodles, although it does not use ''udon'' noodles or bear any resemblance to ''udon'' dishes.", "It originates from the Davao Region of Mindanao which had a large Japanese migrant community in the early 1900s.", "The noodles were previously locally manufactured by Okinawans, but modern noodles (which are distinctly yellowish) are imported from China.", "Because noodles are difficult to find in other regions, they can be substituted with other types of noodles; including ''misua'', ''miki'' (egg noodles), ''udon'', and even instant noodles.===Taiwan===Japan and Taiwan have shared close historical and cultural relations.", "Dishes such as sushi, ramen, and donburi are very popular among locals.", "Japanese chain restaurants such as Coco Ichibanya, Ippudo, Kura Sushi, Marugame Seimen, Mister Donut, MOS Burger, Ootoya, Ramen Kagetsu Arashi, Saizeriya, Sukiya, Sushiro, Tonkatsu Shinjuku Saboten, Yayoi Ken, and Yoshinoya, can all be found in Taiwan, among others.", "Taiwan has adapted many Japanese food items.", "Tianbula (\"Taiwanese tempura\") is actually satsuma-age and was introduced to Taiwan during Japanese rule by people from Kyushu, where the word ''tempura'' is commonly used to refer to satsuma-age.", "It is popular as a night market snack and as an ingredient for oden, hot pot and lu wei.", "Taiwanese versions of oden are sold locally as olen or, more recently, as guandongzhu (from Japanese Kantō-ni) in convenience stores.===Thailand===In Southeast Asia, Thailand is the largest market for Japanese food.", "This is partly because Thailand is a popular tourist destination, having large numbers of Japanese expatriates, as well as the local population having developed a taste for authentic Japanese cuisine.", "According to the Organisation that Promote Japanese Restaurants Abroad (JRO), the number of Japanese restaurants in Thailand jumped about 2.2-fold from 2007's figures to 1,676 in June 2012.In Bangkok, Japanese restaurants accounts for 8.3 percent of all restaurants, following those that serve Thai.", "Numbers of Japanese chain restaurants has established their business in Thailand, such as Yoshinoya gyūdon restaurant chain, Gyu-Kaku yakiniku restaurant chain and Kourakuen ramen restaurant chain.===United Kingdom===A branch of Kokoro in Sutton High Street, Sutton, Greater LondonJapanese food Inspired restaurant chains in the UK include Wagamama, YO!", "Sushi, Nudo Sushi Box, Wasabi, Bone Daddies and Kokoro, often localising the food and mixing in other ingredients originating from Southeast Asia and India.===United States===The California roll has been influential in sushi's global popularity; its invention often credited to a Japanese-born chef working in Los Angeles, with dates assigned to 1973, or even 1964.The dish has been snubbed by some purist sushi chefs, and also likened to the America-born chop suey by one scholar.", "the country has about 4,200 sushi restaurants.", "It is one of the most popular styles of sushi in the US market.", "Japanese cuisine is an integral part of food culture in Hawaii as well as in other parts of the United States.", "Popular items are sushi, sashimi, and teriyaki.", "Kamaboko, known locally as fish cake, is a staple of saimin, a noodle soup that is a local favorite in Hawaii.", "Sushi, long regarded as quite exotic in the west until the 1970s, has become a popular health food in parts of North America, Western Europe and Asia.Two of the first Japanese restaurants in the United States were Saito and Nippon.", "Restaurants such as these popularized dishes such as sukiyaki and tempura, while Nippon was the first restaurant in Manhattan to have a dedicated sushi bar.", "Nippon was also one of the first Japanese restaurants in the U.S. to grow and process their own soba and responsible for creation of the now standard beef negimayaki dish.In the U.S., the teppanyaki \"iron hot plate\" cooking restaurant took foothold.", "Such restaurants featured steak, shrimp and vegetables (including bean sprouts), cooked in front of the customer on a \"teppanyaki grill\" (teppan) by a personal chef who turns cooking into performance art, twirling and juggling cutting knives like batons.", "The meal would be served with steamed rice and Japanese soup.", "This style of cooking was made popular in the U.S. when Rocky Aoki founded his popular restaurant chain Benihana in 1964.In Japan this type of cooking is thought to be American food, but in the U.S. it is thought to be Japanese.", "Aoki thought this would go over better in the U.S. than traditional Japanese cuisine because he felt that Americans enjoyed \"eating in exotic surroundings, but are deeply mistrustful of exotic foods\"." ], [ "Food controversies", "Whale meat sashimi, one of the most controversial Japanese dishesSome elements of Japanese cuisine involving eating live seafood, such as Ikizukuri and Odori ebi, have received criticism overseas as a form of animal cruelty.Japanese cuisine is heavily dependent on seafood products.", "About 45 kilograms of seafood are consumed per capita annually in Japan, more than most other developed countries.", "An aspect of environmental concern is Japanese appetite for seafood, which could contribute to the depletion of natural ocean resources.", "For example, Japan consumes 80% of the global supply of blue fin tuna, a popularly sought sushi and sashimi ingredient, which could lead to its extinction due to commercial overfishing.", "Another environmental concern is commercial whaling and the consumption of whale meat, for which Japan is the world's largest market." ], [ "See also", "* Bento* Culture of Japan* Cuisine of Okinawa* Fake food in Japan* Honzen-ryōri* Japanese New Year* Kaiseki* List of Japanese condiments* List of Japanese cooking utensils* List of Japanese dishes List of Japanese desserts and sweets List of Japanese soups and stews* List of Japanese ingredients* List of Japanese restaurants* List of sushi restaurants" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * === Further reading ===* * Francks, Penelope.", "\"Diet and the comparison of living standards across the Great Divergence: Japanese food history in an English mirror.\"", "''Journal of Global History'' 14.1 (2019): 3-21.", "" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Monroe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Monroe''' ( ; April 28, 1758July 4, 1831) was an American statesman, lawyer, diplomat, and Founding Father who served as the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825, a member of the Democratic-Republican Party.", "He was the last Founding Father to serve as president as well as the last president of the Virginia dynasty and the Republican Generation.", "His presidency coincided with the Era of Good Feelings, concluding the First Party System era of American politics.", "He issued the Monroe Doctrine, a policy of limiting European colonialism in the Americas.", "Monroe previously served as governor of Virginia, a member of the United States Senate, U.S. ambassador to France and Britain, the seventh secretary of state, and the eighth secretary of war.During the American Revolutionary War, he served in the Continental Army.", "Monroe studied law under Thomas Jefferson from 1780 to 1783 and subsequently served as a delegate to the Continental Congress as well as a delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention.", "He opposed the ratification of the United States Constitution.", "In 1790, Monroe won election to the Senate where he became a leader of the Democratic-Republican Party.", "He left the Senate in 1794 to serve as President George Washington's ambassador to France but was recalled by Washington in 1796.Monroe won the election as Governor of Virginia in 1799 and strongly supported Jefferson's candidacy in the 1800 presidential election.As President Jefferson's special envoy, Monroe helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, through which the United States nearly doubled in size.", "Monroe fell out with his longtime friend James Madison after Madison rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty that Monroe negotiated with Britain.", "He unsuccessfully challenged Madison for the Democratic-Republican nomination in the 1808 presidential election, but he joined Madison's administration as Secretary of State in 1811.During the later stages of the War of 1812, Monroe simultaneously served as Madison's Secretary of State and Secretary of War.", "Monroe's wartime leadership established him as Madison's heir apparent, and he easily defeated Federalist candidate Rufus King in the 1816 presidential election.During Monroe's tenure as president, the Federalist Party collapsed as a national political force and Monroe was re-elected, virtually unopposed, in 1820.As president, he signed the Missouri Compromise, which admitted Missouri as a slave state and banned slavery from territories north of the 36°30′ parallel.", "In foreign affairs, Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams favored a policy of conciliation with Britain and a policy of expansionism against the Spanish Empire.", "In the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, the United States secured Florida and established its western border with New Spain.", "In 1823, Monroe announced the United States' opposition to any European intervention in the recently independent countries of the Americas with the Monroe Doctrine, which became a landmark in American foreign policy.", "Monroe was a member of the American Colonization Society which supported the colonization of Africa by freed slaves, and Liberia's capital of Monrovia is named in his honor.Following his retirement in 1825, Monroe was plagued by financial difficulties and died on July 4, 1831, in New York City—sharing a distinction with Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson of dying on the anniversary of U.S. independence.", "Historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president." ], [ "Early life and education", "James Monroe was born on April 28, 1758, in his parents' house in a wooded area of Westmoreland County in the Colony of Virginia, to (Andrew) Spence Monroe and Elizabeth Jones.", "The marked site is one mile (1.6 km) from the unincorporated community known today as Monroe Hall, Virginia.", "The James Monroe Family Home Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.He had one sister, Elizabeth and three younger brothers, Spence, Andrew and Joseph Jones.", "Monroe's father worked as a craftsman and was a patriot who was involved in protests against the Stamp Act.", "His mother was the daughter of a Welsh immigrant whose family was one of the wealthiest in King George County.Marker designating the site of James Monroe's birthplace in Monroe Hall, VirginiaHis paternal great-great-grandfather Patrick Andrew Monroe emigrated to America from Scotland in the mid-17th century as a Royalist after the defeat of Charles I in the English Civil War, and was part of an ancient Scottish clan known as Clan Munro.", "In 1650, he patented a large tract of land in Washington Parish, Westmoreland County, Virginia.", "Also among James Monroe's ancestors were French Huguenot immigrants, who came to Virginia in 1700.At age 11, Monroe was enrolled in Campbelltown Academy, the only school in the county.", "This school was considered the best in the colony of Virginia, which is why Monroe was later able to immediately take advanced courses in Latin and mathematics at the College of William & Mary.", "He attended this school only 11 weeks a year, as his labor was needed on the farm.", "During this time, Monroe formed a lifelong friendship with an older classmate, future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Marshall.", "In 1772, Monroe's mother died after giving birth to her youngest child and his father died soon after, leaving him as the eldest son in charge of the family.", "Though he inherited property, including slaves, from both of his parents, the 16-year-old Monroe was forced to withdraw from school to support his younger brothers.", "His childless maternal uncle, Joseph Jones, became a surrogate father to Monroe and his siblings and paid off his brother-in-law's debts.", "A member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, Jones took Monroe to the capital of Williamsburg, Virginia, and enrolled him in the College of William and Mary in June 1774.Jones also introduced Monroe to important Virginians such as Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, and George Washington.During this phase of the American Revolution, opposition to the British government grew in the Thirteen Colonies in reaction to the \"Intolerable Acts\", a series of harsh laws against the Colonies in response to the Boston Tea Party.", "In Williamsburg, British Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, dissolved the Assembly after protests by the delegates, who then decided to send a delegation to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia.", "Dunmore wanted to take advantage of the absence of the Burgesses, who had convened to Richmond, and had soldiers of the Royal Navy confiscate the weapons of the Virginian militia, which alarmed militiamen and students of the College of William & Mary, including Monroe.", "They marched to the Governor's Palace and demanded that Dunmore return the confiscated gunpowder.", "When more militiamen arrived in Williamsburg under the leadership of Patrick Henry, Dunmore agreed to pay compensation for the confiscated goods.", "Monroe and his fellow students were so incensed by the governor's actions that they conducted daily military drills on campus afterward.", "On June 24, 1775, Monroe and 24 militiamen stormed the Governor's Palace, capturing several hundred muskets and swords." ], [ "Revolutionary War service", "''The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776'', by John Trumbull, showing Captain William Washington, with a wounded hand, on the right and Lt. Monroe, severely wounded and helped by Dr. John Riker, left of center, behind the mortally wounded Hessian Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall.", "Rall is being helped by American Major William Stephens Smith\|leftIn early 1776, about a year and a half after his enrollment, Monroe dropped out of college and joined the 3rd Virginia Regiment in the Continental Army, despite mourning the death of his brother Spence, who had died shortly before.", "As the fledgling army valued literacy in its officers, Monroe was commissioned with the rank of lieutenant, serving under Colonel George Weedon and later Captain William Washington.", "After months of training, Monroe and 700 Virginia infantrymen were called north to serve in the New York and New Jersey campaign.", "Monroe's regiment played a central role in the Continental Army's retreat across the Delaware River on December 7 in response to the loss of Fort Washington.", "In late December, Monroe took part in a surprise attack on a Hessian encampment at the Battle of Trenton.", "Though the attack was successful, Monroe suffered a severed artery in the battle and nearly died.", "In the aftermath, Washington cited Monroe and William Washington for their bravery, and promoted Monroe to captain.After recovering for two months, Monroe returned to Virginia to recruit his own company of soldiers.", "Lacking the wealth to induce soldiers to join his company, Monroe instead asked his uncle to return him to the front.", "Monroe was assigned to the staff of General William Alexander, Lord Stirling as an auxiliary officer.", "At the Battle of Brandywine, he formed a close friendship with the Marquis de Lafayette, a French volunteer who encouraged him to view the war as part of a wider struggle against religious and political tyranny.", "Monroe served in the Philadelphia campaign and spent the winter of 1777–78 at the encampment of Valley Forge, sharing a log hut with Marshall.", "By late 1777, he was promoted to major and served as Lord Stirling's aide-de-camp.", "After serving in the Battle of Monmouth, the destitute Monroe resigned his commission in December 1778 and joined his uncle in Philadelphia.", "After the British captured Savannah, the Virginia legislature decided to raise four regiments, and Monroe returned to his native state, hoping to receive his own command.", "With letters of recommendation from Washington, Stirling, and Alexander Hamilton, Monroe received a commission as a lieutenant colonel and was expected to lead one of the regiments, but recruitment again proved to be a problem.", "On Jones's advice, Monroe returned to Williamsburg to study law at the College of William and Mary, becoming a protégé of Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson.", "Jefferson, with whom Monroe soon formed a close and lifelong friendship, advised his protégé to pursue a political career and made his library available to him, where the works of Epictetus in particular had a great influence on Monroe With the British increasingly focusing their operations in the Southern colonies, the Virginians moved the capital to the more defensible city of Richmond, and Monroe accompanied Jefferson to the new capital.", "Jefferson appointed Monroe as a military commissioner with the task of maintaining contact with the Southern Continental Army, under the command of General Johann von Kalb, and the Virginia Militia.", "At the end of 1780, the British invaded Virginia and Monroe, who had become a colonel in the meantime, was given command of a regiment for the first time, but he was still unable to raise an army due to a lack of interested recruits, Monroe returned to his home in King George County, and was not present for the British raid on Richmond.", "As both the Continental Army and the Virginia militia had an abundance of officers, Monroe did not serve during the Yorktown campaign, and, much to his frustration, did not take part in the Siege of Yorktown.", "Although Andrew Jackson served as a courier in a militia unit at age 13, Monroe is regarded as the last U.S. president who was a Revolutionary War veteran, since he served as an officer of the Continental Army and took part in combat.", "As a result of his service, Monroe became a member of the Society of the Cincinnati.Elizabeth KortrightOak Hill Mansion" ], [ "Early political career", "=== Member of Continental Congress ===Monroe resumed studying law under Jefferson and continued until 1783.He was not particularly interested in legal theory or practice, but chose to take it up because he thought it offered \"the most immediate rewards\" and could ease his path to wealth, social standing, and political influence.", "In 1782, Monroe was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates.", "After serving on Virginia's Executive Council, he was elected to the Fourth Congress of the Confederation in November 1783 and served in Annapolis until Congress convened in Trenton, New Jersey in June 1784.He had served a total of three years when he finally retired from that office by the rule of rotation.", "By that time, the government was meeting in the temporary capital of New York City.", "In 1784, Monroe undertook an extensive trip through Western New York and Pennsylvania to inspect the conditions in the Northwest.", "The tour convinced him that the United States had to pressure Britain to abandon its posts in the region and assert control of the Northwest.", "While serving in Congress, Monroe became an advocate for western expansion, and played a key role in the writing and passage of the Northwest Ordinance.", "The ordinance created the Northwest Territory, providing for federal administration of the territories West of Pennsylvania and North of the Ohio River.", "Another of Monroe's goals in the Confederate Congress was to negotiate American rights to free navigation on the Mississippi River.", "During this period, Jefferson continued to serve as a mentor to Monroe, and, at Jefferson's prompting, he befriended another prominent Virginian, James Madison.=== Marriage and law practice ===On February 16, 1786, Monroe married Elizabeth Kortright (1768–1830), who came from New York City's high society, at Trinity Church in Manhattan.", "The marriage produced three children, Eliza in 1786, James in 1799 and Maria in 1802.Although Monroe was raised in the Anglican faith, the children were educated according to the teachings of the Episcopal Church.", "After a brief honeymoon on Long Island, New York, the Monroe's returned to New York City to live with her father until Congress adjourned:In the fall of 1786, Monroe resigned from Congress and moved to his uncle Jones' house in Fredericksburg, Virginia, where he successfully passed the bar exam and became an attorney for the state.", "In 1787, Monroe won election to another term in the Virginia House of Delegates.", "Though he had become outspoken in his desire to reform the Articles, he was unable to attend the Philadelphia Convention due to his work obligations.", "In 1788, Monroe became a delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention, which voted on the adoption of the United States Constitution.", "In Virginia, the struggle over the ratification of the proposed Constitution involved more than a simple clash between federalists and anti-federalists.", "Virginians held a full spectrum of opinions about the merits of the proposed change in national government, and those who held the middle ground in the ideological struggle became the central figures.", "Led by Monroe and Edmund Pendleton, these \"federalists who are for amendments\" criticized the absence of a bill of rights and worried about surrendering taxation powers to the central government.", "Monroe called for the Constitution to include guarantees regarding free navigation on the Mississippi River and to give the federal government direct control over the militia in case of defense.", "In doing so, he wanted to prevent the creation of a standing army, which proved to be a critical point of contention between the federalists and the anti-federalists.", "Monroe also opposed the Electoral College, which he viewed as too corruptible and susceptible to state interests, and favored direct election of the president.", "After Madison reversed his decision and promised to pass a bill of rights, the Virginia Convention ratified the Constitution by a narrow vote, though Monroe himself voted against it.===Senator===In the 1789 election to the 1st United States Congress, anti-federalist Henry Monroe persuaded Monroe to run against Madison, and he had the Virginia legislature draw a congressional district designed to elect Monroe.", "During the campaign, Madison and Monroe often traveled together, and the election did nothing to diminish their friendship.", "In the election for Virginia's Fifth District, Madison prevailed over Monroe, taking 1,308 votes compared to Monroe's 972 votes.", "After this defeat, Monroe moved his family from Fredericksburg to Albemarle County, first to Charlottesville and later to the immediate neighborhood of Monticello, where he bought an estate and named it Highland.", "After the death of Senator William Grayson in 1790, Virginia legislators elected Monroe to serve the remainder of Grayson's term.", "Since the Senate, unlike the House of Representatives, met behind closed doors, the public paid little attention to it and focused on the House of Representatives.", "Monroe therefore requested in February 1791 that Senate sessions be held in public, but this was initially rejected and not implemented until February 1794.During the presidency of George Washington, U.S. politics became increasingly polarized between the Anti-Administration Party, led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and the Federalists, led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton.", "Monroe stood firmly with Jefferson in opposing Hamilton's strong central government and strong executive.", "The Democratic-Republican Party coalesced around Jefferson and Madison, and Monroe became one of the fledgling party's leaders in the Senate.", "He also helped organize opposition to John Adams in the 1792 election, though Adams defeated George Clinton to win re-election as vice president.", "When Monroe took part in congressional investigations into Hamilton's illegal transactions with James Reynolds in November 1792, this led to the uncovering of the first political sex scandal in the United States: The payments had been hush money to keep Hamilton's affair with Reynolds' wife secret.", "Hamilton never forgave Monroe for this public humiliation, which almost led to a duel between the two.", "Throughout 1792 and 1793, Monroe and Madison responded to Hamilton's pamphlets accusing Jefferson of undermining Washington's authority with a series of six essays.", "These sharply worded replies were largely penned by Monroe.", "As leader of the Republicans in the Senate, Monroe soon became involved in matters of foreign relations.", "In 1794, he emerged as an opponent of Hamilton's appointment as ambassador to the United Kingdom and a supporter of the First French Republic.", "Since 1791 he had taken sides with the French Revolution in several essays under the pseudonym Aratus.===Minister to France===The earliest preserved portrait of James Monroe as Minister Plenipotentiary to France in 1794As the 1790s progressed, the French Revolutionary Wars came to dominate U.S. foreign policy, with British and French raids both threatening U.S. trade with Europe.", "Like most other Jeffersonians, Monroe supported the French Revolution, but Hamilton's followers tended to sympathize more with Britain.", "In 1794, hoping to find a way to avoid war with both countries, Washington appointed Monroe as his minister (ambassador) to France, after Madison and Robert R. Livingston had declined the offer.", "At the same time, he appointed the Anglophile Federalist John Jay as his minister to Britain.", "Monroe took this position at a difficult time: America's negotiating position was made considerably more difficult by its lack of military strength.", "In addition, the conflict between Paris and London in America intensified the confrontation between the Anglophile Federalists and the Francophile Republicans.", "While the Federalists were basically only aiming for independence from Great Britain, the Republicans wanted a revolutionary new form of government, which is why they strongly sympathized with the First French Republic.After arriving in France, Monroe addressed the National Convention, receiving a standing ovation for his speech celebrating republicanism.", "Monroe's passionate and friendly message of greeting at the inaugural ceremony before the National Convention was later criticized by Jay for its sentimentality, and Washington viewed the speech as \"not well devised\" in terms of venue and in light of American neutrality in the First Coalition War.", "Monroe experienced several early diplomatic successes, including the protection of U.S. trade from French attacks.", "In February 1795, Monroe used his influence to secure the release of all American citizens imprisoned since the French Revolution and Adrienne de La Fayette, the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette.", "He had already secured the release of Thomas Paine in July 1794 and took him in, but when Paine worked on a diatribe against Washington despite Monroe's objections, they parted ways in the spring of 1796.Months after Monroe arrived in France, the U.S. and Great Britain concluded the Jay Treaty, outraging both the French and Monroe—not fully informed about the treaty prior to its publication.", "Despite the undesirable effects of the Jay Treaty on Franco-American relations, Monroe won French support for U.S. navigational rights on the Mississippi River—the mouth of which was controlled by Spain—and in 1795 the U.S. and Spain signed Pinckney's Treaty.", "The treaty granted the U.S. limited rights to use the port of New Orleans.Immediately after Timothy Pickering succeeded Secretary of State Edmund Randolph, who had been the only Francophile member of Washington's cabinet, in December 1795, he worked to dismiss Monroe.", "In 1796, Monroe sent a dispatch summarizing his response to French complaints of the Jay Treaty, but it was incomplete and did not include the French note or Monroe's written response.", "Pickering saw this as a sign of Monroe's unsuitability and, together with Hamilton, persuaded Washington to replace Monroe as ambassador.", "Washington decided Monroe was inefficient, disruptive, and failed to safeguard the national interest.", "He recalled Monroe in November 1796, the letter of dismissal being deliberately delayed in order to prevent his return before the presidential election.", "Returning to his home in Charlottesville, he resumed his dual careers as a farmer and lawyer.", "Jefferson and Madison urged Monroe to run for Congress, but Monroe chose to focus on state politics instead.In 1797, Monroe published ''A View of the Conduct of the Executive, in the Foreign Affairs of the United States: Connected with the Mission to the French Republic, During the Years 1794, 5, and 6,'' which sharply attacked Washington's government and accused it of acting against America's interests.", "He followed the advice of his friend Robert Livingston who cautioned him to \"repress every harsh and acrimonious\" comment about Washington.", "However, he did complain that too often the U.S. government had been too close to Britain, especially regarding the Jay Treaty.", "Washington made notes on this copy, writing, \"The truth is, Mr. Monroe was cajoled, flattered, and made to believe strange things.", "In return he did, or was disposed to do, whatever was pleasing to that nation, reluctantly urging the rights of his own.\"" ], [ "Governor of Virginia and diplomat (1799–1802, 1811)", "===Governor of Virginia===On a party-line vote, the Virginia legislature elected Monroe as Governor of Virginia in 1799.He would serve as governor until 1802.The constitution of Virginia endowed the governor with very few powers aside from commanding the militia when the Assembly called it into action, but Monroe used his stature to convince legislators to enhance state involvement in transportation and education and to increase training for the militia.", "Monroe also began to give State of the Commonwealth addresses to the legislature, in which he highlighted areas in which he believed the legislature should act.", "Monroe also led an effort to create the state's first penitentiary, and imprisonment replaced other, often harsher, punishments.", "In 1800, Monroe called out the state militia to suppress Gabriel's Rebellion, a slave rebellion originating on a plantation six miles from the capital of Richmond.", "Gabriel and 27 other enslaved people who participated were all hanged for treason.", "The executions sparked compassionate feelings among the people of Virginia, and Monroe worked with the legislature to secure a location where free and enslaved African Americans suspected of \"conspiracy, insurgency, Treason, and rebellion\" would be permanently banished outside the United States.Monroe thought that foreign and Federalist elements had created the Quasi War of 1798–1800, and he strongly supported Thomas Jefferson's candidacy for president in 1800.Federalists were likewise suspicious of Monroe, some viewing him at best as a French dupe and at worst a traitor.", "With the power to appoint election officials in Virginia, Monroe exercised his influence to help Jefferson win Virginia's presidential electors.", "He also considered using the Virginia militia to force the outcome in favor of Jefferson.", "Jefferson won the 1800 election, and he appointed Madison as his Secretary of State.", "As a member of Jefferson's party and the leader of the largest state in the country, Monroe emerged as one of Jefferson's two most likely successors, alongside Madison.===Louisiana Purchase and Minister to Great Britain===Shortly after the end of Monroe's gubernatorial tenure, President Jefferson sent Monroe back to France to assist Ambassador Robert Livingston in negotiating the Louisiana Purchase.", "In the 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso, France had acquired the territory of Louisiana from Spain; at the time, many in the U.S. believed that France had also acquired West Florida in the same treaty.", "The American delegation originally sought to acquire West Florida and the city of New Orleans, which controlled the trade of the Mississippi River.", "Determined to acquire New Orleans even if it meant war with France, Jefferson also authorized Monroe to form an alliance with the British if the French refused to sell the city.Meeting with François Barbé-Marbois, the French foreign minister, Monroe and Livingston agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million; the purchase became known as the Louisiana Purchase.", "In agreeing to the purchase, Monroe violated his instructions, which had only allowed $9 million for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida.", "The French did not acknowledge that West Florida remained in Spanish possession, and the United States would claim that France had sold West Florida to the United States for several years to come.", "Though he had not ordered the purchase of the entire territory, Jefferson strongly supported Monroe's actions, which ensured that the United States would continue to expand to the West.", "Overcoming doubts about whether the Constitution authorized the purchase of foreign territory, Jefferson won congressional approval for the Louisiana Purchase, and the acquisition doubled the size of the United States.", "Monroe would travel to Spain in 1805 to try to win the cession of West Florida, but found that the American ambassador to Spain, Charles Pinckney, had alienated the Spanish government with crude threats of violence.", "In the negotiations on the outstanding territorial issues concerning New Orleans, West Florida and the Rio Grande, Monroe made no progress and was treated condescendingly, and with the support of France, Spain refused to consider relinquishing the territory.After the resignation of Rufus King, Monroe was appointed as the ambassador to Great Britain in 1803.The greatest issue of contention between the United States and Britain was that of the impressment of U.S. sailors.", "Many U.S. merchant ships employed British seamen who had deserted or dodged conscription, and the British frequently impressed sailors on U.S. ships in hopes of quelling their manpower issues.", "Many of the sailors they impressed had never been British subjects, and Monroe was tasked with persuading the British to stop their practice of impressment.", "Monroe found little success in this endeavor, partly due to Jefferson's alienation of the British minister to the United States, Anthony Merry.", "Rejecting Jefferson's offer to serve as the first governor of Louisiana Territory, Monroe continued to serve as ambassador to Britain until 1807.In 1806 he negotiated the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty with Great Britain.", "It would have extended the Jay Treaty of 1794 which had expired after ten years.", "Jefferson had fought the Jay Treaty intensely in 1794–95 because he felt it would allow the British to subvert American republicanism.", "The treaty had produced ten years of peace and highly lucrative trade for American merchants, but Jefferson was still opposed.", "When Monroe and the British signed the new treaty in December 1806, Jefferson refused to submit it to the Senate for ratification.", "Although the treaty called for ten more years of trade between the United States and the British Empire and gave American merchants guarantees that would have been good for business, Jefferson was unhappy that it did not end the hated British practice of impressment and refused to give up the potential weapon of commercial warfare against Britain.", "The president made no attempt to obtain another treaty, and as a result, the two nations drifted from peace toward the War of 1812.Monroe was severely pained by the administration's repudiation of the treaty, and he fell out with Secretary of State James Madison.===1808 election and the Quids===On his return to Virginia in 1807, Monroe received a warm reception, and many urged him to run in the 1808 presidential election.", "After Jefferson refused to submit the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, Monroe had come to believe that Jefferson had snubbed the treaty out of the desire to avoid elevating Monroe above Madison in 1808.Out of deference to Jefferson, Monroe agreed to avoid actively campaigning for the presidency, but he did not rule out accepting a draft effort.", "The Democratic-Republican Party was increasingly factionalized, with \"Old Republicans\" or \"Quids\" denouncing the Jefferson administration for abandoning what they considered to be true republican principles.", "The Quids, led by John Randolph of Roanoke, tried to enlist Monroe in their cause.", "The plan was to run Monroe for president in the 1808 election in cooperation with the Federalist Party, which had a strong base in New England.", "Monroe decided to run against Madison in the 1808 presidential election in order to demonstrate the strength of his political position in Virginia.", "The regular Democratic-Republicans overcame the Quids in the nominating caucus, kept control of the party in Virginia, and protected Madison's base.", "Monroe did not publicly criticize Jefferson or Madison during Madison's campaign against Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, but he refused to support Madison.", "Madison defeated Pinckney by a large margin, carrying all but one state outside of New England.", "Monroe won 3,400 votes in Virginia, but received little support elsewhere.Monroe, who had fallen out of favor with the majority of Republicans because of his candidacy, withdrew into private life for the next few years.", "The plan to sell his second house in Loudon County, Oak Hill, in order to renovate and expand Highland with the proceeds, failed due to the low real estate prices.", "After the election Monroe quickly reconciled with Jefferson, but their friendship endured further strains when Jefferson did not promote Monroe's candidacy to Congress in 1809.Monroe did not speak with Madison until 1810.Monroe devoted his attentions to farming at his Charlottesville estate, experimenting with new horticultural techniques in order to switch from tobacco, whose value was steadily declining, to wheat." ], [ "Secretary of State and Secretary of War (1811–1817)", "=== Madison administration ===Portrait of Secretary Monroe by John Vanderlyn, In 1810, Monroe returned to the Virginia House of Delegates and was elected to another term as governor in 1811, but served only four months, as less than two months into his term, Monroe was asked on Madison's behalf if he would be willing to succeed Robert Smith as Secretary of State.", "In April 1811, Madison appointed Monroe to his cabinet as Secretary of State in hopes of shoring up the support of the more radical factions of the Democratic-Republicans.", "Madison also hoped that Monroe, an experienced diplomat with whom he had once been close friends, would improve upon the performance of the previous Secretary of State, Robert Smith.", "Madison assured Monroe that their differences regarding the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty had been a misunderstanding, and the two resumed their friendship.", "The Senate voted unanimously (30–0) to confirm him.", "On taking office, Monroe hoped to negotiate treaties with the British and French to end the attacks on American merchant ships.", "While the French agreed to reduce the attacks and release seized American ships, the British were less receptive to Monroe's demands.", "Monroe had long worked for peace with the British, but he came to favor war with Britain, joining with \"war hawks\" such as Speaker of the House Henry Clay.", "With the support of Monroe and Clay, Madison asked Congress to declare war upon the British, and Congress complied on June 18, 1812, thus beginning the War of 1812.The war went very badly, and the Madison administration quickly sought peace, but were rejected by the British.", "The U.S. Navy did experience several successes after Monroe convinced Madison to allow the Navy's ships to set sail rather than remaining in port for the duration of the war.", "After the resignation of Secretary of War William Eustis, Madison asked Monroe to serve in dual roles as Secretary of State and Secretary of War, but opposition from the Senate limited Monroe to serving as acting Secretary of War until Brigadier General John Armstrong won Senate confirmation.", "Monroe and Armstrong clashed over war policy, and Armstrong blocked Monroe's hopes of being appointed to lead an invasion of Canada.", "When British warships appeared in the Potomac River estuary in the summer of the same year, Monroe urged that defensive measures be taken for Washington, D.C., and that a military intelligence service should be established to Chesapeake Bay, which Armstrong dismissed as unnecessary.", "Since there was no functioning reconnaissance, Monroe formed his own small cavalry unit and began scouting the bay until the British withdrew from it.", "As the war dragged on, the British offered to begin negotiations in Ghent, and the United States sent a delegation led by John Quincy Adams to conduct negotiations.", "Monroe allowed Adams leeway in setting terms, so long as he ended the hostilities and preserved American neutrality.When a British fleet of 50 warships and 5,000 soldiers massed in the mouth of the Potomac, Monroe scouted the Chesapeake Bay with a troop and on August 21 sent the President a warning of the impending invasion so that Madison and his wife could flee in time and the state's assets and inhabitants could be evacuated.", "The British burned the U.S. Capitol and the White House on August 24, 1814, Madison removed Armstrong as Secretary of War and turned to Monroe for help, appointing him Secretary of War on September 27.Monroe resigned as Secretary of State on October 1, 1814, but no successor was ever appointed and thus from October 1814 to February 28, 1815, Monroe effectively held both Cabinet posts.", "Now in command of the war effort, Monroe ordered General Andrew Jackson to defend against a likely attack on New Orleans by the British, and he asked the governors of nearby states to send their militias to reinforce Jackson.", "He also called on Congress to draft an army of 100,000 men, increase compensation to soldiers, and establish a new national bank to ensure adequate funding for the war effort.", "Months after Monroe took office as Secretary of War, the war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent.", "The treaty resulted in a return to the status quo ante bellum, and many outstanding issues between the United States and Britain remained.", "Americans celebrated the end of the war as a great victory, partly due to the news of the treaty reaching the United States shortly after Jackson's victory in the Battle of New Orleans.", "With the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the British also ended the practice of impressment.", "After the war, Congress authorized the creation of a national bank in the form of the Second Bank of the United States.", "Monroe resigned as Secretary of War in March 1815 and took over the leadership of the State Department again, emerging from the war politically strengthened and a promising presidential candidate.===Election of 1816===Monroe decided to seek the presidency in the 1816 election, and his war-time leadership had established him as Madison's heir apparent.", "Monroe had strong support from many in the party, but his candidacy was challenged at the 1816 Democratic-Republican congressional nominating caucus.", "Since there was no longer a serious opposition party due to the decline of the Federalists, who were perceived as disloyal because of their pro-British stance and opposition to the War of 1812, the Democratic-Republican caucus in Congress was crucial to Monroe's victory.", "Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford had the support of numerous Southern and Western Congressmen, while Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was backed by several Congressmen from New York.", "Crawford appealed especially to many Democratic-Republicans who were wary of Madison and Monroe's support for the establishment of the Second Bank of the United States.", "Despite his substantial backing, Crawford decided to defer to Monroe on the belief that he could eventually run as Monroe's successor, and Monroe won his party's nomination.", "Tompkins won the party's vice presidential nomination.", "The moribund Federalists nominated Rufus King as their presidential nominee, but the party offered little opposition following the conclusion of a popular war that they had opposed.", "Monroe received 183 of the 217 electoral votes, winning every state but Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware.", "Since he previously served as an officer of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and as a delegate in the Continental Congress, he became the last president who was a Founding Father." ], [ "Presidency (1817–1825)", "=== Inauguration and cabinet ===Monroe's inauguration took place on March 4, 1817.As Monroe was the first president to take office during a period of peace and economic stability, the term \"Era of Good Feelings\" was soon coined.", "This period was characterized by the unchallenged dominance of the Republicans, who by the end of Madison's term had adopted some Federalist policies, such as the establishment of a central bank and protective tariffs.", "Monroe largely ignored old party lines in making federal appointments, which reduced political tensions and augmented the sense of \"oneness\" that pervaded the United States.", "He made two long national tours to build national trust, which included ceremonies of welcome and expressions of good-will.", "Monroe appointed a geographically balanced cabinet, through which he led the executive branch.", "At Monroe's request, Crawford continued to serve as Treasury Secretary.", "Monroe also chose to retain Benjamin Crowninshield of Massachusetts as Secretary of the Navy and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania as Attorney General.", "Recognizing Northern discontent at the continuation of the Virginia dynasty, Monroe chose John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts as Secretary of State, making Adams the early favorite to eventually succeed Monroe.", "An experienced diplomat, Adams had abandoned the Federalist Party in 1807 in support of Thomas Jefferson's foreign policy, and Monroe hoped that the appointment would encourage the defection of more Federalists.", "After General Andrew Jackson declined appointment as Secretary of War, Monroe turned to South Carolina Congressman John C. Calhoun, leaving the Cabinet without a prominent Westerner.", "In late 1817 Rush became the ambassador to Britain, and William Wirt succeeded him as Attorney General.", "With the exception of Crowninshield, the rest of Monroe's initial cabinet appointees remained in place for the remainder of his presidency.=== Foreign policy ===According to historian William Earl Weeks, \"Monroe evolved a comprehensive strategy aimed at expanding the Union externally while solidifying it internally\".", "He expanded trade and pacified relations with Great Britain while expanding the United States at the expense of the Spanish Empire, from which he obtained Florida and the recognition of a border across the continent.", "Faced with the breakdown of the expansionist consensus over the question of slavery, the president tried to provide both North and South with guarantees that future expansion would not tip the balance of power between slave and free states, a system that, Weeks remarks, did indeed allow the continuation of American expansion for the best of four decades.====Treaties with Britain and Russia====Upon taking office, Monroe pursued warmer relations with Britain in the aftermath of the War of 1812.In 1817, the United States and Britain signed the Rush–Bagot Treaty, which regulated naval armaments on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain and demilitarized the border between the U.S. and British North America.", "The Treaty of 1818, also with Great Britain, was concluded October 20, 1818, and fixed the present Canada–United States border from Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains at the 49th parallel.", "The accords also established a joint U.S.–British occupation of Oregon Country for the next ten years.", "Though they did not solve every outstanding issue between the U.S. and Britain, the treaties allowed for greater trade between the United States and the British Empire and helped avoid an expensive naval arms race in the Great Lakes.", "In the Pacific Northwest, American territorial claims clashed with those of Tsarist Russia, which had trading posts as far south as San Francisco Bay, and those of Great Britain.", "The situation intensified in the fall of 1821 when Saint Petersburg closed America's Pacific coastal sea north of 51° latitude to foreign ships within a 100-mile zone, thus shifting its territorial claim four degrees of latitude to the south.", "Late in Monroe's second term, the U.S. concluded the Russo-American Treaty of 1824 with the Russian Empire, setting the southern limit of Russian sovereignty on the Pacific coast of North America at the 54°40′ parallel (the present southern tip of the Alaska Panhandle).====Acquisition of Florida====Map showing the results of the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819In October 1817, the United States cabinet held several lengthy meetings to address the declarations of independence by former Spanish colonies in South America and the increasing piracy, particularly from Amelia Island.", "Piracy on the southern border with the Floridas was intensified by smugglers, slave traders, and privateers who had fled from the Spanish colonies over which the mother country had lost control.", "Spain had long rejected repeated American attempts to purchase Florida.", "However, by 1818, Spain's troubling colonial situation made the cession of Florida make sense.", "Spain had been exhausted by the Peninsular War in Europe and needed to rebuild its credibility and presence in its colonies.", "Revolutionaries in Central America and South America were beginning to demand independence.", "Spain was unwilling to invest further in Florida, encroached on by American settlers, and it worried about the border between New Spain and the United States.", "With only a minor military presence in Florida, Spain was not able to restrain the Seminole warriors who routinely crossed the border and raided American villages and farms, as well as protected southern slave refugees from slave owners and traders of the southern United States.", "The Seminole people were also providing sanctuary for runaway slaves, those of which the United States wanted back.In response to Seminole attacks and their provision of aid to escaped slaves, Monroe ordered a military expedition to cross into Spanish Florida and attack the Seminoles.", "In this expedition, led by Andrew Jackson, the US Army displaced numerous Seminole people from their houses along with burning their towns.", "Jackson also seized the Spanish territorial capital of Pensacola.", "With the capture of Pensacola, Jackson established de facto American control of the entire territory.", "While Monroe supported Jackson's actions, many in Congress harshly criticized what they saw as an undeclared war.", "With the support of Secretary of State Adams, Monroe defended Jackson against domestic and international criticism, and the United States began negotiations with Spain.", "Monroe later fixed the government's official position in a letter from Adams to Spanish Ambassador Luis de Onís, which he edited accordingly by removing all justifications for Jackson's actions.", "He also emphasized that although Jackson had exceeded his orders, he had come to a new assessment of the situation on the basis of previously unknown information at the scene of the war.Spain faced revolt in all of its American colonies and could neither govern nor defend Florida.", "On February 22, 1819, Spain and the United States signed the Adams–Onís Treaty, which ceded the Floridas in return for the assumption by the United States of claims of American citizens against Spain to an amount not exceeding $5,000,000 (~$ in ).", "The treaty also contained a definition of the boundary between Spanish and American possessions on the North American continent.", "Beginning at the mouth of the Sabine River the line ran along that river to the 32nd parallel, then due north to the Red River, which it followed to the 100th meridian, due north to the Arkansas River, and along that river to its source, then north to the 42nd parallel, which it followed to the Pacific Ocean.", "The United States renounced all claims to the west and south of this boundary (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Colorado, Utah, Nevada), so Spain surrendered any title she had to the Northwest (Oregon Country).==== South American Wars of Independence ====In 1810, South America's wars of independence began, inspired by the American and French Revolutionary Wars, but the Madison administration, as well as Monroe himself during his first term in office, treated the conflicts as civil wars and kept the United States neutral.", "Monroe was deeply sympathetic to the revolutionary movements against Spain, and was determined that the United States should never repeat the policies of the Washington administration during the French Revolution, when the nation had failed to demonstrate its sympathy for the aspirations of peoples seeking to establish republican governments.", "He did not envisage military involvement in Latin American affairs, but only the provision of moral support, as he believed that a direct American intervention would provoke other European powers into assisting Spain.", "Monroe initially refused to recognize the Latin American governments due to ongoing negotiations with Spain over Florida.Following their respective declarations of independence, the South American republics quickly sent emissaries to Washington to ask for diplomatic recognition and economic and trade relations.", "In 1818, Monroe assured a representative of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata that his attitude was \"impartial neutrality,\" Although not diplomatically recognized, the young republics enjoyed the advantages of a sovereign nation in economic, trade, and diplomatic relations with the United States.", "After Spain and America had fully ratified the Adams–Onís Treaty in February 1821 and a liberal government had come to power in Madrid, Monroe officially recognized the countries of Argentina, Peru, Colombia, Chile, and Mexico, all of which had won independence from Spain.", "Secretary of State Adams, under Monroe's supervision, wrote the instructions for the ministers to these new countries.", "They declared that the policy of the United States was to uphold republican institutions and to seek treaties of commerce on a most-favored-nation basis.", "The United States would support inter-American congresses dedicated to the development of economic and political institutions fundamentally differing from those prevailing in Europe.", "Monroe took pride as the United States was the first nation to extend recognition and to set an example to the rest of the world for its support of the \"cause of liberty and humanity\".====Monroe Doctrine====Portrait of President Monroe by Gilbert Stuart, In January 1821, Adams first expressed the idea that the American double continent should be closed to further colonization by foreign powers.", "The idea, which was later adopted by Monroe, was influenced by the Adams–Onís Treaty and the negotiations on border disputes in the Oregon Country.", "Adams emphasized that the further colonization of America, except for Canada, should be in the hands of the Americans themselves.", "This later became a principle in Monroe's administration.", "After the Spanish Revolution of 1820 was ended by France, Secretary of War Calhoun and British Foreign Secretary George Canning warned Monroe that European powers might intend to intervene in South America, increasing the pressure on him to speak out on the future of the Western Hemisphere.For their part, the British also had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, with all the trade restrictions mercantilism imposed.", "In October 1823, Richard Rush, the American minister in London, corresponded with Canning to work out a common position on a potential French intervention in South America.", "When Monroe was presented with this correspondence, which had yielded no tangible results, in mid-October 1823, his first reaction was to accept the British offer.", "Adams vigorously opposed cooperation with Great Britain, contending that a statement of bilateral nature could limit United States expansion in the future.", "He also argued that the British were not committed to recognizing the Latin American republics and must have had imperial motivations themselves.Two months later, the bilateral statement proposed by the British became a unilateral declaration by the United States.", "While Monroe thought that Spain was unlikely to re-establish its colonial empire on its own, he feared that France or the Holy Alliance might seek to establish control over the former Spanish possessions.", "On December 2, 1823, in his annual message to Congress, Monroe articulated what became known as the Monroe Doctrine.", "He first reiterated the traditional U.S. policy of neutrality with regard to European wars and conflicts.", "He then declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master, though he also avowed non-interference with existing European colonies in the Americas.", "Finally, he stated that European countries should no longer consider the Western Hemisphere open to new colonization, a jab aimed primarily at Russia, which was attempting to expand its colony on the northern Pacific Coast.===Domestic policy =======Missouri Compromise====In the period between 1817 and 1819, Mississippi, Illinois, and Alabama were recognized as new states.", "This rapid expansion resulted in a growing economic divide between the regions and a change of power in Congress to the detriment of the southern states, which viewed their plantation economy, which was dependent on slavery, as increasingly threatened.", "In February 1819, a bill to enable the people of the Missouri Territory to draft a constitution and form a government preliminary to admission into the Union came before the House of Representatives.", "During these proceedings, Congressman James Tallmadge, Jr. of New York \"tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings\" by offering the Tallmadge Amendment, which prohibited the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and required that all future children of slave parents therein should be free at the age of twenty-five years.", "After three days of rancorous and sometimes bitter debate, the bill, with Tallmadge's amendments, passed.", "The measure then went to the Senate, which rejected both amendments.", "A House–Senate conference committee proved unable to resolve the disagreements on the bill, and so the entire measure failed.", "The ensuing debates pitted the northern \"restrictionists\" (antislavery legislators who wished to bar slavery from the Louisiana territories and prohibit slavery's further expansion) against southern \"anti-restrictionists\" (proslavery legislators who rejected any interference by Congress inhibiting slavery expansion).During the following session, the House passed a similar bill with an amendment, introduced on January 26, 1820, by John W. Taylor of New York, allowing Missouri into the union as a slave state.", "Initially, Monroe opposed any compromise that involved restrictions on slavery's expansion in federal territories.", "The question had been complicated by the admission in December of Alabama, a slave state, making the number of slave and free states equal.", "In addition, there was a bill in passage through the House (January 3, 1820) to admit Maine as a free state.", "Southern congressmen sought to force northerners to accept slavery in Missouri by connecting Maine and Missouri statehood.", "In this plan, endorsed by Monroe, Maine statehood would be held hostage to slavery in Missouri.", "In February 1820 the Senate passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the people of Missouri to form a state constitution.", "Before the bill was returned to the House, a second amendment was adopted on the motion of Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois, excluding slavery from the Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36°30′ north (the southern boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri.", "The House then approved the bill as amended by the Senate.", "Though Monroe remained firmly opposed to any compromise that restricted slavery anywhere, he reluctantly signed the Compromise into law (March 6, 1820) only because he believed it was the least bad alternative for southern slaveholders.", "The legislation passed, and became known as \"the Missouri Compromise\", which temporarily settled the issue of slavery in the territories.", "Monroe's presidential leadership role in drafting the Missouri Compromise is disputed.", "He viewed the issue of admission conditions more from a political perspective and did not convene a cabinet meeting on this matter.====Internal improvements====As the United States continued to grow, many Americans advocated a system of internal improvements to help the country develop.", "Federal assistance for such projects evolved slowly and haphazardly—the product of contentious congressional factions and an executive branch generally concerned with avoiding unconstitutional federal intrusions into state affairs.", "Monroe believed that the young nation needed an improved infrastructure, including a transportation network to grow and thrive economically, but did not think that the Constitution authorized Congress to build, maintain, and operate a national transportation system, Monroe repeatedly urged Congress to pass an amendment allowing Congress the power to finance internal improvements, but Congress never acted on his proposal, in part because many congressmen believed that the Constitution did in fact authorize the federal financing of internal improvements.", "In 1822, Congress passed a bill authorizing the collection of tolls on the Cumberland Road, with the tolls being used to finance repairs on the road.", "Adhering to stated position regarding internal improvements, Monroe vetoed the bill.", "In an elaborate essay, Monroe set forth his constitutional views on the subject.", "Congress might appropriate money, he admitted, but it might not undertake the actual construction of national works nor assume jurisdiction over them.In 1824, the Supreme Court ruled in ''Gibbons v. Ogden'' that the Constitution's Commerce Clause gave the federal government the authority to regulate interstate commerce.", "Shortly thereafter, Congress passed two important laws that, together, marked the beginning of the federal government's continuous involvement in civil works.", "The General Survey Act authorized the president to have surveys made of routes for roads and canals \"of national importance, in a commercial or military point of view, or necessary for the transportation of public mail\".", "The president assigned responsibility for the surveys to the Army Corps of Engineers.", "The second act, passed a month later, appropriated $75,000 to improve navigation on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers by removing sandbars, snags, and other obstacles.", "Subsequently, the act was amended to include other rivers such as the Missouri.", "This work, too, was given to the Corps of Engineers—the only formally trained body of engineers in the new republic and, as part of the nation's small army, available to serve the wishes of Congress and the executive branch.====Panic of 1819====At the end of his first term of office, Monroe faced an economic crisis known as the Panic of 1819, the first major depression to hit the country since the ratification of the Constitution in 1788.The panic stemmed from declining imports and exports, and sagging agricultural prices as global markets readjusted to peacetime production and commerce in the aftermath of the War of 1812 and the Napoleonic Wars.", "The severity of the economic downturn in the U.S. was compounded by excessive speculation in public lands, fueled by the unrestrained issue of paper money from banks and business concerns.", "Monroe lacked the power to intervene directly in the economy, as banks were largely regulated by the states, and he could do little to stem the economic crisis.", "As a result, cuts had to be made to the state budget in the following years, primarily affecting the defense budget, whose growth to over 35% of the total budget in 1818 had already shocked the conservative republicans.", "Monroe's fortification program survived the cutbacks unscathed for the time being, while the target size of the standing army was reduced from 12,656 to 6,000 in May 1819.The next year, the budget for reinforcing and expanding the forts was reduced by over 70%.", "By 1821, the defense budget had shrunk to $5 million, about half of what it had been in 1818.Before the onset of the Panic of 1819, some business leaders had called on Congress to increase tariff rates to address the negative balance of trade and help struggling industries.", "As the panic spread, Monroe declined to call a special session of Congress to address the economy.", "When Congress finally reconvened in December 1819, Monroe requested an increase in the tariff but declined to recommend specific rates.", "Congress would not raise tariff rates until the passage of the Tariff of 1824.The panic resulted in high unemployment and an increase in bankruptcies and foreclosures, and provoked popular resentment against banking and business enterprises.=== Native American policy ===Monroe was the first president to visit the American West and entrusted Secretary of War Calhoun with departmental responsibility for this region.", "In order to prevent the relentless attacks on Native American settlements that accompanied the steadily advancing westward expansion, he advocated dividing up the areas between the federal territories and the Rocky Mountains and assigning them to different tribes for settlement.", "The districts were each to be given a civil government and a school system.", "In a speech to Congress on March 30, 1824, Monroe advocated the resettlement of Native Americans living within the territory of the United States to lands beyond the western frontier where they could continue their ancestral way of life.", "Nonetheless, he shared Jackson and Calhoun's concerns about sovereign Indian nations, believing they were an obstacle to the West's future development.", "Like Washington and Jefferson, he wished to present the Natives with the benefits of American culture and Western civilization for their own good, as well as to save them from extinction.===Election of 1820===Monroe announced his candidacy for a second term early on.", "At the Republican Caucus on April 8, 1820, the 40 members unanimously decided not to nominate an opposing candidate to Monroe.", "The collapse of the Federalists left Monroe with no organized opposition at the end of his first term, and he ran for reelection unopposed, the only president other than Washington to do so.", "A single elector from New Hampshire, William Plumer, cast a vote for John Quincy Adams, preventing a unanimous vote in the Electoral College.", "He did so because he thought Monroe was incompetent.", "Later in the century, the story arose that he had cast his dissenting vote so that only George Washington would have the honor of unanimous election.", "Plumer never mentioned Washington in his speech explaining his vote to the other New Hampshire electors.", "Despite this broad support in the presidential election, Monroe had few loyal supporters and correspondingly little influence in the parallel elected 17th United States Congress." ], [ "Post-presidency (1825–1831)", "Monroe once owned a farm at the location of the University of Virginia in CharlottesvilleChester HardingWhen his presidency ended on March 4, 1825, James Monroe resided at Monroe Hill, what is now included in the grounds of the University of Virginia.", "Monroe spent the first five years of his retirement at his Oak Hill residence in Aldie, Virginia.", "In August 1825, the Monroes had received the Marquis de Lafayette and President John Quincy Adams as guests there.", "He devoted himself to reading, with his private library containing over 3,000 books, most of which he had acquired during his stays in Europe.", "Monroe began work on a book of political theory ''The People the Sovereigns, Being a Comparison of the Government of the United States with those of the Republics Which Have Existed Before, with the Causes of their Decadence and Fall''.", "The work was designed to highlight the difference between governments and people of the United States and other countries, ancient and modern, to show that certain issues that produced disastrous effects in them were not present in America.", "In 1829, Monroe abandoned work on ''The People the Sovereigns'' after hearing George Hay's unfavorable reaction to the manuscript.", "Hay suggested that Monroe write an autobiography, which would be more interesting and valuable to posterity.", "Monroe, delighted with the idea, began working on an autobiography, but died before it could be completed.In retirement, he was plagued by pressing financial worries.", "As Minister to France during the 1790s, he had had to take out substantial private loans to fulfill representative duties and diplomatic protocol due to his moderate pay.", "As early as 1797, he had asked Congress for an expense allowance and had been waiting in vain for a payment ever since.", "In the last days before handing over to Adams, Monroe wrote to Jefferson and Madison asking them to support him in his claims against Congress if necessary.", "He sold off his Highland Plantation to the Second Bank of the United States out of financial necessity.", "It is now owned by his ''alma mater'', the College of William and Mary, which has opened it to the public as a historic site.", "Throughout his life, he was financially insolvent, which was exacerbated by his wife's poor health.Monroe served on the Board of Visitors for the University of Virginia under Jefferson and the second rector, James Madison, both former presidents, nearly until his death.", "Monroe had previously been a member of the original board of Central College (the predecessor to the University of Virginia) however the demands of the Presidency prevented him from continuing as a board member.", "At the annual examinations in July, he presided over the Board of Examiners.", "When there was considerable indiscipline among the students, Monroe suggested in a report in 1830 that military drill be added to the curriculum, but Madison refused.Although already clearly marked by age and severely impaired by a horse accident in 1828, Monroe was elected as a delegate to the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829–1830.He was one of four delegates elected from the senatorial district made up of his home district of Loudoun and Fairfax County.", "In October 1829, he was elected by the convention to serve as the presiding officer, until his failing health required him to withdraw on December 8, after which Philip P. Barbour of Orange County was elected presiding officer.Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, VirginiaShortly before his death, Monroe was dealt a severe blow when his son-in-law and close advisor George Hay died on September 21, 1830, and his wife Elizabeth died just two days later.", "Upon Elizabeth's death in 1830, Monroe moved to 63 Prince Street at Lafayette Place in New York City to live with his daughter Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur, who had married Samuel L. Gouverneur.", "On July 4, 1831, Monroe died at age 73 from heart failure and tuberculosis, thus becoming the third president to have died on Independence Day.", "His death came 55 years after the United States Declaration of Independence was proclaimed and five years after the deaths of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson.", "Monroe was originally buried in New York at the Gouverneur family's vault in the New York City Marble Cemetery.", "27 years later, in 1858, his body was re-interred at the President's Circle in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia.", "The James Monroe Tomb is a U.S. National Historic Landmark." ], [ "Religious beliefs", "\"When it comes to Monroe's thoughts on religion,\" historian Bliss Isely notes, \"less is known than that of any other President.\"", "No letters survive in which he discussed his religious beliefs.", "Nor did his friends, family or associates comment on his beliefs.", "Letters that do survive, such as ones written after the death of his son, contain no discussion of religion.Monroe was raised in a family that belonged to the Church of England when it was the state church in Virginia before the Revolution.", "As an adult, he attended Episcopal churches.", "Some historians see \"deistic tendencies\" in his few references to an impersonal God.", "Unlike Jefferson, Monroe was rarely attacked as an atheist or infidel.", "In 1832 James Renwick Willson, a Reformed Presbyterian minister in Albany, New York, criticized Monroe for having \"lived and died like a second-rate Athenian philosopher\"." ], [ "Slavery", "Monroe owned dozens of slaves.", "He took several slaves with him to Washington to serve at the White House from 1817 to 1825.This was typical of other slaveholding presidents.Monroe sold his small Virginia plantation in 1783 to enter law and politics.", "Although he owned multiple properties over the course of his lifetime, his plantations were never profitable.", "Although he owned much more land and many more slaves, and speculated in property, he was rarely on site to oversee the operations.", "Overseers treated the slaves harshly to force production, but the plantations barely broke even.", "Monroe incurred debts by his lavish and expensive lifestyle and often sold property (including slaves) to pay them off.", "The labor of Monroe's many slaves were also used to support his daughter and son-in-law, along with a ne'er-do-well brother, Andrew, and his son, James.When Monroe was Governor of Virginia in 1800, hundreds of slaves from Virginia planned to kidnap him, take Richmond, and negotiate for their freedom.", "Gabriel's slave conspiracy was discovered.", "Monroe called out the militia; the slave patrols soon captured some slaves accused of involvement.", "Sidbury says some trials had a few measures to prevent abuses, such as an appointed attorney, but they were \"hardly 'fair'\".", "Slave codes prevented slaves from being treated like whites, and they were given quick trials without a jury.", "Monroe influenced the Executive Council to pardon and sell some slaves instead of hanging them.", "Historians say the Virginia courts executed between 26 and 35 slaves.", "None of the executed slaves had killed any whites because the uprising had been foiled before it began.", "An additional 50 slaves charged for their role in the planned rebellion would be spared, as a result of pardons, acquittals, and commutations.", "One reason for this was influence of a letter Monroe received from Thomas Jefferson urging mercy, telling him \"The other states & the world at large will for ever condemn us if we indulge a principle of revenge, or go one step beyond absolute necessity.", "They cannot lose sight of the rights of the two parties, & the object of the unsuccessful one.\"", "Only seven of the executions carried out against the rebels occurred after Monroe received Jefferson's letter.During the course of his presidency, Monroe remained convinced that slavery was wrong and supported private manumission, but at the same time he insisted that any attempt to promote emancipation would cause more problems.", "Monroe believed that slavery had become a permanent part of southern life, and that it could only be removed on providential terms.", "Like so many other Upper South slaveholders, Monroe believed that a central purpose of government was to ensure \"domestic tranquility\" for all.", "Like so many other Upper South planters, he also believed that the central purpose of government was to empower planters like himself.", "He feared for public safety in the United States during the era of violent revolution on two fronts.", "First, from potential class warfare of the French Revolution in which those of the propertied classes were summarily purged in mob violence and then preemptive trials, and second, from possible racial warfare similar to that of the Haitian Revolution in which blacks, whites, then mixed-race inhabitants were indiscriminately slaughtered as events there unfolded.As president of Virginia's constitutional convention in the fall of 1829, Monroe reiterated his belief that slavery was a blight which, even as a British colony, Virginia had attempted to eradicate.", "\"What was the origin of our slave population?\"", "he rhetorically asked.", "\"The evil commenced when we were in our Colonial state, but acts were passed by our Colonial Legislature, prohibiting the importation, of more slaves, into the Colony.", "These were rejected by the Crown.\"", "To the dismay of states' rights proponents, he was willing to accept the federal government's financial assistance to emancipate and transport freed slaves to other countries.", "At the convention, Monroe made his final public statement on slavery, proposing that Virginia emancipate and deport its bondsmen with \"the aid of the Union\".Monroe was active in the American Colonization Society, which supported the establishment of colonies outside of the United States for free African Americans.", "The society helped send several thousand freed slaves to the new colony of Liberia in Africa from 1820 to 1840.Slave owners like Monroe and Andrew Jackson wanted to prevent free blacks from encouraging slaves in the South to rebel.", "Liberia's capital, Monrovia, was named after President Monroe." ], [ "Legacy", "Highland, his house near Charlottesville, Virginia===Historical reputation===Polls of historians and political scientists tend to rank Monroe as an above average president.", "Monroe presided over a period in which the United States began to turn away from European affairs and towards domestic issues.", "His presidency saw the United States settle many of its longstanding boundary issues through an accommodation with Britain and the acquisition of Florida.", "Monroe also helped resolve sectional tensions through his support of the Missouri Compromise and by seeking support from all regions of the country.", "Political scientist Fred Greenstein argues that Monroe was a more effective executive than some of his better-known predecessors, including Madison and John Adams.===Memorials===The capital of Liberia is named Monrovia after Monroe; it is the only national capital other than Washington, D.C., named after a U.S. president.", "Monroe is the namesake of seventeen Monroe counties.", "Monroe, Maine, Monroe, Michigan, Monroe, Georgia, Monroe, Connecticut, both Monroe Townships in New Jersey, and Fort Monroe are all named for him.", "Monroe has been depicted on U.S. currency and stamps, including a 1954 United States Postal Service 5¢ Liberty Issue postage stamp.Monroe was the last U.S. president to wear a powdered wig tied in a queue, a tricorne hat and knee-breeches according to the style of the late 18th century.", "That earned him the nickname \"The Last Cocked Hat\".", "He was also the last president who was not photographed.His participation in George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River and the Battle of Trenton was memorialized in Emanuel Leutze's 1851 painting ''Washington Crossing the Delaware'' as well as John Trumbull's painting ''The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776.''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Secondary sources===* 706 pp.", "standard scholarly biography* Ammon, Harry.", "\"James Monroe\" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed.", "2002) online* Cresson, William P. ''James Monroe'' (1946).", "577 pp.", "good scholarly biography* .", "246 pp.", "standard scholarly survey* * * * superficial, short, popular biography* Haworth, Peter Daniel.", "\"James Madison and James Monroe Historiography: A Tale of Two Divergent Bodies of Scholarship.\"", "in ''A Companion to James Madison and James Monroe'' (2013): 521–539.", "* Pulitzer Prize; a sweeping interpretation of the era* Holmes, David L. ''The Faiths of the Founding Fathers'', May 2006, online version* * Leibiger, Stuart, ed.", "''A Companion to James Madison and James Monroe'' (2012) excerpt; emphasis on historiography* May, Ernest R. ''The Making of the Monroe Doctrine'' (1975).", "* Perkins, Dexter.", "''The Monroe Doctrine, 1823–1826'' (1927).", "* Poston, Brook.", "''James Monroe: A Republican Champion.''", "Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2019.", "* * Renehan Edward J., Jr. ''The Monroe Doctrine: The Cornerstone of American Foreign Policy'' (2007)* Scherr, Arthur.", "\"James Monroe and John Adams: An Unlikely 'Friendship'\".", "''The Historian'' 67#3 (2005) pp 405+.", "online edition * Scherr, Arthur.", "\"James Monroe on the Presidency and 'Foreign Influence: from the Virginia Ratifying Convention (1788) to Jefferson's Election (1801).\"", "''Mid-America'' 2002 84(1–3): 145–206..* Scherr, Arthur.", "\"Governor James Monroe and the Southampton Slave Resistance of 1799.\"", "''Historian'' 1999 61(3): 557–578.Fulltext online in SwetsWise and Ebsco.", "* , scholarly biography.", "* * * Wood, Gordon S. ''Empire of Liberty: A history of the Early Republic, 1789–1815'' (2009)===Primary sources===* Preston, Daniel, ed.", "''The Papers of James Monroe: Selected Correspondence and Papers'' (6 vol, 2006 to 2017), the major scholarly edition; in progress, with coverage to 1814.", "* ''Writings of James Monroe,'' edited by Stanislaus Murray Hamilton, ed., 7 vols.", "(1898–1903) online edition at Internet Archive" ], [ "External links", "* * James Monroe: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress* American President: James Monroe (1758–1831) at the Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia* A Guide to the Papers of James Monroe 1778–1831 at the University of Virginia Library* Monroe Doctrine; December 2, 1823 at the Avalon Project* Elections for candidate James Monroe from \"A New Nation Votes\" at Tufts University* Ash Lawn-Highland, home of President James Monroe* The James Monroe Memorial Foundation** The James Monroe Birthplace* James Monroe Museum and Memorial Library* \"Life Portrait of James Monroe\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', April 12, 1999* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James K. Polk" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Knox Polk''' (; November 2, 1795 – June 15, 1849) was the 11th president of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849.He also served as the 13th speaker of the House of Representatives from 1835 to 1839 and the ninth governor of Tennessee from 1839 to 1841.A protégé of Andrew Jackson, he was a member of the Democratic Party and an advocate of Jacksonian democracy.", "Polk is known for extending the territory of the United States through the Mexican–American War during his presidency, annexing the Republic of Texas, the Oregon Territory, and the Mexican Cession after winning the Mexican–American War.After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson.", "After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president.", "Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843.He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority.", "In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party.After a negotiation fraught with the risk of war, Polk reached a settlement with Great Britain over the disputed Oregon Country, with the territory for the most part divided along the 49th parallel.", "He oversaw victory in the Mexican–American War, resulting in Mexico's cession of the entire American Southwest.", "He secured a substantial reduction of tariff rates with the Walker tariff of 1846.The same year, he achieved his other major goal, reestablishment of the Independent Treasury system.", "True to his campaign pledge to serve only one term (one of the few U.S. presidents to make and keep such a pledge), Polk left office in 1849 and returned to Tennessee, where he died of cholera soon afterward.Though he is relatively obscure today, scholars have ranked Polk favorably for his ability to promote and achieve the major items on his presidential agenda.", "He has also been criticized for leading the country into a war with Mexico that exacerbated sectional divides.", "A property owner who used slave labor, he kept a plantation in Mississippi and increased his slave ownership during his presidency.", "Polk's policy of territorial expansion saw the nation reach the Pacific coast and almost all its contiguous borders.", "He helped make the U.S. a nation poised to become a world power, but with divisions between free and slave states gravely exacerbated, setting the stage for the Civil War." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Reconstruction of the log cabin in Pineville, North Carolina where Polk was bornJames Knox Polk was born on November 2, 1795, in a log cabin in Pineville, North Carolina.", "He was the first of 10 children born into a family of farmers.", "His mother Jane named him after her father, James Knox.", "His father Samuel Polk was a farmer, slaveholder, and surveyor of Scots-Irish descent.", "The Polks had immigrated to America in the late 17th century, settling initially on the Eastern Shore of Maryland but later moving to south-central Pennsylvania and then to the Carolina hill country.The Knox and Polk families were Presbyterian.", "While Polk's mother remained a devout Presbyterian, his father, whose own father Ezekiel Polk was a deist, rejected dogmatic Presbyterianism.", "He refused to declare his belief in Christianity at his son's baptism, and the minister refused to baptize young James.", "Nevertheless, James' mother \"stamped her rigid orthodoxy on James, instilling lifelong Calvinistic traits of self-discipline, hard work, piety, individualism, and a belief in the imperfection of human nature\", according to James A. Rawley's ''American National Biography'' article.In 1803, Ezekiel Polk led four of his adult children and their families to the Duck River area in what is now Maury County, Tennessee; Samuel Polk and his family followed in 1806.The Polk clan dominated politics in Maury County and in the new town of Columbia.", "Samuel became a county judge, and the guests at his home included Andrew Jackson, who had already served as a judge and in Congress.", "James learned from the political talk around the dinner table; both Samuel and Ezekiel were strong supporters of President Thomas Jefferson and opponents of the Federalist Party.Polk suffered from frail health as a child, a particular disadvantage in a frontier society.", "His father took him to see prominent Philadelphia physician Dr. Philip Syng Physick for urinary stones.", "The journey was broken off by James's severe pain, and Dr. Ephraim McDowell of Danville, Kentucky, operated to remove them.", "No anesthetic was available except brandy.", "The operation was successful, but it may have left James impotent or sterile, as he had no children.", "He recovered quickly and became more robust.", "His father offered to bring him into one of his businesses, but he wanted an education and enrolled at a Presbyterian academy in 1813.He became a member of the Zion Church near his home in 1813 and enrolled in the Zion Church Academy.", "He then entered Bradley Academy in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, where he proved a promising student.In January 1816, Polk was admitted into the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill as a second-semester sophomore.", "The Polk family had connections with the university, then a small school of about 80 students; Samuel was its land agent in Tennessee and his cousin William Polk was a trustee.", "Polk's roommate was William Dunn Moseley, who became the first Governor of Florida.", "Polk joined the Dialectic Society where he took part in debates, became its president, and learned the art of oratory.", "In one address, he warned that some American leaders were flirting with monarchical ideals, singling out Alexander Hamilton, a foe of Jefferson.", "Polk graduated with honors in May 1818.After graduation, Polk returned to Nashville, Tennessee to study law under renowned trial attorney Felix Grundy, who became his first mentor.", "On September 20, 1819, he was elected clerk of the Tennessee State Senate, which then sat in Murfreesboro and to which Grundy had been elected.", "He was re-elected clerk in 1821 without opposition, and continued to serve until 1822.In June 1820, he was admitted to the Tennessee bar, and his first case was to defend his father against a public fighting charge; he secured his release for a one-dollar fine.", "He opened an office in Maury County and was successful as a lawyer, due largely to the many cases arising from the Panic of 1819, a severe depression.", "His law practice subsidized his political career.=== Early political career ======= Tennessee state legislator ====By the time the legislature adjourned its session in September 1822, Polk was determined to be a candidate for the Tennessee House of Representatives.", "The election was in August 1823, almost a year away, allowing him ample time for campaigning.", "Already involved locally as a member of the Masons, he was commissioned in the Tennessee militia as a captain in the cavalry regiment of the 5th Brigade.", "He was later appointed a colonel on the staff of Governor William Carroll, and was afterwards often referred to as \"Colonel\".", "Although many of the voters were members of the Polk clan, the young politician campaigned energetically.", "People liked Polk's oratory, which earned him the nickname \"Napoleon of the Stump.\"", "At the polls, where Polk provided alcoholic refreshments for his voters, he defeated incumbent William Yancey.", "1846–49 daguerreotype of James K. Polk and Sarah Childress PolkBeginning in early 1822, Polk courted Sarah Childress—they were engaged the following year and married on January 1, 1824, in Murfreesboro.", "Educated far better than most women of her time, especially in frontier Tennessee, Sarah Polk was from one of the state's most prominent families.", "During James's political career Sarah assisted her husband with his speeches, gave him advice on policy matters, and played an active role in his campaigns.", "Rawley noted that Sarah Polk's grace, intelligence and charming conversation helped compensate for her husband's often austere manner.Polk's first mentor was Grundy, but in the legislature, Polk came increasingly to oppose him on such matters as land reform, and came to support the policies of Andrew Jackson, by then a military hero for his victory at the Battle of New Orleans (1815).", "Jackson was a family friend to both the Polks and the Childresses—there is evidence Sarah Polk and her siblings called him \"Uncle Andrew\"—and James Polk quickly came to support his presidential ambitions for 1824.When the Tennessee Legislature deadlocked on whom to elect as U.S. senator in 1823 (until 1913, legislators, not the people, elected senators), Jackson's name was placed in nomination.", "Polk broke from his usual allies, casting his vote for Jackson, who won.", "The Senate seat boosted Jackson's presidential chances by giving him current political experience to match his military accomplishments.", "This began an alliance that would continue until Jackson's death early in Polk's presidency.", "Polk, through much of his political career, was known as \"Young Hickory\", based on the nickname for Jackson, \"Old Hickory\".", "Polk's political career was as dependent on Jackson as his nickname implied.The house where Polk spent his young adult life before his presidency, in Columbia, Tennessee, is his only private residence still standing.", "It is now known as the James K. Polk Home.In the 1824 United States presidential election, Jackson got the most electoral votes (he also led in the popular vote) but as he did not receive a majority in the Electoral College, the election was thrown into the U.S. House of Representatives, which chose Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, who had received the second-most of each.", "Polk, like other Jackson supporters, believed that Speaker of the House Henry Clay had traded his support as fourth-place finisher (the House may only choose from among the top three) to Adams in a Corrupt Bargain in exchange for being the new Secretary of State.", "Polk had in August 1824 declared his candidacy for the following year's election to the House of Representatives from Tennessee's 6th congressional district.", "The district stretched from Maury County south to the Alabama line, and extensive electioneering was expected of the five candidates.", "Polk campaigned so vigorously that Sarah began to worry about his health.", "During the campaign, Polk's opponents said that at the age of 29 Polk was too young for the responsibility of a seat in the House, but he won the election with 3,669 votes out of 10,440 and took his seat in Congress later that year.==== Jackson disciple ====When Polk arrived in Washington, D.C. for Congress's regular session in December 1825, he roomed in Benjamin Burch's boarding house with other Tennessee representatives, including Sam Houston.", "Polk made his first major speech on March 13, 1826, in which he said that the Electoral College should be abolished and that the president should be elected by popular vote.", "Remaining bitter at the alleged Corrupt Bargain between Adams and Clay, Polk became a vocal critic of the Adams administration, frequently voting against its policies.", "Sarah Polk remained at home in Columbia during her husband's first year in Congress, but accompanied him to Washington beginning in December 1826; she assisted him with his correspondence and came to hear James's speeches.Polk won re-election in 1827 and continued to oppose the Adams administration.", "He remained in close touch with Jackson, and when Jackson ran for president in 1828, Polk was an advisor on his campaign.", "Following Jackson's victory over Adams, Polk became one of the new President's most prominent and loyal supporters.", "Working on Jackson's behalf, Polk successfully opposed federally-funded \"internal improvements\" such as a proposed Buffalo-to-New Orleans road, and he was pleased by Jackson's Maysville Road veto in May 1830, when Jackson blocked a bill to finance a road extension entirely within one state, Kentucky, deeming it unconstitutional.", "Jackson opponents alleged that the veto message, which strongly complained about Congress' penchant for passing pork barrel projects, was written by Polk, but he denied this, stating that the message was entirely the President's.Polk served as Jackson's most prominent House ally in the \"Bank War\" that developed over Jackson's opposition to the re-authorization of the Second Bank of the United States.", "The Second Bank, headed by Nicholas Biddle of Philadelphia, not only held federal dollars but controlled much of the credit in the United States, as it could present currency issued by local banks for redemption in gold or silver.", "Some Westerners, including Jackson, opposed the Second Bank, deeming it a monopoly acting in the interest of Easterners.", "Polk, as a member of the House Ways and Means Committee, conducted investigations of the Second Bank, and though the committee voted for a bill to renew the bank's charter (scheduled to expire in 1836), Polk issued a strong minority report condemning the bank.", "The bill passed Congress in 1832, but Jackson vetoed it and Congress failed to override the veto.", "Jackson's action was highly controversial in Washington but had considerable public support, and he won easy re-election in 1832.Like most Southerners, Polk favored low tariffs on imported goods, and initially sympathized with John C. Calhoun's opposition to the Tariff of Abominations during the Nullification Crisis of 1832–1833, but came over to Jackson's side as Calhoun moved towards advocating secession.", "Thereafter, Polk remained loyal to Jackson as the President sought to assert federal authority.", "Polk condemned secession and supported the Force Bill against South Carolina, which had claimed the authority to nullify federal tariffs.", "The matter was settled by Congress passing a compromise tariff.==== Ways and Means Chair and Speaker of the House ====Oil on canvas portrait by George Peter Alexander HealyIn December 1833, after being elected to a fifth consecutive term, Polk, with Jackson's backing, became the chairman of Ways and Means, a powerful position in the House.", "In that position, Polk supported Jackson's withdrawal of federal funds from the Second Bank.", "Polk's committee issued a report questioning the Second Bank's finances and another supporting Jackson's actions against it.", "In April 1834, the Ways and Means Committee reported a bill to regulate state deposit banks, which, when passed, enabled Jackson to deposit funds in pet banks, and Polk got legislation passed to allow the sale of the government's stock in the Second Bank.In June 1834, Speaker of the House Andrew Stevenson resigned from Congress to become Minister to the United Kingdom.", "With Jackson's support, Polk ran for speaker against fellow Tennessean John Bell, Calhoun disciple Richard Henry Wilde, and Joel Barlow Sutherland of Pennsylvania.", "After ten ballots, Bell, who had the support of many opponents of the administration, defeated Polk.", "Jackson called in political debts to try to get Polk elected Speaker of the House at the start of the next Congress in December 1835, assuring Polk in a letter he meant him to burn that New England would support him for speaker.", "They were successful; Polk defeated Bell to take the speakership.According to Thomas M. Leonard, \"by 1836, while serving as Speaker of the House of Representatives, Polk approached the zenith of his congressional career.", "He was at the center of Jacksonian Democracy on the House floor, and, with the help of his wife, he ingratiated himself into Washington's social circles.\"", "The prestige of the speakership caused them to move from a boarding house to their own residence on Pennsylvania Avenue.", "In the 1836 presidential election, Vice President Martin Van Buren, Jackson's chosen successor, defeated multiple Whig candidates, including Tennessee Senator Hugh Lawson White.", "Greater Whig strength in Tennessee helped White carry his state, though Polk's home district went for Van Buren.", "Ninety percent of Tennessee voters had supported Jackson in 1832, but many in the state disliked the destruction of the Second Bank, or were unwilling to support Van Buren.As Speaker of the House, Polk worked for the policies of Jackson and later Van Buren.", "Polk appointed committees with Democratic chairs and majorities, including the New York radical C. C. Cambreleng as the new Ways and Means chair, although he tried to maintain the speaker's traditional nonpartisan appearance.", "The two major issues during Polk's speakership were slavery and, after the Panic of 1837, the economy.", "Polk firmly enforced the \"gag rule\", by which the House of Representatives would not accept or debate citizen petitions regarding slavery.", "This ignited fierce protests from John Quincy Adams, who was by then a congressman from Massachusetts and an abolitionist.", "Instead of finding a way to silence Adams, Polk frequently engaged in useless shouting matches, leading Jackson to conclude that Polk should have shown better leadership.", "Van Buren and Polk faced pressure to rescind the Specie Circular, Jackson's 1836 order that payment for government lands be in gold and silver.", "Some believed this had led to the crash by causing a lack of confidence in paper currency issued by banks.", "Despite such arguments, with support from Polk and his cabinet, Van Buren chose to back the Specie Circular.", "Polk and Van Buren attempted to establish an Independent Treasury system that would allow the government to oversee its own deposits (rather than using pet banks), but the bill was defeated in the House.", "It eventually passed in 1840.Using his thorough grasp of the House's rules, Polk attempted to bring greater order to its proceedings.", "Unlike many of his peers, he never challenged anyone to a duel no matter how much they insulted his honor.", "The economic downturn cost the Democrats seats, so that when he faced re-election as Speaker of the House in December 1837, he won by only 13 votes, and he foresaw defeat in 1839.Polk by then had presidential ambitions but was well aware that no Speaker of the House had ever become president (Polk is still the only one to have held both offices).", "After seven terms in the House, two as speaker, he announced that he would not seek re-election, choosing instead to run for Governor of Tennessee in the 1839 election.==== Governor of Tennessee ====In 1835, the Democrats had lost the governorship of Tennessee for the first time in their history, and Polk decided to return home to help the party.", "Tennessee was afire for White and Whiggism; the state had reversed its political loyalties since the days of Jacksonian domination.", "As head of the state Democratic Party, Polk undertook his first statewide campaign, He opposed Whig incumbent Newton Cannon, who sought a third two-year term as governor.", "The fact that Polk was the one called upon to \"redeem\" Tennessee from the Whigs tacitly acknowledged him as head of the state Democratic Party.Polk campaigned on national issues, whereas Cannon stressed state issues.", "After being bested by Polk in the early debates, the governor retreated to Nashville, the state capital, alleging important official business.", "Polk made speeches across the state, seeking to become known more widely than just in his native Middle Tennessee.", "When Cannon came back on the campaign trail in the final days, Polk pursued him, hastening the length of the state to be able to debate the governor again.", "On Election Day, August 1, 1839, Polk defeated Cannon, 54,102 to 51,396, as the Democrats recaptured the state legislature and won back three congressional seats.Tennessee's governor had limited power—there was no gubernatorial veto, and the small size of the state government limited any political patronage.", "But Polk saw the office as a springboard for his national ambitions, seeking to be nominated as Van Buren's vice presidential running mate at the 1840 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore in May.", "Polk hoped to be the replacement if Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson was dumped from the ticket; Johnson was disliked by many Southern whites for fathering two daughters by a biracial mistress and attempting to introduce them into white society.", "Johnson was from Kentucky, so Polk's Tennessee residence would keep the New Yorker Van Buren's ticket balanced.", "The convention chose to endorse no one for vice president, stating that a choice would be made once the popular vote was cast.", "Three weeks after the convention, recognizing that Johnson was too popular in the party to be ousted, Polk withdrew his name.", "The Whig presidential candidate, General William Henry Harrison, conducted a rollicking campaign with the motto \"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too\", easily winning both the national vote and that in Tennessee.", "Polk campaigned in vain for Van Buren and was embarrassed by the outcome; Jackson, who had returned to his home, the Hermitage, near Nashville, was horrified at the prospect of a Whig administration.", "In the 1840 election, Polk received one vote from a faithless elector in the Electoral College's vote for vice president.", "Harrison's death after a month in office in 1841 left the presidency to Vice President John Tyler, who soon broke with the Whigs.Polk's three major programs during his governorship; regulating state banks, implementing state internal improvements, and improving education all failed to win the approval of the legislature.", "His only major success as governor was his politicking to secure the replacement of Tennessee's two Whig U.S. senators with Democrats.", "Polk's tenure was hindered by the continuing nationwide economic crisis that had followed the Panic of 1837 and which had caused Van Buren to lose the 1840 election.Encouraged by the success of Harrison's campaign, the Whigs ran a freshman legislator from frontier Wilson County, James C. Jones against Polk in 1841.", "\"Lean Jimmy\" had proven one of their most effective gadflies against Polk, and his lighthearted tone at campaign debates was very effective against the serious Polk.", "The two debated the length of Tennessee, and Jones's support of distribution to the states of surplus federal revenues, and of a national bank, struck a chord with Tennessee voters.", "On election day in August 1841, Polk was defeated by 3,000 votes, the first time he had been beaten at the polls.", "Polk returned to Columbia and the practice of law and prepared for a rematch against Jones in 1843, but though the new governor took less of a joking tone, it made little difference to the outcome, as Polk was beaten again, this time by 3,833 votes.", "In the wake of his second statewide defeat in three years, Polk faced an uncertain political future.=== Election of 1844 ======= Democratic nomination ====Despite his loss, Polk was determined to become the next vice president of the United States, seeing it as a path to the presidency.", "Van Buren was the frontrunner for the 1844 Democratic nomination, and Polk engaged in a careful campaign to become his running mate.", "The former president faced opposition from Southerners who feared his views on slavery, while his handling of the Panic of 1837—he had refused to rescind the Specie Circular—aroused opposition from some in the West (today's Midwestern United States) who believed his hard money policies had hurt their section of the country.", "Many Southerners backed Calhoun's candidacy, Westerners rallied around Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan, and former Vice President Johnson also maintained a strong following among Democrats.", "Jackson assured Van Buren by letter that Polk in his campaigns for governor had \"fought the battle well and fought it alone\".", "Polk hoped to gain Van Buren's support, hinting in a letter that a Van Buren/Polk ticket could carry Tennessee, but found him unconvinced.The biggest political issue in the United States at that time was territorial expansion.", "The Republic of Texas had successfully revolted against Mexico in 1836.With the republic largely populated by American emigres, those on both sides of the Sabine River border between the U.S. and Texas deemed it inevitable that Texas would join the United States, but this would anger Mexico, which considered Texas a breakaway province, and threatened war if the United States annexed it.", "Jackson, as president, had recognized Texas independence, but the initial momentum toward annexation had stalled.", "Britain was seeking to expand her influence in Texas: Britain had abolished slavery, and if Texas did the same, it would provide a western haven for runaways to match one in the North.", "A Texas not in the United States would also stand in the way of what was deemed America's Manifest Destiny to overspread the continent.Clay was nominated for president by acclamation at the April 1844 Whig National Convention, with New Jersey's Theodore Frelinghuysen his running mate.", "A Kentucky slaveholder at a time when opponents of Texas annexation argued that it would give slavery more room to spread, Clay sought a nuanced position on the issue.", "Jackson, who strongly supported a Van Buren/Polk ticket, was delighted when Clay issued a letter for publication in the newspapers opposing Texas annexation, only to be devastated when he learned Van Buren had done the same thing.", "Van Buren did this because he feared losing his base of support in the Northeast, but his supporters in the old Southwest were stunned at his action.", "Polk, on the other hand, had written a pro-annexation letter that had been published four days before Van Buren's.", "Jackson wrote sadly to Van Buren that no candidate who opposed annexation could be elected, and decided Polk was the best person to head the ticket.", "Jackson met with Polk at the Hermitage on May 13, 1844, and explained to his visitor that only an expansionist from the South or Southwest could be elected—and, in his view, Polk had the best chance.", "Polk was at first startled, calling the plan \"utterly abortive\", but he agreed to accept it.", "Polk immediately wrote to instruct his lieutenants at the convention to work for his nomination as president.Despite Jackson's quiet efforts on his behalf, Polk was skeptical that he could win.", "Nevertheless, because of the opposition to Van Buren by expansionists in the West and South, Polk's key lieutenant at the 1844 Democratic National Convention in Baltimore, Gideon Johnson Pillow, believed Polk could emerge as a compromise candidate.", "Publicly, Polk, who remained in Columbia during the convention, professed full support for Van Buren's candidacy and was believed to be seeking the vice presidency.", "Polk was one of the few major Democrats to have declared for the annexation of Texas.The convention opened on May 27, 1844.A crucial question was whether the nominee needed two-thirds of the delegate vote, as had been the case at previous Democratic conventions, or merely a majority.", "A vote for two-thirds would doom Van Buren's candidacy due to opposition from southern delegates.", "With the support of the Southern states, the two-thirds rule was passed.", "Van Buren won a majority on the first presidential ballot but failed to win the necessary two-thirds, and his support slowly faded.", "Cass, Johnson, Calhoun and James Buchanan also received votes on the first ballot, and Cass took the lead on the fifth.", "After seven ballots, the convention remained deadlocked: Cass could not reach two-thirds, and Van Buren's supporters became discouraged about his chances.", "Delegates were ready to consider a new candidate who might break the stalemate.When the convention adjourned after the seventh ballot, Pillow, who had been waiting for an opportunity to press Polk's name, conferred with George Bancroft of Massachusetts, a politician and historian and longtime Polk correspondent, who had planned to nominate Polk for vice president.", "Bancroft had supported Van Buren's candidacy and was willing to see New York Senator Silas Wright head the ticket, but as a Van Buren loyalist, Wright would not consent.", "Pillow and Bancroft decided if Polk were nominated for president, Wright might accept the second spot.", "Before the eighth ballot, former Attorney General Benjamin F. Butler, head of the New York delegation, read a pre-written letter from Van Buren to be used if he could not be nominated, withdrawing in Wright's favor.", "But Wright (who was in Washington) had also entrusted a pre-written letter to a supporter, in which he refused to be considered as a presidential candidate, and stated in the letter that he agreed with Van Buren's position on Texas.", "Had Wright's letter not been read he most likely would have been nominated, but without him, Butler began to rally Van Buren supporters for Polk as the best possible candidate, and Bancroft placed Polk's name before the convention.", "On the eighth ballot, Polk received only 44 votes to Cass's 114 and Van Buren's 104, but the deadlock showed signs of breaking.", "Butler formally withdrew Van Buren's name, many delegations declared for the Tennessean, and on the ninth ballot, Polk received 233 ballots to Cass's 29, making him the Democratic nominee for president.", "The nomination was then made unanimous.The convention then considered the vice-presidential nomination.", "Butler advocated for Wright, and the convention agreed, with only four Georgia delegates dissenting.", "Word of Wright's nomination was sent to him in Washington via telegraph.", "Having declined by proxy an almost certain presidential nomination, Wright also refused the vice-presidential nomination.", "Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, a close Polk ally, then suggested former senator George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania.", "Dallas was acceptable enough to all factions and gained the nomination on the third ballot.", "The delegates passed a platform and adjourned on May 30.Many contemporary politicians, including Pillow and Bancroft, later claimed credit for getting Polk the nomination, but Walter R. Borneman felt that most of the credit was due to Jackson and Polk, \"the two who had done the most were back in Tennessee, one an aging icon ensconced at the Hermitage and the other a shrewd lifelong politician waiting expectantly in Columbia\".", "Whigs mocked Polk with the chant \"Who is James K.", "Polk?", "\", affecting never to have heard of him.", "Though he had experience as Speaker of the House and Governor of Tennessee, all previous presidents had served as vice president, Secretary of State, or as a high-ranking general.", "Polk has been described as the first \"dark horse\" presidential nominee, although his nomination was less of a surprise than that of future nominees such as Franklin Pierce or Warren G. Harding.", "Despite his party's gibes, Clay recognized that Polk could unite the Democrats.==== General election ====1844 campaign banner for the Polk/Dallas ticket, produced by Nathaniel CurrierRumors of Polk's nomination reached Nashville on June 4, much to Jackson's delight; they were substantiated later that day.", "The dispatches were sent on to Columbia, arriving the same day, and letters and newspapers describing what had happened at Baltimore were in Polk's hands by June 6.He accepted his nomination by letter dated June 12, alleging that he had never sought the office, and stating his intent to serve only one term.", "Wright was embittered by what he called the \"foul plot\" against Van Buren, and demanded assurances that Polk had played no part; it was only after Polk professed that he had remained loyal to Van Buren that Wright supported his campaign.", "Following the custom of the time that presidential candidates avoid electioneering or appearing to seek the office, Polk remained in Columbia and made no speeches.", "He engaged in extensive correspondence with Democratic Party officials as he managed his campaign.", "Polk made his views known in his acceptance letter and through responses to questions sent by citizens that were printed in newspapers, often by arrangement.A potential pitfall for Polk's campaign was the issue of whether the tariff should be for revenue only, or with the intent to protect American industry.", "Polk finessed the tariff issue in a published letter.", "Recalling that he had long stated that tariffs should only be sufficient to finance government operations, he maintained that stance but wrote that within that limitation, government could and should offer \"fair and just protection\" to American interests, including manufacturers.", "He refused to expand on this stance, acceptable to most Democrats, despite the Whigs pointing out that he had committed himself to nothing.", "In September, a delegation of Whigs from nearby Giles County came to Columbia, armed with specific questions on Polk's views regarding the current tariff, the Whig-passed Tariff of 1842, and with the stated intent of remaining in Columbia until they got answers.", "Polk took several days to respond and chose to stand by his earlier statement, provoking an outcry in the Whig papers.Another concern was the third-party candidacy of President Tyler, which might split the Democratic vote.", "Tyler had been nominated by a group of loyal officeholders.", "Under no illusions he could win, he believed he could rally states' rights supporters and populists to hold the balance of power in the election.", "Only Jackson had the stature to resolve the situation, which he did with two letters to friends in the Cabinet, that he knew would be shown to Tyler, stating that the President's supporters would be welcomed back into the Democratic fold.", "Jackson wrote that once Tyler withdrew, many Democrats would embrace him for his pro-annexation stance.", "The former president also used his influence to stop Francis Preston Blair and his ''Globe'' newspaper, the semi-official organ of the Democratic Party, from attacking Tyler.", "These proved enough; Tyler withdrew from the race in August.Party troubles were a third concern.", "Polk and Calhoun made peace when a former South Carolina congressman, Francis Pickens visited Tennessee and came to Columbia for two days and to the Hermitage for sessions with the increasingly ill Jackson.", "Calhoun wanted the ''Globe'' dissolved, and that Polk would act against the 1842 tariff and promote Texas annexation.", "Reassured on these points, Calhoun became a strong supporter.Polk was aided regarding Texas when Clay, realizing his anti-annexation letter had cost him support, attempted in two subsequent letters to clarify his position.", "These angered both sides, which attacked Clay as insincere.", "Texas also threatened to divide the Democrats sectionally, but Polk managed to appease most Southern party leaders without antagonizing Northern ones.", "As the election drew closer, it became clear that most of the country favored the annexation of Texas, and some Southern Whig leaders supported Polk's campaign due to Clay's anti-annexation stance.Results of the 1844 presidential electionThe campaign was vitriolic; both major party candidates were accused of various acts of malfeasance; Polk was accused of being both a duelist and a coward.", "The most damaging smear was the Roorback forgery; in late August an item appeared in an abolitionist newspaper, part of a book detailing fictional travels through the South of a Baron von Roorback, an imaginary German nobleman.", "The Ithaca ''Chronicle'' printed it without labeling it as fiction, and inserted a sentence alleging that the traveler had seen forty slaves who had been sold by Polk after being branded with his initials.", "The item was withdrawn by the ''Chronicle'' when challenged by the Democrats, but it was widely reprinted.", "Borneman suggested that the forgery backfired on Polk's opponents as it served to remind voters that Clay too was a slaveholder.", "John Eisenhower, in his journal article on the election, stated that the smear came too late to be effectively rebutted, and likely cost Polk Ohio.", "Southern newspapers, on the other hand, went far in defending Polk, one Nashville newspaper alleging that his slaves preferred their bondage to freedom.", "Polk himself implied to newspaper correspondents that the only slaves he owned had either been inherited or had been purchased from relatives in financial distress; this paternalistic image was also painted by surrogates like Gideon Pillow.", "This was not true, though not known at the time; by then he had bought over thirty slaves, both from relatives and others, mainly for the purpose of procuring labor for his Mississippi cotton plantation.There was no uniform election day in 1844; states voted between November 1 and 12.Polk won the election with 49.5% of the popular vote and 170 of the 275 electoral votes.", "Becoming the first president elected despite losing his state of residence (Tennessee), Polk also lost his birth state, North Carolina.", "However, he won Pennsylvania and New York, where Clay lost votes to the antislavery Liberty Party candidate James G. Birney, who got more votes in New York than Polk's margin of victory.", "Had Clay won New York, he would have been elected president.=== Presidency (1845–1849) ===The White House, 1846James and Sarah Polk on the portico of the White House alongside Secretary of State James Buchanan, and former first lady Dolley Madison.", "\|203x203pxWith a slender victory in the popular vote, but with a greater victory in the Electoral College (170–105), Polk proceeded to implement his campaign promises.", "He presided over a country whose population had doubled every twenty years since the American Revolution and which had reached demographic parity with Great Britain.", "During Polk's tenure, technological advancements persisted, including the continued expansion of railroads and increased use of the telegraph.", "These improvements in communication encouraged a zest for expansionism.", "However, sectional divisions became worse during his tenure.Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration:* Reestablish the Independent Treasury Systemthe Whigs had abolished the one created under Van Buren.", "* Reduce tariffs.", "* Acquire some or all of the Oregon Country.", "* Acquire California and its harbors from Mexico.While his domestic aims represented continuity with past Democratic policies, successful completion of Polk's foreign policy goals would represent the first major American territorial gains since the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.==== Transition, inauguration and appointments ====BEP engraved portraitPolk formed a geographically balanced Cabinet.", "He consulted Jackson and one or two other close allies, and decided that the large states of New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia should have representation in the six-member Cabinet, as should his home state of Tennessee.", "At a time when an incoming president might retain some or all of his predecessor's department heads, Polk wanted an entirely fresh Cabinet, but this proved delicate.", "Tyler's final Secretary of State was Calhoun, leader of a considerable faction of the Democratic Party, but, when approached by emissaries, he did not take offense and was willing to step down.Polk did not want his Cabinet to contain presidential hopefuls, though he chose to nominate James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, whose ambition for the presidency was well-known, as Secretary of State.", "Tennessee's Cave Johnson, a close friend and ally of Polk, was nominated for the position of Postmaster General, with George Bancroft, the historian who had played a crucial role in Polk's nomination, as Navy Secretary.", "Polk's choices met with the approval of Andrew Jackson, with whom Polk met for the last time in January 1845, as Jackson died that June.Tyler's last Navy Secretary, John Y. Mason of Virginia, Polk's friend since college days and a longtime political ally, was not on the original list.", "As Cabinet choices were affected by factional politics and President Tyler's drive to resolve the Texas issue before leaving office, Polk at the last minute chose Mason as Attorney General.", "Polk also chose Mississippi Senator Walker as Secretary of the Treasury and New York's William Marcy as Secretary of War.", "The members worked well together, and few replacements were necessary.", "One reshuffle was required in 1846 when Bancroft, who wanted a diplomatic posting, became U.S. minister to Britain.In his last days in office President Tyler sought to complete the annexation of Texas.", "After the Senate had defeated an earlier treaty that required a two-thirds majority, Tyler urged Congress to pass a joint resolution, relying on its constitutional power to admit states.", "There were disagreements about the terms under which Texas would be admitted and Polk became involved in negotiations to break the impasse.", "With Polk's help, the annexation resolution narrowly cleared the Senate.", "Tyler was unsure whether to sign the resolution or leave it for Polk and sent Calhoun to consult with Polk, who declined to give any advice.", "On his final evening in office, March 3, 1845, Tyler offered annexation to Texas according to the terms of the resolution.The inauguration of James K. Polk, as shown in the ''Illustrated London News'', v. 6, April 19, 1845Even before his inauguration, Polk wrote to Cave Johnson, \"I intend to be President of the U.S.\" He would gain a reputation as a hard worker, spending ten to twelve hours at his desk, and rarely leaving Washington.", "Polk wrote, \"No President who performs his duty faithfully and conscientiously can have any leisure.", "I prefer to supervise the whole operations of the government myself rather than intrust the public business to subordinates, and this makes my duties very great.\"", "When he took office on March 4, 1845, Polk, at 49, became the youngest president to that point.", "Polk's inauguration was the first inaugural ceremony to be reported by telegraph, and first to be shown in a newspaper illustration (in ''The Illustrated London News'').In his inaugural address, delivered in a steady rain, Polk made clear his support for Texas annexation by referring to the 28 states of the U.S., thus including Texas.", "He proclaimed his fidelity to Jackson's principles by quoting his famous toast, \"Every lover of his country must shudder at the thought of the possibility of its dissolution and will be ready to adopt the patriotic sentiment, 'Our Federal Union—it must be preserved.'\"", "He stated his opposition to a national bank, and repeated that the tariff could include incidental protection.", "Although he did not mention slavery specifically, he alluded to it, decrying those who would tear down an institution protected by the Constitution.Polk devoted the second half of his speech to foreign affairs, and specifically to expansion.", "He applauded the annexation of Texas, warning that Texas was no affair of any other nation, and certainly none of Mexico's.", "He spoke of the Oregon Country, and of the many who were migrating, pledging to safeguard America's rights there and to protect the settlers.As well as appointing Cabinet officers to advise him, Polk made his sister's son, J. Knox Walker, his personal secretary, an especially important position because, other than his slaves, Polk had no staff at the White House.", "Walker, who lived at the White House with his growing family (two children were born to him while living there), performed his duties competently through his uncle's presidency.", "Other Polk relatives visited at the White House, some for extended periods.Polk and his cabinet in the White House dining room, 1846.Front row, left to right: John Y. Mason, William L. Marcy, James K. Polk, Robert J. Walker.", "Back row, left to right: Cave Johnson, George Bancroft.", "Secretary of State James Buchanan is absent.", "This was the first photograph taken in the White House, and the first of a presidential Cabinet.==== Foreign policy ========= Partition of Oregon Country =====Britain and the U.S. each derived claims to the Oregon Country from the voyages of explorers.", "Russia and Spain had waived their weak claims.", "Claims of the indigenous peoples of the region to their traditional lands were not a factor.Map of Oregon Country, which the Oregon Treaty split between the Americans and British at the 49th parallelRather than war over the distant and unsettled territory, Washington and London negotiated amicably.", "Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the 49th parallel, which was not acceptable to Britain, as it had commercial interests along the Columbia River.", "Britain's preferred partition was unacceptable to Polk, as it would have awarded Puget Sound and all lands north of the Columbia River to Britain, and Britain was unwilling to accept the 49th parallel extended to the Pacific, as it meant the entire opening to Puget Sound would be in American hands, isolating its settlements along the Fraser River.Edward Everett, Tyler's minister in London, had informally proposed dividing the territory at the 49th parallel with the strategic Vancouver Island granted to the British, thus allowing an opening to the Pacific.", "But when the new British minister in Washington, Richard Pakenham arrived in 1844 prepared to follow up, he found that many Americans desired the entire territory, which extended north to 54 degrees, 40 minutes north latitude.", "Oregon had not been a major issue in the 1844 election, but the heavy influx of settlers, mostly American, to the Oregon Country in 1845, and the rising spirit of expansionism in the U.S. as Texas and Oregon seized the public's eye, made a treaty with Britain more urgent.", "Many Democrats believed the U.S. should span from coast to coast, a philosophy called Manifest Destiny.Though both sides sought an acceptable compromise, each also saw the territory as an important geopolitical asset that would play a large part in determining the dominant power in North America.", "In his inaugural address, Polk announced that he viewed the U.S. claim to the land as \"clear and unquestionable\", provoking threats of war from British leaders should Polk attempt to take control of the entire territory.", "Polk had refrained in his address from asserting a claim to the entire territory, although the Democratic Party platform called for such a claim.", "Despite Polk's hawkish rhetoric, he viewed war over Oregon as unwise, and Polk and Buchanan began negotiations with the British.", "Like his predecessors, Polk again proposed a division along the 49th parallel, which Pakenham immediately rejected.", "Buchanan was wary of a two-front war with Mexico and Britain, but Polk was willing to risk war with both countries in pursuit of a favorable settlement.", "In his annual message to Congress in December 1845, Polk requested approval of giving Britain a one-year notice (as required in the Treaty of 1818) of his intention to terminate the joint occupancy of Oregon.", "In that message, he quoted from the Monroe Doctrine to denote America's intention of keeping European powers out, the first significant use of it since its origin in 1823.After much debate, Congress passed the resolution in April 1846, attaching its hope that the dispute would be settled amicably.When the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Aberdeen, learned of the proposal Pakenham rejected, Aberdeen asked the U.S. to reopen negotiations, but Polk was unwilling unless the British made a proposal.", "With Britain moving toward free trade with the repeal of the Corn Laws, good trade relations with the U.S. were more important to Aberdeen than a distant territory.", "In February 1846, Louis McLane, the American minister in London, was told that Washington would look favorably on a British proposal to divide the continent at the 49th parallel.", "In June 1846, Pakenham presented an offer calling for a boundary line at the 49th parallel, with the exception that Britain would retain all of Vancouver Island, and there would be limited navigation rights for British subjects on the Columbia River until the expiration of the charter of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1859.Polk and most of his Cabinet were prepared to accept the proposal.", "The Senate ratified the Oregon Treaty in a 41–14 vote.", "Polk's willingness to risk war with Britain had frightened many, but his tough negotiation tactics may have gained concessions from the British (particularly regarding the Columbia River) that a more conciliatory president might not have won.===== Annexation of Texas =====Map of Mexico in 1845, with the Republic of Texas, the Republic of Yucatan and the disputed territory between Mexico and Texas in red.", "Mexico claimed to own all of Texas.The annexation resolution signed by Tyler gave the president the choice of asking Texas to approve annexation, or reopening negotiations; Tyler immediately sent a messenger with the first option.", "Polk allowed the messenger to continue.", "He also sent assurance that the United States would defend Texas, and would fix its southern border at the Rio Grande, as claimed by Texas, rather than at the Nueces River, as claimed by Mexico.", "Public sentiment in Texas favored annexation.", "In July 1845, a Texas convention ratified annexation, and thereafter voters approved it.", "In December 1845, Texas became the 28th state.", "However Mexico had broken diplomatic relations with the United States on passage of the joint resolution in March 1845; now annexation escalated tensions as Mexico had never recognized Texan independence.===== Mexican-American War =========== Road to war ======Following annexation in 1845, Polk began preparations for a potential war, sending an army to Texas, led by Brigadier General Zachary Taylor.", "American land and naval forces were both ordered to respond to any Mexican aggression but to avoid provoking a war.", "Polk thought Mexico would give in under duress.war against MexicoPolk hoped that a show of force would lead to negotiations.", "In late 1845, He sent John Slidell to Mexico to purchase New Mexico and California for $30 million, as well as securing Mexico's agreement to a Rio Grande border.", "Mexican opinion was hostile and President José Joaquín de Herrera refused to receive Slidell.", "Herrera soon was deposed by a military coup led by General Mariano Paredes, a hard-liner who pledged to take back Texas.", "Dispatches from Slidell warned Washington that war was near.Polk regarded the treatment of Slidell as an insult and an \"ample cause of war\", and he prepared to ask Congress to declare it.", "Meanwhile, in late March, General Taylor had reached the Rio Grande, and his army camped across the river from Matamoros, Tamaulipas.", "In April, after Mexican general Pedro de Ampudia demanded that Taylor return to the Nueces River, Taylor began a blockade of Matamoros.", "A skirmish on the northern side of the Rio Grande on April 25 ended in the death or capture of dozens of American soldiers and became known as the Thornton Affair.", "Word reached Washington on May 9, and Polk sent a war message to Congress on the ground that Mexico had, \"shed American blood on the American soil\".", "The House overwhelmingly approved a resolution declaring war and authorizing the president to accept 50,000 volunteers into the military.", "In the Senate, war opponents led by Calhoun questioned Polk's version of events.", "Nonetheless, the House resolution passed the Senate in a 40–2 vote, with Calhoun abstaining, marking the beginning of the Mexican–American War.====== Course of the war ======Overview map of the war After the initial skirmishes, Taylor and much of his army marched away from the river to secure the supply line, leaving a makeshift base, Fort Texas.", "On the way back to the Rio Grande, Mexican forces under General Mariano Arista attempted to block Taylor's way as other troops laid siege to Fort Texas, forcing the U.S. Army general to the attack if he hoped to relieve the fort.", "In the Battle of Palo Alto, the first major engagement of the war, Taylor's troops forced Arista's from the field, suffering only four dead to hundreds for the Mexicans.", "The next day, Taylor led the army to victory in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, putting the Mexican Army to rout.", "The early successes boosted support for the war, which despite the lopsided votes in Congress, had deeply divided the nation.", "Many Northern Whigs opposed the war, as did others; they felt Polk had used patriotism to manipulate the nation into fighting a war, the goal of which was to give slavery room to expand.Polk distrusted the two senior officers, Major General Winfield Scott and Taylor, as both were Whigs, and would have replaced them with Democrats, but felt Congress would not approve it.", "He offered Scott the position of top commander in the war, which the general accepted.", "Polk and Scott already knew and disliked each other: the President made the appointment despite the fact that Scott had sought his party's presidential nomination for the 1840 election.", "Polk came to believe that Scott was too slow in getting himself and his army away from Washington and to the Rio Grande, and was outraged to learn Scott was using his influence in Congress to defeat the administration's plan to expand the number of generals.", "The news of Taylor's victory at Resaca de la Palma arrived then, and Polk decided to have Taylor take command in the field, and Scott to remain in Washington.", "Polk also ordered Commodore Conner to allow Antonio López de Santa Anna to return to Mexico from his exile in Havana, thinking that he would negotiate a treaty ceding territory to the U.S. for a price.", "Polk sent representatives to Cuba for talks with Santa Anna.Polk sent an army expedition led by Stephen W. Kearny towards Santa Fe, to territory beyond the original claims in Texas.", "In 1845, Polk, fearful of French or British intervention, had sent Lieutenant Archibald H. Gillespie to California with orders to foment a pro-American rebellion that could be used to justify annexation of the territory.", "After meeting with Gillespie, Army captain John C. Frémont led settlers in northern California to overthrow the Mexican garrison in Sonoma in what became known as the Bear Flag Revolt.", "In August 1846, American forces under Kearny captured Santa Fe, capital of the province of New Mexico, without firing a shot.", "Almost simultaneously, Commodore Robert F. Stockton landed in Los Angeles and proclaimed the capture of California.", "After American forces put down a revolt, the United States held effective control of New Mexico and California.", "Nevertheless, the Western theater of the war would prove to be a political headache for Polk, since a dispute between Frémont and Kearny led to a break between Polk and the powerful Missouri senator (and father-in-law of Frémont), Thomas Hart Benton.", "''War News from Mexico'', 1848 painting by Richard Caton WoodvilleThe initial public euphoria over the victories at the start of the war slowly dissipated.", "In August 1846, Polk asked Congress to appropriate $2 million (~$ in ) as a down payment for the potential purchase of Mexican lands.", "Polk's request ignited opposition, as he had never before made public his desire to annex parts of Mexico (aside from lands claimed by Texas).", "It was unclear whether such newly acquired lands would be slave or free, and there was fierce and acrimonious sectional debate.", "A freshman Democratic Congressman, David Wilmot of Pennsylvania, previously a firm supporter of Polk's administration, offered an amendment to the bill, the Wilmot Proviso, that would ban slavery in any land acquired using the money.", "The appropriation bill, with the Wilmot Proviso attached, passed the House, but died in the Senate.", "This discord cost Polk's party, with Democrats losing control of the House in the 1846 elections.", "In early 1847, though, Polk was successful in passing a bill raising further regiments, and he also finally won approval for the appropriation.Antonio López de Santa Anna, 1847To try to bring the war to a quick end, in July 1846 Polk considered supporting a potential coup led by the exiled Mexican former president, General Antonio López de Santa Anna, with the hope that Santa Anna would sell parts of California.", "Santa Anna was in exile in Cuba, still a colony of Spain.", "Polk sent an envoy to have secret talks with Santa Anna.", "The U.S. Consul in Havana, R.B.", "Campbell, began seeking a way to engage with Santa Anna.", "A U.S. citizen of Spanish birth, Col. Alejandro José Atocha, knew Santa Anna and acted initially as an intermediary.", "Polk noted his contacts with Atocha in his diary, who said that Santa Anna was interested in concluding a treaty with the U.S. gaining territory while Mexico received payment that would include settling its debts.", "Polk decided that Atocha was untrustworthy and sent his own representative, Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, (a relative of John Slidell) to meet with Santa Anna.", "Mackenzie told Santa Anna that Polk wished to see him in power and that if they came to an agreement that the U.S. naval blockade would be lifted briefly to allow Santa Anna to return to Mexico.", "Polk requested $2 million from Congress to be used to negotiate a treaty with Mexico or payment to Mexico before a treaty was signed.", "The blockade was indeed briefly lifted and Santa Anna returned to Mexico, not to head a government that would negotiate a treaty with the U.S., but rather to organize a military defense of his homeland.", "Santa Anna gloated over Polk's naïveté; Polk had been \"snookered\" by Santa Anna.", "Instead of coming to a negotiated settlement with the U.S., Santa Anna mounted a defense of Mexico and fought to the bitter end.", "\"His actions would prolong the war for at least a year, and more than any other single person, it was Santa Anna who denied Polk's dream of short war.", "\"This caused Polk to harden his position on Mexico, and he ordered an American landing at Veracruz, the most important Mexican port on the Gulf of Mexico.", "From there, troops were to march through Mexico's heartland to Mexico City, which it was hoped would end the war.", "Continuing to advance in northeast Mexico, Taylor defeated a Mexican army led by Ampudia in the September 1846 Battle of Monterrey, but allowed Ampudia's forces to withdraw from the town, much to Polk's consternation.", "Polk believed Taylor had not aggressively pursued the enemy and offered command of the Veracruz expedition to Scott.The lack of trust Polk had in Taylor was returned by the Whig general, who feared the partisan president was trying to destroy him.", "Accordingly, Taylor disobeyed orders to remain near Monterrey.", "In March 1847, Polk learned that Taylor had continued to march south, capturing the northern Mexican town of Saltillo.", "Continuing beyond Saltillo, Taylor's army fought a larger Mexican force, led by Santa Anna, in the Battle of Buena Vista.", "Initial reports gave the victory to Mexico, with great rejoicing, but Santa Anna retreated.", "Mexican casualties were five times that of the Americans, and the victory made Taylor even more of a military hero in the American public's eyes, though Polk preferred to credit the bravery of the soldiers rather than the Whig general.The U.S. changed the course of the war with its invasion of Mexico's heartland through Veracruz and ultimately the capture of Mexico City, following hard fighting.", "In March 1847, Scott landed in Veracruz, and quickly won control of the city.", "The Mexicans expected that yellow fever and other tropical diseases would weaken the U.S. forces.", "With the capture of Veracruz, Polk dispatched Nicholas Trist, Buchanan's chief clerk, to accompany Scott's army and negotiate a peace treaty with Mexican leaders.", "Trist was instructed to seek the cession of Alta California, New Mexico, and Baja California, recognition of the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas, and U.S. access across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.", "Trist was authorized to make a payment of up to $30 million in exchange for these concessions.In August 1847, as he advanced towards Mexico City, Scott defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of Contreras and the Battle of Churubusco.", "With the Americans at the gates of Mexico City, Trist negotiated with commissioners, but the Mexicans were willing to give up little.", "Scott prepared to take Mexico City, which he did in mid-September.", "In the United States, a heated political debate emerged regarding how much of Mexico the United States should seek to annex, Whigs such as Henry Clay arguing that the United States should only seek to settle the Texas border question, and some expansionists arguing for the annexation of all of Mexico.", "War opponents were also active; Whig Congressman Abraham Lincoln of Illinois introduced the \"exact spot\" resolutions, calling on Polk to state exactly where American blood had been shed on American soil to start the war, but the House refused to consider them.====== Peace: the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ======The Mexican Cession (in red) was acquired through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.", "The Gadsden Purchase (in orange) was acquired through purchase after Polk left office.Frustrated by a lack of progress in negotiations, Polk ordered Trist to return to Washington, but the diplomat, when the notice of recall arrived in mid-November 1847, ignored the order, deciding to remain and writing a lengthy letter to Polk the following month to justify his decision.", "Polk considered having Butler, designated as Scott's replacement, forcibly remove him from Mexico City.", "Though outraged by Trist's defiance, Polk decided to allow him some time to negotiate a treaty.Throughout January 1848, Trist regularly met with officials in Mexico City, though at the request of the Mexicans, the treaty signing took place in Guadalupe Hidalgo, a small town near Mexico City.", "Trist was willing to allow Mexico to keep Baja California, as his instructions allowed, but successfully haggled for the inclusion of the important harbor of San Diego in a cession of Alta California.", "Provisions included the Rio Grande border and a $15 million payment to Mexico.", "On February 2, 1848, Trist and the Mexican delegation signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.", "Polk received the document on February 19, and, after the Cabinet met on the 20th, decided he had no choice but to accept it.", "If he turned it down, with the House by then controlled by the Whigs, there was no assurance Congress would vote funding to continue the war.", "Both Buchanan and Walker dissented, wanting more land from Mexico, a position with which the President was sympathetic, though he considered Buchanan's view motivated by his ambition.Some senators opposed the treaty because they wanted to take no Mexican territory; others hesitated because of the irregular nature of Trist's negotiations.", "Polk waited in suspense for two weeks as the Senate considered it, sometimes hearing that it would likely be defeated and that Buchanan and Walker were working against it.", "He was relieved when the two Cabinet officers lobbied on behalf of the treaty.", "On March 10, the Senate ratified the treaty in a 38–14 vote, a vote that cut across partisan and geographic lines.", "The Senate made some modifications to the treaty before ratification, and Polk worried that the Mexican government would reject them.", "On June 7, Polk learned that Mexico had ratified the treaty.", "Polk declared the treaty in effect as of July 4, 1848, thus ending the war.", "With the acquisition of California, Polk had accomplished all four of his major presidential goals.", "With the exception of the territory acquired by the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, and some later minor adjustments, the territorial acquisitions under Polk established the modern borders of the Contiguous United States.===== Postwar and the territories =====United States states and territories when Polk entered officeUnited States states and territories when Polk left officePolk was anxious to establish a territorial government for Oregon but the matter became embroiled in the arguments over slavery, though few thought Oregon suitable for that institution.", "Bills to establish a territorial government passed the House twice but died in the Senate.", "By the time Congress met again in December, California and New Mexico were in U.S. hands, and Polk in his annual message urged the establishment of territorial governments in all three.", "The Missouri Compromise had settled the issue of the geographic reach of slavery within the Louisiana Purchase by prohibiting slavery in states north of 36°30′ latitude, and Polk sought to extend this line into the newly acquired territory.", "This would have made slavery illegal in Oregon and San Francisco but allowed it in Los Angeles.", "Such an extension of slavery was defeated in the House by a bipartisan alliance of Northerners.", "In 1848 Polk signed a bill to establish the Territory of Oregon and prohibit slavery in it.In December 1848, Polk sought to establish territorial governments in California and New Mexico, a task made especially urgent by the onset of the California Gold Rush.", "The divisive issue of slavery blocked the idea.", "Finally in the Compromise of 1850 the issue was resolved.Polk had misgivings about a bill creating the Department of the Interior (March 3, 1849).", "He feared the federal government usurping power over public lands from the states.", "Nevertheless, he signed the bill.===== Other initiatives =====Polk's ambassador to the Republic of New Granada, Benjamin Alden Bidlack, negotiated the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty.", "Though Washington had initially only sought to remove tariffs on American goods, Bidlack and New Granadan's Foreign Minister negotiated a broad agreement that deepened military and trade ties.", "A U.S. guarantee of New Granada's sovereignty over the Isthmus of Panama was also included.", "The treaty was ratified in 1848 and in the long run it facilitated the Panama Canal, built in the early 20th century.", "It also allowed for the construction of the Panama Railway, which opened in 1855.The railway, built and operated by Americans and protected by the U.S. military, gave a quicker, safer journey to California and Oregon.", "The agreement was the only alliance Washington made in the 19th century.", "It established a strong American role in Central America and was a counterweight to British influence there.In mid-1848, President Polk authorized his ambassador to Spain, Romulus Mitchell Saunders, to negotiate the purchase of Cuba and offer Spain up to $100 million, a large sum at the time for one territory, equal to $ in present-day terms.", "Cuba was close to the United States and had slavery, so the idea appealed to Southerners but was unwelcome in the North.", "However, Spain was still making profits in Cuba (notably in sugar, molasses, rum and tobacco), and thus the Spanish government rejected Saunders's overtures.", "Though Polk was eager to acquire Cuba, he refused to support the filibuster expedition of Narciso López, who sought to invade and take over the island as a prelude to annexation.==== Domestic policy ========= Fiscal policy =====Polk's official White House portrait, by George Peter Alexander Healy, 1858In his inaugural address, Polk called upon Congress to re-establish the Independent Treasury System under which government funds were held in the Treasury and not in banks or other financial institutions.", "President Van Buren had previously established a similar system, but it had been abolished during the Tyler administration.", "Polk made clear his opposition to a national bank in his inaugural address, and in his first annual message to Congress in December 1845, he called for the government to keep its funds itself.", "Congress was slow to act; the House passed a bill in April 1846 and the Senate in August, both without a single Whig vote.", "Polk signed the Independent Treasury Act into law on August 6, 1846.The act provided that the public revenues were to be retained in the Treasury building and in sub-treasuries in various cities, separate from private or state banks.", "The system would remain in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913.Polk's other major domestic initiative was the lowering of the tariff.", "Polk directed Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker to draft a new and lower tariff, which Polk submitted to Congress.", "After intense lobbying by both sides, the bill passed the House and, in a close vote that required Vice President Dallas to break a tie, the Senate in July 1846.Dallas, although from protectionist Pennsylvania, voted for the bill, having decided his best political prospects lay in supporting the administration.", "Polk signed the Walker Tariff into law, substantially reducing the rates that had been set by the Tariff of 1842.The reduction of tariffs in the United States and the repeal of the Corn Laws in Great Britain led to a boom in Anglo-American trade.===== Development of the country =====Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Bill in 1846 to provide $500,000 to improve port facilities, but Polk vetoed it.", "Polk believed that the bill was unconstitutional because it unfairly favored particular areas, including ports that had no foreign trade.", "Polk considered internal improvements to be matters for the states, and feared that passing the bill would encourage legislators to compete for favors for their home district—a type of corruption that he felt would spell doom to the virtue of the republic.", "In this regard he followed his hero Jackson, who had vetoed the Maysville Road Bill in 1830 on similar grounds.Opposed by conviction to Federal funding for internal improvements, Polk stood strongly against all such bills.", "Congress, in 1847, passed another internal improvements bill; he pocket vetoed it and sent Congress a full veto message when it met in December.", "Similar bills continued to advance in Congress in 1848, though none reached his desk.", "When he came to the Capitol to sign bills on March 3, 1849, the last day of the congressional session and his final full day in office, he feared that an internal improvements bill would pass Congress, and he brought with him a draft veto message.", "The bill did not pass, so it was not needed, but feeling the draft had been ably written, he had it preserved among his papers.The California Gold Rush began in Polk's last days in office.Authoritative word of the discovery of gold in California did not arrive in Washington until after the 1848 election, by which time Polk was a lame duck.", "Polk's political adversaries had claimed California was too far away to be useful and was not worth the price paid to Mexico.", "The President was delighted by the news, seeing it as validation of his stance on expansion, and referred to the discovery several times in his final annual message to Congress that December.", "Shortly thereafter, actual samples of the California gold arrived, and Polk sent a special message to Congress on the subject.", "The message, confirming less authoritative reports, caused large numbers of people to move to California, both from the U.S. and abroad, thus helping to spark the California Gold Rush.===== Judicial appointments =====Polk appointed the following justices to the U.S. Supreme Court:'''Justice''''''Position''''''Began activeservice''''''Ended activeservice''' Levi Woodbury Seat 2 18450920September 20, 1845 18510904September 4, 1851 Robert Cooper Grier Seat 3 18460804August 4, 1846 18700131January 31, 1870Associate Justice Levi Woodbury (c. 1850)Robert C. Grier, one of President Polk's two appointees to the Supreme CourtThe 1844 death of Justice Henry Baldwin left a vacant place on the Supreme Court, but Tyler had been unable to get the Senate to confirm a nominee.", "At the time, it was the custom to have a geographic balance on the Supreme Court, and Baldwin had been from Pennsylvania.", "Polk's efforts to fill Baldwin's seat became embroiled in Pennsylvania politics and the efforts of factional leaders to secure the lucrative post of Collector of Customs for the Port of Philadelphia.", "As Polk attempted to find his way through the minefield of Pennsylvania politics, a second position on the high court became vacant with the death, in September 1845, of Justice Joseph Story; his replacement was expected to come from his native New England.", "Because Story's death had occurred while the Senate was not in session, Polk was able to make a recess appointment, choosing Senator Levi Woodbury of New Hampshire, and when the Senate reconvened in December 1845, Woodbury was confirmed.", "Polk's initial nominee for Baldwin's seat, George W. Woodward, was rejected by the Senate in January 1846, in large part due to the opposition of Buchanan and Pennsylvania Senator Simon Cameron.Despite Polk's anger at Buchanan, he eventually offered the Secretary of State the seat, but Buchanan, after some indecision, turned it down.", "Polk subsequently nominated Robert Cooper Grier of Pittsburgh, who won confirmation.", "Justice Woodbury died in 1851, but Grier served until 1870 and in the slavery case of ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' (1857) wrote an opinion stating that slaves were property and could not sue.Polk appointed eight other federal judges, one to the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia, and seven to various United States district courts.=== Election of 1848 ===Results of the 1848 presidential electionHonoring his pledge to serve only one term, Polk declined to seek re-election.", "At the 1848 Democratic National Convention, Lewis Cass was nominated.", "The 1848 Whig National Convention nominated Zachary Taylor for president and former congressman Millard Fillmore of New York for vice president.", "Martin Van Buren led a breakaway Free Soil group from the Democrats.", "Polk was surprised and disappointed by his former ally's political conversion and worried about the divisiveness of a sectional party devoted to abolition.", "Polk did not give speeches for Cass, remaining at his desk at the White House.", "He did remove some Van Buren supporters from federal office during the campaign.Taylor won the three-way election with a plurality of the popular vote and a majority of the electoral vote.", "Polk was disappointed by the outcome as he had a low opinion of Taylor, seeing the general as someone with poor judgment and few opinions on important public matters.", "Nevertheless, Polk observed tradition and welcomed President-elect Taylor to Washington, hosting him at a gala White House dinner.", "Polk departed the White House on March 3, leaving behind him a clean desk, though he worked from his hotel or the Capitol on last-minute appointments and bill signings.", "He attended Taylor's inauguration on March 5 (March 4, the presidential inauguration day until 1937, fell on a Sunday, and thus the ceremony was postponed a day), and though he was unimpressed with the new president, wished him the best.=== Post-presidency and death (1849) ===James K. Polk's tomb lies on the grounds of the Tennessee State CapitolPolk's time in the White House took its toll on his health.", "Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left the presidency exhausted by his years of public service.", "He left Washington on March 6 for a pre-arranged triumphal tour of the Southern United States, to end in Nashville.", "Polk had two years previously arranged to buy a house there, afterwards dubbed Polk Place, that had once belonged to his mentor, Felix Grundy.James and Sarah Polk progressed down the Atlantic coast, and then westward through the Deep South.", "He was enthusiastically received and banqueted.", "By the time the Polks reached Alabama, he was suffering from a bad cold, and soon became concerned by reports of cholera—a passenger on Polk's riverboat died of it, and it was rumored to be common in New Orleans, but it was too late to change plans.", "Worried about his health, he would have departed the city quickly but was overwhelmed by Louisiana hospitality.", "Several passengers on the riverboat up the Mississippi died of the disease, and Polk felt so ill that he went ashore for four days, staying in a hotel.", "A doctor assured him he did not have cholera, and Polk arrived in Nashville on April 2 to a huge reception.Polk Place, briefly James Polk's home and long that of his widowAfter a visit to James's mother in Columbia, the Polks settled into Polk Place.", "The exhausted former president seemed to gain new life, but in early June, he fell ill again, by most accounts of cholera.", "Attended by several doctors, he lingered for several days and chose to be baptized into the Methodist Church, which he had long admired, though his mother arrived from Columbia with her Presbyterian clergyman, and his wife was also a devout Presbyterian.", "On the afternoon of Friday, June 15, Polk died at his Polk Place home in Nashville, Tennessee at the age of 53.According to traditional accounts, his last words before he died were \"I love you, Sarah, for all eternity, I love you.\"", "Borneman noted that whether or not they were spoken, there was nothing in Polk's life that would make the sentiment false.Polk's funeral was held at the McKendree Methodist Church in Nashville.", "Following his death, Sarah Polk lived at Polk Place for 42 years and died on August 14, 1891, at the age of 87.Their house, Polk Place, was demolished in 1901." ], [ "Burials", "Polk's remains have been moved twice.", "After his death, he was buried in what is now Nashville City Cemetery, due to a legal requirement related to his infectious disease death.", "Polk was then moved to a tomb on the grounds of Polk Place (as specified in his will) in 1850.Then, in 1893, the bodies of James and Sarah Polk were relocated to their current resting place on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol in Nashville.", "In March 2017, the Tennessee Senate approved a resolution considered a \"first step\" toward relocating the Polks' remains to the family home in Columbia.", "Such a move would require approval by state lawmakers, the courts, and the Tennessee Historical Commission.", "A year later, a renewed plan to reinter Polk was defeated by Tennessee lawmakers before being taken up again and approved, and allowed to go through by the non-signature of Tennessee governor Bill Haslam.", "The state's Capitol Commission heard arguments over the issue in November 2018, during which the THC reiterated its opposition to the tomb relocation, and a vote was delayed indefinitely." ], [ "Legacy and historical view", "A statue of Polk at the North Carolina State CapitolPolk's historic reputation was initially formed by the attacks made on him in his own time.", "Whig politicians claimed that he was drawn from well-deserved obscurity.", "Sam Houston is said to have observed that Polk, a teetotaler, was \"a victim of the use of water as a beverage\".", "Little was published about him but two biographies released in the wake of his death.", "Polk was not again the subject of a major biography until 1922 when Eugene I. McCormac published ''James K. Polk: A Political Biography''.", "McCormac relied heavily on Polk's presidential diary, first published in 1909.When historians began ranking the presidents in 1948, Polk ranked tenth in Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.'s poll, and has subsequently ranked eighth in Schlesinger's 1962 poll, ninth in Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.'s 1996 poll, and 14th in the 2017 survey by C-SPAN.James Polk is today widely seen as a successful president; he is regarded as a man of destiny and a political chess master, who, through extraordinary diligence, worked to promote American democracy.", "Borneman deemed Polk the most effective president prior to the Civil War and noted that Polk expanded the power of the presidency, especially in its power as commander in chief and its oversight over the Executive Branch.", "Steven G. Calabresi and Christopher S. Yoo, in their history of presidential power, praised Polk's conduct of the Mexican War, \"it seems unquestionable that his management of state affairs during this conflict was one of the strongest examples since Jackson of the use of presidential power to direct specifically the conduct of subordinate officers.", "\"Historian John C. Pinheiro, analyzing Polk's impact and legacy, wrote that:Bergeron noted that the matters that Polk settled, he settled for his time.", "The questions of the banking system, and of the tariff, which Polk had made two of the main issues of his presidency, were not significantly revised until the 1860s.", "Similarly, the Gadsden Purchase, and that of Alaska (1867), were the only major U.S. expansions until the 1890s.Paul H. Bergeron wrote in his study of Polk's presidency: \"Virtually everyone remembers Polk and his expansionist successes.", "He produced a new map of the United States, which fulfilled a continent-wide vision.\"", "\"To look at that map,\" Robert W. Merry concluded, \"and to take in the western and southwestern expanse included in it, is to see the magnitude of Polk's presidential accomplishments.\"", "Amy Greenberg, in her history of the Mexican War, found Polk's legacy to be more than territorial, \"during a single brilliant term, he accomplished a feat that earlier presidents would have considered impossible.", "With the help of his wife, Sarah, he masterminded, provoked and successfully prosecuted a war that turned the United States into a world power.\"", "Borneman noted that in securing this expansion, Polk did not consider the likely effect on Mexicans and Native Americans, \"That ignorance may well be debated on moral grounds, but it cannot take away Polk's stunning political achievement.\"", "James A. Rawley wrote in his ''American National Biography'' piece on Polk, \"he added extensive territory to the United States, including Upper California and its valuable ports, and bequeathed a legacy of a nation poised on the Pacific rim prepared to emerge as a superpower in future generations\".Historians have criticized Polk for not perceiving that his territorial gains set the table for civil war.", "Pletcher stated that Polk, like others of his time, failed \"to understand that sectionalism and expansion had formed a new, explosive compound\".", "Fred I. Greenstein, in his journal article on Polk, noted that Polk \"lacked a far-seeing awareness of the problems that were bound to arise over the status of slavery in the territory acquired from Mexico\" William Dusinberre, in his volume on Polk as slave owner, suggested \"that Polk's deep personal involvement in the plantation slavery system ... colored his stance on slavery-related issues\".Greenberg noted that Polk's war served as the training ground for that later conflict:===Polk and slavery===Elias Polk depicted later in life was a valet to James Polk, being the only known image of a person domestically enslaved by the Polks.", "Polk owned slaves for most of his adult life.", "His father left Polk more than 8,000 acres (32 km2) of land and divided about 53 enslaved people among his widow and children in his will.", "James inherited twenty slaves, either directly or from deceased brothers.", "In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending enslaved people to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee.", "Four years later Polk sold his Somerville plantation and, together with his brother-in-law, bought 920 acres (3.7 km2) of land, a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi, hoping to increase his income.", "The land in Mississippi was richer than that in Somerville, and Polk transferred slaves there, taking care to conceal from them that they were to be sent south.", "From the start of 1839, Polk, having bought out his brother-in-law, owned all of the Mississippi plantations, and ran it on a mostly absentee basis for the rest of his life.", "He occasionally visited—for example, he spent much of April 1844 on his Mississippi plantation, right before the Democratic convention.Adding to the inherited slaves, in 1831, Polk purchased five more, mostly buying them in Kentucky, and expending $1,870; (~$ in ) the youngest had a recorded age of 11.As older children sold for a higher price, slave sellers routinely lied about age.", "Between 1834 and 1835, he bought five more, aged from 2 to 37, the youngest a granddaughter of the oldest.", "The amount expended was $2,250.In 1839, he bought eight slaves from his brother William at a cost of $5,600 (~$ in ).", "This represented three young adults and most of a family, though not including the father, whom James Polk had previously owned, and who had been sold to a slave trader as he had repeatedly tried to escape his enslavement.The expenses of four campaigns (three for governor, one for the presidency) in six years kept Polk from making more slave purchases until after he was living in the White House.", "In an era when the presidential salary was expected to cover wages for the White House servants, Polk replaced them with slaves from his home in Tennessee.", "Polk did not purchase enslaved people with his presidential salary, likely for political reasons.", "Instead, he reinvested earnings from his plantation in the purchase of slaves, enjoining secrecy on his agent: \"that as my ''private business'' does not concern the public, you will keep it to yourself\".Polk saw the plantation as his route to a comfortable existence after his presidency for himself and his wife; he did not intend to return to the practice of law.", "Hoping the increased labor force would increase his retirement income, he purchased seven slaves in 1846, through an agent, aged roughly between 12 and 17.The 17-year-old and one of the 12-year-olds were purchased together at an estate sale; the agent within weeks resold the younger boy to Polk's profit.", "The year 1847 saw the purchase of nine more.", "Three he purchased from Gideon Pillow, and his agent purchased six enslaved people aged between 10 and 20.By the time of the purchase from Pillow, the Mexican War had begun and Polk sent payment with the letter in which he offered Pillow a commission in the Army.", "The purchase from Pillow was a man Polk had previously owned and had sold for being a disruption, and his wife and child.", "None of the other enslaved people Polk purchased as president, all younger than 20, came with a parent, and as only in the one case were two slaves bought together, most likely none had an accompanying sibling as each faced life on Polk's plantation.Discipline for those owned by Polk varied over time.", "At the Tennessee plantation, he employed an overseer named Herbert Biles, who was said to be relatively indulgent.", "Biles's illness in 1833 resulted in Polk replacing him with Ephraim Beanland, who tightened discipline and increased work.", "Polk backed his overseer, returning escapees who complained of beatings and other harsh treatment, \"even though every report suggested that the overseer was a heartless brute\".", "Beanland was hired for the Mississippi plantation but was soon dismissed by Polk's partner, who deemed Beanland too harsh as the slaves undertook the arduous task of clearing the timber from the new plantation so it could be used for cotton farming.", "His replacement was discharged after a year for being too indulgent; the next died of dysentery in 1839.Others followed, and it was not until 1845 that Polk found a satisfactory overseer, John Mairs, who was still working at the plantation for Sarah Polk in 1860 when the widow sold a half-share in many of her slaves.", "There had been a constant stream of runaways under Mairs' predecessors, many seeking protection at the plantation of Polk relatives or friends; only one ran away between the time of Mairs' hiring and the end of 1847, but the overseer had to report three absconded slaves (including the one who had fled earlier) to Polk in 1848 and 1849.Polk's will, dated February 28, 1849, contained the nonbinding expectation that his slaves were to be freed when both he and Sarah Polk were dead.", "The Mississippi plantation was expected to support Sarah Polk during her widowhood.", "Sarah Polk lived until 1891, but the slaves were freed in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery in the United States.", "By selling a half-interest in the slaves in 1860, Sarah Polk had given up the sole power to free them, and it is unlikely that her new partner, having paid $28,500 (~$ in ) for a half-interest in the plantation and its slaves, would have allowed the laborers to go free had she died while slavery was legal.Like Jackson, Polk saw the politics of slavery as a side issue compared to territorial expansion and economic policy.", "The issue of slavery became increasingly polarizing during the 1840s, and Polk's expansionary successes redoubled its divisiveness.", "During his presidency, many abolitionists harshly criticized him as an instrument of the \"Slave Power\", and claimed that spreading slavery was the reason he supported Texas Annexation and later war with Mexico.", "Polk did support the expansion of slavery's realm, with his views informed by his own family's experience of settling Tennessee, bringing slaves with them.", "He believed in Southern rights, meaning both the right of slave states not to have that institution interfered with by the Federal government and the right of individual Southerners to bring their slaves with them into the new territory.", "Though Polk opposed the Wilmot Proviso, he also condemned southern agitation on the issue, and he accused both northern and southern leaders of attempting to use the slavery issue for political gain." ], [ "Footnotes", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== References ===* * ; also see online book review* * * * * .", "* * * * * .", "* * * * * , short popular biography.", "* Williams, Frank J.", "\"James K.", "Polk.\"", "in ''The Presidents and the Constitution, Volume One'' (New York University Press, 2020).", "149–158.online" ], [ "See also", " Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps=== Further reading ===* Bergeron, Paul H. \"President Polk and economic legislation.\"", "''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (1985): 782–795.online* Chaffin, Tom.", "''Met His Every Goal?", "James K. Polk and the Legends of Manifest Destiny'' (University of Tennessee Press; 2014) 124 pages.", "* Cheathem, Mark R. ''Who Is James K. Polk?", "The Presidential Election of 1844''.", "University Press of Kansas, 2023.", "* Currie, David P., and Emily E. Kadens.", "\"President Polk on Internal Improvements: The Undelivered Veto.\"", "''Green Bag'' 2 (2002): 5+ online.", "* De Voto, Bernard.", "''The Year of Decision: 1846''.", "Houghton Mifflin, 1943.online* Dusinberre, William.", "\"President Polk and the Politics of Slavery\".", "''American Nineteenth Century History'' 3.1 (2002): 1–16..", "Argues he misrepresented the strength of abolitionism, grossly exaggerated likelihood of slaves' massacring white families and seemed to condone secession.", "* Goodpasture, Albert V. \"The Boyhood of President Polk.\"", "''Tennessee Historical Magazine'' 7.1 (1921): 36–50.", "* Greenberg, Amy S. ''Lady First: The World of Mrs. James K. Polk'' (Knopf, 2019) online.", "* Kornblith, Gary J.", "\"Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: a Counterfactual Exercise\".", "''Journal of American History'' 90.1 (2003): 76–105.. Asks what if Polk had not gone to war with Mexico.", "* McCormac, Eugene Irving.", "''James K. Polk: A Political Biography to the End of a Career, 1845–1849''.", "Univ.", "of California Press, 1922.", "(1995 reprint has .)", "hostile to Jacksonians.", "* Morrison, Michael A.", "\"Martin Van Buren, the Democracy, and the Partisan Politics of Texas Annexation\".", "''Journal of Southern History'' 61.4 (1995): 695–724.. Discusses the election of 1844.online edition .", "* Moten, Matthew.", "\"Polk against His Generals.\"", "in ''Presidents and Their Generals'' (Harvard University Press, 2014) pp. 97–123.", "* Nelson, Anna Kasten.", "''Secret agents: President Polk and the search for peace with Mexico'' (Taylor & Francis, 1988).", "* Pinheiro, John C. ''Manifest Ambition: James K. Polk and Civil-Military Relations during the Mexican War''.", "Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007.", "* Rumsch, BreAnn.", "''James K. Polk'' (ABDO, 2016) for middle schools.", "online.", "* Schoenbeck, Henry Fred.", "\"The economic views of James K. Polk as expressed in the course of his political career\" (PhD dissertation, The University of Nebraska - Lincoln; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1951.DP13923).", "* Sellers, Charles.", "''James K. Polk, Jacksonian, 1795–1843'' (1957) vol 1 online; and ''James K. Polk, Continentalist, 1843–1846''.", "(1966) vol 2 online; long scholarly biography.", "* * Smith, Justin Harvey.", "''The War with Mexico, Vol 1.''", "(2 vol 1919), full text online.", "* Smith, Justin Harvey.", "''The War with Mexico, Vol.", "2''.", "(2 vol 1919).", "full text online; Pulitzer prize; still a standard source.", "* Stenberg, Richard R. \"President Polk and the Annexation of Texas.\"", "''Southwestern Social Science Quarterly'' (1934): 333–356.online* Winders, Richard Bruce.", "''Mr.", "Polk's army: the American military experience in the Mexican war''.", "(Texas A&M University Press, 2001).==== Primary sources ====Material that may be of interest but constitute primary sources.", "* Cutler, Wayne, et al.", "''Correspondence of James K. Polk''.", "1972–2014.. Fourteen volume.", "scholarly edition of the complete correspondence to and from Polk.", "** Polk, James Knox.", "''Correspondence of James K. Polk: Digital Edition'' (University of Virginia Press, 2021).", "online* Polk, James K. Polk: ''The Diary of a President, 1845–1849: Covering the Mexican War, the Acquisition of Oregon, and the Conquest of California and the Southwest''.", "Vol.", "296.Capricorn Books, 1952.", "* Polk, James K. ''The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845–1849'' edited by Milo Milton Quaife, 4 vols.", "1910.Abridged version by Allan Nevins.", "1929, online .=== External links ===* James K. Polk Presidential Papers Collection, The American Presidency Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara* Extensive essay on James K. Polk and short essays on his presidency from the Miller Center of Public Affairs* * * James K. Polk: A Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress* James K. Polk's Personal Correspondence Shapell Manuscript Foundation* Inaugural Address of James K. Polk from The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School* President James K. Polk State Historic Site, Pineville, North Carolina from a State of North Carolina website* \"Life Portrait of James K. Polk\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', May 28, 1999" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 4" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===46 BC – Julius Caesar fights Titus Labienus in the Battle of Ruspina.", " 871 – Battle of Reading: Æthelred of Wessex and his brother Alfred are defeated by a Danish invasion army.===1601–1900===1642 – English Civil War: King Charles I, accompanied by 400 soldiers, attempts to arrest five members of Parliament for treason, only to discover the men had been tipped off and fled.", "1649 – English Civil War: The Rump Parliament votes to put Charles I on trial.", "1717 – The Netherlands, Great Britain, and France sign the Triple Alliance.", "1762 – Great Britain declares war on Spain, which meant the entry of Spain into the Seven Years' War.", "1798 – Constantine Hangerli arrives in Bucharest, Wallachia, as its new Prince, invested by the Ottoman Empire.", "1844 – The first issue of the Swedish-languaged ''Saima'' newspaper founded by J. V. Snellman is published in Kuopio, Finland.", "1853 – After having been kidnapped and sold into slavery in the American South, Solomon Northup regains his freedom; his memoir ''Twelve Years a Slave'' later becomes a national bestseller.", "1854 – The McDonald Islands are discovered by Captain William McDonald aboard the ''Samarang''.", "1863 – The New Apostolic Church, a Christian and chiliastic church, is established in Hamburg, Germany.", "1878 – Russo-Turkish War (1877–78): Sofia is liberated from Ottoman rule.", "1884 – The Fabian Society is founded in London, United Kingdom.", "1885 – Sino-French War: French troops under General Oscar de Négrier defeat a numerically superior Qing force at Núi Bop in northern Vietnam.", "1896 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state.===1901–present===1903 – Topsy, an elephant, is electrocuted by the owners of Luna Park, Coney Island.", "The Edison film company records the film ''Electrocuting an Elephant'' of Topsy's death.", "1909 – Explorer Aeneas Mackintosh of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition escaped death by fleeing across ice floes.", "1912 – The Scout Association is incorporated throughout the British Empire by royal charter.", "1918 – The Finnish Declaration of Independence is recognized by Russia, Sweden, Germany and France.", "1944 – World War II: Operation Carpetbagger, involving the dropping of arms and supplies to resistance fighters in Europe, begins.", "1946 – The first day of a three-day “disastrous” tornado outbreak across the south-central United States leaves 41 people dead and at least 412 others injured.", "1948 – Burma gains its independence from the United Kingdom, becoming an independent republic.", "1951 – Korean War: Chinese and North Korean forces capture Seoul for the second time.", "1956 – The Greek National Radical Union is formed by Konstantinos Karamanlis.", "1958 – Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, falls to Earth from orbit.", "1959 – ''Luna 1'' becomes the first spacecraft to reach the vicinity of the Moon.", "1972 – Rose Heilbron becomes the first female judge to sit at the Old Bailey in London, UK.", "1975 – This date overflowed the 12-bit field that had been used in TOPS-10.There were numerous problems and crashes related to this bug while an alternative format was developed.", "1976 – The Troubles: The Ulster Volunteer Force shoots dead six Irish Catholic civilians in County Armagh, Northern Ireland.", "The next day, gunmen would shoot dead ten Protestant civilians nearby in retaliation.", "1987 – The Maryland train collision: An Amtrak train ''en route'' to Boston from Washington, D.C., collides with Conrail engines in Chase, Maryland, United States, killing 16 people.", "1989 – Second Gulf of Sidra incident: A pair of Libyan MiG-23 \"Floggers\" are shot down by a pair of US Navy F-14 Tomcats during an air-to-air confrontation.", "1990 – In Pakistan's deadliest train accident an overloaded passenger train collides with an empty freight train, resulting in 307 deaths and 700 injuries.", "1998 – A massive ice storm hits eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, continuing through January 10 and causing widespread destruction.", "1999 – Former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura is sworn in as governor of Minnesota, United States.", "2000 – A Norwegian passenger train departing from Trondheim, collides with a local train coming from Hamar in Åsta, Åmot; 19 people are killed and 68 injured in the accident.", "2004 – ''Spirit'', a NASA Mars rover, lands successfully on Mars at 04:35 UTC.", "* 2004 – Mikheil Saakashvili is elected President of Georgia following the November 2003 Rose Revolution.", "2006 – Ehud Olmert becomes acting Prime Minister of Israel after the incumbent, Ariel Sharon, suffers a second, apparently more serious stroke.", "2007 – The 110th United States Congress convenes, electing Nancy Pelosi as the first female Speaker of the House in U.S.", "history.", "2008 – A Let L-410 Turbolet crashes in the Los Roques Archipelago in Venezuela, killing 14 people.", "2010 – The Burj Khalifa, the current tallest building in the world, officially opens in Dubai.", "2013 – A gunman kills eight people in a house-to-house rampage in Kawit, Cavite, Philippines.", "2018 – Hennenman–Kroonstad train crash: A passenger train operated by Shosholoza Meyl collides with a truck on a level crossing at Geneva Station between Hennenman and Kroonstad, Free State, South Africa.", "Twenty people are killed and 260 injured." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 659 – Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (d.680)1077 – Emperor Zhezong of China (d. 1100)1334 – Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy (d. 1383)1467 – Bodo VIII, Count of Stolberg-Wernigerode (d. 1538)1581 – James Ussher, Irish archbishop and historian (d. 1656)===1601–1900===1643 (NS) – Isaac Newton, English mathematician and physicist (d. 1726/27)1654 – Lars Roberg, Swedish physician and academic (d. 1742)1672 – Hugh Boulter, English-Irish archbishop (d. 1742)1710 – Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer, violinist, and organist (d. 1736)1720 – Johann Friedrich Agricola, German organist and composer (d. 1774)1731 – Karl Abraham Zedlitz, Prussian minister of education (d. 1793)1785 – Jacob Grimm, German philologist and mythologist (d. 1863)1809 – Louis Braille, French educator, invented Braille (d. 1852)1813 – Isaac Pitman, English linguist and educator (d. 1897)1832 – George Tryon, English admiral (d. 1893)1838 – General Tom Thumb, American circus performer (d. 1883)1839 – Carl Humann, German archaeologist, architect, and engineer (d. 1896)1848 – Katsura Tarō, Japanese general and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1913)1858 – Carter Glass, American publisher and politician, 47th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1946)1864 – Clara Emilia Smitt, Swedish doctor and author (d. 1928)1869 – Tommy Corcoran, American baseball player and umpire (d. 1960)1874 – Josef Suk, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1935)1877 – Gibson Gowland, English film actor (d. 1951)* 1877 – Marsden Hartley, American painter and poet (d. 1943)1878 – A. E. Coppard, English poet and short story writer (d. 1957) 1878 – Augustus John, Welsh painter and illustrator (d. 1961)1881 – Wilhelm Lehmbruck, German sculptor (d. 1919)1883 – Max Eastman, American author and poet (d. 1969)* 1883 – Johanna Westerdijk, Dutch pathologist and academic (d. 1961)1884 – Guy Pène du Bois, American painter, critic, and educator (d. 1958)1889 – M. Patanjali Sastri, Indian lawyer and jurist, 2nd Chief Justice of India (d. 1963)1891 – Edward Brooker, English-Australian sergeant and politician, 31st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1948)1895 – Leroy Grumman, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Grumman Aeronautical Engineering Co. (d. 1982)1896 – Everett Dirksen, American politician (d. 1969) 1896 – André Masson, French painter and illustrator (d. 1987)1897 – Chen Cheng, Chinese politician, Vice President of the Republic of China (d. 1965)1900 – James Bond, American ornithologist and zoologist (d. 1989)===1901–present===1901 – C. L. R. James, Trinidadian journalist and theorist (d. 1989)1902 – John A. McCone, American businessman and politician, 6th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 1991)1913 – Malietoa Tanumafili II, Samoan ruler (d. 2007)1916 – Lionel Newman, American pianist and composer (d. 1989)* 1916 – Robert Parrish, American actor and director (d. 1995)1920 – William Colby, American intelligence officer, 10th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 1996) 1920 – Rosalie Crutchley, British actress (d. 1997)1924 – Marianne Werner, German shot putter (d. 2023) 1925 – Veikko Hakulinen, Finnish skier and technician (d. 2003)1927 – Paul Desmarais, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013) 1927 – Barbara Rush, American actress1929 – Günter Schabowski, German journalist and politician (d. 2015)1930 – Sorrell Booke, American actor and director (d. 1994)* 1930 – Don Shula, American football player and coach (d. 2020)1931 – William Deane, Australian judge and politician, 22nd Governor-General of Australia 1931 – Nora Iuga, Romanian poet, writer and translator1932 – Carlos Saura, Spanish director and screenwriter (d. 2023)1934 – Rudolf Schuster, Slovak politician, 2nd President of Slovakia1935 – Floyd Patterson, American boxer (d. 2006)1937 – Grace Bumbry, American operatic soprano (d. 2023)* 1937 – Dyan Cannon, American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter1938 – Jim Norton, Irish stage, film and television actor1940 – Brian Josephson, Welsh physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1940 – Gao Xingjian, Chinese novelist, playwright, and critic, Nobel Prize laureate1941 – George P. Cosmatos, Italian-Canadian director and screenwriter (d. 2005) 1941 – Kalpnath Rai, Indian politician (d. 1999)1942 – Bolaji Akinyemi, Nigerian political scientist, academic, and politician 1942 – Jim Downing, American race car driver and inventor* 1942 – John McLaughlin, English guitarist and songwriter 1943 – Doris Kearns Goodwin, American historian and author 1943 – Hwang Sok-yong, South Korean author and educator1944 – Gary Stevens, Australian rugby league player 1944 – Alan Sutherland, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2020)1945 – Vesa-Matti Loiri, Finnish actor, musician and comedian (d. 2022) 1945 – Richard R. Schrock, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1946 – Arthur Conley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003)1947 – Chris Cutler, English percussionist, lyricist and music theorist* 1947 – Marie-Thérèse Letablier, French sociologist and academic1948 – Kostas Davourlis, Greek footballer (d. 1992) 1948 – Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé, Malian civil servant and politician, Prime Minister of Mali (d. 2021)1949 – Mick Mills, English footballer and manager 1949 – Bwanga Tshimen, Congolese footballer1950 – Khondakar Ashraf Hossain, Bangladesh poet and academic (d. 2013)1953 – Norberto Alonso, Argentinian footballer1954 – Rob Kerin, Australian politician, 43rd Premier of South Australia 1954 – Tina Knowles, American fashion designer, founded House of Deréon1956 – Tom Borton, American jazz saxophonist, songwriter and composer (d. 2011) 1956 – Zehava Gal-On, Israeli politician* 1956 – Ann Magnuson, American actress and performance artist* 1956 – Bernard Sumner, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1957 – Patty Loveless, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1958 – Matt Frewer, American-Canadian actor* 1958 – Julian Sands, English actor (d. 2023)1960 – Gavin Miller, Australian rugby league player 1960 – Michael Stipe, American singer-songwriter and producer 1961 – Sidney Green, American basketball player and coach 1961 – Cliff Levingston, American basketball player and coach* 1961 – Graham McTavish, Scottish actor and author1962 – Joe Kleine, American basketball player and coach1963 – Dave Foley, Canadian comedian, actor, director, and producer* 1963 – Till Lindemann, German singer, songwriter, and poet* 1963 – Martina Proeber, German diver1964 – Susan Devoy, New Zealand squash player 1964 – Dot-Marie Jones, American actress and athlete* 1964 – Adrian Shelford, New Zealand rugby league player (d. 2003)1965 – Guy Forget, French tennis player 1965 – Craig Revel Horwood, Australian-English dancer, choreographer, and director* 1965 – Julia Ormond, English actress and producer1966 – Deana Carter, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1967 – Johnny Nelson, English boxer and sportscaster* 1967 – David Toms, American golfer and philanthropist* 1967 – David Wilson, Australian rugby player1969 – Corie Blount, American basketball player 1969 – Kees van Wonderen, Dutch footballer and manager1970 – Josh Stamberg, American actor1971 – Shane Walker, Australian rugby league player* 1971 – Colin Ward, Australian rugby league player1973 – Frank Høj, Danish cyclist1974 – Danilo Hondo, German cyclist\t1975 – Shane Carwin, American mixed martial artist and wrestler 1975 – Paul Watson, English footballer and physiotherapist1976 – Ted Lilly, American baseball player1978 – Dominik Hrbatý, Slovak tennis player1979 – Shergo Biran, German footballer\t 1979 – Tristan Gommendy, French racing driver1980 – D'Arcy Carden, American actress and comedian 1980 – Miguel Monteiro, Portuguese footballer* 1980 – Justin Ontong, South African cricketer1982 – Richard Logan, English footballer 1982 – Danny Sullivan, Australian rugby league player1983 – Will Bynum, American basketball player 1983 – Richard Rankin, Scottish film, television and theatre actor1984 – Jiří Hudler, Czech ice hockey player1985 – Lenora Crichlow, British actress* 1985 – Kari Aalvik Grimsbø, Norwegian handball player* 1985 – Gökhan Gönül, Turkish footballer* 1985 – Al Jefferson, American basketball player1986 – Younès Kaboul, French footballer 1986 – Andrei Krauchanka, Belarusian decathlete* 1986 – James Milner, English footballer* 1986 – Charlyne Yi, American actor, comedian, musician, and writer1987 – Marissa Coleman, American basketball player 1987 – Kay Voser, Swiss footballer1988 – Anestis Argyriou, Greek footballer 1988 – Maximilian Riedmüller, German footballer1989 – Kevin Pillar, American baseball player 1989 – Graham Rahal, American race car driver1990 – Iago Falque, Spanish footballer 1990 – Raisel Iglesias, Cuban baseball player* 1990 – Toni Kroos, German footballer* 1990 – Alberto Paloschi, Italian footballer1991 – Charles Melton, American actor1992 – Kris Bryant, American baseball player1993 – James Michael McAdoo, American basketball player 1993 – Mahmoud Metwalli, Egyptian footballer1994 – Derrick Henry, American football player1996 – Michael Dickson, Australian gridiron football player* 1996 – Jackson Hastings, Australian rugby league player* 1996 – Jasmine Paolini, Italian tennis player1997 – Ante Žižić, Croatian basketball player 1998 – Coco Jones, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1998 – Arnoldas Kulboka, Lithuanian basketball player* 1998 – Liza Soberano, Filipina actress1999 – Nico Hischier, Swiss ice hockey player 1999 – Jaeman Salmon, Australian rugby league player* 1999 – Collin Sexton, American basketball player2003 – Jaeden Martell, American actor2004 – Victor Wembanyama, French basketball player2005 – Dafne Keen, British-Spanish actress 2005 – Rob Dillingham, American basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 871 – Æthelwulf, Saxon ealdorman* 874 – Hasan al-Askari, eleventh of the Twelve Imams (probable; b.", "846)1248 – Sancho II of Portugal (b.", "1209)1344 – Robert de Lisle, 1st Baron Lisle, English peer (b.", "1288)1399 – Nicholas Eymerich, Catalan theologian and inquisitor1424 – Muzio Sforza, Italian condottiero (b.", "1369)1428 – Frederick I, Elector of Saxony (b.", "1370)1584 – Tobias Stimmer, Swiss painter and illustrator (b.", "1539)===1601–1900===1604 – Ferenc Nádasdy, Hungarian noble (b.", "1555)1695 – François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg, French general (b.", "1628)1761 – Stephen Hales, English clergyman and physiologist (b.", "1677)1782 – Ange-Jacques Gabriel, French architect, designed École Militaire (b.", "1698)1786 – Moses Mendelssohn, German philosopher and theologian (b.", "1729)1804 – Charlotte Lennox, English author and poet (b.", "1730)1821 – Elizabeth Ann Seton, American nun and saint (b.", "1774)1825 – Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (b.", "1751)1863 – Roger Hanson, American general (b.", "1827)1874 – Thomas Gregson, English-Australian lawyer and politician, 2nd Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1798)1877 – Cornelius Vanderbilt, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1794)1880 – Anselm Feuerbach, German painter and educator (b.", "1829)* 1880 – Edward William Cooke, English painter and illustrator (b.", "1811)1882 – John William Draper, English-American physician, chemist, and photographer (b.", "1811)1883 – Antoine Chanzy, French general (b.", "1823)1891 – Antoine Labelle, Canadian priest (b.", "1833)1896 – Joseph Hubert Reinkens, German bishop and academic (b.", "1821)1900 – Stanisław Mieroszewski, Polish-born politician, writer, historian and member of the Imperial Council of Austria (b.", "1827)===1901–present===1904 – Anna Winlock, American astronomer and academic (b.", "1857)1910 – Léon Delagrange, French pilot and sculptor (b.", "1873)1912 – Clarence Dutton, American geologist and soldier (b.", "1841)1919 – Georg von Hertling, German academic and politician, 7th Chancellor of the German Empire (b.", "1843)1920 – Benito Pérez Galdós, Spanish author and playwright (b.", "1843)1924 – Alfred Grünfeld, Austrian pianist and composer (b.", "1852)1925 – Nellie Cashman, American nurse, restaurateur, entrepreneur, and gold prospector (b.", "1845)1927 – Süleyman Nazif, Turkish poet and civil servant (b.", "1870)1931 – Art Acord, American actor and stuntman (b.", "1890)1931 – Louise, Princess Royal of the United Kingdom (b.", "1867)1931 – Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Indian Muslim activist (b.", "1878)1941 – Henri Bergson, French philosopher and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1859)1943 – Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz, Greek-Polish swimmer and water polo player (b.", "1911)* 1943 – Marina Raskova, Russian pilot and navigator (b.", "1912)1944 – Kaj Munk, Danish playwright and pastor (b.", "1898)1960 – Albert Camus, French novelist, philosopher, and journalist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1913)1961 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1887)1965 – T. S. Eliot, American-English poet, playwright, and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1888)1967 – Donald Campbell, English racing driver and world speed record holder (b.", "1921)1969 – Paul Chambers, American bassist and composer (b.", "1935)1975 – Carlo Levi, Italian painter, author, and activist (b.", "1902)1985 – Brian Horrocks, Indian-English general (b.", "1895)1986 – Christopher Isherwood, English-American author and academic (b.", "1904) 1986 – Phil Lynott, Irish singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (b.", "1949)1988 – Lily Laskine, French harp player (b.", "1893)1990 – Harold Eugene Edgerton, American engineer and academic (b.", "1903)* 1990 – Henry Bolte, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Victoria (b.", "1908)1994 – R. D. Burman, Indian film composer and music director (b.", "1939)1995 – Eduardo Mata, Mexican conductor and composer (b.", "1942)* 1995 – Sol Tax, American anthropologist and academic (b.", "1907)1997 – Harry Helmsley, American businessman (b.", "1909)1998 – Mae Questel, American actress (b.", "1908)1999 – Iron Eyes Cody, American actor and stuntman (b.", "1904)2001 – Les Brown, American bandleader and composer (b.", "1912)2004 – Brian Gibson, English director and screenwriter (b.", "1944) 2004 – Joan Aiken, English author (b.", "1924)* 2004 – John Toland, American historian and author (b.", "1912) 2005 – Bud Poile, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b.", "1924) 2005 – Frank Harary, American mathematician and academic (b.", "1921)* 2005 – Humphrey Carpenter, English radio host and author (b.", "1946)* 2005 – Robert Heilbroner, American economist and historian (b.", "1919)2006 – Irving Layton, Romanian-Canadian poet and academic (b.", "1912) 2006 – Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Emirati politician, 1st Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates (b.", "1946)* 2006 – Milton Himmelfarb, American sociographer, author, and academic (b.", "1918)2007 – Helen Hill, American director and producer (b.", "1970) 2007 – Marais Viljoen, South African politician, 5th State President of South Africa (b.", "1915)2008 – Xavier Chamorro Cardenal, Nicaraguan journalist (b.", "1932)2009 – Gert Jonke, Austrian poet, playwright, and author (b.", "1946)2010 – Johan Ferrier, Surinamese educator and politician, 1st President of Suriname (b.", "1910) 2010 – Tsutomu Yamaguchi, Japanese engineer (b.", "1916)2011 – Coen Moulijn, Dutch footballer (b.", "1937) 2011 – Gerry Rafferty, Scottish singer-songwriter (b.", "1947)* 2011 – Salmaan Taseer, Pakistani businessman and politician, 26th Governor of Punjab, Pakistan (b.", "1944)2012 – Eve Arnold, American photographer and journalist (b.", "1912) 2012 – Rod Robbie, English-Canadian architect, designed the Canadian Pavilion and Rogers Centre (b.", "1928)2013 – Anwar Shamim, Pakistani general (b.", "1931) 2013 – Zoran Žižić, Montenegrin politician, 4th Prime Minister of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (b.", "1951)2015 – Pino Daniele, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1955)2016 – S. H. Kapadia, Indian lawyer, judge, and politician, 38th Chief Justice of India (b.", "1947)* 2016 – Stephen W. Bosworth, American academic and diplomat, United States Ambassador to South Korea (b.", "1939)2017 – Milt Schmidt, Canadian ice hockey player, coach and general manager (b.", "1918) 2017 – Georges Prêtre, French orchestral and opera conductor (b.", "1924)2019 – Harold Brown, 14th United States Secretary of Defense (b.", "1927)2020 – Tom Long, Australian actor (b.", "1968)2021 – Tanya Roberts, American actress (b.", "1949)2023 – Rosi Mittermaier, German alpine skier and Olympic champion (b.", "1950)2024 – Glynis Johns, British actress and singer (b.", "1923) 2024 – David Soul, American-British actor and singer (b.", "1943)* 2024 – Christian Oliver, German actor (b.", "1972)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day: Angela of Foligno Elizabeth Ann Seton Ferréol of Uzès Mavilus Pharaildis of Ghent Rigobert** January 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* The eleventh of the Twelve Days of Christmas.", "(Western Christianity)* Independence Day (Myanmar), celebrates the independence of Myanmar from the United Kingdom in 1948.", "* Colonial Martyrs Repression Day (Angola)* Day of the Martyrs (Democratic Republic of the Congo)* Ogoni Day (Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People)Tokyo Dome Show: The annual Wrestle Kingdom event run by New Japan Pro-Wrestling World Braille Day" ], [ "Notes", "" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 4" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 6" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1066 – Following the death of Edward the Confessor on the previous day, the Witan meets to confirm Harold Godwinson as the new King of England; Harold is crowned the same day, sparking a succession crisis that will eventually lead to the Norman conquest of England.", "1205 – Philip of Swabia undergoes a second coronation as King of the Romans.", "1322 – Stephen Uroš III is crowned King of Serbia, having defeated his half-brother Stefan Konstantin in battle.", "His son is crowned \"young king\" in the same ceremony.", "1355 – Charles IV of Bohemia is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy as King of Italy in Milan.", "1449 – Constantine XI is crowned Byzantine Emperor at Mystras.", "1492 – The Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella enter Granada at the conclusion of the Granada War.", "1536 – The first European school of higher learning in the Americas, Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, is founded by Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and Bishop Juan de Zumárraga in Mexico City.", "1540 – King Henry VIII of England marries Anne of Cleves.", "1579 – The Union of Arras unites the southern Netherlands under the Duke of Parma (Ottavio Farnese), governor in the name of King Philip II of Spain.===1601–1900===1641 – Arauco War: The first Parliament of Quillín is celebrated, putting a temporary hold on hostilities between Mapuches and Spanish in Chile.", "1661 – English Restoration: The Fifth Monarchists unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London, England.", "The revolt is suppressed after a few days.", "1721 – The Committee of Inquiry on the South Sea Bubble publishes its findings, revealing details of fraud among company directors and corrupt politicians.", "1724 – ''Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen'', BWV 65, a Bach cantata, for Epiphany, is performed the first time.", "1781 – In the Battle of Jersey, the British defeat the last attempt by France to invade Jersey in the Channel Islands.", "1809 – Combined British, Portuguese and colonial Brazilian forces begin the Invasion of Cayenne during the Napoleonic Wars.", "1838 – Alfred Vail and colleagues demonstrate a telegraph system using dots and dashes (this is the forerunner of Morse code).", "1839 – The Night of the Big Wind, the most damaging storm in 300 years, sweeps across Ireland, damaging or destroying more than 20% of the houses in Dublin.", "1847 – Samuel Colt obtains his first contract for the sale of revolver pistols to the United States government.", "1870 – The inauguration of the Musikverein in Vienna, Austria.", "1893 – The Washington National Cathedral is chartered by Congress.", "The charter is signed by President Benjamin Harrison.", "1900 – Second Boer War: Having already besieged the fortress at Ladysmith, Boer forces attack it, but are driven back by British defenders.===1901–present===1907 – Maria Montessori opens her first school and daycare center for working class children in Rome, Italy.", "1912 – New Mexico is admitted to the Union as the 47th U.S.", "state.", " 1912 – German geophysicist Alfred Wegener first presents his theory of continental drift.", "1929 – King Alexander of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes suspends his country's constitution (the January 6th Dictatorship).", " 1929 – Mother Teresa arrives by sea in Calcutta, India, to begin her work among India's poorest and sick people.", "1930 – Clessie Cummins arrives at the National Automobile Show in New York City, having driven a car powered by one of his diesel engines from Indianapolis.", "1941 – United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt delivers his Four Freedoms speech in the State of the Union address.", "1946 – The first general election ever in Vietnam is held.", "1947 – Pan American Airlines becomes the first commercial airline to offer a round-the-world ticket.", "1950 – The United Kingdom recognizes the People's Republic of China.", "The Republic of China severs diplomatic relations with the UK in response.", "1951 – Korean War: Beginning of the Ganghwa massacre, in the course of which an estimated 200–1,300 South Korean communist sympathizers are slaughtered.", "1960 – National Airlines Flight 2511 is destroyed in mid-air by a bomb, while en route from New York City to Miami.", " 1960 – The Associations Law comes into force in Iraq, allowing registration of political parties.", "1967 – Vietnam War: United States Marine Corps and ARVN troops launch \"Operation Deckhouse Five\" in the Mekong River delta.", "1969 – Allegheny Airlines Flight 737 crashes in Lafayette Township, McKean County, Pennsylvania, United States, killing 11.", "1974 – In response to the 1973 oil crisis, daylight saving time commences nearly four months early in the United States.", "1989 – Satwant Singh and Kehar Singh are sentenced to death for conspiracy in the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi; the two men are executed the same day.", "1992 – President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia flees the country as a result of the military coup.", "1993 – Indian Border Security Force units kill 55 Kashmiri civilians in Sopore, Jammu and Kashmir, in revenge after militants ambushed a BSF patrol.", "* 1993 – Four people are killed when Lufthansa CityLine Flight 5634 crashes on approach to Charles de Gaulle Airport in Roissy-en-France, France.", "1994 – U.S. figure skater Nancy Kerrigan is attacked and injured by an assailant hired by her rival Tonya Harding's ex-husband during the U.S.", "Figure Skating Championships.", "1995 – A chemical fire in an apartment complex in Manila, Philippines, leads to the discovery of plans for Project Bojinka, a mass-terrorist attack.", "2000 – The last natural Pyrenean ibex, Celia, is killed by a falling tree, thus making the species extinct.", "2005 – Edgar Ray Killen is indicted for the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner during the American Civil Rights Movement.", "* 2005 – A train collision in Graniteville, South Carolina, United States, releases about 60 tons of chlorine gas.", "2012 – Twenty-six people are killed and 63 wounded when a suicide bomber blows himself up at a police station in Damascus.", "2017 – Five people are killed and six others injured in a mass shooting at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport in Broward County, Florida.", "2019 – Forty people are killed in a gold mine collapse in Badakhshan province, in northern Afghanistan.", " 2019 – Muhammad V of Kelantan resigns as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, becoming the first monarch to do so.", "2021 – Supporters of U.S. President Donald Trump attack the United States Capitol to disrupt certification of the 2020 presidential election, resulting in five deaths and evacuation of the U.S. Congress." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1256 – Gertrude the Great, German mystic (d. 1302)1367 – Richard II of England (d. 1400)1384 – Edmund Holland, 4th Earl of Kent (d. 1408)1412 – Joan of Arc, French martyr and saint (d. 1431)1486 – Martin Agricola, German composer and theorist (d. 1556)1488 – Helius Eobanus Hessus, German poet (d. 1540)1493 – Olaus Petri, Swedish clergyman (d. 1552)1500 – John of Ávila, Spanish mystic and saint (d. 1569)1525 – Caspar Peucer, German physician and scholar (d. 1602)1538 – Jane Dormer, Duchess of Feria (d. 1612)1561 – Thomas Fincke, Danish mathematician and physicist (d. 1656)1587 – Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares (d. 1645)1595 – Claude Favre de Vaugelas, French educator and courtier (d. 1650)===1601–1900===1617 – Christoffer Gabel, Danish politician (d. 1673)1632 – Anne Hamilton, 3rd Duchess of Hamilton, Scottish peeress (d. 1716)1655 – Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg (d. 1720)1673 – James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (d. 1744)1695 – Giuseppe Sammartini, Italian oboe player and composer (d. 1750)1702 – José de Nebra, Spanish composer (d. 1768)1714 – Percivall Pott, English surgeon (d. 1788)1745 – Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier, French co-inventor of the hot air balloon (d. 1799)1766 – José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguayan lawyer and politician, first dictator of Paraguay (d. 1840)1785 – Andreas Moustoxydis, Greek historian and philologist (d. 1860)1793 – James Madison Porter, American lawyer and politician, 18th United States Secretary of War (d. 1862)1795 – Anselme Payen, French chemist and academic (d. 1871)1799 – Jedediah Smith, American hunter, explorer, and author (d. 1831)1803 – Henri Herz, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1888)1807 – Joseph Petzval, German-Hungarian mathematician and physicist (d. 1891)1808 – Joseph Pitty Couthouy, American conchologist and paleontologist (d. 1864)1811 – Charles Sumner, American lawyer and politician (d. 1874)1822 – Heinrich Schliemann, German archaeologist and businessman (d. 1890)1832 – Gustave Doré, French painter and sculptor (d. 1883)1838 – Max Bruch, German composer and conductor (d. 1920)1842 – Clarence King, American geologist, mountaineer, and critic (d. 1901)1856 – Giuseppe Martucci, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1909)1857 – Hugh Mahon, Irish-Australian publisher and politician, 10th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1931) 1857 – William Russell, American lawyer and politician, 37th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1896)1859 – Samuel Alexander, Australian-English philosopher and academic (d. 1938)1860 – Morton Selten, British actor (d. 1939)1861 – Victor Horta, Belgian architect, designed Hôtel van Eetvelde (d. 1947) 1861 – George Lloyd, English-Canadian bishop and theologian (d. 1940)1870 – Gustav Bauer, German journalist and politician, 11th Chancellor of Germany (d. 1944)1872 – Alexander Scriabin, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1915)1874 – Fred Niblo, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1948)1878 – Adeline Genée, Danish-born British ballerina (d. 1970)* 1878 – Carl Sandburg, American poet and historian (d. 1967)1880 – Tom Mix, American cowboy and actor (d. 1940)1881 – Ion Minulescu, Romanian author, poet, and critic (d. 1944)1882 – Fan S. Noli, Albanian-American bishop and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Albania (d. 1965) 1882 – Sam Rayburn, American lawyer and politician, 48th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1961)1883 – Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-American poet, painter, and philosopher (d. 1931)1891 – Ted McDonald, Australian cricketer (d. 1937)1898 – James Fitzmaurice, Irish soldier and pilot (d. 1965)1899 – Heinrich Nordhoff, German engineer (d. 1968)1900 – Maria of Yugoslavia, Queen of Yugoslavia (d. 1961)===1901–present===1903 – Maurice Abravanel, Greek-American pianist and conductor (d. 1993)1910 – Kid Chocolate, Cuban boxer (d. 1988) 1910 – Wright Morris, American author and photographer (d. 1998)* 1910 – Yiannis Papaioannou, Greek composer and educator (d. 1989)1912 – Jacques Ellul, French philosopher and critic (d. 1994) 1912 – Danny Thomas, American actor, comedian, producer, and humanitarian (d. 1991)1913 – Edward Gierek, Polish lawyer and politician (d. 2001) 1913 – Loretta Young, American actress (d. 2000)1914 – Godfrey Edward Arnold, Austrian-American physician and academic (d. 1989)1915 – Don Edwards, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2015)* 1915 – John C. Lilly, American psychoanalyst, physician, and philosopher (d. 2001)* 1915 – Alan Watts, English-American philosopher and author (d. 1973)1916 – Park Mok-wol, influential Korean poet and academic (d. 1978)1917 – Koo Chen-fu, Taiwanese businessman and diplomat (d. 2005)1920 – Henry Corden, Canadian-born American actor (d. 2005) 1920 – John Maynard Smith, English biologist and geneticist (d. 2004)* 1920 – Sun Myung Moon, Korean religious leader; founder of the Unification Church (d. 2012)* 1920 – Early Wynn, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1999)1921 – Marianne Grunberg-Manago, Russian-French biochemist and academic (d. 2013) 1921 – Cary Middlecoff, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 1998)1923 – Vladimir Kazantsev, Russian runner (d. 2007) 1923 – Norman Kirk, New Zealand engineer and politician, 29th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1974)* 1923 – Jacobo Timerman, Argentinian journalist and author (d. 1999)1924 – Kim Dae-jung, South Korean soldier and politician, 8th President of South Korea, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2009) 1924 – Earl Scruggs, American banjo player (d. 2012)1925 – John DeLorean, American engineer and businessman, founded the DeLorean Motor Company (d. 2005)1926 – Ralph Branca, American baseball player (d. 2016)* 1926 – Pat Flaherty, American race car driver (d. 2002)* 1926 – Mickey Hargitay, Hungarian-American actor and bodybuilder (d. 2006)1927 – Jesse Leonard Steinfeld, American physician and academic, 11th Surgeon General of the United States (d. 2014)1928 – Capucine, French actress and model (d. 1990)1930 – Vic Tayback, American actor (d. 1990)1931 – E. L. Doctorow, American novelist, playwright, and short story writer (d. 2015)* 1931 – Graeme Hole, Australian cricketer (d. 1990)* 1931 – Dickie Moore, Canadian ice hockey player and businessman (d. 2015)1932 – Simon Oates, English actor (d. 2009) 1932 – Stuart A.", "Rice, American chemist and academic1933 – John Clive, English actor and author (d. 2012) 1933 – Oleg Grigoryevich Makarov, Russian engineer and astronaut (d. 2003)1934 – Harry M. Miller, New Zealand-Australian talent agent and publicist (d. 2018) 1934 – Sylvia Syms, English actress (d. 2023)1935 – Ian Meckiff, Australian cricketer 1935 – Nino Tempo, American musician, singer, and actor1936 – Darlene Hard, American tennis player (d. 2021) 1936 – Julio María Sanguinetti, Uruguayan journalist, lawyer, and politician, 29th President of Uruguay1937 – Ludvík Daněk, Czech discus thrower (d. 1998) 1937 – Lou Holtz, American football player, coach, and sportscaster* 1937 – Doris Troy, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)1938 – Adriano Celentano, Italian singer-songwriter, actor, and director 1938 – Adrienne Clarke, Australian botanist and academic* 1938 – Larisa Shepitko, Soviet film director, screenwriter, and actress (d. 1979)1939 – Valeriy Lobanovskyi, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2002) 1939 – Murray Rose, English-Australian swimmer and sportscaster (d. 2012)1940 – Van McCoy, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1979)1943 – Terry Venables, English footballer and manager (d. 2023)1944 – Bonnie Franklin, American actress and singer (d. 2013) 1944 – Alan Stivell, French singer-songwriter and harp player* 1944 – Rolf M. Zinkernagel, Swiss immunologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1945 – Barry John, Welsh rugby player1946 – Syd Barrett, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006)1947 – Sandy Denny, English folk-rock singer-songwriter (d. 1978)1948 – Guy Gardner, American colonel and astronaut* 1948 – Dayle Hadlee, New Zealand cricketer1949 – Mike Boit, Kenyan runner and academic 1949 – Carolyn D. Wright, American poet and academic (d. 2016) 1950 – Louis Freeh, American lawyer and jurist, 10th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation1951 – Don Gullett, American baseball player and coach* 1951 – Kim Wilson, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player1953 – Malcolm Young, Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2017)1954 – Anthony Minghella, English director and screenwriter (d. 2008)1955 – Rowan Atkinson, English actor, producer, and screenwriter1956 – Elizabeth Strout, American novelist and short story writer* 1956 – Justin Welby, English archbishop* 1956 – Clive Woodward, English rugby player and coach1957 – Michael Foale, British-American astrophysicist and astronaut 1957 – Nancy Lopez, American golfer and sportscaster1958 – Shlomo Glickstein, Israeli tennis player1959 – Kapil Dev, Indian cricketer1960 – Paul Azinger, American golfer and sportscaster 1960 – Kari Jalonen, Finnish ice hockey player and coach* 1960 – Nigella Lawson, English chef and author* 1960 – Howie Long, American football player and sports commentator1961 – Georges Jobé, Belgian motocross racer (d. 2012) 1961 – Nigel Melville, English rugby player* 1961 – Peter Whittle, British politician, author, journalist, and broadcaster1963 – Norm Charlton, American baseball player and coach 1963 – Paul Kipkoech, Kenyan runner (d. 1995)1964 – Charles Haley, American football player 1964 – Jyrki Kasvi, Finnish journalist and politician (d. 2021)* 1964 – Jacqueline Moore, American wrestler and manager1965 – Bjørn Lomborg, Danish author and academic1966 – Sharon Cuneta, Filipino singer and actress* 1966 – Attilio Lombardo, Italian footballer and manager1967 – A. R. Rahman, Indian composer, singer-songwriter, music producer, musician, and philanthropist1968 – John Singleton, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019)1969 – Norman Reedus, American actor and model1969 – Aron Eisenberg, American actor and podcaster (d. 2019)1970 – Julie Chen, American television journalist, presenter, and producer 1970 – Radoslav Látal, Czech footballer and manager* 1970 – Gabrielle Reece, American volleyball player, sportscaster, and actress1971 – Irwin Thomas, American-Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist1973 – Vasso Karantasiou, Greek beach volleyball player1974 – Marlon Anderson, American baseball player and sportscaster 1974 – Daniel Cordone, Argentinian footballer* 1974 – Paul Grant, American basketball player and coach1975 – James Farrior, American football player1976 – Johan Davidsson, Swedish ice hockey player* 1976 – Danny Pintauro, American actor* 1976 – Richard Zedník, Slovak ice hockey player1978 – Casey Fossum, American baseball player\t 1978 – Bubba Franks, American football player1981 – Rinko Kikuchi, Japanese actress\t\t\t 1981 – Asante Samuel, American football player1982 – Gilbert Arenas, American basketball player 1982 – Roy Asotasi, New Zealand rugby league player* 1982 – Tiffany Pollard, American television personality* 1982 – Eddie Redmayne, English actor and model1983 – Adam Burish, American ice hockey player 1983 – Chen Nan, Chinese basketball player1984 – A. J. Hawk, American football player and analyst 1984 – Kate McKinnon, American actress and comedian* 1984 – Eric Trump, American businessman1986 – Paul McShane, Irish footballer 1986 – Petter Northug, Norwegian skier* 1986 – Alex Turner, English singer, songwriter, and musician1987 – Arin Hanson, American YouTuber 1987 – Bongani Khumalo, South African footballer* 1987 – Ndamukong Suh, American football player1989 – Andy Carroll, English footballer 1989 – Derrick Morgan, American football player1990 – Sean Kilpatrick, American basketball player1991 – Will Barton, American basketball player* 1991 – Kevin Gausman, American baseball player1992 – Corey Conners, Canadian professional golfer1993 – Pat Connaughton, American basketball player1994 – Catriona Gray, Filipino-Australian model, singer and beauty queen, Miss Universe 2018 1994 – Jameis Winston, American football player1999 – Polo G, American rapper 1999 – Mac McClung, American basketball player2000 – Kwon Eun-bin, South Korean singer and actress 2000 – Jack McBain, Canadian ice hockey player2001 – Kenyon Martin Jr., American basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 786 – Abo of Tiflis, Iraqi martyr and saint (b.", "756)1088 – Berengar of Tours, French scholar and theologian (b.", "999)1148 – Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke (b.", "1100)1233 – Matilda of Chester, Countess of Huntingdon, Anglo-Norman noblewoman (b.", "1171)1275 – Raymond of Penyafort, Catalan archbishop and saint (b.", "1175)1350 – Giovanni I di Murta, second doge of the Republic of Genoa1358 – Gertrude van der Oosten, Beguine mystic1406 – Roger Walden, English bishop1448 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (b.", "1418)1477 – Jean VIII, Count of Vendôme (b.", "1425)1478 – Uzun Hasan, 9th Shahanshah of the Turkoman Aq Qoyunlu dynasty (b.", "1423)1481 – Ahmed Khan bin Küchük, Mongolian ruler1537 – Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence (b.", "1510)* 1537 – Baldassare Peruzzi, Italian architect and painter, designed the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne (b.", "1481)===1601–1900===1616 – Philip Henslowe, English impresario (b.", "1550)1646 – Elias Holl, German architect, designed the Augsburg Town Hall (b.", "1573)1689 – Seth Ward, English bishop, mathematician, and astronomer (b.", "1617)1693 – Mehmed IV, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1642)1711 – Philips van Almonde, Dutch admiral (b.", "1646)1718 – Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, Italian lawyer and jurist (b.", "1664)1725 – Chikamatsu Monzaemon, Japanese actor and playwright (b.", "1653)1731 – Étienne François Geoffroy, French physician and chemist (b.", "1672)1734 – John Dennis, English playwright and critic (b.", "1657)1813 – Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers, French general (b.", "1764)1829 – Josef Dobrovský, Czech philologist and historian (b.", "1753)1831 – Rodolphe Kreutzer, French violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1766)1840 – Frances Burney, English author and playwright (b.", "1752)1852 – Louis Braille, French educator, invented Braille (b.", "1809)1855 – Giacomo Beltrami, Italian jurist, explorer, and author (b.", "1779)1882 – Richard Henry Dana Jr., American lawyer and politician (b.", "1815)1884 – Gregor Mendel, Czech geneticist and botanist (b.", "1822)1885 – Bharatendu Harishchandra, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1850)1896 – Thomas W. Knox, American journalist and author (b.", "1835)===1901–present===1902 – Lars Hertervig, Norwegian painter (b.", "1830)1913 – Frederick Hitch, English soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1856)1917 – Hendrick Peter Godfried Quack, Dutch economist and historian (b.", "1834)1918 – Georg Cantor, German mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1845)1919 – Theodore Roosevelt, American colonel and politician, 26th President of the United States (b.", "1858)1921 – Devil Anse Hatfield, American guerrilla leader (b.", "1839)1922 – Jakob Rosanes, Ukrainian-German mathematician and chess player (b.", "1842)1928 – Alvin Kraenzlein, American hurdler and long jumper (b.", "1876) 1928 – Wilhelm Ramsay, Finnish geologist and professor (b.", "1865)1933 – Vladimir de Pachmann, Ukrainian-German pianist (b.", "1848)1934 – Herbert Chapman, English footballer and manager (b.", "1878)1937 – André Bessette, Canadian saint (b.", "1845)1939 – Gustavs Zemgals, Latvian journalist and politician, 2nd President of Latvia (b.", "1871)1941 – Charley O'Leary, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1882)1942 – Emma Calvé, French soprano and actress (b.", "1858)* 1942 – Henri de Baillet-Latour, Belgian businessman, 3rd President of the International Olympic Committee (b.", "1876)1944 – Jacques Rosenbaum, Estonian-German architect (b.", "1878) 1944 – Ida Tarbell, American journalist, reformer, and educator (b.", "1857)1945 – Vladimir Vernadsky, Russian mineralogist and chemist (b.", "1863)1949 – Victor Fleming, American director, producer, and cinematographer (b.", "1883)1966 – Jean Lurçat, French painter (b.", "1892)1972 – Chen Yi, Chinese general and politician, 2nd Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China (b.", "1901)1974 – David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican painter (b.", "1896)1978 – Burt Munro, New Zealand motorcycle racer (b.", "1899)1981 – A. J. Cronin, Scottish physician and author (b.", "1896)1984 – Ernest Laszlo, Hungarian-American cinematographer (b.", "1898)1990 – Ian Charleson, Scottish-English actor (b.", "1949) 1990 – Pavel Cherenkov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1904)1991 – Alan Wiggins, American baseball player (b.", "1958)1992 – Steve Gilpin, New Zealand vocalist and songwriter (b.", "1949)1993 – Dizzy Gillespie, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (b.", "1917) 1993 – Rudolf Nureyev, Russian-French dancer and choreographer (b.", "1938)1995 – Joe Slovo, Lithuanian-South African lawyer and politician (b.", "1926)1999 – Michel Petrucciani, French-American pianist (b.", "1962)2004 – Pierre Charles, Dominican educator and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Dominica (b.", "1954)2005 – Eileen Desmond, Irish civil servant and politician, 12th Irish Minister for Health (b.", "1932)* 2005 – Lois Hole, Canadian academic and politician, 15th Lieutenant Governor of Alberta (b.", "1929)* 2005 – Tarquinio Provini, Italian motorcycle racer (b.", "1933)2006 – Lou Rawls, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1933)2007 – Roberta Wohlstetter, American political scientist, historian, and academic (b.", "1912)2008 – Shmuel Berenbaum, Rabbi of Mir Yeshiva (Brooklyn) (b.", "1920)2009 – Ron Asheton, American guitarist, songwriter, and actor (probable; b.", "1948)2011 – Uche Okafor, Nigerian footballer, coach, and sportscaster (b.", "1967)2012 – Bob Holness, South African-English radio and television host (b.", "1928)* 2012 – Spike Pola, Australian footballer and soldier (b.", "1914)2013 – Ruth Carter Stevenson, American art collector, founded the Amon Carter Museum of American Art (b.", "1923) 2013 – Gerard Helders, Dutch jurist and politician (b.", "1905)* 2013 – Cho Sung-min, South Korean baseball player (b.", "1973)2014 – Marina Ginestà, French Resistance soldier and photographer (b.", "1919) 2014 – Nelson Ned, Brazilian singer-songwriter (b.", "1947)* 2014 – Julian Rotter, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1916)2015 – Arthur Jackson, American lieutenant and target shooter (b.", "1918) 2015 – Basil John Mason, English meteorologist and academic (b.", "1923)2016 – Pat Harrington, Jr., American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1929) 2016 – Florence King, American journalist and author (b.", "1936)* 2016 – Christy O'Connor Jnr, Irish golfer and architect (b.", "1948)* 2016 – Silvana Pampanini, Italian model, actress, and director, Miss Italy 1946 (b.", "1925)2017 – Octavio Lepage, Venezuelan politician, President of Venezuela (b.", "1923) 2017 – Om Puri, Indian actor (b.", "1950)2019 – José Ramón Fernández, Cuban revolution leader (b.", "1923) 2019 – Lamin Sanneh, Gambian-born American professor (b.", "1942)* 2019 – W. Morgan Sheppard, British actor (b.", "1932)* 2019 – Paul Streeten, Austrian-born British economics professor (b.", "1917)2020 – Richard Maponya, South African businessman (b.", "1920) 2020 – Gordon Renwick, Canadian ice hockey administrator and businessman (b.", "1935)2021 – James Cross, British diplomat kidnapped during the 1970 October crisis in Québec (b.", "1921)2022 – Peter Bogdanovich, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1939)2022 – Sidney Poitier, Bahamian-American actor, director, and diplomat (b.", "1927) 2022 – Francisco Sionil Jose, Philippine novelist (b.", "1924)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Armed Forces Day (Iraq)* Christian Feast day: André Bessette (Roman Catholic Church) January 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Christmas: Christmas (Armenian Apostolic Church) Christmas Eve (Russia) Christmas Eve (Ukraine) Christmas Eve (Bosnia and Herzegovina)** Christmas Eve (North Macedonia)* Epiphany or Three Kings' Day (Western Christianity) or Theophany (Eastern Christianity), and its related observances: Befana Day (Italy) Little Christmas (Ireland)** Þrettándinn (Iceland)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 6" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 7" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===49 BC – The Senate of Rome says that Caesar will be declared a public enemy unless he disbands his army, prompting the tribunes who support him to flee to where Caesar is waiting in Ravenna.", "1325 – Afonso IV becomes King of Portugal.", "1558 – French troops, led by Francis, Duke of Guise, take Calais, the last continental possession of England.===1601–1900===1608 – Fire destroys Jamestown, Virginia.", "1610 – Galileo Galilei makes his first observation of the four Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto, Io and Europa, although he is not able to distinguish the last two until the following night.", "1708 – Battle of Zlatoust: Battle between Bashkir and Tatar rebels and the government troops of the Tsardom of Russia.", "It is one of the events of the Bashkir rebellion of 1704–1711.", "1708 – Bashkir rebels besiege Yelabuga.", "1738 – A peace treaty is signed between Peshwa Bajirao and Jai Singh II following Maratha victory in the Battle of Bhopal.", "1782 – The first American commercial bank, the Bank of North America, opens.", "1785 – Frenchman Jean-Pierre Blanchard and American John Jeffries travel from Dover, England, to Calais, France, in a gas balloon.", "1835 – , with Charles Darwin on board, drops anchor off the Chonos Archipelago.", "1867 – The Kingstree jail fire kills 22 freedmen in Reconstruction-era South Carolina.", "1894 – Thomas Edison makes a kinetoscopic film of someone sneezing.", "On the same day, his employee, William Kennedy Dickson, receives a patent for motion picture film.===1901–present===1904 – The distress signal \"CQD\" is established only to be replaced two years later by \"SOS\".", "1907 – A workers riot in Rio Blanco, Veracruz leaves many people dead and injured while demanding better working conditions.", "1919 – Montenegrin guerrilla fighters rebel against the planned annexation of Montenegro by Serbia, but fail.", "1920 – The New York State Assembly refuses to seat five duly elected Socialist assemblymen.", "1922 – Dáil Éireann ratifies the Anglo-Irish Treaty by a 64–57 vote.", "1927 – The first transatlantic commercial telephone service is established from New York City to London.", "1928 – A disastrous flood of the River Thames kills 14 people and causes extensive damage to much of riverside London.", "1931 – Guy Menzies flies the first solo non-stop trans-Tasman flight (from Australia to New Zealand) in 11 hours and 45 minutes, crash-landing on New Zealand's west coast.", "1935 – Benito Mussolini and French Foreign minister Pierre Laval sign the Franco-Italian Agreement.", "1940 – Winter War: Battle of Raate Road: The Finnish 9th Division finally defeat the numerically superior Soviet forces on the Raate-Suomussalmi road.", "1948 – Kentucky Air National Guard pilot Thomas Mantell crashes while in pursuit of a supposed UFO.", "1950 – In the Sverdlovsk air disaster, all 19 of those on board are killed, including almost the entire national ice hockey team (VVS Moscow) of the Soviet Air Force – 11 players, as well as a team doctor and a masseur.", "1954 – Georgetown–IBM experiment: The first public demonstration of a machine translation system is held in New York at the head office of IBM.", "1955 – Contralto Marian Anderson becomes the first person of color to perform at the Metropolitan Opera in Giuseppe Verdi's ''Un ballo in maschera''.", "1959 – The United States recognizes the new Cuban government of Fidel Castro.", "1968 – Surveyor program: ''Surveyor 7'', the last spacecraft in the Surveyor series, lifts off from Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 36A.", "1972 – Iberia Flight 602 crashes near Ibiza Airport, killing all 104 people on board.", "1973 – In his second shooting spree of the week, Mark Essex fatally shoots seven people and wounds five others at Howard Johnson's Hotel in New Orleans, before being shot to death by police officers.", "1979 – Third Indochina War: Cambodian–Vietnamese War: Phnom Penh falls to the advancing Vietnamese troops, driving out Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge.", "1980 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter authorizes legislation giving $1.5 billion in loans to bail out the Chrysler Corporation.", "1984 – Brunei becomes the sixth member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).", "1985 – Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency launches ''Sakigake'', Japan's first interplanetary spacecraft and the first deep space probe to be launched by any country other than the United States or the Soviet Union.", "1991 – Roger Lafontant, former leader of the Tonton Macoute in Haiti under François Duvalier, attempts a coup d'état, which ends in his arrest.", "1993 – The Fourth Republic of Ghana is inaugurated with Jerry Rawlings as president.", " 1993 – Bosnian War: The Bosnian Army executes a surprise attack at the village of Kravica in Srebrenica.", "1994 – A British Aerospace Jetstream 41 operating as United Express Flight 6291 crashes in Gahanna, Ohio, killing five of the eight people on board.", "1999 – The Senate trial in the impeachment of U.S. President Bill Clinton begins.", "2012 – A hot air balloon crashes near Carterton, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board.", "2015 – Two gunmen commit mass murder at the offices of ''Charlie Hebdo'' in Paris, shooting twelve people execution style, and wounding eleven others.", "* 2015 – A car bomb explodes outside a police college in the Yemeni capital Sana'a with at least 38 people reported dead and more than 63 injured.", "2020 – The 6.4 2019–20 Puerto Rico earthquakes kill four and injure nine in southern Puerto Rico.", "2021 – The United States Congress certifies the results of 2020 United States presidential election, confirming the election of Joe Biden, on the morning of the 7th after the Capitol was attacked the day before during earlier attempts to certify the election by supporters of the incumbent president Donald Trump, who lost re-election to Biden and attempted to overturn the results of the election.", "2023 – The longest U.S. House of Representatives speaker election since the December 1859 – February 1860 U.S. speaker election concludes and Kevin McCarthy is elected 55th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 889 – Li Bian, emperor of Southern Tang (d. 943)1355 – Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, English politician, Lord High Constable of England (d. 1397)1414 – Henry II, Count of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1451)1502 – Pope Gregory XIII (d. 1585)===1601–1900===1634 – Adam Krieger, German organist and composer (d. 1666)1647 – William Louis, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1677)1685 – Jonas Alströmer, Swedish agronomist and businessman (d. 1761)1706 – Johann Heinrich Zedler, German publisher (d. 1751)1713 – Giovanni Battista Locatelli, Italian opera director and manager (d. 1785)1718 – Israel Putnam, American general (d. 1790)1746 – George Elphinstone, 1st Viscount Keith, Scottish admiral and politician (d. 1823)1768 – Joseph Bonaparte, Italian king (d. 1844)1797 – Mariano Paredes, Mexican general and 16th president (1845-1846) (d. 1849)1800 – Millard Fillmore, American politician, 13th President of the United States (d. 1874)1814 – Robert Nicoll, Scottish poet (d.1837)1815 – Elizabeth Louisa Foster Mather, American writer (d.1882)1827 – Sandford Fleming, Scottish-Canadian engineer, created Universal Standard Time (d. 1915)1830 – Albert Bierstadt, American painter (d. 1902)1831 – Heinrich von Stephan, German postman, founded the Universal Postal Union (d. 1897)1832 – James Munro, Scottish-Australian publisher and politician, 15th Premier of Victoria (d. 1908)1834 – Johann Philipp Reis, German physicist and academic, invented the Reis telephone (d. 1874)1837 – Thomas Henry Ismay, English businessman, founded the White Star Line Shipping Company (d. 1899)1844 – Bernadette Soubirous, French nun and saint (d. 1879)1852 – Quianu Robinson, New Mexican Congressman and political ally of Conrad Hilton (d. 1919)1858 – Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Belarusian lexicographer and journalist (d. 1922)1863 – Anna Murray Vail, American botanist and first librarian of the New York Botanical Garden (d. 1955)1871 – Émile Borel, French mathematician and politician (d. 1956)1873 – Charles Péguy, French poet and journalist (d. 1914) 1873 – Adolph Zukor, Hungarian-American film producer, co-founded Paramount Pictures (d. 1976)1875 – Gustav Flatow, German gymnast (d. 1945)1876 – William Hurlstone, English pianist and composer (d. 1906)1877 – William Clarence Matthews, American baseball player, coach, and lawyer (d. 1928)1889 – Vera de Bosset, Russian-American ballerina (d. 1982)1890 – Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, American soldier, pulp magazine writer, and pioneer of the American comic book (d. 1965)1891 – Zora Neale Hurston, American novelist, short story writer, and folklorist (d. 1960)1895 – Hudson Fysh, Australian pilot and businessman, co-founded Qantas Airways Limited (d. 1974)1898 – Al Bowlly, Mozambican-English singer-songwriter (disputed; d. 1941)1899 – Francis Poulenc, French pianist and composer (d. 1963) 1899 – F. Orlin Tremaine, American magazine executive, writer, and magazine editor (''Astounding Stories'') (d. 1956)1900 – John Brownlee, Australian actor and singer (d. 1969)===1901–present===1903 – Alan Napier, English actor (d. 1988)* 1903 – Hooley Smith, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1963)1908 – Red Allen, American trumpet player (d. 1967)1910 – Orval Faubus, American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Arkansas (d. 1994)1912 – Charles Addams, American cartoonist, created The Addams Family (d. 1988)1913 – Francis de Wolff, English actor (d. 1984)* 1913 – Johnny Mize, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 1993)1916 – W. L. Jeyasingham, Sri Lankan geographer and academic (d. 1989) 1916 – Babe Pratt, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1988)1920 – Vincent Gardenia, Italian-American actor (d. 1992)1921 – Esmeralda Arboleda Cadavid, Colombian politician (d. 1997)* 1921 – Chester Kallman, American poet and translator (d. 1975)1922 – Alvin Dark, American baseball player and manager (d. 2014) 1922 – Jean-Pierre Rampal, French flute player (d. 2000)1923 – Hugh Kenner, Canadian scholar and critic (d. 2003) 1923 – Vaklush Tolev, Bulgarian theologian, educator, public figure and lecturer (d. 2013)1924 – Geoffrey Bayldon, English actor (d. 2017)1925 – Gerald Durrell, Indian-English zookeeper, conservationist and author, founded Durrell Wildlife Park (d. 1995)1926 – Kim Jong-pil, South Korean lieutenant and politician, 11th Prime Minister of South Korea (d. 2018)1928 – William Peter Blatty, American author and screenwriter (d. 2017)1929 – Robert Juniper, Australian painter and sculptor (d. 2012) 1929 – Terry Moore, American actress1931 – Mirja Hietamies, Finnish skier (d. 2013)1933 – Elliott Kastner, American-English film producer (d. 2010)1934 – Jean Corbeil, Canadian lawyer and politician, 29th Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 2002) 1934 – Tassos Papadopoulos, Cypriot lawyer and politician, 5th President of Cyprus (d. 2008)1935 – Kenny Davern, American clarinet player and saxophonist (d. 2006) 1935 – Valery Kubasov, Russian engineer and astronaut (d. 2014)* 1935 – Li Shengjiao, Chinese diplomat and international jurist (d. 2017) 1938 – Bob Boland, Australian rugby league player and coach1941 – Iona Brown, English violinist and conductor (d. 2004)* 1941 – John Steiner, English actor (d. 2022)* 1941 – John E. Walker, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1942 – Vasily Alekseyev, Russian-German weightlifter and coach (d. 2011)1943 – Sadako Sasaki, Japanese survivor of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, known for one thousand origami cranes (d. 1955)1944 – Mike McGear, British performing artist and rock photographer 1944 – Kotaro Suzumura, Japanese economist and academic (d. 2020)1945 – Tony Conigliaro, American baseball player (d. 1990) 1945 – Raila Odinga, Kenyan engineer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Kenya1946 – Michele Elliott, author, psychologist and founder of child protection charity Kidscape 1946 – Jann Wenner, American publisher, co-founded ''Rolling Stone''1947 – Tony Elliott, English publisher, founded ''Time Out'' (d. 2020)1948 – Kenny Loggins, American singer-songwriter 1950 – Juan Gabriel, Mexican singer-songwriter (d. 2016) 1950 – Erin Gray, American actress and model1952 – Sammo Hung, Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and martial artist1953 – Robert Longo, American painter and sculptor1954 – Alan Butcher, English cricketer and coach1955 – Mamata Shankar, Indian-Bengali actress1956 – David Caruso, American actor1957 – Katie Couric, American television journalist, anchor, and author1959 – Angela Smith, Baroness Smith of Basildon, English accountant and politician 1959 – Kathy Valentine, American bass player and songwriter1960 – David Marciano, American actor 1960 – Loretta Sanchez, American politician1961 – John Thune, American lawyer and politician1962 – Aleksandr Dugin, Russian political analyst and strategist known for his fascist views * 1962 – Ron Rivera, American football player and coach* 1962 – Hallie Todd, American actress1963 – Rand Paul, American politician and physician1964 – Nicolas Cage, American actor1965 – Five for Fighting, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1965 – Alessandro Lambruschini, Italian runner1967 – Nick Clegg, English academic and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1967 – Irrfan Khan, Indian actor (d. 2020)* 1967 – Ricky Stuart, Australian rugby player, coach, and sportscaster1969 – Rex Lee, American actor 1969 – Marco Simone, Italian footballer and manager1970 – Andy Burnham, English politician 1970 – Doug E. Doug, American actor1971 – Kevin Rahm, American actor 1971 – Jeremy Renner, American actor1972 – Donald Brashear, American-Canadian ice hockey player and mixed martial artist1974 – Alenka Bikar, Slovenian sprinter and politician1976 – Vic Darchinyan, Armenian-Australian boxer 1976 – Éric Gagné, Canadian baseball player* 1976 – Alfonso Soriano, Dominican baseball player1977 – Dustin Diamond, American actor and comedian (d. 2021) 1977 – Sofi Oksanen, Finnish author and playwright* 1977 – Brent Sopel, Canadian ice hockey player1978 – Dean Cosker, English cricketer and umpire1979 – Reggie Austin, American actor * 1979 – Aloe Blacc, American musician, singer, songwriter, record producer, actor, businessman and philanthropist1980 – Reece Simmonds, Australian rugby league player1981 – Alex Auld, Canadian ice hockey player* 1981 – Marquis Daniels, American basketball player* 1981 – Travis Friend, Zimbabwean cricketer1982 – Lauren Cohan, American-English actress 1982 – Francisco Rodríguez, Venezuelan baseball player* 1982 – Hannah Stockbauer, German swimmer1983 – Brett Dalton, American actor 1983 – Edwin Encarnación, Dominican baseball player* 1983 – Cappie Pondexter, American basketball player* 1983 – Robert Ri'chard, American actor1984 – Jon Lester, American baseball player1985 – Lewis Hamilton, English racing driver* 1985 – Wayne Routledge, English footballer1987 – Davide Astori, Italian footballer (d. 2018) 1987 – Stefan Babović, Serbian footballer* 1987 – Lyndsy Fonseca, American actress1988 – Scott Pendlebury, Australian footballer 1988 – Robert Sheehan, Irish actor1990 – Liam Aiken, American actor 1990 – Gentleman Jack Gallagher, English mixed martial artist and wrestler* 1990 – Camryn Grimes, American actress* 1990 – Gregor Schlierenzauer, Austrian ski jumper1991 – Tucker Barnhart, American baseball player 1991 – Eden Hazard, Belgian footballer* 1991 – Caster Semenya, South African sprinter* 1991 – Michael Walters, Australian footballer1992 – Erik Gudbranson, Canadian ice hockey player 1992 – Tohu Harris, New Zealand rugby league player1994 – Jarnell Stokes, American basketball player 1994 – Lee Sun-bin, South Korean actress and singer* 1994 – MacKenzie Weegar, Canadian ice hockey player1995 – Jordan Bell, American basketball player 1995 – Yulia Putintseva, Kazakhstani tennis player1996 – Alex Nedeljkovic, American ice hockey player1997 – Ozzie Albies, Curaçaoan baseball player* 1997 – Lamar Jackson, American football player2004 – Sofia Wylie, American actress, singer, and dancer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 312 – Lucian of Antioch, Christian martyr, saint, and theologian (b.", "240)* 838 – Babak Khorramdin, Iranian leader of the Khurramite uprising against the Abbasid Caliphate* 856 – Aldric, bishop of Le Mans1131 – Canute Lavard, Danish prince and saint (b.", "1096)1285 – Charles I of Naples (b.", "1226)1325 – Denis of Portugal (b.", "1261)1355 – Inês de Castro, Castilian noblewoman (b.", "1325)1400 – John Montagu, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, English Earl (b.", "1350)1451 – Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy a.k.a.", "Antipope Felix V (b.", "1383)1529 – Peter Vischer the Elder, German sculptor (b.", "1455)1536 – Catherine of Aragon (b.", "1485)1566 – Louis de Blois, Flemish monk and author (b.", "1506)===1601–1900===1619 – Nicholas Hilliard, English painter and goldsmith (b.", "1547)1625 – Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer and author (b.", "1560)1655 – Pope Innocent X (b.", "1574)1658 – Theophilus Eaton, American farmer and politician, 1st Governor of the New Haven Colony (b.", "1590)1694 – Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Gloucestershire (b.", "1618)1700 – Raffaello Fabretti, Italian scholar and author (b.", "1618)1715 – François Fénelon, French archbishop, theologian, and poet (b.", "1651)1758 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet and playwright (b.", "1686)1767 – Thomas Clap, American minister and academic (b.", "1703)1770 – Carl Gustaf Tessin, Swedish politician and diplomat (b.", "1695)1812 – Joseph Dennie, American journalist and author (b.", "1768)1830 – John Thomas Campbell, Irish-Australian public servant and politician (b.", "1770) 1830 – Thomas Lawrence, English painter and educator (b.", "1769)1858 – Mustafa Reşid Pasha, Ottoman politician, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "1800)1864 – Caleb Blood Smith, American journalist and politician, 6th U.S. Secretary of the Interior (b.", "1808)1888 – Golam Ali Chowdhury, Bengali landlord and philanthropist (b.", "1824)1892 – Tewfik Pasha, Egyptian ruler (b.", "1852)1893 – Josef Stefan, Slovenian physicist and mathematician (b.", "1835)===1901–present===1912 – Sophia Jex-Blake, English physician and feminist (b.", "1840)1919 – Henry Ware Eliot, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Washington University in St. Louis (b.", "1843)1920 – Edmund Barton, Australian judge and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (b.", "1849)1927 – Nikolaos Kalogeropoulos, Greek politician, 99th Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1851)1931 – Edward Channing, American historian and author (b.", "1856)1932 – André Maginot, French sergeant and politician (b.", "1877)1936 – Guy d'Hardelot, French pianist and composer (b.", "1858)1941 – Charles Finger, English journalist and author (b.", "1869)1943 – Nikola Tesla, Serbian-American physicist and engineer (b.", "1856)1951 – René Guénon, French-Egyptian philosopher and author (b.", "1886)1960 – Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers, English tennis player and coach (b.", "1878)1963 – Arthur Edward Moore, New Zealand-Australian farmer and politician, 23rd Premier of Queensland (b.", "1876)1964 – Reg Parnell, English racing driver and manager (b.", "1911)1967 – David Goodis, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1917) 1967 – Carl Schuricht, German-Swiss conductor (b.", "1880)1968 – J. L. B. Smith, South African chemist and academic (b.", "1897)1972 – John Berryman, American poet and scholar (b.", "1914)1981 – Alvar Lidell, English journalist and radio announcer (b.", "1908) 1981 – Eric Robinson, Australian businessman and politician, 2nd Australian Minister for Finance (b.", "1926)1984 – Alfred Kastler, German-French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1902)1986 – Juan Rulfo, Mexican author, screenwriter, and photographer (b.", "1917)1988 – Zara Cisco Brough, American Nipmuc Indian chief and fashion designer (b.", "1919) 1988 – Trevor Howard, English actor (b.", "1913)1989 – Hirohito, Japanese emperor (b.", "1901)1990 – Bronko Nagurski, Canadian-American football player and wrestler (b.", "1908)1992 – Richard Hunt, American puppeteer and voice actor (b.", "1951)1995 – Murray Rothbard, American economist, historian, and theorist (b.", "1926)1996 – Károly Grósz, Hungarian politician, 51st Prime Minister of Hungary (b.", "1930)1998 – Owen Bradley, American record producer (b.", "1915)* 1998 – Vladimir Prelog, Croatian-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1906)2000 – Gary Albright, American wrestler (b.", "1963)2001 – James Carr, American singer (b.", "1942)2002 – Avery Schreiber, American comedian and actor (b.", "1935)2004 – Ingrid Thulin, Swedish actress (b.", "1926)2005 – Pierre Daninos, French author (b.", "1913)2006 – Heinrich Harrer, Austrian mountaineer, geographer, and author (b.", "1912)2007 – Bobby Hamilton, American race car driver and businessman (b.", "1957) 2007 – Magnus Magnusson, Icelandic journalist, author, and academic (b.", "1929)2008 – Alwyn Schlebusch, South African academic and politician, Vice State President of South Africa (b.", "1917)2012 – Tony Blankley, British-born American child actor, journalist and pundit (b.", "1948)2014 – Run Run Shaw, Chinese-Hong Kong businessman and philanthropist, founded Shaw Brothers Studio and TVB (b.", "1907)2015 – Mompati Merafhe, Botswana general and politician, Vice-President of Botswana (b.", "1936)* 2015 – Rod Taylor, Australian-American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Georges Wolinski, Tunisian-French cartoonist (b.", "1934)2016 – Bill Foster, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1929) 2016 – John Johnson, American basketball player (b.", "1947)* 2016 – Kitty Kallen, American singer (b.", "1921)* 2016 – Judith Kaye, American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1938)* 2016 – Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Home Affairs (b.", "1936)2017 – Mário Soares, Portuguese politician; 16th President of Portugal (b.", "1924) 2018 – Jim Anderton, Former New Zealand Deputy Prime Minister (b.", "1938)* 2018 – France Gall, French singer (b.", "1947)2020 – Neil Peart, Canadian drummer, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1952) 2020 – Silvio Horta, American screenwriter and television producer (b.", "1974)* 2020 – Elizabeth Wurtzel, author and feminist (b.", "1967) 2021 – Michael Apted, English filmmaker (b.", "1941) 2021 – Tommy Lasorda, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1927)* 2021 – Henri Schwery, Swiss cardinal (b.", "1932)2024 – Franz Beckenbauer, German footballer and manager (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", " Christian Feast Day: André Bessette (Canada) Canute Lavard Charles of Sezze Felix and Januarius Lucian of Antioch Raymond of Penyafort Synaxis of John the Forerunner & Baptist (Julian calendar) January 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Christmas (Eastern Orthodox Churches and Oriental Orthodox Churches using the Julian calendar, Rastafari) Christmas in Russia Christmas in Ukraine Ethiopian Christmas Remembrance Day of the Dead (Armenia)* Distaff Day (medieval Europe)* Nanakusa-no sekku (Japan)* Pioneer's Day (Liberia)* Tricolour day or ''Festa del Tricolore'' (Italy)* Victory from Genocide Day (Cambodia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 7" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 8" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 307 – Sima Chi becomes emperor of the Jin dynasty in succession to his father, Sima Zhong, despite a challenge from his uncle, Sima Ying.", "* 871 – Æthelred I and Alfred the Great lead a West Saxon army to repel an invasion by Danelaw Vikings.", "1297 – François Grimaldi, disguised as a monk, leads his men to capture the fortress protecting the Rock of Monaco, establishing his family as the rulers of Monaco.", "1454 – The papal bull ''Romanus Pontifex'' awards the Kingdom of Portugal exclusive trade and colonization rights to all of Africa south of Cape Bojador.", "1499 – Louis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany in accordance with a law set by his predecessor, Charles VIII.", "1547 – The first Lithuanian-language book, the ''Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas'', is published in Königsberg.===1601–1900===1735 – The premiere of George Frideric Handel's ''Ariodante'' takes place at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden.", "1746 – Second Jacobite rising: Bonnie Prince Charlie occupies Stirling.", "1790 – George Washington delivers the first State of the Union address in New York City.", "1806 – The Dutch Cape Colony in southern Africa becomes the British Cape Colony as a result of the Battle of Blaauwberg.", "1811 – Charles Deslondes leads an unsuccessful slave revolt in the North American settlements of St. Charles and St. James, Louisiana.", "1815 – War of 1812: Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson leads American forces in victory over the British.", "1828 – The Democratic Party of the United States is organized.", "1835 – US President Andrew Jackson announces a celebratory dinner after having reduced the United States national debt to zero for the only time.", "1863 – American Civil War: Second Battle of Springfield.", "1867 – The United States Congress passes the bill to allow African American men the right to vote in Washington, D.C.1877 – Crazy Horse and his warriors fight their last battle against the United States Cavalry at Wolf Mountain, Montana Territory.", "1889 – Herman Hollerith is issued US patent #395,791 for the 'Art of Applying Statistics' — his punched card calculator.", "1900 – President William McKinley places Alaska under military rule.===1901–present===1912 – The African National Congress is founded, under the name South African Native National Congress (SANNC).", "1918 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson announces his \"Fourteen Points\" as conditions for ending World War I.", "1920 – The steel strike of 1919 ends in failure for the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers labor union.", "1926 – Crown Prince Nguyễn Phúc Vĩnh Thuỵ is crowned emperor of Vietnam, the country's last monarch.", " 1926 – Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud is crowned King of Hejaz.", "1936 – Kashf-e hijab decree is made and immediately enforced by Reza Shah, Iran's head of state, banning the wearing of Islamic veils in public.", "1940 – World War II: Britain introduces food rationing.", "1945 – World War II: Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Commonwealth Army units enter the province of Ilocos Sur in Northern Luzon and attack invading Japanese Imperial forces.", "1946 – Andrei Zhdanov, Chairman of the Finnish Allied Commission, submitted to the Finnish War Criminal Court an interrogation report by General Erich Buschenhagen, a German prisoner of war, on the contacts between Finnish and German military personnel before the Continuation War and a copy of Hitler's Barbarossa plan.", "1956 – Operation Auca: Five U.S. missionaries are killed by the Huaorani of Ecuador shortly after making first contact.", "1959 – Charles de Gaulle is proclaimed as the first President of the French Fifth Republic.", "1961 – In France a referendum supports Charles de Gaulle's policies in Algeria.", "1964 – President Lyndon B. Johnson declares a \"War on Poverty\" in the United States.", "1972 – Bowing to international pressure, President of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto releases Bengali leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman from prison, who had been arrested after declaring the independence of Bangladesh.", "1973 – Soviet space mission ''Luna 21'' is launched.", "* 1973 – Watergate scandal: The trial of seven men accused of illegal entry into Democratic Party headquarters at Watergate begins.", "1975 – Ella T. Grasso becomes Governor of Connecticut, the first woman to serve as a Governor in the United States other than by succeeding her husband.", "1977 – Three bombs explode in Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union, within 37 minutes, killing seven.", "The bombings are attributed to an Armenian separatist group.", "1981 – A local farmer reports a UFO sighting in Trans-en-Provence, France, claimed to be \"perhaps the most completely and carefully documented sighting of all time\".", "1982 – Breakup of the Bell System: In the United States, AT&T agrees to divest itself of twenty-two subdivisions.", "1989 – Kegworth air disaster: British Midland Flight 92, a Boeing 737-400, crashes into the M1 motorway, killing 47 of the 126 people on board.", "1994 – Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov on ''Soyuz TM-18'' leaves for Mir.", "He would stay on the space station until March 22, 1995, for a record 437 days in space.", "1996 – An Antonov An-32 cargo aircraft crashes into a crowded market in Kinshasa, Zaire, killing up to 223 people on the ground; two of six crew members are also killed.", "2002 – President of the United States George W. Bush signs into law the No Child Left Behind Act.", "2003 – Turkish Airlines Flight 634 crashes near Diyarbakır Airport, Turkey, killing the entire crew and 70 of the 75 passengers.", " 2003 – Air Midwest Flight 5481 crashes at Charlotte-Douglas Airport, in Charlotte, North Carolina, killing all 21 people on board.", "2004 – The , then the largest ocean liner ever built, is christened by her namesake's granddaughter, Queen Elizabeth II.", "2005 – The nuclear sub collides at full speed with an undersea mountain south of Guam.", "One man is killed, but the sub surfaces and is repaired.", "2009 – A 6.1-magnitude earthquake in northern Costa Rica kills 15 people and injures 32.", "2010 – Gunmen from an offshoot of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda attack a bus carrying the Togo national football team on its way to the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations, killing three people and injuring another nine.", "2011 – Sitting US Congresswoman Gabby Giffords is shot in the head along with 18 others in a mass shooting in Tucson, Arizona.", "Giffords survived the assassination attempt, but six others died, including John Roll, a federal judge.", "2016 – Joaquín Guzmán, widely regarded as the world's most powerful drug trafficker, is recaptured following his escape from a maximum security prison in Mexico.", "* 2016 – West Air Sweden Flight 294 crashes near the Swedish reservoir of Akkajaure; both pilots, the only people on board, are killed.", "2020 – Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 crashes immediately after takeoff at Tehran Imam Khomeini International Airport; all 176 on board are killed.", "The plane was shot down by an Iranian anti-aircraft missile.", "2021 – Twenty-three people are killed in what is described as a police ″massacre″ in La Vega, Caracas, Venezuela.", "2023 – Supporters of former Brazil president Jair Bolsonaro storm the Brazilian Congress." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1037 – Su Dongpo, Chinese calligrapher and poet (d. 1101)1345 – Kadi Burhan al-Din, poet, kadi, and ruler of Sivas (d. 1398) 1529 – John Frederick II, duke of Saxony (d. 1595)1583 – Simon Episcopius, Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1643)1587 – Johannes Fabricius, German astronomer and academic (d. 1616)* 1587 – Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (d. 1629)1589 – Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet and playwright (d. 1638)===1601–1900===1601 – Baltasar Gracián, Spanish priest and author (d. 1658)1626 – Jean Talon, first Intendant of New France (d. 1694)1628 – François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg, French general (d. 1695)1632 – Samuel von Pufendorf, German economist and jurist (d. 1694)1635 – Luis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero, Spanish cardinal (d. 1709)1638 – Elisabetta Sirani, Italian painter (d. 1665)1735 – John Carroll, American archbishop, founder of Georgetown University (d. 1815)1763 – Edmond-Charles Genêt, French-American translator and diplomat (d. 1834)1786 – Nicholas Biddle, American banker and financier (d. 1844)1788 – Rudolf of Austria, Austrian archduke and archbishop (d. 1831)1792 – Lowell Mason, American composer and educator (d. 1872)1805 – John Bigler, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 3rd Governor of California (d. 1871) 1805 – Orson Hyde, American religious leader, 3rd President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (d. 1878)1812 – Sigismond Thalberg, Swiss pianist and composer (d. 1871)1817 – Theophilus Shepstone, English-South African politician (d. 1893)1821 – James Longstreet, American general and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Turkey (d. 1904)1823 – Alfred Russel Wallace, Welsh geographer, biologist, and explorer (d. 1913)1824 – Wilkie Collins, English novelist, playwright, and short story writer (d. 1889) 1824 – Francisco González Bocanegra, Mexican poet and composer (d. 1861)1830 – Hans von Bülow, German pianist and composer (d. 1894)1836 – Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Dutch-English painter and academic (d. 1912)1843 – Frederick Abberline, English police officer (d. 1929)1852 – James Milton Carroll, American pastor and author (d. 1931)1859 – Fanny Bullock Workman, American mountaineer, geographer, and cartographer (d. 1925)1860 – Emma Booth-Tucker, English author (d. 1903)1862 – Frank Nelson Doubleday, American publisher, founded the Doubleday Publishing Company (d. 1934)1864 – Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale (d. 1892)1865 – Winnaretta Singer, American philanthropist (d. 1943)1866 – William G. Conley, American educator and politician, 18th Governor of West Virginia (d. 1940)1867 – Emily Greene Balch, American economist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)1870 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1930)1871 – James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, Irish captain and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 1940)1873 – Iuliu Maniu, Romanian lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1953)1881 – Henrik Shipstead, American dentist and politician (d. 1960) 1881 – Linnie Marsh Wolfe, American librarian and author (d. 1945)1883 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (d. 1941) 1883 – Patrick J. Hurley, American general, politician, and diplomat, 51st United States Secretary of War (d. 1963)1885 – John Curtin, Australian journalist and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1945) 1885 – Mór Kóczán, Hungarian javelin thrower and pastor (d. 1972)* 1885 – A. J. Muste, Dutch-American pastor and activist (d. 1967)1888 – Richard Courant, German-American mathematician and academic (d. 1972)1891 – Walther Bothe, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)* 1891 – Storm Jameson, English journalist and author (d. 1986)* 1891 – Bronislava Nijinska, Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1972)1896 – Jaromír Weinberger, Czech-American composer and academic (d. 1967)1897 – Dennis Wheatley, English soldier and author (d. 1977)1899 – S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 1959)1900 – Dorothy Adams, American character actress (d. 1988) * 1900 – Serge Poliakoff, Russian-French painter (d. 1969)===1901–present===1902 – Carl Rogers, American psychologist and academic (d. 1987)1904 – Karl Brandt, German physician and SS officer (d. 1948)1905 – Carl Gustav Hempel, German philosopher from the Vienna and the Berlin Circle (d. 1997)1908 – William Hartnell, English actor (d. 1975)* 1908 – Fearless Nadia, Australian-Indian actress and stuntwoman (d. 1996)1909 – Ashapoorna Devi, Indian author and poet (d. 1995) 1909 – Bruce Mitchell, South African cricketer (d. 1995)* 1909 – Evelyn Wood, American author and educator (d. 1995) 1910 – Galina Ulanova, Russian actress and ballerina (d. 1998)1911 – Gypsy Rose Lee, American actress, dancer, and author (d. 1970)1912 – José Ferrer, Puerto Rican-American actor and director (d. 1992) 1912 – Lawrence Walsh, Canadian-American lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (d. 2014)1915 – Walker Cooper, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991)1917 – Peter Matthew Hillsman Taylor, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (d. 1994)1920 – Douglas Wilmer, English actor (d. 2016)1922 – Dale D. Myers, American engineer (d. 2015)1923 – Larry Storch, American actor and comedian(d. 2022) 1923 – Giorgio Tozzi, American opera singer and actor (d. 2011)* 1923 – Johnny Wardle, English cricketer (d. 1985)* 1923 – Joseph Weizenbaum, German-American computer scientist and author (d. 2008)1924 – Benjamin Lees, Chinese-American soldier and composer (d. 2010) 1924 – Ron Moody, English actor and singer (d. 2015)1925 – Mohan Rakesh, Indian author and playwright (d. 1972)1926 – Evelyn Lear, American operatic soprano (d. 2012)* 1926 – Kerwin Mathews, American actor (d. 2007)* 1926 – Kelucharan Mohapatra, Indian dancer and choreographer (d. 2004)* 1926 – Hanae Mori, Japanese fashion designer (d. 2022)* 1926 – Soupy Sales, American comedian and actor (d. 2009)1927 – Charles Tomlinson, English poet and academic (d. 2015)1928 – Slade Gorton, American colonel, lawyer, and politician, 14th Attorney General of Washington (d. 2020)1929 – Saeed Jaffrey, Indian-British actor (d. 2015)1931 – Bill Graham, German-American businessman (d. 1991)* 1931 – Clarence Benjamin Jones, American lawyer and scholar1933 – Charles Osgood, American soldier and journalist (d. 2024) 1933 – Jean-Marie Straub, French director and screenwriter (d. 2022)1934 – Jacques Anquetil, French cyclist (d. 1987) 1934 – Roy Kinnear, British actor (d. 1988)1935 – Elvis Presley, American singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 1977)1936 – Robert May, Baron May of Oxford, Australian-English zoologist, ecologist, and academic (d. 2020)1937 – Shirley Bassey, Welsh singer1938 – Bob Eubanks, American game show host and producer1939 – Carolina Herrera, Venezuelan-American fashion designer1940 – Cristy Lane, American country and gospel singer1941 – Graham Chapman, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1989) 1941 – Boris Vallejo, Peruvian-American painter1942 – Stephen Hawking, English physicist and author (d. 2018) 1942 – Junichirō Koizumi, Japanese politician, 56th Prime Minister of Japan* 1942 – Yvette Mimieux, American actress (d. 2022)1944 – Terry Brooks, American lawyer and author1945 – Phil Beal, English footballer* 1945 – Nancy Bond, American author and academic* 1945 – Kathleen Noone, American actress1946 – Robby Krieger, American guitarist and songwriter 1946 – Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, Mexican drug lord1947 – David Bowie, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2016) 1947 – Antti Kalliomäki, Finnish pole vaulter and politician1948 – Gillies MacKinnon, Scottish director and screenwriter1949 – Lawrence Rowe, Jamaican cricketer1951 – Kenny Anthony, Saint Lucian politician, 5th Prime Minister of Saint Lucia1952 – Vladimir Feltsman, Russian-American pianist and educator* 1952 – Peter McCullagh, Irish mathematician and academic1953 – Marián Šťastný, Slovak ice hockey player 1953 – Bruce Sutter, American baseball pitcher (d. 2022)1955 – Harriet Sansom Harris, American actress 1955 – Mike Reno, Canadian singer and drummer1957 – Dwight Clark, American football player (d. 2018) 1957 – Nacho Duato, Spanish dancer and choreographer* 1957 – Ron Cephas Jones, American actor (d. 2023)* 1957 – Calvin Natt, American basketball player1958 – Betsy DeVos, American businesswoman and politician, 11th Secretary of Education 1958 – Rey Misterio, Mexican wrestler, trainer, and actor1959 – Paul Hester, Australian drummer (d. 2005)1960 – Dave Weckl, American drummer1961 – Calvin Smith, American sprinter1964 – Ron Sexsmith, Canadian singer-songwriter1965 – Michelle Forbes, American actress1966 – Maria Pitillo, American actress* 1966 – Igor Vyazmikin, Russian ice hockey player (d. 2009)* 1966 – Andrew Wood, American singer-songwriter (d. 1990)1967 – Willie Anderson, American basketball player 1967 – R. Kelly, American singer-songwriter, producer, and sex offender* 1967 – Tom Watson, English politician1971 – Jason Giambi, American baseball player 1971 – Pascal Zuberbühler, Swiss footballer and coach1972 – Paul Clement, English footballer, coach, and manager1973 – Mike Cameron, American baseball player1976 – Jenny Lewis, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress1977 – Amber Benson, American actress, writer, director, and producer1978 – Marco Fu, Hong Kongese snooker player1979 – Seol Ki-hyeon, South Korean footballer and manager* 1979 – Windell Middlebrooks, American actor (d. 2015)* 1979 – Adrian Mutu, Romanian footballer* 1979 – Stipe Pletikosa, Croatian footballer* 1979 – Sarah Polley, Canadian actress and director1980 – Sam Riley, English actor and singer1981 – Genevieve Cortese, American actress* 1981 – Jeff Francis, Canadian baseball player1982 – Gaby Hoffmann, American actress 1982 (or 1983) – Kim Jong-un, North Korean soldier and politician, 3rd Supreme Leader of North Korea1983 – Chris Masters, American wrestler1984 – Jeff Francoeur, American baseball player and broadcaster1987 – Chris Douglas-Roberts, American basketball player 1987 – Cynthia Erivo, English actress and singer-songwriter* 1987 – Freddie Stroma, English actor1988 – Adrián López, Spanish footballer 1988 – Michael Mancienne, English footballer* 1988 – Alex Tyus, American-Israeli basketball player1989 – Aaron Cruden, New Zealand rugby player1990 – Blair Walsh, American football player1991 – Josh Hazlewood, Australian cricketer 1991 – Stefan Johansen, Norwegian footballer* 1991 – Stefan Savić, Montenegrin footballer* 1991 – Greg Smith, American basketball player1992 – Stefanie Dolson, American basketball player 1992 – Koke, Spanish footballer1993 – William Karlsson, Swedish ice hockey player 1993 – Sophie Pascoe, New Zealand swimmer1994 – Glenn Robinson III, American basketball player1998 – Tony Bradley, American basketball player1999 – Ignas Brazdeikis, Lithuanian-Canadian basketball player 1999 – Damiano David, Italian singer-songwriter2000 – Noah Cyrus, American singer, songwriter, and actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 307 – Hui of Jin, Chinese emperor (b.", "259)* 482 – Severinus of Noricum, Italian apostle and saint* 871 – Bagsecg, Viking warrior and leader* 926 – Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury1079 – Adèle of France, countess of Flanders (b.", "1009)1107 – Edgar, King of Scotland (b.", "1074)1198 – Celestine III, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "1106)1337 – Giotto, Italian painter and architect, designed Scrovegni Chapel and Giotto's Campanile (b.", "1266)1354 – Charles de la Cerda, French nobleman (b.", "1327)1424 – Stephen Zaccaria, archbishop of Patras1456 – Lawrence Giustiniani, Italian bishop and saint (b.", "1381)1538 – Beatrice of Portugal, duchess of Savoy (b.", "1504)1557 – Albert Alcibiades, margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (b.", "1522)1570 – Philibert de l'Orme, French sculptor and architect, designed the Château d'Anet (b.", "1510)1598 – John George, Elector of Brandenburg (b.", "1525)===1601–1900===1642 – Galileo Galilei, Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher (b.", "1564)1707 – John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair, Scottish soldier and politician, Scottish Secretary of State (b.", "1648)1713 – Arcangelo Corelli, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1653)1775 – John Baskerville, English printer and type designer (b.", "1706)1789 – Jack Broughton, English boxer (b.", "1703)1794 – Justus Möser, German lawyer and jurist (b.", "1720)1815 – Edward Pakenham, Anglo-Irish general and politician (b.", "1778)1825 – Eli Whitney, American engineer and theorist, invented the cotton gin (b.", "1765)1854 – William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, English field marshal and politician, Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance (b.", "1768)1865 – Aimé, duc de Clermont-Tonnerre, French general and politician, French Minister of Defence (b.", "1779)1874 – Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, French historian and archaeologist (b.", "1814)1878 – Nikolay Nekrasov, Russian poet and critic (b.", "1821)1880 – Emperor Norton, English-American businessman (b.", "1811)1883 – Miska Magyarics, Slovene-Hungarian poet (b.", "1825)1896 – William Rainey Marshall, American banker and politician, 5th Governor of Minnesota (b.", "1825)* 1896 – Paul Verlaine, French poet and writer (b.", "1844)===1901–present===1914 – Simon Bolivar Buckner, American general and 30th Governor of Kentucky (b.", "1823)1916 – Rembrandt Bugatti, Italian sculptor (b.", "1884)* 1916 – Ada Rehan, Irish-American actress (b.", "1860)1918 – Ellis H. Roberts, American journalist and politician, 20th Treasurer of the United States (b.", "1827)1920 – Josef Josephi, Polish-born singer and actor (b.", "1852)1925 – George Bellows, American painter (b.", "1882)1934 – Andrei Bely, Russian novelist, poet, and critic (b.", "1880)* 1934 – Alexandre Stavisky, Ukrainian-French financier (b.", "1886)1938 – Johnny Gruelle, American author and illustrator (b.", "1880)1941 – Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, English general and founder of the Scout movement (b.", "1857)* 1941 – Vladimír Mandl, Czechoslovak lawyer (b.", "1899)1942 – Joseph Franklin Rutherford, American lawyer and religious leader (b.", "1869)1943 – Andres Larka, Estonian general and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of War (b.", "1879)1944 – William Kissam Vanderbilt II, American lieutenant and sailor (b.", "1878)1945 – Karl Ernst Krafft, Swiss astrologer and author (b.", "1900)1948 – Kurt Schwitters, German painter and graphic designer (b.", "1887)1950 – Joseph Schumpeter, Czech-American economist and academic (b.", "1883)1952 – Antonia Maury, American astronomer and astrophysicist (b.", "1866)1953 – Hugh Binney, English admiral and politician, 16th Governor of Tasmania (b.", "1883)1954 – Eduard Wiiralt, Estonian-French painter and illustrator (b.", "1898)1958 – Mary Colter, American architect, designed the Desert View Watchtower (b.", "1869)1961 – Schoolboy Rowe, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1910)1963 – Kay Sage, American painter (b.", "1898)1975 – Richard Tucker, American operatic tenor (b.", "1913)1976 – Zhou Enlai, Chinese soldier and politician, 1st Premier of the People's Republic of China (b.", "1898)1980 – John Mauchly, American physicist and academic (b.", "1907)1982 – Grégoire Aslan, Swiss-English actor and screenwriter (b.", "1908)1983 – Gerhard Barkhorn, German general and pilot (b.", "1919)1986 – Pierre Fournier, French cellist and educator (b.", "1906)1990 – Bernard Krigstein, American illustrator (b.", "1919) 1990 – Terry-Thomas, English actor and comedian (b.", "1911)1991 – Steve Clark, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1960)1994 – Pat Buttram, American actor and comedian (b.", "1915)* 1994 – Harvey Haddix, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1925)1996 – Metin Göktepe, Turkish photographer and journalist (b.", "1968) 1996 – François Mitterrand, French sergeant and politician, 21st President of France (b.", "1916)1997 – Melvin Calvin, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1911)1998 – Michael Tippett, English composer and conductor (b.", "1905)2002 – Alexander Prokhorov, Australian-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1916) 2002 – Dave Thomas, American businessman and philanthropist, founded Wendy's (b.", "1932)2003 – Ron Goodwin, English composer and conductor (b.", "1925)2006 – Tony Banks, Baron Stratford, Northern Irish broadcaster and politician, Minister for Sport and the Olympics (b.", "1943)2007 – Jane Bolin, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1908) 2007 – Arthur Cockfield, Baron Cockfield, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills (b.", "1916)* 2007 – Yvonne De Carlo, Canadian-American actress and singer (b.", "1922)* 2007 – David Ervine, Northern Irish politician and activist (b.", "1953)* 2007 – Iwao Takamoto, American animator, director, and producer (b.", "1925)2008 – George Moore, Australian jockey and trainer (b.", "1923)2009 – Lasantha Wickrematunge, Sri Lankan journalist (b.", "1958)2010 – Art Clokey, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1921)2011 – Jiří Dienstbier, Czech journalist and politician (b.", "1937)* 2011 – Thorbjørn Svenssen, Norwegian footballer (b.", "1924)2012 – Dave Alexander, American singer and pianist (b.", "1938) 2012 – T. J. Hamblin, English haematologist and academic (b.", "1943)* 2012 – Alexis Weissenberg, Bulgarian-French pianist and educator (b.", "1929) 2013 – Kenojuak Ashevak, Canadian sculptor and illustrator (b.", "1927) 2013 – Jeanne Manford, American educator and activist, co-founded PFLAG (b.", "1920)* 2013 – Alasdair Milne, Indian-English director and producer (b.", "1930)2014 – Irma Heijting-Schuhmacher, Dutch-Australian swimmer (b.", "1925) 2014 – Antonino P. Roman, Filipino lawyer and politician (b.", "1939)2015 – Andraé Crouch, American singer-songwriter, producer, and pastor (b.", "1942) 2015 – Kep Enderby, Australian lawyer, judge, and politician, 23rd Attorney-General for Australia (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Patsy Garrett, American actress and singer (b.", "1921)2016 – Maria Teresa de Filippis, Italian racing driver (b.", "1926) 2016 – German Moreno, Filipino television host, actor, comedian and talent manager (b.", "1933)2017 – Nicolai Gedda, Swedish operatic tenor (b.", "1925) 2017 – James Mancham, Seychellois politician, President 1976-77 (b.", "1939)* 2017 – Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Iranian politician (b.", "1934) * 2017 – Peter Sarstedt, Indian-British singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1941)2020 – Pat Dalton, Australian footballer (b.", "1942) 2020 – Buck Henry, American actor, screenwriter, and director (b.", "1930)2021 – Iancu Țucărman, Romanian Holocaust survivor (b.", "1922)2022 – Michael Lang, American concert promoter and producer (b.", "1944)2024 – Adan Canto, Mexican actor (b.", "1981)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Babinden (Belarus, Russia)Christian feast day:Abo of TiflisApollinaris ClaudiusBlessed Eurosia FabrisGauchito Gil (Folk Catholicism) GudulaHarriet Bedell (Episcopal Church (USA))Lawrence GiustinianiLucian of BeauvaisMaximus of PaviaOur Lady of Prompt Succor (Roman Catholic Church)Pega (Anglican and Roman Catholic churches)Severinus of NoricumThorfinn of HamarJanuary 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Commonwealth Day (Northern Mariana Islands)Earliest day on which Children's Day can fall, while January 14 is the latest; celebrated on the second Saturday in January.", "(Thailand)Typing Day (International observance)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 8" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 23" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 393 – Roman emperor Theodosius I proclaims his eight-year-old son Honorius co-emperor.", "* 971 – Using crossbows, Song dynasty troops soundly defeat a war elephant corps of the Southern Han at Shao.", "1264 – In the conflict between King Henry III of England and his rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, King Louis IX of France issues the Mise of Amiens, a one-sided decision in favour of Henry that later leads to the Second Barons' War.", "1368 – Zhu Yuanzhang proclaims himself the Hongwu Emperor, beginning the Ming dynasty.", "1546 – Having published nothing for eleven years, François Rabelais publishes the ''Tiers Livre'', his sequel to ''Gargantua and Pantagruel''.", "1556 – The deadliest earthquake in history, the Shaanxi earthquake, hits Shaanxi province, China.", "The death toll may have been as high as 830,000.", "1570 – James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, regent for the infant King James VI of Scotland, is assassinated by firearm, the first recorded instance of such.", "1571 – The Royal Exchange opens in London.", "1579 – The Union of Utrecht forms a Protestant republic in the Netherlands.===1601–1900===1656 – Blaise Pascal publishes the first of his ''Lettres provinciales''.", "1719 – The Principality of Liechtenstein is created within the Holy Roman Empire.", "1789 – Georgetown College, the first Catholic university in the United States, is founded in Georgetown, Maryland (now a part of Washington, D.C.) when Bishop John Carroll, Rev.", "Robert Molyneux, and Rev.", "John Ashton purchase land for the proposed academy for the education of youth.", "1793 – Second Partition of Poland.", "1795 – After an extraordinary charge across the frozen Zuiderzee, the French cavalry captured 14 Dutch ships and 850 guns, in a rare occurrence of a battle between ships and cavalry.", "1846 – Slavery in Tunisia is abolished.", "1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded her M.D.", "by the Geneva Medical College of Geneva, New York, becoming the United States' first female doctor.", "1870 – In Montana, U.S. cavalrymen kill 173 Native Americans, mostly women and children, in what becomes known as the Marias Massacre.", "1879 – Anglo-Zulu War: The Battle of Rorke's Drift ends.", "1899 – The Malolos Constitution is inaugurated, establishing the First Philippine Republic.", "Emilio Aguinaldo is sworn in as its first president.", "1900 – Second Boer War: The Battle of Spion Kop between the forces of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State and British forces ends in a British defeat.===1901–present===1904 – Ålesund Fire: The Norwegian coastal town Ålesund is devastated by fire, leaving 10,000 people homeless and one person dead.", "Kaiser Wilhelm II funds the rebuilding of the town in Jugendstil style.", "1909 – , a passenger ship of the White Star Line, becomes the first ship to use the CQD distress signal after colliding with another ship, the SS ''Florida'', off the Massachusetts coastline, an event that kills six people.", "The ''Republic'' sinks the next day.", "1912 – The International Opium Convention is signed at The Hague.", "1919 – The First Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents is held by the Makhnovshchina at Velykomykhailivka.", "1920 – The Netherlands refuses to surrender the exiled Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany to the Allies.", "1937 – The trial of the anti-Soviet Trotskyist center sees seventeen mid-level Communists accused of sympathizing with Leon Trotsky and plotting to overthrow Joseph Stalin's regime.", "1941 – Charles Lindbergh testifies before the U.S. Congress and recommends that the United States negotiate a neutrality pact with Adolf Hitler.", "1942 – World War II: The Battle of Rabaul commences Japan's invasion of Australia's Territory of New Guinea.", "1943 – World War II: Troops of the British Eighth Army capture Tripoli in Libya from the German–Italian Panzer Army.", "1945 – World War II: German admiral Karl Dönitz launches Operation Hannibal.", "1950 – The Knesset resolves that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel.", "1957 – American inventor Walter Frederick Morrison sells the rights to his flying disc to the Wham-O toy company, which later renames it the \"Frisbee\".", "1958 – After a general uprising and rioting in the streets, President Marcos Pérez Jiménez leaves Venezuela.", "1960 – The bathyscaphe USS ''Trieste'' breaks a depth record by descending to in the Pacific Ocean.", "1963 – The Guinea-Bissau War of Independence officially begins when PAIGC guerrilla fighters attack the Portuguese Army stationed in Tite.", "1964 – The 24th Amendment to the United States Constitution, prohibiting the use of poll taxes in national elections, is ratified.", "1967 – Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Ivory Coast are established.", " 1967 – Milton Keynes (England) is founded as a new town by Order in Council, with a planning brief to become a city of 250,000 people.", "Its initial designated area enclosed three existing towns and twenty-one villages.", "The area to be developed was largely farmland, with evidence of continuous settlement dating back to the Bronze Age.", "1968 – USS ''Pueblo'' (AGER-2) is attacked and seized by the Korean People's Navy.", "1982 – World Airways Flight 30 overshoots the runway at Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts, and crashes into Boston Harbor.", "Two people are missing and presumed dead.", "1986 – The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducts its first members: Little Richard, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Fats Domino, The Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis and Elvis Presley.", "1987 – Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan sends a \"letter of death\" to Somali President Siad Barre, proposing the genocide of the Isaaq people.", "1997 – Madeleine Albright becomes the first woman to serve as United States Secretary of State.", "1998 – Netscape announces Mozilla, with the intention to release Communicator code as open source.", "2001 – Five people attempt to set themselves on fire in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, an act that many people later claim is staged by the Chinese Communist Party to frame Falun Gong and thus escalate their persecution.", "2002 – U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl is kidnapped in Karachi, Pakistan and subsequently murdered.", "2003 – A very weak signal from Pioneer 10 is detected for the last time, but no usable data can be extracted.", "2018 – A 7.9 earthquake occurs in the Gulf of Alaska.", "It is tied as the sixth-largest earthquake ever recorded in the United States, but there are no reports of significant damage or fatalities.", "* 2018 – A double car bombing in Benghazi, Libya, kills at least 33 people and wounds \"dozens\" of others.", "The victims include both military personnel and civilians, according to local officials.", "* 2018 – The China–United States trade war begins when President Donald Trump places tariffs on Chinese solar panels and washing machines.", "2022 – Mutinying Burkinabè soldiers led by Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba depose and detain President Roch Marc Christian Kaboré amid widespread anti-government protests." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1350 – Vincent Ferrer, Spanish missionary and saint (d. 1419)1378 – Louis III, Elector Palatine (d. 1436)1514 – Hai Rui, Chinese politician (d. 1587)1585 – Mary Ward, English Catholic Religious Sister (d. 1645)===1601–1900===1622 – Abraham Diepraam, Dutch painter (d. 1670)1719 – John Landen, English mathematician and theorist (d. 1790)1737 – John Hancock, American general and politician, first Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1793)1745 – William Jessop, English engineer, built the Cromford Canal (d. 1814)1752 – Muzio Clementi, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1832)1780 – Georgios Karaiskakis, Greek general (d. 1827)1783 – Stendhal, French novelist (d. 1842)1786 – Auguste de Montferrand, French-Russian architect, designed Saint Isaac's Cathedral and Alexander Column (d. 1858)1799 – Alois Negrelli, Tyrolean engineer and railroad pioneer active in the Austrian Empire (d. 1858) 1809 – Surendra Sai, Indian activist (d. 1884)1813 – Camilla Collett, Norwegian novelist and activist (d. 1895)1828 – Saigō Takamori, Japanese samurai (d. 1877)1832 – Édouard Manet, French painter (d. 1883)1833 – Muthu Coomaraswamy, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1879)1838 – Marianne Cope, German-American nun and saint (d. 1918)1840 – Ernst Abbe, German physicist and engineer (d. 1905)1846 – Nikolay Umov, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1915)1855 – John Browning, American weapons designer, founded the Browning Arms Company (d. 1926)1857 – Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian meteorologist and seismologist (d. 1936)1862 – David Hilbert, German mathematician and academic (d. 1943) 1862 – Frank Shuman, American inventor and engineer (d. 1918)1872 – Paul Langevin, French physicist and academic (d. 1946) 1872 – Jože Plečnik, Slovenian architect, designed Plečnik Parliament (d. 1957)1876 – Otto Diels, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954)1878 – Rutland Boughton, English composer (d. 1960)1880 – Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, Mexican politician (d. 1967)1889 – Claribel Kendall, American mathematician (d.1965)1894 – Jyotirmoyee Devi, Indian author (d. 1988)1896 – Alf Blair, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1944)* 1896 – Alf Hall, English-South African cricketer (d. 1964)1897 – Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian freedom fighter and politician (d. 1945) 1897 – Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Austrian architect (d. 2000)* 1897 – Ieva Simonaitytė, Lithuanian author (d. 1978)* 1897 – William Stephenson, Canadian captain and spy (d. 1989)1898 – Georg Kulenkampff, German violinist (d. 1948) 1898 – Randolph Scott, American actor (d. 1987)* 1898 – Freda Utley, English scholar and author (d. 1978)1899 – Glen Kidston, English racing driver and pilot (d. 1931)1900 – William Ifor Jones, Welsh organist and conductor (d. 1988)===1901–present===1901 – Arthur Wirtz, American businessman (d. 1983)1903 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian lawyer and politician, 16th Minister of National Education of Colombia (d. 1948)1905 – Erich Borchmeyer, German sprinter (d. 2000)1907 – Dan Duryea, American actor and singer (d. 1968)* 1907 – Hideki Yukawa, Japanese physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)1910 – Django Reinhardt, Belgian guitarist and composer (d. 1953)1912 – Boris Pokrovsky, Russian director and manager (d. 2009)1913 – Jean-Michel Atlan, Algerian-French painter (d. 1960) 1913 – Wally Parks, American businessman, founded the National Hot Rod Association (d. 2007)1915 – Herma Bauma, Austrian javelin thrower and handball player (d. 2003) 1915 – W. Arthur Lewis, Saint Lucian-Barbadian economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)* 1915 – Potter Stewart, American lawyer and judge (d. 1985)1916 – David Douglas Duncan, American photographer and journalist (d. 2018) 1916 – Airey Neave, English colonel, lawyer, and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (d. 1979)1918 – Gertrude B. Elion, American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)1918 – Charlie Kerins, Executed Irish Republican (d. 1944)* 1918 – Florence Rush, American social worker and theorist (d. 2008)1919 – Frances Bay, Canadian-American actress (d. 2011) 1919 – Hans Hass, Austrian biologist and diver (d. 2013)* 1919 – Ernie Kovacs, American actor and game show host (d. 1962)* 1919 – Bob Paisley, English footballer and manager (d. 1996)1920 – Gottfried Böhm, German architect (d. 2021) 1920 – Henry Eriksson, Swedish runner (d. 2000)* 1920 – Walter Frederick Morrison, American businessman, invented the Frisbee (d. 2010)1922 – Leon Golub, American painter and academic (d. 2004) 1922 – Tom Lewis, Australian politician, 33rd Premier of New South Wales (d. 2016)1923 – Horace Ashenfelter, American runner (d. 2018) 1923 – Walter M. Miller, Jr., American soldier and author (d. 1996)1924 – Frank Lautenberg, American soldier, businessman, and politician (d. 2013)1925 – Marty Paich, American pianist, composer, producer, and conductor (d. 1995)1926 – Bal Thackeray, Indian journalist, cartoonist, and politician (d. 2012)1927 – Lars-Eric Lindblad, Swedish-American businessman and explorer (d. 1994)* 1927 – Fred Williams, Australian painter (d. 1982)1928 – Jeanne Moreau, French actress (d. 2017)1929 – Myron Cope, American journalist and sportscaster (d. 2008)* 1929 – Filaret Denysenko, Ukrainian religious leader, Patriarch of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate* 1929 – Phillip Knightley, Australian journalist, author, and critic (d. 2016)* 1929 – John Polanyi, German-Canadian chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1930 – Mervyn Rose, Australian tennis player (d. 2017) 1930 – Derek Walcott, Saint Lucian poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017)* 1930 – Teresa Żylis-Gara, Polish operatic soprano (d. 2021)1932 – George Allen, English footballer (d. 2016) 1932 – Larri Thomas, American actress and dancer (d. 2013)1933 – Bill Hayden, Australian politician, 21st Governor General of Australia (d. 2023) 1933 – Chita Rivera, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2024)1934 – Lou Antonio, American actor and director 1934 – Pierre Bourgault, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2003)1935 – Mike Agostini, Trinidadian sprinter (d. 2016) 1935 – Tom Reamy, American author (d. 1977)1936 – Jerry Kramer, American football player and sportscaster 1936 – Cécile Ousset, French pianist1938 – Giant Baba, Japanese wrestler and promoter, founded All Japan Pro Wrestling (d. 1999) 1938 – Georg Baselitz, German painter and sculptor1939 – Ed Roberts, American activist (d. 1995)1940 – Alan Cheuse, American writer and critic (d. 2015)* 1940 – Joe Dowell, American singer (d. 2016)1941 – Jock R. Anderson, Australian economist and academic 1941 – João Ubaldo Ribeiro, Brazilian journalist, author, and academic (d. 2014)1942 – Laurie Mayne, Australian cricketer 1942 – Herman Tjeenk Willink, Dutch judge and politician1943 – Gary Burton, American musician 1943 – Gil Gerard, American actor* 1943 – Özhan Canaydın, Turkish basketball player and businessman (d. 2010)1944 – Rutger Hauer, Dutch actor, director, and producer (d. 2019)1945 – Mike Harris, Canadian politician, 22nd Premier of Ontario1946 – Arnoldo Alemán, Nicaraguan lawyer and politician, President of Nicaragua 1946 – Boris Berezovsky, Russian-English businessman and mathematician (d. 2013)1947 – Tom Carper, American captain and politician, 71st Governor of Delaware 1947 – Megawati Sukarnoputri, Indonesian politician, President of Indonesia1948 – Anita Pointer, American singer-songwriter (d. 2022)1949 – Charlie Papazian, American nuclear engineer, brewer and author.", "1950 – Richard Dean Anderson, American actor, producer, and composer 1950 – Guida Maria, Portuguese actress (d. 2018)* 1950 – Suzanne Scotchmer, American economist and academic (d. 2014)* 1950 – Luis Alberto Spinetta, Argentinian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and poet (d. 2012)1951 – Chesley Sullenberger, American airline pilot and safety expert1952 – Omar Henry, South African cricketer* 1952 – Jaroslav Pouzar, Czech ice hockey player1953 – John Luther Adams, American composer 1953 – Alister McGrath, Irish priest, historian, and theologian* 1953 – Antonio Villaraigosa, American politician, 41st Mayor of Los Angeles* 1953 – Robin Zander, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1954 – Trevor Hohns, Australian cricketer1957 – Caroline, Princess of Hanover1958 – Sergey Litvinov, Russian hammer thrower (d. 2018)1959 – Clive Bull, English radio host1960 – Greg Ritchie, Australian cricketer1961 – Peter Mackenzie, American actor* 1961 – Yelena Sinchukova, Russian long jumper1962 – David Arnold, English composer 1962 – Aivar Lillevere, Estonian footballer and coach* 1962 – Elvira Lindo, Spanish journalist and author* 1962 – Boris McGiver, American actor1963 – Gail O'Grady, American actress1964 – Jonatha Brooke, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1964 – Mariska Hargitay, American actress and producer* 1964 – Bharrat Jagdeo, Guyanese economist and politician, 7th President of Guyana1965 – Louie Clemente, American drummer 1966 – Damien Hardman, Australian surfer* 1966 – Haywoode Workman, American basketball player and referee1968 – Taro Hakase, Japanese violinist and composer 1968 – Petr Korda, Czech-Monacan tennis player1969 – Andrei Kanchelskis, Ukrainian-Russian footballer and manager 1969 – Brendan Shanahan, Canadian ice hockey player and actor* 1969 – Susen Tiedtke, German long jumper1970 – Richard Šmehlík, Czech ice hockey player 1970 – Spyridon Vasdekis, Greek long jumper1971 – Kevin Mawae, American football player and coach 1971 – Adam Parore, New Zealand cricketer and mountaineer* 1971 – Claire Rankin, Canadian actress1972 – Ewen Bremner, Scottish actor 1973 – Tomas Holmström, Swedish ice hockey player1974 – Glen Chapple, English cricketer 1974 – Rebekah Elmaloglou, Australian actress * 1974 – Richard T. Slone, English painter* 1974 – Tiffani Thiessen, American actress1975 – Phil Dawson, American football player 1975 – Tito Ortiz, American mixed martial artist1976 – Brandon Duckworth, American baseball player and scout 1976 – Anne Margrethe Hausken, Norwegian orienteering competitor* 1976 – Alex Shaffer, American skier1979 – Scott Hannan, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Larry Hughes, American basketball player* 1979 – Dawn O'Porter, Scottish-English fashion designer and journalist* 1979 – Juan Rincón, Venezuelan baseball player and coach* 1979 – Maria Stepanova, Russian basketball player1981 – Rob Friend, Canadian soccer player 1981 – Julia Jones, American actress1982 – Oceana Mahlmann, German singer and songwriter 1982 – Wily Mo Peña, Dominican baseball player* 1982 – Andrew Rock, American sprinter1983 – Irving Saladino, Panamanian long jumper1984 – Arjen Robben, Dutch footballer1985 – San E, South Korean rapper 1985 – Dong Fangzhuo, Chinese footballer* 1985 – Doutzen Kroes, Dutch model and actress* 1985 – Yevgeny Lukyanenko, Russian pole vaulter* 1985 – Aselefech Mergia, Ethiopian runner* 1985 – Jeff Samardzija, American baseball and football player1986 – Gelete Burka, Ethiopian runner 1986 – Marc Laird, Scottish footballer* 1986 – José Enrique, Spanish footballer* 1986 – Steven Taylor, English footballer* 1986 – Sandro Viletta, Swiss skier1987 – Leo Komarov, Estonian-Finnish ice hockey player1990 – Alex Silva, Canadian wrestler1991 – Steve Birnbaum, American soccer player1992 – Reina Triendl, Japanese model and actress1994 – Addison Russell, American baseball player1996 – Keita Bates-Diop, American basketball player1996 – Ruben Loftus-Cheek, English footballer1998 – XXXTentacion, American rapper (d. 2018)1999 – Alban Lafont, French footballer2001 – Olga Danilović, Serbian tennis player2002 – Joško Gvardiol, Croatian footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 667 – Ildefonsus, bishop of Toledo* 989 – Adalbero, archbishop of Reims1002 – Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "980)1199 – Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, Moroccan caliph (b.", "1160)1252 – Isabella, Queen of Armenia1297 – Florent of Hainaut, Prince of Achaea (b. c. 1255)1423 – Margaret of Bavaria, Burgundian regent (b.", "1363)1516 – Ferdinand II of Aragon (b.", "1452)1548 – Bernardo Pisano, Italian priest, scholar, and composer (b.", "1490)1549 – Johannes Honter, Romanian-Hungarian cartographer and theologian (b.", "1498)1567 – Jiajing Emperor of China (b.", "1507)1570 – James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, Scottish politician (b.", "1531)===1601–1900===1620 – John Croke, English politician and judge (b.", "1553)1622 – William Baffin, English explorer and navigator (b.", "1584)1650 – Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke (b.", "1584)1744 – Giambattista Vico, Italian historian and philosopher (b.", "1668)1785 – Matthew Stewart, Scottish mathematician and academic (b.", "1717)1789 – Frances Brooke, English author and playwright (b.", "1724)* 1789 – John Cleland, English author (b.", "1709)1800 – Edward Rutledge, American captain and politician, 39th Governor of South Carolina (b.", "1749)1803 – Arthur Guinness, Irish brewer, founded Guinness (b.", "1725)1805 – Claude Chappe, French engineer (b.", "1763)1806 – William Pitt the Younger, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1759)1810 – Johann Wilhelm Ritter, German chemist and physicist (b.", "1776)1812 – Robert Craufurd, Scottish general and politician (b.", "1764)1820 – Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (b.", "1767)1833 – Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth, English admiral and politician (b.", "1757)1837 – John Field, Irish pianist and composer (b.", "1782)1866 – Thomas Love Peacock, English author and poet (b.", "1785)1875 – Charles Kingsley, English priest and author (b.", "1819)1883 – Gustave Doré, French engraver and illustrator (b.", "1832)1893 – Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar II, American lawyer and politician, 16th United States Secretary of the Interior (b.", "1825) 1893 – William Price, Welsh physician, Chartist, and neo-Druid (b.", "1800)* 1893 – José Zorrilla, Spanish poet and playwright (b.", "1817)===1901–present===1921 – Mykola Leontovych, Ukrainian composer and conductor (b.", "1877)1922 – René Beeh, Alsatian painter and draughtsman (b.", "1886)* 1922 – Arthur Nikisch, Hungarian conductor and academic (b.", "1855)1923 – Max Nordau, Austrian physician and author (b.", "1849)1931 – Anna Pavlova, Russian-English ballerina (b.", "1881)1937 – Orso Mario Corbino, Italian physicist and politician (b.", "1876)1939 – Matthias Sindelar, Austrian footballer and manager (b.", "1903)1943 – Alexander Woollcott, American actor, playwright, and critic (b.", "1887)1944 – Edvard Munch, Norwegian painter and illustrator (b.", "1863)1947 – Pierre Bonnard, French painter (b.", "1867)1956 – Alexander Korda, Hungarian-English director and producer (b.", "1893)1963 – Józef Gosławski, Polish sculptor (b.", "1908)1966 – T. M. Sabaratnam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1895)1971 – Fritz Feigl, Austrian-Brazilian chemist and academic (b.", "1871)1973 – Alexander Onassis, American-Greek businessman (b.", "1948)* 1973 – Kid Ory, American trombonist, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1886)1976 – Paul Robeson, American actor, singer, and activist (b.", "1898)1977 – Toots Shor, American businessman, founded Toots Shor's Restaurant (b.", "1903)1978 – Terry Kath, American guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1946) 1978 – Jack Oakie, American actor (b.", "1903)1980 – Giovanni Michelotti, Italian engineer (b.", "1921)1981 – Samuel Barber, American pianist and composer (b.", "1910)1983 – Fred Bakewell, English cricketer and coach (b.", "1908)1984 – Muin Bseiso, Palestinian-Egyptian poet and critic (b.", "1926)1985 – James Beard, American chef and cookbook author for whom the James Beard Foundation Awards are named (b.", "1905)1986 – Joseph Beuys, German sculptor and painter (b.", "1921)1988 – Charles Glen King, American biochemist and academic (b.", "1896)1989 – Salvador Dalí, Spanish painter and sculptor (b.", "1904)* 1989 – Lars-Erik Torph, Swedish race car driver (b.", "1961)1990 – Allen Collins, American guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1952)1991 – Northrop Frye, Canadian author and critic (b.", "1912)1992 – Freddie Bartholomew, American actor (b.", "1924)1993 – Keith Laumer, American soldier, author, and diplomat (b.", "1925)1994 – Nikolai Ogarkov, Russian field marshal (b.", "1917) 1994 – Brian Redhead, English journalist and author (b.", "1929)1999 – Joe D'Amato, Italian director and cinematographer (b.", "1936) 1999 – Jay Pritzker, American businessman, co-founded the Hyatt Corporation (b.", "1922)2002 – Paul Aars, American race car driver (b.", "1934) 2002 – Pierre Bourdieu, French sociologist, anthropologist, and philosopher (b.", "1930)* 2002 – Robert Nozick, American philosopher, author, and academic (b.", "1938)2003 – Nell Carter, American actress and singer (b.", "1948)2004 – Bob Keeshan, American television personality and producer (b.", "1927)* 2004 – Helmut Newton, German-Australian photographer (b.", "1920)2005 – Morys Bruce, 4th Baron Aberdare, English lieutenant and politician (b.", "1921) 2005 – Johnny Carson, American talk show host, television personality, and producer (b.", "1925)2007 – Syed Hussein Alatas, Malaysian sociologist and politician (b.", "1928) 2007 – E. Howard Hunt, American CIA officer (b.", "1918)* 2007 – Ryszard Kapuściński, Polish journalist and author (b.", "1932)2009 – Robert W. Scott, American farmer and politician, 67th Governor of North Carolina (b.", "1929)2010 – Kermit Tyler, American colonel and pilot (b.", "1913)* 2010 – Earl Wild, American pianist and composer (b.", "1915)2011 – Jack LaLanne, American fitness instructor, author, and television host (b.", "1914)2012 – Wesley E. Brown, American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1907)* 2012 – Maurice Meisner, American historian, author, and academic (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Bingham Ray, American businessman, co-founded October Films (b.", "1954)2013 – Józef Glemp, Polish cardinal (b.", "1929) 2013 – Peter van der Merwe, South African cricketer and referee (b.", "1937)* 2013 – Jean-Félix-Albert-Marie Vilnet, French bishop (b.", "1922)2014 – Yuri Izrael, Russian meteorologist and journalist (b.", "1930) 2014 – Riz Ortolani, Italian composer and conductor (b.", "1926)2015 – Ernie Banks, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1931) 2015 – Prosper Ego, Dutch activist, founded the Oud-Strijders Legioen (b.", "1927)* 2015 – Abdullah of Saudi Arabia (b.", "1924)2016 – Jimmy Bain, Scottish bassist (b.", "1947) 2016 – Bobby Wanzer, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1921)2017 – Bobby Freeman, American singer, songwriter and record producer (b.", "1940) 2017 – Gorden Kaye, English actor (b.", "1941)2018 – Hugh Masekela, South African trumpeter, composer and singer (b.", "1939) 2018 – Nicanor Parra, Chilean poet (b.", "1914)* 2018 – Wyatt Tee Walker, American civil rights activist and pastor (b.", "1928)2019 – Aloysius Pang, Singaporean actor (b.", "1990) 2019 – Oliver Mtukudzi, Zimbabwean Afro Jazz musician (b.", "1952)2021 – Hal Holbrook, American actor and director (b.", "1925) 2021 – Larry King, American journalist and talk show host (b.", "1933)* 2021 – Song Yoo-jung, South Korean actress and model (b.", "1994)2024 – Charles Osgood, American radio and television commentator, writer and musician (b.", "1933)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Bounty Day (Pitcairn Islands)Christian feast day:AbakuhMarianne of MolokaiEmerentianaEspousals of the Blessed Virgin MaryIldefonsus of ToledoPhillips Brooks (Episcopal Church (USA))January 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose's Jayanti (Orissa, Tripura, and West Bengal, India)World Freedom Day (Taiwan and South Korea)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 23" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jimmy Carter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Earl Carter Jr.''' (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981.A member of the Democratic Party, Carter was the 76th governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975, and a Georgia state senator from 1963 to 1967.At age 99, he is both the oldest living former U.S. president and the longest-lived president in U.S. history.", "Carter was born and raised in Plains, Georgia.", "He graduated from the U.S.", "Naval Academy in 1946 and joined the U.S. Navy's submarine service.", "Carter returned home afterward and revived his family's peanut-growing business.", "He then manifested his opposition to racial segregation, supported the growing civil rights movement, and became an activist within the Democratic Party.", "He was in the Georgia State Senate from 1963 to 1967 and then as governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975.As a dark-horse candidate not well known outside of Georgia, Carter won the Democratic nomination and narrowly defeated incumbent Republican president Gerald Ford in the 1976 U.S. presidential election.Carter pardoned all Vietnam War draft evaders on his second day in office.", "He created a national energy policy that included conservation, price control, and new technology.", "Carter successfully pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, and the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.", "He also confronted stagflation.", "His administration established the U.S. Department of Energy and the Department of Education.", "The end of his presidency was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island accident, the Nicaraguan Revolution, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.", "In response to the invasion, Carter escalated the Cold War by ending détente, imposing a grain embargo against the Soviets, enunciating the Carter Doctrine, and leading the multinational boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.", "He lost the 1980 presidential election in a landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan.After leaving the presidency, Carter established the Carter Center to promote and expand human rights, earning him a Nobel Peace Prize in 2002.He traveled extensively to conduct peace negotiations, monitor elections, and further the eradication of infectious diseases.", "Carter is a key figure in the nonprofit housing organization Habitat for Humanity and wrote numerous books, ranging from political memoirs to poetry, while continuing to comment on global affairs, including two books on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, in which he criticizes Israel's treatment of Palestinians as apartheid.", "Polls of historians and political scientists generally rank Carter as a below-average president, although his post-presidential activities are viewed in an exceptionally favorable light.", "He has the longest post-presidency in U.S. history, at ." ], [ "Early life", "Carter's Boyhood Farm, in Plains, GeorgiaJames Earl Carter Jr. was born October 1, 1924, in Plains, Georgia, at the Wise Sanitarium, where his mother worked as a registered nurse.", "Carter thus became the first American president born in a hospital.", "He is the eldest child of Bessie Lillian Gordy and James Earl Carter Sr., and a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in the Colony of Virginia in 1635.Numerous generations of Carters lived as cotton farmers in Georgia.", "Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carter's birth.", "His father was a successful local businessman, who ran a general store and was an investor in farmland.", "Carter's father had previously served as a reserve second lieutenant in the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps during World War I.During Carter's infancy, his family moved several times, settling on a dirt road in nearby Archery, which was almost entirely populated by impoverished African American families.", "His family eventually had three more children: Gloria, Ruth, and Billy.", "He got along well with his parents.", "His mother was often absent during his childhood, working long hours.", "Although his father was staunchly pro-segregation, he allowed Jimmy to befriend the black farmhands' children.", "Carter was an enterprising teenager who was given his own acre of Earl's farmland, where he grew, packaged, and sold peanuts.", "He also rented out a section of tenant housing that he had purchased.=== Education ===Carter attended Plains High School from 1937 to 1941, graduating from the eleventh grade, since the school did not have a twelfth grade.", "By that time, Archery and Plains had been impoverished by the Great Depression, but the family benefited from New Deal farming subsidies, and Carter's father took a position as a community leader.", "Carter himself was a diligent student with a fondness for reading.", "A popular anecdote holds that he was passed over for valedictorian after he and his friends skipped school to venture downtown in a hot rod.", "Carter's truancy was mentioned in a local newspaper, although it is not clear he would have otherwise been valedictorian.", "As an adolescent, Carter played on the Plains High School basketball team, and also joined Future Farmers of America, which helped him develop a lifelong interest in woodworking.Carter had long dreamed of attending the United States Naval Academy.", "In 1941, he started undergraduate coursework in engineering at Georgia Southwestern College in nearby Americus, Georgia.", "The next year, he transferred to the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, where civil rights icon Blake Van Leer was president.", "In 1943, he was admitted to the Naval Academy, from which he received a Bachelor of Science in 1946.He was a good student but seen as reserved and quiet, in contrast to the academy's culture of aggressive hazing of freshmen.", "While at the academy, Carter fell in love with Rosalynn Smith, a friend of his sister Ruth.", "The two wed shortly after his graduation in 1946, and were married until her death on November 19, 2023.He was a sprint football player for the Navy Midshipmen.", "Carter graduated 60th out of 821 midshipmen in the class of 1947 with a Bachelor of Science degree and was commissioned as an ensign." ], [ "Naval career", "Carter with Rosalynn Smith and his mother at his graduation from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, June 5, 1946From 1946 to 1953, the Carters lived in Virginia, Hawaii, Connecticut, New York, and California, during his deployments in the Atlantic and Pacific fleets.", "In 1948, he began officer training for submarine duty and served aboard .", "He was promoted to lieutenant junior grade in 1949, and his service aboard ''Pomfret'' included a simulated war patrol to the western Pacific and Chinese coast from January to March of that year.", "In 1951 he was assigned to the diesel/electric , qualified for command, and served in several positions, to include executive officer.In 1952, he began an association with the Navy's fledgling nuclear submarine program, led then by captain Hyman G. Rickover.", "Rickover had high standards and demands for his men and machines, and Carter later said that, next to his parents, Rickover had the greatest influence on his life.", "He was sent to the Naval Reactors Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission in Washington, D.C. for three-month temporary duty, while Rosalynn moved with their children to Schenectady, New York.On December 12, 1952, an accident with the experimental NRX reactor at Atomic Energy of Canada's Chalk River Laboratories caused a partial meltdown, resulting in millions of liters of radioactive water flooding the reactor building's basement.", "This left the reactor's core ruined.", "Carter was ordered to Chalk River to lead a U.S. maintenance crew that joined other American and Canadian service personnel to assist in the shutdown of the reactor.", "The painstaking process required each team member to don protective gear and be lowered individually into the reactor for 90 seconds at a time, limiting their exposure to radioactivity while they disassembled the crippled reactor.", "When Carter was lowered in, his job was simply to turn a single screw.", "During and after his presidency, Carter said that his experience at Chalk River had shaped his views on atomic energy and led him to cease development of a neutron bomb.In March 1953, Carter began a six-month course in nuclear power plant operation at Union College in Schenectady.", "His intent was to eventually work aboard , which was intended to be the second U.S. nuclear submarine.", "His plans changed when his father died of pancreatic cancer in July, two months before construction of ''Seawolf'' began, and Carter obtained a release from active duty so he could take over the family peanut business.", "Deciding to leave Schenectady proved difficult, as Rosalynn had grown comfortable with their life there.", "She said later that returning to small-town life in Plains seemed \"a monumental step backward.\"", "Carter left active duty on October 9, 1953.He served in the inactive Navy Reserve until 1961, and left the service with the rank of lieutenant.", "His awards include the American Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, China Service Medal, and National Defense Service Medal.", "As a submarine officer he also earned the \"dolphin\" badge." ], [ "Farming", "After debt settlements and division of his father's estate among its heirs, Jimmy inherited comparatively little.", "For a year, he, Rosalynn, and their three sons lived in public housing in Plains.", "Carter was knowledgeable in scientific and technological subjects, and he set out to expand the family's peanut-growing business.", "Transitioning from the Navy to an agri-businessman was difficult as his first-year harvest failed due to a drought, and Carter had to open several bank lines of credit to keep the farm afloat.", "Meanwhile, he took classes and studied agriculture while Rosalynn learned accounting to manage the business's books.", "Though they barely broke even the first year, the Carters grew the business and became quite successful." ], [ "Early political career (1963–1971)", "=== Georgia state senator (1963–1967) ===As racial tension inflamed in Plains by the 1954 Supreme Court of the United States ruling in ''Brown v. Board of Education'', Carter favored racial tolerance and integration, but often kept those feelings to himself to avoid making enemies.", "By 1961, he began to speak more prominently of integration as a member of the Baptist Church and chairman of the Sumter County school board.", "In 1962, Carter announced his campaign for an open Georgia State Senate seat fifteen days before the election.", "Rosalynn, who had an instinct for politics and organization, was instrumental to his campaign.", "While early counting of the ballots showed Carter trailing his opponent Homer Moore, this was later proven to be the result of fraudulent voting.", "The fraud was found to have been orchestrated by Joe Hurst, the chairman of the Democratic Party in Quitman County.", "Carter challenged the election result, which was confirmed fraudulent in an investigation.", "Following this, another election was held, in which Carter won against Moore as the sole Democratic candidate, with a vote margin of 3,013 to 2,182.The civil rights movement was well underway when Carter took office.", "He and his family had become staunch John F. Kennedy supporters.", "Carter remained relatively quiet on the issue at first, even as it polarized much of the county, to avoid alienating his segregationist colleagues.", "He did speak up on a few divisive issues, giving speeches against literacy tests and against an amendment to the Georgia Constitution which he felt implied a compulsion to practice religion.", "Carter entered the state Democratic Executive Committee two years into office, where he helped rewrite the state party's rules.", "He became the chairman of the West Central Georgia Planning and Development Commission, which oversaw the disbursement of federal and state grants for projects such as historic site restoration.When Bo Callaway was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1964, Carter immediately began planning to challenge him.", "The two had previously clashed over which two-year college would be expanded to a four-year college program by the state, and Carter saw Callaway—who had switched to the Republican Party—as a rival who represented aspects of politics he despised.", "Carter was reelected to a second two-year term in the state Senate, where he chaired its Education Committee and sat on the Appropriations Committee toward the end of the term.", "He contributed to a bill expanding statewide education funding and getting Georgia Southwestern State University a four-year program.", "He leveraged his regional planning work, giving speeches around the district to make himself more visible to potential voters.", "On the last day of the term, Carter announced his candidacy for the House of Representatives.", "But Callaway decided to run for governor, and Carter changed his mind, deciding to run for governor too.=== 1966 and 1970 gubernatorial campaigns ===In the 1966 gubernatorial election, Carter ran against liberal former governor Ellis Arnall and conservative segregationist Lester Maddox in the Democratic primary.", "In a press conference, he described his ideology as \"Conservative, moderate, liberal and middle-of-the-road ...", "I believe I am a more complicated person than that.\"", "He lost the primary, but drew enough votes as a third-place candidate to force Arnall into a runoff election with Maddox, who narrowly defeated Arnall.", "In the general election, Republican nominee Callaway won a plurality of the vote, but less than a majority, allowing the Democratic-majority Georgia House of Representatives to elect Maddox as governor.", "This resulted in a victorious Maddox, whose victory—due to his segregationist stance—was seen as the worse outcome to the indebted Carter.", "Carter returned to his agriculture business, carefully planning his next campaign.", "This period was a spiritual turning point for Carter; he declared himself a born again Christian, and his last child Amy was born during this time.In the 1970 gubernatorial election, liberal former governor Carl Sanders became Carter's main opponent in the Democratic primary.", "Carter ran a more modern campaign, employing printed graphics and statistical analysis.", "Responding to polls, he leaned more conservative than before, positioning himself as a populist and criticizing Sanders for both his wealth and perceived links to the national Democratic Party.", "He also accused Sanders of corruption, but when pressed by the media, did not provide evidence.", "Throughout his campaign, Carter sought both the black vote and the votes of those who had supported prominent Alabama segregationist George Wallace.", "While he met with black figures such as Martin Luther King Sr. and Andrew Young, and visited many Black-owned businesses, he also praised Wallace and promised to invite him to give a speech in Georgia.", "Carter's appeal to racism became more blatant over time, with his senior campaign aides handing out a photograph of Sanders celebrating with Black basketball players.Carter came ahead of Sanders in the first ballot by 49 percent to 38 percent in September, leading to a runoff election.", "The subsequent campaign was even more bitter; despite his early support for civil rights, Carter's appeal to racism grew, and he criticized Sanders for supporting Martin Luther King Jr. Carter won the runoff election with 60 percent of the vote, and easily won the general election against Republican nominee Hal Suit.", "Once elected, Carter changed his tone, and began to speak against Georgia's racist politics.", "Leroy Johnson, a black state senator, voiced his support for Carter: \"I understand why he ran that kind of ultra-conservative campaign.", "I don't believe you can win this state without being a racist.\"" ], [ "Georgia governorship (1971–1975)", "Carter's official portrait as Governor of Georgia; dated 1971Carter was sworn in as the 76th governor of Georgia on January 12, 1971.In his inaugural speech, he declared that \"the time of racial discrimination is over\", shocking the crowd and causing many of the segregationists who had supported him during the race to feel betrayed.", "Carter was reluctant to engage with his fellow politicians, making him unpopular with the legislature.", "He expanded the governor's authority by introducing a reorganization plan submitted in January 1972.Despite initially having a cool reception in the legislature, the plan passed at midnight on the last day of the session.", "Carter merged about 300 state agencies into 22, although it is disputed whether that saved the state money.", "On July 8, 1971, during an appearance in Columbus, Georgia, he stated his intention to establish a Georgia Human Rights Council to help solve issues ahead of any potential violence.In a news conference on July 13, 1971, Carter announced that he had ordered department heads to reduce spending to prevent a $57 million deficit by the end of the 1972 fiscal year, specifying that each state department would be affected and estimating that 5 percent over government revenue would be lost if state departments continued to fully use allocated funds.", "On January 13, 1972, he requested that the state legislature fund an early childhood development program along with prison reform programs and $48 million () in paid taxes for nearly all state employees.Carter greeting Florida governor Reubin Askew and his wife in 1971; as president, Carter would appoint Askew as U.S. trade representativeOn March 1, 1972, Carter said he might call a special session of the general assembly if the Justice Department opted to turn down any reapportionment plans by either the House or Senate.", "He pushed several reforms through the legislature, providing equal state aid to schools in Georgia's wealthy and poor areas, setting up community centers for mentally disabled children, and increasing educational programs for convicts.", "Under this program, all such appointments were based on merit, rather than political influence.", "In one of his more controversial decisions, he vetoed a plan to build a dam on Georgia's Flint River, which attracted the attention of environmentalists nationwide.Civil rights were a high priority for Carter, who added black state employees and portraits of three prominent black Georgians to the capitol building: Martin Luther King Jr., Lucy Craft Laney, and Henry McNeal Turner.", "This angered the Ku Klux Klan.", "He favored a constitutional amendment to ban busing for the purpose of expediting integration in schools on a televised joint appearance with Florida governor Reubin Askew on January 31, 1973, and co-sponsored an anti-busing resolution with Wallace at the 1971 National Governors Conference.", "After the U.S. Supreme Court threw out Georgia's death penalty statute in ''Furman v. Georgia'' (1972), Carter signed a revised death-penalty statute that addressed the court's objections, thus reintroducing the practice in the state.", "He later regretted endorsing the death penalty, saying, \"I didn't see the injustice of it as I do now.", "\"Ineligible for reelection, Carter looked toward a potential presidential run and engaged in national politics.", "He was named to several southern planning commissions and was a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention, where liberal U.S.", "Senator George McGovern was the likely nominee.", "Carter tried to ingratiate himself with the conservative and anti-McGovern voters.", "He was fairly obscure at the time, and his attempt at triangulation failed; the 1972 Democratic ticket was McGovern and senator Thomas Eagleton.", "On August 3, Carter met with Wallace in Birmingham, Alabama, to discuss preventing the Democrats from losing in a landslide, but they did.Carter regularly met with his fledgling campaign staff and decided to begin putting a presidential bid for 1976 together.", "He tried unsuccessfully to become chairman of the National Governors Association to boost his visibility.", "On David Rockefeller's endorsement, he was named to the Trilateral Commission in April 1973.The next year, he was named chairman of both the Democratic National Committee's congressional and gubernatorial campaigns.", "In May 1973, Carter warned his party against politicizing the Watergate scandal, which he attributed to President Richard Nixon exercising isolation from Americans and secrecy in his decision-making." ], [ "1976 presidential campaign", "Carter and President Gerald Ford debating at the Walnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, September 1976On December 12, 1974, Carter announced his presidential campaign at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C. His speech contained themes of domestic inequality, optimism, and change.", "Upon his entrance in the Democratic primaries, he was competing against sixteen other candidates, and was considered to have little chance against the more nationally known politicians like Wallace.", "His name recognition was two percent, and his opponents derisively asked \"Jimmy Who?\".", "In response to this, Carter began to emphasize his name and what he stood for, stating \"My name is Jimmy Carter, and I'm running for president.", "\"This strategy proved successful.", "By mid-March 1976, Carter was not only far ahead of the active contenders for the presidential nomination, but against incumbent Republican president Gerald Ford by a few percentage points.", "As the Watergate scandal was still fresh in the voters' minds, Carter's position as an outsider, distant from Washington, D.C. proved helpful.", "He promoted government reorganization.", "In June, Carter published a memoir titled ''Why Not the Best?''", "to help introduce himself to the American public.Carter became the front-runner early on by winning the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire primary.", "His strategy involved reaching a region before another candidate could extend influence there, traveling over , visiting 37 states, and delivering over 200 speeches before any other candidate had entered the race.", "In the South, he tacitly conceded certain areas to Wallace and swept them as a moderate when it became clear Wallace could not win it.", "In the North, Carter appealed largely to conservative Christian and rural voters.", "Whilst he did not achieve a majority in most Northern states, he won several by building the largest singular support base.", "Although Carter was initially dismissed as a regional candidate, he would clinch the Democratic nomination.", "In 1980, Lawrence Shoup noted that the national news media discovered and promoted Carter, and stated:During an interview in April 1976, Carter said, \"I have nothing against a community that is... trying to maintain the ethnic purity of their neighborhoods.\"", "His remark was intended as supportive of open housing laws, but specifying opposition to government efforts to \"inject black families into a white neighborhood just to create some sort of integration\".", "Carter's stated positions during his campaign included public financing of congressional campaigns, his support for the creation of a federal consumer protection agency, creating a separate cabinet-level department for education, signing a peace treaty with the Soviet Union to limit nuclear weapons, reducing the defense budget, a tax proposal implementing \"a substantial increase toward those who have the higher incomes\" alongside a levy reduction on taxpayers with lower and middle incomes, making multiple amendments to the Social Security Act, and having a balanced budget by the end of his first term of office.The electoral map of the 1976 electionOn July 15, 1976, he chose U.S. senator Walter Mondale as his running mate.", "Carter and Ford faced off in three televised debates, the first United States presidential debates since 1960.For the November 1976 issue of ''Playboy'', which hit newsstands a couple of weeks before the election, Robert Scheer interviewed Carter.", "While discussing his religion's view of pride, Carter said: \"I've looked on a lot of women with lust.", "I've committed adultery in my heart many times.\"", "This response and his admission in another interview that he did not mind if people uttered the word \"fuck\" led to a media feeding frenzy and critics lamenting the erosion of boundary between politicians and their private intimate lives.Carter began the race with a sizable lead over Ford, who narrowed the gap during the campaign, but lost to Carter in a narrow defeat on November 2, 1976.Carter won the popular vote by 50.1 percent to 48.0 percent for Ford and received 297 electoral votes to Ford's 240.=== Transition ===Preliminary planning for Carter's presidential transition had already been underway for months before his election.", "Carter had been the first presidential candidate to allot significant funds and a significant number of personnel to a pre-election transition planning effort, which then became standard practice.", "He set a mold that influenced all future transitions to be larger, more methodical and more formal than they were.On November 22, 1976, Carter conducted his first visit to Washington, D.C. after being elected, meeting with director of the Office of Management James Lynn and United States secretary of defense Donald Rumsfeld at the Blair House, and holding an afternoon meeting with President Ford at the White House.", "The next day, he conferred with congressional leaders, expressing that his meetings with cabinet members had been \"very helpful\" and saying Ford had requested he seek out his assistance if needing anything.", "Relations between Ford and Carter were relatively cold during the transition.", "During his transition, Carter announced the selection of numerous designees for positions in his administration.", "On January 4, 1977, he told reporters he would free himself from potential conflicts of interest by leaving his peanut business in the hands of trustees." ], [ "Presidency (1977–1981)", "National Portrait Gallery, Washington DC.", "Portrait by Robert Templeton.Carter was inaugurated as the 39th president on January 20, 1977.One of Carter's first acts was the fulfillment of a campaign promise by issuing an executive order declaring unconditional amnesty for Vietnam War-era draft evaders, Proclamation 4483.Carter's tenure in office was marked by an economic malaise, a time of continuing inflation and recession and a 1979 energy crisis.", "On January 7, 1980, Carter signed Law H.R.", "5860 aka Public Law 96–185, known as ''The Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979'', to bail out the Chrysler Corporation with $3.5 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) in aid.Carter attempted to calm various conflicts around the world, most visibly in the Middle East with the signing of the Camp David Accords; giving back the Panama Canal to Panama; and signing the SALT II nuclear arms reduction treaty with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev.", "His final year was marred by the Iran hostage crisis, which contributed to his losing the 1980 election to Ronald Reagan.", "Whistleblowers have alleged, most recently in 2023, that people working on the Reagan campaign's behalf convinced Iran to prolong the crisis to reduce Carter's chance of reelection.=== Domestic policy ======= U.S. energy crisis ====Moralism typified much of Carter's action.", "On April 18, 1977, he delivered a televised speech declaring that the current energy crisis was the \"moral equivalent of war\".", "He encouraged energy conservation and installed solar water heating panels on the White House.", "He wore sweaters to offset turning down the heat in the White House.", "On August 4, 1977, Carter signed the Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977, forming the Department of Energy, the first new cabinet position in eleven years.Carter boasted that the House of Representatives had \"adopted almost all\" of the energy proposal he had made five months earlier and called the compromise \"a turning point in establishing a comprehensive energy program.\"", "The following month, on October 13, Carter stated he believed in the Senate's ability to pass the energy reform bill and identified energy as \"the most important domestic issue that we will face while I am in office.", "\"On January 12, 1978, during a press conference, Carter said the continued discussions about his energy reform proposal had been \"long and divisive and arduous\" as well as hindering to national issues that needed to be addressed with the implementation of the law.In an April 11, 1978, news conference, Carter said his biggest surprise \"in the nature of a disappointment\" since becoming president was the difficulty Congress had in passing legislation, citing the energy reform bill in particular: \"I never dreamed a year ago in April when I proposed this matter to the Congress that a year later it still would not be resolved.\"", "The Carter energy legislation was approved by Congress after much deliberation and modification on October 15, 1978.The measure deregulated the sale of natural gas, dropped a longstanding pricing disparity between intra- and interstate gas, and created tax credits to encourage energy conservation and the use of non-fossil fuels.On March 1, 1979, Carter submitted a standby gasoline rationing plan per the request of Congress.", "On April 5, he delivered an address in which he stressed the urgency of energy conservation and increasing domestic production of energy sources such as coal and solar.", "During an April 30 news conference, he said it was imperative that the House commerce committee approve the standby gasoline rationing plan and called on Congress to pass the several other standby energy conservation plans he had proposed.On July 15, 1979, Carter delivered a nationally televised address in which he identified what he believed to be a \"crisis of confidence\" among American people, under the advisement of pollster Pat Caddell who believed Americans faced a crisis in confidence from events of the 1960s and 1970s, before his presidency.", "Some later called this his \"malaise speech\", memorable for mixed reactions and his use of rhetoric.", "The speech's negative reception centered on a view that he did not emphasize his own efforts to address the energy crisis and seemed too reliant on Americans.==== EPA Love Canal Superfund ====In 1978, Carter declared a federal emergency in the neighborhood of Love Canal in the city of Niagara Falls, New York.", "More than 800 families were evacuated from the neighborhood, which had been built on top of a toxic waste landfill.", "The Superfund law was created in response to the situation.", "Federal disaster money was appropriated to demolish the approximately 500 houses, the 99th Street School, and the 93rd Street School, which had been built on top of the dump; and to remediate the dump and construct a containment area for the hazardous wastes.", "This was the first time that such a process had been undertaken.", "Carter acknowledged that several more \"Love Canals\" existed across the country, and that discovering such hazardous dumpsites was \"one of the grimmest discoveries of our modern era\".==== Poor relations with Congress ====Carter typically refused to conform to Washington's rules.", "He avoided phone calls from members of Congress and verbally insulted them.", "He was unwilling to return political favors.", "His negativity led to frustration in passing legislation.", "During a press conference on February 23, 1977, Carter stated that it was \"inevitable\" that he would come into conflict with Congress and added that he had found \"a growing sense of cooperation\" with Congress and met in the past with congressional members of both parties.", "Carter developed a bitter feeling following an unsuccessful attempt at having Congress enact the scrapping of several water projects, which he had requested during his first 100 days in office and received opposition from members of his party.As a rift ensued between the White House and Congress afterward, Carter noted that the liberal wing of the Democratic Party was most ardently against his policies, attributing this to Ted Kennedy's wanting the presidency.", "Carter, thinking he had support from 74 Congressmen, issued a \"hit list\" of 19 projects that he claimed were \"pork barrel\" spending that he claimed would result in a veto on his part if included in any legislation.", "He found himself at odds with Congressional Democrats once more, with speaker of the House of Representatives Tip O'Neill finding it inappropriate for a president to pursue what had traditionally been the role of Congress.", "Carter was also weakened by signing a bill that contained many of the \"hit list\" projects he intended to cancel.In an address to a fundraising dinner for the Democratic National Committee on June 23, 1977, Carter said, \"I think it's good to point out tonight, too, that we have evolved a good working relationship with the Congress.", "For eight years we had government by partisanship.", "Now we have government by partnership.\"", "At a July 28 news conference, assessing the first six months of his presidency, Carter spoke of his improved understanding of Congress: \"I have learned to respect the Congress more in an individual basis.", "I've been favorably impressed at the high degree of concentrated experience and knowledge that individual members of Congress can bring on a specific subject, where they've been the chairman of a subcommittee or committee for many years and have focused their attention on this particular aspect of government life which I will never be able to do.", "\"On May 10, 1979, the House voted against giving Carter authority to produce a standby gas rationing plan.", "The following day, Carter delivered remarks in the Oval Office describing himself as shocked and embarrassed for the American government by the vote and concluding \"the majority of the House Members are unwilling to take the responsibility, the political responsibility for dealing with a potential, serious threat to our Nation.\"", "He furthered that a majority of House members were placing higher importance on \"local or parochial interests\" and challenged the lower chamber of Congress with composing their own rationing plan in the next 90 days.Carter's remarks were met with criticism by House Republicans, who accused his comments of not befitting the formality a president should have in their public remarks.", "Others pointed to 106 Democrats voting against his proposal and the bipartisan criticism potentially coming back to haunt him.", "At the start of a news conference on July 25, 1979, Carter called on believers in the future of the U.S. and his proposed energy program to speak with Congress as it bore the responsibility to impose his proposals.", "Amid the energy proposal opposition, ''The New York Times'' commented that \"as the comments flying up and down Pennsylvania Avenue illustrate, there is also a crisis of confidence between Congress and the President, sense of doubt and distrust that threatens to undermine the President's legislative program and become an important issue in next year's campaign.", "\"==== Economy ====Newly elected governor of Arkansas and future president Bill Clinton meets with President Carter in 1978Carter's presidency had a troubled economic history of two roughly equal periods.", "The first two years were a time of continuing recovery from the severe 1973–75 recession, which had left fixed investment at its lowest level since the 1970 recession and unemployment at 9%.", "His last two years were marked by double-digit inflation, coupled with very high interest rates, oil shortages, and slow economic growth.", "Due to the $30 billion economic stimulus legislation – such as the Public Works Employment Act of 1977 – proposed by Carter and passed by Congress, real household median had grown by 5.2%, with a projection of 6.4% for the next quarter.The 1979 energy crisis ended this period of growth, and as inflation and interest rates rose, economic growth, job creation and consumer confidence declined sharply.", "The relatively loose monetary policy adopted by Federal Reserve Board chairman G. William Miller, had already contributed to somewhat higher inflation, rising from 5.8% in 1976 to 7.7% in 1978.The sudden doubling of crude oil prices by OPEC, the world's leading oil exporting cartel, forced inflation to double-digit levels, averaging 11.3% in 1979 and 13.5% in 1980.The sudden shortage of gasoline as the 1979 summer vacation season began exacerbated the problem and came to symbolize the crisis to the general public; the acute shortage, originating in the shutdown of Amerada Hess refining facilities, led to a lawsuit against the company that year by the federal government.==== Deregulation ====Carter signing the Airline Deregulation Act, 1978In 1977, Carter appointed Alfred E. Kahn to lead the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB).", "He was part of a push for deregulation of the industry, supported by leading economists, leading think tanks in Washington, a civil society coalition advocating the reform (patterned on a coalition earlier developed for the truck-and-rail-reform efforts), the head of the regulatory agency, Senate leadership, the Carter administration, and even some in the airline industry.", "This coalition swiftly gained legislative results in 1978.Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act into law on October 24, 1978.The main purpose of the act was to remove government control over fares, routes and market entry (of new airlines) from commercial aviation.", "The Civil Aeronautics Board's powers of regulation were to be phased out, eventually allowing market forces to determine routes and fares.", "The Act did not remove or diminish the FAA's regulatory powers over all aspects of airline safety.In 1979, Carter deregulated the American beer industry by making it legal to sell malt, hops, and yeast to American home brewers for the first time since the effective 1920 beginning of prohibition in the United States.", "This deregulation led to an increase in home brewing over the 1980s and 1990s that by the 2000s had developed into a strong craft microbrew culture in the United States, with 9,118 microbreweries, brewpubs, and regional craft breweries in the United States by the end of 2021.==== Healthcare ====During his presidential campaign, Carter embraced healthcare reform akin to the Ted Kennedy-sponsored bipartisan universal national health insurance.", "Carter's proposals on healthcare while in office included an April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal, and a June 1979 proposal that provided private health insurance coverage.", "Carter saw the June 1979 proposal as a continuation of progress in American health coverage.", "President Harry S. Truman proposed a designation of health care as a basic right of Americans and Medicare and Medicaid were introduced under President Lyndon B. Johnson.", "The April 1977 mandatory health care cost proposal was passed in the Senate, but later defeated in the House.", "During 1978, he met with Kennedy over a compromise healthcare law that proved unsuccessful.", "He later said Kennedy's disagreements thwarted his plan to provide a comprehensive American health care system.==== Education ====Early into his term, Carter collaborated with Congress to fulfill his campaign promise to create a cabinet level education department.", "In an address from the White House on February 28, 1978, Carter argued \"Education is far too important a matter to be scattered piecemeal among various government departments and agencies, which are often busy with sometimes dominant concerns.\"", "On February 8, 1979, the Carter administration released an outline of its plan to establish an education department and asserted enough support for the enactment to occur by June.", "On October 17, the same year, Carter signed the Department of Education Organization Act into law, establishing the United States Department of Education.Carter expanded the Head Start program with the addition of 43,000 children and families, while the percentage of nondefense dollars spent on education was doubled.", "Carter was complimentary of the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson and the 89th United States Congress for having initiated Head Start.", "In a speech on November 1, 1980, Carter stated his administration had extended Head Start to migrant children and was \"working hard right now with Senator Bentsen and with Kika de la Garza to make as much as $45 million available in federal money in the border districts to help with the increase in school construction for the number of Mexican school children who reside here legally\".=== Foreign policy ===Anwar Sadat, Jimmy Carter and Menachem Begin meet at Camp David on September 6, 1978.==== Israel and Egypt ====alt=Carter standing alongside Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin, during his 1979 visit\|Carter standing alongside Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin, during his 1979 visitFrom the onset of his presidency, Carter attempted to mediate the Arab–Israeli conflict.", "After a failed attempt to seek a comprehensive settlement between the two nations in 1977 (through reconvening the 1973 Geneva conference, Carter invited the Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin to the presidential lodge Camp David in September 1978, in hopes of creating a definitive peace.", "Whilst the two sides could not agree on Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank, the negotiations resulted in Egypt formally recognizing Israel, and the creation of an elected government in the West Bank and Gaza.", "This resulted in the Camp David Accords, which ended the war between Israel and Egypt.The accords were a source of great domestic opposition in both Egypt and Israel.", "Historian Jørgen Jensehaugen argues that by the time Carter left office in January 1981, he was \"in an odd position—he had attempted to break with traditional U.S. policy but ended up fulfilling the goals of that tradition, which had been to break up the Arab alliance, sideline the Palestinians, build an alliance with Egypt, weaken the Soviet Union and secure Israel.", "\"==== Africa ====First Lady Rosalynn Carter, Tanzanian leader Julius Nyerere, and Carter, 1977Carter with Nigerian leader Olusegun Obasanjo on April 1, 1978In an address to the African officials at the United Nations on October 4, 1977, Carter stated the U.S.'s interest to \"see a strong, vigorous, free, and prosperous Africa with as much of the control of government as possible in the hands of the residents of your countries\" and pointed to their unified efforts on \"the problem of how to resolve the Rhodesian, Zimbabwe question.\"", "At a news conference later that month, Carter outlined that the U.S. wanted to \"work harmoniously with South Africa in dealing with the threats to peace in Namibia and in Zimbabwe in particular\", as well as do away with racial issues such as apartheid, and for equal opportunities in other facets of society in the region.Carter visited Nigeria from March 31 to April 3, 1978, to improve relations; the first U.S. president to do so.", "He reiterated interest in convening a peace conference on Rhodesia that involved all parties and said the U.S. was moving as it could.The elections of Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Abel Muzorewa for Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, South Africa turning down a plan for South West Africa's independence, and domestic opposition in Congress were seen as a heavy blow to the Carter administration's policy toward South Africa.", "On May 16, 1979, the Senate voted in favor of lifting economic sanctions against Rhodesia, seen by some Rhodesians and South Africans as a potentially fatal blow to joint diplomacy efforts the United States and Britain had pursued in the region for three years and any compromise between the Salisbury leaders and guerrillas.", "On December 3, Secretary of State Cyrus Vance promised Senator Jesse Helms that when the British governor arrived in Salisbury to implement an agreed Lancaster House settlement and the electoral process began, the President would take prompt action to lift sanctions against Zimbabwe Rhodesia.==== East Asia ====Deng Xiaoping with President CarterCarter sought closer relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC), continuing the Nixon administration's drastic policy of rapprochement.", "The two countries increasingly collaborated against the Soviet Union, and the Carter administration tacitly consented to the Chinese invasion of Vietnam.", "In December 1978, he announced the United States' intention to formally recognize and establish full diplomatic relations with the PRC starting on January 1, 1979, while severing ties with Taiwan, including revoking a mutual defense treaty with the latter.", "In 1979, Carter extended formal diplomatic recognition to the PRC for the first time.", "This decision led to a boom in trade between the United States and the PRC, which was pursuing economic reforms under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping.After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Carter allowed the sale of military supplies to China and began negotiations to share military intelligence.", "In January 1980, Carter unilaterally revoked the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China (ROC), which had lost control of mainland China to the PRC in 1949, but retained control of the island of Taiwan.", "Conservative Republicans challenged Carter's abrogation of the treaty in court, but the Supreme Court ruled that the issue was a non-justiciable political question in ''Goldwater v. Carter''.", "The U.S. continued to maintain diplomatic contacts with the ROC through the 1979 Taiwan Relations Act.During Carter's presidency, the U.S. continued to support Indonesia as a cold war ally, despite human rights violations in East Timor.", "The violations followed Indonesia's December 1975 invasion and occupation of East Timor.", "Under Carter's administration military assistance to Indonesia increased, peaking in 1978.This was antithetical to Carter's stated policy of \"not selling weapons if it would exacerbate a potential conflict in a region of the world\".During a news conference on March 9, 1977, Carter reaffirmed his interest in having a gradual withdrawal of American troops from South Korea and said he wanted South Korea to eventually have \"adequate ground forces owned by and controlled by the South Korean government to protect themselves against any intrusion from North Korea.\"", "On May 19, ''The Washington Post'' quoted Chief of Staff of U.S. forces in South Korea John K. Singlaub as criticizing Carter's withdrawal of troops from the Korean peninsula.", "Later that day, Press Secretary Rex Granum announced that Carter had summoned Singlaub to the White House, and confirmed that Carter had seen the ''Washington Post'' article.", "Carter relieved Singlaub of his duties on May 21 after a meeting between the two.During a news conference on May 26, Carter said South Korea could defend itself with reduced American troops in case of conflict.", "From June 30 to July 1, 1979, Carter held meetings with president of South Korea Park Chung Hee at the Blue House for a discussion on relations between the U.S. and South Korea as well as Carter's interest in preserving his policy of worldwide tension reduction.", "On April 21, 1978, Carter announced a reduction in American troops in South Korea scheduled to be released by the end of the year by two-thirds, citing lack of action by Congress in regard to a compensatory aid package for the South Korean government.==== Iran ====Carter with King Hussein of Jordan and Shah of Iran in 1977On November 15, 1977, Carter pledged that his administration would continue positive relations between the U.S. and Iran, calling its contemporary status \"strong, stable and progressive\".", "On December 31, 1977, he called Iran under the Shah an \"island of stability\" made possible by the \"admiration and love your people give to the Shah\".", "Carter praised the Shah's \"great leadership\" and spoke of \"personal friendship\" between them.", "When the Shah was overthrown, anti-Americanism increased in Iran, which intensified when Carter allowed the Shah to be admitted to the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York on October 22, 1979.On November 4, 1979, a group of Iranian students took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran.", "The students belonged to the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line and supported the Iranian Revolution.", "Fifty-two American diplomats and citizens were held hostage for the next 444 days.", "They were freed immediately after Ronald Reagan succeeded Carter as president on January 20, 1981.During the crisis, Carter remained in isolation in the White House for more than 100 days, until he left to participate in the lighting of the National Menorah on the Ellipse.A month into the affair, Carter announced his commitment to resolving the dispute without \"any military action that would cause bloodshed or arouse the unstable captors of our hostages to attack them or to punish them\".", "On April 7, 1980, he issued Executive Order 12205, imposing economic sanctions against Iran, and announced further government measures he deemed necessary to ensure a safe release.On April 24, 1980, Carter ordered Operation Eagle Claw to try to free the hostages.", "The mission failed, leaving eight American servicemen dead and two aircraft destroyed.", "The failure led Vance, who had opposed the mission, to resign.Released in 2017, a declassified memo produced by the CIA in 1980 concluded \"Iranian hardliners—especially Ayatollah Khomeini\" were \"determined to exploit the hostage issue to bring about President Carter's defeat in the November elections.\"", "Additionally, Tehran in 1980 wanted \"the world to believe that Imam Khomeini caused President Carter's downfall and disgrace.", "\"==== Soviet Union ====Carter and Leonid Brezhnev signing the SALT II treaty at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, June 18, 1979On February 8, 1977, Carter said he had urged the Soviet Union to align with the U.S. in forming \"a comprehensive test ban to stop all nuclear testing for at least an extended period of time\", and that he was in favor of the Soviet Union ceasing deployment of the RSD-10 Pioneer.", "During a June 13 press conference, he said that at the beginning of the week, the U.S. would \"work closely with the Soviet Union on a comprehensive test ban treaty to prohibit all testing of nuclear devices underground or in the atmosphere\", and Paul Warnke would negotiate demilitarization of the Indian Ocean with the Soviet Union beginning the following week.At a December 30 news conference, Carter said that during \"the last few months, the United States and the Soviet Union have made great progress in dealing with a long list of important issues, the most important of which is to control the deployment of strategic nuclear weapons\", and that the two countries sought to conclude SALT II talks by the spring of the next year.", "The talk of a comprehensive test ban treaty materialized with the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II by Carter and Leonid Brezhnev on June 18, 1979.In 1979, the Soviets intervened in the Second Yemenite War.", "The Soviet backing of South Yemen constituted a \"smaller shock\", in tandem with tensions that were rising due to the Iranian Revolution.", "This played a role in making Carter's stance on the Soviet Union more assertive, a shift that finalized with the impending Soviet-Afghan War.In his 1980 State of the Union Address, Carter emphasized the significance of relations between the two regions: \"Now, as during the last 3½ decades, the relationship between our country, the United States of America, and the Soviet Union is the most critical factor in determining whether the world will live at peace or be engulfed in global conflict.", "\"===== Soviet invasion of Afghanistan =====Communists under the leadership of Nur Muhammad Taraki seized power in Afghanistan on April 27, 1978.The new regime signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in December of that year.", "Due to the regime's improvement of secular education and redistribution of land coinciding with mass executions and political oppression, Taraki was deposed by rival Hafizullah Amin in September.", "Amin was considered a \"brutal psychopath\" by foreign observers and had lost control of much of the country, prompting the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan on December 24, 1979, execute Amin, and install Babrak Karmal as president.Carter, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Zbigniew Brzezinski in September 1978King Khalid of Saudi Arabia and Carter, October 1978In the West, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was considered a threat to global security and the oil supplies of the Persian Gulf, as well as the existence of Pakistan.", "These concerns led Carter to expand collaboration between the CIA and Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), which had begun in July 1979, when the CIA started providing $695,000 worth of non-lethal assistance (e.g., \"cash, medical equipment, and radio transmitters\") to the Afghan mujahideen.", "The modest scope of this early collaboration was likely influenced by the understanding, later recounted by CIA official Robert Gates, \"that a substantial U.S. covert aid program\" might have \"raised the stakes\", thereby causing \"the Soviets to intervene more directly and vigorously than otherwise intended.", "\"According to a 2020 review of declassified U.S. documents by Conor Tobin in the journal ''Diplomatic History'': \"The primary significance of this small-scale aid was in creating constructive links with dissidents through Pakistan's ISI that could be utilized in the case of an overt Soviet intervention ...", "The small-scale covert program that developed ''in response'' to the increasing Soviet influence was part of a contingency plan ''if'' the Soviets did intervene militarily, as Washington would be in a better position to make it difficult for them to consolidate their position, but not designed to induce an intervention.", "\"On December 28, Carter signed a presidential finding explicitly allowing the CIA to transfer \"lethal military equipment either directly or through third countries to the Afghan opponents of the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan\" and to arrange \"selective training, conducted outside of Afghanistan, in the use of such equipment either directly or via third country intermediation.\"", "His finding defined the CIA's mission as \"harassment\" of Soviet troops; at the time, \"this was not a war the CIA expected to win outright on the battlefield,\" in the words of Steve Coll.Carter was determined to respond harshly to what he considered a dangerous provocation.", "In a televised speech on January 23, 1980, he announced sanctions on the Soviet Union, promised renewed aid and registration to Pakistan and the Selective Service System, and committed the U.S. to the Persian Gulf's defense.", "Carter imposed an embargo on grain shipments to the USSR, tabled SALT II, requested a 5% annual increase in defense spending, and called for a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, which was ultimately joined by 65 other nations.", "British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher enthusiastically backed Carter's tough stance.", "National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski played a major role in organizing Carter's policies on the Soviet Union as a grand strategy.In early 1980, Carter determined the thrust of U.S. policy for the duration of the war: he initiated a program to arm the mujahideen through Pakistan's ISI and secured a pledge from Saudi Arabia to match U.S. funding for this purpose.", "Despite huge expenditure, the Soviet Union was unable to quell the insurgency and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 amid the economic, political, and social turmoil within the USSR, precipitating its collapse two years later.", "The routing of U.S. aid through Pakistan led to some controversy, as weapons sent to Karachi were frequently controlled by Pakistan, whose government influenced which rebels received assistance.", "Despite this, Carter has expressed no regret over his decision to support what he still considers the Afghan freedom fighters.==== International trips ====Countries visited by Carter during his presidencyCarter made twelve international trips to 25 countries as president.", "He was the first president to make a state visit to Sub-Saharan Africa when he went to Nigeria in 1978.His travel also included trips to Europe, Asia, and Latin America.", "He made several trips to the Middle East to broker peace negotiations.", "His visit to Iran from December 31, 1977, to January 1, 1978, took place less than a year before the overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.=== Allegations and investigations ===The September 21, 1977, resignation of Bert Lance, who was director of the office of management and budget in the Carter administration, came amid allegations of improper banking activities before his tenure and was an embarrassment to Carter.Carter became the first sitting president to testify under oath as part of an investigation of him, as a result of United States Attorney General Griffin Bell appointing Paul J. Curran as a special counsel to investigate loans made to the peanut business Carter owned by a bank controlled by Lance and Curran's position as special counsel not allowing him to file charges on his own.", "Curran announced in October 1979 that no evidence had been found to support allegations that funds loaned from the National Bank of Georgia had been diverted to Carter's 1976 presidential campaign, ending the investigation.=== 1980 presidential campaign ===Electoral map of the 1980 electionCarter's reelection campaign was based primarily on attacking Ronald Reagan.", "The campaign frequently pointed out and mocked Reagan's proclivity for gaffes, using his age and perceived lack of connection to his native California voter base against him.", "Later, the campaign used similar rhetoric as Lyndon Johnson's 1964 presidential campaign, portraying Reagan as a warmonger who could not be trusted with the nuclear arsenal.", "Carter attempted to deny the Reagan campaign $29.4 million () in campaign funds, due to dependent conservative groups already raising $60 million to get him elected—an amount that exceeded the limit of campaign funds.", "Carter's attempt was later denied by the Federal Election Commission.Carter later wrote that the most intense and mounting opposition to his policies came from the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, which he attributed to Ted Kennedy's ambition to replace him as president.", "After Kennedy announced his candidacy in November 1979, questions about his activities during his presidential bid were a frequent subject of Carter's press conferences during the Democratic presidential primaries.", "Despite winning key states such as California and New York, Kennedy surprised his supporters by running a weak campaign, and Carter won most of the primaries and secured renomination.", "Kennedy had mobilized the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, which gave Carter weak support in the fall election.Carter and Mondale were formally nominated at the 1980 Democratic National Convention in New York City.", "Carter delivered a speech notable for its tribute to the late Hubert Humphrey, whom he initially called \"Hubert Horatio Hornblower\", and Kennedy made \"The Dream Shall Never Die\" speech, in which he criticized Reagan and did not endorse Carter.Along with Reagan and Kennedy, Carter was opposed by centrist John B. Anderson, who had previously contested the Republican presidential primaries, and upon losing to Reagan, reentered the race as an independent.", "Anderson advertised himself as a more liberal alternative to Reagan's conservatism.", "As the campaign went on, Anderson's polling numbers dropped and his base was gradually pulled to Carter or Reagan.", "Carter had to run against his own \"stagflation\"-ridden economy, while the hostage crisis in Iran dominated the news every week.", "He was attacked by conservatives for failing to \"prevent Soviet gains\" in less-developed countries, as pro-Soviet governments had taken power in countries including Angola, Ethiopia, Nicaragua and Afghanistan.", "His brother, Billy Carter, caused controversy due to his association with Muammar Gaddafi's regime in Libya.", "He alienated liberal college students, who were expected to be his base, by reinstating registration for the military draft.", "His campaign manager and former appointments secretary, Timothy Kraft, stepped down five weeks before the general election amid what turned out to have been an uncorroborated allegation of cocaine use.On October 28, Carter and Reagan participated in the sole presidential debate of the election cycle in which they were both present, due to Carter refusing to participate in debates that included Anderson.", "Though initially trailing Carter by several points, Reagan experienced a surge in polling after the debate.", "This was in part influenced by Reagan deploying the phrase \"There you go again\", which became the election's defining phrase.", "It was later discovered that in the final days of the campaign, Reagan's team acquired classified documents Carter used to prepare for the debate.Reagan defeated Carter in a landslide, winning 489 electoral votes.", "The Senate went Republican for the first time since 1952.In his concession speech, Carter admitted that he was hurt by the outcome of the election but pledged \"a very fine transition period\" with President-elect Reagan." ], [ "Post-presidency (1981–present)", "Shortly after losing reelection, Carter told the White House press corps that he intended to emulate the retirement of Harry S. Truman and not use his subsequent public life to enrich himself.=== Diplomacy ===Diplomacy has been a large part of Carter's post-presidency.", "These diplomatic efforts began in the Middle East, with a September 1981 meeting with prime minister of Israel Menachem Begin, and a March 1983 tour of Egypt that included meeting with members of the Palestine Liberation Organization.In 1994, president Bill Clinton sought Carter's assistance in a North Korea peace mission, during which Carter negotiated an understanding with Kim Il Sung.", "Carter outlined a treaty with Kim, which he announced to CNN without the Clinton administration's consent to spur American action.Carter (second from right) with Martti Ahtisaari, William Hague, and Lakhdar Brahimi from The Elders group in London, July 24, 2013.In March 1999, Carter visited Taiwan and met with President Lee Teng-hui.", "During the meeting, Carter praised the progress Taiwan made in democracy, human rights, economy, culture, science and technology.In 2006, Carter stated his disagreements with Israel's domestic and foreign policy while saying he was supported the country, extending his criticisms to Israel's policies in Lebanon, the West Bank, and Gaza.In July 2007, Carter joined Nelson Mandela in Johannesburg, South Africa, to announce his participation in The Elders, a group of independent global leaders who work together on peace and human rights issues.", "After the announcement, Carter participated in visits to Darfur, Sudan, Cyprus, the Korean Peninsula, and the Middle East, among others.", "He attempted to travel to Zimbabwe in November 2008, but was stopped by President Robert Mugabe's government.", "In December 2008, Carter met with Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, and in a June 2012 call with Jeffery Brown, stressed that Egyptian military generals could take full executive and legislative power to form a new constitution favoring themselves if their announced intentions came true.On August 10, 2010, Carter traveled to North Korea to secure the release of Aijalon Gomes, successfully negotiating his release.", "Throughout the latter part of 2017, as tensions between the U.S. and North Korea persisted, Carter recommended a peace treaty between the two nations, and confirmed he had offered himself to the Trump administration as a willing candidate to be diplomatic envoy to North Korea.=== Views on successive presidents ===Carter began his first year out of office with a pledge not to critique the new Reagan administration, stating that it was \"too early\".", "He sided with Reagan on issues like building neutron arms after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, though frequently spoke out against his administration, denouncing many of its actions in the Middle East; in 1987, Carter insisted that he was incapable of preserving peace in the Middle East.", "Carter condemned the handling of the Sabra and Shatila massacre, the lack of efforts to rescue and retrieve four American businessmen from West Beirut in 1984, Reagan's support of the Strategic Defense Initiative in 1985, and his claim of an international conspiracy on terrorism.", "In 1987 he also criticized Reagan for conceding to terrorist demands, the nomination of Robert Bork for the Supreme Court, and his handling of the Persian Gulf crisis.On January 16, 1989, before the inauguration of George H. W. Bush, Carter told former president Ford that Reagan had experienced a media honeymoon, saying that he believed Reagan's immediate successor would be less fortunate.Carter had a mostly poor relationship with Bill Clinton, who snubbed him from his inauguration ceremony.", "He doubted the morality of the Clinton administration, particularly for the Monica Lewinsky scandal and the pardon of Marc Rich.During the presidency of George W. Bush, Carter opposed the Iraq War and what he considered an attempt on the part of Bush and Tony Blair to oust Saddam Hussein by using \"lies and misinterpretations\".", "In May 2007, Carter said the Bush administration \"has been the worst in history\" in terms of its impact in foreign affairs; he later said he was just comparing Bush's tenure to that of Richard Nixon.", "Tony Fratto responded to Carter's comments on the Bush administration's behalf by saying that the comments increased Carter's irrelevance.", "By the end of Bush's second term, Carter considered Bush's tenure disappointing, as he told ''Forward Magazine'' of Syria.Though he praised President Barack Obama in the early part of his tenure, Carter stated his disagreements with the use of drone strikes against suspected terrorists, Obama's choice to keep Guantanamo Bay detention camp open, and the federal surveillance programs disclosed by Edward Snowden.During Donald Trump's presidency, Carter spoke favorably of the chance for immigration reform and criticized Trump for his handling of the U.S. national anthem protests.", "In October 2017, he defended Trump in an interview with ''The New York Times'', criticizing the media's coverage of him as harsher \"than any other president certainly that I've known about\".", "In 2019, Trump called Carter and expressed concern that China was \"getting ahead\" of the U.S. Carter agreed, saying that China's strength came from its lack of involvement in armed conflict, calling the U.S. \"the most warlike nation in the history of the world.", "\"=== Presidential politics ===Carter in 1988Carter was considered a potential candidate in the 1984 presidential election, but did not run and instead endorsed Walter Mondale for the Democratic nomination.", "After Mondale secured the nomination, Carter critiqued the Reagan campaign, spoke at the 1984 Democratic National Convention, and advised Mondale.", "After the election, in which Reagan defeated Mondale, Carter said the loss was predictable because Mondale's platform included raising taxes.In the 1988 presidential election, Carter ruled himself out as a candidate and predicted Vice President George H. W. Bush would be the Republican nominee.", "Carter foresaw unity at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, where he delivered an address.", "After the election, which Bush won, Carter said Bush would have a more difficult presidency than Reagan because he was not as popular.During the 1992 presidential election, Carter met with Senator Paul Tsongas, who sought his advice.", "Carter spoke favorably of former governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton, and criticized Ross Perot, a Texas billionaire who was running as an independent.", "As the primary concluded, Carter spoke of the need for the 1992 Democratic National Convention to address certain issues not focused on in the past, and campaigned for Clinton after he became the Democratic nominee, publicly stating his expectation to be consulted during Clinton's presidency.Carter endorsed Vice President Al Gore days before the 2000 presidential election, and in subsequent years voiced his opinion that Gore won the election, despite the eventual victory of Bush following the Supreme Court's ruling in ''Bush v. Gore''.In the 2004 presidential election, Carter endorsed John Kerry and spoke at the 2004 Democratic National Convention.", "He also voiced concern about another voting mishap in Florida.During the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, it was speculated that Carter would endorse Barack Obama over his main primary rival Hillary Clinton, as Carter spoke favorably of Obama, as did other members of the Carter family.", "Carter also commented on Clinton ending her bid when superdelegates voted after the June 3 primary.", "Carter criticized the Republican nominee, John McCain.", "Carter warned Obama against selecting Clinton as his running mate.Carter endorsed Republican Mitt Romney for the Republican nomination during the primary season of the 2012 presidential election, though he clarified that his backing of Romney was due to him considering the former Massachusetts governor the candidate that could best assure a victory for President Obama.", "Carter delivered a videotape address at the 2012 Democratic National Convention.state funeral of George H. W. Bush in December 2018.Carter and his wife Rosalynn can be seen on the far right of the photograph.Carter was critical of Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump shortly after the latter entered the primary, predicting that he would lose.", "As the primary continued, Carter said he would prefer Trump to his main rival, Ted Cruz, though he rebuked the Trump campaign in remarks during the primary and in his address to the 2016 Democratic National Convention.", "Carter believes that Trump would not have been elected without Russia's interference in the 2016 election, and \"that Trump didn't actually win the election in 2016.He lost the election, and he was put into office because the Russians interfered on his behalf.\"", "When questioned, he agreed that Trump is an \"illegitimate president\".", "In a 2017 discussion with Senator Bernie Sanders, Carter revealed he voted for Sanders in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries.Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter delivered a recorded audio message endorsing Joe Biden for the virtual 2020 Democratic National Convention.", "On January 6, 2021, following the U.S. Capitol attack, along with the other three still living former presidents, Barack Obama, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton, Jimmy Carter denounced the attack, releasing a statement saying that he and his wife were \"troubled\" by the events, also stating that what had occurred was \"a national tragedy and is not who we are as a nation\", and adding that \"having observed elections in troubled democracies worldwide, I know that we the people can unite to walk back from this precipice to peacefully uphold the laws of our nation\".", "Carter delivered a recorded audio message for the inauguration of Joe Biden on January 20, 2021, as the Carters were unable to attend the ceremony in person.In November 2022, the U.S. Court of Appeals, Ninth District overruled a three-judge panel of the court and scheduled a rehearing of the case against the Trump administration-proposed land swap in Alaska to allow a road through the Izembek National Wildlife Refuge.", "In an unusual action, Carter had filed an opinion in support of the suit by environmental groups, saying the swap violated the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (Anilca) passed in 1980 near the end of Carter's term.", "Carter said the act \"may be the most significant domestic achievement of my political life\" at the time of his filing.=== Hurricane relief ===Carter criticized the Bush administration's handling of Hurricane Katrina, and built homes in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy.", "He also partnered with former presidents to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities, in addition to writing op-eds about the goodness seen in Americans who assist each other during natural disasters.=== Other activities ===Carter discussing his legacy and the work of the Carter Center on the eve of his 95th birthday.In 1982, Carter founded the Carter Center, a non-governmental and non-profit organization with the purpose of advancing human rights and alleviating human suffering, including helping improve the quality of life for people in more than 80 countries.", "Among these efforts has been the contribution of the Carter Center working alongside the World Health Organization to the near-eradication of dracunculiasis, also called Guinea worm disease.", "The incidence of this disease has decreased from 3.5 million cases in the mid-1980s, to 25 cases in 2016, and 10 as of September 2021 according to the Carter Center's statistics.Carter attended the dedication of his presidential library and those of Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush.", "He delivered eulogies at the funerals of Coretta Scott King, Gerald Ford, and Theodore Hesburgh.In 2007, Carter founded the New Baptist Covenant organization for social justice., Carter is Honorary Chair for the World Justice Project and formerly served as one for the Continuity of Government Commission.", "He continued to occasionally teach Sunday school at Maranatha Baptist Church as of 2019.Carter also teaches at Emory University in Atlanta, and in June 2019 was awarded tenure for 37 years of service.===Israel and Palestine===Carter's ''Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid,'' a ''New York Times'' Best Seller book, published in 2006, generated controversy for characterizing Israel's policies in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip as amounting to apartheid.", "In an interview, Carter defined apartheid as the \"forced separation of two peoples in the same territory with one of the groups dominating or controlling the other.\"", "In remarks broadcast over radio, he said that Israel's policies amounted to an apartheid worse than South Africa's:Some accused Carter of antisemitism.", "He defended his arguments and said, \"the hope is that my book will at least stimulate a debate, which has not existed in this country.", "There's never been any debate on this issue, of any significance.\"", "He expressed his opinion that Israel will not have peace until it agrees to withdraw from the occupied territories, adding, \"the greatest commitment in my life has been trying to bring peace to Israel.\"", "The comparisons of Israel and apartheid drew widespread traction in the early 2020s, after Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and other Palestinian, Israeli and international human rights groups issued reports characterizing Israel's policies as apartheid.In his 2010 book ''We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land'', Carter cites Israel's unwillingness to withdraw from the territories and settlement expansion as the primary obstacle to peace in the Middle East." ], [ "Personal life", "Carter building homes despite having a black eye from a fall, 2019Carter's hobbies include painting, fly fishing, woodworking, cycling, tennis, and skiing.", "He also has an interest in poetry, particularly the works of Dylan Thomas.", "During a state visit to the UK in 1977, Carter suggested that Thomas should have a memorial in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey; this later came to fruition in 1982.Carter was a personal friend of Elvis Presley, whom he and Rosalynn met on June 30, 1973, before Presley was to perform onstage in Atlanta.", "They remained in contact by telephone two months before Presley's sudden death in August 1977.Carter later recalled an abrupt phone call received in June 1977 from Presley who sought a presidential pardon from Carter, to help George Klein's criminal case; at the time Klein had been indicted for only mail fraud, and was later found guilty of conspiracy.", "According to Carter, Presley was almost incoherent because of barbiturates; although he phoned the White House several times again, this was the last time they spoke.", "The day after Presley's death, Carter issued a statement and explained how he had \"changed the face of American popular culture\".Carter filed a report with both the International UFO Bureau and the National Investigations Committee On Aerial Phenomena, stating that he sighted an unidentified flying object in October 1969.=== Beliefs ===From a young age, Carter showed a deep commitment to evangelical Christianity.", "In 1942, Carter became a deacon and taught Sunday school at Maranatha Baptist Church in Plains, Georgia.", "At a private inauguration worship service, the preacher was Nelson Price, the pastor of Roswell Street Baptist Church of Marietta, Georgia.", "An evangelical Christian, Carter appealed to voters after the scandals of the Nixon Administration, and is credited with popularizing the term \"born again\" into American lexicon during the 1976 American presidential campaign.", "As president, Carter prayed several times a day, and professed that Jesus was the driving force in his life.", "He was greatly influenced by a sermon he had heard as a young man that asked: \"If you were arrested for being a Christian, would there be enough evidence to convict you?\"", "In 2000, after the Southern Baptist Convention announced it would no longer permit women to become pastors, he renounced his membership, saying: \"I personally feel that women should play an absolutely equal role in service of Christ in the church.\"", "He remained a member of the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship.", "Carter's support for the Equal Rights Amendment led many evangelical conservatives to leave the Democratic Party, contributing to the development of the Christian right in American politics.=== Family ===Farah Pahlavi, Empress of Iran, holds Jimmy Carter IV while Rosalynn Carter, Caron Carter and Chip Carter watch, January 1978.Carter had three younger siblings, all of whom died of pancreatic cancer: sisters Gloria Spann (1926–1990) and Ruth Stapleton (1929–1983), and brother Billy Carter (1937–1988).", "He was first cousin to politician Hugh Carter and a distant cousin to the Carter family of musicians.He is related to Motown founder Berry Gordy by way of their white great-grandfather James Thomas Gordy, who had a relationship with a black female slave he owned.Carter married Rosalynn Smith on July 7, 1946, in the Plains Methodist Church, the church of Rosalynn's family.", "They had three sons, Jack, James III, and Donnel; one daughter, Amy; nine grandsons (one of whom is deceased), three granddaughters, five great-grandsons, and eight great-granddaughters.", "Mary Prince (an African American woman wrongly convicted of murder, and later pardoned) was their daughter Amy's nanny for most of the period from 1971 until Jimmy Carter's presidency ended.", "Carter had asked to be designated as her parole officer, thus helping to enable her to work in the White House.The Carters celebrated their 77th anniversary on July 7, 2023.On October 19, 2019, they became the longest-wed presidential couple, having overtaken George and Barbara Bush at 26,765 days.", "After Rosalynn's death on November 19, 2023, Carter released the following statement:The Carters' eldest son, Jack Carter, was the 2006 Democratic nominee for U.S. Senate in Nevada and lost to Republican incumbent John Ensign.", "Jack's son Jason Carter is a former Georgia state senator, and in 2014 was the Democratic nominee for governor of Georgia, losing to the Republican incumbent, Nathan Deal.", "On December 20, 2015, while teaching a Sunday school class, Carter announced that his 28-year-old grandson Jeremy Carter had died of unspecified causes." ], [ "Health and longevity", "=== Health problems ===Carter in Plains, Georgia, 2008On August 3, 2015, Carter underwent an elective surgery to remove a small mass on his liver, and his prognosis for a full recovery was initially said to be excellent.", "On August 12, he announced he had been diagnosed with cancer that had metastasized, without specifying where the cancer had originated.", "On August 20, Carter disclosed that melanoma had been found in his brain and liver, and that he had begun treatment with the immunotherapy drug pembrolizumab and was about to start radiation therapy.", "His healthcare was managed by Emory Healthcare of Atlanta.", "He has an extensive family history of cancer, including both of his parents and all three of his siblings.", "On December 5, he issued a statement, announcing that his medical scans no longer showed any cancer.Carter broke his hip during a fall at his Plains home on May 13, 2019, and underwent surgery the same day at the Phoebe Sumter Medical Center in Americus, Georgia.", "On October 6, a forehead injury above his left eyebrow received during another fall at home required 14 stitches.", "A public appearance afterward revealed that the former president had a black eye from the injury.", "On October 21, Carter was admitted to the Phoebe Sumter Medical Center after sustaining a minor pelvic fracture after falling again at home for the third time in 2019.He was able to resume teaching Sunday school at Maranatha Baptist Church on November 3.On November 11, 2019, Carter was hospitalized at the Emory University Hospital in Atlanta for a procedure to relieve pressure on his brain caused by bleeding connected to his falls.", "The surgery was successful, and he was released from the hospital on November 27.On December 2, 2019, Carter was readmitted to the hospital for a urinary tract infection.", "He was released on December 4.On February 18, 2023, the Carter Center announced that following a \"series of short hospital stays\", Carter decided to \"spend his remaining time at home with his family\" in Plains to \"receive hospice care instead of additional medical intervention\" for an undisclosed terminal illness.", "Carter asked President Biden to deliver his eulogy following his death.=== Longevity ===At 99 years old, Carter is the longest-lived former U.S. president.", "He has been the earliest-serving living former president since Gerald Ford's death in 2006.In 2012, he surpassed Herbert Hoover as the longest-retired president.", "On January 20, 2017, and January 20, 2021, Carter became the first president to live to the 40th anniversary of his inauguration and post-presidency, respectively.", "In 2017, Carter, then 92, became the oldest former president ever to attend an American presidential inauguration.", "On March 22, 2019, he became the nation's longest-lived president, when he surpassed the lifespan of George H. W. Bush, who died at the age of , in November 2018.Carter entered hospice care several months before celebrating his 99th birthday at his home.", "He noted how difficult it felt to reach his 90s, saying in a 2019 interview with ''People'' that he never expected to live as long as he had and that his secret to a long life was a good marriage.", "Carter has made arrangements to be buried in front of his home at 209 Woodland Drive in Plains.", "He noted in 2006 that a funeral in Washington, D.C., with visitation at the Carter Center was also planned." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Public opinion ===In exit polls from the 1976 presidential election, many voters still held Ford's pardon of Nixon against him.", "By comparison, Carter was viewed as a sincere, honest, and well-meaning southerner.", "However, in the 1980 election, Reagan projected an easy self-confidence, in contrast to Carter's serious and introspective temperament.", "Carter was portrayed as pessimistic and indecisive in comparison to Reagan, who was known for his charm and delegation of tasks to subordinates.", "Reagan used the economic problems, Iran hostage crisis, and lack of Washington cooperation to portray Carter as a weak and ineffectual leader.", "Carter was the first elected incumbent president since Herbert Hoover in 1932 to lose a reelection bid.", "Carter began his presidency with a 66 percent approval rating, which had dropped to 34 percent approval by the time he left office, with 55 percent disapproving.Carter's presidency was initially viewed by some scholars as a failure.", "In the historical rankings of American presidents, Carter's presidency has ranged from 18th to 34th place.", "The documentary ''Back Door Channels: The Price of Peace'' (2009) credits Carter's efforts at Camp David, which brought peace between Israel and Egypt, with bringing the only meaningful peace to the Middle East.", "His post-presidency activities have been favorably received.", "''The Independent'' wrote, \"Carter is widely considered a better man than he was a president.\"", "Although his presidency received a mixed reception, his peacekeeping and humanitarian efforts since he left office have made Carter renowned as one of the most successful ex-presidents in American history.=== Awards and honors ===Carter received the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award in 1984.The Jimmy Carter Library and Museum was opened in 1986.The following year, the Jimmy Carter National Historical Park was established as a National Historic Site and in 2021, renamed as a national historical park.", "In 1991, Carter was made an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa at Kansas State University, and was elected to the American Philosophical Society.", "In 1998, the U.S. Navy named the third and last ''Seawolf''-class submarine, honoring Carter and his service as a submariner officer.Carter received the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights, given in honor of human rights achievements, and the Hoover Medal, recognizing engineers who have contributed to global causes.", "Carter's 2002 Nobel Peace Prize was partially a response to president George W. Bush's threats of war against Iraq and Carter's criticism of the Bush administration.", "In 2009, the Souther Field Airport in Americus, Georgia, was renamed Jimmy Carter Regional Airport.Carter has been nominated nine times for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for audio recordings of his books, and has won three times—for ''Our Endangered Values: America's Moral Crisis'' (2007), ''A Full Life: Reflections at 90'' (2016) and ''Faith: A Journey For All'' (2018)." ], [ "See also", "* * * List of members of the American Legion* " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General sources", " * ** * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Andelic, Patrick.", "''Donkey Work: Congressional Democrats in Conservative America, 1974–1994'' (2019) excerpt * * In-depth biography focused on the presidency.", "Excerpt; .", "* * * Daigle, Craig.", "\"Beyond Camp David: Jimmy Carter, Palestinian Self-Determination, and Human Rights.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' 42.5 (2018): 802–830.", "* * * * * * * * * * * Jensehaugen, Jørgen.", "''Arab-Israeli diplomacy under Carter: the US, Israel and the Palestinians'' (Bloomsbury, 2018).", "* * * * * * * Reichard, Gary W. \"Early Returns: Assessing Jimmy Carter\" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 20#3 (Summer 1990) 603–620.online * * * * * * * * * * * Williams, Daniel K. ''The Election of the Evangelical: Jimmy Carter, Gerald Ford, and the Presidential Contest of 1976'' (University Press of Kansas, 2020) online review * * === Primary sources ===* Carter, Jimmy.", "''Why not the best?''", "(1977) online.", "* Carter, Jimmy.", "''Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President'' (1982) excerpt * Carter, Jimmy.", "''Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1977'' (1978–1981); annual compilation of all his public documents* Carter, Jimmy.", "''An Hour Before Daylight: Memories of a Rural Boyhood'' (2001) excerpt* Carter, Jimmy.", "''The Nobel Peace Prize lecture : delivered in Oslo on the 10th of December, 2002'' (2002) online* Carter, Jimmy.", "''Negotiation'' (2003) excerpt* Carter, Jimmy.", "''Our Endangered Values: America's Moral Crisis'' (2005) excerpt* Carter, Jimmy.", "''Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid'' (2006) online* Carter, Jimmy.", "''Beyond the White House : waging peace, fighting disease, building hope'' (2007) online* Carter, Jimmy.", "''White House diary'' (2011) online* Carter, Jimmy.", "''A Full Life: Reflections at Ninety'' (2015) online* * " ], [ "External links", " Jimmy Carter Presidential Library & Museum* The Carter Center** Jimmy Carter National Historic Site* White House biography* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Napier" ], [ "Introduction", "Statue of John Napier, Scottish National Portrait Gallery'''John Napier of Merchiston''' (; 1 February 1550 – 4 April 1617), nicknamed '''Marvellous Merchiston''', was a Scottish landowner known as a mathematician, physicist, and astronomer.", "He was the 8th Laird of Merchiston.", "His Latinized name was '''Ioannes Neper'''.John Napier is best known as the discoverer of logarithms.", "He also invented the so-called \"Napier's bones\" and made common the use of the decimal point in arithmetic and mathematics.Napier's birthplace, Merchiston Tower in Edinburgh, is now part of the facilities of Edinburgh Napier University.", "There is a memorial to him at St Cuthbert's at the west side of Edinburgh." ], [ "Life", "Napier's father was Sir Archibald Napier of Merchiston Castle, and his mother was Janet Bothwell, daughter of the politician and judge Francis Bothwell, and a sister of Adam Bothwell who became the Bishop of Orkney.", "Archibald Napier was 16 years old when John Napier was born.Merchiston Castle from an 1834 woodcutThere are no records of Napier's early education, but many believe that he was privately tutored during early childhood.", "At age 13, he was enrolled in St Salvator's College, St Andrews.", "Near the time of his matriculation the quality of the education provided by the university was poor, owing in part to the Reformation's causing strife between those of the old faith and the growing numbers of Protestants.", "There are no records showing that John Napier completed his education at St Andrews.", "It is believed he left Scotland to further his education in mainland Europe, following the advice given by his uncle Adam Bothwell in a letter written to John Napier's father on 5 December 1560, saying, \"I pray you, sir, to send John to the schools either to France or Flanders, for he can learn no good at home\".", "It is not known which university Napier attended in Europe, but when he returned to Scotland in 1571 he was fluent in Greek, a language that was not commonly taught in European universities at the time.", "There are also no records showing his enrollment in the premier universities in Paris or Geneva during this time.In 1571, Napier, aged 21, returned to Scotland, and bought a castle at Gartness in 1574.On the death of his father in 1608, Napier and his family moved into Merchiston Castle in Edinburgh, where he resided the remainder of his life.", "He had a property within Edinburgh city as well on Borthwick's Close off the Royal Mile.Memorial to John Napier in St Cuthbert's Church, EdinburghOn 7 June 1596 Napier wrote a paper ''Secret inventions, profitable and necessary in these days for defence of this island''.", "He describes two kinds of burning mirror for use against ships at a distance, a special kind of artillery shot, and a musket-proof metal chariot.Napier died from the effects of gout at home at Merchiston Castle at the age of 67.He was buried in the kirkyard of St Giles in Edinburgh.", "Following the loss of the kirkyard of St Giles to build Parliament House, his remains were transferred to an underground vault on the north side of St Cuthbert's Parish Church at the west side of Edinburgh.", "There is also a wall monument to Napier at St Cuthbert's.Many mathematicians at the time were acutely aware of the issues of computation and were dedicated to relieving practitioners of the calculation burden.", "Napier was famous for his devices to assist with these issues of computation.", "He invented a well-known mathematical artefact, the ingenious numbering rods more quaintly known as \"Napier's bones\", that offered mechanical means for facilitating computation.In addition, Napier recognized the potential of the recent developments in mathematics, particularly those of prosthaphaeresis, decimal fractions, and symbolic index arithmetic, to tackle the issue of reducing computation.", "He appreciated that, for the most part, practitioners who had laborious computations generally did them in the context of trigonometry.", "Therefore, as well as developing the logarithmic relation, Napier set it in a trigonometric context so it would be even more relevant." ], [ "Mathematics", "===Napier's Bones===Napier's Bones His work ''Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio'' (1614) contained fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables listing the natural logarithms of trigonometric functions.", "The book also has a discussion of theorems in spherical trigonometry, usually known as Napier's Rules of Circular Parts.Modern English translations of both Napier's books on logarithms and their description can be found on the web, as well as a discussion of Napier's bones and Promptuary (another early calculating device).His invention of logarithms was quickly taken up at Gresham College, and prominent English mathematician Henry Briggs visited Napier in 1615.Among the matters they discussed were a re-scaling of Napier's logarithms, in which the presence of the mathematical constant now known as ''e'' (more accurately, ''e'' times a large power of 10 rounded to an integer) was a practical difficulty.", "Neither Napier nor Briggs actually discovered the constant ''e''; that discovery was made decades later by Jacob Bernoulli.Napier delegated to Briggs the computation of a revised table.", "The computational advance available via logarithms, the inverse of powered numbers or exponential notation, was such that it made calculations by hand much quicker.", "The way was opened to later scientific advances, in astronomy, dynamics, and other areas of physics.Napier made further contributions.", "He improved Simon Stevin's decimal notation, introducing the period (.)", "as the delimiter for the fractional part.", "Lattice multiplication, used by Fibonacci, was made more convenient by his introduction of Napier's bones, a multiplication tool using a set of numbered rods.Napier may have worked largely in isolation, but he had contact with Tycho Brahe who corresponded with his friend John Craig.", "Craig certainly announced the discovery of logarithms to Brahe in the 1590s (the name itself came later); there is a story from Anthony à Wood, perhaps not well substantiated, that Napier had a hint from Craig that Longomontanus, a follower of Brahe, was working in a similar direction.It has been shown'''''' that Craig had notes on a method of Paul Wittich that used trigonometric identities to reduce a multiplication formula for the sine function to additions.===Napier's rules for right spherical triangles===300x300pxWhen one of the angles, say ''C'', of a spherical triangle is equal to ''''/2 the various identities given above are considerably simplified.", "There are ten identities relating three elements chosen from the set ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''A'', ''B''.Napier provided an elegant mnemonic aid for the ten independent equations: the mnemonic is called Napier's circle or Napier's pentagon (when the circle in the above figure, right, is replaced by a pentagon).First, write the six parts of the triangle (three vertex angles, three arc angles for the sides) in the order they occur around any circuit of the triangle: for the triangle shown above left, going clockwise starting with a gives ''aCbAcB''.", "Next replace the parts that are not adjacent to C (that is ''A, c, B'') by their complements and then delete the angle C from the list.", "The remaining parts can then be drawn as five ordered, equal slices of a pentagram, or circle, as shown in the above figure (right).", "For any choice of three contiguous parts, one (the ''middle'' part) will be adjacent to two parts and opposite the other two parts.", "The ten Napier's Rules are given by* sine of the middle part = the product of the tangents of the adjacent parts* sine of the middle part = the product of the cosines of the opposite partsThe key for remembering which trigonometric function goes with which part is to look at the first vowel of the kind of part: middle parts take the sine, adjacent parts take the tangent, and opposite parts take the cosine.", "For an example, starting with the sector containing we have::The full set of rules for the right spherical triangle is (Todhunter, Art.62) '''Napier's rules for quadrantal triangles'''A quadrantal spherical triangle together with Napier's circle for use in his mnemonicsA quadrantal spherical triangle is defined to be a spherical triangle in which one of the sides subtends an angle of ''''/2 radians at the centre of the sphere: on the unit sphere the side has length ''''/2.In the case that the side ''c'' has length ''''/2 on the unit sphere the equations governing the remaining sides and angles may be obtained by applying the rules for the right spherical triangle of the previous section to the polar triangle ''A'B'C''' with sides ''a',b',c''' such that ''A''' = '''' − ''a'', ''a''' = '''' − ''A'' etc.", "The results are:'''Logarithm''' Given a positive real number ''b'' such that ''b'' ≠ 1, the ''logarithm'' of a positive real number ''x'' with respect to base ''b'' is the exponent by which ''b'' must be raised to yield ''x''.", "In other words, the logarithm of ''x'' to base ''b'' is the unique real number ''y'' such that .The logarithm is denoted \"log''b'' ''x''\" (pronounced as \"the logarithm of ''x'' to base ''b''\", \"the base-''b'' logarithm of ''x''\", or most commonly \"the log, base ''b'', of ''x''\").An equivalent and more succinct definition is that the function log''b'' is the inverse function to the function ." ], [ "Theology", "Cover of ''Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio'' (1614)Page from ''Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio,'' for 45 degreesNapier had an interest in the ''Book of Revelation'', from his student days at St Salvator's College, St Andrews.", "Under the influence of the sermons of Christopher Goodman, he developed a strongly anti-papal reading, going as far as to say that the Pope was the Antichrist in some of his writings.Napier regarded ''A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John'' (1593) as his most important work.", "It was written in English, unlike his other publications, in order to reach the widest audience and so that, according to Napier, \"the simple of this island may be instructed\".", "''A Plaine Discovery'' used mathematical analysis of the ''Book of Revelation'' to attempt to predict the date of the Apocalypse.", "Napier identified events in chronological order which he believed were parallels to events described in the ''Book of Revelation'' believing that ''Revelation'''s structure implied that the prophecies would be fulfilled incrementally.", "In this work Napier dated the seventh trumpet to 1541, and predicted the end of the world would occur in either 1688 or 1700.Napier did not believe that people could know the true date of the Apocalypse, but claimed that since the Bible contained so many clues about the end, God wanted the Church to know when the end was coming.In his dedication of the ''Plaine Discovery'' to James VI, dated 29 Jan 1594, Napier urged the king to see \"that justice be done against the enemies of God's church,\" and counselled the King \"to reform the universal enormities of his country, and first to begin at his own house, family, and court.\"", "The volume includes nine pages of Napier's English verse.", "It met with success at home and abroad.", "In 1600 Michiel Panneel produced a Dutch translation, and this reached a second edition in 1607.In 1602 the work appeared at La Rochelle in a French version, by Georges Thomson, revised by Napier, and that also went through several editions (1603, 1605, and 1607).", "A new edition of the English original was called for in 1611, when it was revised and corrected by the author, and enlarged by the addition of ''With a resolution of certain doubts, moved by some well affected brethren.", "''; this appeared simultaneously at Edinburgh and London.", "The author stated that he still intended to publish a Latin edition, but it never appeared.", "A German translation, by Leo de Dromna, of the first part of Napier's work appeared at Gera in 1611, and of the whole by Wolfgang Meyer at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1615.Among Napier's followers was Matthew Cotterius (Matthieu Cottière)." ], [ "Interest in the occult", "In addition to his mathematical and religious interests, Napier was often perceived as a magician, and is thought to have dabbled in alchemy and necromancy.", "It was said that he would travel about with a black spider in a small box, and that his black rooster was his familiar spirit.Some of Napier's neighbors accused him of being a sorcerer and in league with the devil, believing that all of the time he spent in his study was being used to learn the black art.", "These rumors were stoked when Napier used his black rooster to catch a thief.", "Napier told his servants to go into a darkened room and pet the rooster, claiming the bird would crow if they were the one who stole his property.", "Unbeknownst to the servants, Napier had covered the rooster with soot.", "When the servants emerged from the room, Napier inspected their hands to find the one who had been too afraid to touch the rooster.Another act which Napier is reported to have done, which may have seemed mystical to the locals, was when Napier removed the pigeons from his estate, since they were eating his grain.", "Napier caught the pigeons by strewing grain laced with alcohol throughout the field, and then capturing the pigeons once they were too drunk to fly away.A contract still exists for a treasure hunt, made between Napier and Robert Logan of Restalrig.", "Napier was to search Fast Castle for treasure allegedly hidden there, wherein it is stated that Napier should \"do his utmost diligence to search and seek out, and by all craft and ingine to find out the same, or make it sure that no such thing has been there.\"", "This contract was never fulfilled by Napier, and no gold was found when the Edinburgh Archaeological Field society excavated the castle between 1971 and 1986." ], [ "Influence", "Among Napier's early followers were the instrument makers Edmund Gunter and John Speidell.", "The development of logarithms is given credit as the largest single factor in the general adoption of decimal arithmetic.", "The ''Trissotetras'' (1645) of Thomas Urquhart builds on Napier's work, in trigonometry.Henry Briggs was an early adopter of the Napierian logarithm.", "He later computed a new table of logarithms to base 10, accurate to 14 decimal places." ], [ "Eponyms", "An alternative unit to the decibel used in electrical engineering, the neper, is named after Napier, as is Edinburgh Napier University in Edinburgh, Scotland.The crater Neper on the Moon is named after him.In French, Spanish and Portuguese, the natural logarithm is named after him (respectively, ''Logarithme Népérien'' and ''Logaritmos Neperianos'' for Spanish and Portuguese).", "In Finnish and Italian, the mathematical constant ''e'' is named after him (''Neperin luku'' and ''Numero di Nepero'')." ], [ "Family", "In 1572, Napier married 16-year-old Elizabeth, daughter of James Stirling, the 4th Laird of Keir and of Cadder.", "They had two children.", "Elizabeth died in 1579, and Napier then married Agnes Chisholm, with whom he had ten more children.Napier's father-in-law, Sir James Chisholm of Cromlix, was one of many excommunicated by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian party following the Spanish blanks plot.", "Napier sat on the General Assembly that excommunicated the plotters, and petitioned the King James VI and I to enforce the punishment on the plotters, but was ultimately ignored since the King believed the ministers were acting cruelly, and was in favor of pursuing policies of more appeasement.His half-brother (through his father's remarriage) was Alexander Napier, Lord Laurieston." ], [ "List of works", "(1593) ''A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John''(1614) '' Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio'' – Edward Wright's English translation was published in 1616.", "(1617) '' Rabdologiæ seu Numerationis per Virgulas libri duo'' ( Google Books link)(published posthumously) Rabdology (Wikipedia)(1619) '' Mirifici logarithmorum canonis constructio'' –written before the ''Descriptio'', but published posthumously by his son Robert.", "Translated into English in 1889.", "(1839) '' De arte logistica''" ], [ "See also", "List of colleges and universities named after peopleLocation arithmeticNapier's analogiesNapierian logarithmRabdology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Diploudis, Alexandros.", "Undusting Napier's Bones.", "Heriot-Watt University, 1997\"John Napier.\"", "''Math & Mathematicians: The History of Math Discoveries around the World.''", "2 vols.", "UXL, 1999* John Napier ''The History of Computing Project''* John Napier—Short biography and translation of work on logarithms* Intro to Spherical Trig.", "Includes discussion of The Napier circle and Napier's rules* EEBO (Early English Books Online) has electronic copies of some of his work, in facsimiles of editions of Napier's time (subscription or Athens login required)* Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio ''Descriptio'' ''De Arte Logistica'' English Translation by Ian Bruce'''Attribution'''" ], [ "Further reading", " , the 1889 English translation.", "" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Heinrich Alsted" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Johann Heinrich Alsted''' (March 1588 – November 9, 1638), \"the true parent of all the Encyclopædias\", was a German-born Transylvanian Saxon Calvinist minister and academic, known for his varied interests: in Ramism and Lullism, pedagogy and encyclopedias, theology and millenarianism.", "His contemporaries noted that an anagram of Alstedius was ''sedulitas'', meaning \"hard work\" in Latin." ], [ "Life", "Alsted was born in Mittenaar.", "He was educated at Herborn Academy in the state of Hesse, studying under Johannes Piscator.", "From 1606 he was at the University of Marburg, taught by Rudolf Goclenius, Gregorius Schönfeld and Raphaël Egli.", "The following year he went to Basel, where his teachers were Leonhardt Zubler for mathematics, Amandus Polanus von Polansdorf for theology, and Johann Buxtorf.", "From about 1608 he returned to the Herborn Academy to teach as professor of philosophy and theology.Alsted was later in exile from the Thirty Years' War in Transylvania, where he remained for the rest of his life.", "In 1629 he left war-torn Germany for Weißenburg (now Alba Iulia in Romania) to found a Calvinist Academy: the context was that the Transylvanian royal family had just returned from Unitarianism to Calvinism, and Alsted and Johannes Bisterfeld were German professors brought in to improve standards.", "Among the students there was János Apáczai Csere.Alsted died in Alba Iulia in 1638." ], [ "Works", "=== Encyclopedist ===Alsted has been called 'one of the most important encyclopedists of all time'.", "He was a prolific writer, and his ''Encyclopaedia'' (1630) long had a high reputation.", "It was preceded by shorter works, including the 1608 ''Encyclopaedia cursus philosophici''.", "His major encyclopedia of 1630, the ''Encyclopaedia, Septem Tomis Distincta'', was divided into 35 books, and had 48 synoptical tables as well as an index.", "Alsted described it as \"a methodical systemization of all things which ought to be learned by men in this life.", "In short, it is the totality of knowledge.\"", "In its time it was praised by Bernard Lamy and Cotton Mather, and it informed the work of Alsted's student John Amos Comenius.", "An unfinished encyclopedic project by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz began as a plan to expand and modernize it, and the famous diarist Samuel Pepys purchased a copy in 1660—thirty years after its initial publication.", "Although Jacob Thomasius criticised it for plagiarism for verbatim copying without acknowledgment, Augustus De Morgan later called it \"the true parent of all the Encyclopædias, or collections of treatises, or works in which that character predominates\".", "''The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy'', p. 632, in the context of Calvinist metaphysics, states\"In the works of authors like Clemens Timpler of Heidelberg and Steinfurt, Bartolomaeus Keckermann of Heidelberg and Danzig, and Johann Heinrich Alsted of Herborn there appeared a new, unified vision of the encyclopaedia of the scientific disciplines in which ontology had the role of assigning to each of the particular sciences its proper domain.", "\"In his ''The New England Mind'', Perry Miller writes about the ''Encyclopaedia''::\"It was indeed nothing short of a summary, in sequential and numbered paragraphs, of everything that the mind of European man had yet conceived or discovered.", "The works of over five hundred authors, from Aristotle to James I, were digested and methodized, including those of Aquinas, Scotus, and medieval theology, as also those of medieval science, such as ''De Natura Rerum''.", "\"It was reissued as a 4-volume facsimile reprint, edited by W. Schmidt-Biggemann (Fromann-Holzboog Press, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, 1989–1990).==== Alstedius' Encyclopedia Biblica ====In 1610, Alstedius published the first edition of his Encyclopedia.", "In 1630, he published a second edition in a much more comprehensive form, in two large folio volumes.", "In the second edition, he professes to reduce the several branches of art and science then known and studied into a system.", "In this work, and his Encyclopedia Biblica, he tries to prove that the foundation and materials of the whole can be found in the Sacred Scriptures.", "The first four books contain an exposition of the various subjects to be discussed.", "He devotes six books to philology, ten to speculative philosophy, and four to practical matters.", "Then follow three on theology, jurisprudence, and medicine; three on mechanical arts, and five on history, chronology, and miscellanies.", "This work exhibited a great improvement on other published works that purported to be encyclopedias in the latter half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries.=== Logician ===Alsted published ''Logicae Systema Harmonicum'' (1614).", "In writing a semi-Ramist encyclopedia, he then applied his conception of logic to the sum of human knowledge.", "To do that, he added the Lullist topical art of memory to Ramist topical logic, indeed reversing one of the original conceptions of Ramus.", "He had a reputation in his own time as a distinctive methodologist.", "John Prideaux in 1639 asked:Q.", "Is it true that the seven dialectical theories of method in use today, to wit, i) the Aristotelian, 2) the Lullian, 3) the Ramistic, 4) the Mixt, whether indeed in the manner of Keckermann or of Alsted, 5) the Forensic of Hotman, 6) the Jesuitic, and 7) the Socinian, differ mostly in respect to manner of treatment, not in respect to purpose?To which the pupil's answer was to be \"yes\"; as it was to be to the question \"Is it true that a Mixt ought to be preferred to a Peripatetic, a Ramist, a Lullian, and the others?\"", "A \"Mixt\" took elements from both Aristotle and Ramus; Philippo-Ramists, who blended Melanchthon with Ramus, were a type of \"Mixt\"; \"Systematics\" were \"Mixts\" who followed Keckermann in a belief in system, as Alsted did.=== Theologian ===From his Transylvanian period dates Alsted's ''Prodromus'' (printed 1641, but dated 1635).", "The ''Prodromus'' was a Calvinist refutation of one of the most influential anti-Trinitarian works, ''De vera religione'' of Johannes Völkel.", "This work was a compendium of the arguments of Völkel's teacher Fausto Sozzini, figurehead of the Polish Unitarian movement." ], [ "Publications", "Alsted is now remembered as an encyclopedist, and for his millenarian views.", "His approach to the encyclopedia took two decades of preliminaries, and was an effort of integration of tools and theories to hand.", "Sedulus in libris scribendis atque legendi Alstedius nomen Sedulitatis habet (''Encyclopaedia Scientiarum Omnium'', Leyden 1649, ad init.", ")In 1609 Alsted published ''Clavis artis Lullianae''.", "In 1610 he published the ''Artificium perorandi'' of Giordano Bruno; and in the same year the ''Panacea philosophica'', an attempt to find the common ground in the work of Aristotle, Raymond Lull, and Petrus Ramus.", "In 1612 Alsted edited the ''Explanatio'' of Bernard de Lavinheta, a Lullist work.", "In 1613 he published an edition of the ''Systema systematum'' of Bartholomäus Keckermann.", "''Theologia naturalis'' (1615) was an apologetical work of natural theology.", "* ''Clavis artis lullianae'' (1609).", "* ''Panacea philosophica'' (1610).", "* ''Metaphysica, tribus libris tractata'' (1613).", "* '' Methodus admirandorum mathematicorum completens novem libris matheseos universae'' (1613) Herbornae Nassoviarum:Johann Heinrich Alsted* ''Logicae Systema Harmonicum'' (1614).", "* '' Theologia naturalis'' (1615).", "* ''Cursus Philosophici Encyclopediae Libris XXVII'', 1620.", "* ''Methodus sacrosanctae theologiae octo libris tradita in Quorum'' Hanau:Konrad Eifried* ''Encyclopaedia septem tomis distincta: 1.Praecognita disciplinarum; 2.Philologia; 3.Philosophia theoretica; 4.Philosophia practica; 5.Tres superiores facultates; 6.Artes mechanicae; 7.Farragines disciplinarum'' (1630).", "* ''Templum musicum'' (1664), , 93 pp." ], [ "See also", "* ''Encyclopaedia Cursus Philosophici''* Wikipedia" ], [ "References", "* Walter J. Ong (2005), ''Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue.", "From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason'', Harvard University Press, 1958.", "" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", " Cole, Percival R. (Percival Richard), 1879-1948 '' A neglected educator: Johann Heinrich Alsted'' Sydney : W.A.", "Gullick 1910* Hotson, Howard & Maria Rosa Antognazza (eds.", "), ''Alsted and Leibniz: on God, the Magistrate, and the Millennium'', Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1999.", "* Hotson, Howard.", "''Johann Heinrich Alsted 1588-1638: Between Renaissance, Reformation, and Universal Reform'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000.", "* Hotson, Howard.", "''Paradise Postponed.", "Johann Heinrich Alsted and the Birth of Calvinist Millenarianism'', Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2000.", "* McMahon, William.", "\"The Semantics of Johann Alsted\", in D. Cram, A. R. Linn, E. Nowak (eds.", "), ''History of Linguistics, 1996.Vol.", "2: From Classical to Contemporary Linguistics'', Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999, pp. 123–129.", "" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 22" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 838 – Battle of Anzen: The Byzantine emperor Theophilos suffers a heavy defeat by the Abbasids.", "1099 – First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of Jerusalem.", "1209 – Massacre at Béziers: The first major military action of the Albigensian Crusade.", "1298 – Wars of Scottish Independence: Battle of Falkirk: King Edward I of England and his longbowmen defeat William Wallace and his Scottish schiltrons outside the town of Falkirk.", "1342 – St. Mary Magdalene's flood is the worst such event on record for central Europe.", "1443 – Battle of St. Jakob an der Sihl in the Old Zürich War.", "1456 – Ottoman wars in Europe: Siege of Belgrade: John Hunyadi, Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary, defeats Mehmet II of the Ottoman Empire.", "1484 – Battle of Lochmaben Fair: A 500-man raiding party led by Alexander Stewart, Duke of Albany and James Douglas, 9th Earl of Douglas are defeated by Scots forces loyal to Albany's brother James III of Scotland; Douglas is captured.", "1499 – Battle of Dornach: The Swiss decisively defeat the army of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.", "1587 – Roanoke Colony: A second group of English settlers arrives on Roanoke Island off North Carolina to re-establish the deserted colony.", "1594 – The Dutch city of Groningen defended by the Spanish and besieged by a Dutch and English army under Maurice of Orange, capitulates.", "1598 – William Shakespeare's play, ''The Merchant of Venice'', is entered on the ''Stationers' Register''.", "By decree of Queen Elizabeth, the ''Stationers' Register'' licensed printed works, giving the Crown tight control over all published material.===1601–1900===1686 – Albany, New York is formally chartered as a municipality by Governor Thomas Dongan.", "1706 – The Acts of Union 1707 are agreed upon by commissioners from the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, which, when passed by each country's Parliament, leads to the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain.", "1793 – Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific Ocean becoming the first recorded human to complete a transcontinental crossing of North America.", "1796 – Surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company name an area in Ohio \"Cleveland\" after Gen. Moses Cleaveland, the superintendent of the surveying party.", "1797 – Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife: Battle between Spanish and British naval forces during the French Revolutionary Wars.", "During the Battle, Rear-Admiral Nelson is wounded in the arm and the arm had to be partially amputated.", "1802 – Emperor Gia Long conquers Hanoi and unified Viet Nam, which had experienced centuries of feudal warfare.", "1805 – Napoleonic Wars: War of the Third Coalition: Battle of Cape Finisterre: An inconclusive naval action is fought between a combined French and Spanish fleet under Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve of France and a British fleet under Admiral Robert Calder.", "1812 – Napoleonic Wars: Peninsular War: Battle of Salamanca: British forces led by Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) defeat French troops near Salamanca, Spain.", "1833 – The Slavery Abolition Act passes in the British House of Commons, initiating the gradual abolition of slavery in most parts of the British Empire.", "1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Atlanta: Outside Atlanta, Confederate General John Bell Hood leads an unsuccessful attack on Union troops under General William T. Sherman on Bald Hill.", "1893 – Katharine Lee Bates writes \"America the Beautiful\" after admiring the view from the top of Pikes Peak near Colorado Springs, Colorado.", "1894 – The first ever motor race is held in France between the cities of Paris and Rouen.", "The fastest finisher was the Comte Jules-Albert de Dion, but the \"official\" victory was awarded to Albert Lemaître driving his three-horsepower petrol engined Peugeot.===1901–present===1916 – Preparedness Day Bombing: In San Francisco, a bomb explodes on Market Street during a parade, killing ten and injuring 40.", "1921 – Rif War: The Spanish Army suffers its worst military defeat in modern times to the Berbers of the Rif region of Spanish Morocco.", "1933 – Aviator Wiley Post returns to Floyd Bennett Field in New York City, completing the first solo flight around the world in seven days, 18 hours and 49 minutes.", "1936 – Spanish Civil War: The Popular Executive Committee of Valencia takes power in the Valencian Community.", "1937 – New Deal: The United States Senate votes down President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposal to add more justices to the Supreme Court of the United States.", "1942 – The United States government begins compulsory civilian gasoline rationing due to the wartime demands.", " 1942 – ''Grossaktion Warsaw'': The systematic deportation of Jews from the Warsaw ghetto begins.", "1943 – World War II: Allied forces capture Palermo during the Allied invasion of Sicily.", " 1943 – World War II: Axis occupation forces violently disperse a massive protest in Athens, killing 22.", "1944 – The Polish Committee of National Liberation publishes its manifesto, starting the period of Communist rule in Poland.", "1946 – King David Hotel bombing: A Zionist underground organisation, the Irgun, bombs the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, site of the civil administration and military headquarters for Mandatory Palestine, resulting in 91 deaths.", "1962 – Mariner program: ''Mariner 1'' spacecraft flies erratically several minutes after launch and has to be destroyed.", "1963 – Crown Colony of Sarawak gains self-governance.", "1973 – Pan Am Flight 816 crashes after takeoff from Faa'a International Airport in Papeete, French Polynesia, killing 78.", "1976 – Japan completes its last reparation to the Philippines for war crimes committed during imperial Japan's conquest of the country in the Second World War.", "1977 – Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping is restored to power.", "1981 – The first game of the 1981 South Africa rugby union tour of New Zealand and the United States is held in Gisborne, New Zealand.", "1983 – Martial law in Poland is officially revoked.", "1990 – Greg LeMond, an American road racing cyclist, wins his third Tour de France after leading the majority of the race.", "It was LeMond's second consecutive Tour de France victory.", "1992 – Near Medellín, Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar escapes from his luxury prison fearing extradition to the United States.", "1993 – Great Flood of 1993: Levees near Kaskaskia, Illinois rupture, forcing the entire town to evacuate by barges operated by the Army Corps of Engineers.", "1997 – The second Blue Water Bridge opens between Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario.", "2003 – Members of 101st Airborne of the United States, aided by Special Forces, attack a compound in Iraq, killing Saddam Hussein's sons Uday and Qusay, along with Mustapha Hussein, Qusay's 14-year-old son, and a bodyguard.", "2005 – Jean Charles de Menezes is killed by police as the hunt begins for the London Bombers responsible for the 7 July 2005 London bombings and the 21 July 2005 London bombings.", "2011 – Norway attacks: A bomb explodes, targeted at government buildings in central Oslo, followed by a massacre at a youth camp on the island of Utøya.", "2012 – Syrian civil war: The People's Protection Units (YPG) captured the cities of Serê Kaniyê and Dirbêsiyê, during clashes with pro-government forces in Al-Hasakah.", "2013 – Dingxi earthquakes: A series of earthquakes in Dingxi, China, kills at least 89 people and injures more than 500 others.", "2019 – Chandrayaan-2, the second lunar exploration mission developed by Indian Space Research Organisation after Chandrayaan-1 is launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in a GSLV Mark III M1.It consists of a lunar orbiter, and also included the ''Vikram'' lander, and the ''Pragyan'' lunar rover." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1210 – Joan of England, Queen of Scotland (d. 1238)1437 – John Scrope, 5th Baron Scrope of Bolton, English Baron (d. 1498)1476 – Zhu Youyuan, Ming Dynasty politician (d. 1519)1478 – Philip I of Castile (d. 1506)1531 – Leonhard Thurneysser, scholar at the court of the Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1595)1535 – Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1621)1552 – Anthony Browne, Sheriff of Surrey and Kent (d. 1592)* 1552 – Mary Wriothesley, Countess of Southampton, Lady of English peer and others (d. 1607)1559 – Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian priest and saint (d. 1619)===1601–1900===1615 – Marguerite of Lorraine, princess of Lorraine, duchess of Orléans (d. 1672)1618 – Johan Nieuhof, Dutch traveler (d. 1672)1621 – Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (d. 1683)1630 – Madame de Brinvilliers, French aristocrat (d. 1676)1647 – Margaret Mary Alacoque, French nun, mystic and saint (d. 1690)1651 – Ferdinand Tobias Richter, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1711)1711 – Georg Wilhelm Richmann, German-Russian physicist and academic (d. 1753)1713 – Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect, designed the Panthéon (d. 1780)1733 – Mikhail Shcherbatov, Russian philosopher and historian (d. 1790)1755 – Gaspard de Prony, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1839)1784 – Friedrich Bessel, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1846)1820 – Oliver Mowat, Canadian politician, 3rd Premier of Ontario, 8th Lieutenant Governor of Ontario (d. 1903)1839 – Jakob Hurt, Estonian theologist and linguist (d. 1907)1844 – William Archibald Spooner, English priest and scholar (d. 1930)1848 – Adolphus Frederick V, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1914)1849 – Emma Lazarus, American poet and educator (d. 1887)1856 – Octave Hamelin, French philosopher (d. 1907)1862 – Cosmo Duff-Gordon, Scottish fencer (d. 1931)1863 – Alec Hearne, English cricketer (d. 1952)1878 – Janusz Korczak, Polish pediatrician and author (d. 1942)1881 – Augusta Fox Bronner, American psychologist, specialist in juvenile psychology (d. 1966)1882 – Edward Hopper, American painter and etcher (d. 1967)1884 – Odell Shepard, American poet and politician, 66th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (d. 1967)1886 – Hella Wuolijoki, Estonian-Finnish author (d. 1954)1887 – Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)1888 – Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (d. 1950) 1888 – Selman Waksman, Jewish-American biochemist and microbiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)1889 – James Whale, English director (d. 1957)1890 – Rose Kennedy, American philanthropist (d. 1995)1892 – Jack MacBryan, English cricketer and field hockey player (d. 1983)1893 – Jesse Haines, American baseball player and coach (d. 1978)* 1893 – Karl Menninger, American psychiatrist and author (d. 1990)1895 – León de Greiff, Colombian poet, journalist, and diplomat (d. 1976)1898 – Stephen Vincent Benét, American poet, short story writer, and novelist (d. 1943)1899 – Sobhuza II of Swaziland (d. 1982)===1901–present===1908 – Amy Vanderbilt, American author (d. 1974)1909 – Licia Albanese, Italian-American soprano and actress (d. 2014) 1909 – Dorino Serafini, Italian racing driver (d. 2000)1910 – Ruthie Tompson, American animator and artist (d. 2021)1913 – Gorni Kramer, Italian bassist, songwriter, and bandleader (d. 1995)1915 – Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Indian-Pakistani politician and diplomat (d. 2000)1916 – Gino Bianco, Brazilian racing driver (d. 1984)* 1916 – Marcel Cerdan, French boxer (d. 1949)1921 – William Roth, American lawyer and politician (d. 2003)1923 – Bob Dole, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2021)* 1923 – César Fernández Ardavín, Spanish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)* 1923 – The Fabulous Moolah, American wrestler (d. 2007)1924 – Margaret Whiting, American singer (d. 2011)1925 – Jack Matthews, American author, playwright, and academic (d. 2013)* 1925 – Joseph Sargent, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)1926 – Bryan Forbes, English actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1926 – Wolfgang Iser, German scholar, literary theorist (d. 2007)1927 – Johan Ferner, Norwegian sailor (d. 2015)1928 – Orson Bean, American actor (d. 2020)* 1928 – Jimmy Hill, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2015)* 1928 – Per Højholt, Danish poet (d. 2004)1929 – John Barber, English racing driver (d. 2015) 1929 – Leonid Stolovich, Russian-Estonian philosopher and academic (d. 2013)* 1929 – Neil Welliver, American painter (d. 2005)* 1929 – Baselios Thomas I, Indian bishop1931 – Leo Labine, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2005)1932 – Oscar de la Renta, Dominican-American fashion designer (d. 2014)* 1932 – Tom Robbins, American novelist1934 – Junior Cook, American saxophonist (d. 1992) 1934 – Louise Fletcher, American actress (d. 2022)* 1934 – Leon Rotman, Romanian canoeist1935 – Tom Cartwright, English-Welsh cricketer and coach (d. 2007)1936 – Don Patterson, American organist (d. 1988) * 1936 – Harold Rhodes, English cricketer* 1936 – Geraldine Claudette Darden, American mathematician1937 – Chuck Jackson, American R&B singer and songwriter (d. 2023) 1937 – Yasuhiro Kojima, Japanese-American wrestler and manager (d. 1999)* 1937 – John Price, English cricketer* 1937 – Vasant Ranjane, Indian cricketer (d. 2011)1938 – Terence Stamp, English actor1940 – Judith Walzer Leavitt, American historian and academic* 1940 – Alex Trebek, Canadian-American game show host and producer (d. 2020)1941 – Estelle Bennett, American singer (d. 2009) 1941 – Vaughn Bodē, American illustrator (d. 1975)* 1941 – George Clinton, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1941 – David M. Kennedy, American historian and author1942 – Michael Abney-Hastings, 14th Earl of Loudoun, English-Australian politician (d. 2012) 1942 – Peter Habeler, Austrian mountaineer and skier* 1942 – Les Johns, Australian rugby league player and coach1943 – Masaru Emoto, Japanese author and activist (d. 2014) 1943 – Kay Bailey Hutchison, American lawyer and politician* 1943 – Bobby Sherman, American singer-songwriter and actor1944 – Rick Davies, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1944 – Sparky Lyle, American baseball player and manager* 1944 – Anand Satyanand, New Zealand lawyer, judge, and politician, 19th Governor-General of New Zealand1945 – Philip Cohen, English biochemist and academic1946 – Danny Glover, American actor, director, and producer* 1946 – Paul Schrader, American director and screenwriter* 1946 – Rolando Joven Tria Tirona, Filipino archbishop* 1946 – Johnson Toribiong, Palauan lawyer and politician, 7th President of Palau1947 – Albert Brooks, American actor, comedian, director, and screenwriter 1947 – Gilles Duceppe, Canadian politician* 1947 – Don Henley, American singer-songwriter and drummer1948 – Neil Hardwick, British–Finnish theatre and television director 1948 – S. E. Hinton, American author 1949 – Alan Menken, American pianist and composer 1949 – Lasse Virén, Finnish runner and police officer1951 – Richard Bennett, American guitarist and producer 1951 – J. V. Cain, American football player (d. 1979)* 1951 – Patriarch Daniel of Romania* 1951 – Tisa Farrow, American actress and model (d. 2024)1953 – Brian Howe, English singer-songwriter 1954 – Al Di Meola, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer * 1954 – Steve LaTourette, American lawyer and politician (d. 2016)* 1954 – Lonette McKee, American actress and singer1955 – Richard J. Corman, American businessman, founded the R.J. Corman Railroad Group (d. 2013) 1955 – Willem Dafoe, American actor1956 – Mick Pointer, English neo-progressive rock drummer 1956 – Scott Sanderson, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2019)1957 – Dave Stieb, American baseball player1958 – Tatsunori Hara, Japanese baseball player and coach* 1958 – David Von Erich, American wrestler (d. 1984)1960 – Jon Oliva, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1960 – John Leguizamo, Colombian-American actor, producer, and screenwriter1961 – Calvin Fish, English racing driver and sportscaster 1961 – Keith Sweat, American singer-songwriter and producer 1962 – Alvin Robertson, American basketball player 1962 – Martine St. Clair, Canadian singer and actress1963 – Emilio Butragueño, Spanish footballer 1963 – Emily Saliers, American singer-songwriter and musician 1964 – Will Calhoun, American rock drummer 1964 – Bonnie Langford, English actress and dancer* 1964 – David Spade, American actor, producer, and screenwriter1965 – Derrick Dalley, Canadian educator and politician 1965 – Shawn Michaels, American wrestler, trainer, and actor* 1965 – Richard B. Poore, New Zealand humanitarian* 1965 – Doug Riesenberg, American football player and coach1966 – Tim Brown, American football player and manager1967 – Lauren Booth, English journalist and activist* 1967 – Rhys Ifans, Welsh actor 1969 – Rebecca Kiessling, American attorney and anti-abortion activist 1969 – Despina Vandi, German-Greek singer and actress1970 – Jason Becker, American guitarist and songwriter 1970 – Steve Carter, Australian rugby league player * 1970 – Sergei Zubov, Russian ice hockey player and coach1972 – Franco Battaini, Italian motorcycle racer 1972 – Colin Ferguson, Canadian actor, director, and producer* 1972 – Seth Fisher, American illustrator (d. 2006)* 1972 – Keyshawn Johnson, American football player and sportscaster1973 – Brian Chippendale, American singer and drummer 1973 – Mike Sweeney, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1973 – Ece Temelkuran, Turkish journalist and author* 1973 – Rufus Wainwright, American-Canadian singer-songwriter1974 – Franka Potente, German actress 1977 – Ezio Galon, Italian rugby player* 1977 – Ingo Hertzsch, German footballer* 1977 – Gustavo Nery, Brazilian footballer1978 – Runako Morton, Nevisian cricketer (d. 2012) 1978 – Dennis Rommedahl, Danish footballer1979 – Lucas Luhr, German racing driver 1979 – Yadel Martí, Cuban baseball player1980 – Dirk Kuyt, Dutch footballer 1980 – Scott Dixon, New Zealand racing driver * 1980 – Kate Ryan, Belgian singer-songwriter* 1980 – Tablo, South Korean-Canadian rapper1982 – Nuwan Kulasekara, Sri Lankan cricketer1983 – Aldo de Nigris, Mexican footballer* 1983 – Dries Devenyns, Belgian cyclist* 1983 – Steven Jackson, American football player* 1983 – Andreas Ulvo, Norwegian pianist 1984 – Stewart Downing, English footballer1985 – Jessica Abbott, Australian swimmer* 1985 – Takudzwa Ngwenya, Zimbabwean-American rugby player* 1985 – Akira Tozawa, Japanese wrestler1986 – Stevie Johnson, American football player 1986 – Colin de Grandhomme, Zimbabwean-New Zealand cricketer1987 – Denis Gargaud Chanut, French slalom canoeist 1987 – Charlotte Kalla, Swedish skier1988 – William Buick, Norwegian-British flat jockey 1988 – Paul Coutts, Scottish footballer* 1988 – George Santos, American politician* 1988 – Thomas Kraft, German footballer* 1988 – Sercan Temizyürek, Turkish footballer1989 – Keegan Allen, American actor, photographer and musician1991 – Matty James, English footballer* 1991 – Tomi Juric, Australian footballer1992 – Anja Aguilar, Filipino actress and singer 1992 – Selena Gomez, American singer and actress* 1992 – Carolin Schnarre, German Paralympic equestrian1993 – Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, Kyrgyzstani-American terrorist1995 – Ezekiel Elliott, American football player* 1995 – Armaan Malik, Indian playback singer, composer and songwriter1996 – Skyler Gisondo, American actor1998 – Sahaphap Wongratch, Thai actor, model, and singer1999 – Sidney Chu, Hong Kong skater2002 – Prince Felix of Denmark2013 – Prince George of Wales" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 698 – Wu Chengsi, nephew of Chinese sovereign Wu Zetian1258 – Meinhard I, Count of Gorizia-Tyrol (b. c. 1200)1274 – Henry I of Navarre, Count of Champagne and Brie and King of Navarre1298 – Sir John de Graham, Scottish soldier at the Battle of Falkirk1362 – Louis, Count of Gravina (b.", "1324)1376 – Simon Langham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b.", "1310)1387 – Frans Ackerman, Flemish politician (b.", "1330)1461 – Charles VII of France (b.", "1403)1525 – Richard Wingfield, English courtier and diplomat, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b.", "1426)1540 – John Zápolya, Hungarian king (b.", "1487)1550 – Jorge de Lencastre, Duke of Coimbra (b.", "1481)1581 – Richard Cox, English bishop (b.", "1500)===1601–1900===1619 – Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian priest and saint (b.", "1559)1645 – Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, Spanish statesman (b.", "1587)1676 – Pope Clement X (b.", "1590)1726 – Hugh Drysdale, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia1734 – Peter King, 1st Baron King, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of England (b.", "1669)1789 – Joseph Foullon de Doué, French politician, Controller-General of Finances (b.", "1715)1802 – Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (b.", "1771)1824 – Thomas Macnamara Russell, English admiral1826 – Giuseppe Piazzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b.", "1746)1832 – Napoleon II, French emperor (b.", "1811)1833 – Joseph Forlenze, Italian ophthalmologist and surgeon (b.", "1757)1864 – James B. McPherson, American general (b.", "1828)1869 – John A. Roebling, German-American engineer, designed the Brooklyn Bridge (b.", "1806)===1901–present===1902 – Mieczysław Halka-Ledóchowski, Polish cardinal (b.", "1822)1903 – Cassius Marcellus Clay, American publisher, lawyer, and politician, United States Ambassador to Russia (b.", "1810)1904 – Wilson Barrett, English actor and playwright (b.", "1846)1906 – William Snodgrass, Canadian minister and academic (b.", "1827)1908 – Randal Cremer, English politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1828)1915 – Sandford Fleming, Scottish-Canadian engineer and inventor, developed Standard time (b.", "1827)1916 – James Whitcomb Riley, American poet and author (b.", "1849)1918 – Indra Lal Roy, Indian lieutenant and first Indian fighter aircraft pilot (b.", "1898)1920 – William Kissam Vanderbilt, American businessman and horse breeder (b.", "1849)1922 – Jōkichi Takamine, Japanese-American chemist and academic (b.", "1854)1932 – J. Meade Falkner, English author and poet (b.", "1858) 1932 – Reginald Fessenden, Canadian inventor and academic (b.", "1866)* 1932 – Errico Malatesta, Italian activist and author (b.", "1853)* 1932 – Flo Ziegfeld, American actor and producer (b.", "1867)1934 – John Dillinger, American gangster (b.", "1903)1937 – Ted McDonald, Australian cricketer and footballer (b.", "1891)1940 – George Fuller, Australian politician, 22nd Premier of New South Wales (b.", "1861) 1940 – Albert Young, American boxer and promoter (b.", "1877)1948 – Rūdolfs Jurciņš, Latvian basketball player (b.", "1909) 1950 – William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canadian economist and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Canada (b.", "1874)1958 – Mikhail Zoshchenko, Ukrainian-Russian soldier and author (b.", "1895)1967 – Carl Sandburg, American poet and historian (b.", "1878)1968 – Giovannino Guareschi, Italian journalist and cartoonist (b.", "1908)1970 – George Johnston, Australian journalist and author (b.", "1912)1974 – Wayne Morse, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1900)1979 – J. V. Cain, American football player (b.", "1951)* 1979 – Sándor Kocsis, Hungarian footballer and manager (b.", "1929)1986 – Floyd Gottfredson, American author and illustrator (b.", "1905) 1986 – Ede Staal, Dutch singer-songwriter (b.", "1941)1987 – Fahrettin Kerim Gökay, Turkish physician and politician, Turkish Minister of Health (b.", "1900)1990 – Manuel Puig, Argentinian author, playwright, and screenwriter (b.", "1932)* 1990 – Eduard Streltsov, Soviet footballer (b.", "1937)1992 – David Wojnarowicz, American painter, photographer, and activist (b.", "1954)1995 – Harold Larwood, English-Australian cricketer (b.", "1904)1996 – Rob Collins, English keyboard player (b.", "1956)1998 – Fritz Buchloh, German footballer and coach (b.", "1909)2000 – Eric Christmas, English-born Canadian actor (b.", "1916) 2000 – Carmen Martín Gaite, Spanish author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1925)* 2000 – Raymond Lemieux, Canadian chemist and academic (b.", "1920)* 2000 – Claude Sautet, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1924)2001 – Indro Montanelli, Italian journalist and historian (b.", "1909)2004 – Sacha Distel, French singer and guitarist (b.", "1933)* 2004 – Illinois Jacquet, American saxophonist and composer (b.", "1922)2005 – Eugene Record, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1940)2006 – Dika Newlin, American composer, singer-songwriter, and pianist (b.", "1923)* 2006 – José Antonio Delgado, Venezuelan mountaineer (b.", "1965)2007 – Mike Coolbaugh, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1972) 2007 – Jarrod Cunningham, New Zealand rugby player (b.", "1968)* 2007 – László Kovács, Hungarian-American director and cinematographer (b.", "1933)* 2007 – Rollie Stiles, American baseball player (b.", "1906)2008 – Estelle Getty, American actress (b.", "1923)2009 – Richard M. Givan, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1921)* 2009 – Peter Krieg, German director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1947)2010 – Kenny Guinn, American banker and politician, 27th Governor of Nevada (b.", "1936)2011 – Linda Christian, Mexican-American actress (b.", "1923)* 2011 – Cees de Wolf, Dutch footballer (b.", "1945)2012 – Ding Guangen, Chinese engineer and politician (b.", "1929) 2012 – George Armitage Miller, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Frank Pierson, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1925)2013 – Natalie de Blois, American architect, co-designed the Lever House (b.", "1921) 2013 – Dennis Farina, American policeman and actor (b.", "1944)* 2013 – Lawrie Reilly, Scottish footballer (b.", "1928)* 2013 – Rosalie E. Wahl, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1924)2014 – Johann Breyer, German SS officer (b.", "1925) 2014 – Louis Lentin, Irish director and producer (b.", "1933)* 2014 – Nitzan Shirazi, Israeli footballer and manager (b.", "1971)2018 – Frank Havens, American canoeist (b.", "1924)2022 – Maria Petri, English association football supporter (b.", "1939)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Birthday of the Late King Sobhuza (Eswatini)Christian feast day:Abd-al-MasihJoseph of Tiberias (or of Palestine)MarkellaMary MagdaleneNohra (Maronite Church)July 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Earliest day on which Parents' Day can fall, while 28 July is the latest; celebrated on the fourth Sunday in July.", "(United States)National Press Day (Azerbaijan)Pi Approximation Day, ''see also March 14''Ratcatcher's DayRevolution Day (The Gambia)Sarawak Independence Day (Sarawak, Malaysia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jean Joseph Marie Amiot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jean Joseph Marie Amiot''' (; February 8, 1718October 8, 1793) was a French Jesuit priest who worked in Qing China, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.Born in Toulon, Amiot entered the novitiate of the Society of Jesus at the age of 19.After he was ordained in 1746, he aspired to serve in an overseas mission.", "Eventually, he was assigned a mission in China and left France in 1749.He arrived at Beijing in 1751 and remained there for the rest of his life.Amiot served as an intermediary between the academics of Europe and China.", "His correspondence provided insight on the culture of China to the Europeans.", "He translated Chinese works into French.", "Most notably, his translation of Sun Tzu's ''The Art of War'' is the first rendition of the work into a Western language." ], [ "Early life", "Amiot was born in Toulon on February 8, 1718 to Louis Amiot, the royal notary of Toulon, and Marie-Anne Serre.", "He was the eldest of ten children: five boys and five girls.", "His brother Pierre-Jules-Roch Amiot would go on to become the lieutenant-general of the admiralty of Toulon and his sister, Marguerite-Claire was an Ursuline nun.", "Amiot maintained contact with both.After finishing his studies in philosophy and theology at the Jesuit seminary in Toulon, Amiot entered the novitiate of the Society of Jesus in Avignon on September 27, 1737; he remained a novice for two years.", "Afterwards, he taught at the Jesuit colleges of Besançon, Arles, Aix-en-Provence and finally at Nîmes, where he was professor of rhetoric in the academic year of 1744–1745.He completed his theological studies at Dôle from 1745 to 1748 and was ordained as a priest on December 22, 1746." ], [ "Arrival at China", "Amiot requested Franz Retz, the Superior General of the Society of Jesus at that time, to serve in an overseas mission, and was eventually given a mission to China.", "Earlier, in a letter to his brother, he had expressed his desire to serve in a delegation to this particular country.", "He left France in 1749, accompanied by Chinese Jesuits Paul Liu and Stanislas Kang, who had been sent to study in France and were returning to their home country.", "Kang died at sea, before the party could reach China.They arrived at Macau on July 27, 1750.The Jesuits of Beijing announced Amiot's arrival, along with that of the Portuguese Jesuits José d'Espinha and Emmanuel de Mattos, to Emperor Qianlong, who ordered that they be taken to the capital.", "On March 28, 1751, they left Macau for Guangzhou and arrived there five days later.", "They left Canton on June 2, and reached Beijing on August 22.After his arrival in Beijing, he was put in charge of the children's congregation of the Holy Guardian Angels.", "Alongside this, he studied the Chinese language.", "He adopted the Chinese name Qian Deming () and wore Chinese clothing in order to adapt himself to the culture of China.", "In 1754, Amiot made a young Chinese man by the name of Yang Ya-Ko-Pe his assistant and instructed him in the European manner.", "Yang died in 1784, after working with Amiot for over thirty years." ], [ "Suppression of the Jesuits", "In 1762 the Parlement of Paris ordered the suppression of the Society of Jesus and the confiscation of its property.", "The society was abolished in France two years later, by the order of King Louis XV.", "The Jesuit mission in China survived for a while after their suppression, being protected by the Qianlong Emperor himself.", "The final blow, however, would be Pope Clement XIV's brief, ''Dominus ac Redemptor'', issued on July 21, 1773, with which the Bishop of Rome officially ordered the suppression of the Society of Jesus.", "The brief reached the French Jesuits in China on September 22, 1775 via a German Carmelite named Joseph de Sainte-Thérèse.", "The Jesuits of Beijing surrendered to it, resigned from the Society of Jesus and became secular priests.", "Wishing to keep the French mission alive, King Louis XVI sent them financial aid and appointed François Bourgeois as their administrator.", "Amiot was named as Bourgeois' replacement in the event of his absence.Subsequently, Amiot turned his attention to writing.", "He maintained contact with Henri Bertin, the foreign minister of France.", "His correspondences were published from 1776 to 1791 in the .", "He also corresponded with other European Academies, including brief contacts with the Imperial Academy of Sciences and the Royal Society." ], [ "Later life and death", "After the death of Bourgeois in 1792, Amiot started visiting the tombs of his Jesuit companions, where he prayed and meditated; he also carved the Jesuits' epitaphs on their tombs.", "News about the upheaval of the French Revolution distressed him to the point that his physical and mental health declined, and thus he had to stop visiting the tombs by September 1792.In 1792, Britain sent a diplomatic mission to China, led by George Macartney.", "The goals of the delegation were to open new trading ports with the country and establish a permanent mission there.", "Macartney had wished to meet Amiot in Beijing.", "However, he was too ill to meet the diplomat and instead sent him a portrait of himself and a letter, which was delivered on October 3, 1793.He gave his advice to Macartney and suggested that he leave China.On October 8, 1793, the news of King Louis XVI's execution reached Amiot, who celebrated Mass for the deceased monarch.", "He died on the same night of October 8, or on the following day, October 9, 1793." ], [ "Works", "A page from ''Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences et les arts des Chinois'', 1780.In 1772 Amiot's translation of Sun Tzu's ''The Art of War'' was published.", "It includes a translation of the Yongzheng Emperor's ''Ten Precepts''.", "Amiot was the first person to translate ''The Art of War'' in the West.", "The next translation of the work in a Western language would not be made until Everard Ferguson Calthrop published his English rendition in 1905.Amiot could speak in Manchu, the language of the emperor.", "He wrote a Manchu-French dictionary, which was published from 1789 to 1790 with the help of Bertin; Prince Hongwu, a member of the Qing imperial family, praised the dictionary.", "He also wrote a Manchu grammar, which was never published.Amiot carried out scientific observations and experiments while working in China.", "For example, he made a record of the weather in Beijing, which was published by Charles Messier in 1774.He also tried to build a hot air balloon, but was discouraged by Prince Hongwu, for fear of the danger of flying and disseminating the discovery." ], [ "Music", "Amiot could play the harpsichord and the flute.", "He tried to win over Chinese listeners by playing pieces by French baroque composers, including Rameau's ''Les sauvages'' and ''Les cyclopes''.", "These attempts, however, were not successful; when he asked the Chinese musicians for their opinions, they remarked that \"your music was not made for our ears, nor our ears for your music\".", "Lester Hu, assistant professor of musicology at the University of California, Berkeley has doubted the veracity of this story.Amiot sent his translation of Li Guangdi's ''Guyue Jingzhuan'' (), a treatise on Chinese music, to Paris in 1754; he later acknowledged that it contained errors and was incomplete.", "Jean-Philippe Rameau referenced the work in his 1760 treatise, , though Rameau's idea of harmony in Chinese music was erroneous.", "Amiot's own work on Chinese music, was published twice by Pierre-Joseph Roussier in 1779 and 1780.The author's supplements to the work were not published until 1997.He also sent collections of Chinese music and instruments to France.", "In 1777, he sent a Sheng, thus contributing to the development of the harmonica in Europe." ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===*************" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jean-Jacques Ampère" ], [ "Introduction", "Jean-Jacques Ampère'''Jean-Jacques Ampère''' (12 August 1800 – 27 March 1864) was a French philologist and man of letters.Born in Lyon, he was the only son of the physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836).", "Jean-Jacques' mother died while he was an infant.", "(But André-Marie Ampère had a daughter – Albine (1807–1842) – with his second wife.)", "On his tomb at the cemetery of Montmartre, Paris, he is named Jean-Jacques Antoine Ampère.", "His father's father was also named Jean-Jacques Ampère (executed in Lyon, 1793).He studied the folk songs and popular poetry of the Scandinavian countries in an extended tour in northern Europe.", "Returning to France in 1830, he delivered a series of lectures on Scandinavian and early German poetry at the Athenaeum in Marseille.", "The first of these was printed as ''De l'Histoire de la poésie'' (1830), and was practically the first introduction of the French public to the Scandinavian and German epics.Moving to Paris, he taught at the Sorbonne, and became professor of the history of French literature at the Collège de France.", "A journey in northern Africa (1841) was followed by a tour in Greece and Italy, in company with Prosper Mérimée, Jean de Witte and Charles Lenormant.", "This bore fruit in his ''Voyage dantesque'' (printed in his ''Grèce, Rome et Dante'', 1848), which did much to popularize the study of Dante in France.In 1848 he became a member of the Académie française, and in 1851 he visited America.", "From this time he was occupied with his chief work, ''L'Histoire romaine à Rome'' (4 vols., 1861–1864), until his death at Pau.The ''Correspondence et souvenirs'' (2 vols.)", "of A-M and J-J Ampère (1805–1854) was published in 1875.Notices of J-J Ampère are to be found in Sainte-Beuve's ''Portraits littéraires,'' vol.", "iv., and ''Nouveaux Lundis,'' vol.", "xiii.", "; in P Mérimée's ''Portraits historiques et littéraires'' (2nd ed., 1875); and in Alexis de Tocqueville's ''Recollections'' (1893)..The Ampère Museum, close to Lyon , France, includes some documents presenting the life and works of Jean-Jacques Ampère." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jacob Anatoli" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jacob ben Abba Mari ben Simson Anatoli''' (c. 1194 – 1256) was a translator of Arabic texts to Hebrew.", "He was invited to Naples by Frederick II.", "Under this royal patronage, and in association with Michael Scot, Anatoli made Arabic learning accessible to Western readers.", "Among his most important works were translations of texts by Averroes." ], [ "Early life and invitation to Naples", "Born in southern France, perhaps in Marseille, Anatoli had an interest in literary activity that was stimulated early by his learned associates and relations at Narbonne and Béziers.", "He so distinguished himself that the emperor Frederick II, the most genial and enlightened monarch of the time, invited him to come to Naples.", "Under the emperor's patronage, Antatoli was enabled to devote himself to his studies.", "He translated scientific Arabic literature into the more accessible Hebrew language.", "Anatoli produced his most important literary and scientific translations while in Naples, and his works were copied under his name." ], [ "Opposed by Anti-Maimonists", "Anatoli was the son-in-law (and possibly also the brother-in-law) of Samuel ibn Tibbon, a well-known translator of Maimonides.", "Moses b. Samuel ibn Tibbon frequently refers to Anatoli as his uncle, which makes it likely that Samuel married Anatoli's sister.", "Anatoli later married Samuel's daughter.", "Because of this intimate connection with the ibn Tibbons, Anatoli was introduced to the philosophy of Maimonides.", "He found study of this man to be such a great revelation that he later referred to it as the beginning of his intelligent and true comprehension of the Scriptures.", "He also frequently alluded to Ibn Tibbon as one of the two masters who had instructed and inspired him.", "His esteem for Maimonides knew no bounds: he placed him next to the Prophets, and he exhibited little patience with Maimonides's critics and detractors.He accordingly interprets the Bible and the Haggadah in a truly Maimonistic spirit, rationalizing the miracles and investing every possible passage in the ancient literature with philosophic and allegoric significance.", "As an allegorist who could read into the ancient documents the particular philosophical idiosyncrasies of his day, Anatoli deserves a place beside other allegoric and philosophical commentators, from Philo down; indeed, he may be regarded as a pioneer in the application of the Maimonistic manner to purposes of popular instruction.", "This work he began while still in his native land, on occasions of private and public festivities, such as weddings and other assemblies.", "Afterward he delivered Sabbath-afternoon sermons, in which he advocated the allegoric and philosophic method of Scriptural exegesis.", "This evoked the opposition of the anti-Maimonists, whose number was large in southern France; and probably Anatoli's departure for Sicily was hastened by the antagonism he encountered.", "But even at Naples Anatoli's views aroused the opposition of his Orthodox coreligionists.", "This treatment, together with several other unpleasant experiences at the royal court, seems to have caused him to entertain thoughts of suicide.", "He soon, however, recovered and wrote, for the benefit of his two sons, his ''Malmad ha-Talmidim'', a name which, involving a play on words, was intended to be both a ''Teacher of the Disciples'' and a ''Goad to the Students''.The ''Malmad'', which was completed when its author was fifty-five years old, but was first published by the Meḳiẓe Nirdamim Society at Lyck in the year 1866, is really nothing but a volume of sermons, by which the author intended to stimulate study and to dispel intellectual blindness.", "As a curious specimen of his method, it may be mentioned that he regards the three stories of Noah's ark as symbolic of the three sciences mathematics, physics, and metaphysics.", "As such, the work is of some importance in the history of Jewish culture.", "Anatoli's ethical admonitions and spiritual meditations have value as portraying both the circumstances of the age and the character of the reforms he aimed at." ], [ "Moral Fervor", "Anatoli is quite plain-spoken in the manner in which he states and defends his views, as well as in his criticisms of contemporary failings.", "For instance, he does not hesitate to reproach the rabbis of his day for their general neglect not only of the thorough study, but even of the obligatory perusal, of the Bible, charging them with a preference for Talmudic dialectics.", "He, likewise, deplores the contemporary degeneracy in the home life and the religious practises of his people, a circumstance which he thinks due largely to the imitation of surrounding manners.", "Scientific investigation he insists upon as an absolute necessity for the true comprehension of religion, despite the fact that his contemporaries regarded all the hours which he was accustomed to spend with his father-in-law, Samuel ibn Tibbon, in mathematical and philosophic study as mere waste of time." ], [ "The ''Malmad''", "The ''Malmad'' is divided into brief chapters, according to the weekly Scriptural portions.", "In it Anatoli manifests a wide acquaintance not only with the classic Jewish exegetes, but also with Plato, Aristotle, Averroes, and the Vulgate, as well as with a large number of Christian institutions, some of which he ventures to criticize, such as celibacy and monastic castigation, as well as certain heretics (compare 15a, 98a, 115a); and he repeatedly appeals to his readers for a broader cultivation of the classic languages and the profane branches of learning.", "He indignantly repudiates the fanatical view of some coreligionists that all non-Jews have no souls —a belief reciprocated by the Gentiles of the time.", "To Anatoli all men are, in truth, formed in the image of God, though the Jews stand under a particular obligation to further the true cognition of God simply by reason of their election—\"the Greeks had chosen wisdom as their pursuit; the Romans, power; and the Jews, religiousness\" (l.c.", "103b).", "If, however, a non-Jew devotes himself to serious search after divine truth, his merit is so much the more significant; and whatever suggestion he may have to offer, no Jew dares refuse with levity." ], [ "Anatoli and Michael Scot", "An example of such intellectual catholicity was set by Anatoli himself; for, in the course of his \"Malmad,\" he not only cites incidentally allegoric suggestions made to him by Frederick II., but several times—Güdemann has counted seventeen—he offers the exegetic remarks of a certain Christian savant of whose association he speaks most reverently, and whom, furthermore, he names as his second master besides Samuel ibn Tibbon.", "This Christian savant was identified by Senior Sachs as Michael Scot, who, like Anatoli, devoted himself to scientific work at the court of Frederick.", "Graetz even goes to the length of regarding Anatoli as identical with the Jew Andreas, who, according to Roger Bacon, assisted Michael Scot in his philosophic translations from the Arabic, seeing that Andreas might be a corruption of Anatoli.", "But Steinschneider will not admit the possibility of this conjecture, while Renan scarcely strengthens it by regarding \"Andreas\" as a possible northern corruption of \"En Duran,\" which, he says, may have been the Provençal surname of Anatoli, since Anatoli, in reality, was but the name of his great-grandfather.Anatoli's example of broad-minded study of Christian literature and intercourse with Christian scholars found many followers, as, for example, Moses ben Solomon of Salerno; and his work was an important factor in bringing the Jews of Italy into close contact with their Christian fellow students." ], [ "Anatoli as translator", "The \"Malmad,\" owing to its deep ethical vein, became, despite its Maimonistic heresies, a very popular book.", "It is rather as a translator that Anatoli deserves a distinguished place in the scientific realm; for it is he and Michael Scot who together, under the influence of Frederick II, opened to the western world the treasure-house of Arabic learning.", "Anatoli, in fact, was the first man to translate the commentaries of Averroes into Hebrew, thus opening a new era in the history of Aristotelian philosophy.", "Prior to translating Averroes' commentaries, Anatoli had occupied himself with the translation of astronomical treatises by the same writer and others; but at the instance of friends he turned his attention to logic and the speculative works, realizing and recommending the importance of logic, in particular, in view of the contemporary religious controversies.", "Thenceforth, his program was twofold, as he devoted himself to his work in astronomy in the mornings, and to logic in the evenings.His principal translation embraced the first five books of Averroes' \"intermediate\" commentary on Aristotle's ''Logic'', consisting of the Introduction of Porphyry and the four books of Aristotle on the Categories, Interpretation, Syllogism, and Demonstration.", "Anatoli probably commenced his work on the commentary while in Provence, though he must have finished the fifth book at Naples about 1231 or 1232.The conclusion of the commentary was never reached.", "Upon the ending of the first division he desired to go over the ground again, to acquire greater proficiency, and, for some reason unknown, he never resumed his task, which was completed by another after a lapse of eighty years.Besides this, Anatoli translated, between the years 1231 and 1235, the following works: (1) The ''Almagest of Ptolemy'', from the Arabic, though probably the Greek or Latin title of this treatise was also familiar to him.", "Its Hebrew title is ''Ḥibbur ha-Gadol ha-Niḳra al-Magesti'' (''The Great Composition Called Almagest'').", "(2) A ''Compendium of Astronomy'', by Averroes, a book which was unknown to the Christians of the Middle Ages, and of which neither a manuscript of the original nor a Latin translation has come down.", "Its Hebrew title is ''Ḳiẓẓur al-Magesti'' (''Compendium of the Almagest'').", "(3) ''The Elements of Astronomy'', by Al-Fargani (Alfraganus); possibly translated from a Latin version.", "It was afterward rendered into Latin by Jacob Christmann (Frankfort, 1590) under the title of ''Elementa Astronomica'', which, in its turn, may have given rise to the Hebrew title of the treatise ''Yesodot ha-Teḳunah'', which is undoubtedly recent.", "(4) A treatise on the Syllogism, by Al-Farabi, from the Arabic.", "Its Hebrew title is ''Sefer Heḳesh Ḳaẓar'' (''A Brief Treatise on the Syllogism'').Graetz also suggests the possibility that Anatoli, in conjunction with Michael Scot, may have translated Maimonides' ''Guide for the Perplexed'' into Latin; but this suggestion has not yet been sufficiently proved (compare Steinschneider, \"Hebr.", "Uebers.\"", "i.", "433).", "Similarly, the anonymous commentary on the ''Guide'', called ''Ruaḥ Ḥen'', though sometimes attributed to Anatoli, can not definitely be established as his.", "Still, it is on an allusion in this work that Zunz, followed by Steinschneider, partly bases the hypothesis of Marseille having been Anatoli's original home (compare Zunz, \"Zur Gesch.\"", "p. 482; Renan-Neubauer, \"Les Rabbins Français,\" p. 588; Steinschneider, \"Cat.", "Bodl.\"", "col. 1180, and \"Hebr.", "Bibl.\"", "xvii.", "124)." ], [ "References", "'''Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography:'''The ''Malmad ha-Talmidim'' yields a great deal of information concerning the life and the time of its author.", "Consult particularly the preface, which is freely drawn upon in this article.", "Further, Abba Mari, Minḥat Ḳenaot, Letter 68;Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii.", "149;Zunz, Zur Gesch.", "und Lit.", "Berlin, 1845, p. 482;Senior Sachs, in Ha-Yonah, 1851, viii.", "31, note;Neubauer, in Geiger's Jüd.", "Zeitschrift, x.", "225;Giulio Bartolocci, ''Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica'', i.", "5, iii.", "867;De Rossi, Dizionario Storico, German trans., p. 44;Grätz, Gesch.", "d. Juden, 2d ed., vii.", "95;Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Français, in Histoire littéraire de la France, xxvii.", "580-589, and Les Écrivains Juifs Français, ib., xxxi., index;Güdemann, Gesch.", "des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Abendländischen Juden, ii.", "161, 226 et seq.", ";Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch.", "d. Juden in Rom, i.", "398;Perles, R. Salomo b. Abraham b. Adereth, pp.", "68 et seq.", ";Berliner, Persönliche Beziehungen zwischen Juden und Christen, p. 10;Steinschneider, Hebr.", "Bibl.", "vii.", "63, xvii.", "124;Cat.", "Bodl.", "col. 1180 et seq.", ";Die Hebr.", "Uebers.", "des Mittelalters, pp.", "47, 51, 58, 523, 547, 555, and (for a complete bibliography of the subject) 990." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Gyula Andrássy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Count Gyula Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka''' (8 March 1823 – 18 February 1890) was a Hungarian statesman, who served as Prime Minister of Hungary (1867–1871) and subsequently as Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary (1871–1879).", "Andrássy was a conservative; his foreign policies looked to expanding the Empire into Southeast Europe, preferably with British and German support, and without alienating Turkey.", "He saw Russia as the main adversary, because of its own expansionist policies toward Slavic and Orthodox areas.", "He distrusted Slavic nationalist movements as a threat to his multi-ethnic empire." ], [ "Biography", "The son of Count Károly Andrássy and Etelka Szapáry, he was born in Oláhpatak (present-day Vlachovo, Rožňava District, Slovakia), Kingdom of Hungary.", "His date and place of birth, however, are somewhat disputed.", "According to registry of Košice, Andrássy was baptised in the city then known as Kassa on 3 March 1823.The son of a liberal father who belonged to the political opposition, at a time when opposing the government was very dangerous, Andrássy at a very early age threw himself into the political struggles of the day, adopting at the outset the patriotic side.===Career===Gyula Andrássy in 1848Count István Széchenyi was the first adequately to appreciate his capacity.", "In 1845 Andrássy was appointed as president of the society for the regulation of the waters of the Upper Tisza River.In 1846, he attracted attention by publishing highly critical articles of the government in Lajos Kossuth's paper, the ''Pesti Hírlap.''", "He was elected as one of the Radical candidates to the Diet of 1848.When the Croats under Josip Jelačić attempted to have Međimurje, which was then part of Hungary, returned to Croatia, Andrássy entered military service.", "He was commander of the gentry of his county, and served with distinction at the battles of Pákozd and Schwechat, as Artúr Görgei's adjutant (1848).Toward the end of the war, Andrássy was sent to Constantinople by the revolutionary government.", "He was seeking to obtain the neutrality of the Ottoman Empire, if not their support, during the struggle with Croatia.After the catastrophe of Világos, where the Hungarians were defeated, Andrássy emigrated to London and then to Paris.", "On 21 September 1851, he was condemned ''in absentia'' to death and was hanged in effigy by the Austrian government for his share in the Hungarian revolt.In exile for ten years, he studied politics in what was then the centre of European diplomacy.", "He discerned the weakness of the second French empire beneath its imposing exterior.Andrássy returned to Hungary in 1858, but his position was still difficult.", "He had never petitioned for an amnesty, and had steadily rejected all the overtures both of the Austrian government and of the Magyar Conservatives (who would have accepted something short of full autonomy for the kingdom).", "He enthusiastically supported Ferenc Deák's party.On 21 December 1865, he was chosen vice-president of the Diet.", "In March 1866, he was elected as president of the sub-committee appointed by the parliamentary commission to draw up the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 between Austria and Hungary.", "He originated the idea of the \"Delegations\" of powers.", "It was said at that time that he was the only member of the commission who could persuade the court of the justice of the national claims.In the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz (also called the Battle of Sadowa), Prussia decisively defeated Austria in the short Austro-Prussian War.", "It ended Austria's hopes for a role in uniting Germany.", "Bismark wanted to restore good relations after the war.", "Emperor Franz Joseph for the first time consulted Andrássy, who recommended the re-establishment of the constitution and the appointment of a responsible foreign and defence ministry.", "On 17 February 1867 the king/emperor appointed him as the first prime minister of the Hungarian half of the newly formed Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.", "The obvious first choice had been Ferenc Deák, one of the architects of the Compromise, but he declined in favour of Andrássy.", "Deák described him as \"the providential statesman given to Hungary by the grace of God.", "\"As premier, Andrássy by his firmness, amiability and dexterity as a debater, soon won for himself a commanding position.", "Yet his position continued to be difficult, inasmuch as the authority of Deák dwarfed that of all the party leaders, however eminent.", "Andrássy chose for himself the departments of war and foreign affairs.", "It was he who reorganized the Honvéd system (state army), and he used often to say that the regulation of the military border districts was the most difficult labour of his life.On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Andrássy resolutely defended the neutrality of the Austrian monarchy, and in his speech on 28 July 1870 warmly protested against the assumption that it was in the interests of Austria to seek to recover the position it had held in Germany before 1863.On the fall of Beust (6 November 1871), Andrássy stepped into his place.", "His tenure of the chancellorship was epoch-making.", "Where Beust had been hostile to Germany and friendly toward Russia, Andrássy took the opposite approach.", "One problem was that Germany was close to Italy, but Italy and Austria were at odds about who would control border areas.Hitherto the empire of the Habsburgs had never been able to dissociate itself from its historic Holy Roman traditions.", "But its loss of influence in Italy and Germany, and the consequent formation of the Dual State, had at length indicated the proper, and, indeed, the only field for its diplomacy in the future – the Near East, where the process of the crystallization of the Balkan peoples into nationalities was still incomplete.", "The question was whether these nationalities were to be allowed to become independent or were only to exchange the tyranny of the sultan for the tyranny of the tsar or the Habsburg emperor.To this point Austria had been content either to keep out the Russians or share the booty with them.", "She was now, moreover, in consequence of her misfortunes deprived of most of her influence in the councils of Europe.Wilhelm I, 1872 It was Andrassy who recovered for Austria her proper place in the European concert.", "First he approached the German emperor; then more satisfactory relations were established with the courts of Italy and Russia by means of conferences at Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and Venice.===The \"Andrássy Note\"===The recovered influence of Austria was evident in the negotiations which followed the outbreak of serious disturbances in Bosnia in 1875.The three courts of Vienna, Berlin and St Petersburg reached an understanding as to their attitude in the Eastern question, and their views were embodied in the dispatch, known as the \"Andrássy Note\", sent on 30 December 1875 by Andrássy to Count Beust, the Austrian ambassador to the Court of St James's.In it he pointed out that the efforts of the powers to localize the revolt seemed in danger of failure, that the rebels were still holding their own, and that the Ottoman promises of reform, embodied in various firmans, were no more than vague statements of principle which had never had, and were probably not intended to have, any local application.", "In order to avert the risk of a general conflagration, therefore, he urged that the time had come for concerted action of the powers for the purpose of pressing the Porte to fulfil its promises.A sketch of the more essential reforms followed: the recognition rather than the toleration of the Christian religion; the abolition of the system of farming the taxes; and, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the religious was complicated by an agrarian question, the conversion of the Christian peasants into free proprietors, to rescue them from their double subjection to the Muslim Ottoman landowners.In Bosnia and Herzegovina elected provincial councils were to be established, life-term judges appointed and individual liberties guaranteed.Finally, a mixed commission of Muslims and Christians was to be empowered to watch over the carrying out of these reforms.The fact that the sultan would be responsible to Europe for the realization of his promises would serve to allay the natural suspicions of the insurgents.", "To this plan both Britain and France gave a general assent, and the Andrássy Note was adopted as the basis of negotiations.When war became inevitable between Russia and the Porte, Andrássy arranged with the Russian court that, in case Russia prevailed, the status quo should not be changed to the detriment of the Austrian monarchy.", "When, however, the Treaty of San Stefano threatened a Russian hegemony in the Near East, Andrássy concurred with the German and British courts that the final adjustment of matters must be submitted to a European congress.Andrássy (in blue uniform centre) at the Congress of Berlin, 1878At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 he was the principal Austrian plenipotentiary, and directed his efforts to diminish the gains of Russia and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy.", "Before the Congress opened on 13 June, negotiations between Andrássy and the British Foreign Secretary Marquess of Salisbury had already \"ended on 6 June by Britain agreeing to all the Austrian proposals relative to Bosnia-Herzegovina about to come before the congress while Austria would support British demands\".In addition to the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Andrássy also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration.", "The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that \"would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence\".", "\"High Austro-Hungarian military authorities desired an ... immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective\".This occupation was most unpopular in Hungary, both for financial reasons and because of the strong pro-Turk sentiments of the Magyars.On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika.", "In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.", "The motion was lost by 179 to 95.By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy.On 10 October 1878 the French diplomat Melchior de Vogüé described the situation as follows:Particularly in Hungary the dissatisfaction caused by this \"adventure\" has reached the gravest proportions, prompted by that strong conservative instinct which animates the Magyar race and is the secret of its destinies.", "This vigorous and exclusive instinct explains the historical phenomenon of an isolated group, small in numbers yet dominating a country inhabited by a majority of peoples of different races and conflicting aspirations, and playing a role in European affairs out of all proportions to its numerical importance or intellectual culture.", "This instinct is to-day awakened and gives warning that it feels the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina to be a menace which, by introducing fresh Slav elements into the Hungarian political organism and providing a wider field and further recruitment of the Croat opposition, would upset the unstable equilibrium in which the Magyar domination is poised.Andrássy felt constrained to bow before the storm, and he placed his resignation in the emperor's hands (8 October 1879).", "The day before his retirement he signed the offensive-defensive alliance with Germany, which placed the foreign relations of Austria-Hungary once more on a stable footing." ], [ "Later life", "Gyula Andrássy (painting by Gyula Benczúr in 1884)After his retirement, Andrássy continued to take an active part in public affairs both in the Delegations and in the Upper House.", "In 1885 he warmly supported the project for the reform of the House of Magnates, but on the other hand he jealously defended the inviolability of the Composition of 1867, and on 5 March 1889 in his place in the Upper House spoke against any particularist tampering with the common army.", "In the last years of his life he regained his popularity, and his death on 18 February 1890, aged 66, was mourned as a national calamity.", "There is a plaque dedicated to him in the town of Volosko where he died (between Rijeka and Opatija in present-day Croatia).", "It is located just above the restaurant Amfora.He was the first Magyar statesman who, for centuries, had occupied a European position.", "It has been said that he united in himself the Magyar magnate with the modern gentleman.", "His motto was: \"It is hard to promise, but it is easy to perform.\"" ], [ "Family", "Andrássy married countess Katinka Kendeffy in Paris in 1856.They had two sons, Tivadar (born 10 July 1857) and Gyula (born 30 June 1860), and one daughter, Ilona (b.", "1858).Both sons gained distinction in Hungarian politics.", "Tivadar was elected vice-president of the Lower House of the Hungarian parliament in 1890.Gyula also had a successful political career.Count Gyula Andrássy's granddaughter, Klára, married the Hungarian nobleman and industrialist Prince Károly Odescalchi.Many rumors suggest that Count Andrássy had a long lasting romance with Elisabeth, Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary, also known as Sisi, the wife of Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria-Hungary.", "Some rumored that Sisi's fourth child, Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria, had been fathered by Andrassy.", "There is no evidence for this, and these rumors have all been proven to be false.", "The rumor may have evolved due to the devotion of both Sisi and Count Andrássy towards Hungary, its culture and national customs (she was fluent in Hungarian, and both regarded Hungarian poetry highly), and the amount of time they spent together in mutual pursuit of their dreams for Hungary.", "Additionally, as Marie Valerie grew up, her physical resemblance to her father Franz Josef became very marked.Count Andrássy had four granddaughters, Klára above, Borbála, married Marquis Pallavicini, Katalin married Count Mihály Károlyi and Ilona war widow of Prince Pál Esterházy, remarried Count József Cziráky." ], [ "Honors", "He received the following orders and decorations:" ], [ "See also", "Andrássy Castle" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ", vol.", "I* Andrássy, Gyula.", "''Bismarck, Andrássy and their successors'' (1927) by his son online to borrow free* Armour, Ian D. \"Apple of Discord: Austria-Hungary, Serbia and the Bosnian Question 1867-71.\"", "''Slavonic and East European Review'' 87#4 2009, pp.", "629–680.online* * Bridge, Francis Roy.", "''From Sadowa to Sarajevo: the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary, 1866-1914'' (2002).", "online* Burns, Charles Kellar Jr. \"The Balkan Policy of Count Gyula Andrássy\" (PhD dissertation, Rice U.", "1980) online* Decsy, János.", "''Prime Minister Gyula Andrássy Influence on Habsburg Foreign Policy: During the Franco-German War of 1870-1871'' (1979), 177pp* Diószegi, István; Friedrich, Albrecht.", "''Bismarck und Andrássy: Ungarn in der Deutschen Machtpolitik in der 2.Halfte des 19.Jahrhunderts'' (1999), 512pp.", "in German* Langer, William L. ''European Alliances and Alignments: 1871-1890'' (2nd ed.", "1950) online* Menczer, Béla.", "\"Count Julius Andrazzy, 1823-90,\" ''History Today'' (1969) 19#12 pp 823–831.", "* Tschuppik, Karl.", "''The reign of the Emperor Fransis Joseph'' (1930) online* Wank, Solomon.", "\"Foreign Policy and the Nationality Problem in Austria-Hungary, 1867–1914.\"", "''Austrian History Yearbook'' 3.3 (1967): 37–56." ], [ "External links", "* Andrássy's Speeches edited by Béla Léderer (Budapest, 1891)* Memoir by Benjamin Kállay (Budapest, 1891)* Eulogy in the ''Akadémiai Értesítő'', Évfolyam 14 (Budapest, 1891)* Recollections of Count Andrássy , by Manó Kónyi (Budapest, 1891)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Weizenbaum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Weizenbaum''' (8 January 1923 – 5 March 2008) was a German American computer scientist and a professor at MIT.", "The Weizenbaum Award and are named after him." ], [ "Life and career", "Born in Berlin, Germany to Jewish parents, he escaped Nazi Germany in January 1936, immigrating with his family to the United States.", "He started studying mathematics in 1941 at Wayne State University, in Detroit, Michigan.", "In 1942, he interrupted his studies to serve in the U.S. Army Air Corps as a meteorologist, having been turned down for cryptology work because of his \"enemy alien\" status.", "After the war, in 1946, he returned to Wayne State, obtaining his B.S.", "in Mathematics in 1948, and his M.S.", "in 1950.Around 1952, as a research assistant at Wayne, Weizenbaum worked on analog computers and helped create a digital computer.", "In 1956, he worked for General Electric on ERMA, a computer system that introduced the use of the magnetically encoded fonts imprinted on the bottom border of checks, allowing automated check processing via magnetic ink character recognition (MICR).In 1964 he took a position at MIT.", "In addition to working at MIT, Weizenbaum held academic appointments at Harvard, Stanford, the University of Bremen, and other universities." ], [ "Psychology simulation at MIT", "In 1966, he published a comparatively simple program called ELIZA, named after the ingenue in George Bernard Shaw's ''Pygmalion'', which could chat to the user.", "ELIZA was written in the SLIP programming language of Weizenbaum's own creation.", "The program applied pattern matching rules to statements to figure out its replies.", "(Programs like this are now called chatbots.)", "Driven by a script named DOCTOR, it was capable of engaging humans in a conversation which bore a striking resemblance to one with an empathic psychologist.", "Weizenbaum modeled its conversational style after Carl Rogers, who introduced the use of open-ended questions to encourage patients to communicate more effectively with therapists.", "He was shocked that his program was taken seriously by many users, who would open their hearts to it.", "Famously, when he was observing his secretary using the software - who was aware that it was a simulation - she asked Weizenbaum: \"would you mind leaving the room please?\".", "Many hailed the program as a forerunner of thinking machines, a misguided interpretation that Weizenbaum's later writing would attempt to correct." ], [ "Apprehensions about Artificial Intelligence", "He started to think philosophically about the implications of artificial intelligence and later became one of its leading critics.", "In an interview with MIT's ''The Tech'', Weizenbaum elaborated on his fears, expanding them beyond the realm of mere artificial intelligence, explaining that his fears for society and the future of society were largely because of the computer itself.", "His belief was that the computer, at its most base level, is a fundamentally conservative force and that despite being a technological innovation, it would end up hindering social progress.", "Weizenbaum used his experience working with Bank of America as justification for his reasoning, saying that the computer allowed banks to deal with an ever-expanding number of checks in play that otherwise would have forced drastic changes to banking organization such as decentralization.", "As such, although the computer allowed the industry to become more efficient, it prevented a fundamental re-haul of the system.Despite working so closely with computers for many years, Weizenbaum frequently worried about the negative effects they would have on the world, particularly with regards to the military, calling the computer \"a child of the military.\"", "When asked about the belief that a computer science professional would more often than not end up working with defense, Weizenbaum detailed his position on rhetoric, specifically euphemism, with regards to its effect on societal viewpoints.", "He believed that the terms \"the military\" and \"defense\" did not accurately represent the organizations and their actions.", "He made it clear that he did not think of himself as a pacifist, believing that there are certainly times where arms are necessary, but by referring to defense as killings and bombings, humanity as a whole would be less inclined to embrace violent reactions so quickly." ], [ "Difference between Deciding and Choosing", "His influential 1976 book ''Computer Power and Human Reason'' displays his ambivalence towards computer technology and lays out his case: the possibility of programming computers to perform one task or another that humans also perform (i.e., whether Artificial Intelligence is achievable or not) is irrelevant to the question of whether computers can be put to a given task.", "Instead, Weizenbaum asserts that the definition of tasks and the selection of criteria for their completion is a creative act that relies on human values, which cannot come from computers.", "Weizenbaum makes the crucial distinction between deciding and choosing.", "Deciding is a computational activity, something that can ultimately be programmed.", "Choice, however, is the product of judgment, not calculation.", "In deploying computers to make decisions that humans once made, the agent doing so has made a choice based on their values that will have particular, non-neutral consequences for the subjects who will experience the outcomes of the computerized decisions that the agent has instituted." ], [ "Personal life", "As of 1987, Weizenbaum had five children: one son from his first marriage and four daughters from his second.In 1996, Weizenbaum moved to Berlin and lived in the vicinity of his childhood neighborhood.Weizenbaum was buried at the Weißensee Jewish cemetery in Berlin.", "A memorial service was held in Berlin on 18 March 2008." ], [ "Legacy", "A German documentary film on Weizenbaum, \"Weizenbaum.", "Rebel at Work.", "\", was released in 2007 and later dubbed in English.", "The documentary film ''Plug & Pray'' on Weizenbaum and the ethics of artificial intelligence was released in 2010.The interdisciplinary German Internet Institute (Weizenbaum Institute for the Networked Society) was named after Joseph Weizenbaum." ], [ "Works", "* \"ELIZA — A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine,\" ''Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 9'' (1966): 36-45.", "* * * * * ''Islands in the Cyberstream: Seeking Havens of Reason in a Programmed Society'', Sacramento: Litwin Books, 2015 * Foreword to '' Renewal of the Social Organism'' by Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophic Press, 1985 (cloth) (pbk.)" ], [ "See also", "* Artificial intelligence and human dignity* Artificial Intelligence* Dialogue system* ELIZA effect* Psychology* Mike Cooley" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Joseph Weizenbaum: 1988 Winner of CPSR's Norbert Wiener Award for Professional and Social Responsibility* Obituary, ''The Independent'', 18 March 2008* Obituary, ''The Times'', 24 March 2008* Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11.11.2010 article about a documentary that was filmed shortly before his death* , contains names of spouse and children.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jerome" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerome''' (; ; ; – 30 September 420), also known as '''Jerome of Stridon''', was an early Christian priest, confessor, theologian, translator, and historian; he is commonly known as '''Saint Jerome'''.He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin (the translation that became known as the Vulgate) and his commentaries on the whole Bible.", "Jerome attempted to create a translation of the Old Testament based on a Hebrew version, rather than the Septuagint, as prior Latin Bible translations used.", "His list of writings is extensive.", "In addition to his biblical works he wrote polemical and historical essays, always from a theologian's perspective.Jerome was known for his teachings on Christian moral life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome.", "In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life.", "This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent senatorial families.Due to his work, Jerome is recognized as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Roman Catholic Church, and as a saint in the Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Church, and the Anglican Communion.", "His feast day is 30 September (Gregorian calendar)." ], [ "Early life", "Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus was born at Stridon around 342–347 AD.", "He was of Illyrian ancestry.", "He was not baptized until about 360–369 in Rome, where he had gone with his friend Bonosus of Sardica to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies.", "(This Bonosus may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic.)", "Jerome studied under the grammarian Aelius Donatus.", "There he learned Latin and at least some Greek, though he probably did not yet acquire the familiarity with Greek literature that he later claimed to have acquired as a schoolboy.As a student, Jerome engaged in the superficial escapades and sexual experimentation of students in Rome; he indulged himself quite casually but he suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards.", "To appease his conscience, on Sundays he visited the sepulchers of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs.", "This experience reminded him of the terrors of Hell:Often I would find myself entering those crypts, deep dug in the earth, with their walls on either side lined with the bodies of the dead, where everything was so dark that almost it seemed as though the Psalmist's words were fulfilled, Let them go down quick into Hell.", "Here and there the light, not entering in through windows, but filtering down from above through shafts, relieved the horror of the darkness.", "But again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Virgil, \"Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent\".St.", "Jerome in His Study'' (1480), by Domenico GhirlandaioHis quote from Virgil reads: \"On all sides round horror spread wide; the very silence breathed a terror on my soul\".=== Conversion to Christianity ===St Jerome in the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'' Although at first afraid of Christianity, he eventually converted.St.", "Jerome in the Desert'', by Giovanni Bellini (1505)Seized with a desire for a life of ascetic penance, Jerome went for a time to the desert of Chalcis, to the southeast of Antioch, known as the \"Syrian Thebaid\" from the number of eremites inhabiting it.", "During this period, he seems to have found time for studying and writing.", "He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under the guidance of a converted Jew; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch.", "Around this time he had copied for him a Hebrew Gospel, of which fragments are preserved in his notes.", "It is known today as the Gospel of the Hebrews which the Nazarenes considered to be the true Gospel of Matthew.", "Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek.=== Ministry in Rome ===As protégé of Pope Damasus I, Jerome was given duties in Rome, and he undertook a revision of the ''Vetus Latina'' Gospels based on Greek manuscripts.", "He also updated the Psalter containing the Book of Psalms then in use in Rome, based on the Septuagint.", "''Saint Jerome in His Study'', 1451, by Antonio da Fabriano II, shows writing implements, scrolls, and manuscripts testifying to Jerome's scholarly pursuits.", "The Walters Art Museum.Throughout his epistles he shows himself to be surrounded by women and united with close ties; it is estimated that 40% of his epistles were addressed to someone of the female sex and, at the time, he was criticized for it.Even in his time, Jerome noted Porphyry's accusation that the Christian communities were run by women and that the favor of the ladies decided who could accede to the dignity of the priesthood.In Rome, Jerome was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest patrician families.", "Among these women were such as the widows Lea, Marcella, and Paula, and Paula's daughters Blaesilla and Eustochium.", "The resulting inclination of these women towards the monastic life, away from the indulgent lasciviousness in Rome, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy of Rome, brought a growing hostility against him among the Roman clergy and their supporters.", "Soon after the death of his patron Pope Damasus I on 10 December 384, Jerome was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry was brought up by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had an improper relationship with the widow Paula.", "Still, his writings were highly regarded by women who were attempting to maintain vows of becoming consecrated virgins.", "His letters were widely read and distributed throughout the Christian empire and it is clear through his writing that he knew these virgin women were not his only audience.Additionally, Jerome's condemnation of Blaesilla's hedonistic lifestyle in Rome had led her to adopt ascetic practices, but it affected her health and worsened her physical weakness to the point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace were outraged at Jerome for causing the premature death of such a lively young woman.", "Additionally, his insistence to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned and complaints that her grief was excessive were seen as heartless, which further polarized Roman opinion against him.Saint Jerome in His Study'', by Niccolò Antonio Colantonio –46, depicts Jerome's removal of a thorn from a lion's paw." ], [ "Scholarly works", "===Translation of the Bible (382–405)===''Saint Jerome Writing'', by Caravaggio, 1607, at St John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, MaltaJerome was a scholar at a time when that statement implied a fluency in Greek.", "He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project, but moved to Jerusalem to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary.", "A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded Jerome's stay in a monastery in the nearby city of Bethlehem, where he settled next to the Church of the Nativity – built half a century prior on orders of Emperor Constantine over what was reputed to be the site of the Nativity of Jesus – and he completed his translation there.", "He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin-language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the ''Vetus Latina''.", "By 390 he turned to translating the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew, having previously translated portions from the Septuagint which came from Alexandria.", "He believed that the mainstream Rabbinical Judaism had rejected the Septuagint as invalid Jewish scriptural texts because of what were ascertained as mistranslations along with its Hellenistic heretical elements.", "He completed this work by 405.Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the Old Testament were based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew.", "Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of the previous-translated Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine, who thought the Septuagint inspired.", "Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge.", "Many modern scholars believe that the Greek Hexapla is the main source for Jerome's \"iuxta Hebraeos\" (i.e.", "\"close to the Hebrews\", \"immediately following the Hebrews\") translation of the Old Testament.", "However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist.=== Biblical onomastica ===Jerome also produced two onomastica:* ''Liber de Nominibus Hebraicis'', a list of names of people in the Bible and etymologies, based on a work attributed to Philo and expanded by Origen* A translation and expansion of the ''Onomasticon'' of Eusebius, listing and commenting on places mentioned in the Bible=== Commentaries (405–420) ===St Jerome in His Study by Antonello da Messina For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations.", "His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school.", "Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible \"Apocrypha\" and the ''Hebraica veritas'' of the protocanonical books.", "In his Vulgate's prologues, he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical (he called them ''apocrypha''); for Baruch, he mentions by name in his ''Prologue to Jeremiah'' and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or \"not in the canon\".", "His ''Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings'' (commonly called the ''Helmeted Preface'') includes the following statement:This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a \"helmeted\" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings.", "Wisdom, therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, and Judith, and Tobias, and the Shepherd are not in the canon.", "The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style.", "''Jerome in the desert, tormented by his memories of the dancing girls'', by Francisco de Zurbarán, 1639, Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe=== Historical and hagiographic writings ======= Description of vitamin A deficiency ====The following passage, taken from Jerome's ''Life of St. Hilarion'' which was written , appears to be the earliest account of the etiology, symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency:=== Letters ===Saint Jerome'' by Matthias Stom, 1635Jerome's letters or epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains.", "Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy, exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or debating his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics.", "(See Plowboy trope.)", "Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, we frequently find in his letters both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides the one to whom he was writing.Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life.", "As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices.", "''Francesco St Jerome'' by Jacopo Palma il Giovane, === Theological writings ===''The Virgin and Child with Saints Jerome and Nicholas of Tolentino'' by Lorenzo Lotto, 1522==== Eschatology ====Jerome in his study, made by the Flemish drawer de Bry.Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the \"synagogue of the Antichrist\".", "\"He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist,\" he wrote to Pope Damasus I.", "He believed that \"the mystery of iniquity\" written about by Paul in was already in action when \"every one chatters about his views.\"", "To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed.", "He warned a noblewoman of Gaul:He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near.", "Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ \"shall consume with the spirit of his mouth\".", "\"Woe unto them,\" he cries, \"that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days.\"", "... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun all parts of Gaul.", "The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and – alas!", "for the commonweal!", "– even Pannonians.His ''Commentary on Daniel'' was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry, who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC.", "Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and eleven was more complex.", "Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a \"type\" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus.", "Instead, he advocated that the \"little horn\" was the Antichrist:We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves.", "Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings.", "... After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor.In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', he noted, \"Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form.\"", "Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made \"himself out to be like God.", "\"Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel 2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Medes and Persians, Macedon, and Rome.", "Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as \"namely, the Lord and Savior\".Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus.", "He expected that at the end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared.Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3.The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia.===Reception by later Christianity===Statue of Saint Jerome, Church of St Catherine, BethlehemJerome is the second-most voluminous writer – after Augustine of Hippo (354–430) – in ancient Latin Christianity.", "The Catholic Church recognizes him as the patron saint of translators, librarians, and encyclopedists.Jerome translated many biblical texts into Latin from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek.", "His translations formed part of the ''Vulgate''; the ''Vulgate'' eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations of the Bible (the ''Vetus Latina'').", "The Council of Trent in 1546 declared the ''Vulgate'' authoritative \"in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and expositions\".Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation.", "He lived as an ascetic for 4~5 years in the Syrian desert, and later near Bethlehem for 34 years.", "Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship and his correspondence has great historical importance.The Church of England honours Jerome with a commemoration on 30 September." ], [ "In art", "Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome had tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw.", "The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles, or confusion with the exploits of Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is \"Geronimus\"); it is \"a figment\" found in the thirteenth-century ''Golden Legend'' by Jacobus de Voragine.", "Hagiographies of Jerome talk of his having spent many years in the Syrian desert, and artists often depict him in a \"wilderness\", which for West European painters can take the form of a wood.From the late Middle Ages, depictions of Jerome in a wider setting became popular.", "He is either shown in his study, surrounded by books and the equipment of a scholar, or in a rocky desert, or in a setting that combines both aspects, with him studying a book under the shelter of a rock-face or cave mouth.", "His study is often shown as large and well-provided for, he is often clean-shaven and well-dressed, and a cardinal's hat may appear.", "These images derive from the tradition of the evangelist portrait, though Jerome is often given the library and desk of a serious scholar.", "His attribute of the lion, often shown at a smaller scale, may be beside him in either setting.", "The subject of \"Jerome Penitent\" first appears in the later 15th century in Italy; he is usually in the desert, wearing ragged clothes, and often naked above the waist.", "His gaze is usually fixed on a crucifix and he may beat himself with his fist or a rock.Jerome is often depicted in connection with the ''vanitas'' motif, the reflection on the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transient nature of all earthly goods and pursuits.", "In the 16th century ''Saint Jerome in his study'' by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and workshop, the saint is depicted with a skull.", "Behind him on the wall is pinned an admonition, ''Cogita Mori'' (\"Think upon death\").", "Further reminders of the ''vanitas'' motif of the passage of time and the imminence of death are the image of the Last Judgment visible in the saint's Bible, the candle and the hourglass.Both Agostino Carracci and Domenichino portrayed Jerome's last communion.Jerome is also sometimes depicted with an owl, the symbol of wisdom and scholarship.", "Writing materials and the trumpet of final judgment are also part of his iconography.A four and three quarters foot tall limestone statue of Jerome was installed above the entrance of O’Shaughnessy Library on the campus of the University of St. Thomas (then College of St. Thomas) in St. Paul Minnesota in October 1950.The sculptor was Joseph Kiselewski and the stone carver was Egisto Bertozzi.File:Vatican Museums 2020 P31 Leonardo da Vinci Saint Jerome.jpg\|''Saint Jerome in the Wilderness'', Leonardo da Vinci, 1480–1490, Vatican MuseumsFile:St Jerome Penitent in the Wilderness - Rijksmuseum.jpg\|''Jerome Penitent in the Wilderness''.", "Copper engraving, Albrecht Dürer 1494–1498File:Saint Jerome in his Study.jpg\|''Hieronymus in Gehäus''.", "Copper engraving, Albrecht Dürer 1514File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä.", "- Der heilige Hieronymus (ca.1515, Mexico City).jpg\|''Saint Jerome in the Wilderness'' by Lucas Cranach the Elder File:St.Jerome MET.jpg\|''Saint Jerome'' Netherlandish stained glass window at MET.File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä.", "- Der heilige Hieronymus (ca.1525, Ferdinandeum).jpg\|Saint Jerome by Lucas Cranach the Elder, File:Workshop of Pieter Coecke van Aelst, the elder - Saint Jerome in His Study - Walters 37256.jpg\|''Saint Jerome in his study'', by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and Workshop, Walters Art MuseumFile:Gabriel Thaller; Sveti Jeronim i pavlini (18.st.", ").jpg\|''Saint Jerome and the Paulines'' painted by Gabriel Thaller in the St. Jerome Church in Štrigova, Međimurje County, northern Croatia (18th century)File:Jose Escada, S Jeronimo 1978.jpg\|Saint Hieronymus (1978), by Jose EscadaFile:Jacques Blanchard - Hl.", "Hieronymus.jpg\|Painting of Saint Jerome by Jacques Blanchard, 1632.File:Albrecht Dürer 035.jpg\|''St.", "Jerome in His Study'' by Albrecht Dürer, 1521" ], [ "See also", "* Androcles* Bible translations* Church Fathers* Eusebius of Cremona* Ferdinand Cavallera* Genesius of Arles* International Translation Day* Letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus* Order of St. Jerome* Prologus Galeatus* Pelagius* Synod of Diospolis" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* Andrew Cain and Josef Lössl, ''Jerome of Stridon: His Life, Writings and Legacy'' (London and New York, 2009)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ''Biblia Sacra Vulgata'' e.g.", "edition published Stuttgart, 1994, " ], [ "Further reading", " Saint Jerome, ''Three biographies: Malchus, St. Hilarion and Paulus the First Hermit Authored by Saint Jerome'', London, 2012.limovia.net." ], [ "External links", "* St. Jerome ( pdf ) from Fr.", "Alban Butler's ''Lives of the Saints''* The Life of St. Jerome, Priest, Confessor and Doctor of the Church* * Jewish Encyclopedia: Jerome* St. Jerome – Catholic Online* St Jerome (Hieronymus) of Stridonium Orthodox synaxarion* Further reading of depictions of Saint Jerome in art* Saint Jerome, Doctor of the Church at the Christian Iconography web site* Here Followeth the Life of Jerome from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend* Works of Saint Jerome at Somni ''Beati Hyeronimi Epistolarum liber'', digitized codex (1464) ''Epistole de santo Geronimo traducte di latino'', digitized codex (1475–1490) ''Hieronymi in Danielem'', digitized codex (1490) ''Sancti Hieronymi ad Pammachium in duodecim prophetas'', digitized codex (1470–1480)* Colonnade Statue in St Peter's Square* === Latin texts ===* Chronological list of Jerome's Works with modern editions and translations cited* ''Opera Omnia'' (Complete Works) from Migne edition (''Patrologia Latina'', 1844–1855) with analytical indexes, almost complete online edition* Lewis E 82 Vitae patrum (Lives of the Fathers) at OPenn* Lewis E 47 Bible Commentary at OPenn* ''Liber de Nominibus Hebraicis'', a list of names of people in the Bible and etymologies, based on a work attributed to Philo and expanded by Origen* A translation and expaansion of the Onomasticon of Eusebius, listing and commenting on places mentioned in the Bible==== Facsimiles ====* Migne volume 23 part 1 (1883 edition)* Migne volume 23 part 2 (1883 edition)* Migne volume 24 (1845 edition)* Migne volume 25 part 1 (1884 edition)* Migne volume 25 part 2 (1884 edition)* Migne volume 28 (1890 edition?", ")* Migne volume 30 (1865 edition)=== English translations ===* * English translations of Biblical Prefaces, Commentary on Daniel, Chronicle, and Letter 120 (tertullian.org)* Jerome's Letter to Pope Damasus: Preface to the Gospels* English translation of Jerome's ''De Viris Illustribus''* Translations of various works (letters, biblical prefaces, life of St. Hilarion, others) (under \"Jerome\")* ''Lives of Famous Men'' (CCEL)* Apology Against Rufinus (CCEL)* Letters, The Life of Paulus the First Hermit, The Life of S. Hilarion, The Life of Malchus, the Captive Monk, The Dialogue Against the Luciferians, The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary, Against Jovinianus, Against Vigilantius, To Pammachius against John of Jerusalem, Against the Pelagians, Prefaces (CCEL)* Audiobook of some of the letters" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "JPEG" ], [ "Introduction", "Continuously varied JPEG compression (between Q=100 and Q=1) for an abdominal CT scan'''JPEG''' ( , short for '''Joint Photographic Experts Group''') is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography.", "The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff between storage size and image quality.", "JPEG typically achieves 10:1 compression with little perceptible loss in image quality.", "Since its introduction in 1992, JPEG has been the most widely used image compression standard in the world, and the most widely used digital image format, with several billion JPEG images produced every day as of 2015.The Joint Photographic Experts Group created the standard in 1992.JPEG was largely responsible for the proliferation of digital images and digital photos across the Internet and later social media.", "JPEG compression is used in a number of image file formats.", "JPEG/Exif is the most common image format used by digital cameras and other photographic image capture devices; along with JPEG/JFIF, it is the most common format for storing and transmitting photographic images on the World Wide Web.", "These format variations are often not distinguished and are simply called JPEG.The MIME media type for JPEG is \"image/jpeg,\" except in older Internet Explorer versions, which provide a MIME type of \"image/pjpeg\" when uploading JPEG images.", "JPEG files usually have a filename extension of \"jpg\" or \"jpeg\".", "JPEG/JFIF supports a maximum image size of 65,535×65,535 pixels, hence up to 4 gigapixels for an aspect ratio of 1:1.In 2000, the JPEG group introduced a format intended to be a successor, JPEG 2000, but it was unable to replace the original JPEG as the dominant image standard." ], [ "History", "===Background===The original JPEG specification published in 1992 implements processes from various earlier research papers and patents cited by the CCITT (now ITU-T) and Joint Photographic Experts Group.", "The JPEG specification cites patents from several companies.", "The following patents provided the basis for its arithmetic coding algorithm.", "* IBM February 4, 1986 Kottappuram M. A. Mohiuddin and Jorma J. Rissanen Multiplication-free multi-alphabet arithmetic code February 27, 1990 G. Langdon, J. L. Mitchell, W. B. Pennebaker, and Jorma J. Rissanen Arithmetic coding encoder and decoder system** June 19, 1990 W. B. Pennebaker and J. L. Mitchell Probability adaptation for arithmetic coders* Mitsubishi Electric ( 1021672) January 21, 1989 Toshihiro Kimura, Shigenori Kino, Fumitaka Ono, Masayuki Yoshida Coding system ( 2-46275) February 26, 1990 Fumitaka Ono, Tomohiro Kimura, Masayuki Yoshida, and Shigenori Kino Coding apparatus and coding methodThe JPEG specification also cites three other patents from IBM.", "Other companies cited as patent holders include AT&T (two patents) and Canon Inc.", "Absent from the list is , filed by Compression Labs' Wen-Hsiung Chen and Daniel J. Klenke in October 1986.The patent describes a DCT-based image compression algorithm, and would later be a cause of controversy in 2002 (see ''Patent controversy'' below).", "However, the JPEG specification did cite two earlier research papers by Wen-Hsiung Chen, published in 1977 and 1984.===JPEG standard===\"JPEG\" stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, the name of the committee that created the JPEG standard and also other still picture coding standards.", "The \"Joint\" stood for ISO TC97 WG8 and CCITT SGVIII.", "Founded in 1986, the group developed the JPEG standard during the late 1980s.", "The group published the JPEG standard in 1992.In 1987, ISO TC 97 became ISO/IEC JTC 1 and, in 1992, CCITT became ITU-T.", "Currently on the JTC1 side, JPEG is one of two sub-groups of ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 29, Working Group 1 (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 29/WG 1) – titled as ''Coding of still pictures''.", "On the ITU-T side, ITU-T SG16 is the respective body.", "The original JPEG Group was organized in 1986, issuing the first JPEG standard in 1992, which was approved in September 1992 as '''ITU-T Recommendation T.81''' and, in 1994, as '''ISO/IEC 10918-1'''.The JPEG standard specifies the codec, which defines how an image is compressed into a stream of bytes and decompressed back into an image, but not the file format used to contain that stream.The Exif and JFIF standards define the commonly used file formats for interchange of JPEG-compressed images.JPEG standards are formally named as ''Information technology – Digital compression and coding of continuous-tone still images''.", "ISO/IEC 10918 consists of the following parts:+Digital compression and coding of continuous-tone still images – Parts Part ISO/IEC standard ITU-T Rec.", "First public release date Latest amendment Title Description Part 1 ISO/IEC 10918-1:1994 T.81 (09/92) Requirements and guidelines Part 2 ISO/IEC 10918-2:1995 T.83 (11/94) Compliance testing Rules and checks for software conformance (to Part 1).", "Part 3 ISO/IEC 10918-3:1997 T.84 (07/96) Extensions Set of extensions to improve the Part 1, including the '''Still Picture Interchange File Format''' (SPIFF).", "Part 4 ISO/IEC 10918-4:1999 T.86 (06/98) Registration of JPEG profiles, SPIFF profiles, SPIFF tags, SPIFF colour spaces, APPn markers, SPIFF compression types and Registration Authorities (REGAUT) methods for registering some of the parameters used to extend JPEG Part 5 ISO/IEC 10918-5:2013 T.871 (05/11) JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF) A popular format which has been the de facto file format for images encoded by the JPEG standard.", "In 2009, the JPEG Committee formally established an Ad Hoc Group to standardize JFIF as JPEG Part 5.Part 6 ISO/IEC 10918-6:2013 T.872 (06/12) Application to printing systems Specifies a subset of features and application tools for the interchange of images encoded according to the ISO/IEC 10918-1 for printing.Part 7 ISO/IEC 10918-7:2023 T.873 (06/21)May 2019November 2023Reference SoftwareProvides reference implementations of the JPEG core coding systemEcma International TR/98 specifies the JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF); the first edition was published in June 2009.===Patent controversy===In 2002, Forgent Networks asserted that it owned and would enforce patent rights on the JPEG technology, arising from a patent that had been filed on October 27, 1986, and granted on October 6, 1987: by Compression Labs' Wen-Hsiung Chen and Daniel J. Klenke.", "While Forgent did not own Compression Labs at the time, Chen later sold Compression Labs to Forgent, before Chen went on to work for Cisco.", "This led to Forgent acquiring ownership over the patent.", "Forgent's 2002 announcement created a furor reminiscent of Unisys' attempts to assert its rights over the GIF image compression standard.The JPEG committee investigated the patent claims in 2002 and were of the opinion that they were invalidated by prior art, a view shared by various experts.", "Between 2002 and 2004, Forgent was able to obtain about US$105 million by licensing their patent to some 30 companies.", "In April 2004, Forgent sued 31 other companies to enforce further license payments.", "In July of the same year, a consortium of 21 large computer companies filed a countersuit, with the goal of invalidating the patent.", "In addition, Microsoft launched a separate lawsuit against Forgent in April 2005.In February 2006, the United States Patent and Trademark Office agreed to re-examine Forgent's JPEG patent at the request of the Public Patent Foundation.", "On May 26, 2006, the USPTO found the patent invalid based on prior art.", "The USPTO also found that Forgent knew about the prior art, yet it intentionally avoided telling the Patent Office.", "This makes any appeal to reinstate the patent highly unlikely to succeed.Forgent also possesses a similar patent granted by the European Patent Office in 1994, though it is unclear how enforceable it is.As of October 27, 2006, the U.S. patent's 20-year term appears to have expired, and in November 2006, Forgent agreed to abandon enforcement of patent claims against use of the JPEG standard.The JPEG committee has as one of its explicit goals that their standards (in particular their baseline methods) be implementable without payment of license fees, and they have secured appropriate license rights for their JPEG 2000 standard from over 20 large organizations.Beginning in August 2007, another company, Global Patent Holdings, LLC claimed that its patent () issued in 1993, is infringed by the downloading of JPEG images on either a website or through e-mail.", "If not invalidated, this patent could apply to any website that displays JPEG images.", "The patent was under reexamination by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office from 2000 to 2007; in July 2007, the Patent Office revoked all of the original claims of the patent but found that an additional claim proposed by Global Patent Holdings (claim 17) was valid.", "Global Patent Holdings then filed a number of lawsuits based on claim 17 of its patent.In its first two lawsuits following the reexamination, both filed in Chicago, Illinois, Global Patent Holdings sued the Green Bay Packers, CDW, Motorola, Apple, Orbitz, Officemax, Caterpillar, Kraft and Peapod as defendants.", "A third lawsuit was filed on December 5, 2007, in South Florida against ADT Security Services, AutoNation, Florida Crystals Corp., HearUSA, MovieTickets.com, Ocwen Financial Corp. and Tire Kingdom, and a fourth lawsuit on January 8, 2008, in South Florida against the Boca Raton Resort & Club.", "A fifth lawsuit was filed against Global Patent Holdings in Nevada.", "That lawsuit was filed by Zappos.com, Inc., which was allegedly threatened by Global Patent Holdings, and sought a judicial declaration that the '341 patent is invalid and not infringed.Global Patent Holdings had also used the '341 patent to sue or threaten outspoken critics of broad software patents, including Gregory Aharonian and the anonymous operator of a website blog known as the \"Patent Troll Tracker.\"", "On December 21, 2007, patent lawyer Vernon Francissen of Chicago asked the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to reexamine the sole remaining claim of the '341 patent on the basis of new prior art.On March 5, 2008, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office agreed to reexamine the '341 patent, finding that the new prior art raised substantial new questions regarding the patent's validity.", "In light of the reexamination, the accused infringers in four of the five pending lawsuits have filed motions to suspend (stay) their cases until completion of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office's review of the '341 patent.", "On April 23, 2008, a judge presiding over the two lawsuits in Chicago, Illinois granted the motions in those cases.", "On July 22, 2008, the Patent Office issued the first \"Office Action\" of the second reexamination, finding the claim invalid based on nineteen separate grounds.", "On Nov. 24, 2009, a Reexamination Certificate was issued cancelling all claims.Beginning in 2011 and continuing as of early 2013, an entity known as Princeton Digital Image Corporation, based in Eastern Texas, began suing large numbers of companies for alleged infringement of .", "Princeton claims that the JPEG image compression standard infringes the '056 patent and has sued large numbers of websites, retailers, camera and device manufacturers and resellers.", "The patent was originally owned and assigned to General Electric.", "The patent expired in December 2007, but Princeton has sued large numbers of companies for \"past infringement\" of this patent.", "(Under U.S. patent laws, a patent owner can sue for \"past infringement\" up to six years before the filing of a lawsuit, so Princeton could theoretically have continued suing companies until December 2013.)", "As of March 2013, Princeton had suits pending in New York and Delaware against more than 55 companies.", "General Electric's involvement in the suit is unknown, although court records indicate that it assigned the patent to Princeton in 2009 and retains certain rights in the patent." ], [ "Typical use", "The JPEG compression algorithm operates at its best on photographs and paintings of realistic scenes with smooth variations of tone and color.", "For web usage, where reducing the amount of data used for an image is important for responsive presentation, JPEG's compression benefits make JPEG popular.", "JPEG/Exif is also the most common format saved by digital cameras.However, JPEG is not well suited for line drawings and other textual or iconic graphics, where the sharp contrasts between adjacent pixels can cause noticeable artifacts.", "Such images are better saved in a lossless graphics format such as TIFF, GIF, PNG, or a raw image format.", "The JPEG standard includes a lossless coding mode, but that mode is not supported in most products.As the typical use of JPEG is a lossy compression method, which reduces the image fidelity, it is inappropriate for exact reproduction of imaging data (such as some scientific and medical imaging applications and certain technical image processing work).JPEG is also not well suited to files that will undergo multiple edits, as some image quality is lost each time the image is recompressed, particularly if the image is cropped or shifted, or if encoding parameters are changed – see digital generation loss for details.", "To prevent image information loss during sequential and repetitive editing, the first edit can be saved in a lossless format, subsequently edited in that format, then finally published as JPEG for distribution." ], [ "JPEG compression", "JPEG uses a lossy form of compression based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT).", "This mathematical operation converts each frame/field of the video source from the spatial (2D) domain into the frequency domain (a.k.a.", "transform domain).", "A perceptual model based loosely on the human psychovisual system discards high-frequency information, i.e.", "sharp transitions in intensity, and color hue.", "In the transform domain, the process of reducing information is called quantization.", "In simpler terms, quantization is a method for optimally reducing a large number scale (with different occurrences of each number) into a smaller one, and the transform-domain is a convenient representation of the image because the high-frequency coefficients, which contribute less to the overall picture than other coefficients, are characteristically small-values with high compressibility.", "The quantized coefficients are then sequenced and losslessly packed into the output bitstream.", "Nearly all software implementations of JPEG permit user control over the compression ratio (as well as other optional parameters), allowing the user to trade off picture-quality for smaller file size.", "In embedded applications (such as miniDV, which uses a similar DCT-compression scheme), the parameters are pre-selected and fixed for the application.The compression method is usually lossy, meaning that some original image information is lost and cannot be restored, possibly affecting image quality.", "There is an optional lossless mode defined in the JPEG standard.", "However, this mode is not widely supported in products.There is also an interlaced ''progressive'' JPEG format, in which data is compressed in multiple passes of progressively higher detail.", "This is ideal for large images that will be displayed while downloading over a slow connection, allowing a reasonable preview after receiving only a portion of the data.", "However, support for progressive JPEGs is not universal.", "When progressive JPEGs are received by programs that do not support them (such as versions of Internet Explorer before Windows 7) the software displays the image only after it has been completely downloaded.There are also many medical imaging, traffic and camera applications that create and process 12-bit JPEG images both grayscale and color.", "12-bit JPEG format is included in an Extended part of the JPEG specification.", "The libjpeg codec supports 12-bit JPEG and there even exists a high-performance version.===Lossless editing===Several alterations to a JPEG image can be performed losslessly (that is, without recompression and the associated quality loss) as long as the image size is a multiple of 1 MCU block (Minimum Coded Unit) (usually 16 pixels in both directions, for 4:2:0 chroma subsampling).", "Utilities that implement this include:* jpegtran and its GUI, Jpegcrop.", "* IrfanView using \"JPG Lossless Crop (PlugIn)\" and \"JPG Lossless Rotation (PlugIn)\", which require installing the JPG_TRANSFORM plugin.", "* FastStone Image Viewer using \"Lossless Crop to File\" and \"JPEG Lossless Rotate\".", "* XnViewMP using \"JPEG lossless transformations\".", "* ACDSee supports lossless rotation (but not lossless cropping) with its \"Force lossless JPEG operations\" option.Blocks can be rotated in 90-degree increments, flipped in the horizontal, vertical and diagonal axes and moved about in the image.", "Not all blocks from the original image need to be used in the modified one.The top and left edge of a JPEG image must lie on an 8 × 8 pixel block boundary (or 16 × 16 pixel for larger MCU sizes), but the bottom and right edge need not do so.", "This limits the possible '''lossless crop''' operations, and also prevents flips and rotations of an image whose bottom or right edge does not lie on a block boundary for all channels (because the edge would end up on top or left, where – as aforementioned – a block boundary is obligatory).Rotations where the image is not a multiple of 8 or 16, which value depends upon the chroma subsampling, are not lossless.", "Rotating such an image causes the blocks to be recomputed which results in loss of quality.When using lossless cropping, if the bottom or right side of the crop region is not on a block boundary, then the rest of the data from the partially used blocks will still be present in the cropped file and can be recovered.", "It is also possible to transform between baseline and progressive formats without any loss of quality, since the only difference is the order in which the coefficients are placed in the file.Furthermore, several JPEG images can be losslessly joined, as long as they were saved with the same quality and the edges coincide with block boundaries." ], [ "JPEG files", "The file format known as \"JPEG Interchange Format\" (JIF) is specified in Annex B of the standard.", "However, this \"pure\" file format is rarely used, primarily because of the difficulty of programming encoders and decoders that fully implement all aspects of the standard and because of certain shortcomings of the standard:* Color space definition* Component sub-sampling registration* Pixel aspect ratio definition.Several additional standards have evolved to address these issues.", "The first of these, released in 1992, was the JPEG File Interchange Format (or JFIF), followed in recent years by Exchangeable image file format (Exif) and ICC color profiles.", "Both of these formats use the actual JIF byte layout, consisting of different ''markers'', but in addition, employ one of the JIF standard's extension points, namely the ''application markers'': JFIF uses APP0, while Exif uses APP1.Within these segments of the file that were left for future use in the JIF standard and are not read by it, these standards add specific metadata.Thus, in some ways, JFIF is a cut-down version of the JIF standard in that it specifies certain constraints (such as not allowing all the different encoding modes), while in other ways, it is an extension of JIF due to the added metadata.", "The documentation for the original JFIF standard states:Image files that employ JPEG compression are commonly called \"JPEG files\", and are stored in variants of the JIF image format.", "Most image capture devices (such as digital cameras) that output JPEG are actually creating files in the Exif format, the format that the camera industry has standardized on for metadata interchange.", "On the other hand, since the Exif standard does not allow color profiles, most image editing software stores JPEG in JFIF format, and also includes the APP1 segment from the Exif file to include the metadata in an almost-compliant way; the JFIF standard is interpreted somewhat flexibly.Strictly speaking, the JFIF and Exif standards are incompatible, because each specifies that its marker segment (APP0 or APP1, respectively) appear first.", "In practice, most JPEG files contain a JFIF marker segment that precedes the Exif header.", "This allows older readers to correctly handle the older format JFIF segment, while newer readers also decode the following Exif segment, being less strict about requiring it to appear first.===JPEG filename extensions===The most common filename extensions for files employing JPEG compression are '''.jpg''' and '''.jpeg''', though .jpe, .jfif and .jif are also used.", "It is also possible for JPEG data to be embedded in other file types – TIFF encoded files often embed a JPEG image as a thumbnail of the main image; and MP3 files can contain a JPEG of cover art in the ID3v2 tag.===Color profile===Many JPEG files embed an ICC color profile (color space).", "Commonly used color profiles include sRGB and Adobe RGB.", "Because these color spaces use a non-linear transformation, the dynamic range of an 8-bit JPEG file is about 11 stops; see gamma curve.If the image doesn't specify color profile information (''untagged''), the color space is assumed to be sRGB for the purposes of display on webpages." ], [ "Syntax and structure", "A JPEG image consists of a sequence of ''segments'', each beginning with a ''marker'', each of which begins with a 0xFF byte, followed by a byte indicating what kind of marker it is.", "Some markers consist of just those two bytes; others are followed by two bytes (high then low), indicating the length of marker-specific payload data that follows.", "(The length includes the two bytes for the length, but not the two bytes for the marker.)", "Some markers are followed by entropy-coded data; the length of such a marker does not include the entropy-coded data.", "Note that consecutive 0xFF bytes are used as fill bytes for padding purposes, although this fill byte padding should only ever take place for markers immediately following entropy-coded scan data (see JPEG specification section B.1.1.2 and E.1.2 for details; specifically \"In all cases where markers are appended after the compressed data, optional 0xFF fill bytes may precede the marker\").Within the entropy-coded data, after any 0xFF byte, a 0x00 byte is inserted by the encoder before the next byte, so that there does not appear to be a marker where none is intended, preventing framing errors.", "Decoders must skip this 0x00 byte.", "This technique, called byte stuffing (see JPEG specification section F.1.2.3), is only applied to the entropy-coded data, not to marker payload data.", "Note however that entropy-coded data has a few markers of its own; specifically the Reset markers (0xD0 through 0xD7), which are used to isolate independent chunks of entropy-coded data to allow parallel decoding, and encoders are free to insert these Reset markers at regular intervals (although not all encoders do this).+ Common JPEG markers Short name Bytes Payload Name Comments SOI 0xFF, 0xD8 ''none'' Start Of Image SOF0 0xFF, 0xC0 ''variable size'' Start Of Frame (baseline DCT) Indicates that this is a baseline DCT-based JPEG, and specifies the width, height, number of components, and component subsampling (e.g., 4:2:0).", "SOF2 0xFF, 0xC2 ''variable size'' Start Of Frame (progressive DCT) Indicates that this is a progressive DCT-based JPEG, and specifies the width, height, number of components, and component subsampling (e.g., 4:2:0).", "DHT 0xFF, 0xC4 ''variable size'' Define Huffman Table(s) Specifies one or more Huffman tables.", "DQT 0xFF, 0xDB ''variable size'' Define Quantization Table(s) Specifies one or more quantization tables.", "DRI 0xFF, 0xDD 4 bytes Define Restart Interval Specifies the interval between RST''n'' markers, in Minimum Coded Units (MCUs).", "This marker is followed by two bytes indicating the fixed size so it can be treated like any other variable size segment.", "SOS 0xFF, 0xDA ''variable size'' Start Of Scan Begins a top-to-bottom scan of the image.", "In baseline DCT JPEG images, there is generally a single scan.", "Progressive DCT JPEG images usually contain multiple scans.", "This marker specifies which slice of data it will contain, and is immediately followed by entropy-coded data.", "RST''n'' 0xFF, 0xD''n'' (''n''=0..7) ''none'' Restart Inserted every ''r'' macroblocks, where ''r'' is the restart interval set by a DRI marker.", "Not used if there was no DRI marker.", "The low three bits of the marker code cycle in value from 0 to 7.APP''n'' 0xFF, 0xE''n'' ''variable size'' Application-specific For example, an Exif JPEG file uses an APP1 marker to store metadata, laid out in a structure based closely on TIFF.", "COM 0xFF, 0xFE ''variable size'' Comment Contains a text comment.", "EOI 0xFF, 0xD9 ''none'' End Of ImageThere are other ''Start Of Frame'' markers that introduce other kinds of JPEG encodings.Since several vendors might use the same APP''n'' marker type, application-specific markers often begin with a standard or vendor name (e.g., \"Exif\" or \"Adobe\") or some other identifying string.At a restart marker, block-to-block predictor variables are reset, and the bitstream is synchronized to a byte boundary.", "Restart markers provide means for recovery after bitstream error, such as transmission over an unreliable network or file corruption.", "Since the runs of macroblocks between restart markers may be independently decoded, these runs may be decoded in parallel." ], [ "JPEG codec example", "Although a JPEG file can be encoded in various ways, most commonly it is done with JFIF encoding.", "The encoding process consists of several steps:# The representation of the colors in the image is converted from RGB to , consisting of one luma component (Y'), representing brightness, and two chroma components, (CB and CR), representing color.", "This step is sometimes skipped.# The resolution of the chroma data is reduced, usually by a factor of 2 or 3.This reflects the fact that the eye is less sensitive to fine color details than to fine brightness details.# The image is split into blocks of 8×8 pixels, and for each block, each of the Y, CB, and CR data undergoes the discrete cosine transform (DCT).", "A DCT is similar to a Fourier transform in the sense that it produces a kind of spatial frequency spectrum.# The amplitudes of the frequency components are quantized.", "Human vision is much more sensitive to small variations in color or brightness over large areas than to the strength of high-frequency brightness variations.", "Therefore, the magnitudes of the high-frequency components are stored with a lower accuracy than the low-frequency components.", "The quality setting of the encoder (for example 50 or 95 on a scale of 0–100 in the Independent JPEG Group's library) affects to what extent the resolution of each frequency component is reduced.", "If an excessively low quality setting is used, the high-frequency components are discarded altogether.# The resulting data for all 8×8 blocks is further compressed with a lossless algorithm, a variant of Huffman encoding.The decoding process reverses these steps, except the ''quantization'' because it is irreversible.", "In the remainder of this section, the encoding and decoding processes are described in more detail.===Encoding===Many of the options in the JPEG standard are not commonly used, and as mentioned above, most image software uses the simpler JFIF format when creating a JPEG file, which among other things specifies the encoding method.", "Here is a brief description of one of the more common methods of encoding when applied to an input that has 24 bits per pixel (eight each of red, green, and blue).", "This particular option is a lossy data compression method.====Color space transformation====First, the image should be converted from RGB (by default sRGB, but other color spaces are possible) into a different color space called (or, informally, YCbCr).", "It has three components Y', CB and CR: the Y' component represents the brightness of a pixel, and the CB and CR components represent the chrominance (split into blue and red components).", "This is basically the same color space as used by digital color television as well as digital video including video DVDs.", "The color space conversion allows greater compression without a significant effect on perceptual image quality (or greater perceptual image quality for the same compression).", "The compression is more efficient because the brightness information, which is more important to the eventual perceptual quality of the image, is confined to a single channel.", "This more closely corresponds to the perception of color in the human visual system.", "The color transformation also improves compression by statistical decorrelation.A particular conversion to is specified in the JFIF standard, and should be performed for the resulting JPEG file to have maximum compatibility.", "However, some JPEG implementations in \"highest quality\" mode do not apply this step and instead keep the color information in the RGB color model, where the image is stored in separate channels for red, green and blue brightness components.", "This results in less efficient compression, and would not likely be used when file size is especially important.====Downsampling====Due to the densities of color- and brightness-sensitive receptors in the human eye, humans can see considerably more fine detail in the brightness of an image (the Y' component) than in the hue and color saturation of an image (the Cb and Cr components).", "Using this knowledge, encoders can be designed to compress images more efficiently.The transformation into the color model enables the next usual step, which is to reduce the spatial resolution of the Cb and Cr components (called \"downsampling\" or \"chroma subsampling\").", "The ratios at which the downsampling is ordinarily done for JPEG images are 4:4:4 (no downsampling), 4:2:2 (reduction by a factor of 2 in the horizontal direction), or (most commonly) 4:2:0 (reduction by a factor of 2 in both the horizontal and vertical directions).", "For the rest of the compression process, Y', Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner.====Block splitting====After subsampling, each channel must be split into 8×8 blocks.", "Depending on chroma subsampling, this yields Minimum Coded Unit (MCU) blocks of size 8×8 (4:4:4 – no subsampling), 16×8 (4:2:2), or most commonly 16×16 (4:2:0).", "In video compression MCUs are called macroblocks.If the data for a channel does not represent an integer number of blocks then the encoder must fill the remaining area of the incomplete blocks with some form of dummy data.", "Filling the edges with a fixed color (for example, black) can create ringing artifacts along the visible part of the border;repeating the edge pixels is a common technique that reduces (but does not necessarily eliminate) such artifacts, and more sophisticated border filling techniques can also be applied.====Discrete cosine transform====The 8×8 sub-image shown in 8-bit grayscaleNext, each 8×8 block of each component (Y, Cb, Cr) is converted to a frequency-domain representation, using a normalized, two-dimensional type-II discrete cosine transform (DCT), see Citation 1 in discrete cosine transform.", "The DCT is sometimes referred to as \"type-II DCT\" in the context of a family of transforms as in discrete cosine transform, and the corresponding inverse (IDCT) is denoted as \"type-III DCT\".As an example, one such 8×8 8-bit subimage might be::Before computing the DCT of the 8×8 block, its values are shifted from a positive range to one centered on zero.", "For an 8-bit image, each entry in the original block falls in the range .", "The midpoint of the range (in this case, the value 128) is subtracted from each entry to produce a data range that is centered on zero, so that the modified range is .", "This step reduces the dynamic range requirements in the DCT processing stage that follows.This step results in the following values::The DCT transforms an 8×8 block of input values to a linear combination of these 64 patterns.", "The patterns are referred to as the two-dimensional DCT ''basis functions'', and the output values are referred to as ''transform coefficients''.", "The horizontal index is and the vertical index is .The next step is to take the two-dimensional DCT, which is given by::where* is the horizontal spatial frequency, for the integers .", "* is the vertical spatial frequency, for the integers .", "* is a normalizing scale factor to make the transformation orthonormal* is the pixel value at coordinates * is the DCT coefficient at coordinates If we perform this transformation on our matrix above, we get the following (rounded to the nearest two digits beyond the decimal point)::Note the top-left corner entry with the rather large magnitude.", "This is the DC coefficient (also called the constant component), which defines the basic hue for the entire block.", "The remaining 63 coefficients are the AC coefficients (also called the alternating components).", "The advantage of the DCT is its tendency to aggregate most of the signal in one corner of the result, as may be seen above.", "The quantization step to follow accentuates this effect while simultaneously reducing the overall size of the DCT coefficients, resulting in a signal that is easy to compress efficiently in the entropy stage.The DCT temporarily increases the bit-depth of the data, since the DCT coefficients of an 8-bit/component image take up to 11 or more bits (depending on fidelity of the DCT calculation) to store.", "This may force the codec to temporarily use 16-bit numbers to hold these coefficients, doubling the size of the image representation at this point; these values are typically reduced back to 8-bit values by the quantization step.", "The temporary increase in size at this stage is not a performance concern for most JPEG implementations, since typically only a very small part of the image is stored in full DCT form at any given time during the image encoding or decoding process.====Quantization====The human eye is good at seeing small differences in brightness over a relatively large area, but not so good at distinguishing the exact strength of a high frequency brightness variation.", "This allows one to greatly reduce the amount of information in the high frequency components.", "This is done by simply dividing each component in the frequency domain by a constant for that component, and then rounding to the nearest integer.", "This rounding operation is the only lossy operation in the whole process (other than chroma subsampling) if the DCT computation is performed with sufficiently high precision.", "As a result of this, it is typically the case that many of the higher frequency components are rounded to zero, and many of the rest become small positive or negative numbers, which take many fewer bits to represent.The elements in the quantization matrix control the compression ratio, with larger values producing greater compression.", "A typical quantization matrix (for a quality of 50% as specified in the original JPEG Standard), is as follows::The quantized DCT coefficients are computed with:where is the unquantized DCT coefficients; is the quantization matrix above; and is the quantized DCT coefficients.Using this quantization matrix with the DCT coefficient matrix from above results in:Left: a final image is built up from a series of basis functions.", "Right: each of the DCT basis functions that comprise the image, and the corresponding weighting coefficient.", "Middle: the basis function, after multiplication by the coefficient: this component is added to the final image.", "For clarity, the 8×8 macroblock in this example is magnified by 10x using bilinear interpolation.", ":For example, using −415 (the DC coefficient) and rounding to the nearest integer:Notice that most of the higher-frequency elements of the sub-block (i.e., those with an ''x'' or ''y'' spatial frequency greater than 4) are quantized into zero values.====Entropy coding====Zigzag ordering of JPEG image componentsEntropy coding is a special form of lossless data compression.", "It involves arranging the image components in a \"zigzag\" order employing run-length encoding (RLE) algorithm that groups similar frequencies together, inserting length coding zeros, and then using Huffman coding on what is left.The JPEG standard also allows, but does not require, decoders to support the use of arithmetic coding, which is mathematically superior to Huffman coding.", "However, this feature has rarely been used, as it was historically covered by patents requiring royalty-bearing licenses, and because it is slower to encode and decode compared to Huffman coding.", "Arithmetic coding typically makes files about 5–7% smaller.The previous quantized DC coefficient is used to predict the current quantized DC coefficient.", "The difference between the two is encoded rather than the actual value.", "The encoding of the 63 quantized AC coefficients does not use such prediction differencing.The zigzag sequence for the above quantized coefficients are shown below.", "(The format shown is just for ease of understanding/viewing.", "): −26 −3 0 −3 −2 −6 2 −4 1 −3 1 1 5 1 2 −1 1 −1 2 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0If the ''i''-th block is represented by and positions within each block are represented by where and , then any coefficient in the DCT image can be represented as .", "Thus, in the above scheme, the order of encoding pixels (for the -th block) is , , , , , , , and so on.", "''Baseline sequential'' JPEG encoding and decoding processesThis encoding mode is called baseline ''sequential'' encoding.", "Baseline JPEG also supports ''progressive'' encoding.", "While sequential encoding encodes coefficients of a single block at a time (in a zigzag manner), progressive encoding encodes similar-positioned batch of coefficients of all blocks in one go (called a ''scan''), followed by the next batch of coefficients of all blocks, and so on.", "For example, if the image is divided into N 8×8 blocks , then a 3-scan progressive encoding encodes DC component, for all blocks, i.e., for all , in first scan.", "This is followed by the second scan which encoding a few more components (assuming four more components, they are to , still in a zigzag manner) coefficients of all blocks (so the sequence is: ), followed by all the remained coefficients of all blocks in the last scan.Once all similar-positioned coefficients have been encoded, the next position to be encoded is the one occurring next in the zigzag traversal as indicated in the figure above.", "It has been found that ''baseline progressive'' JPEG encoding usually gives better compression as compared to ''baseline sequential'' JPEG due to the ability to use different Huffman tables (see below) tailored for different frequencies on each \"scan\" or \"pass\" (which includes similar-positioned coefficients), though the difference is not too large.In the rest of the article, it is assumed that the coefficient pattern generated is due to sequential mode.In order to encode the above generated coefficient pattern, JPEG uses Huffman encoding.", "The JPEG standard provides general-purpose Huffman tables; encoders may also choose to generate Huffman tables optimized for the actual frequency distributions in images being encoded.The process of encoding the zig-zag quantized data begins with a run-length encoding explained below, where:* is the non-zero, quantized AC coefficient.", "* ''RUNLENGTH'' is the number of zeroes that came before this non-zero AC coefficient.", "* ''SIZE'' is the number of bits required to represent .", "* ''AMPLITUDE'' is the bit-representation of .The run-length encoding works by examining each non-zero AC coefficient and determining how many zeroes came before the previous AC coefficient.", "With this information, two symbols are created:: Symbol 1 Symbol 2 (RUNLENGTH, SIZE) (AMPLITUDE)Both ''RUNLENGTH'' and ''SIZE'' rest on the same byte, meaning that each only contains four bits of information.", "The higher bits deal with the number of zeroes, while the lower bits denote the number of bits necessary to encode the value of .This has the immediate implication of ''Symbol 1'' being only able store information regarding the first 15 zeroes preceding the non-zero AC coefficient.", "However, JPEG defines two special Huffman code words.", "One is for ending the sequence prematurely when the remaining coefficients are zero (called \"End-of-Block\" or \"EOB\"), and another when the run of zeroes goes beyond 15 before reaching a non-zero AC coefficient.", "In such a case where 16 zeroes are encountered before a given non-zero AC coefficient, ''Symbol 1'' is encoded \"specially\" as: (15, 0)(0).The overall process continues until \"EOB\" denoted by (0, 0) is reached.With this in mind, the sequence from earlier becomes::(0, 2)(-3);(1, 2)(-3);(0, 1)(-2);(0, 2)(-6);(0, 1)(2);(0, 1)(-4);(0, 1)(1);(0, 2)(-3);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(1);:(0, 2)(5);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(2);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(1);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(2);(5, 1)(-1);(0, 1)(-1);(0, 0);(The first value in the matrix, −26, is the DC coefficient; it is not encoded the same way.", "See above.", ")From here, frequency calculations are made based on occurrences of the coefficients.", "In our example block, most of the quantized coefficients are small numbers that are not preceded immediately by a zero coefficient.", "These more-frequent cases will be represented by shorter code words.===Compression ratio and artifacts===This image shows the pixels that are different between a non-compressed image and the same image JPEG compressed with a quality setting of 50.Darker means a larger difference.", "Note especially the changes occurring near sharp edges and having a block-like shape.The original imageThe compressed 8×8 squares are visible in the scaled-up picture, together with other visual artifacts of the lossy compression.The resulting compression ratio can be varied according to need by being more or less aggressive in the divisors used in the quantization phase.", "Ten to one compression usually results in an image that cannot be distinguished by eye from the original.", "A compression ratio of 100:1 is usually possible, but will look distinctly artifacted compared to the original.", "The appropriate level of compression depends on the use to which the image will be put.Those who use the World Wide Web may be familiar with the irregularities known as compression artifacts that appear in JPEG images, which may take the form of noise around contrasting edges (especially curves and corners), or \"blocky\" images.", "These are due to the quantization step of the JPEG algorithm.", "They are especially noticeable around sharp corners between contrasting colors (text is a good example, as it contains many such corners).", "The analogous artifacts in MPEG video are referred to as ''mosquito noise,'' as the resulting \"edge busyness\" and spurious dots, which change over time, resemble mosquitoes swarming around the object.These artifacts can be reduced by choosing a lower level of compression; they may be completely avoided by saving an image using a lossless file format, though this will result in a larger file size.", "The images created with ray-tracing programs have noticeable blocky shapes on the terrain.", "Certain low-intensity compression artifacts might be acceptable when simply viewing the images, but can be emphasized if the image is subsequently processed, usually resulting in unacceptable quality.", "Consider the example below, demonstrating the effect of lossy compression on an edge detection processing step.", "Image Lossless compression Lossy compression Original 100px 100px Processed byCanny edge detector 100px 100pxSome programs allow the user to vary the amount by which individual blocks are compressed.", "Stronger compression is applied to areas of the image that show fewer artifacts.", "This way it is possible to manually reduce JPEG file size with less loss of quality.Since the quantization stage ''always'' results in a loss of information, JPEG standard is always a lossy compression codec.", "(Information is lost both in quantizing and rounding of the floating-point numbers.)", "Even if the quantization matrix is a matrix of ones, information will still be lost in the rounding step.===Decoding===Decoding to display the image consists of doing all the above in reverse.Taking the DCT coefficient matrix (after adding the difference of the DC coefficient back in):and taking the entry-for-entry product with the quantization matrix from above results in:which closely resembles the original DCT coefficient matrix for the top-left portion.The next step is to take the two-dimensional inverse DCT (a 2D type-III DCT), which is given by:where* is the pixel row, for the integers .", "* is the pixel column, for the integers .", "* is the normalizing scale factor defined earlier, for the integers .", "* is the approximated DCT coefficient at coordinates * is the reconstructed pixel value at coordinates Rounding the output to integer values (since the original had integer values) results in an image with values (still shifted down by 128):and adding 128 to each entry:This is the decompressed subimage.", "In general, the decompression process may produce values outside the original input range of .", "If this occurs, the decoder needs to clip the output values so as to keep them within that range to prevent overflow when storing the decompressed image with the original bit depth.The decompressed subimage can be compared to the original subimage (also see images to the right) by taking the difference (original − uncompressed) results in the following error values::with an average absolute error of about 5 values per pixels (i.e., ).The error is most noticeable in the bottom-left corner where the bottom-left pixel becomes darker than the pixel to its immediate right.===Required precision===The required implementation precision of a JPEG codec is implicitly defined through the requirements formulated for compliance to the JPEG standard.", "These requirements are specified in ITU.T Recommendation T.83 \| ISO/IEC 10918-2.Unlike MPEG standards and many later JPEG standards, the above document defines both required implementation precisions for the encoding and the decoding process of a JPEG codec by means of a maximal tolerable error of the forwards and inverse DCT in the DCT domain as determined by reference test streams.", "For example, the output of a decoder implementation must not exceed an error of one quantization unit in the DCT domain when applied to the reference testing codestreams provided as part of the above standard.", "While unusual, and unlike many other and more modern standards, ITU.T T.83 \| ISO/IEC 10918-2 does not formulate error bounds in the image domain." ], [ "Effects of JPEG compression", "JPEG compression artifacts blend well into photographs with detailed non-uniform textures, allowing higher compression ratios.", "Notice how a higher compression ratio first affects the high-frequency textures in the upper-left corner of the image, and how the contrasting lines become more fuzzy.", "The very high compression ratio severely affects the quality of the image, although the overall colors and image form are still recognizable.", "However, the precision of colors suffer less (for a human eye) than the precision of contours (based on luminance).", "This justifies the fact that images should be first transformed in a color model separating the luminance from the chromatic information, before subsampling the chromatic planes (which may also use lower quality quantization) in order to preserve the precision of the luminance plane with more information bits.===Sample photographs===Visual impact of a jpeg compression on Photoshop on a picture of 4480x4480 pixelsFor information, the uncompressed 24-bit RGB bitmap image below (73,242 pixels) would require 219,726 bytes (excluding all other information headers).", "The filesizes indicated below include the internal JPEG information headers and some metadata.", "For highest quality images (Q=100), about 8.25 bits per color pixel is required.", "On grayscale images, a minimum of 6.5 bits per pixel is enough (a comparable Q=100 quality color information requires about 25% more encoded bits).", "The highest quality image below (Q=100) is encoded at nine bits per color pixel, the medium quality image (Q=25) uses one bit per color pixel.", "For most applications, the quality factor should not go below 0.75 bit per pixel (Q=12.5), as demonstrated by the low quality image.", "The image at lowest quality uses only 0.13 bit per pixel, and displays very poor color.", "This is useful when the image will be displayed in a significantly scaled-down size.", "A method for creating better quantization matrices for a given image quality using PSNR instead of the Q factor is described in Minguillón & Pujol (2001).", ":: Note: The above images are not IEEE / CCIR / EBU test images, and the encoder settings are not specified or available.", "Image Quality Size (bytes) Compression ratio Comment 120px Highest quality (Q = 100) 81,447 2.7:1 Extremely minor artifacts 120px High quality (Q = 50) 14,679 15:1 Initial signs of subimage artifacts 120px Medium quality (Q = 25) 9,407 23:1 Stronger artifacts; loss of high frequency information 120px Low quality (Q = 10) 4,787 46:1 Severe high frequency loss leads to obvious artifacts on subimage boundaries (\"macroblocking\") 120px Lowest quality (Q = 1) 1,523 144:1 Extreme loss of color and detail; the leaves are nearly unrecognizable.The medium quality photo uses only 4.3% of the storage space required for the uncompressed image, but has little noticeable loss of detail or visible artifacts.", "However, once a certain threshold of compression is passed, compressed images show increasingly visible defects.", "See the article on rate–distortion theory for a mathematical explanation of this threshold effect.", "A particular limitation of JPEG in this regard is its non-overlapped 8×8 block transform structure.", "More modern designs such as JPEG 2000 and JPEG XR exhibit a more graceful degradation of quality as the bit usage decreases – by using transforms with a larger spatial extent for the lower frequency coefficients and by using overlapping transform basis functions." ], [ "Lossless further compression", "From 2004 to 2008, new research emerged on ways to further compress the data contained in JPEG images without modifying the represented image.", "This has applications in scenarios where the original image is only available in JPEG format, and its size needs to be reduced for archiving or transmission.", "Standard general-purpose compression tools cannot significantly compress JPEG files.Typically, such schemes take advantage of improvements to the naive scheme for coding DCT coefficients, which fails to take into account:* Correlations between magnitudes of adjacent coefficients in the same block;* Correlations between magnitudes of the same coefficient in adjacent blocks;* Correlations between magnitudes of the same coefficient/block in different channels;* The DC coefficients when taken together resemble a downscale version of the original image multiplied by a scaling factor.", "Well-known schemes for lossless coding of continuous-tone images can be applied, achieving somewhat better compression than the Huffman coded DPCM used in JPEG.Some standard but rarely used options already exist in JPEG to improve the efficiency of coding DCT coefficients: the arithmetic coding option, and the progressive coding option (which produces lower bitrates because values for each coefficient are coded independently, and each coefficient has a significantly different distribution).", "Modern methods have improved on these techniques by reordering coefficients to group coefficients of larger magnitude together; using adjacent coefficients and blocks to predict new coefficient values; dividing blocks or coefficients up among a small number of independently coded models based on their statistics and adjacent values; and most recently, by decoding blocks, predicting subsequent blocks in the spatial domain, and then encoding these to generate predictions for DCT coefficients.Typically, such methods can compress existing JPEG files between 15 and 25 percent, and for JPEGs compressed at low-quality settings, can produce improvements of up to 65%.A freely available tool called packJPG is based on the 2007 paper \"Improved Redundancy Reduction for JPEG Files.\"", "As of version 2.5k of 2016, it reports a typical 20% reduction by transcoding.", "JPEG XL (ISO/IEC 18181) of 2018 reports a similar reduction in its transcoding." ], [ "Derived formats for stereoscopic 3D", "===JPEG Stereoscopic===An example of a stereoscopic .JPS fileJPS is a stereoscopic JPEG image used for creating 3D effects from 2D images.", "It contains two static images, one for the left eye and one for the right eye; encoded as two side-by-side images in a single JPG file.JPEG Stereoscopic (JPS, extension .jps) is a JPEG-based format for stereoscopic images.", "It has a range of configurations stored in the JPEG APP3 marker field, but usually contains one image of double width, representing two images of identical size in cross-eyed (i.e.", "left frame on the right half of the image and vice versa) side-by-side arrangement.", "This file format can be viewed as a JPEG without any special software, or can be processed for rendering in other modes.===JPEG Multi-Picture Format===JPEG Multi-Picture Format (MPO, extension .mpo) is a JPEG-based format for storing multiple images in a single file.", "It contains two or more JPEG files concatenated together.", "It also defines a JPEG APP2 marker segment for image description.", "Various devices use it to store 3D images, such as Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W1, HTC Evo 3D, JVC GY-HMZ1U AVCHD/MVC extension camcorder, Nintendo 3DS, Panasonic Lumix DMC-TZ20, DMC-TZ30, DMC-TZ60, DMC-TS4 (FT4), and Sony DSC-HX7V.", "Other devices use it to store \"preview images\" that can be displayed on a TV.In the last few years, due to the growing use of stereoscopic images, much effort has been spent by the scientific community to develop algorithms for stereoscopic image compression." ], [ "Implementations", "A very important implementation of a JPEG codec is the free programming library ''libjpeg'' of the Independent JPEG Group.", "It was first published in 1991 and was key for the success of the standard.", "This library was used in countless applications.", "The development went quiet in 1998; when libjpeg resurfaced with the 2009 version 7, it broke ABI compatibility with previous versions.", "Version 8 of 2010 introduced non-standard extensions, a decision criticized by the original IJG leader Tom Lane.", "''libjpeg-turbo'', forked from the 1998 libjpeg 6b, improves on libjpeg with SIMD optimizations.", "Originally seen as a maintained fork of libjpeg, it has become more popular after the incompatible changes of 2009.In 2019, it became the ITU\|ISO/IEC reference implementation as ISO/IEC 10918-7 and ITU-T T.873.ISO/IEC Joint Photography Experts Group maintains the other reference software implementation under the JPEG XT heading.", "It can encode both base JPEG (ISO/IEC 10918-1 and 18477–1) and JPEG XT extensions (ISO/IEC 18477 Parts 2 and 6–9), as well as JPEG-LS (ISO/IEC 14495).There is persistent interest in encoding JPEG in unconventional ways that maximize image quality for a given file size.", "In 2014, Mozilla created mozjpeg from libjpeg-turbo, a slower but higher-quality encoder intended for web images.", "In 2016, \"JPEG on steroids\" was introduced as an option for the ISO JPEG XT reference implementation.", "In March 2017, Google released the open source project Guetzli, which trades off a much longer encoding time for smaller file size (similar to what Zopfli does for PNG and other lossless data formats)." ], [ "Successors", "The Joint Photographic Experts Group has developed several newer standards meant to complement or replace the functionality of the original JPEG format.=== JPEG LS ===Originating in 1993 and published as ISO-14495-1/ITU-T.87, JPEG LS offers a low-complexity lossless file format which was more efficient than JPEG's original lossless implementation.", "It also features a lossy mode close to lossless.", "Its functionality is largely limited to that, and largely shares the same limitations of the original JPEG in other aspects.=== JPEG 2000 ===JPEG 2000 was published as ISO/IEC 15444 in December 2000.It is based on a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and was designed to completely replace the original JPEG standard and exceed it in every way.", "It allows up to 38 bits per colour channel and 16384 channels, more than any other format, with a multitude of colour spaces, and thus high dynamic range (HDR).", "Furthermore it supports alpha transparency coding, billions-by-billions pixel images, which is also more than any other format, and lossless compression.", "It has significantly improved lossy compression ratio with significantly less visible artefacts at strong compression levels.", "=== JPEG XT ===JPEG XT (ISO/IEC 18477) was published in June 2015; it extends base JPEG format with support for higher integer bit depths (up to 16 bit), high dynamic range imaging and floating-point coding, lossless coding, and alpha channel coding.", "Extensions are backward compatible with the base JPEG/JFIF file format and 8-bit lossy compressed image.", "JPEG XT uses an extensible file format based on JFIF.", "Extension layers are used to modify the JPEG 8-bit base layer and restore the high-resolution image.", "Existing software is forward compatible and can read the JPEG XT binary stream, though it would only decode the base 8-bit layer.=== JPEG XL ===JPEG XL (ISO/IEC 18181) was published in 2021–2022.It replaces the JPEG format with a new DCT-based royalty-free format and allows efficient transcoding as a storage option for traditional JPEG images.", "The new format is designed to exceed the still image compression performance shown by HEVC HM, Daala and WebP.", "It supports billion-by-billion pixel images, up to 32-bit-per-component high dynamic range with the appropriate transfer functions (PQ and HLG), patch encoding of synthetic images such as bitmap fonts and gradients, animated images, alpha channel coding, and a choice of RGB/YCbCr/ICtCp color encoding." ], [ "See also", "* Better Portable Graphics, a format based on intra-frame encoding of the HEVC* C-Cube, an early implementer of JPEG in chip form* Comparison of graphics file formats* Deblocking filter (video), the similar deblocking methods could be applied to JPEG* Design rule for Camera File system (DCF)* FELICS, a lossless image codec* File extensions* Graphics editing program* High Efficiency Image File Format, image container format for HEVC and other image coding formats* Lenna (test image), the traditional standard image used to test image processing algorithms* Motion JPEG* WebP" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * JPEG Standard (JPEG ISO/IEC 10918-1 ITU-T Recommendation T.81) at W3.org* JFIF File Format at W3.org* Example images over the full range of quantization levels from 1 to 100 at visengi.com* JPEG decoder open source code, copyright (C) 1995–1997, Thomas G. Lane" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Severn" ], [ "Introduction", "Joseph Severn (self-portrait)'''Joseph Severn''' (7 December 1793 – 3 August 1879) was an English portrait and subject painter and a personal friend of the English poet John Keats.", "He exhibited portraits, Italian genre, literary and biblical subjects, and a selection of his paintings can today be found in some of the most important museums in London, including the National Portrait Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum and Tate Britain." ], [ "Background", "The eldest son of a music teacher, Severn was born at Hoxton, near London, and apprenticed at the age of 14 to William Bond, an engraver.", "Severn was one of seven children; two of his brothers, Thomas (1801–1881) and Charles (1806–1894), became professional musicians, and Severn himself was an adroit pianist.", "During his early years he practised portraiture as a miniaturist." ], [ "Early years in London 1815-1820", "John Keats by Severn 1819In 1815, he was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in London and exhibited his first work in oil, ''Hermia and Helena'', a subject from ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', along with a portrait miniature, \"J. Keats, Esq\", in the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1819.He probably first met the poet John Keats in the spring of 1816.In 1819, Severn was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Academy for his painting ''Una and the Red Cross Knight in the Cave of Despair'' which was inspired by the epic poem The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser.", "It was the first time the prize had been awarded in eight years and the painting was exhibited at the Academy in 1820.This award also allowed Severn to apply for a three years' traveling studentship, paid for by the Royal Academy.", "The painting was purchased by Lord Houghton, the first biographer of Keats; although it was recorded sold by Christie's in June 1963, it has since disappeared from public view and there are no reproductions of it in the public domain.According to a new edition of Severn's letters and memoirs, Severn fathered an illegitimate child named Henry (b.", "31 Aug 1819) about a year before leaving England for Italy.", "In 1826 there were plans for father and son to reunite, but Henry died, aged 11, before he could make the journey to Rome." ], [ "Journey to Italy with John Keats, 1820–1821", "Shelley Writing Prometheus Unbound'' (1845) On 17 September 1820, Severn set sail onboard the ''Maria Crowther'' from England to Italy with the famous English poet John Keats.", "Keats and Severn had known one another in England, but they were only passing acquaintances.", "Yet it was Severn who agreed to accompany the poet to Rome when all others could, or would, not.", "The trip was intended to cure Keats's lingering illness, which he suspected was tuberculosis; however, his friends and several doctors disagreed and urged him to spend some time in a warm climate.", "After a harrowing voyage, they arrived in the Bay of Naples on 21 October, only to be placed in quarantine for ten days.", "The two men remained in Naples for a week before heading off to Rome in a small carriage, where they arrived mid-November 1820 and met Keats's physician, Dr. James Clark.", "In Rome they lived in an apartment at number 26 Piazza di Spagna, just at the bottom right of the Spanish Steps and overlooking Bernini's famous Barcaccia fountain.Severn had left England against his father's wishes and with little money.", "In fact, his father was so incensed by his departure that, as Severn reported in a late memoir, \"in his insane rage he struck me a blow which fell me to the ground.\"", "He was never to see his father again.", "While in Rome during the winter of 1820-21, Severn wrote numerous letters about Keats to their mutual friends in England, in particular William Haslam and Charles Armitage Brown, who then shared them with other members of the Keats circle, including the poet's fiancée, Fanny Brawne.", "These journal-letters now represent the only surviving account of the poet's final months and as a consequence are used as the primary historical source for biographers of Keats's last days.Edward John Trelawny, by SevernSevern nursed Keats until his death on 23 February 1821, three months after they had arrived in Rome.", "As he reported to John Taylor two weeks afterwards, \"Each day he would look up in the doctors face to discover how long he should live -- he would say -- \"how long will this posthumous life of mine last\"—that look was more than we could ever bear—the extreme brightness of his eyes—with his poor pallid face—were not earthly --\" Severn's ordeal was recognized by Keats himself, who, a month before his death, said, \"Severn I can see under your quiet look -- immense twisting and contending -- you dont know what you are reading -- you are induring for me more than I'd have you -- O!", "that my last hour was come --\" He was later thanked for his devotion by the poet Percy B. Shelley in the preface to his elegy, Adonais, which was written for Keats in 1821.It was also at this time that Severn met, among other notables, the sculptors John Gibson and Antonio Canova, and Lord Byron's friend, the adventurer Edward John Trelawny.", "Severn made a sketch of Trelawny in 1838." ], [ "Life and work after the death of Keats", "Until recently, it was believed that Severn's life culminated in his association with Keats and that he lived on this fame for the rest of his long life.", "In reality, Severn launched his own successful artistic career soon after Keats died, becoming a versatile painter in Rome during the 1820s and 1830s.", "He painted miniatures and altarpieces, landscapes and frescoes, historical and religious scenes, and subjects from the Bible, Greek mythology and Shakespeare.", "His pictures of Italian peasant life and pastoral genre scenes became very popular with British visitors on the continent and generated multiple commissions for his work.Severn was also instrumental in helping to found the British Academy of the Fine Arts in Rome, which drew the support of such influential figures as the Duke of Devonshire, John Flaxman and Sir Thomas Lawrence.", "Severn's spacious apartment in the Via di San Isidoro became the busy center of Academy life.", "Among those who joined the academy were Charles Eastlake, Richard Westmacott (the younger), William Bewick and Thomas Uwins.", "Perhaps the most dedicated patron of Severn's work in the 1830s was William Gladstone, who was drawn to Severn more for his reputation as a painter than as Keats's friend.On his return to England in 1841 Severn fell on hard times, trying desperately to earn enough money to support his growing family by painting portraits.", "Although he was never able to match his early artistic success in Rome and eventually had to flee his creditors for the Isle of Jersey in 1853, between 1819 and 1857, Severn exhibited 53 paintings at the Royal Academy in London.In 1861, Severn was appointed British Consul in Rome during the ferment over Italian unification.", "A few months before his arrival Garibaldi had seized the Kingdom of Naples, and all of Southern Italy and Sicily had been annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy.", "Many of the kingdoms, principalities and dukedoms in the Italian peninsula had come together under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel II, but Rome and its surroundings remained as the rump of the Papal States.", "This was the case throughout the majority of Severn's tenure as Consul, as Pope Pius IX managed to retain a fragile hold on power, relying on a garrison of French troops to control Rome.", "Although the official position of the British government on \"The Roman Question\" was neutrality and nonintervention, Severn often took diplomatic action that his superiors viewed as exceeding his mandate as Consul.", "On several occasions, such as when he used his office to liberate Italian political prisoners in 1864, he was rebuked by the Foreign Office.", "His knowledge of the Italian language and his affability and good humour, however, often helped in mediating between the papal regime and the British government.", "He welcomed British visitors to Rome, such as Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning, telling them about the time he nursed Keats, and he was able on many occasions to offer advice and protection for British visitors who found themselves in awkward scrapes.", "He eventually retired as Consul in 1872.Mary" ], [ "Marriage and family", "In 1828 Severn married Elizabeth Montgomerie, the natural (i.e.", "illegitimate) daughter of Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773–1814) and the ward of Lady Westmoreland, one of the artist's patrons in Rome.", "Together they had seven children, three of whom became noteworthy artists: Walter and Arthur Severn, and Ann Mary Newton, who married the archeologist and Keeper of Antiquities at the British Museum, Charles Thomas Newton.", "Mary had a successful painting career in England, supporting the family for a time and executing a number of portraits of the Royal Family.", "Her early death from measles at the age of 32 affected Severn.", "In 1871, Arthur Severn married Joan Ruskin Agnew, a cousin of the Victorian art and social critic John Ruskin.", "The Severns had another child, Arthur, who died as an infant in a crib accident.", "He is buried between Keats and Severn in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome." ], [ "Death", "Protestant Cemetery in Rome.", "Severn's tombstone is on the right.", "Severn's stele is ornamented with a palette in low relief, and Keats' with a lyre.Severn died on 3 August 1879 at the age of 85, and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery alongside John Keats.", "Both gravestones are still standing today.", "Shelley and Trelawny are also buried side by side in the same cemetery." ], [ "Paintings", "Severn is best known for his many portraits of Keats, the most famous being the miniature portrait in The Fitzwilliam Museum (1819), the pen-and-ink sketch, ''Keats on his Deathbed'' (1821), in the Keats-Shelley house, Rome, and the oil painting of the poet reading, ''John Keats at Wentworth Place'' (1821–23), in the National Portrait Gallery.", "A later painting, ''Keats, at Hampstead, when he first imagined his Ode to a Nightingale'' (1849), now at Keats House, is also notable.", "In the 1860s Severn produced a number of copies and memory portraits as Keats's reputation continued to grow.", "The most influential of Severn's early Italian genre paintings are ''The Vintage'', commissioned by the Duke of Bedford in 1825, and ''The Fountain'' (Royal Palace, Brussels) commissioned by Leopold I of Belgium in 1826.The latter picture likely influenced J. M. W. Turner's major work, ''The View of Orvieto''.", "One of his most remarkably inventive works is the ''Rime of the Ancient Mariner'' (1839) based on Samuel Coleridge's famous poem, which recently sold at Sotheby's for £32,400.Another historical subject, ''The Abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots'', sold for £115,250 at Sotheby's Gleneagles sale on 26 August 2008.Severn also painted such works as ''Cordelia Watching by the Bed of Lear'', ''Shepherds in the Campagna'', ''Shelley Composing Prometheus Unbound'', ''Isabella and the Pot of Basil'', ''Portia with the Casket'', ''Ariel'', ''Rienzi'', ''The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon'', a large altarpiece for the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, and many portraits of statesman and aristocrats, including Baron Bunsen and William Gladstone.", "The last picture he exhibited at the Royal Academy was a scene from Oliver Goldsmith's ''The Deserted Village'' in 1857.", "'''Links to images and descriptions of Severn's drawings and paintings'''* A slideshow of paintings by Severn on the Art UK website* Portraits by Severn at the National Portrait Gallery, London* The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon at Tate Britain, London* Ariel at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London* Ariel: 'Where the Bee Sucks... at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London* Keats on his Deathbed at the Keats-Shelley house, Rome* Severn's original miniature of Keats, painted in 1819 at The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge* Supposed portrait of Keats, attributed to Severn at The New Art Gallery, Walsall* Portrait of John Crossley of Scaitcliffe at the Christchurch Art Gallery, Christchurch, New Zealand * Ariel riding on a Bat at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford* Sketches by Severn at Wake Forest University, North Carolina'''Results of Severn's paintings sold at public auction'''* Portrait of John Keats sold at Bonhams auction house in October 2005 for £21,600* A lady painting in her album sold at Bonhams auction house in November 2006 for £7,767* Ophelia auctioned at Sotheby's auction house in November 2011* Odalisque sold at Sotheby's auction house in November 2006 for £14,400 * Rime of the Ancient Mariner sold at Sotheby's auction house in October 2006 for £32,400 * Italian peasants on the Campagna sold at Sotheby's auction house in October 2006 for £12,000 * The Abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots sold at Sotheby's auction house in August 2008 for £115,250" ], [ "Biographies and books", "In 1892 the first significant collection of Severn's papers was published by William Sharp in ''The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn''.", "Modern critics have cast doubt on the accuracy of Sharp's transcriptions and noted important omissions and embellishments.In 1965, Sheila Birkenhead published ''Illustrious Friends: The story of Joseph Severn and his son Arthur''.In 2005, Grant F. Scott published ''Joseph Severn: Letters and Memoirs'' in which he re-edited the original material, added hundreds of newly discovered letters, included numerous reproductions of Severn's paintings, and prefaced this material with a critical introduction and commentary.In 2009, Sue Brown published the biography ''Joseph Severn, A Life: The Rewards of Friendship'' using Scott's new information to provide a reassessment of Severn's character, his friendship with Keats, and his own subsequent artistic and diplomatic career." ], [ "Notes", "Joseph Severn (from a drawing by his daughter Mary, 1849)" ], [ "References", "William Sharp, ''The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn'' (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1892)Sheila Birkenhead, ''Against Oblivion: The Life of Joseph Severn'' (London: Cassell, 1943)Noel Blakiston, ''The Roman Question: Extracts from the Despatches of Odo Russell from Rome 1858-1870'' (London: Chapman Hall, 1962)Cecelia Powell, ''Turner in the South: Rome, Naples, Florence'' (New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1987)Grant F. Scott, ed.", "''Joseph Severn: Letters and Memoirs'' (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005)Grant F. Scott and Sue Brown, ed.", "''New Letters from Charles Brown to Joseph Severn'' (College Park, Maryland: Romantic Circles, 2007; revised 2010) Grant F. Scott, \"New Severn Letters and Paintings: An Update with Corrections,\" ''Keats-Shelley Journal'' 58 (2009): 114-138.", "Sue Brown, ''Joseph Severn, A Life: The Rewards of Friendship'' (London: Oxford UP, 2009)" ], [ "Further reading", "Hyder E. Rollins, ed.", "''The Keats Circle: Letters and Papers 1816-1878'' (Cambridge, MA.", ": Harvard UP, 1948; rev.", "ed.", "1965)Cecil Roberts, ''The Remarkable Young Man'' (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1954)Sheila Birkenhead, ''Illustrious Friends: The Story of Joseph Severn and His Son Arthur'' (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1965)Noel Blakiston, \"Joseph Severn, Consul in Rome, 1861-1871,\" ''History Today'' 18 (May 1968): 326-336.", "Sue Brown, \"Fresh Light on the Friendship of Charles Brown and Joseph Severn,\" ''Keats-Shelley Review'' 18 (2004): 138-148.", "Sue Brown, \"The Friend of Keats: The Reinvention of Joseph Severn,\" in Eugene Stelzig, ed., ''Romantic Autobiography'' (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2009)Grant F. Scott, \"After Keats: The Return of Joseph Severn to England in 1838,\" ''Romanticism on the Net'' 40 (November 2005).", "Grant F. Scott, \"Sacred Relics: A Discovery of New Severn Letters,\" ''European Romantic Review'' 16:3 (2005): 283-295." ], [ "External links", "* Website of the Keats Shelley house museum in Rome, Italy where Severn lived 1820-1821* Website of the Non Catholic cemetery in Rome, Italy where both Severn and Keats graves still stand today* Transcripts of some of Severn's letters about Keats* Detailed history about Severn and Keats in the years 1819-1821* Guardian newspaper article on Grant F. Scott's new book about Severn* \"'Once More the Poet': Keats, Severn and the Grecian Lyre\".", "Article by John Curtis Franklin about Severn's role in the design of Keats's tombstone, Protestant Cemetery, Rome* * Joseph Severn in the Keats Collection at the Houghton Library, Harvard University* Joseph Severn at the National Archives, London" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 19" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 379 – Emperor Gratian elevates Flavius Theodosius at Sirmium to ''Augustus'', and gives him authority over all the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.", "* 649 – Conquest of Kucha: The forces of Kucha surrender after a forty-day siege led by Tang dynasty general Ashina She'er, establishing Tang control over the northern Tarim Basin in Xinjiang.", "1419 – Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England, completing his reconquest of Normandy.", "1511 – The Italian Duchy of Mirandola surrenders to the Pope.", "1520 – Sten Sture the Younger, the Regent of Sweden, is mortally wounded at the Battle of Bogesund and dies on February 3.===1601–1900===1607 – San Agustin Church in Manila is officially completed; it is the oldest church still standing in the Philippines.", "1639 – Hämeenlinna () is granted privileges after it separated from the Vanaja parish as its own city in Tavastia.", "1764 – John Wilkes is expelled from the British House of Commons for seditious libel.", "1764 – Bolle Willum Luxdorph records in his diary that a mail bomb, possibly the world's first, has severely injured the Danish Colonel Poulsen, residing at Børglum Abbey.", "1788 – The second group of ships of the First Fleet arrive at Botany Bay.", "1795 – The Batavian Republic is proclaimed in the Netherlands, replacing the Dutch Republic.", "1817 – An army of 5,423 soldiers, led by General José de San Martín, crosses the Andes from Argentina to liberate Chile and then Peru.", "1829 – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's ''Faust: The First Part of the Tragedy'' receives its premiere performance.", "1839 – The British East India Company captures Aden.", "1853 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera ''Il trovatore'' receives its premiere performance in Rome.", "1861 – American Civil War: Georgia joins South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, and Alabama in declaring secession from the United States.", "1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Mill Springs: The Confederacy suffers its first significant defeat in the conflict.", "1871 – Franco-Prussian War: In the Siege of Paris, Prussia wins the Battle of St. Quentin.", "Meanwhile, the French attempt to break the siege in the Battle of Buzenval will end unsuccessfully the following day.", "1883 – The first electric lighting system employing overhead wires, built by Thomas Edison, begins service at Roselle, New Jersey.", "1899 – Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is formed.===1901–present===1901 – Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom, stricken with paralysis.", "She dies three days later at the age of 81.", "1915 – Georges Claude patents the neon discharge tube for use in advertising.", "* 1915 – German strategic bombing during World War I: German zeppelins bomb the towns of Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn in the United Kingdom killing at least 20 people, in the first major aerial bombardment of a civilian target.", "1917 – Silvertown explosion: A blast at a munitions factory in London kills 73 and injures over 400.The resulting fire causes over £2,000,000 worth of damage.", "1920 – The United States Senate votes against joining the League of Nations.", "* 1920 – The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is founded.", "1937 – Howard Hughes sets a new air record by flying from Los Angeles to New York City in seven hours, 28 minutes, 25 seconds.", "1941 – World War II: and other escorts of convoy AS-12 sink Italian submarine with all hands northeast of Falkonera.", "1942 – World War II: The Japanese conquest of Burma begins.", "1945 – World War II: Soviet forces liberate the Łódź Ghetto.", "Of more than 200,000 inhabitants in 1940, fewer than 900 had survived the Nazi occupation.", "1946 – General Douglas MacArthur establishes the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo to try Japanese war criminals.", "1953 – Almost 72 percent of all television sets in the United States are tuned into ''I Love Lucy'' to watch Lucy give birth.", "1960 – Japan and the United States sign the US–Japan Mutual Security Treaty 1960 – Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 871 crashes near Ankara Esenboğa Airport in Turkey, killing all 42 aboard.", "1969 – Student Jan Palach dies after setting himself on fire three days earlier in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest about the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union in 1968.His funeral turns into another major protest.", "1977 – President Gerald Ford pardons Iva Toguri D'Aquino (a.k.a.", "\"Tokyo Rose\").", "1978 – The last Volkswagen Beetle made in Germany leaves VW's plant in Emden.", "Beetle production in Latin America continues until 2003.", "1981 – Iran hostage crisis: United States and Iranian officials sign an agreement to release 52 American hostages after 14 months of captivity.", "1983 – The Apple Lisa, the first commercial personal computer from Apple to have a graphical user interface and a computer mouse, is announced.", "1986 – The first IBM PC computer virus is released into the wild.", "A boot sector virus dubbed (c)Brain, it was created by the Farooq Alvi Brothers in Lahore, Pakistan, reportedly to deter unauthorized copying of the software they had written.", "1988 – Trans-Colorado Airlines Flight 2286 crashes in Bayfield, Colorado, killing nine.", "1990 – Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir valley in Indian-administered Kashmir due to an insurgency.", "1991 – Gulf War: Iraq fires a second Scud missile into Israel, causing 15 injuries.", "1993 – Czech Republic and Slovakia join the United Nations.", "1995 – After being struck by lightning the crew of Bristow Helicopters Flight 56C are forced to ditch.", "All 18 aboard are later rescued.", "1996 – The barge ''North Cape'' oil spill occurs as an engine fire forces the tugboat ''Scandia'' ashore on Moonstone Beach in South Kingstown, Rhode Island.", "1997 – Yasser Arafat returns to Hebron after more than 30 years and joins celebrations over the handover of the last Israeli-controlled West Bank city.", "1999 – British Aerospace agrees to acquire the defence subsidiary of the General Electric Company, forming BAE Systems in November 1999.", "2006 – A Slovak Air Force Antonov An-24 crashes near Hejce, Hungary, killing 42.", "2007 – Turkish-Armenian journalist Hrant Dink is assassinated in front of his newspaper's Istanbul office by 17-year-old Turkish ultra-nationalist Ogün Samast.", "* 2007 – Four-man Team N2i, using only skis and kites, completes a trek to reach the Antarctic pole of inaccessibility for the first time since 1965 and for the first time ever without mechanical assistance.", "2012 – The Hong Kong-based file-sharing website Megaupload is shut down by the FBI.", "2014 – A bomb attack on an army convoy in the city of Bannu kills at least 26 Pakistani soldiers and injures 38 others.", "* 2024 – The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's probe landed on the moon, making Japan the 5th country to land a spacecraft on the moon." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 399 – Pulcheria, Byzantine empress and saint (d. 453)1200 – Dōgen Zenji, founder of Sōtō Zen (d. 1253)1544 – Francis II of France (d. 1560)===1601–1900===1617 – Lucas Faydherbe, Flemish sculptor and architect (d. 1697)1628 – Charles Stanley, 8th Earl of Derby, English noble (d. 1672)1676 – John Weldon, English organist and composer (d. 1736)1721 – Jean-Philippe Baratier, German scholar and author (d. 1740)1736 – James Watt, Scottish chemist and engineer (d. 1819)1737 – Giuseppe Millico, Italian soprano, composer, and educator (d. 1802)1739 – Joseph Bonomi the Elder, Italian architect, designed Longford Hall and Barrells Hall (d. 1808)1752 – James Morris III, American captain (d. 1820)1757 – Countess Augusta Reuss of Ebersdorf (d. 1831)1788 – Pavel Kiselyov, Russian general and politician (d. 1874)1790 – Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom, Swedish poet and academic (d. 1855)1798 – Auguste Comte, French economist, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1857)1803 – Sarah Helen Whitman, American poet, essayist, and romantic interest of Edgar Allan Poe (d. 1878)1807 – Robert E. Lee, American Confederate general (d. 1870)1808 – Lysander Spooner, American philosopher and author (d. 1887)1809 – Edgar Allan Poe, American short story writer, poet, and critic (d. 1849)1810 – Talhaiarn, Welsh poet and architect (d. 1869)1813 – Henry Bessemer, English engineer and businessman (d. 1898)1832 – Ferdinand Laub, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1875)1833 – Alfred Clebsch, German mathematician and academic (d. 1872)1839 – Paul Cézanne, French painter (d. 1906)1848 – Arturo Graf, Italian poet, of German ancestry (d.", "1913).", "* 1848 – John Fitzwilliam Stairs, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1904)* 1848 – Matthew Webb, English swimmer and diver (d. 1883)1851 – Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer and academic (d. 1922)1852 – Thomas Price, Welsh-Australian politician, 24th Premier of South Australia (d. 1909)1863 – Werner Sombart, German economist and sociologist (d. 1941)1866 – Harry Davenport, American stage and film actor (d. 1949)1871 – Dame Gruev, Bulgarian educator and activist, co-founded the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (d. 1906)1874 – Hitachiyama Taniemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 19th Yokozuna (d. 1922)1876 – Wakashima Gonshirō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 21st Yokozuna (d. 1943) 1876 – Dragotin Kette, Slovenian poet and author (d. 1899)1878 – Herbert Chapman, English footballer and manager (d. 1934)1879 – Boris Savinkov, Russian soldier and author (d. 1925)1882 – John Cain Sr., Australian politician, 34th Premier of Victoria (d. 1957)1883 – Hermann Abendroth, German conductor (d. 1956)1887 – Alexander Woollcott, American actor, playwright, and critic (d. 1943)1889 – Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Swiss painter and sculptor (d. 1943)1892 – Ólafur Thors, Icelandic lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1964)1893 – Magda Tagliaferro, Brazilian pianist and educator (d. 1986)===1901–present===1901 – Dunc Munro, Scottish-Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1958)1903 – Boris Blacher, German composer and playwright (d. 1975)1905 – Stanley Hawes, English-Australian director and producer (d. 1991)1907 – Briggs Cunningham, American race car driver, sailor, and businessman (d. 2003)1908 – Ish Kabibble, American comedian and cornet player (d. 1994) 1908 – Aleksandr Gennadievich Kurosh, Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1971)1911 – Choor Singh, Indian-Singaporean lawyer and judge (d. 2009)1912 – Leonid Kantorovich, Russian mathematician and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)1913 – Rex Ingamells, Australian author and poet (d. 1955) 1913 – Rudolf Wanderone, American professional pocket billiards player (d. 1996)1918 – John H. Johnson, American publisher, founded the Johnson Publishing Company (d. 2005)1920 – Bernard Dunstan, English painter and educator (d. 2017)* 1920 – Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peruvian politician and diplomat, 135th Prime Minister of Peru (d. 2020)1921 – Patricia Highsmith, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1995)1922 – Guy Madison, American actor (d. 1996)* 1922 – Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (d. 2015)* 1922 – Miguel Muñoz, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 1990)1923 – Bob McFadden, American singer, impressionist, and voice-over actor (d. 2000) 1923 – Jean Stapleton, American actress and singer (d. 2013)1924 – Nicholas Colasanto, American actor and director (d. 1985) 1924 – Jean-François Revel, French philosopher (d. 2006)1925 – Nina Bawden, English author (d. 2012)1926 – Hans Massaquoi, German-American journalist and author (d. 2013)* 1926 – Fritz Weaver, American actor (d. 2016)1930 – Tippi Hedren, American model, actress, and animal rights-welfare activist 1930 – John Waite, South African cricketer (d. 2011)1931 – Robert MacNeil, Canadian-American journalist and author1932 – Russ Hamilton, English singer-songwriter (d. 2008)* 1932 – Richard Lester, American-English director, producer, and screenwriter* 1932 – Harry Lonsdale, American chemist, businessman, and politician (d. 2014)1933 – George Coyne, American priest, astronomer, and theologian (d. 2020)1934 – John Richardson, English actor (d. 2021)1935 – Johnny O'Keefe, Australian singer-songwriter (d. 1978)1936 – Fred J. Lincoln, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)* 1936 – Ziaur Rahman, Bangladeshi general and politician, seventh President of Bangladesh (d. 1981)* 1936 – Willie \"Big Eyes\" Smith, American singer, harmonica player, and drummer (d. 2011)1937 – Princess Birgitta of Sweden 1937 – John Lions, Australian computer scientist and academic (d. 1998)1939 – Phil Everly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014)1940 – Paolo Borsellino, Italian lawyer and judge (d. 1992)1941 – Tony Anholt, British actor (d. 2002) 1941 – Colin Gunton, English theologian and academic (d. 2003)* 1941 – Pat Patterson, Canadian wrestler, trainer, and referee (d. 2020)1942 – Michael Crawford, English actor and singer1943 – Larry Clark, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1943 – Janis Joplin, American singer-songwriter (d. 1970)* 1943 – Princess Margriet of the Netherlands1944 – Shelley Fabares, American actress and singer 1944 – Thom Mayne, American architect and academic, designed the San Francisco Federal Building and Phare Tower* 1944 – Dan Reeves, American football player and coach (d. 2022)1945 – Trevor Williams, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1946 – Julian Barnes, English novelist, short story writer, essayist, and critic* 1946 – Dolly Parton, American singer-songwriter and actress1947 – Frank Aarebrot, Norwegian political scientist and academic (d. 2017) 1947 – Paula Deen, American chef and author* 1947 – Rod Evans, English singer-songwriter1948 – Nancy Lynch, American computer scientist and academic 1948 – Frank McKenna, Canadian politician and diplomat, 27th Premier of New Brunswick* 1948 – Mal Reilly, English rugby league player and coach1949 – Arend Langenberg, Dutch voice actor and radio host (d. 2012) 1949 – Robert Palmer, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)1950 – Sébastien Dhavernas, Canadian actor1951 – Martha Davis, American singer1952 – Dewey Bunnell, English-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Nadiuska, German television actress* 1952 – Bruce Jay Nelson, American computer scientist (d. 1999)1953 – Desi Arnaz Jr., American actor and singer 1953 – Richard Legendre, Canadian tennis player and politician* 1953 – Wayne Schimmelbusch, Australian footballer and coach1954 – Katey Sagal, American actress and singer 1954 – Cindy Sherman, American photographer and director* 1954 – Esther Shkalim, Israeli poet and Mizrahi feminist1955 – Simon Rattle, English-German orchestral conductor1956 – Carman, American singer-songwriter, actor, and television host (d. 2021)* 1956 – Susan Solomon, American atmospheric chemist1957 – Ottis Anderson, American football player and sportscaster 1957 – Roger Ashton-Griffiths, English actor, screenwriter and film director* 1957 – Kenneth McClintock, Puerto Rican public servant and politician, 22nd Secretary of State of Puerto Rico1958 – Thomas Kinkade, American painter (d. 2012)1959 – Danese Cooper, American computer scientist and programmer* 1959 – Jeff Pilson, American bass player, songwriter, and actor1961 – Paul McCrane, American actor, director, and singer 1961 – Wayne Hemingway, English fashion designer, co-founded Red or Dead* 1961 – William Ragsdale, American actor1962 – Hans Daams, Dutch cyclist 1962 – Chris Sabo, American baseball player and coach* 1962 – Jeff Van Gundy, American basketball player and coach1963 – Michael Adams, American basketball player and coach 1963 – Martin Bashir, English journalist* 1963 – John Bercow, English politician, Speaker of the House of Commons1964 – Janine Antoni, Bahamian sculptor and photographer 1964 – Ricardo Arjona, Guatemalan singer-songwriter and basketball player1966 – Sylvain Côté, Canadian ice hockey player 1966 – Stefan Edberg, Swedish tennis player and coach* 1966 – Lena Philipsson, Swedish singer-songwriter1968 – David Bartlett, Australian politician, 43rd Premier of Tasmania 1968 – Whitfield Crane, American singer-songwriter1969 – Edwidge Danticat, Haitian-American novelist and short story writer 1969 – Luc Longley, Australian basketball player and coach* 1969 – Trey Lorenz, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1969 – Predrag Mijatović, Montenegrin footballer and manager* 1969 – Junior Seau, American football player (d. 2012)* 1969 – Steve Staunton, Irish footballer and manager1970 – Steffen Freund, German footballer and manager 1970 – Kathleen Smet, Belgian triathlete* 1970 – Udo Suzuki, Japanese comedian and singer1971 – Phil Nevin, American baseball player 1971 – Shawn Wayans, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1971 – John Wozniak, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1972 – Drea de Matteo, American actress 1972 – Yoon Hae-young, South Korean actress* 1972 – R-Truth, American wrestler and rapper* 1972 – Troy Wilson, Australian footballer and race car driver* 1972 – Sergei Zjukin, Estonian chess player and coach1973 – Antero Manninen, Finnish cellist 1973 – Yevgeny Sadovyi, Russian swimmer and coach1974 – Dainius Adomaitis, Lithuanian basketball player and coach 1974 – Frank Caliendo, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter* 1974 – Walter Jones, American football player* 1974 – Ian Laperrière, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach* 1974 – Jaime Moreno, Bolivian footballer and manager1975 – Natalie Cook, Australian volleyball player 1975 – Zdeňka Málková, Czech tennis player1976 – Natale Gonnella, Italian footballer 1976 – Tarso Marques, Brazilian race car driver* 1976 – Drew Powell, American actor* 1976 – Marsha Thomason, English actress1977 – Benjamin Ayres, Canadian actor, director, and photographer1979 – Svetlana Khorkina, Russian gymnast and sportscaster* 1979 – Byung-hyun Kim, South Korean baseball player* 1979 – Josu Sarriegi, Spanish footballer* 1979 – Wiley, English rapper and producer1980 – Jenson Button, English race car driver 1980 – Pasha Kovalev, Russian-American dancer and choreographer* 1980 – Luke Macfarlane, Canadian-American actor and singer* 1980 – Arvydas Macijauskas, Lithuanian basketball player* 1980 – Michael Vandort, Sri Lankan cricketer1981 – Paolo Bugia, Filipino basketball player 1981 – Asier del Horno, Spanish footballer* 1981 – Lucho González, Argentinian footballer* 1981 – Elizabeth Tulloch, American actress1982 – Pete Buttigieg, American politician 1982 – Mike Komisarek, American ice hockey player* 1982 – Jodie Sweetin, American actress and singer* 1982 – Robin tom Rink, German singer-songwriter* 1982 – Shane Tronc, Australian rugby league player* 1982 – Kim Yoo-suk, South Korean pole vaulter1983 – Hikaru Utada, American-Japanese singer-songwriter and producer1984 – Johnny Boychuk, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Fabio Catacchini, Italian footballer* 1984 – Karun Chandhok, Indian race car driver* 1984 – Elvis Dumervil, American football player* 1984 – Jimmy Kébé, Malian footballer* 1984 – Thomas Vanek, Austrian ice hockey player1985 – Pascal Behrenbruch, German decathlete 1985 – Damien Chazelle, American film director, screenwriter, and producer* 1985 – Benny Feilhaber, American soccer player* 1985 – Esteban Guerrieri, Argentinian race car driver* 1985 – Rika Ishikawa, Japanese singer and actress* 1985 – Aleksandr Yevgenyevich Nikulin, Russian footballer* 1985 – Elliott Ward, English footballer1986 – Claudio Marchisio, Italian footballer 1986 – Oleksandr Miroshnychenko, Ukrainian footballer* 1986 – Moussa Sow, Senegalese footballer1987 – Edgar Manucharyan, Armenian footballer1988 – Tyler Breeze, Canadian wrestler* 1988 – JaVale McGee, American basketball player1990 – Tatiana Búa, Argentine tennis player 1990 – Shaunette Renée Wilson, Guyanese-American actress1991 – Petra Martić, Croatian tennis player 1991 – Erin Sanders, American actress1992 – Shawn Johnson East, American gymnast 1992 – Logan Lerman, American actor* 1992 – Mac Miller, American rapper (d. 2018)1993 – Erick Torres Padilla, Mexican footballer 1993 – João Mário, Portuguese footballer* 1993 – Ricardo Centurión, Argentine footballer* 1993 – Walter Benítez, Argentine footballer1994 – Matthias Ginter, German footballer 1994 – Alfie Mawson, English footballer* 1994 – Marvelous Nakamba, Zimbabwean footballer1996 – Jakub Jankto, Czech footballer1999 – Jonathan Taylor, American football player* 1999 – Donyell Malen, Dutch footballer2000 – Juan Miranda, Spanish footballer2001 – Kai Jones, Bahamian basketball player2002 – Reinier, Brazilian footballer2003 – Felix Afena-Gyan, Ghanaian footballer* 2003 – Ilaix Moriba, Guinean footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 520 – John of Cappadocia, patriarch of Constantinople* 639 – Dagobert I, Frankish king (b.", "603)* 914 – García I, king of León1003 – Kilian of Cologne, Irish abbot1302 – Al-Hakim I, caliph of Cairo1401 – Robert Bealknap, British justice 1526 – Isabella of Austria, Danish queen (b.", "1501)1547 – Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English poet (b.", "1516)1565 – Diego Laynez, Spanish Jesuit theologian (b.", "1512)1571 – Paris Bordone, Venetian painter (b.", "1495)1576 – Hans Sachs, German poet and playwright (b.", "1494)1597 – Maharana Pratap, Hindu Rajput king of Mewar (b.1540)===1601–1900===1636 – Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Flemish painter (b.1561)1661 – Thomas Venner, English rebel leader1729 – William Congreve, English playwright and poet (b.", "1670)1755 – Jean-Pierre Christin, French physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (b.", "1683)1757 – Thomas Ruddiman, Scottish scholar and academic (b.", "1674)1766 – Giovanni Niccolò Servandoni, Italian-French architect and painter (b.", "1695)1785 – Jonathan Toup, English scholar and critic (b.", "1713)1833 – Ferdinand Hérold, French pianist and composer (b.", "1791)1847 – Charles Bent, American soldier and politician, first Governor of New Mexico (b.", "1799)* 1847 – Athanasios Christopoulos, Greek poet (b.", "1772)1851 – Esteban Echeverría, Argentinian poet and author (b.", "1805)1853 – Karl Faber, German historian and academic (b.", "1773)1865 – Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, French philosopher and politician (b.", "1809)1869 – Carl Reichenbach, German chemist and philosopher (b.", "1788)1874 – August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, German poet and scholar (b.", "1798)1878 – Henri Victor Regnault, French physicist and chemist (b.", "1810)1895 – António Luís de Seabra, 1st Viscount of Seabra, Portuguese magistrate and politician (b.", "1798)===1901–present===1906 – Bartolomé Mitre, Argentinian historian and politician, sixth President of Argentina (b.", "1821)1929 – Liang Qichao, Chinese journalist, philosopher, and scholar (b.", "1873)1930 – Frank P. Ramsey, British mathematician, philosopher and economist (b.", "1903)1938 – Branislav Nušić, Serbian author, playwright, and journalist (b.", "1864)1945 – Gustave Mesny, French general (b.", "1886)1948 – Tony Garnier, French architect and urban planner, designed the Stade de Gerland (b.", "1869)1954 – Theodor Kaluza, German mathematician and physicist (b.", "1885)1957 – József Dudás, Romanian-Hungarian activist and politician (b.", "1912)1963 – Clement Smoot, American golfer (b.", "1884)1964 – Firmin Lambot, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1886)1965 – Arnold Luhaäär, Estonian weightlifter (b.", "1905)1968 – Ray Harroun, American race car driver and engineer (b.", "1879)1972 – Michael Rabin, American violinist (b.", "1936)1973 – Max Adrian, Irish-English actor (b.", "1903)1975 – Thomas Hart Benton, American painter and educator (b.", "1889)1976 – Hidetsugu Yagi, Japanese engineer and academic (b.", "1886)1979 – Moritz Jahn, German novelist and poet (b.", "1884)1980 – William O. Douglas, American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1898)1981 – Francesca Woodman, American photographer (b.", "1958)1982 – Elis Regina, Brazilian soprano (b.", "1945)1983 – Ham, chimpanzee and animal astronaut, first hominid in space (b.", "1957)1984 – Max Bentley, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1920)1987 – Lawrence Kohlberg, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1927)1990 – Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, Indian guru and mystic (b.", "1931) 1990 – Alberto Semprini, English pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1908)* 1990 – Herbert Wehner, German politician, sixth Minister of Intra-German Relations (b.", "1906)1991 – Marcel Chaput, Canadian biochemist and journalist (b.", "1918)1995 – Gene MacLellan, Canadian singer-songwriter (b.", "1938)1996 – Don Simpson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1943) 1997 – James Dickey, American poet and novelist (b.", "1923)1998 – Carl Perkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1932)1999 – Ivan Francescato, Italian rugby player (b.", "1967)2000 – Amatu'l-Bahá Rúhíyyih Khánum, a Baháʼí Faith Hand of the Cause of God and wife of Shoghi Effendi (b.", "1910) 2000 – Bettino Craxi, Italian lawyer and politician, 45th Prime Minister of Italy (b.", "1934)* 2000 – Hedy Lamarr, Austrian-American actress, singer, and mathematician (b.", "1914)2002 – Vavá, Brazilian footballer and manager (b.", "1934)2003 – Milton Flores, Honduran footballer (b.", "1974)* 2003 – Françoise Giroud, French journalist, screenwriter, and politician, French Minister of Culture (b.", "1916)2004 – Harry E. Claiborne, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1917) 2004 – David Hookes, Australian cricketer and coach (b.", "1955)2005 – K. Sello Duiker, South African author and screenwriter (b.", "1974)2006 – Anthony Franciosa, American actor (b.", "1928)* 2006 – Wilson Pickett, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1941)2007 – Hrant Dink, Turkish-Armenian journalist and activist (b.", "1954) 2007 – Denny Doherty, Canadian singer-songwriter (b.", "1940)* 2007 – Murat Nasyrov, Russian singer-songwriter (b.", "1969)2008 – Suzanne Pleshette, American actress (b.", "1937) 2008 – John Stewart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1939)* 2008 – Don Wittman, Canadian sportscaster (b.", "1936)2010 – Bill McLaren, Scottish rugby player and sportscaster (b.", "1923)2012 – Peter Åslin, Swedish ice hockey player (b.", "1962)* 2012 – Sarah Burke, Canadian skier (b.", "1982)* 2012 – Winston Riley, Jamaican singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1943)* 2012 – Rudi van Dantzig, Dutch ballet dancer and choreographer (b.", "1933)2013 – Taihō Kōki, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 48th Yokozuna (b.", "1940) 2013 – Stan Musial, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1920)* 2013 – Frank Pooler, American conductor and composer (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Earl Weaver, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Toktamış Ateş, Turkish academician, political commentator, columnist and writer (b.", "1944)2014 – Azaria Alon, Ukrainian-Israeli environmentalist, co-founded the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel (b.", "1918) 2014 – Christopher Chataway, English runner, journalist, and politician (b.", "1931)2015 – Justin Capră, Romanian engineer and academic (b.", "1933) 2015 – Michel Guimond, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1953)* 2015 – Ward Swingle, American-French singer-songwriter and conductor (b.", "1927)2016 – Richard Levins, American ecologist and geneticist (b.", "1930) 2016 – Ettore Scola, Italian director and screenwriter (b.", "1931)* 2016 – Sheila Sim (Lady Attenborough), English actress (b.", "1922)2017 – Miguel Ferrer, American actor (b.", "1955)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Bassianus of LodiHenry of UppsalaMarius, Martha, Audifax, and AbachumMark of Ephesus (Eastern Orthodox Church)Pontianus of SpoletoWulfstan, Bishop of Worcester*January 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Confederate Heroes Day (Texas), and its related observance:*Robert E. Lee Day (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia and Mississippi)Husband's Day (Iceland)Kokborok Day (Tripura, India)Theophany / Epiphany (Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy), and its related observances:Timkat, or 20 during Leap Year (Ethiopian Orthodox)''Vodici'' or Baptism of Jesus (North Macedonia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 19" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jetsprint" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jetsprint''' or '''sprint boat racing''' is a form of motorboat racing in which jetboats, with a crew of two, race individually against the clock through a twisting series of channels in less than a metre of water.Tracks are typically designed for spectators, and racing is fast and loud, with boat motors usually powered by V8s developing well over 500 hp." ], [ "History", "Jetsprinting as an organised sport originated in New Zealand in 1981, and events were originally held in the same natural braided rivers that had inspired Sir William Hamilton to develop the jetboat, but when the sport was introduced to Australia in the mid-1980s, permanent artificial courses were used—and this is now the norm even in New Zealand.", "There is now a world championship under the auspices of the Union Internationale Motonautique, with hosting rotating between New Zealand, Australia and the U.S.A." ], [ "Format", "The race itself consists of a predefined course through the channels with 25 to 30 changes of direction.", "These races generally take just 45–60 seconds.", "Once qualifying is completed, the competitors each run the course with the fastest qualifiers running last.", "The fastest 16 (typically depending on the number of competitions) proceed to the next round.", "This is then reduced to the top 12, Top 8 then the top 5 and finally the fastest three.===Boats===A jetsprint hull is typically short - just 3.8 to 4.0 metres (12½ to 13 feet) long.", "The hull's vee is usually 23 to 25 degrees with several strakes on each side.", "A short hull is preferred, as a longer hull takes more distance to turn and usually must be turned at a slower speed.", "The strakes provide \"traction' by stopping the boat from sliding sideways across the water when turning at high speed.A rollcage must be fitted to the boat.===Crew===A crew consists of the driver and a navigator, whose responsibility is to guide the driver through the course - typically via simple hand signals, pointing the hand in the direction that the boat must go at the next intersection." ], [ "Classes", "There are two internationally recognised classes'''Group A''' - engines in Group A boats are restricted to either 6.7-litre (412 cubic inch) engines with cast iron blocks and heads, or 6-litre (365 cubic inch) engines with aluminium heads.", "Both engines are only allowed two push-rod operated valves per cylinder.", "Furthermore, the engine must be normally aspirated, using a four-barrel carburetor.", "Fuel is 100+ octane aviation fuel.", "Typically these engines produce up to 650 horsepower'''Super Boats''' - engines in the Super Boat class have no maximum size, but instead have a minimum size restriction.", "Normally aspirated engines must have a displacement of 6.5 litres (400 cubic inches), while forced induction (turbocharged or supercharged) engines must be at least 3.8 liters (235 cubic inches) in displacement.", "These engines typically are fuel injected and run methanol fuel.", "The small-block engines typically produce 950+ horsepower, while the big blocks can produce between 1000 and 1600 horsepower.Nitromethane and nitrous oxide are not allowed." ], [ "See also", "* Jetboat* River marathonOffshore powerboat racing" ], [ "External links", " New Zealand Jetsprint Association* Australian V8 Superboats Jet Sprint Championship* Jetsprint Legends online jet boat racing* Union Internationale Motonautique* USSBA Racing" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jainism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jainism''' (), also known as '''Jain Dharma''', is an Indian religion.", "Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four ''tirthankara''s (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha, whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth ''tirthankara'' Mahavira, around 600 BCE.", "Jainism is considered an eternal ''dharma'' with the ''tirthankaras'' guiding every time cycle of the cosmology.", "The three main pillars of Jainism are ''ahiṃsā'' (non-violence), ''anekāntavāda'' (non-absolutism), and ''aparigraha'' (asceticism).Jain monks take five main vows: ''ahiṃsā'' (non-violence), ''satya'' (truth), ''asteya'' (not stealing), ''brahmacharya'' (chastity), and ''aparigraha'' (non-possessiveness).", "These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle.", "''Parasparopagraho jīvānām'' (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the ''Namokar Mantra'' is its most common and strongest prayer.Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today.", "It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and the texts considered canonical.", "Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons (''śrāvakas'' and ''śrāvikas'').", "The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has three sub-traditions: Mandirvāsī, Deravasi, and Sthānakavasī.", "The religion has between four and five million followers, known as '''Jains''' or '''Jainas''', who reside mostly in India, where they numbered around 4.5 million at the 2011 census.", "Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada, Europe, and the United States.", "Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts.", "Major festivals include ''Paryushana'' and ''Das Lakshana'', ''Ashtanika'', ''Mahavir Janma Kalyanak'', ''Akshaya Tritiya'', and ''Dipawali''." ], [ "Beliefs and philosophy", "''Ahiṃsā'', the wheel ''dharmachakra'', the resolve to halt ''saṃsāra'' (transmigration).Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating the law of substance dualism, and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism.===''Dravya'' (Ontological facts)===''Dravya'' means substances or entity in Sanskrit.", "Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (''jīva''), non-sentient substance or matter (''pudgala''), the principle of motion (''dharma''), the principle of rest (''adharma''), space (''ākāśa''), and time (''kāla'').", "The last five are united as the ''ajiva'' (non-living).", "Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed.===''Tattva'' (Soteriological facts)===''Tattva'' connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation.", "According to Digambara Jains, there are seven ''tattvas'': the sentient (''jiva'' or living), the insentient (''ajiva'' or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul (''Āsrava'', which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul (''Bandha''), the stoppage of karmic particles (''Saṃvara''), the wiping away of past karmic particles (''Nirjarā''), and the liberation (''Moksha'').", "Śvētāmbaras add two further ''tattvas'', namely good karma (''Punya'') and bad karma (''Paapa'').", "The true insight in Jain philosophy is considered as \"faith in the ''tattvas''\".", "The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach ''moksha'' for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.===''Pramana'' (Epistemological facts)===Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (''pramana'').", "It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (''pratyaksa''), inference (''anumana'') and testimony (''sabda'' or the word of scriptures).", "These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as ''Tattvarthasūtra'', ''Parvacanasara'', ''Nandi'' and ''Anuyogadvarini''.", "Some Jain texts add analogy (''upamana'') as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions.In Jainism, ''jnāna'' (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – ''mati jñāna'' (sensory knowledge), ''śrutu jñāna'' (scriptural knowledge), ''avadhi jñāna'' (clairvoyance), ''manah prayāya Jñāna'' (telepathy) and ''kevala jnana'' (omniscience).", "According to the Jain text ''Tattvartha sūtra'', the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge.===Soul and karma===Classification of ''Saṃsāri Jīvas'' (transmigrating souls) in JainismAccording to Jainism, the existence of \"a bound and ever changing soul\" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven.", "It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities (''Guṇa''): consciousness (''chaitanya'', the most important), bliss (''sukha'') and vibrational energy (''virya'').It further claims the vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul.", "Jain texts state that souls exist as \"clothed with material bodies\", where it entirely fills up the body.", "Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law.", "However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the ''jiva'' in the ''lokas''.", "Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth.===Saṃsāra===The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions.", "Soul (''jiva'') is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism.", "The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.", "Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through ''Saṃsāra'', going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing.Harming any life form is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects.", "Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma.", "It further clarifies that ''abhavya'' (incapable) souls can never attain ''moksha'' (liberation).", "It explains that the ''abhavya'' state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike the nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism.", "According to Jainism, a ''Siddha'' (liberated soul) has gone beyond ''Saṃsāra'', is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally.===Cosmology===Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal ''lokas'' (realms of existence).", "As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient.", "The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from the soul (''jiva'').", "Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy.", "The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (''urdhva loka'', ''madhya loka'', and ''adho loka'').", "Jainism states that ''Kāla'' (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, ''kālachakra'', rotates ceaselessly.", "In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons (''ara''), and in the first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates.Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, ''utsarpiṇī'' (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and ''avasarpiṇī'' (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality).", "It states that the world is currently in the fifth ''ara'' of ''avasarpiṇī'', full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks.", "According to Jainism, after the sixth ''ara'', the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle.===God===Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras, Jaipur, Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created, and will exist forever.", "It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.", "In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism, but similar to Buddhism.", "However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings.", "The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma.", "It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.", "However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings.", "The perfect enlightened souls ''with'' a body are called ''Arihants'' (victors) and perfect souls ''without'' a body are called ''Siddhas'' (liberated souls).", "Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation.", "The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves.===Salvation, liberation===Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: ''Samyak Darśana'' (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul (''jīva''); ''Samyak Gyana'' (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the ''tattvas''; and ''Samyak Charitra'' (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows.", "Jain texts often add ''samyak tapas'' (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha).", "The four jewels are called ''Moksha Marga'' (the path of liberation)." ], [ "Main principles", "===Non-violence (''ahimsa'')===The principle of ''ahimsa'' (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.", "It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.", "In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.", "Jain texts such as ''Acaranga Sūtra'' and ''Tattvarthasūtra'' state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.", "Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.", "It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, \"all living creatures must help each other\".Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.", "The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to \"be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures\", but resulting from \"continual self-discipline\", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.", "Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the ''Ahiṃsā'' doctrine when faced with external threat or violence.", "For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.", "According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that \"anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance\".However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.===Many-sided reality (''anekāntavāda'')===Jain temple painting explaining Anekantavada with Blind men and an elephantThe second main principle of Jainism is ''anekāntavāda'', from ''anekānta'' (\"many-sidedness\") and ''vada'' (\"doctrine\").", "The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects.", "It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language.", "It suggests that human attempts to communicate are ''Naya'', \"partial expression of the truth\".", "According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language.", "It holds that attempts to express experience are ''syāt'', or valid \"in some respect\", but remain \"perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete\".", "It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.", "It suggests that the great error is belief in ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.", "The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the ''Samaññaphala Sutta''.", "The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a \"qualified yes\" (''syāt'').", "These texts identify ''anekāntavāda'' as a key difference from the Buddha's teachings.", "The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer \"it is\" or \"it is not\" to metaphysical questions.", "The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both \"it is\", and \"it is not\", qualified with \"perhaps\", to understand Absolute Reality.", "The permanent being is conceptualized as ''jiva'' (soul) and ''ajiva'' (matter) within a dualistic ''anekāntavāda'' framework.According to Paul Dundas, in contemporary times the ''anekāntavāda'' doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to \"promote a universal religious tolerance\", and a teaching of \"plurality\" and \"benign attitude to other ethical, religious positions\".", "Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.", "According to him, the \"many pointedness, multiple perspective\" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence.", "He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as \"perhaps right\".", "The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no \"perhaps\" about them.", "Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.===Non-attachment (''aparigraha'')===The third main principle in Jainism is ''aparigraha'' which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.", "For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.", "The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition.", "For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.", "According to Natubhai Shah, ''aparigraha'' applies to both the material and the psychic.", "Material possessions refer to various forms of property.", "Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form.", "Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.===Jain ethics and five vows===Nishidhi stone, depicting the vow of ''sallekhana'', 14th century, KarnatakaJainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows.", "These are called ''anuvratas'' (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and ''mahavratas'' (great vows) for Jain mendicants.", "For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a ''guru'' (teacher, counsellor), ''deva'' (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits.", "Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism:# ''Ahiṃsā'', \"intentional non-violence\" or \"noninjury\": The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals).", "This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.# ''Satya'', \"truth\": This vow is to always speak the truth.", "Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.# ''Asteya'', \"not stealing\": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.", "Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.# ''Brahmacharya'', \"celibacy\": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns.", "For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.# ''Aparigraha'', \"non-possessiveness\": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.", "Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three ''guņa vratas'' (merit vows) and four ''śikşā vratas''.", "The ''Sallekhana'' (or ''Santhara'') vow is a \"religious death\" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.", "In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths." ], [ "Practices", "===Asceticism and monasticism===Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.", "Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching ''siddha'' and ''moksha'' (\"liberation from rebirths\" and \"salvation\").Jain texts like ''Tattvartha Sūtra'' and ''Uttaradhyayana Sūtra'' discuss austerities in detail.", "Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts.", "Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).", "Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.", "Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition.", "Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the ''jiva'' (soul).", "The ''tirthankaras'' such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.Monastic organization, ''sangh'', has a four-fold order consisting of ''sadhu'' (male ascetics, ''muni''), ''sadhvi'' (female ascetics, ''aryika''), ''śrāvaka'' (laymen), and ''śrāvikā'' (laywomen).", "The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called ''gacch'' or ''samuday'', in autonomous regional Jain congregations.", "Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the ''Dandasan'' – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.===Food and fasting===The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian.", "Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production.", "Veganism is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.", "Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.", "Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ''ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata''.", "Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.Jains fast particularly during festivals.", "This practice is called ''upavasa'', ''tapasya'' or ''vrata'', and may be practiced according to one's ability.", "Digambaras fast for ''Dasa-laksana-parvan'', eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.", "Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day ''paryusana'' with ''samvatsari-pratikramana''.", "The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (''punya'').", "A \"one day\" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.", "Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family.", "Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.", "Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.===Meditation===Jainism considers meditation (''dhyana'') a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism.", "In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.", "According to Padmanabh Jaini, ''Sāmāyika'' is a practice of \"brief periods in meditation\" in Jainism that is a part of ''siksavrata'' (ritual restraint).", "The goal of ''Sāmāyika'' is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second ''siksavrata''.", "The ''samayika'' ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as ''Puja'' in a Jain temple and doing charity work.", "According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, ''samayika'' connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of \"assuming temporary ascetic status\".===Rituals and worship===Praying at the feet of a statue of BahubaliThere are many rituals in Jainism's various sects.", "According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is \"heavily imbued with ascetic values\", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic.", "The ultimate ritual is ''sallekhana'', a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks.", "The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy.", "The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially the ''Jinas''.", "In Jainism a ''Jina'' as ''deva'' is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic ''tirthankara'' achieved.", "Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and Rishabhanatha.", "Among the non-''tirthankara'' saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras.", "The ''Panch Kalyanaka'' rituals remember the five life events of the ''tirthankaras'', including the ''Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava'', ''Panch Kalyanaka Puja'' and ''Snatrapuja''.Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals.The basic ritual is ''darsana'' (seeing) of ''deva'', which includes Jina, or other yaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi).", "Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras.", "The worship ritual is called ''devapuja'', and is found in all Jain sub-traditions.", "Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.Jain practices include performing ''abhisheka'' (ceremonial bath) of the images.", "Some Jain sects employ a ''pujari'' (also called ''upadhye''), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple.", "More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money.", "Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste.", "Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras.Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual.", "The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the \"five homage\" (''panca namaskara'') mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time.", "Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the ''Rishi-mandala'' including the ''tirthankaras''.", "The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.===Festivals===Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryushana), Jain Center of America, New York CityThe most important annual Jain festival is called the ''Paryushana'' by Svetambaras and ''Dasa lakshana parva'' by the Digambaras.", "It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar.", "This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.", "It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.", "It is a time when lay people fast and pray.", "The five vows are emphasized during this time.", "Svetambaras recite the ''Kalpasūtras'', while Digambaras read their own texts.", "The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals.The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as ''Samvatsari''.", "Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.", "Forgiveness is asked by saying \"''Micchami Dukkadam''\" or \"''Khamat khamna''\" to others.", "This means, \"If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness.\"", "The literal meaning of ''Paryushana'' is \"abiding\" or \"coming together\".Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra.", "It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar.", "This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.", "The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community.", "At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.", "The next day of Dipawali is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of ''moksha''.", "The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date (''Kartika Amavasya'').", "Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and ''diyas'' (small oil lamps).", "The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance.", "Sweets are often distributed.", "On Diwali morning, ''Nirvan Ladoo'' is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world.", "The Jain new year starts right after Diwali.", "Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan, similar to those in the Hindu communities." ], [ "Traditions and sects", "The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara.", "Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes.", "Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as ''Aryikas''.", "Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the other hand, wear seamless white clothes.During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that ''Acharya'' Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples.", "Sthulabhadra, a pupil of ''Acharya'' Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha.", "Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of ''Acharya'' Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.", "This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes.", "Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of ''aparigraha'' which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e.", "complete nudity.", "In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend.", "At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as canonical scriptures, which Digambara has ever since rejected.", "This council is believed to have solidified the historic schism between these two major traditions of Jainism.", "The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit ''Suttapahuda'' of Kundakunda.Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code, interpretations of teachings, and on Jain history especially concerning the ''tirthankaras''.", "Their monasticism rules differ, as does their iconography.", "Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants, where Digambara has mostly had male monks and considers males closest to the soul's liberation.", "The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism and state that the 19th ''Tirthankara'' Māllīnātha was female, which Digambara rejects.", "Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c.1st century CE).", "''Tirthankara'' represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the ''Ardhaphalaka'' (half-clothed) mentioned in texts.", "The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the ''Ardhaphalaka'', followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.", "In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a \"primarily devotional form of Jainism\" have developed which resemble \"Jain Mahayana\" style devotionalism." ], [ "Scriptures and texts", "Jain canonical scriptures are called ''Agamas''.", "They are believed to have been verbally transmitted, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts, and to have originated from the sermons of the ''tirthankaras'', whereupon the ''Ganadharas'' (chief disciples) transmitted them as ''Śhrut Jnāna'' (heard knowledge).", "The spoken scriptural language is believed to be ''Ardhamagadhi'' by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost, and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon.", "According to them, Digambara ''Āchāryas'' recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four ''anuyoga''.", "The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.", "The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or ''Vedas'': history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature.", "Of these, the ''Kalpa Sūtras'' are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE.).", "This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.", "Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.", "Both traditions consider his ''Niryuktis'' and ''Samhitas'' important.", "The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by Umaswati, the ''Tattvarthasūtra'' is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism.", "In the Digambara tradition, the texts written by Kundakunda are highly revered and have been historically influential, while the oldest being ''Kasayapahuda'' and ''Shatkhandagama'' attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali.", "Other important Digambara Jain texts include: ''Samayasara'', ''Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra'', and ''Niyamasara''." ], [ "Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism", "''Sivayasa Ayagapata'', with stupa fragment, Kankali Tila, 75–100 CE.All four Dharmic religions, viz., Jainism, Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism, share concepts and doctrines such as karma and rebirth.", "They do not believe in eternal heaven or hell or judgment day, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals.", "They all consider values such as ''ahimsa'' (non-violence) to be important, link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (''moksha'').Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises.", "All believe in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the premise of ''anatta'' (\"no eternal self or soul\").", "Hinduism incorporates an eternal unchanging ''atman'' (\"soul\"), while Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing ''jiva'' (\"soul\").", "In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal ''jivas'', predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few ''siddhas'' (perfected ones).", "Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass nondualism where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected oneWhile both Hinduism and Jainism believe \"soul exists\" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (''vibhu''), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic.", "Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and Brahman through a monistic or dualistic framework.", "In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman.", "Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe \"soul exists\" as a self-evident truth.", "Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.", "Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system, but later scholars consider this a Western error.", "A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.Monasticism is similar in all three traditions, with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month monsoon season, and celibacy, originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.", "Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a ''sangha'' (monastery) and staying in its premises.", "Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.", "In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks.Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified, and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.", "Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.", "The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting.", "Some Hindu temples have included a Jain ''Tirthankara'' within its premises in a place of honour, while temple complexes such as the Badami cave temples and Khajuraho feature both Hindu and Jain monuments." ], [ "Art and architecture", "Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture.", "Jain arts depict life legends of ''tirthankara'' or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture.", "''Yakshas'' and ''yakshinis'', attendant spirits who guard the ''tirthankara'', are usually shown with them.", "The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum.", "It is dated approximately to the third century BCE.", "Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE.", "''Ayagapata'' is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries.", "These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the ''stupa'', ''dharmacakra'' and ''triratna''.", "They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship.", "Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, India.", "The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE.", "''Samavasarana'', a preaching hall of ''tirthankaras'' with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.Kirti Stambh in Chittor Fort, 12th Century CEThe Jain tower in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.", "Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.", "Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as ''Panch Kalyanaka'', from the life of the ''tirthankara''.", "Rishabha, the first ''tirthankara'', is usually depicted in either the lotus position or ''kayotsarga'', the standing position.", "He is distinguished from other ''tirthankara'' by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders.", "Bull images also appear in his sculptures.", "In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are depicted.", "Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.", "Each of the twenty-four ''tirthankara'' is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as ''Tiloyapannati'', ''Kahavaali'' and ''Pravacanasaarodhara''.===Temples===A Jain temple, a ''Derasar'' or ''Basadi'', is a place of worship.", "Temples contain ''tirthankara'' images, some fixed, others moveable.", "These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall.", "One of the images is marked as the ''moolnayak'' (primary deity).", "A ''manastambha'' (column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.", "Temple construction is considered a meritorious act.Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (Vidisha) and Pataini temple in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near Mount Abu, Rajasthan.", "Chaumukha temple in Ranakpur is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.", "According to Jain texts, Shikharji is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain ''Tīrthaṅkaras'' along with many other monks attained ''moksha'' (died without being reborn, with their soul in ''Siddhashila'').", "The Shikharji site in northeastern Jharkhand is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.", "The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.", "Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the Jain community.", "The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Shravanabelagola, Saavira Kambada Basadi or ''1000 pillars'' and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in Karnataka.", "In and around Madurai, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.The second–first century BCE.", "Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of ''tirthanakars'' and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cave inscription.", "Jain cave temples at Badami, Mangi-Tungi and the Ellora Caves are considered important.", "The Sittanavasal Cave temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha.", "Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE.", "Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.", "The eighth century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India.File:Jain Temple Ranakpur.jpg\|Ranakpur Jain TempleFile:Delwada.jpg\|Dilwara TemplesFile:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg\|Parshvanath Temple in KhajurahoFile:Jain temples on Girnar mountain aerial view.jpg\|Girnar Jain templesFile:Jal Mandir.The Jain Temple at Pawapur,.jpg\|Jal Mandir, PawapuriFile:Lodurva Temples.jpg\|Lodhurva Jain templeFile:Palitana.jpg\|Palitana templesFile:1000-Pillar-Temple-Moodbidri-Left-Side-View.JPG\|Saavira Kambada Basadi, Moodbidri, KarnatakaFile:Templejaindanvers.jpg\|Jain temple, Antwerp, Belgium File:Jain temple at Lakkundi.jpg\|Brahma Jinalaya, LakkundiFile:Sheth_Hutheesinh_Temple.jpg\|Hutheesing Jain Temple===Pilgrimages===ShikharjiJain ''Tirtha'' (pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories:* ''Siddhakshetra''Site of the ''moksha'' of an ''arihant'' (''kevalin'') or ''tirthankara'', such as: Ashtapada of Rishabhanatha, Shikharji of 20 Tirthankara, Girnar of Neminatha, Pawapuri of Mahaveera, Champapuri (capital of Anga) of Vasupujya, Mangi-Tungi of Ram, Palitana of 3 Pandavas.", "* ''Atishayakshetra''Locations where divine events are believed to have occurred, such as: Mahavirji, Rishabhdeo, Kundalpur, Tijara, and Aharji.", "* ''Puranakshetra'' Places associated with the lives of great men, such as: Ayodhya, Vidisha, Hastinapur, and Rajgir.", "* ''Gyanakshetra'' Places associated with famous ''acharyas'', or centers of learning, such as Shravanabelagola.Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan).", "However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a \"major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage\" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before \"the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition\".===Statues and sculptures===Idol of Suparśvanātha Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four ''tīrthaṅkaras''; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in lotus position or ''kayotsarga'', along with ''Arihant'', Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika.", "Quadruple images are also popular.", "''Tirthankar'' idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake.", "Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.A monolithic, statue of Bahubali, ''Gommateshvara'', built in 981 CE by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya, is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka.", "This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by ''The Times of India''.", "The tall Statue of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik district in 2015.Idols are often made in ''Ashtadhatu'' (literally \"eight metals\"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, stone monoliths, rock cut, and precious stones.===Symbols===Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the swastika, ''Om'', and the ''Ashtamangala''.", "In Jainism, ''Om'' is a condensed reference to the initials \"A-A-A-U-M\" of the five parameshthis: \"''Arihant'', ''Ashiri'', ''Acharya'', ''Upajjhaya'', ''Muni''\", or the five lines of the ''Ṇamōkāra'' Mantra.", "The ''Ashtamangala'' is a set of eight auspicious symbols: in the Digambara tradition, these are chatra, ''dhvaja'', ''kalasha'', fly-whisk, mirror, chair, hand fan and vessel.", "In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, ''Srivatsa'', ''Nandavarta'', ''Vardhmanaka'' (food vessel), ''Bhadrasana'' (seat), ''Kalasha'' (pot), ''Darpan'' (mirror) and pair of fish.A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira's ''nirvana''.The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes ''ahimsā''.", "The wheel represents the ''dharmachakra'', which stands for the resolve to halt the ''saṃsāra'' (wandering) through the relentless pursuit of ''ahimsā''.", "The five colours of the Jain flag represent the ''Pañca-Parameṣṭhi'' and the five vows.", "The swastika's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.", "The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism.", "It depicts the three ''lokas'', heaven, the human world and hell.", "The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes ''Siddhashila'', a zone beyond the three realms.", "The Jain swastika and the symbol of ''Ahiṃsā'' are included, with the Jain mantra ''Parasparopagraho Jīvānām'' from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's ''Tattvarthasūtra'', meaning \"souls render service to one another\"." ], [ "History", "Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India.", "Jains trace their history through twenty-four ''tirthankaras'' and revere Rishabhanatha as the first ''tirthankara'' (in the present time-cycle).", "Some artifacts found in the Indus River Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script.", "The last two ''tirthankaras'', the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th ''tirthankara'' Mahavira (c. 599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures.", "Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha.", "According to Jain texts, the 22nd ''Tirthankara'' Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna.===Ancient===Rishabhdev, believed to have lived over 592.704×1018 years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.Faxian's account gives us some glimpses of the social conditions in India.", "It appears the bulk of the people were vegetarian, and followed the principle of Ahimsa, the most basic fundamental principle of Jainism.", "They had “no shambles or wine-shops in their market-places.” They do not keep pigs and fowls, nor do they eat onions and garlic, nor drank wine.Jainism is an ancient Indian religion of obscure origins.", "Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first ''tirthankara'' Rishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.", "It is one of the ''Śramaṇa'' traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the Vedas, and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet.", "The 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, was a historical being, dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE; historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE.", "Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE.", "The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha; later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.", "Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.Kings Bimbisara (–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (–460 BCE), and Udayin (–440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty were patrons of Jainism.", "Jain tradition states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan Empire and grandfather of Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life.", "Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.", "The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the ''Niganthas'' (Jains).", "''Tirthankara'' statues date back to the second century BCE.", "Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE.", "onwards.", "Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.", "There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism.", "In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples.", "King Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.", "The Pallava King Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism.", "His work ''Mattavilasa Prahasana'' ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics.", "The Yadava dynasty built many temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.", "King Āma of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.", "Mularaja (10th century CE), the founder of the Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.", "During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jain Kalachuri king Bijjala, converted many Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect.", "The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use.", "The Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) became a Vaishnavite under the influence of Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.===Medieval===Gori Jain temples in Nagarparkar, Pakistan, a pilgrimage site before 1947.Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent.", "The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of Delhi Sultanate remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate.", "Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.", "One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him.", "During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.", "Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.", "The Mughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under Humayun (1540–1556), Akbar (1556–1605), Jahangir (1605–1627) and even Aurangzeb (1658–1707).", "Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains.", "Babur (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in Gwalior.", "In 1567, Akbar ravaged the fort of Chittor.", "After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.", "Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under Jahangir, Shah Jahan and most notably under Aurangzeb.The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers.", "However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.===Colonial era===A Gujarati Jain scholar Virchand Gandhi represented Jainism at the first World Parliament of Religions in 1893, held in America during the Chicago World's Fair.", "He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, poet and philosopher revered amongst some Jains in Gujarat is believed to have attained ''jatismaran gnana'' (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven.", "Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.", "He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.", "They were introduced in Mumbai in 1891 and had various conversations through letters while Gandhi was in South Africa.", "Gandhi noted his impression of Shrimad Rajchandra in his autobiography, ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth'', calling him his \"guide and helper\" and his \"refuge in moments of spiritual crisis\".", "Shrimad Rajchandra composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.", "He expounds on the 6 fundamental truths of the soul:# Self (soul) exists# It is permanent and eternal# It is the doer of its own actions# It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions# Liberation exists# There is a path to achieve liberation.Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion.", "Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as Champat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.", "Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious.", "These criticisms, states John E. Cort, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity.The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance.", "However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime.", "This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks.", "The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights.", "Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body.", "He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.", "Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their discontinuance.", "The laws were abolished by India after independence." ], [ "Modern era", "Followers of Jainism are called \"Jains\", a word derived from the Sanskrit ''jina'' (victor), which means an omniscient person who teaches the path of salvation.", "The majority of Jains currently reside in India.", "With four to five million followers worldwide, Jainism is small compared to major world religions.", "Jains form 0.37% of India's population, mostly in the states of Maharashtra (1.4 million in 2011, 31.46% of Indian Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh (12.74%).", "Significant Jain populations exist in Karnataka (9.89%), Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil Nadu (2.01%).", "Outside India, Jain communities can be found in most areas hosting large Indian populations, such as Europe, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia and Kenya.", "Jainism also counts several non-Indian converts; for example, it is spreading rapidly in Japan, where more than 5,000 families have converted between 2010 and 2020.According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in 2015–16, Jains form the wealthiest community in India.", "According to its 2011 census, they have the country's highest literacy rate (87%) among those aged seven and older, and the most college graduates; excluding the retired, Jain literacy in India exceeded 97%.", "The female to male sex ratio among Jains is .940; among Indians in the 0–6 year age range the ratio was second lowest (870 girls per 1,000 boys), higher only than Sikhs.", "Jain males have the highest work participation rates in India, while Jain females have the lowest.Jainism has been praised for some of its practices and beliefs.", "Greatly influenced by Shrimad Rajchandra, the leader of the campaign for Indian independence, Mahatma Gandhi stated regarding Jainism:Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of Acharya in 1987." ], [ "See also", "* Jain law* Jain cosmology* List of ancient Jains* List of Jains* NonviolenceVegetarianism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * PB: ; ePDF: ; ePub: .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Attribution:'''*****" ], [ "External links", "* 'The Original Home of Jainism' by S. Srikanta Sastri* 'Young Jain Sadhviji to Observed Difficult Muktavali Tapp' by World Records India*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joanna Russ" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joanna Russ''' (February 22, 1937 – April 29, 2011) was an American writer, academic and feminist.", "She is the author of a number of works of science fiction, fantasy and feminist literary criticism such as ''How to Suppress Women's Writing'', as well as a contemporary novel, ''On Strike Against God'', and one children's book, ''Kittatinny''.", "She is best known for ''The Female Man'', a novel combining utopian fiction and satire, and the story \"When It Changed\"." ], [ "Background", "Joanna Russ was born in The Bronx, New York City, to Evarett I. and Bertha (née Zinner) Russ, both teachers.", "Her family was Jewish.", "She began creating works of fiction at a very early age.", "Over the following years she filled countless notebooks with stories, poems, comics and illustrations, often hand-binding the material with thread.As a senior at William Howard Taft High School, Russ was selected as one of the top ten Westinghouse Science Talent Search winners.", "She graduated from Cornell University, where she studied with Vladimir Nabokov, in 1957, and received her MFA from the Yale Drama School in 1960.She was briefly married to Albert Amateau.", "Russ taught at Queensborough Community College from 1966 to 1967, at Cornell from 1967 to 1972, SUNY Binghamton, from 1972 to 1975, and at the University of Colorado, Boulder, from 1975 to 1977.In 1977 she started teaching at the University of Washington.", "She became a full professor in 1984 and retired in 1991.Russ was awarded a National Endowment for the Humanities fellowship in 1974-1975." ], [ "Science fiction and other writing", "Russ came to be noticed in the science fiction world in the late 1960s, in particular for her award-nominated novel ''Picnic on Paradise.''", "At the time, SF was a field dominated by male authors, writing for a predominantly male audience, but women were starting to enter the field in larger numbers.", "Russ was one of the most outspoken female authors to challenge male dominance of the field, and is generally regarded as one of the leading feminist science fiction scholars and writers.", "She was also one of the first major science fiction writers to take slash fiction and its cultural and literary implications seriously.", "Over the course of her life, she published over fifty short stories.", "Russ was associated with the American New Wave of science fiction.Along with her work as a writer of prose fiction, Russ was also a playwright, essayist, and author of nonfiction works, generally literary criticism and feminist theory, including the essay collection ''Magic Mommas, Trembling Sisters, Puritans & Perverts''; ''How to Suppress Women's Writing''; and the book-length study of modern feminism, ''What Are We Fighting For?''.", "Her essays and articles have been published in ''Women's Studies Quarterly'', ''Signs'', ''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies'', ''Science Fiction Studies'', and ''College English''.", "Russ was a self-described socialist feminist, expressing particular admiration for the work and theories of Clara Fraser and her Freedom Socialist Party.", "Both fiction and nonfiction, for Russ, were modes of engaging theory with the real world; in particular, ''The Female Man'' can be read as a theoretical or narrative text.", "The short story, \"When It Changed\", which became a part of the novel, explores the constraints of gender and asks if gender is necessary in a society.Russ's writing is characterized by anger interspersed with humor and irony.", "James Tiptree Jr, in a letter to her, wrote, \"Do you imagine that anyone with half a functional neuron can read your work and not have his fingers smoked by the bitter, multi-layered anger in it?", "It smells and smoulders like a volcano buried so long and deadly it is just beginning to wonder if it can explode.\"", "In a letter to Susan Koppelman, Russ asks of a young feminist critic \"where is her anger?\"", "and adds \"I think from now on, I will not trust anyone who isn't angry.", "\"For nearly 15 years she was an influential (if intermittent) review columnist for ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction''.", "Though by then she was no longer an active member of science fiction fandom, she was interviewed by phone during Wiscon (the feminist science fiction convention in Madison, Wisconsin) in 2006 by her friend and member of the same cohort, Samuel R. Delany.Her first SF story was \"Nor Custom Stale\" in F&SF (1959).", "Notable short works include Hugo winner and Nebula Award finalist \"Souls\" (1982), Nebula Award and Tiptree Award winner \"When It Changed\" (1972), Nebula Award finalists \"The Second Inquisition\" (1970), \"Poor Man, Beggar Man\" (1971), \"The Extraordinary Voyages of Amélie Bertrand\" (1979), and \"The Mystery of the Young Gentlemen\" (1982).", "Her fiction has been nominated for nine Nebula and three Hugo Awards, and her genre-related scholarly work was recognized with a Pilgrim Award in 1988.Her story \"The Autobiography of My Mother\" was one of the 1977 O. Henry Prize stories.She wrote several contributions to feminist thinking about pornography and sexuality including \"Pornography by Women, for Women, with Love\" (1985), \"Pornography and the Doubleness of Sex for Women\", and \"Being Against Pornography\", which can be found in her archival pieces located in the University of Oregon's Special Collections.These essays include very detailed descriptions of her views on pornography and how influential it was to feminist thought in the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "Specifically, in \"Being Against Pornography\", she calls pornography a feminist issue.", "Her issues with pornography range from feminist issues, to women's sexuality in general and how porn prevents women from freely expressing their sexual selves, like men can.", "Russ believed that anti-pornography activists were not addressing how women experienced pornography created by men, a topic that she addressed in \"Being Against Pornography\"." ], [ "Reputation and legacy", "Her work is widely taught in courses on science fiction and feminism throughout the English speaking world.", "Russ is the subject of Farah Mendlesohn's book ''On Joanna Russ'' and Jeanne Cortiel's ''Demand My Writing: Joanna Russ, Feminism, Science Fiction''.", "Russ and her work are prominently featured in Sarah LeFanu's'' In the Chinks of the World Machine: Feminism and Science Fiction'' (1988).", "She was named to the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013.Gwyneth Jones wrote a 2019 book about Joanna Russ that was part of the University of Illinois Press series called Modern Masters of Science Fiction.In a 2004 essay about the connections between Russ's work and D. W. Griffith's film ''Intolerance'', Samuel R. Delany describes her as being \"one of the finest - and most necessary - writers of American fiction\" since she published her first professional short story in 1959.Her papers are part of the University of Oregon's Special Collections and University Archives." ], [ "Critical writings", "The late 1960s and 1970s marked the beginnings of feminist SF scholarship—a field of inquiry that was all but created single-handedly by Russ, who contributed many essays on feminism and science fiction that appeared in journals such as ''College English'' and ''Science Fiction Studies''.", "She also contributed 25 reviews to the ''Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction'', covering more than 100 books of all genres.", "In their article \"Learning the 'Prophet Business': The Merril-Russ Intersection,\" Newell and Tallentire described Russ as an \"intelligent, tough-minded reviewer who routinely tempered harsh criticism with just the sort of faint praise she handed out to Judith Merril\", who in turn was among the foremost editors and critics in American science fiction in the late 1960s.", "Russ was also described as a fearless, incisive, and radical person, whose writing was often characterized as acerbic and angry.Russ was acclaimed as one of science fiction's most revolutionary and accomplished writers.", "Helen Merrick went so far as to claim that Russ was an inescapable figure in science fiction history.", "James Tiptree, Jr. once commented on how Russ could be an \"absolute delight\" one minute, but then she \"rushes out and bites my ankles with one sentence\".", "For example, Russ criticized Ursula K. Le Guin's 1969 ''The Left Hand of Darkness'', which won both the 1969 Nebula and 1970 Hugo awards for best science fiction novel, arguing that gender discriminations that permeated science fiction by men showed up just as frequently in science fiction by women.", "According to Russ, Le Guin's novel represented these stereotypes.However, Russ was well aware of the pressures of writing for a living since she was also an author herself.", "Russ also felt that science fiction gives something to its readers that cannot be easily acquired anywhere else.", "She maintained that science should be accurate, and seriousness is a virtue.", "She insisted on the unique qualities of her chosen genre, maintaining that science fiction shared certain qualities with art and its flexibility compared to other forms writing.", "Russ was also interested in demonstrating the unique potentials of women science fiction writers.", "As her career moved into its second decade in the 1980s, she started to worry about reviewing standards.", "She once said, \"The reviewer's hardest task is to define standards.", "\"Russ's reviewing style was characterized by logic.", "She was attacked by readers because of her harsh reviews of Stephen R. Donaldson's ''Lord Foul's Bane'' (1977) and Joy Chant's ''The Grey Mane of Morning'' (1977).", "She organized attacks into these seven categories, taken directly from the cited article:Don't shove your politics into your reviews.", "Just review the books.", "\"I will,\" Russ said, \"when authors keep politics out of their books.", "\"You don't prove what you say; you just assert it.", "\"There is no way to \"prove\" anything in aesthetic or moral matters.", "\"Then your opinion is purely subjective.", "\"I might be subjective, but not arbitrary.", "It is based on a critic's whole education.", "\"Everyone's entitled to his sic own opinion.", "\"Writing is a craft too, and it can be judged.", "And some opinions are worth a good deal more than others.", "\"I knew it.", "You're a snob.", "\"Science fiction is a small world that often doesn't look outside of its own bounds.", "\"You're vitriolic too.", "\"The only way to relieve oneself of the pain that has to be endured by reading every line is to express one's opinions vividly, precisely, and compactly.", "\"Never mind all that stuff.", "Just tell me what I'd enjoy reading.", "\"Bless you, what makes you think I know?", "\"However, she felt guilty about dire and frank criticism.", "She apologized for her harsh words on Lloyd Biggle's ''The Light That Never Was'' (1972) by saying, \"It's narsty to beat up on authors who are probably starving to death on turnip soup (''ghoti'' soup) but critics ought to be honest.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Around the time of the publication of ''The Female Man'' in 1975, Russ came out as a lesbian.", "However, Russ remained protective of her personal life, and as late as a December 1981 interview with Charles Platt, she was still evasive on the subject for the first third of the interview.===Health===In her later life she published little, largely because of chronic pain and chronic fatigue syndrome.On April 27, 2011, it was reported that Russ had been admitted to a hospice after suffering a series of strokes.", "Samuel R. Delany was quoted as saying that Russ was \"slipping away\" and had long had a \"do not resuscitate\" order on file.", "She died early in the morning on April 29, 2011." ], [ "Selected works", ";Novels ''Picnic on Paradise'' (1968)* ''And Chaos Died'' (1970)* ''The Female Man'' (1975)* ''We Who Are About To...'' (1977)* ''The Two of Them'' (1978)* ''On Strike Against God: A Lesbian Love Story'' (1980) (novella);Short fiction collections* ''The Adventures of Alyx'' (1976) (includes ''Picnic on Paradise'')* ''The Zanzibar Cat'' (1983)* ''Extra(ordinary) People'' (1985)* ''The Hidden Side of the Moon'' (1987);Children's fiction* ''Kittatinny: A Tale of Magic'' (1978);Play* \"Window Dressing\" in ''The New Women's Theatre'' edited by Honor Moore.", "New York, Random House (1977);Nonfiction: essays and collections* ''Speculations on the Subjunctivity of Science Fiction'' (1973)* ''Somebody's Trying to Kill Me and I Think It's My Husband: The Modern Gothic'' (1973)* ''How to Suppress Women's Writing'' (1983)* ''Magic Mommas, Trembling Sisters, Puritans and Perverts: Feminist Essays'' (1985)* ''To Write Like a Woman'' (1995)* ''What Are We Fighting For?", ": Sex, Race, Class, and the Future of Feminism'' (1997)* ''The Country You Have Never Seen: Essays and Reviews'' (2007)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " BBC Radio 4 Programme Cat Women of the Moon* Guide to the Joanna Russ papers at the University of Oregon* Joanna Russ obituary at NY Times* ''Magic Mommas, Trembling Sisters, Puritans and Perverts: Feminist Essays'', by Joanna Russ (1985); Databases* * Joanna Russ, entry at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction* NovelGuide.com Biography* * Joanna Russ at Library of Congress Authorities, with 23 catalog records" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 14" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 982 – King Otto II and his Frankish army are defeated by the Muslim army of al-Qasim at Cape Colonna, Southern Italy.", "1223 – Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father, Philip II.", "1420 – Battle of Vítkov Hill, decisive victory of Czech Hussite forces commanded by Jan Žižka against Crusade army led by Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor.", "1430 – Joan of Arc, taken by the Burgundians in May, is handed over to Pierre Cauchon, the bishop of Beauvais.", "1596 – Anglo-Spanish War: English and Dutch troops sack the Spanish city of Cádiz before leaving the next day.===1601–1900===1769 – An expedition led by Gaspar de Portolá leaves its base in San Diego and sets out to find the Port of Monterey (now Monterey, California).", "1771 – Foundation of the Mission San Antonio de Padua in modern California by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra.", "1789 – Storming of the Bastille in Paris.", "This event escalates the widespread discontent into the French Revolution.", "Bastille Day is still celebrated annually in France.", "1790 – Inaugural Fête de la Fédération is held to celebrate the unity of the French people and the national reconciliation.", "1791 – Beginning of Priestley Riots (to 17 July) in Birmingham targeting Joseph Priestley as a supporter of the French Revolution.", "1798 – The Sedition Act of 1798 becomes law in the United States making it a federal crime to write, publish, or utter false or malicious statements about the United States government.", "1808 – The Finnish War: the Battle of Lapua is fought.", "1853 – Opening of the first major US world's fair, the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations in New York City.", "1865 – The first ascent of the Matterhorn is completed by Edward Whymper and his party, four of whom die on the descent.", "1874 – The Chicago Fire of 1874 burns down 47 acres of the city, destroying 812 buildings, killing 20, and resulting in the fire insurance industry demanding municipal reforms from Chicago's city council.", "1881 – American outlaw Billy the Kid is shot and killed by Sheriff Pat Garrett in the Maxwell House at Fort Sumner, New Mexico.", "1900 – Armies of the Eight-Nation Alliance capture Tientsin during the Boxer Rebellion.===1901–present===1902 – Peruvian explorer and farmer Agustín Lizárraga discovers Machu Picchu, the \"Lost City of the Incas\".", "1902 – The Campanile in St Mark's Square, Venice collapses, also demolishing the loggetta.", "1911 – Harry Atwood, an exhibition pilot for the Wright brothers, is greeted by President Taft after he lands his aeroplane on the South Lawn of the White House, having flown from Boston.", "1915 – Beginning of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and the British official Henry McMahon concerning the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire.", "1916 – Battle of Delville Wood begins as an action within the Battle of the Somme, lasting until 3 September 1916.", "1933 – In a decree called the ''Gleichschaltung'', Adolf Hitler abolishes all German political parties except the Nazis.", "* 1933 – Nazi eugenics programme begins with the proclamation of the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring requiring the compulsory sterilization of any citizen who suffers from alleged genetic disorders.", "1943 – In Diamond, Missouri, the George Washington Carver National Monument becomes the first United States National Monument in honor of an African American.", "1948 – Palmiro Togliatti, leader of the Italian Communist Party, is shot and wounded near the Italian Parliament.", "1950 – Korean War: beginning of the Battle of Taejon.", "1951 – Ferrari take their first Formula One grand prix victory at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone.", "1957 – Rawya Ateya takes her seat in the National Assembly of Egypt, thereby becoming the first female parliamentarian in the Arab world.", "1958 – In the 14 July Revolution in Iraq, the monarchy is overthrown by popular forces led by Abd al-Karim Qasim, who becomes the nation's new leader.", "1960 – Jane Goodall arrives at the Gombe Stream Reserve in present-day Tanzania to begin her study of chimpanzees in the wild.", " 1960 – Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 1-11 ditches off Polillo Island in the Philippines, killing one person and injuring 44.", "1965 – Mariner 4 flyby of Mars takes the first close-up photos of another planet.", "The photographs take approximately six hours to be transmitted back to Earth.", "1983 – ''Mario Bros.'' is released in Japan, beginning the popular ''Super Mario Bros'' franchise.", "2002 – French president Jacques Chirac escapes an assassination attempt from Maxime Brunerie during a Bastille Day parade at Champs-Élysées.", "2013 – Dedication of statue of Rachel Carson, a sculpture named for the environmentalist, in Woods Hole, Massachusetts.", "2015 – NASA's New Horizons probe performs the first flyby of Pluto, and thus completes the initial survey of the Solar System.", "2016 – A man ploughs a truck into a Bastille Day celebration in Nice, France, killing 86 people and injuring another 434 before being shot by police." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 926 – Murakami, emperor of Japan (d. 967)1410 – Arnold, Duke of Guelders, (d. 1473)1454 – Poliziano, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1494)1515 – Philip I, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1560)===1601–1900===1602 – Cardinal Jules Mazarin, Italian-French cardinal and politician, chief minister of France from 5 December 1642 to 9 March 1661 (d. 1661)1608 – George Goring, Lord Goring, English general (d. 1657)1610 – Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1670)1634 – Pasquier Quesnel, French priest and theologian (d. 1719)1671 – Jacques d'Allonville, French astronomer and mathematician (d. 1732)1675 – Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French general (d. 1747)1696 – William Oldys, English historian and author (d. 1761)1721 – John Douglas, Scottish bishop and scholar (d. 1807)1743 – Gavrila Derzhavin, Russian poet and politician (d. 1816)1755 – Michel de Beaupuy, French general (d. 1796)1785 – Mordecai Manuel Noah, American journalist, playwright, and diplomat (d. 1851)1801 – Johannes Peter Müller, German physiologist and anatomist (d. 1858)1816 – Arthur de Gobineau, French writer who founded Gobinism to promote development of racism (d. 1882)1825 – Georgiana Hill, English cookery book writer (d. 1903)1829 – Edward Benson, English archbishop (d. 1896)1859 – Willy Hess, German violinist and educator (d. 1928)1861 – Kate M. Gordon, American activist (d. 1931)1862 – Florence Bascom, American geologist and educator (d. 1945) 1862 – Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter and illustrator (d. 1918)1865 – Arthur Capper, American journalist and politician, 20th Governor of Kansas (d. 1951)1866 – Juliette Wytsman, Belgian painter (d. 1925)1868 – Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist and political officer (d. 1926)1872 – Albert Marque, French sculptor and doll maker (d. 1939)1874 – Abbas II of Egypt (d. 1944) 1874 – Crawford Vaughan, Australian politician, 27th Premier of South Australia (d. 1947)1878 – Donald Meek, Scottish-American stage and film actor (d. 1946)1885 – Sisavang Vong, Laotian king (d. 1959)1888 – Scipio Slataper, Italian author and critic (d. 1915)1889 – Marco de Gastyne, French painter and illustrator (d. 1982)* 1889 – Ante Pavelić, Croatian fascist dictator during World War II (d. 1959)1893 – Clarence J.", "Brown, American publisher and politician, 36th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio (d. 1965) 1893 – Garimella Satyanarayana, Indian poet and author (d. 1952)1894 – Dave Fleischer, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1979)1896 – Buenaventura Durruti, Spanish soldier and anarchist (d. 1936)1897 – Plaek Phibunsongkhram, Thai military officer and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Thailand (d. 1964)1898 – Happy Chandler, American lawyer and politician, 49th Governor of Kentucky, second Commissioner of Baseball (d. 1991)===1901–present===1901 – Gerald Finzi, English composer and academic (d. 1956)1903 – Irving Stone, American author and educator (d. 1989)1907 – Chico Landi, Brazilian racing driver (d. 1989)1910 – William Hanna, American animator, director, producer, and actor, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (d. 2001)1911 – Pavel Prudnikau, Belarusian poet and author (d. 2000)1912 – Woody Guthrie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1967)1913 – Gerald Ford, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 38th President of the United States (d. 2006)1918 – Fred Baur, American chemist and founder of Pringles (d. 2008)* 1918 – Ingmar Bergman, Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)* 1918 – Arthur Laurents, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (d. 2011)* 1918 – Jay Wright Forrester, American computer engineer and systems scientist (d. 2016)1920 – Shankarrao Chavan, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Finance (d. 2004)1921 – Sixto Durán Ballén, American-Ecuadorian architect and politician, 48th President of Ecuador (d. 2016)* 1921 – Leon Garfield, English author (d. 1996)* 1921 – Armand Gaudreault, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2013)* 1921 – Geoffrey Wilkinson, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)1922 – Robin Olds, American general and pilot (d. 2007) 1922 – Elfriede Rinkel, German SS officer (d. 2018)* 1922 – Käbi Laretei, Estonian-Swedish concert pianist (d. 2014)1923 – René Favaloro, Argentine surgeon and cardiologist (d. 2000) 1923 – Dale Robertson, American actor (d. 2013)* 1923 – Robert Zildjian, American businessman, founded Sabian (d. 2013)1924 – Warren Giese, American football player, coach, and politician (d. 2013)1925 – Bruce L. Douglas, American politician1926 – Wallace Jones, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014) 1926 – Harry Dean Stanton, American actor, musician, and singer (d. 2017)* 1926 – Himayat Ali Shair, Urdu poet (d. 2019)1927 – John Chancellor, American journalist (d. 1996) 1927 – Mike Esposito, American author and illustrator (d. 2010)1928 – Nancy Olson, American actress 1928 – William Rees-Mogg, English journalist and public servant (d. 2012)1930 – Polly Bergen, American actress and singer (d. 2014) 1930 – Benoît Sinzogan, Beninese military officer and politician (d. 2021)1931 – Jacqueline de Ribes, French fashion designer and philanthropist1932 – Rosey Grier, American football player and actor* 1932 – Del Reeves, American country singer-songwriter (d. 2007)1933 – Robert Bourassa, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Premier of Quebec (d. 1996) 1933 – Dumaagiin Sodnom, Mongolian politician; 13th Prime Minister of Mongolia1936 – Robert F. Overmyer, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1996)1937 – Yoshiro Mori, Japanese journalist and politician, 55th Prime Minister of Japan1938 – Jerry Rubin, American activist, author, and businessman (d. 1994) 1938 – Tommy Vig, Hungarian vibraphone player, drummer, and composer1939 – Karel Gott, Czech singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2019) 1939 – George Edgar Slusser, American scholar and author (d. 2014)1940 – Susan Howatch, English author and academic1941 – Maulana Karenga, American philosopher, author, and activist, created Kwanzaa* 1941 – Andreas Khol, German-Austrian lawyer and politician1942 – Javier Solana, Spanish physicist and politician, Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs1945 – Jim Gordon, American rock drummer and convicted murderer (d. 2023)1946 – John Wood, Australian actor and screenwriter1947 – John Blackman, Australian radio and television presenter * 1947 – Claudia J. Kennedy, American general* 1947 – Salih Neftçi, Turkish economist and author (d. 2009)* 1947 – Navin Ramgoolam, Mauritius physician and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Mauritius1948 – Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu, Zulu king (d. 2021)1949 – Tommy Mottola, American businessman and music publisher 1950 – Bruce Oldfield, English fashion designer1960 – Anna Bligh, Australian politician, 37th Premier of Queensland* 1960 – Kyle Gass, American musician, comedian, and actor* 1960 – Angélique Kidjo, Beninese singer-songwriter, activist and actress* 1960 – Jane Lynch, American actress (Glee), comedian, author, and game show host1961 – Jackie Earle Haley, American actor and director1966 – Matthew Fox, American actor1967 – Robin Ventura, American baseball player1971 – Bubba Ray Dudley, American professional wrestler1975 – Tim Hudson, American baseball player1977 – Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden1984 – Samir Handanović, Slovenian footballer1985 – Darrelle Revis, American football player* 1985 – Phoebe Waller-Bridge, English actress and screenwriter1986 – Dan Smith, British singer, songwriter and record producer1987 – Adam Johnson, English footballer* 1987 – Dan Reynolds, American singer-songwriter1988 – Conor McGregor, Irish mixed martial artist 1988 – Jérémy Stravius, French swimmer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 664 – Eorcenberht, king of Kent * 809 – Otomo no Otomaro, Japanese general and Shogun (b.", "731)* 850 – Wei Fu, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty* 937 – Arnulf I, duke of Bavaria1223 – Philip II, king of France (b.", "1165)1262 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester, English soldier (b.", "1222)1486 – Margaret of Denmark, daughter of Christian I of Denmark (b.", "1456)1526 – John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, English peer, landowner, and Lord Great Chamberlain of England (b.", "1499)1575 – Richard Taverner, English translator (b.", "1505)===1601–1900===1614 – Camillus de Lellis, Italian priest and saint (b.", "1550)1723 – Claude Fleury, French historian and author (b.", "1640)1742 – Richard Bentley, English scholar and theologian (b.", "1662)1774 – James O'Hara, 2nd Baron Tyrawley, Irish field marshal (b.", "1682)1780 – Charles Batteux, French philosopher and academic (b.", "1713)1789 – Jacques de Flesselles, French politician (b.", "1721) 1789 – Bernard-René de Launay, French politician (b.", "1740)1790 – Ernst Gideon von Laudon, Austrian field marshal (b.", "1717)1809 – Nicodemus the Hagiorite, Greek monk and saint (b.", "1749)1816 – Francisco de Miranda, Venezuelan general (b.", "1750)1817 – Germaine de Staël, French philosopher and author (b.", "1766)1827 – Augustin-Jean Fresnel, French physicist and engineer, reviver of wave theory of light, inventor of catadioptric lighthouse lens (b.", "1788)1834 – Edmond-Charles Genêt, French-American diplomat (b.", "1763)1850 – August Neander, German historian and theologian (b.", "1789)1856 – Edward Vernon Utterson, English lawyer and historian (b.", "1775)1876 – John Buckley, English soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1813)1881 – William H. Bonney ''aka'' Billy the Kid, American gunfighter and outlaw (b.", "1859 or 1860)===1901–present===1904 – Paul Kruger, South African politician, 5th President of the South African Republic (b.", "1824)1907 – William Henry Perkin, English chemist and academic (b.", "1838)1910 – Marius Petipa, French dancer and choreographer (b.", "1818)1917 – Octave Lapize, French cyclist (b.", "1887)1918 – Quentin Roosevelt, American lieutenant and pilot (b.", "1897)1936 – Dhan Gopal Mukerji, Indian-American author and scholar (b.", "1890)1937 – Julius Meier, American businessman and politician, 20th Governor of Oregon (b.", "1874)1939 – Alphonse Mucha, Czech painter and illustrator (b.", "1860)1954 – Jacinto Benavente, Spanish author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1866)1965 – Adlai Stevenson II, American soldier and politician, 5th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b.", "1900)1966 – Julie Manet, French painter and art collector (b.", "1878)1967 – Tudor Arghezi, Romanian author and poet (b.", "1880)1968 – Konstantin Paustovsky, Russian author and poet (b.", "1892)1970 – Preston Foster, American actor (b.", "1900)1974 – Carl Spaatz, American World War II general; commander of the Strategic Air Forces in Europe (b.", "1891)1980 – Carlos López Moctezuma, Mexican actor (b.", "1909).", "1984 – Ernest Tidyman, American author and screenwriter; Academy Award winner for ''The French Connection'' (b.", "1928)1986 – Raymond Loewy, French-American industrial designer (b.", "1893)1991 – Constance Stokes, Australian painter (b.", "1906)1993 – Léo Ferré, Monacan singer-songwriter, pianist, and poet (b.", "1916)1998 – Richard McDonald, American businessman, co-founded McDonald's (b.", "1909)2000 – Pepo, Chilean cartoonist; creator of ''Condorito'' (b.", "1911)* 2005 – Cicely Saunders, English hospice founder (b.", "1918)2017 – Maryam Mirzakhani, Iranian mathematician (b.", "1977)2020 – Rosa, Spanish-born cow on French television (b.", "2001)2022 – Ivana Trump, Czech-American socialite and model (b.", "1949)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "John Keble's feast day is 14 July, the anniversary of his Assize Sermon on \"National Apostasy\" in 1833.", " Christian feast day:Boniface of SavoyGaspar de BonoCamillus of Lellis (Roman Catholic Church, except in the United States)Deusdedit of CanterburyJohn Keble (Church of England)Samson Occom (Episcopal Church (United States)*July 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Bastille Day (France and dependencies)International Non-Binary People's DayRepublic Day (Iraq)Victoria Day (Sweden).", "The birthday of Crown Princess Victoria is an official flag flying day in Sweden." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jackson, Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jackson''' is the only city and county seat of Jackson County in the U.S. state of Michigan.", "As of the 2020 census, the city population was 31,309.Located along Interstate 94 and U.S. Route 127, it is approximately west of Ann Arbor and south of Lansing.", "Jackson is the core city of the Jackson Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Jackson County and population of 160,248.Founded in 1829, it was named after President Andrew Jackson.", "Michigan's first prison, Michigan State Prison (or Jackson State Prison), opened in Jackson in 1838 and remains in operation.", "For the longest time, the city was known as the \"birthplace of the Republican Party\" when politicians met in Jackson in 1854 to argue against the expansion of slavery, although the political party now formally recognizes its birthplace as being Ripon, Wisconsin.", "Nevertheless, the Republican Party's earliest history dates back to Jackson and is commemorated by a plaque in the city's Under the Oaks City Park, which has since been visited by numerous Republican presidents.At the beginning of the twentieth century, Jackson became an early automotive manufacturing center that attracted southerners and immigrants to the city's numerous factories, which saw its population increase significantly." ], [ "History", "Jackson County Tower, Jackson's tallest building.On July 3, 1829, Horace Blackman, accompanied by Alexander Laverty, a land surveyor, and ''Pewytum'', an Indian guide, forded the Grand River and made camp for the night at a site now marked as Trail and N. Jackson Street.", "They arrived there along a well-traveled Native American trail leading west from Ann Arbor.", "Blackman had hired Laverty and Pewytum to guide him west.", "Returning to Ann Arbor and Monroe, Blackman registered his claim for at two dollars an acre.He returned to the Jackson area in August 1829 with his brother Russell.", "Together they cleared land and built a cabin at what would become the corner of Ingham and Trail streets.", "The town was first called Jacksonopolis.", "Later, it was renamed Jacksonburgh.", "Finally in 1838, the town's name was changed to simply Jackson.===Birthplace of the Republican Party – \"Under the Oaks\"===Jackson is one of the birthplaces of the Republican Party.", "The first official meeting of the group that called itself \"Republican\" was held in Jackson on July 6, 1854.A Michigan historical marker at what is now the northwest corner of Second and Franklin streets in Jackson commemorates an anti-slavery county convention held that day.", "Meeting outside to avoid a hot, overcrowded hall, the group ultimately selected a slate of candidates for state elections.", "The marker identifies this as the birth of the Republican Party.", "The site, an oak grove on \"Morgan's Forty\", then on the outskirts of town, became known as \"Under the Oaks\".===Auto industry===Before Detroit began building cars on assembly lines in 1910, Jackson factories were making parts for cars and putting them together.", "By 1910, the auto industry had become Jackson's main industry.", "More than 20 different brands of cars were once made in Jackson, including: Reeves, Jaxon, Jackson, CarterCar, Orlo, Whiting, Butcher and Gage; Buick, Janney, Globe, Steel Swallow, C.V.I., Imperial, Ames-Dean, Cutting, Standard Electric, Duck, Briscoe, Argo, Hollier, Hackett, Marion-Handly, Gem, Earl, Wolverine, and Kaiser-Darrin.", "Ye Ole Carriage Shop in Spring Arbor displays more than 60 antique and classic cars, including five one-and-onlys and 16 made in Jackson.", "One of these is a 1902 JAXON.", "Today the auto parts industry remains one of the largest employers of skilled machine operators in Jackson County.", "The city was also an early site for the moped parts industry.===Birthplace of the Coney Island hot dog===In 1914 Macedonian immigrant George Todoroff founded the first \"Coney Island restaurant\" and created his famous Coney Island hot dog topping.", "His Coney Island restaurant was located directly in front of the railroad station on East Michigan Avenue and was open 24 hours.", "The restaurant proved to be a popular dining option for rail passengers.", "Over the course of 31 years, Todoroff sold more than 17 million Coney Island hot dogs.", "Today two Coney Island restaurants unaffiliated with Todoroff's are located in a building near the train station on East Michigan Avenue, Virginia Coney Island and Jackson Coney Island.", "In addition, several area restaurants throughout the Jackson area offer their own version of the Coney Island hot dog, or just \"coney\" as referred to by local residents.", "Jackson's version of the coney dog is distinctly different from those featured in Detroit-area Coney Island restaurants or other Coney Island restaurants throughout Michigan and the Midwest.", "In 2014 Todoroff's Coney Island celebrated its centenary.===Michigan's first state prison (1838–1934) ===The legislature authorized Michigan's first state prison in 1838.A temporary wooden prison, enclosed by a fence of tamarack poles, was built on 60 acres donated for that purpose inside the city limits of Jackson.", "In 1839 the first 35 prisoners were received.", "A permanent prison was built three years later.", "Beginning in the 1850s, Warden H.F. Hatch placed more emphasis on the education and rehabilitation of prisoners.", "By 1882, Michigan's First State Prison (1838–1934) had developed as the largest walled prison in the world.", "Within its walls, the factories and surrounding farms, manned by cheap inmate labor, made Jackson one of the leading industrial cities in the nation.", "In 1934 a new prison was completed just north of Jackson's city limit in Blackman Township; it took all of the state prisoners.The historic building is now used as an artists' resident community, known as the Armory Arts Village.", "Tours of the original prison site on Cooper Street are available through the Original Jackson Historic Prison Tours.", "A closed, fully intact cell block at the modern prison in Blackman Township was operated as the Cell Block 7 Prison Museum from 2014-2019.Independently operated by the accredited Ella Sharp Museum, this was the only museum where visitors could enter a closed cell block on the grounds of an active prison for a self-guided tour.===Corset industry (1860s–1920s)===Numerous railroad connections were constructed to Jackson, connecting it to many markets.", "The local invention of the duplex corset by Bortree helped make Jackson a center of corset manufacturing.", "By the early 20th century, as many as 16 manufacturers of women's corsets operated here; the majority of which were located on Cortland and Pearl streets.", "As elastics were adopted in manufacturing and fashions changed, the corset industry quickly declined.", "The majority of the corset manufacturers in Jackson closed their doors by 1920.Only three of the original corset companies survived past the 1920s, by changing their production to therapeutic and prosthetic support garments and devices.", "\"The First\"Moses Bortree founded the Bortree Corset Company, the first corset manufacturer outside of New York, in 1868 at 112 W. Cortland.", "Founded to make crinoline skirts and bustles (hoop skirts!", "), they began manufacturing Bortree's newest creation, the Duplex Corset, in 1875.Within five years, production rose from 50,000 to 300,000 corsets per year.", "\"The Biggest\"Founded in 1884, the Jackson Corset Co. became the largest manufacturer of corset and waist garments in the US.", "Located at 209-215 W. Cortland St., they employed almost 300 people by 1895.", "\"Woman-Owned\"The Coronet Corset Manufactory opened in 1880 at 146 W. Main St. and later moved to 131-133 W. Pearl St. Coronet had the distinction of being run by the first and only female president, Mrs. C.A.", "McGee, who invented and patented the Coronet Corset.Sources: ''The History of Business and Industry in Jackson, Michigan'' by the Ella Sharp Museum, 1993 (available at Jackson District Library) and recent ''Jackson Citizen Patriot'' stories (available at http://www.mlive.com/jackson/)." ], [ "Geography", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (1.09%) is water." ], [ "Economy", "CMS Energy headquarters in downtown JacksonRestructuring in heavy industry in the mid-20th century caused a decline in jobs and population in many industrial cities, including Jackson.", "There are three major private employers in the city.", "CMS Energy provides natural gas and electrical services to much of Michigan and has its international headquarters in the city.", "The next two major employers are Henry Ford Health Systems (formerly Foote Hospital) and the Eaton Corporation.Michigan Automotive Compressor, Inc. (MACI) is the largest manufacturer in Jackson County and its fourth-largest individual employer.", "In February 2009 it began offering voluntary buyouts to its workers, in reaction to the slowing economy during the financial crisis.Family-owned food manufacturer and distributor Dawn Foods has been based in Jackson since 1920.Jackson Flexible Products, just outside the city, has been one of North America's premier custom-molded rubber specialists since 1969.The company employs over 35 people, providing components for the aerospace, automotive and defense industries.Jackson's state prison complex includes the first state prison building, which was expanded and became known as the largest walled prison in the world.", "Portions of the prison complex closed in 2007, including the Annex of the Charles Egeler Reception and Guidance Center Annex (RGC) and the Southern Michigan Correctional Facility (JMF).", "One of the closed cell blocks at JMF has been adapted and re-opened as the Cell Block 7 Prison Museum.The other facilities in the complex, including two in the old walled building, remain open: the G. Robert Cotton Correctional Facility (JCF), the Cooper Street Correctional Facility (JCS), the Charles Egeler Reception and Guidance Center (RGC), and the Parnall Correctional Facility (SMT)." ], [ "Government", "The city levies an income tax of 1 percent on residents and 0.5 percent on nonresidents.", "Federally, Jackson is located in Michigan's 5th congressional district, represented by Republican Tim Walberg." ], [ "Education", "Jackson is served by Jackson Public Schools.", "The Jackson urbanized area is home to approximately 16 elementary public schools, as well as about 16 private or parochial schools.", "It also has a large public middle school (The Middle School at Parkside).", "It has nine high schools: the public Jackson High School, East Jackson Secondary School (Public), Jackson County Western High School, and Northwest High School, T. A. Wilson Academy, Napoleon High School, and Vandercook Lake High School; and the private DaVinci Institute (Charter), Jackson Preparatory and Early College (Charter), and Jackson Christian School (Non-Denom), and Lumen Christi Catholic School (Catholic).There is adult and higher education as well: Jackson College (formerly Jackson Community College), Baker College, Career Quest Learning Centers, and Spring Arbor University.", "An additional 15 higher education institutions are within one hour of Jackson County." ], [ "Demographics", "===2010 census===As of the census of 2010, there were 33,534 people, 13,294 households, and 7,872 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 15,457 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 71.4% White, 20.4% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 1.6% from other races, and 5.5% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.3% of the population.There were 13,294 households, of which 35.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.7% were married couples living together, 22.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.8% were non-families.", "33.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.14.The median age in the city was 32.2 years.", "28.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.7% were from 25 to 44; 23.1% were from 45 to 64; and 10.3% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 47.7% male and 52.3% female.===2000 census===As of the census of 2000, there were 36,316 people, 14,210 households, and 8,668 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 15,241 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 73.87% White, 19.70% Black or African American, 0.56% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.65% from other races, and 3.67% from two or more races.", "4.05% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 14,210 households, out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.8% were married couples living together, 19.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.0% were non-families.", "32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.12.In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.7% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 31 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 91.0 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.5 males.The median income for a household in the city was $31,294, and the median income for a family was $39,072.Males had a median income of $31,957 versus $23,817 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $15,230.About 15.2% of families and 19.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.9% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over." ], [ "Places of worship", "Jackson has a number of notable historic churches, several of which were established prior to the American Civil War.", "The First Baptist Church was established in 1839; the present building, a Romanesque Revival structure, was dedicated in March 1872.The First Congregational Church is housed in a monumental Romanesque Revival building constructed in 1859.A basement was added after the structure had been in operation for several years.", "In 1871 the building was raised eight feet to accommodate lower-level classrooms.", "Its congregation has actively participated in local social reform efforts, becoming part of the antislavery movement in the 1840s and later supporting the temperance and the civil rights movement.", "St. Paul's Episcopal Church was also founded in 1839.The congregation's first church building, constructed in 1840, was replaced by a Romanesque Revival building in 1853; it is one of the oldest Episcopal Church structures in southern Michigan.Constructed in 1857, St. John's the Evangelist Church is the oldest Roman Catholic church in the city.", "It was established as a mission in 1836 to serve a congregation that was originally predominately Irish immigrants.", "Given the following waves of Catholic immigrants from other countries, its congregation today is more diverse.", "St. Mary Star of the Sea was established in 1881 as Jackson's second Catholic church.", "The present building, a limestone Romanesque structure built between 1923 and 1926, incorporates elements of the parish's first church as well as stained glass windows, marble altars and communion rails imported from Italy and Austria.", "The first and only Eastern Orthodox Church is St. Demetrius Orthodox Church, founded in 1958.Among the modern churches in the town is Westwinds Community Church, a non-denominational, evangelical Christian church.", "Founded in 1865 in a blacksmith shop, Community Jackson African Methodist Episcopal Church became the first place of worship for African Americans in Jackson County.", "Late 19th-century immigrants included Jews from Germany and eastern Europe.", "Jackson is home to Temple Beth Israel, a Reform synagogue founded in 1862 by German Jewish immigrants." ], [ "Transportation", "From the late nineteenth century into the mid-twentieth century, Jackson was a major railway hub and for over a century has been known as the crossroads of Michigan.", "Today the Michigan Central Railroad Jackson Depot on East Michigan Avenue is the nation's oldest train station in continuous active use.", "It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002.Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Jackson, operating its Wolverine three times daily in each direction between Chicago and Pontiac, Michigan, via Detroit.", "Baggage cannot be checked at this location; however, up to two suitcases, in addition to any \"personal items\" such as briefcases, purses, laptop bags, and infant equipment, are allowed on board as carry-ons.Jackson and Lansing Railroad (JAIL) owns a line from Jackson to Lansing, Michigan.", "Norfolk Southern (NS) owns a yard in Jackson as well.===Major highways===The junction of I-94 and US 127 was built at Jackson.", "*** is a north–south highway providing access northerly toward Lansing and Clare and southerly into Ohio.", "In the Jackson area, US 127 runs concurrently with I-94 for approximately .", "It is freeway from Jackson northerly past Lansing, while the freeway south of Jackson quickly transitions to a two-lane, uncontrolled access highway.", "* is a loop route running through downtown, connecting with US 127 at either end.", "* enters Jackson from the northwest, and exits southeast of town.", "* approaches Jackson from the southwest, ending at I-94 west of the city.", "* enters Jackson from the northeast and ends downtown.===Airport===Reynolds Field at Jackson County Airport is the main airport for the city.", "It hosted commercial service, primarily under the North Central Airlines banner, until 1984.With the \"Blue Goose\" aircraft now gone, the airport today operates as a general aviation facility.", "The 700-acre airport, equipped with an ILS system, is located just south of I-94 ( Airport Road exit #137).", "More than 100 general aviation aircraft are housed here, ranging from single-engine planes to business/corporate jet aircraft.The Airport is home to many related businesses, including the Jackson College Flight School, a restaurant, bar, and car rental.", "The Jackson Blues Festival is held here annually in June.===Public transportation===Jackson Area Transportation Authority operates ten routes Monday through Saturday out of a central station located downtown.", "Indian Trails replaced Greyhound Lines for intercity service from the JATA station on March 1, 2023.In addition to the publicly funded JATA, there are four private taxicab companies operating in town." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "The City of Jackson Parks and Recreation Department includes:* 1 18-hole golf course* 1 driving range* 1 horseshoe court* 1 miniature golf course* 1 outdoor swimming pool* 2 community recreation centers* 2 outdoor volleyball courts* 3 baseball fields* 7 picnic shelters* 11 soccer fields* 12 outdoor basketball courts* 17 softball fields – 4 lighted, 13 unlighted* 14 fully equipped playground areas* 26 parks, totaling 645 acresSome of the parks include:* Blackman Park: a small city park on Michigan Avenue in the middle of the city of Jackson, contains a fountain in the middle of the park honoring soldiers from the Civil War, a few benches and some foliage.", "* Bloomfield Park: a small park in the Jackson city limits on Michigan Avenue.", "There are picnic tables, basketball courts, tennis courts, baseball/softball fields and a small playground.", "* Falling Waters Trail: 10.5-mile asphalt rail-trail follows the old rail bed of the former Michigan Central Railroad from Weatherwax Road in Jackson to the village of Concord.", "The trail has been dedicated as a Jackson County Park.", "The trail is mostly rural, with only a few road crossings.", "It also crosses the Lime Lake County Park (5501 Teft Road) where you can drop a line for fish.", "The trail continues as the Intercity Trail for another 3.4 miles from Weatherwax Road to Morrell Street.", "* Sparks Park and The Cascades (AKA Cascade Falls Park): one of the larger parks in the country.", "The park contains the Cascades Championship Golf Course, one with 18 holes and a short course with 9 hole, as well as two large play structures, basketball court, baseball and softball fields and a popular paved walking path.", "It is famous for the Cascade Falls, which is one of the largest man-made waterfalls in the world, with 6 immense fountains, 3 reflecting pools and 16 falls.", "The Cascades Manor House hosts wedding receptions and corporate events.", "The park is also home to the Cascades Ice Cream Co. which opens when there is usually still snow on the ground and stays open until October.", "Every late August, the annual Cascades Civil War Muster is held there.", "There are some man-made ponds and wetlands with many types of water fowl.", "In 2012, the urban fishery opened, stocked with blue gill and large mouth bass.", "This pond features informative signs, a large picnic gazebo and a fishing pier, accessible by wheelchair.", "Part of it is in the city of Jackson, but most is in Summit Township.", "* Dahlem Environmental Education Center: is a nature center located in Summit Township in the southern part of the county.", "It has an educational center, five miles of trails, many ponds, wetlands, and a forest area.", "A resurfaced 3/8 mile trail has been specially redesigned for visitors with limited mobility.", "Dahlem is also known to have one of the largest eastern bluebird trails.", "* Ella Sharp Park: the largest city park located on 562 acres along the banks of the southwest branch of the Grand River in the city of Jackson.", "It consists of a golf course, a miniature golf course, a golf learning center, flower gardens, miles of hiking & biking trails, a basketball court, soccer fields, softball fields, the Peter Hurst Planetarium, and the Ella Sharp Museum.", "The Ella Sharp Park is the host to the annual Jackson Hot Air Jubilee in July.", "* Loomis Park: a shady park in the Jackson city limits.", "It consist of picnic tables, two outdoor basketball courts, two outdoor tennis courts, baseball/softball fields and a large wooden playground.", "The park also contains the Boos Recreation Center which hosts a variety of classes, events and workshops year-round.", "* Martin Luther King Center: a full service community center part of the Howard Charles Woods Recreational Complex, a park in the Jackson city limits.", "It has picnic tables, a playground, two outdoor basketball courts, a tennis court, two baseball/softball fields and a recreation area with some trees and foliage.", "* Nixon Park (William Nixon Memorial park): a water park in the city of Jackson.", "It has a public pool and water park including two large water slides.", "It has a skateboard park with ramps, a full-size inline hockey rink as well as four softball fields, playground equipment and a picnic shelter." ], [ "Sports", "JAX 60 Lanes in Jackson has hosted multiple professional ten-pin bowling events for the PBA Tour and PBA50 Tour.", "On July 16–23, 2023, the center hosted the inaugural PBA50 World Series of Bowling." ], [ "Notable people", "Claire Allen – architectFairuza Balk – actress, musician, and visual artist; lived here until the age of two with her mother, Cathryn BalkAustin Blair – governor of Michigan during Civil WarKara Braxton – WNBA basketball playerDan Coats – U.S. congressman and senator, representing Indiana, and Director of National Intelligence in the Trump administration.", "Tim Crabtree – Major League Baseball pitcherPhilip Campbell Curtis – artistTony Dungy – National Football League player and coach, won Super Bowl XLI, 2016 Pro Football Hall of Fame inducteePaula Faris – television correspondent for ABC News and ''The View''Idabelle Smith Firestone – songwriter, wife of tire mogul Harvey Samuel FirestoneLouise V. Gustin – ragtime composer, born in JacksonRaymond Salvatore Harmon – artistJack Harris – National Football League playerDave Hill – professional golferMike Hill – professional golferFred Janke – football player and mayor of JacksonDavid Johnson – jurist, lawyer, legislatorJames Earl Jones – stage and screen actor; lived here from the age of five with his maternal grandparentsRuth Ward Kahn – writerSteven Kampfer – National Hockey League player, Stanley Cup champion 2011 with Boston BruinsVivian Kellogg – All-American Girls Professional Baseball League playerKarch Kiraly – Olympic gold medalist and pro volleyball playerCheslie Kryst – Miss USA 2019 Mary Torrans Lathrap – poet, preacher, suffragist, social reformerRick Lenz – actorClarence Love – NFL player, Super Bowl champion with Baltimore RavensAlfred Lucking – U.S. congressmanAnna Theresa Berger Lynch – cornetist and trumpeter; lived and died in JacksonGene Markey – decorated naval officer, screenwriter; married to Hedy Lamarr and Myrna LoyTim McClelland – Major League Baseball umpireJames McDivitt – NASA astronautHarry Melling – NASCAR team owner, won two Daytona 500sCharles W. Misner – physicist, author of ''Gravitation'' Marcus Norris (born 1974) - basketball playerTyler Oakley – YouTuber and LGBT activist Rasmea Odeh – convicted of immigration fraud, for concealing her arrest, conviction, and imprisonment for fatal terrorist bombingJack Paar – television personality, host of ''Tonight Starring Jack Paar'', predecessor of Johnny CarsonDominic Pangborn – Korean-American artist and graphic designerU.E.", "Patrick – IndyCar team owner and three-time Indy 500 champion ownerAlonzo Sargent – locomotive engineerPotter Stewart – U.S. Supreme Court justiceWilbur F. Storey – publisher and editor, founder of ''Jackson Patriot'', owned ''Detroit Free Press''Brian Stuard – professional golferTyler Thomas – former Canadian Football League player and current Indoor Football League playerBrian VanGorder – football coach, defensive coordinator for Auburn, Notre Dame, NFL's Atlanta FalconsRick Wise – Major League Baseball pitcherAlfred Worden – NASA astronaut and one of 24 people to have travelled to the MoonWendy Wyland – diver, Olympic bronze medalist" ], [ "Sister cities", "* Varel, Germany* Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom" ], [ "Climate", "This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.", "According to the Köppen climate classification system, Jackson has a humid continental climate, abbreviated \"Dfb\" on climate maps." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Lights on Man-Made Cascade Colored Like Rainbow\" ''Popular Mechanics'', August 1932" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Irving" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Winslow Irving''' (born '''John Wallace Blunt Jr.'''; March 2, 1942) is an American-Canadian novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter.Irving achieved critical and popular acclaim after the international success of ''The World According to Garp'' in 1978.Many of Irving's novels, including ''The Hotel New Hampshire'' (1981), ''The Cider House Rules'' (1985), ''A Prayer for Owen Meany'' (1989), and ''A Widow for One Year'' (1998), have been bestsellers.", "He won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay in the 72nd Academy Awards (1999) for his script of ''The Cider House Rules''.Five of his novels have been adapted into films (''Garp'', ''Hotel'', ''Meany'', ''Cider'', and ''Widow'').", "Several of Irving's books (''Garp'', ''Meany'', and ''Widow'') and short stories have been set in and around Phillips Exeter Academy in the town of Exeter, New Hampshire." ], [ "Early life", "Irving was born John Wallace Blunt Jr. in Exeter, New Hampshire, the son of Helen Frances (née Winslow) and John Wallace Blunt Sr., a writer and executive recruiter; but the couple separated during pregnancy.", "Irving grew up in Exeter with a stepfather, Colin Franklin Newell Irving, who was a Phillips Exeter Academy faculty member.", "His uncle Hammy Bissell was also part of the faculty.", "John Irving was in the Phillips Exeter wrestling program as a student athlete and as an assistant coach, and wrestling features prominently in his books, stories, and life.", "While a student at Exeter, Irving was taught by author and Christian theologian Frederick Buechner, whom he quoted in an epigraph in ''A Prayer for Owen Meany''.", "Irving has dyslexia.Irving's biological father, whom he never met, had been a pilot in the Army Air Forces and, during World War II, was shot down over Burma in July 1943, but survived.", "(The incident was incorporated into his novel ''The Cider House Rules''.)", "Irving did not find out about his father's heroism until 1981, when he was almost 40 years old." ], [ "Career", "Irving's career began at the age of 26 with the publication of his first novel, ''Setting Free the Bears'' (1968).", "The novel was reasonably well reviewed but failed to gain a large readership.", "In the late 1960s, he studied with Kurt Vonnegut at the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop.", "His second and third novels, ''The Water-Method Man'' (1972) and ''The 158-Pound Marriage'' (1974), were similarly received.", "In 1975, Irving accepted a position as assistant professor of English at Mount Holyoke College.Frustrated at the lack of promotion his novels were receiving from his first publisher, Random House, Irving offered his fourth novel, ''The World According to Garp'' (1978), to Dutton, which promised him stronger commitment to marketing.", "The novel became an international bestseller and cultural phenomenon.", "It was a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction in 1979 (which ultimately went to Tim O'Brien for ''Going After Cacciato'') and its first paperback edition won the Award the next year.From 1980 to 1983 in National Book Awards history there were dual hardcover and paperback awards in most categories, and multiple fiction categories, especially in 1980.Most of the paperback award-winners were reprints, including this one.", "''Garp'' was later made into a film directed by George Roy Hill and starring Robin Williams in the title role and Glenn Close as his mother; it garnered several Academy Award nominations, including nominations for Close and John Lithgow.", "Irving makes a brief cameo appearance in the film as the referee in one of Garp's high school wrestling matches.John Irving ''The World According to Garp'' was among three books recommended to the Pulitzer Advisory Board for consideration for the 1979 Award in Fiction in the Pulitzer Jury Committee report, although the award was given to ''The Stories of John Cheever'' (1978).", "''Garp'' transformed Irving from an obscure, academic literary writer to a household name, and his subsequent books were bestsellers.", "The next was ''The Hotel New Hampshire'' (1981), which sold well despite mixed reviews from critics.", "Like ''Garp'', the novel was quickly made into a film, this time directed by Tony Richardson and starring Jodie Foster, Rob Lowe, and Beau Bridges.", "\"Interior Space\", a short story originally published in ''Fiction'' magazine in 1980, later appeared in the 1981 O. Henry Prize Stories collection.In 1985, Irving published ''The Cider House Rules''.", "An epic set in a Maine orphanage, the novel's central topic is abortion.", "Many drew parallels between the novel and Charles Dickens' ''Oliver Twist'' (1838).", "Irving's next novel was ''A Prayer for Owen Meany'' (1989), another New England family epic about religion set in a New England boarding school and in Toronto, Ontario.", "The novel was influenced by ''The Tin Drum'' (1959) by Günter Grass, and the plot contains further allusions to ''The Scarlet Letter'' (1850) by Nathaniel Hawthorne and the works of Dickens.", "In ''Owen Meany,'' Irving for the first time examined the consequences of the Vietnam War—particularly mandatory conscription, which Irving avoided because he was a married father when of age for the draft.", "''Owen Meany'' became Irving's best selling book since ''Garp.", "''Irving returned to Random House for his next book, ''A Son of the Circus'' (1995).", "Arguably his most complicated and difficult book, and a departure from many of the themes and location settings in his previous novels, it was dismissed by critics but became a national bestseller on the strength of Irving's reputation for fashioning literate, engrossing page-turners.", "Irving returned in 1998 with ''A Widow for One Year'', which was named a ''New York Times'' Notable Book.In 1999, after nearly 10 years in development, Irving's screenplay for ''The Cider House Rules'' was made into a film directed by Lasse Hallström, starring Michael Caine, Tobey Maguire, Charlize Theron, and Delroy Lindo.", "Irving also made a cameo appearance as the disapproving stationmaster.", "The film was nominated for several Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and earned Irving an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.Soon afterward, Irving wrote ''My Movie Business'', a memoir about his involvement in creating the film version of ''The Cider House Rules''.", "After its publication in 1999, Irving appeared on the CBC Television program ''Hot Type'' to promote the book.", "During the interview, Irving criticized bestselling American author Tom Wolfe, saying Wolfe \"can't write\", and that Wolfe's writing makes Irving gag.", "Wolfe appeared on ''Hot Type'' later that year, calling Irving, Norman Mailer, and John Updike his \"three stooges\" who were panicked by his newest novel, ''A Man in Full'' (1998).Irving's 10th book, ''The Fourth Hand'' (2001), also became a bestseller.", "In 2004, ''A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound'', a children's picture book originally included in ''A Widow for One Year'', was published with illustrations by Tatjana Hauptmann.", "Irving's 11th novel, ''Until I Find You'', was released on July 12, 2005.On June 28, 2005, ''The New York Times'' published an article revealing that ''Until I Find You'' (2005) contains two specifically personal elements about his life that he had never before discussed publicly: his sexual abuse at age 11 by an older woman, and the recent entrance in his life of his biological father's family.In his 12th novel, ''Last Night in Twisted River'', published in 2009, Irving's central character is a novelist with, as critic Boyd Tonkin puts it, \"a career that teasingly follows Irving's own\".Irving has had four novels reach number one on the bestseller list of ''The New York Times'': ''The Hotel New Hampshire'' (September 27, 1981), which stayed number one for seven weeks, and was in the top 15 for over 27 weeks; ''The Cider House Rules'' (June 16, 1985); ''A Widow for One Year'' (June 14, 1998); and ''The Fourth Hand'' (July 29, 2001)." ], [ "Other projects", "Irving in the Netherlands (1989)Since the publication of ''Garp'' made him independently wealthy, Irving has sporadically accepted short-term teaching positions (including one at his ''alma mater'', the Iowa Writers' Workshop) and served as an assistant coach on his sons' high school wrestling teams.", "(Irving was inducted into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame as an \"Outstanding American\" in 1992.)", "In addition to his novels, he has also published ''Trying to Save Piggy Sneed'' (1996), a collection of his writings including a brief memoir and unpublished short fiction, ''My Movie Business'', an account of the protracted process of bringing ''The Cider House Rules'' to the big screen, and ''The Imaginary Girlfriend'', a short memoir focusing on writing and wrestling.", "In 2000, Irving revealed that he and Tod \"Kip\" Williams were co-writing a screenplay for an adaptation of the novel ''A Widow for One Year'' (1998).", "This adaptation became ''The Door in the Floor'', starring Jeff Bridges and Kim Basinger, released in 2004, directed by Williams.In 2002, his four most highly regarded novels, ''The World According to Garp'', ''The Cider House Rules'', ''A Prayer for Owen Meany'', and ''A Widow for One Year'', were published in Modern Library editions.", "''Owen Meany'' was adapted into the 1998 film ''Simon Birch'' (Irving required that the title and character names be changed because the screenplay's story was \"markedly different\" from that of the novel; Irving is on record as having enjoyed the film, however).In 2005, Irving received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.In a ''New York Magazine'' interview in 2009, Irving stated that he had begun work on a new novel, his 13th, based in part on a speech from Shakespeare's ''Richard II.''", "Simon & Schuster published the novel, titled ''In One Person'' (2012), taking over from Random House.", "''In One Person'' has a first-person viewpoint, Irving's first such narrative since ''A Prayer for Owen Meany'' (Irving decided to change the first-person narrative of ''Until I Find You'' to third person less than a year before publication).", "''In One Person'' features a 60-year-old, bisexual protagonist named William, looking back on his life in the 1950s and '60s.", "The novel shares a similar theme and concern with ''The World According to Garp'', the latter book being, in part, about \"people who hate you for your sexual differences,\" said Irving.He won a Lambda Literary Award in 2013 in the Bisexual Fiction category for ''In One Person'', and was also awarded the organization's Bridge Builder Award to honor him as an ally of the LGBT community.On June 10, 2013, Irving announced his next novel, his 14th, titled ''Avenue of Mysteries'', named after a street in Mexico City.", "In an interview the previous year, he had revealed the last line of the book: \"Not every collision course comes as a surprise.", "\"On December 19, 2014, Irving posted a message on the Facebook page devoted to him and his work that he had \"finished 'Avenue of Mysteries.'", "It is a shorter novel for me, comparable in length to 'In One Person.'\"", "Irving speculated that \"if everything remains on schedule, the English-language editions should be published in fall 2015.\"", "Simon & Schuster published the book in November, 2015.On November 3, 2015, Irving revealed that he'd been approached by HBO and Warner Brothers to reconstruct ''The World According to Garp'' as a miniseries.", "He described the project as being in the early stages.According to the byline of a self-penned, February 20, 2017, essay for The Hollywood Reporter, Irving completed his teleplay for the five-part series based on ''The World According to Garp'', and he is currently working on his fifteenth novel.On June 28, 2017, Irving revealed in a long letter to fans on Facebook that his new novel will be, primarily, a ghost story.", "\"...I have a history of being interested in ghosts.", "And here come the ghosts again.", "In my new novel, my fifteenth, the ghosts are more prominent than before; the novel begins and ends with them.", "Like ''A Widow for One Year'', this novel is constructed as a play in three acts.", "I'm calling Act I 'Early Signs.'", "I began writing it on New Year's Eve—not a bad night to start a ghost story.", "\"On August 1, 2017, an update about Irving's fifteenth, in-progress, novel, was posted to his Facebook page: \"It's been 45 years since John Irving published ''The Water-Method Man''.", "While his second novel is regarded as a purely comic tale, and John's current project is a darker contemplation of life's disruptive forces, the two novels bear some resemblance to one another.", "John Irving is once again experimenting with framed narratives and writing about the evolution of a writer—like Bogus Trumper, one who writes screenplays.", "This time, we see the main character—Adam Brewster—mature, from childhood and early adolescence, to become a writer like Garp, or Ruth Cole, or Juan Diego, as if writing were an inevitability given the fateful circumstances of his life.", "And, along the way, despite the darkness, there are points of humor.", "John's work in progress may ultimately be his funniest novel since ''The Water-Method Man''.", "\"In an interview with Mike Kilen for ''The Des Moines Register'', published on October 26, 2017, Irving revealed that the title of his new novel-in-progress is ''Darkness As a Bride''.", "The title comes from lines in Shakespeare's play, ''Measure for Measure:'' \"If I must die, / I will encounter darkness as a bride, / and hug it in mine arms.\"", "He later changed the title to \"The Last Chairlift\".In July 2018, the Dayton Literary Peace Prize announced Irving would be the recipient of the 2018 Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award at its annual gala October 28, 2018, in Dayton, Ohio." ], [ "Works", "===Novels===* ''Setting Free the Bears'' (Random House, 1968) * ''The Water-Method Man'' (Random House, 1972) * ''The 158-Pound Marriage'' (Random House, 1974) * ''The World According to Garp'' (Dutton, 1978) * ''The Hotel New Hampshire'' (Dutton, 1981) * ''The Cider House Rules'' (William Morrow, 1985) * ''A Prayer for Owen Meany'' (William Morrow, 1989) * ''A Son of the Circus'' (Random House, 1994) * ''A Widow for One Year'' (Random House, 1998) * ''The Fourth Hand'' (Random House, 2001) * ''Until I Find You'' (Random House, 2005) * ''Last Night in Twisted River'' (Random House, 2009) * ''In One Person'' (Simon & Schuster, 2012) )* ''Avenue of Mysteries'' (Simon & Schuster, 2015) )* ''The Last Chairlift'' (Simon & Schuster, 2022) ===Short fiction===* ''Trying to Save Piggy Sneed'' (Arcade Publishing, 1996) ===Other fiction===* ''The Cider House Rules: A Screenplay'' (1999)* ''A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound'' (children's) (2004)===Nonfiction===* ''The Imaginary Girlfriend'' (1995)* ''My Movie Business'' (1999)=== Filmography based on writings ===* ''The World According to Garp'' (1982) * ''The Hotel New Hampshire'' (1984)* ''Simon Birch'' (1998) (partly based on ''A Prayer for Owen Meany'')* ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999)* ''The Door in the Floor'' (2004) (based on ''A Widow for One Year'')" ], [ "Personal life", "In 1964, Irving married Shyla Leary, whom he had met at Harvard in 1963 while taking a summer course in German, before traveling to Vienna with IES Abroad.", "They have two sons, Colin and Brendan.", "The couple divorced in the early 1980s.", "In 1987, he married Janet Turnbull, who had been his publisher at Bantam-Seal Books and is now one of his literary agents.", "They have a daughter, Eva Everett, born in 1991.In 2015, Eva came out as a trans woman.Irving has homes in Vermont, Toronto, and Pointe au Baril, Ontario.", "On December 13, 2019, Irving became a Canadian citizen, and plans to keep his U.S. citizenship, commenting that he reserves the right to be outspoken about the United States and his dislike of Donald Trump, whom he referred to as vulgar, narcissistic, and xenophobic.Irving was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2007 and subsequently had a radical prostatectomy.Irving is a second cousin of academic Amy Bishop, who was convicted of perpetrating the 2010 University of Alabama in Huntsville shooting.In 2018, Irving was an honorary degree recipient at Williams College." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Derbyshire, Jonathan .", "John Irving interviewed.", "''New Statesman''.", "** Sargent, Colin W. \" Singular First Person\".", "''Portland Magazine'', May 2012.", "* Shindler, Dorman T.. \"John Irving Wrestles Fate\".", "''Book'', July/August 2001.", "* Shindler, Dorman T.. \"The Creative Crucible\".", "''Pages'', July/August 2005." ], [ "External links", "* ** Literary Encyclopedia* * * ''The New York Times'' — Featured Author: John Irving" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 16" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1458 BC – Hatshepsut dies at the age of 50 and is buried in the Valley of the Kings.", "27 BC – Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus is granted the title Augustus by the Roman Senate, marking the beginning of the Roman Empire.", "* 378 – General Siyaj K'ak' conquers Tikal, enlarging the domain of King Spearthrower Owl of Teotihuacán.", "* 550 – Gothic War: The Ostrogoths, under King Totila, conquer Rome after a long siege, by bribing the Isaurian garrison.", "* 929 – Emir Abd-ar-Rahman III establishes the Caliphate of Córdoba.", "1120 – Crusades: The Council of Nablus is held, establishing the earliest surviving written laws of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.", "1362 – Saint Marcellus's flood kills at least 25,000 people on the shores of the North Sea.", "1537 – Bigod's Rebellion, an armed insurrection attempting to resist the English Reformation, begins.", "1547 – Grand Duke Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia, replacing the 264-year-old Grand Duchy of Moscow with the Tsardom of Russia.", "1556 – Philip II becomes King of Spain.", "1572 – Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk is tried and found guilty of treason for his part in the Ridolfi plot to restore Catholicism in England.===1601–1900===1605 – The first edition of ''El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha'' (Book One of ''Don Quixote'') by Miguel de Cervantes is published in Madrid, Spain.", "1707 – The Scottish Parliament ratifies the Act of Union, paving the way for the creation of Great Britain.", "1716 – King Philip V of Spain promulgates the Nueva Planta decree of the Principality of Catalonia, abolishing the Catalan institutions and most of its legislation, being replaced by those of the Castile, thus putting an end to Catalonia as a separate political entity and becoming a province of the new French-style Kingdom of Spain.", "1757 – Forces of the Maratha Empire defeat a 5,000-strong army of the Durrani Empire in the Battle of Narela.", "1780 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Cape St.", "Vincent.", "1786 – Virginia enacts the Statute for Religious Freedom authored by Thomas Jefferson.", "1809 – Peninsular War: The British defeat the French at the Battle of La Coruña.", "1847 – Westward expansion of the United States: John C. Frémont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory.", "1862 – Hartley Colliery disaster: Two hundred and four men and boys killed in a mining disaster, prompting a change in UK law which henceforth required all collieries to have at least two independent means of escape.", "1878 – Russo-Turkish War (1877–78): Battle of Philippopolis: Captain Aleksandr Burago with a squadron of Russian Imperial army dragoons liberates Plovdiv from Ottoman rule.", "1883 – The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, establishing the United States Civil Service, is enacted by Congress.", "1900 – The United States Senate accepts the Anglo-German treaty of 1899 in which the United Kingdom renounces its claims to the Samoan islands.===1901–present===1909 – Ernest Shackleton's expedition finds the magnetic South Pole.", "1919 – Nebraska becomes the 36th state to approve the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "With the necessary three-quarters of the states approving the amendment, Prohibition is constitutionally mandated in the United States one year later.", "1920 – The League of Nations holds its first council meeting in Paris, France.", "1921 – The Marxist Left in Slovakia and the Transcarpathian Ukraine holds its founding congress in Ľubochňa.", "1942 – The Holocaust: Nazi Germany begins deporting Jews from the Łódź Ghetto to Chełmno extermination camp.", " 1942 – Crash of TWA Flight 3, killing all 22 aboard, including film star Carole Lombard.", "1945 – World War II: Adolf Hitler moves into his underground bunker, the so-called Führerbunker.", "1959 – Austral Líneas Aéreas Flight 205 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean near Astor Piazzolla International Airport in Mar del Plata, Argentina, killing 51.", "1969 – Czech student Jan Palach commits suicide by self-immolation in Prague, Czechoslovakia, in protest against the Soviets' crushing of the Prague Spring the year before.", " 1969 – Space Race: Soviet spacecraft ''Soyuz 4'' and ''Soyuz 5'' perform the first-ever docking of crewed spacecraft in orbit, the first-ever transfer of crew from one space vehicle to another, and the only time such a transfer was accomplished with a space walk.", "1979 – Iranian Revolution: The last Iranian Shah flees Iran with his family for good and relocates to Egypt.", "1983 – Turkish Airlines Flight 158 crashes at Ankara Esenboğa Airport in Ankara, Turkey, killing 47 and injuring 20.", "1991 – Coalition Forces go to war with Iraq, beginning the Gulf War.", "1992 – El Salvador officials and rebel leaders sign the Chapultepec Peace Accords in Mexico City, Mexico ending the 12-year Salvadoran Civil War that claimed at least 75,000 lives.", "1995 – An avalanche hits the Icelandic village Súðavík, destroying 25 homes and burying 26 people, 14 of whom died.", "2001 – Second Congo War: Congolese President Laurent-Désiré Kabila is assassinated by one of his own bodyguards in Kinshasa.", "* 2001 – US President Bill Clinton awards former President Theodore Roosevelt a posthumous Medal of Honor for his service in the Spanish–American War.", "2002 – War in Afghanistan: The UN Security Council unanimously establishes an arms embargo and the freezing of assets of Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda, and the remaining members of the Taliban.", "2003 – The Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' takes off for mission STS-107 which would be its final one.", "''Columbia'' disintegrated 16 days later on re-entry.", "2006 – Ellen Johnson Sirleaf is sworn in as Liberia's new president.", "She becomes Africa's first female elected head of state.", "2011 – Syrian civil war: The Movement for a Democratic Society (TEV-DEM) is established with the stated goal of re-organizing Syria along the lines of democratic confederalism.", "2012 – The Mali War begins when Tuareg militias start fighting the Malian government for independence.", "2016 – Thirty-three out of 126 freed hostages are injured and 23 killed in terrorist attacks in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso on a hotel and a nearby restaurant.", "2017 – Turkish Airlines Flight 6491 crashes into a residential area near Manas International Airport in Kyrgyzstan, killing 39 people.", "2018 – Myanmar police open fire on a group of ethnic Rakhine protesters, killing seven and wounding twelve.", "2020 – The first impeachment of Donald Trump formally moves into its trial phase in the United States Senate.", " 2020 – The United States Senate ratifies the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement as a replacement for NAFTA." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 972 – Sheng Zong, emperor of the Liao Dynasty (d. 1031)1093 – Isaac Komnenos, son of Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos (d. 1152)1245 – Edmund Crouchback, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (d. 1296)1362 – Robert de Vere, duke of Ireland (d. 1392)1409 – René of Anjou, king of Naples (d. 1480)1477 – Johannes Schöner, German astronomer and cartographer (d. 1547)1501 – Anthony Denny, confidant of Henry VIII of England (d. 1559)1516 – Bayinnaung, king of Burma (d. 1581)1558 – Jakobea of Baden, Margravine of Baden by birth, Duchess of Jülich-Cleves-Berg by marriage (d. 1597)===1601–1900===1616 – François de Vendôme, duke of Beaufort (d. 1669)1626 – Lucas Achtschellinck, Belgian painter and educator (d. 1699)1630 – Guru Har Rai, Sikh Guru (d. 1661)1634 – Dorothe Engelbretsdatter, Norwegian author and poet (d. 1716)1653 – Johann Conrad Brunner, Swiss anatomist (d. 1727)1675 – Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1755)1691 – Peter Scheemakers, Belgian sculptor and educator (d. 1781)1728 – Niccolò Piccinni, Italian composer and educator (d. 1800)1749 – Vittorio Alfieri, Italian poet and playwright (d. 1803)1757 – Richard Goodwin Keats, English admiral and politician, third Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1834)1807 – Charles Henry Davis, American admiral (d. 1877)1815 – Henry Halleck, American lawyer, general, and scholar (d. 1872)1821 – John C. Breckinridge, American general and politician, 14th Vice President of the United States (d. 1875)1834 – Robert R. Hitt, American lawyer and politician, 13th United States Assistant Secretary of State (d. 1906)1836 – Francis II of the Two Sicilies (d. 1894)1838 – Franz Brentano, German philosopher and psychologist (d. 1917)1844 – Ismail Qemali, Albanian civil servant and politician, first Prime Minister of Albania (d. 1919) 1851 – William Hall-Jones, English-New Zealand politician, 16th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1936)1853 – Johnston Forbes-Robertson, English actor and manager (d. 1937) 1853 – Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton, Greek-English general (d. 1947)* 1853 – André Michelin, French businessman, co-founded the Michelin Tyre Company (d. 1931)1870 – Jüri Jaakson, Estonian businessman and politician, State Elder of Estonia (d. 1942)1872 – Henri Büsser, French organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1973)1874 – Robert W. Service, English-Canadian poet and author (d. 1958)1875 – Leonor Michaelis, German biochemist and physician (d. 1949)1876 – Claude Buckenham, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1937)1878 – Harry Carey, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1947)1880 – Samuel Jones, American high jumper (d. 1954)1882 – Margaret Wilson, American author (d. 1973)1885 – Zhou Zuoren, Chinese author and translator (d. 1967)1888 – Osip Brik, Russian avant garde writer and literary critic (d. 1945)1892 – Homer Burton Adkins, American chemist (d. 1949)1893 – Daisy Kennedy, Australian-English violinist (d. 1981)1894 – Irving Mills, American publisher (d. 1985)1895 – Evripidis Bakirtzis, Greek soldier and politician (d. 1947)* 1895 – T. M. Sabaratnam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1966)* 1895 – Nat Schachner, American lawyer, chemist, and author (d. 1955)1897 – Carlos Pellicer, Mexican poet and academic (d. 1977)1898 – Margaret Booth, American producer and editor (d. 2002)* 1898 – Irving Rapper, American film director and producer (d. 1999)1900 – Kiku Amino, Japanese author and translator (d. 1978) 1900 – Edith Frank, German-Dutch mother of Anne Frank (d. 1945)===1901–present===1901 – Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, ninth President of Cuba (d. 1973) 1901 – Frank Zamboni, American businessman and inventor (d. 1988)1902 – Eric Liddell, Scottish runner, rugby player, and missionary (d. 1945)1903 – William Grover-Williams, English-French racing driver (d. 1945)1905 – Ernesto Halffter, Spanish composer and conductor (d. 1989)1906 – Johannes Brenner, Estonian footballer and pilot (d. 1975)* 1906 – Diana Wynyard, English actress (d. 1964)1907 – Alexander Knox, Canadian-English actor and screenwriter (d. 1995) 1907 – Paul Nitze, American banker and politician, tenth United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 2004)1908 – Sammy Crooks, English footballer (d. 1981) 1908 – Ethel Merman, American actress and singer (d. 1984)* 1908 – Günther Prien, German captain (d. 1941)1909 – Clement Greenberg, American art critic (d. 1994)1910 – Dizzy Dean, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1974)1911 – Ivan Barrow, Jamaican cricketer (d. 1979) 1911 – Eduardo Frei Montalva, Chilean lawyer and politician, 28th President of Chile (d. 1982)* 1911 – Roger Lapébie, French cyclist (d. 1996)1914 – Roger Wagner, French-American conductor and educator (d. 1992)1915 – Leslie H. Martinson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2016)1916 – Philip Lucock, English-Australian minister and politician (d. 1996)1917 – Carl Karcher, American businessman, founded Carl's Jr. (d. 2008)1918 – Nel Benschop, Dutch poet and educator (d. 2005) 1918 – Allan Ekelund, Swedish director, producer, and production manager (d. 2009)* 1918 – Clem Jones, Australian surveyor and politician, eighth Lord Mayor of Brisbane (d. 2007)* 1918 – Stirling Silliphant, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1996)1919 – Jerome Horwitz, American chemist and academic (d. 2012)1920 – Elliott Reid, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2013)1921 – Francesco Scavullo, American photographer (d. 2004)1923 – Gene Feist, American director and playwright, co-founded the Roundabout Theatre Company (d. 2014)* 1923 – Anthony Hecht, American poet (d. 2004)1924 – Katy Jurado, Mexican actress (d. 2002) 1924 – Allen Swift, American actor, writer, playwright, and magician (d. 2010)1925 – Peter Hirsch, German-English metallurgist and academic 1925 – James Robinson Risner, American general and pilot (d. 2013)1928 – William Kennedy, American novelist and journalist 1928 – Pilar Lorengar, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 1996)1929 – Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Sri Lankan anthropologist and academic (d. 2014)1930 – Mary Ann McMorrow, American lawyer and judge (d. 2013)* 1930 – Norman Podhoretz, American journalist and author* 1930 – Paula Tilbrook, English actress (d. 2019)1931 – John Enderby, English physicist and academic (d. 2021) 1931 – Robert L. Park, American physicist and academic (d. 2020)* 1931 – Johannes Rau, German journalist and politician, eighth Federal President of Germany (d. 2006)1932 – Victor Ciocâltea, Romanian chess player (d. 1983) 1932 – Dian Fossey, American zoologist and anthropologist (d. 1985)1933 – Susan Sontag, American novelist, essayist, and critic (d. 2004)1934 – Bob Bogle, American rock guitarist and bass player (d. 2009)* 1934 – Marilyn Horne, American soprano and actress1935 – A. J. Foyt, American race car driver 1935 – Udo Lattek, German footballer, manager, and sportscaster (d. 2015)1936 – Michael White, Scottish actor and producer (d. 2016)1937 – Luiz Bueno, Brazilian racing driver (d. 2011)* 1937 – Francis George, American cardinal (d. 2015)1938 – Marina Vaizey, American journalist and critic1939 – Ralph Gibson, American photographer1941 – Claire Gordon, English actress and comedian (d. 2015) 1941 – Christine Truman, English tennis player and sportscaster1942 – René Angélil, Canadian singer and manager (d. 2016) 1942 – Barbara Lynn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1943 – Michael Attwell, English actor (d. 2006) 1943 – Gavin Bryars, English bassist and composer* 1943 – Brian Ferneyhough, British composer* 1943 – Ronnie Milsap, American singer and pianist1944 – Dieter Moebius, Swiss-German keyboard player and producer (d. 2015) 1944 – Jim Stafford, American singer-songwriter and actor* 1944 – Jill Tarter, American astronomer and biologist* 1944 – Judy Baar Topinka, American journalist and politician (d. 2014)1945 – Wim Suurbier, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2020)1946 – Kabir Bedi, Indian actor* 1946 – Katia Ricciarelli, Italian soprano and actress1947 – Elaine Murphy, Baroness Murphy, English academic and politician 1947 – Harvey Proctor, English politician* 1947 – Laura Schlessinger, American physiologist, talk show host, and author1948 – John Carpenter, American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer 1948 – Ants Laaneots, Estonian general* 1948 – Ruth Reichl, American journalist and critic* 1948 – Cliff Thorburn, Canadian snooker player1949 – Anne F. Beiler, American businesswoman, founded Auntie Anne's 1949 – R. F. Foster, Irish historian and academic* 1949 – Andrew Refshauge, Australian physician and politician, 13th Deputy Premier of New South Wales1950 – Debbie Allen, American actress, dancer, and choreographer 1950 – Robert Schimmel, American comedian, actor, and producer (d. 2010)1952 – Fuad II, King of Egypt 1952 – Piercarlo Ghinzani, Italian racing driver and manager1953 – Robert Jay Mathews, American militant, founded The Order (d. 1984)1954 – Robin Davies, Welsh actor (d. 2010)* 1954 – Wolfgang Schmidt, German discus thrower* 1954 – Vasili Zhupikov, Russian footballer and coach (d. 2015)1955 – Jerry M. Linenger, American captain, physician, and astronaut1956 – Wayne Daniel, Barbadian cricketer* 1956 – Gerald Henderson, American basketball player* 1956 – Martin Jol, Dutch footballer and manager* 1956 – Greedy Smith, Australian singer-songwriter and keyboardist (d. 2019)1957 – Jurijs Andrejevs, Latvian footballer and manager 1957 – Ricardo Darín, Argentinian actor, director, and screenwriter1958 – Anatoli Boukreev, Russian mountaineer and explorer (d. 1997) 1958 – Lena Ek, Swedish lawyer and politician, ninth Swedish Minister for the Environment* 1958 – Andris Šķēle, Latvian businessman and politician, fourth Prime Minister of Latvia1959 – Lisa Milroy, Canadian painter and educator 1959 – Sade, Nigerian-English singer-songwriter and producer1961 – Kenneth Sivertsen, Norwegian guitarist and composer (d. 2006)1962 – Joel Fitzgibbon, Australian electrician and politician, 51st Australian Minister of Defence* 1962 – Maxine Jones, American R&B singer–songwriter and actress1963 – James May, English journalist and television presenter1964 – Gail Graham, Canadian golfer 1966 – Jack McDowell, American baseball player1968 – David Chokachi, American actor* 1968 – Rebecca Stead, American author1969 – Marinus Bester, German footballer 1969 – Stevie Jackson, Scottish guitarist and songwriter* 1969 – Roy Jones Jr., American boxer1970 – Don MacLean, American basketball player and sportscaster1971 – Sergi Bruguera, Spanish tennis player and coach* 1971 – Josh Evans, American film producer, screenwriter and actor* 1971 – Jonathan Mangum, American actor1972 – Ruben Bagger, Danish footballer 1972 – Ang Christou, Australian footballer* 1972 – Yuri Alekseevich Drozdov, Russian footballer and manager* 1972 – Ezra Hendrickson, Vincentian footballer and manager* 1972 – Joe Horn, American football player and coach* 1972 – Richard T. Jones, American actor1973 – Josie Davis, American actress1974 – Kate Moss, English model and fashion designer1975 – Marc Jackson, American basketball player and sportscaster1976 – Viktor Maslov, Russian racing driver* 1976 – Martina Moravcová, Slovak swimmer1977 – Jeff Foster, American basketball player1978 – Alfredo Amézaga, Mexican baseball player1979 – Aaliyah, American singer and actress (d. 2001) 1979 – Brenden Morrow, Canadian ice hockey player* 1979 – Jason Ward, Canadian ice hockey player1980 – Lin-Manuel Miranda, American actor, playwright, and composer 1980 – Albert Pujols, Dominican-American baseball player* 1980 – Seydou Keïta, Malian footballer1981 – Jamie Lundmark, Canadian ice hockey player 1981 – Paul Rofe, Australian cricketer* 1981 – Nick Valensi, American musician and songwriter* 1981 – Bobby Zamora, English footballer1982 – Preston, English singer-songwriter 1982 – Birgitte Hjort Sørensen, Danish actress* 1982 – Tuncay, Turkish footballer1983 – Emanuel Pogatetz, Austrian footballer 1983 – Andriy Rusol, Ukrainian footballer1984 – Stephan Lichtsteiner, Swiss footballer 1984 – Miroslav Radović, Serbian footballer1985 – Joe Flacco, American football player 1985 – Jayde Herrick, Australian cricketer* 1985 – Gintaras Januševičius, Russian-Lithuanian pianist* 1985 – Sidharth Malhotra, Indian actor* 1985 – Jonathan Richter, Danish-Gambian footballer * 1985 – Simon Richter, Danish-Gambian footballer* 1985 – Renée Felice Smith, American actress 1986 – Johannes Rahn, German footballer 1986 – Mark Trumbo, American baseball player* 1986 – Reto Ziegler, Swiss footballer1987 – Jake Epstein, Canadian actor 1987 – Charlotte Henshaw, English swimmer* 1987 – Greivis Vásquez, Venezuelan basketball player1988 – Nicklas Bendtner, Danish footballer 1988 – Jorge Torres Nilo, Mexican footballer* 1988 – FKA Twigs, English singer-songwriter and actress1990 – Dennis Kelly, American football player1991 – Matt Duchene, Canadian ice hockey player1992 – Jason Zucker, American ice hockey player1993 – Hannes Anier, Estonian footballer* 1993 – Amandine Hesse, French tennis player1994 – Mikko Lehtonen, Finnish ice hockey player1995 – Jonathan Allen, American football player* 1995 – Mikaela Turik, Australian-Canadian cricketer* 1995 – Tre'Davious White, American football player1996 – Jennie, South Korean singer 1996 – Zhou Qi, Chinese basketball player1998 – Boo Seung-kwan, South Korean singer2000 – Andrew Nembhard, Canadian basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 654 – Gao Jifu, Chinese politician and chancellor (b.", "596)* 957 – Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ali al-Madhara'i, Tulunid vizier (b.", "871)* 970 – Polyeuctus of Constantinople, Byzantine patriarch (b.", "956)1263 – Shinran Shonin, Japanese founder of the Jodo Shinshu branch of Pure Land Buddhism (b.", "1173)1289 – Buqa, Mongol minister1327 – Nikephoros Choumnos, Byzantine monk, scholar, and politician (b.", "1250)1354 – Joanna of Châtillon, duchess of Athens (b. c.1285)1373 – Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (b.", "1342)1391 – Muhammed V of Granada, Nasrid emir (b.", "1338)1400 – John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter, English politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (b.", "1352)1443 – Erasmo of Narni, Italian mercenary (b.", "1370)1545 – George Spalatin, German priest and reformer (b.", "1484)1547 – Johannes Schöner, German astronomer and cartographer (b.", "1477)1554 – Christiern Pedersen, Danish publisher and scholar (b.", "1480)1585 – Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln, English admiral and politician (b.", "1512)1595 – Murad III, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1546)===1601–1900===1635 – Mariana de Jesús Torres, Spanish nun and mystic (b.", "1563)1659 – Charles Annibal Fabrot, French lawyer (b.", "1580)1710 – Higashiyama, Japanese emperor (b.", "1675)1711 – Joseph Vaz, Indian-Sri Lankan priest and saint (b.", "1651)1747 – Barthold Heinrich Brockes, German poet and playwright (b.", "1680)1748 – Arnold Drakenborch, Dutch lawyer and scholar (b.", "1684)1750 – Ivan Trubetskoy, Russian field marshal and politician (b.", "1667)1752 – Francis Blomefield, English historian and author (b.", "1705)1794 – Edward Gibbon, English historian and politician (b.", "1737)1809 – John Moore, Scottish general and politician (b.", "1761)1817 – Alexander J. Dallas, Jamaican-American lawyer and politician, sixth United States Secretary of the Treasury (b.", "1759)1834 – Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1769)1856 – Thaddeus William Harris, American entomologist and botanist (b.", "1795)1864 – Anton Schindler, Austrian secretary and author (b.", "1795)1865 – Edmond François Valentin About, French journalist and author (b.", "1828)1879 – Octave Crémazie, Canadian-French poet and bookseller (b.", "1827)1886 – Amilcare Ponchielli, Italian composer and academic (b.", "1834)1891 – Léo Delibes, French pianist and composer (b.", "1836)1898 – Charles Pelham Villiers, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1802)===1901–present===1901 – Jules Barbier, French poet and playwright (b.", "1825) 1901 – Arnold Böcklin, Swiss painter and academic (b.", "1827)* 1901 – Hiram Rhodes Revels, American soldier, minister, and politician (b.", "1822)* 1901 – Mahadev Govind Ranade, Indian scholar, social reformer, judge and author (b.", "1842)1906 – Marshall Field, American businessman and philanthropist, founded Marshall Field's (b.", "1834)1917 – George Dewey, American admiral (b.", "1837)1919 – Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves, Brazilian lawyer and politician, fifth President of Brazil (b.", "1848)1933 – Bekir Sami Kunduh, Turkish politician (b.", "1867)1936 – Albert Fish, American serial killer, rapist and cannibal (b.", "1870)1938 – Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay Indian author and playwright (b.", "1876)1942 – Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (b.", "1850) 1942 – Villem Grünthal-Ridala, Estonian poet and linguist (b.", "1885)* 1942 – Carole Lombard, American actress and comedian (b.", "1908)* 1942 – Ernst Scheller, German lawyer and politician, Mayor of Marburg (b.", "1899)1957 – Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone, English general and politician, 16th Governor General of Canada (b.", "1874) 1957 – Arturo Toscanini, Italian cellist and conductor (b.", "1867)1959 – Phan Khôi, Vietnamese journalist and author (b.", "1887)1961 – Max Schöne, German swimmer (b.", "1880)1962 – Frank Hurley, Australian photographer, director, producer, and cinematographer (b.", "1885) 1962 – Ivan Meštrović, Croatian sculptor and architect, designed the Monument to the Unknown Hero (b.", "1883)1967 – Robert J.", "Van de Graaff, American physicist and academic (b.", "1901)1968 – Bob Jones Sr., American evangelist, founded Bob Jones University (b.", "1883)* 1968 – Panagiotis Poulitsas, Greek archaeologist and judge (b.", "1881)1969 – Vernon Duke, Russian-American composer and songwriter (b.", "1903)1971 – Philippe Thys, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1890)1972 – Teller Ammons, American soldier and politician, 28th Governor of Colorado (b.", "1895) 1972 – Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor, created ''Alvin and the Chipmunks'' (b.", "1919)1973 – Edgar Sampson, American musician and composer (b.", "1907)1975 – Israel Abramofsky, Russian-American painter (b.", "1888)1978 – A. V. Kulasingham, Sri Lankan journalist, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1890)1981 – Bernard Lee, English actor (b.", "1908)1983 – Virginia Mauret, American musician and dancer1986 – Herbert W. Armstrong, American evangelist, author, and publisher (b.", "1892)1987 – Bertram Wainer, Australian physician and activist (b.", "1928)1988 – Andrija Artuković, Croatian politician, war criminal, and Porajmos perpetrator, first Minister of Interior of the Independent State of Croatia (b.", "1899)1990 – Lady Eve Balfour, British farmer, educator, and founding figure in the organic movement (b.", "1898)1995 – Eric Mottram, English poet and critic (b.", "1924)1996 – Marcia Davenport, American author and critic (b.", "1903) 1996 – Kaye Webb, English journalist and publisher (b.", "1914)1999 – Jim McClelland, Australian lawyer, jurist, and politician, 12th Minister for Industry and Science (b.", "1915)2000 – Robert R. Wilson, American physicist and academic (b.", "1914)2001 – Auberon Waugh, English author and journalist (b.", "1939)2002 – Robert Hanbury Brown, English astronomer and physicist (b.", "1916)2003 – Richard Wainwright, English politician (b.", "1918)2004 – Kalevi Sorsa, Finnish politician 34th Prime Minister of Finland (b.", "1930)2005 – Marjorie Williams, American journalist and author (b.", "1958)2006 – Stanley Biber, American soldier and physician (b.", "1923)2009 – Joe Erskine, American boxer and runner (b.", "1930) 2009 – John Mortimer, English lawyer and author (b.", "1923)* 2009 – Andrew Wyeth, American painter (b.", "1917)2010 – Glen Bell, American businessman, founded Taco Bell (b.", "1923) 2010 – Takumi Shibano, Japanese author and translator (b.", "1926)2012 – Joe Bygraves, Jamaican-English boxer (b.", "1931) 2012 – Jimmy Castor, American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (b.", "1940)* 2012 – Sigursteinn Gíslason, Icelandic footballer and manager (b.", "1968)* 2012 – Lorna Kesterson, American journalist and politician (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Gustav Leonhardt, Dutch pianist, conductor, and musicologist (b.", "1928)2013 – Wayne D. Anderson, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1930) 2013 – André Cassagnes, French technician and toy maker, created the Etch A Sketch (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Gussie Moran, American tennis player and sportscaster (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Pauline Phillips, American journalist and radio host, created Dear Abby (b.", "1918)* 2013 – Glen P. Robinson, American businessman, founded Scientific Atlanta (b.", "1923)2014 – Gary Arlington, American author and illustrator (b.", "1938) 2014 – Ruth Duccini, American actress (b.", "1918)* 2014 – Dave Madden, Canadian-American actor (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Hiroo Onoda, Japanese lieutenant (b.", "1922)2015 – Miriam Akavia, Polish-Israeli author and translator (b.", "1927) 2015 – Yao Beina, Chinese singer (b.", "1981)2016 – Joannis Avramidis, Greek sculptor (b.", "1922) 2016 – Ted Marchibroda, American football player and coach (b.", "1931)2017 – Eugene Cernan, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1934)2018 – Ed Doolan, British radio presenter (b.", "1941)* 2018 – Oliver Ivanović, Kosovo Serb politician (b.", "1953)2019 – John C. Bogle, American businessman, investor, and philanthropist (b.", "1929) 2019 – Lorna Doom, American musician (b.", "1958)* 2019 – Chris Wilson, Australian musician (b.", "1956)2020 – Christopher Tolkien, British academic and editor (b.", "1924)2021 – Pedro Trebbau, German-born Venezuelan zoologist (b.", "1929)* 2021 – Chris Cramer, British journalist (b.", "1948)* 2021 – Phil Spector, American record producer, songwriter (b.", "1939)2022 – Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, Former Malian President (b.", "1945)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Pope Benjamin (Coptic)Berard of CarbioBlaise (Armenian Apostolic)FurseyJoseph VazHonoratus of ArlesPope Marcellus ISolemnity of Mary, Mother of God (Coptic Church)Titian of OderzoEve of Saint Anthony observed with ritual bonfires in San Bartolomé de Pinares*January 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)National Religious Freedom Day (United States)Teacher's Day (Myanmar)Teachers' Day (Thailand)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 16" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Juno" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Juno''' commonly refers to:Juno (mythology), the Roman goddess of marriage and queen of the gods''Juno'' (film), the 2007 film'''Juno''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts, entertainment and media", "===Fictional characters===Juno, in the film ''Jenny, Juno''Juno, in the film ''Beetlejuice''Juno, a character in the manga series ''Beastars''Sailor Juno, a character in the manga series ''Sailor Moon''Juno (''Dune''), in the ''Dune'' universeJuno Boyle, in the play ''Juno and the Paycock''Juno, in the book ''Juno of Taris'' by Fleur BealeJuno, a playable character in the video game ''Jet Force Gemini''* Juno, a game character in ''Assassin's Creed''* Juno, in ''The Banner Saga'' game* Juno Eclipse, a character in the ''Star Wars Legends'' universe* Mega Man Juno, in ''Mega Man Legends'' game* Juno, in ''Omega Strikers'' game===Music=======Musicians and groups====Juno (band), an American musical groupJuno (rapper), Finnish hip hop artistJuno (singer), South Korean singer====Songs==== \"Juno\", a song by Life Without Buildings from ''Any Other City'', 2001* \"Juno\", a song by Running Touch, 2021* \"Juno\", a song by Tesseract from the album ''Sonder'', 2018* \"Juno\", a song by Throwing Muses from the album ''House Tornado'', 1988* \"Juno\", a song by Tokyo Police Club from the album ''Elephant Shell'', 2008* \"Juno\", a song by Funeral for a Friend from the album ''Between Order and Model'', 2002* \"JUNO\", a song by Blank Banshee from the album ''MEGA''* \"Juno\", a song by Cavetown from the album ''Worm Food''====Other uses in music====* ''Juno'' (album), a 2021 album by Remi Wolf* ''Juno'' (musical), 1959* ''Juno'' (soundtrack), the soundtrack to the film* Juno Awards, a Canadian music award* Juno, synthesizers by the Roland Corporation" ], [ "Business", "Juno (cigarette), a German brandJuno (company), a transportation network company formed in 2016Juno Online Services, an internet service providerJuno Records, an online music storeJuno Therapeutics, a biopharmaceutical company Juno, a German home appliance manufacturer, now part of Electrolux" ], [ "People", "===Given name===Juno Birch, English drag queen and sculptorJuno Calypso (born 1989), English photographerJuno Dawson, English authorJuno Doran, visual and sound artist Juno Mak, Hong Kong Chinese pop singerJuno Frankie Pierce (1864-1954), African-American suffragistJuno Roxas (born 1967), Australian musicianJuno Sauler (born 1973), Filipino basketball coachJuno Temple (born 1989), English actress===Surname===Madeline Juno (born 1995), German singer-songwriter" ], [ "Places", "===United States===Juno, GeorgiaJuno, TennesseeJuno, Texas===Elsewhere===Juno, Limpopo, South AfricaJuno Beach (disambiguation)" ], [ "Science and technology", "Juno (plant), common name of ''Iris'' subg.", "''Scorpiris''Juno (protein), a protein on the surface of the mammalian egg cell that facilitates fertilisationJiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO), a neutrino experiment in Jiangmen, ChinaEclipse Juno, an Eclipse software development environmentOpenStack Juno, an OpenStack open-source software platform===Space===Juno (spacecraft), a NASA mission to Jupiter3 Juno, an asteroid*Juno clump, a probable asteroid family in the vicinity of 3 JunoJuno I, a satellite launch vehicleJuno II, a rocketProject Juno, a private British space programme" ], [ "Transportation", "* HMS ''Juno'', a list of ships * MV ''Juno'', a list of ships* ''Juno'' (1793 ship), an English whaler and naval transport* ''Juno'' (1797 ship), an English merchantman* Honda Juno, a scooter* Juno Racing Cars* Juno, a locomotive in the South Devon Railway Dido class* Juno, a locomotive in the GWR Banking Class" ], [ "Other uses", "January 2015 North American blizzard, informally called Juno" ], [ "See also", "Juneau (disambiguation)Junos OS, Juniper Networks Operating SystemJUNOS – Young liberal NEOS" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Justus von Liebig" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Justus ''Freiherr'' von Liebig''' (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German scientist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and is considered one of the principal founders of organic chemistry.", "As a professor at the University of Giessen, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded as one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time.", "He has been described as the \"father of the fertilizer industry\" for his emphasis on nitrogen and trace minerals as essential plant nutrients, and his formulation of the law of the minimum, which described how plant growth relied on the scarcest nutrient resource, rather than the total amount of resources available.", "He also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and with his consent a company, called Liebig Extract of Meat Company, was founded to exploit the concept; it later introduced the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube.", "He popularized an earlier invention for condensing vapors, which came to be known as the Liebig condenser." ], [ "Early life and education", "The young Liebig: 1843 lithograph after an 1821 painting (Liebighaus)Justus Liebig was born in Darmstadt into the middle-class family of Johann Georg Liebig and Maria Caroline Möser in early May 1803.His father was a drysalter and hardware merchant who compounded and sold paints, varnishes, and pigments, which he developed in his own workshop.", "From childhood, Justus was fascinated with chemistry.At the age of 13, Liebig lived through the year without a summer, when the majority of food crops in the Northern Hemisphere were destroyed by a volcanic winter.", "Germany was among the hardest-hit nations in the global famine that ensued, and the experience is said to have shaped Liebig's later work.", "Due in part to Liebig's innovations in fertilizers and agriculture, the 1816 famine became known as \"the last great subsistence crisis in the Western world\".Liebig attended grammar school at the Ludwig-Georgs-Gymnasium in Darmstadt, from the ages of 8 to 14.Leaving without a certificate of completion, he was apprenticed for several months to the apothecary Gottfried Pirsch (1792–1870) in Heppenheim before returning home, possibly because his father could not afford to pay his indentures.", "He worked with his father for the next two years, then attended the University of Bonn, studying under Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner, his father's business associate.", "When Kastner moved to the University of Erlangen, Liebig followed him.Liebig left Erlangen in March 1822, in part because of his involvement with the radical Korps Rhenania (a nationalist student organization), but also because of his hopes for more advanced chemical studies.", "The circumstances are clouded by possible scandal.", "In late October 1822 Liebig went to study in Paris on a grant obtained for him by Kastner from the Hessian government.", "He worked in the private laboratory of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and was also befriended by Alexander von Humboldt and Georges Cuvier (1769–1832).", "Liebig's doctorate from Erlangen was conferred on 23 June 1823, a considerable time after he left, as a result of Kastner's intervention on his behalf.", "Kastner pleaded that the requirement of a dissertation be waived, and the degree granted ''in absentia''." ], [ "Research and development", "Justus von Liebig, by Wilhelm Trautschold, ''circa'' 1846Liebig left Paris to return to Darmstadt in April 1824.On 26 May 1824, at the age of 21 and with Humboldt's recommendation, Liebig became a professor ''extraordinarius'' at the University of Giessen.", "Liebig's appointment was part of an attempt to modernize the University of Giessen and attract more students.", "He received a small stipend, without laboratory funding or access to facilities.His situation was complicated by the presence of existing faculty: Professor Wilhelm Zimmermann (1780–1825) taught general chemistry as part of the philosophy faculty, leaving medical chemistry and pharmacy to Professor Philipp Vogt in the medical faculty.", "Vogt was happy to support a reorganization in which pharmacy was taught by Liebig and became the responsibility of the faculty of arts, rather than the faculty of medicine.", "Zimmermann found himself competing unsuccessfully with Liebig for students and their lecture fees.", "He refused to allow Liebig to use existing space and equipment, and finally committed suicide on 19 July 1825.The deaths of Zimmermann and a Professor Blumhof who taught technology and mining opened the way for Liebig to apply for a full professorship.", "Liebig was appointed to the ''Ordentlicher'' chair in chemistry on 7 December 1825, receiving a considerably increased salary and a laboratory allowance.Liebig married Henriette \"Jettchen\" Moldenhauer (1807–1881), the daughter of a state official, in May 1826.They had five children, Georg (1827–1903), Agnes (1828–1862), Hermann (1831–1894), Johanna (1836–1925), and Marie (1845–1920).", "Although Liebig was Lutheran and Jettchen Catholic, their differences in religion appear to have been resolved amicably by bringing their sons up in the Lutheran religion and their daughters as Catholics.===Transforming chemistry education===Liebig's laboratory at Giessen, by Wilhelm TrautscholdLiebig's laboratory, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat Company Trading Card, 1929Liebig and several associates proposed to create an institute for pharmacy and manufacturing within the university.", "The Senate, however, uncompromisingly rejected their idea, stating that training \"apothecaries, soapmakers, beer-brewers, dyers and vinegar-distillers\" was not the university's task.", "As of 17 December 1825, they ruled that any such institution would have to be a private venture.", "This decision actually worked to Liebig's advantage.", "As an independent venture, he could ignore university rules and accept both matriculated and unmatriculated students.", "Liebig's institute was widely advertised in pharmaceutical journals, and opened in 1826.Its classes in practical chemistry and laboratory procedures for chemical analysis were taught in addition to Liebig's formal courses at the university.From 1825 to 1835, the laboratory was housed in the guardroom of a disused barracks on the edge of town.", "The main laboratory space was about in size and included a small lecture room, a storage closet, and a main room with ovens and work tables.", "An open colonnade outside could be used for dangerous reactions.", "Liebig could work there with eight or nine students at a time.", "He lived in a cramped apartment on the floor above with his wife and children.Liebig was one of the first chemists to organize a laboratory in its present form, engaging with students in empirical research on a large scale through a combination of research and teaching.", "His methods of organic analysis enabled him to direct the analytical work of many graduate students.", "Liebig's students were from many of the German states, as well as Britain and the United States, and they helped create an international reputation for their ''Doktorvater.''", "His laboratory became renowned as a model institution for the teaching of practical chemistry.", "It was also significant for its emphasis on applying discoveries in fundamental research to the development of specific chemical processes and products.In 1833, Liebig was able to convince chancellor Justin von Linde to include the institute within the university.", "In 1839, he obtained government funds to build a lecture theatre and two separate laboratories, designed by architect Paul Hofmann.", "The new chemistry laboratory featured innovative glass-fronted fume cupboards and venting chimneys.", "By 1852, when he left Giessen for Munich, more than 700 students of chemistry and pharmacy had studied with Liebig.===Instrumentation===Drawing of apparatus from Liebig's ''Manuel pour l'analyse des substances organiques'', 1848, ''Kaliapparat'' in lower rightModern reproduction of the ''Kaliapparat'' apparatusModern Liebig condenser (left) and West condenser (right)A significant challenge facing 19th-century organic chemists was the lack of instruments and methods of analysis to support accurate, replicable analyses of organic materials.", "Many chemists worked on the problem of organic analysis, including French Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Swedish Jöns Jacob Berzelius, before Liebig developed his version of an apparatus for determining the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen content of organic substances in 1830.It involved an array of five glass bulbs, called a Kaliapparat to trap the oxidation product of the carbon in the sample, following combustion of the sample.", "Before reaching the Kaliapparat, the combustion gases were conducted through a tube of hygroscopic calcium chloride, which absorbed and retained the oxidation product of the hydrogen of the sample, namely water vapor.", "Next, in the Kaliapparat, carbon dioxide was absorbed in a potassium hydroxide solution in the three lower bulbs, and used to measure the weight of carbon in the sample.", "For any substance consisting only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the percentage of oxygen was found by subtracting the carbon and hydrogen percentages from 100%; the remainder must be the percentage of oxygen.", "A charcoal furnace (a sheet-steel tray in which the combustion tube was laid) was used for the combustion.", "Weighing carbon and hydrogen directly, rather than estimating them volumetrically, greatly increased the method's accuracy of measurement.", "Liebig's assistant Carl Ettling perfected glass-blowing techniques for producing the Kaliapparat, and demonstrated them to visitors.", "Liebig's kaliapparat simplified the technique of quantitative organic analysis and rendered it routine.", "Brock suggests that the availability of a superior technical apparatus was one reason why Liebig was able to attract so many students to his laboratory.", "His method of combustion analysis was used pharmaceutically, and certainly made possible many contributions to organic, agricultural and biological chemistry.Liebig also popularized use of a counter-current water-cooling system for distillation, still referred to as a Liebig condenser.", "Liebig himself attributed the vapor condensation device to German pharmacist Johann Friedrich August Gottling, who had made improvements in 1794 to a design discovered independently by German chemist Christian Ehrenfried Weigel in 1771, by French scientist, P. J. Poisonnier in 1779, and by Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin in 1791.Although it was not widely adopted until after Liebig's death, when safety legislation finally prohibited the use of mercury in making mirrors, Liebig proposed a process for silvering that eventually became the basis of modern mirror-making.", "In 1835, he reported that aldehydes reduce silver salts to metallic silver.", "After working with other scientists, Carl August von Steinheil approached Liebig in 1856 to see if he could develop a silvering technique capable of producing high-quality optical mirrors for use in reflecting telescopes.", "Liebig was able to develop blemish-free mirrors by adding copper to ammoniated silver nitrate and sugar.", "An attempt to commercialize the process and \"drive out mercury mirror-making and its injurious influence on workers' health\" was unsuccessful.=== Organic chemistry ===Liebig laboratory, GiessenLiebig-Museum, the pharmaceutical laboratory, GiessenOne of Liebig's frequent collaborators was Friedrich Wöhler.", "They met in 1826 in Frankfurt, after independently reporting on the preparation of two substances, cyanic acid and fulminic acid, that apparently had the same composition, but very different characteristics.", "The silver fulminate investigated by Liebig, was explosive, whereas the silver cyanate found by Wöhler, was not.", "After reviewing the disputed analyses together, they agreed that both were valid.", "The discovery of these and other substances led Jöns Jacob Berzelius to suggest the idea of isomers, substances that are defined not simply by the number and kind of atoms in the molecule, but also by the arrangement of those atoms.In 1832, Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds.", "They transformed pure oil into several halogenated compounds, which were further transformed in other reactions.", "Throughout these transformations, \"a single compound\" (which they named benzoyl) \"preserves its nature and composition unchanged in nearly all its associations with other bodies.\"", "Their experiments proved that a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms can behave like an element, take the place of an element, and can be exchanged for elements in chemical compounds.", "This laid the foundation for the doctrine of compound radicals, which can be seen as an early step in the development of structural chemistry.The 1830s were a period of intense investigation of organic compounds by Liebig and his students, and of vigorous debate about the theoretical implications of their results.", "Liebig published on a wide variety of topics, personally averaging 30 papers per year between 1830 and 1840.Liebig not only isolated individual substances, but also studied their interrelationships and the ways in which they degraded and metamorphosed into other substances, looking for clues to the understanding of both chemical composition and physiological function.", "Other significant contributions by Liebig during this time include his examination ofthe nitrogen content of bases;the study of chlorination and the isolation of chloral (1832);the identification of the ethyl radical (1834);the oxidation of alcohol and formation of aldehyde (1835);the polybasic theory of organic acids (1838);and the degradation of urea (1837).Writing about the analysis of urine, a complex organic product, he made a declaration that reveals both the changes that were occurring in chemistry over a short time and the impact of his own work.", "At a time when many chemists such as Jöns Jakob Berzelius still insisted on a hard and fast separation between the organic and inorganic, Liebig asserted:Liebig's arguments against any chemical distinction between living (physiological) and dead chemical processes proved a great inspiration to several of his students and others who were interested in materialism.", "Though Liebig distanced himself from the direct political implications of materialism, he tacitly supported the work of Carl Vogt (1817–1895), Jacob Moleschott (1822–1893), and Ludwig Büchner (1824–1899).===Plant nutrition===By the 1840s, Liebig was attempting to apply theoretical knowledge from organic chemistry to real-world problems of food availability.", "His book ''Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie'' (''Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology'') (1840) promoted the idea that chemistry could revolutionize agricultural practice, increasing yields and lowering costs.", "It was widely translated, vociferously critiqued, and highly influential.Liebig's book discussed chemical transformations within living systems, both plant and animal, outlining a theoretical approach to agricultural chemistry.", "The first part of the book focused on plant nutrition, the second was on chemical mechanisms of putrefaction and decay.", "Liebig's awareness of both synthesis and degradation led him to become an early advocate of conservation, promoting ideas such as the recycling of sewage.Liebig argued against prevalent theories about role of humus in plant nutrition, which held that decayed plant matter was the primary source of carbon for plant nutrition.", "Fertilizers were believed to act by breaking down humus, making it easier for plants to absorb.", "Associated with such ideas was the belief that some sort of \"vital force\" distinguished reactions involving organic as opposed to inorganic materials.Early studies of photosynthesis had identified carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen as important, but disagreed over their sources and mechanisms of action.", "Carbon dioxide was known to be taken in and oxygen released during photosynthesis, but researchers suggested that oxygen was obtained from carbon dioxide, rather than from water.", "Hydrogen was believed to come primarily from water.", "Researchers disagreed about whether sources of carbon and nitrogen were atmospheric or soil-based.", "Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure's experiments, reported in ''Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation'' (1804), suggested that carbon was obtained from atmospheric rather than soil-based sources, and that water was a likely source of hydrogen.", "He also studied the absorption of minerals by plants, and observed that mineral concentrations in plants tended to reflect their presence in the soil in which the plants were grown.", "However, the implications of De Saussure's results for theories of plant nutrition were neither clearly discussed nor easily understood.Liebig reaffirmed the importance of De Saussures' findings, and used them to critique humus theories, while regretting the limitations of De Saussure's experimental techniques.", "Using more precise methods of measurement as a basis for estimation, he pointed out contradictions such as the inability of existing soil humus to provide enough carbon to support the plants growing in it.", "By the late 1830s, researchers such as Karl Sprengel were using Liebig's methods of combustion analysis to assess manures, concluding that their value could be attributed to their constituent minerals.", "Liebig synthesized ideas about the mineral theory of plant nutrition and added his own conviction that inorganic materials could provide nutrients as effectively as organic sources.In his theory of mineral nutrients, Liebig identified the chemical elements of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) as essential to plant growth.", "He reported that plants acquire carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) from the atmosphere and from water (H2O).", "In addition to emphasizing the importance of minerals in the soil, he argued that plants feed on nitrogen compounds derived from the air.", "This assertion was a source of contention for many years, and turned out to be true for legumes, but not for other plants.Liebig's barrelLiebig also popularized Carl Sprengel's \"theorem of minimum\" (known as the law of the minimum), stating that plant growth is not determined by the total resources available, but by the scarcest available resource.", "A plant's development is limited by the one essential mineral that is in the relatively shortest supply.", "This concept of limitation can be visualized as \"Liebig's barrel\", a metaphorical barrel in which each stave represents a different element.", "A nutrient stave that is shorter than the others will cause the liquid contained in the barrel to spill out at that level.", "This is a qualitative version of the principles used for determining the application of fertilizer in modern agriculture.", "''Organic Chemistry'' was not intended as a guide to practical agriculture.", "Liebig's lack of experience in practical applications, and differences between editions of the book, fueled considerable criticism.", "Nonetheless, Liebig's writings had a profound impact on agriculture, spurring experiment and theoretical debate in Germany, England, and France.One of his most recognized accomplishments is the development of nitrogen-based fertilizer.", "In the first two editions of his book (1840, 1842), Liebig reported that the atmosphere contained insufficient nitrogen, and argued that nitrogen-based fertilizer was needed to grow the healthiest possible crops.", "Liebig believed that nitrogen could be supplied in the form of ammonia, and recognized the possibility of substituting chemical fertilizers for natural ones (animal dung, etc.", ")He later became convinced that nitrogen was sufficiently supplied by precipitation of ammonia from the atmosphere, and argued vehemently against the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers for many years.", "An early commercial attempt to produce his own fertilizers was unsuccessful, due to lack of nitrogen in the mixtures.", "When tested in a farmer's field, Liebig's manure was found to have no appreciable effect.Liebig's difficulties in reconciling theory and practice reflected that the real world of agriculture was more complex than was at first realized.", "By the publication of the seventh German edition of ''Agricultural Chemistry'' he had moderated some of his views, admitting some mistakes and returning to the position that nitrogen-based fertilizers were beneficial or even necessary.He was instrumental in the use of guano for nitrogen.", "In 1863 he published the book \"Es ist ja die Spitze meines lebens\" in which he revised his early perceptions, now appreciating soil life and in particular the biological N fixation.", "Nitrogen fertilizers are now widely used throughout the world, and their production is a substantial segment of the chemical industry.===Plant and animal physiology===Liebig's work on applying chemistry to plant and animal physiology was especially influential.", "By 1842, he had published ''Chimie organique appliquée à la physiologie animale et à la pathologie'', published in English as '' Animal Chemistry, or, Organic Chemistry in its Applications to Physiology and Pathology'', presenting a chemical theory of metabolism.", "The experimental techniques used by Liebig and others often involved controlling and measuring diet, and monitoring and analyzing the products of animal metabolism, as indicators of internal metabolic processes.", "Liebig saw similarities between plant and animal metabolism, and suggested that nitrogenous animal matter was similar to, and derived from, plant matter.", "He categorized foodstuffs into two groups, nitrogenous materials which he believed were used to build animal tissue, and non-nitrogenous materials which he believed were involved in separate processes of respiration and generation of heat.French researchers such as Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Jean-Baptiste Boussingault believed that animals assimilated sugars, proteins, and fats from plant materials and lacked the ability to synthesize them.", "Liebig's work suggested a common ability of plants and animals to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones.", "His experiments on fat metabolism convinced him that animals must be able to synthesize fats from sugars and starches.", "Other researchers built upon his work, confirming the abilities of animals to synthesize sugar and build fat.Liebig also studied respiration, at one point measuring the \"ingesta and excreta\" of 855 soldiers, a bodyguard of the Grand Duke of Hessen-Darmstadt, for an entire month.", "He outlined an extremely speculative model of equations in which he attempted to explain how protein degradation might balance within a healthy body and result in pathological imbalances in cases of illness or inappropriate nutrition.", "This proposed model was justifiably criticized.", "Berzelius stingingly stated that \"this facile kind of physiological chemistry is created at the writing table\".", "Some of the ideas that Liebig had enthusiastically incorporated were not supported by further research.", "The third and last edition of ''Animal Chemistry'' (1846) was substantially revised and did not include the equations.The third area discussed in ''Animal Chemistry'' was fermentation and putrefaction.", "Liebig proposed chemical explanations for processes such as eremacausis (organic decomposition), describing the rearrangement of atoms as a result of unstable \"affinities\" reacting to external causes such as air or already decaying substances.", "Liebig identified the blood as the site of the body's \"chemical factory\", where he believed processes of synthesis and degradation took place.", "He presented a view of disease in terms of chemical process, in which healthy blood could be attacked by external contagia; secreting organs sought to transform and excrete such substances; and failure to do so could lead to their elimination through the skin, lungs, and other organs, potentially spreading contagion.", "Again, although the world was much more complicated than his theory, and many of his individual ideas were later proved wrong, Liebig managed to synthesize existing knowledge in a way that had significant implications for doctors, sanitarians, and social reformers.", "The English medical journal ''The Lancet'' reviewed Liebig's work and translated his chemical lectures as part of its mission to establish a new era of medicine.", "Liebig's ideas stimulated significant medical research, led to the development of better techniques for testing experimental models of metabolism, and pointed to chemistry as fundamental to the understanding of health and disease.In 1850, Liebig investigated spontaneous human combustion, dismissing the simplistic explanations based on ethanol due to alcoholism.===Liebig and the chemistry of food=======Methods of cookery====Liebig drew upon his work in plant nutrition and plant and animal metabolism to develop a theory of nutrition, which had significant implications for cookery.", "In his ''Researches on the Chemistry of Food'' (1847) Liebig argued that eating not only meat fibre, but also meat juices, which contained various inorganic chemicals, was important.", "These vital ingredients would be lost during conventional boiling or roasting in which cooking liquids were discarded.", "For optimum nutritional quality, Liebig advised that cooks should either sear the meat initially to retain fluids, or retain and use cooking liquids (as in soups or stews).Liebig was acclaimed in ''The Lancet'' for revealing \"the true principles of cookery\", and physicians promoted \"rational diets\" based on his ideas.", "Well-known British cookery writer Eliza Acton responded to Liebig by modifying the cookery techniques in the third edition of her ''Modern Cookery for Private Families'', and subtitling the edition accordingly.", "Liebig's idea that \"searing meat seals in the juices\", though still widely believed, is not true.====Liebig's Extract of Meat Company====Memorial tradecard commemorating Justus ''Freiherr'' von Liebig, from Liebig's Extract of Meat Company Justus ''Freiherr'' von Liebig statue, Munich, GermanyBuilding on his theories of the nutritional value of meat fluids, and seeking an inexpensive nutrition source for Europe's poor, Liebig developed a formula for producing beef extract.", "The details were published in 1847 so that \"the benefit of it should ... be placed at the command of as large a number of persons as possible by the extension of the manufacture, and consequently a reduction in the cost\".Production was not economically feasible in Europe, where meat was expensive, but in Uruguay and New South Wales, meat was an inexpensive byproduct of the leather industry.", "In 1865, Liebig partnered with Belgian engineer George Christian Giebert, and was named scientific director of Liebig's Extract of Meat Company, located in Fray Bentos in Uruguay.Other companies also attempted to market meat extracts under the name \"Liebig's Extract of Meat\".", "In Britain, a competitor's right to use the name was successfully defended on the grounds that the name had fallen into general use and become a generic term before the creation of any particular company.", "The judge asserted that \"Purchasers must use their eyes\", and considered the presentation of the products to be sufficiently different to enable the discriminating consumer to determine which of the products bore Liebig's signature and was supported by ''Freiherr'' von Liebig himself.Liebig's company initially promoted their \"meat tea\" for its curative powers and nutritional value as a cheap, nutritious alternative to real meat.", "After claims of its nutritional value were questioned, they emphasized its convenience and flavour, marketing it as a comfort food.", "The Liebig company worked with popular cookery writers in various countries to popularize their products.", "German cookery writer Henriette Davidis wrote recipes for ''Improved and Economic Cookery'' and other cookbooks.", "Katharina Prato wrote an Austro-Hungarian recipe book, ''Die Praktische Verwerthung Kochrecepte'' (1879).", "Hannah M. Young was commissioned in England to write ''Practical Cookery Book'' for the Liebig Company.", "In the United States, Maria Parloa extolled the benefits of Liebig's extract.", "Colorful calendars and trading cards were also marketed to popularize the product.The company also worked with British chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe to develop a related product, which it registered some years after Liebig's death, under the \"Oxo\" trademark.", "Oxo was trademarked worldwide in 1899 and in the United Kingdom in 1900.Originally a liquid, Oxo was released in cubed solid form in 1911.====Marmite====Liebig studied other foods, as well.", "He promoted the use of baking powder to make lighter bread, studied the chemistry of coffee-making, oatmeal, and developed a breast-milk substitute for babies who could not suckle.", "He is considered to have made possible the invention of Marmite, because of his discovery that yeast could be concentrated to form yeast extract." ], [ "Major works", "Liebig founded the journal ''Annalen der Chemie'', which he edited from 1832.Originally titled ''Annalen der Pharmacie'', it became ''Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie'' to more accurately reflect its content.", "It became the leading journal of chemistry, and still exists.", "The volumes from his lifetime are often referenced just as ''Liebigs Annalen''; and following his death the title was officially changed to ''Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie''.Liebig published widely in ''Liebigs Annalen'' and elsewhere, in newspapers and journals.", "Most of his books were published concurrently in both German and English, and many were translated into other languages, as well.", "Some of his most influential titles include:* ''Ueber das Studium der Naturwissenschaften und über den Zustand der Chemie in Preußen'' (1840) Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf* '' Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie''; in English, ''Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology'' (1840)* ''Chimie organique appliquée à la physiologie animale et à la pathologie''; in English, '' Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology'' (1842)* '' Familiar letters on chemistry and its relation to commerce, physiology and agriculture'' (1843)* ''Chemische Briefe'' (1844) Digital edition (1865) by the University and State Library DüsseldorfIn addition to books and articles, he wrote thousands of letters, most of them to other scientists.Liebig also played a direct role in the German publication of John Stuart Mill's ''Logic.''", "Through Liebig's close friendship with the Vieweg family publishing house, he arranged for his former student Jacob Schiel (1813–1889) to translate Mill's important work for German publication.", "Liebig liked Mill's ''Logic'' in part because it promoted science as a means to social and political progress, but also because Mill featured several examples of Liebig's research as an ideal for the scientific method.", "In this way, he sought to reform politics in the German states." ], [ "Later life", "Bavarian Academy of ScienceIn 1852, Liebig accepted an appointment from King Maximilian II of Bavaria to the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.", "He also became the Royal scientific advisor to King Maxilimian II, who hoped to transform the University of Munich into a center for scientific research and development.", "In part, Liebig accepted the post because, at age 50, he was finding supervision of large numbers of laboratory students increasingly difficult.", "His new accommodations in Munich reflected this shift in focus.", "They included a comfortable house suitable for extensive entertaining, a small laboratory, and a newly built lecture theatre capable of holding 300 people with a demonstration laboratory at the front.", "There, he gave lectures to the university and fortnightly to the public.", "In his position as a promoter of science, Liebig was appointed president of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, becoming perpetual president of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences in 1858.Liebig enjoyed a personal friendship with Maximilian II, who died on 10 March 1864.After Maximilian's death, Liebig and other liberal Protestant scientists in Bavaria were increasingly opposed by ultramontane Catholics.", "''Freiherr'' von Liebig died in Munich in 1873, and is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich." ], [ "Awards and honors", "German stamp picturing Justus von Liebig, 1953Justus von Liebig grave, Munich, GermanyLiebig was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1837.He became a first-class member of the Ludwig Order, founded by Ludwig I, and awarded by Ludwig II on 24 July 1837.In 1838, he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands; when that became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851, he joined as foreign member.The British Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal \"for his discoveries in organic chemistry, and particularly for his development of the composition and theory of organic radicals\" in 1840.In 1841, botanist Stephan Friedrich Ladislaus Endlicher (1804–1849), published a genus of flowering plants from Malesia, belonging to the family Gesneriaceae, as ''Liebigia'' in his honour.King Ludwig II of Bavaria ennobled Liebig on 29 December 1845, conferring on him the hereditary title of ''Freiherr'' von Liebig.", "In English, the closest translation is Baron von Liebig.In 1850, he received the French ''Légion d'honneur'', presented by chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, the French trade minister.He was honored with the Prussian Order of Merit for Science by Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia in 1851.He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1862.In 1869, ''Freiherr'' von Liebig was awarded the Albert Medal by the Royal Society of Arts, \"for his numerous valuable researches and writings, which have contributed most importantly to the development of food-economy and agriculture, to the advancement of chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that science by Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.", "\"===Posthumous honors===Liebig's portrait appeared on the banknote issued by the Reichsbank from 1935 until 1945.Printing ceased in 1945 but the note remained in circulation until the issue of the Deutsche Mark on 21 June 1948.In 1946, after the end of World War II, the University of Giessen was officially renamed after him, ''\"Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen\"''.In 1953, the West German post office issued a stamp in his honor.In 1953, the third General Assembly of the International Scientific Centre of Fertilizers (CIEC), founded in 1932, was organized in Darmstadt to honor Justus von Liebig on the 150th anniversary of his birth.A portrait of Liebig hangs in the Burlington House headquarters of the Royal Society of Chemistry.", "It was presented to the society's forerunner, the Chemical Society, by his god-daughter, Mrs Alex Tweedie, née Harley, daughter of Emma Muspratt.===Liebig medals===Some organizations have granted medals in honor of Justus ''Freiherr'' von Liebig.", "In 1871, the Versammlung deutscher Land- und Forstwirte (Assembly of German Farmers and Foresters) first awarded a Liebig Gold Medal, given to Theodor Reuning.", "The image was struck from a portrait commissioned in 1869 from Friedrich Brehmer.For several years, the Liebig Trust Fund, established by Baron Liebig, was administered by the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich and members of the Liebig family.", "They were empowered to award gold and silver Liebig Medals to deserving German scientists \"for the purpose of encouraging research in agricultural science\".", "Silver medals could be awarded to scientists from other countries.", "Some of those who received medals include:* 1893, silver, Sir John Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert, England* 1894, silver, Professor Eugene Woldemar Hilgard, United States, \"for meritorious work in the investigation of the physical and chemical properties of soils.", "\"* 1896, gold, Professor Friedrich Stohmann, professor of agricultural chemistry in Leipzig University.", "* 1899, gold, Albert Schultz-Lupitz, Germany* 1908, gold, Max Rubner, GermanyIn 1903, the Verein deutscher Chemiker (Association of German Chemists) also had a medal struck using Brehmer's portrait.", "Their Liebig Medal was first awarded in 1903 to Adolf von Baeyer, and in 1904 to Dr. Rudolf Knietsch of the Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik.", "it continues to be awarded.At the third World Congress of CIEC, held at Heidelberg in 1957, the \"Sprengel-Liebig Medal\" was awarded to Dr. E. Feisst, president of CIEC, for outstanding contributions in agricultural chemistry." ], [ "See also", "* History of soil science* List of chemists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * Rossiter, Margaret (1975) * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * Justus Liebig, German chemist (1803–73) from the Encyclopædia Britannica, 10th Edition (1902).", "* The National Agricultural Center and Hall of Fame* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 20" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 250 – Pope Fabian is martyred during the Decian persecution.", "1156 – Finnish peasant Lalli kills English clergyman Henry, the Bishop of Turku, on the ice of Lake Köyliö.", "1265 – The first English parliament to include not only Lords but also representatives of the major towns holds its first meeting in the Palace of Westminster, now commonly known as the \"Houses of Parliament\".", "1320 – Duke Wladyslaw Lokietek becomes king of Poland.", "1356 – Edward Balliol surrenders his claim to the Scottish throne to Edward III in exchange for an English pension.", "1401 – The Taula de canvi (Catalan: \"Table of change\"), described as Europe's first-ever public bank, began operations inside Barcelona's Llotja de Mar.", "1523 – Christian II is forced to abdicate as King of Denmark and Norway.", "1567 – Battle of Rio de Janeiro: Portuguese forces under the command of Estácio de Sá definitively drive the French out of Rio de Janeiro.", "1576 – The Mexican city of León is founded by order of the viceroy Don Martín Enríquez de Almanza.===1601–1900===1649 – The High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I begins its proceedings.", "1783 – The Kingdom of Great Britain signs preliminary articles of peace with the Kingdom of France, setting the stage for the official end of hostilities in the American Revolutionary War later that year.", "1785 – Invading Siamese forces attempt to exploit the political chaos in Vietnam, but are ambushed and annihilated at the Mekong river by the Tây Sơn in the Battle of Rạch Gầm-Xoài Mút.", "1788 – The third and main part of First Fleet arrives at Botany Bay, beginning the British colonization of Australia.", "Arthur Phillip decides that Port Jackson is a more suitable location for a colony.", "1839 – In the Battle of Yungay, Chile defeats an alliance between Peru and Bolivia.", "1841 – Hong Kong Island is occupied by the British during the First Opium War.", "1874 – The Treaty of Pangkor is signed between the British and Sultan Abdullah of Perak, paving the way for further British colonization of Malaya.", "1877 – The last day of the Constantinople Conference results in agreement for political reforms in the Balkans.", "1887 – The United States Senate allows the Navy to lease Pearl Harbor as a naval base.===1901–present===1909 – Newly formed automaker General Motors (GM) buys into the Oakland Motor Car Company, which later becomes GM's long-running Pontiac division.", "1921 – The British K-class submarine HMS ''K5'' sinks in the English Channel; all 56 on board die.", " 1921 – The first Constitution of Turkey is adopted, making fundamental changes in the source and exercise of sovereignty by consecrating the principle of national sovereignty.", "1929 – The first full-length talking motion picture filmed outdoors, ''In Old Arizona'', is released.", "1936 – King George V of the United Kingdom dies.", "His eldest son succeeds to the throne, becoming Edward VIII.", "The title Prince of Wales is not used for another 22 years.", "1937 – Franklin D. Roosevelt and John Nance Garner are sworn in for their second terms as U.S. President and U.S. Vice President; it is the first time a Presidential Inauguration takes place on January 20 since the 20th Amendment changed the dates of presidential terms.", "1941 – A German officer is killed in Bucharest, Romania, sparking a rebellion and pogrom by the Iron Guard, killing 125 Jews and 30 soldiers.", "1942 – World War II: At the Wannsee Conference held in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee, senior Nazi German officials discuss the implementation of the \"Final Solution to the Jewish question\".", "1945 – World War II: The provisional government of Béla Miklós in Hungary agrees to an armistice with the Allies.", "* 1945 – World War II: Germany begins the evacuation of 1.8 million people from East Prussia, a task which will take nearly two months.", "1949 – Point Four Program, a program for economic aid to poor countries, is announced by United States President Harry S. Truman in his inaugural address for a full term as president.", "1953 – Dwight D. Eisenhower is inaugurated as the 34th President of the United States of America, becoming the first president to begin his presidency on January 20 since the 20th Amendment changed the dates of presidential terms.", "1954 – In the United States, the National Negro Network is established with 40 charter member radio stations.", "1961 – John F. Kennedy is inaugurated as the 35th President of the United States of America, becoming the youngest man to be elected into that office, and the first Catholic.", "1972 – Pakistan launches its nuclear weapons program, a few weeks after its defeat in the Bangladesh Liberation War, as well as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.", "1973 – Amílcar Cabral, leader of the independence movement in Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde, is assassinated in Conakry, Guinea.", "1974 – China gains control over all the Paracel Islands after a military engagement between the naval forces of China and South Vietnam.", "1981 – Twenty minutes after Ronald Reagan is inaugurated as the 40th President of the United States of America, Iran releases 52 American hostages.", "1986 – In the United States, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is celebrated as a federal holiday for the first time.", " 1986 – Leabua Jonathan, Prime Minister of Lesotho, is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by General Justin Lekhanya.", "1990 – Protests in Azerbaijan, part of the Dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "1991 – Sudan's government imposes Islamic law nationwide, worsening the civil war between the country's Muslim north and Christian south.", "1992 – Air Inter Flight 148, an Airbus A320-111, crashes into a mountain near Strasbourg, France, killing 87 of the 96 people on board.", "2001 – President of the Philippines Joseph Estrada is ousted in a nonviolent four-day revolution, and is succeeded by Gloria Macapagal Arroyo.", "2009 – Barack Obama is inaugurated as the 44th President of the United States of America, becoming the first African-American President of the United States.", " 2009 – A protest movement in Iceland culminates as the 2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests start.", "2018 – A group of four or five gunmen attack The Inter-Continental Hotel in Kabul, Afghanistan, sparking a 12-hour battle.", "The attack kills 40 people and injures many others.", " 2018 – Syrian civil war: The Government of Turkey announces the initiation of the Afrin offensive and begins shelling Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) positions in Afrin Region.", "2021 – Joe Biden is inaugurated as the 46th President of the United States of America.", "At 78, he becomes the oldest person ever inaugurated.", "Kamala Harris becomes the first female Vice President of the United States." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 225 – Gordian III, Roman emperor (d. 244)1029 – Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan (probable; d. 1072)1292 – Elizabeth of Bohemia, queen consort of Bohemia (d. 1330)1436 – Ashikaga Yoshimasa, Japanese shōgun (d. 1490)1488 – Sebastian Münster, German scholar, cartographer, and cosmographer (d. 1552)1499 – Sebastian Franck, German humanist (probable; d. 1543)1500 – Jean Quintin, French priest, knight and writer (d. 1561)1502 – Sebastian de Aparicio, Spanish-Mexican rancher and missionary (d. 1600)1526 – Rafael Bombelli, Italian mathematician (d. 1572)1554 – Sebastian of Portugal (d. 1578)1569 – Heribert Rosweyde, Jesuit hagiographer (d. 1629)1573 – Simon Marius, German astronomer and academic (d. 1624)1586 – Johann Hermann Schein, German composer (d. 1630)===1601–1900===1664 – Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina, Italian lawyer and jurist (d. 1718)1703 – Joseph-Hector Fiocco, Flemish violinist and composer (d. 1741)1716 – Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and numismatist (d. 1795) 1716 – Charles III of Spain (d. 1788)1732 – Richard Henry Lee, American lawyer and politician, President of the Continental Congress (d. 1794)1741 – Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Swedish botanist and author (d. 1783)1755 – Sir Albemarle Bertie, 1st Baronet, English admiral (d. 1824)1762 – Jérôme-Joseph de Momigny, Belgian-French composer and theorist (d. 1842)1775 – André-Marie Ampère, French physicist and mathematician (d. 1836)1781 – Joseph Hormayr, Baron zu Hortenburg, Austrian-German historian and politician (d. 1848)1783 – Friedrich Dotzauer, German cellist and composer (d. 1860)1799 – Anson Jones, American physician and politician, 5th President of the Republic of Texas (d. 1858)1812 – William Fox, English-New Zealand politician, 2nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1893) 1812 – Thomas Meik, Scottish engineer (d. 1896)1814 – David Wilmot, American politician, sponsor of Wilmot Proviso (d. 1868)1819 – Göran Fredrik Göransson, Swedish merchant, ironmaster and industrialist (d. 1900)1834 – George D. Robinson, American lawyer and politician, 34th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1896)1855 – Ernest Chausson, French composer (d. 1899)1856 – Harriot Stanton Blatch, U.S. suffragist and organizer (d. 1940) 1865 – Yvette Guilbert, French singer and actress (d. 1944)* 1865 – Wilhelm Ramsay, Finnish geologist and professor (d. 1928)1870 – Guillaume Lekeu, Belgian pianist and composer (d. 1894)1873 – Johannes V. Jensen, Danish author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)1874 – Steve Bloomer, English footballer and coach (d. 1938)1876 – Josef Hofmann, Polish-American pianist and composer (d. 1957)1878 – Finlay Currie, Scottish-English actor (d. 1968)1879 – Ruth St. Denis, American dancer and educator (d. 1968)1880 – Walter W. Bacon, American accountant and politician, 60th Governor of Delaware (d. 1962)1882 – Johnny Torrio, Italian-American mob boss (d. 1957)1883 – Enoch L. Johnson, American mob boss (d. 1968) 1883 – Forrest Wilson, American journalist and author (d. 1942)1888 – Lead Belly, American folk/blues musician and songwriter (d. 1949) 1889 – Allan Haines Loughead, American engineer and businessman, founded the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company (d. 1969)1891 – Mischa Elman, Ukrainian-American violinist (d. 1967)1893 – Georg Åberg, Swedish triple jumper (d. 1946)1894 – Harold Gray, American cartoonist, created ''Little Orphan Annie'' (d. 1968) 1894 – Walter Piston, American composer, theorist, and academic (d. 1976)1895 – Gábor Szegő, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1985)1896 – George Burns, American actor, comedian, and producer (d. 1996)1898 – U Razak, Burmese educator and politician (d. 1947)1899 – Clarice Cliff, English potter (d. 1972)* 1899 – Kenjiro Takayanagi, Japanese engineer (d. 1990)1900 – Dorothy Annan, English painter, potter, and muralist (d. 1983) 1900 – Colin Clive, English actor (d. 1937)===1901–present===1902 – Leon Ames, American actor (d. 1993) 1902 – Kevin Barry, Irish Republican Army volunteer (d. 1920)1906 – Aristotle Onassis, Greek shipping magnate (d. 1975)1907 – Paula Wessely, Austrian actress and producer (d. 2000)1909 – Gōgen Yamaguchi, Japanese martial artist (d. 1989)1910 – Joy Adamson, Austria-Kenyan painter and conservationist (d. 1980)1915 – Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Pakistani businessman and politician, 7th President of Pakistan (d. 2006)1918 – Juan García Esquivel, Mexican pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2002)* 1918 – Nevin Scrimshaw, American scientist (d. 2013)1920 – Federico Fellini, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1920 – DeForest Kelley, American actor (d. 1999)* 1920 – Thorleif Schjelderup, Norwegian ski jumper and author (d. 2006)1921 – Telmo Zarra, Spanish footballer (d. 2006)1922 – Ray Anthony, American trumpeter and bandleader1922 – Don Mankiewicz, American author and screenwriter (d. 2015)1923 – Slim Whitman, American country and western singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2013)1924 – Yvonne Loriod, French pianist and composer (d. 2010)1925 – Jamiluddin Aali, Pakistani poet, playwright, and critic (d. 2015)* 1925 – Ernesto Cardenal, Nicaraguan priest, poet, and politician (d. 2020)1926 – Patricia Neal, American actress (d. 2010) 1926 – David Tudor, American pianist and composer (d. 1996)1927 – Qurratulain Hyder, Indian-Pakistani journalist and academic (d. 2007)1928 – Antonio de Almeida, French conductor and musicologist (d. 1997)1929 – Arte Johnson, American actor and comedian (d. 2019) 1929 – Masaharu Kawakatsu, Japanese biologist* 1929 – Fireball Roberts, American race car driver (d. 1964)1930 – Buzz Aldrin, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut1931 – David Lee, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1931 – Hachidai Nakamura, Japanese pianist and composer (d. 1992)1932 – Lou Fontinato, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2016)1934 – Hennie Aucamp, South African poet, author, and academic (d. 2014)* 1934 – Tom Baker, English actor1935 – Dorothy Provine, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2010)1937 – Bailey Howell, American basketball player1938 – Derek Dougan, Irish-English footballer and journalist (d. 2007)1939 – Paul Coverdell, American captain and politician (d. 2000)* 1939 – Chandra Wickramasinghe, Sri Lankan-English mathematician, astronomer, and biologist1940 – Carol Heiss, American figure skater and actress 1940 – Krishnam Raju, Indian actor and politician (d. 2022)* 1940 – Mandé Sidibé, Malian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Mali (d. 2009)1942 – Linda Moulton Howe, American journalist and producer1944 – José Luis Garci, Spanish director and producer* 1944 – Farhad Mehrad, Iranian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)* 1944 – Pat Parker, American poet (d. 1989)1945 – Christopher Martin-Jenkins, English journalist and sportscaster (d. 2013) 1945 – Eric Stewart, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer1946 – David Lynch, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1946 – Vladimír Merta, Czech singer-songwriter, guitarist, and journalist1947 – Cyrille Guimard, French cyclist and sportscaster1948 – Nancy Kress, American author and academic* 1948 – Natan Sharansky, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Israel1949 – Göran Persson, Swedish lawyer and politician, 31st Prime Minister of Sweden1950 – Daniel Benzali, Brazilian-American actor* 1950 – William Mgimwa, Tanzanian banker and politician, 13th Tanzanian Minister of Finance (d. 2014)* 1950 – Mahamane Ousmane, Nigerien politician, President of Niger1951 – Iván Fischer, Hungarian conductor and composer 1951 – Ian Hill, English rock bassist1952 – Nikos Sideris, Greek psychiatrist and poet 1952 – Paul Stanley, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1952 – John Witherow, South African-English journalist and author1953 – Jeffrey Epstein, American financier and convicted sex offender (d. 2019)1954 – Mohammad Dawran, Afghan aviator and military officer* 1954 – Alison Seabeck, English lawyer and politician1955 – McKeeva Bush, Caymanian politician, Premier of the Cayman Islands1956 – Maria Larsson, Swedish educator and politician, Swedish Minister of Health and Social Affairs* 1956 – Bill Maher, American comedian, political commentator, media critic, television host, and producer* 1956 – Richard Morecroft, English-Australian journalist and television host* 1956 – John Naber, American swimmer1957 – Andy Sheppard, English saxophonist and composer1958 – Lorenzo Lamas, American actor, director, and producer1959 – Tami Hoag, American author 1959 – R. A. Salvatore, American author1963 – James Denton, American actor 1963 – Mark Ryden, American painter and illustrator1964 – Ozzie Guillén, Venezuelan-American baseball player and manager 1964 – Ron Harper, American basketball player and coach* 1964 – Jack Lewis, American soldier and author* 1964 – Kazushige Nojima, Japanese screenwriter and songwriter* 1964 – Aquilino Pimentel III, Filipino lawyer and politician* 1964 – Fareed Zakaria, Indian-American journalist and author1965 – Colin Calderwood, Scottish footballer and manager 1965 – Warren Joyce, English footballer and manager* 1965 – Greg K., American musician and songwriter* 1965 – John Michael Montgomery, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1965 – Heather Small, English singer-songwriter* 1965 – Sophie, Countess of Wessex* 1965 – Anton Weissenbacher, Romanian footballer1966 – Chris Morris, American basketball player 1966 – Rainn Wilson, American actor1967 – Kellyanne Conway, American political strategist and pundit 1967 – Stacey Dash, American actress and television journalist 1968 – Nick Anderson, American basketball player and sportscaster 1968 – Junior Murray, Grenadian cricketer1969 – Patrick K. Kroupa, American computer hacker and activist, co-founded MindVox 1969 – Reno Wilson, American actor* 1969 – Nicky Wire, Welsh singer-songwriter and bass player1970 – Skeet Ulrich, American actor1971 – Gary Barlow, English singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer* 1971 – Wakanohana Masaru, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 66th Yokozuna* 1971 – Questlove, American musician, record producer, and filmmaker1972 – Nikki Haley, American accountant and politician, 116th Governor of South Carolina1973 – Stephen Crabb, Scottish-Welsh politician, Secretary of State for Wales* 1973 – Queen Mathilde of Belgium1975 – David Eckstein, American baseball player 1975 – Norberto Fontana, Argentinian racing driver* 1975 – Zac Goldsmith, English journalist and politician* 1975 – Ira Newble, American basketball player1976 – Kirsty Gallacher, Scottish television presenter 1976 – Michael Myers, American football player* 1976 – Gretha Smit, Dutch speed skater1977 – Paul Adams, South African cricketer and coach 1977 – Sid Wilson, American musician1978 – Sonja Kesselschläger, German heptathlete 1978 – Allan Søgaard, Danish footballer1979 – Rob Bourdon, American musician and songwriter 1979 – Will Young, English singer-songwriter and actor1980 – Karl Anderson, American wrestler 1980 – Philippe Cousteau, Jr., American-French oceanographer and journalist* 1980 – Philippe Gagnon, Canadian swimmer* 1980 – Kim Jeong-hoon, South Korean singer and actor1981 – Freddy Guzmán, Dominican baseball player 1981 – Owen Hargreaves, English footballer* 1981 – Jason Richardson, American basketball player1982 – Ruchi Sanghvi, Indian computer engineer 1982 – Fredrik Strømstad, Norwegian footballer1983 – Geovany Soto, Puerto Rican baseball player1984 – Toni Gonzaga, Filipino singer and television personality* 1984 – Bonnie McKee, American singer-songwriter1986 – Kevin Parker, Australian singer, songwriter, musician, and producer1987 – Evan Peters, American actor1988 – Uwa Elderson Echiéjilé, Nigerian footballer 1988 – Jan Muršak, Slovenian ice hockey player1989 – Nick Foles, American football player 1989 – Alex Grant, Canadian ice hockey player1991 – Tom Cairney, Scottish footballer 1991 – Ciara Hanna, American actress and model* 1991 – Polona Hercog, Slovenian tennis player1993 – Lorenzo Crisetig, Italian footballer 1993 – DeVante Parker, American football player1994 – Seán Kavanagh, Irish footballer 1994 – Hampus Lindholm, Swedish ice hockey player* 1994 – Lucas Piazon, Brazilian footballer 1995 – Joey Badass, American rapper and actor 1995 – Calum Chambers, English footballer* 1995 – José María Giménez, Uruguayan footballer* 1995 – Sergi Samper, Spanish footballer2000 – Tyler Herro, American basketball player2002 – Arnaud Kalimuendo, French footballer2003 – J. J. McCarthy, American football player 2003 – Antonia Ružić, Croatian tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 640 – Eadbald, king of Kent * 820 – Al-Shafi‘i, Arab scholar and jurist (b.", "767)* 842 – Theophilos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "813)* 882 – Louis the Younger, king of the East Frankish Kingdom* 924 – Li Jitao, Chinese general of Later Tang* 928 – Zhao Guangfeng, Chinese official and chancellor1029 – Heonae, Korean queen and regent (b.", "964)1095 – Wulfstan, bishop of Worcester1156 – Henry, English bishop and saint1189 – Shi Zong, Chinese emperor of Jin (b.", "1123)1191 – Frederick VI, duke of Swabia (b.", "1167) 1191 – Theobald V, count of Blois (b.", "1130)1265 – John Maunsell, English Lord Chancellor1336 – John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford (b.", "1306)1343 – Robert, king of Naples (b.", "1275)1479 – John II, king of Sicily (b.", "1398)1568 – Myles Coverdale, English bishop and translator (b.", "1488)===1601–1900===1612 – Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1552)1663 – Isaac Ambrose, English minister and author (b.", "1604)1666 – Anne of Austria, Queen and regent of France (b.", "1601)1707 – Humphrey Hody, English scholar and theologian (b.", "1659)1709 – François de la Chaise, French priest (b.", "1624)1751 – John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol, English politician (b.", "1665) 1770 – Charles Yorke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b.", "1722)1779 – David Garrick, English actor, producer, playwright, and manager (b.", "1717)1810 – Benjamin Chew, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1721)1819 – Charles IV, Spanish king (b.", "1748)1837 – John Soane, English architect, designed the Bank of England (b.", "1753)1841 – Jørgen Jørgensen, Danish explorer (b.", "1780) 1841 – Minh Mạng, Vietnamese emperor (b.", "1791)1848 – Christian VIII, Danish king (b.", "1786)1850 – Adam Oehlenschläger, Danish poet and playwright (b.", "1779)1859 – Bettina von Arnim, German author, illustrator, and composer (b.", "1785)1852 – Ōnomatsu Midorinosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 6th Yokozuna (b.", "1794)1873 – Basil Moreau, French priest, founded the Congregation of Holy Cross (b.", "1799)1875 – Jean-François Millet, French painter and educator (b.", "1814)1891 – Kalākaua, king of Hawaii (b.", "1836)1900 – John Ruskin, English painter and critic (b.", "1819)===1901–present===1901 – Zénobe Gramme, Belgian engineer, invented the Gramme machine (b.", "1826)1907 – Agnes Mary Clerke, Irish astronomer and author (b.", "1842)1908 – John Ordronaux, American surgeon and academic (b.", "1830)1913 – José Guadalupe Posada, Mexican engraver and illustrator (b.", "1852)1915 – Arthur Guinness, 1st Baron Ardilaun, Irish businessman, philanthropist, and politician (b.", "1840)1920 – Georg Lurich, Estonian-Russian wrestler and strongman (b.", "1876)1921 – Mary Watson Whitney, American astronomer and academic (b.", "1847)1924 – Henry \"Ivo\" Crapp, Australian footballer and umpire (b.", "1872)1936 – George V of the United Kingdom (b.", "1865)1940 – Omar Bundy, American general (b.", "1861)1944 – James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1860)1947 – Josh Gibson, American baseball player (b.", "1911)* 1947 – Andrew Volstead, American member of the United States House of Representatives (b.", "1860)1954 – Warren Bardsley, Australian cricketer (b.", "1882) 1954 – Fred Root, English cricketer and umpire (b.", "1890)1955 – Robert P. T. Coffin, American author and poet (b.", "1892)1962 – Robinson Jeffers, American poet and philosopher (b.", "1887)1965 – Alan Freed, American radio host (b.", "1922)1971 – Broncho Billy Anderson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1880)* 1971 – Minanogawa Tōzō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 34th Yokozuna (b.", "1903)1973 – Lorenz Böhler, Austrian physician and surgeon (b.", "1885) 1973 – Amílcar Cabral, Guinea Bissauan-Cape Verdian engineer and politician (b.", "1924)1977 – Dimitrios Kiousopoulos, Greek jurist and politician, 151st Prime Minister of Greece (b.", "1892)1980 – William Roberts, English soldier and painter (b.", "1895)1983 – Garrincha, Brazilian footballer (b.", "1933)1984 – Johnny Weissmuller, American swimmer and actor (b.", "1904)1988 – Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Pakistani activist and politician (b.", "1890) 1988 – Dora Stratou, Greek dancer and choreographer (b.", "1903)1989 – Alamgir Kabir, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1938)1990 – Barbara Stanwyck, American actress (b.", "1907)1993 – Audrey Hepburn, British actress and humanitarian activist (b.", "1929)1994 – Matt Busby, Scottish footballer and coach (b.", "1909)* 1994 – Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, first Kenyan Vice-President (b.", "1911)1996 – Gerry Mulligan, American saxophonist and composer (b.", "1927)2002 – Carrie Hamilton, American actress and singer (b.", "1963)2003 – Al Hirschfeld, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1903) 2003 – Nedra Volz, American actress (b.", "1908)2004 – Alan Brown, English racing driver (b.", "1919) 2004 – T. Nadaraja, Sri Lankan lawyer and academic (b.", "1917)2005 – Per Borten, Norwegian lawyer and politician, 18th Prime Minister of Norway (b.", "1913) 2005 – Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, Polish journalist and politician (b.", "1913)* 2005 – Miriam Rothschild, English zoologist, entomologist, and author (b.", "1908)2009 – Stéphanos II Ghattas, Egyptian patriarch (b.", "1920)2012 – Etta James, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1938)* 2012 – John Levy, American bassist and manager (b.", "1912)* 2012 – Ioannis Kefalogiannis, Greek politician, Greek Minister of the Interior (b.", "1933)* 2012 – Alejandro Rodriguez, Venezuelan-American pediatrician and psychiatrist (b.", "1918)2013 – Pavlos Matesis, Greek author and playwright (b.", "1933) 2013 – Toyo Shibata, Japanese poet and author (b.", "1911)2014 – Claudio Abbado, Italian conductor (b.", "1933) 2014 – Otis G. Pike, American judge and politician (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Jonas Trinkūnas, Lithuanian ethnologist and academic (b.", "1939)2016 – Mykolas Burokevičius, Lithuanian carpenter and politician (b.", "1927) 2016 – Edmonde Charles-Roux, French journalist and author (b.", "1920)2018 – Paul Bocuse, French chef (b.", "1926) 2018 – Naomi Parker Fraley, American naval machiner (b.", "1921)2020 – Jaroslav Kubera, Czech politician (b.", "1947) 2020 – Tom Fisher Railsback, American politician, member of the Illinois and U.S. House of Representatives (b.", "1932)2021 – Sibusiso Moyo, Zimbabwean politician, army general (b.", "1960) 2021 – Mira Furlan, Croatian actress and singer (b.", "1955)2022 – Meat Loaf, American singer and actor (b.", "1947)2024 – Norman Jewison, Canadian actor, director, and producer (b.", "1926)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Armed Forces Day (Mali)Army Day (Laos)Christian feast day:AbadiosBlessed Basil MoreauEustochia Smeralda CalafatoEuthymius the GreatFabianManchán of LemanaghanMaria Cristina of the Immaculate Conception Brando Richard Rolle (Church of England)SebastianStephen Min Kuk-ka (one of The Korean Martyrs)January 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Heroes' Day (Cape Verde)Martyrs' Day (Azerbaijan)" ], [ "Notes", "In ancient astrology, it is the cusp day between Capricorn and Aquarius." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day** Historical Events on January 20" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "J. K. Rowling" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joanne Rowling''' ( \"rolling\"; born 31 July 1965), better known by her pen name '''J. K.", "Rowling''', is a British author and philanthropist.", "She wrote ''Harry Potter'', a seven-volume fantasy series published from 1997 to 2007.The series has sold over 600 million copies, been translated into 84 languages, and spawned a global media franchise including films and video games.", "''The Casual Vacancy'' (2012) was her first novel for adults.", "She writes ''Cormoran Strike'', an ongoing crime fiction series, under the alias '''Robert Galbraith'''.Born in Yate, Gloucestershire, Rowling was working as a researcher and bilingual secretary for Amnesty International in 1990 when she conceived the idea for the ''Harry Potter'' series while on a delayed train from Manchester to London.", "The seven-year period that followed saw the death of her mother, the birth of her first child, divorce from her first husband, and relative poverty until the first novel in the series, ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'', was published in 1997.Six sequels followed, and by 2008, ''Forbes'' had named her the world's highest-paid author.Rowling concluded the ''Harry Potter'' series with ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows'' (2007).", "The novels follow a boy called Harry Potter as he attends Hogwarts (a school for wizards), and battles Lord Voldemort.", "Death and the divide between good and evil are the central themes of the series.", "Its influences include ''Bildungsroman'' (the coming-of-age genre), school stories, fairy tales, and Christian allegory.", "The series revived fantasy as a genre in the children's market, spawned a host of imitators, and inspired an active fandom.", "Critical reception has been more mixed.", "Many reviewers see Rowling's writing as conventional; some regard her portrayal of gender and social division as regressive.", "There were also religious debates over the ''Harry Potter'' series.Rowling has won many accolades for her work.", "She has received an OBE and was made a Companion of Honour for services to literature and philanthropy.", "''Harry Potter'' brought her wealth and recognition, which she has used to advance philanthropic endeavours and political causes.", "She co-founded the charity Lumos and established the Volant Charitable Trust, named after her mother.", "Rowling's charitable giving centres on medical causes and supporting at-risk women and children.", "In politics, she has donated to Britain's Labour Party and opposed Scottish independence and Brexit.", "She has publicly expressed her opinions on transgender people and related civil rights since 2017.These views have been criticised as transphobic by LGBT rights organisations and some feminists, but have received support from other feminists and individuals." ], [ "Name", "Although she writes under the pen name J. K. Rowling, before her remarriage her name was Joanne Rowling, or Jo.", "At birth, she had no middle name.", "Staff at Bloomsbury Publishing asked that she use two initials rather than her full name, anticipating that young boys – their target audience – would not want to read a book written by a woman.", "She chose ''K'' (for Kathleen) as the second initial of her pen name, from her paternal grandmother, and because of the ease of pronunciation of two consecutive letters.", "Following her 2001 remarriage, she has sometimes used the name Joanne Murray when conducting personal business." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life and family===King's Cross station; her portal to the magical world is \"Platform \" at King's Cross.\|alt=A sign reading \"Platform \" with half of a luggage trolley installed beneath, at the interior of King's Cross railway station.Joanne Rowling was born on 31 July 1965 at Cottage Hospital in Yate, Gloucestershire, to a middle-class family.", "Her parents Anne (née Volant) and Peter (\"Pete\") James Rowling had met the previous year on a train, sharing a trip from King's Cross station, London, to their naval postings at Arbroath, Scotland.", "Anne was with the Wrens and Pete was with the Royal Navy.", "Pete was the son of a machine-tool setter who later opened a grocery shop.", "They left the navy life and sought a country home to raise the baby they were expecting, and married on 14 March 1965 when both were 19.The Rowlings settled in Yate, where Pete started work as an assembly-line production worker at the Bristol Siddeley factory.", "The company became part of Rolls-Royce, and he worked his way into management as a chartered engineer.", "Anne later worked as a science technician.", "Neither Anne nor Pete attended university.Joanne is two years older than her sister, Dianne.", "When Joanne was four, the family moved to Winterbourne, Gloucestershire.", "She began at St Michael's Church of England Primary School in Winterbourne when she was five.", "The Rowlings lived near a family called Potter – a name Joanne always liked.", "Anne loved to read and their homes were filled with books.", "Pete read ''The Wind in the Willows'' to his daughters, while Anne introduced them to the animals in Richard Scarry's books.", "Joanne's first attempt at writing, a story called \"Rabbit\" composed when she was six, was inspired by Scarry's creatures.When Rowling was about nine, the family purchased the historic Church Cottage in Tutshill.", "In 1974, Rowling began attending the nearby Church of England School.", "Biographer Sean Smith describes her teacher as a \"battleaxe\" who \"struck fear into the hearts of the children\"; she seated Rowling in \"dunces' row\" after she performed poorly on an arithmetic test.", "In 1975, Rowling joined a Brownies pack.", "Its special events and parties, and the pack groups (Fairies, Pixies, Sprites, Elves, Gnomes and Imps) provided a magical world away from her stern teacher.", "When she was eleven or twelve, she wrote a short story, \"The Seven Cursed Diamonds\".", "She later described herself during this period as \"the epitome of a bookish child – short and squat, thick National Health glasses, living in a world of complete daydreams\".===Secondary school and university===Church Cottage, Rowling's childhood homeRowling's secondary school was Wyedean School and College, a state school she began attending at the age of eleven and where she was bullied.", "Rowling was inspired by her favourite teacher, Lucy Shepherd, who taught the importance of structure and precision in writing.", "Smith writes that Rowling \"craved to play heavy electric guitar\", and describes her as \"intelligent yet shy\".", "Her teacher Dale Neuschwander was impressed by her imagination.", "When she was a young teenager, Rowling's great-aunt gave her ''Hons and Rebels'', the autobiography of the civil rights activist Jessica Mitford.", "Mitford became Rowling's heroine, and she read all her books.Anne had a strong influence on her daughter.", "Early in Rowling's life, the support of her mother and sister instilled confidence and enthusiasm for storytelling.", "Anne was a creative and accomplished cook, who helped lead her daughters' Brownie activities, and took a job in the chemistry department at Wyedean while her daughters were there.", "The three walked to and from school, sharing stories about their day, more like sisters than mother and daughters.", "John Nettleship, the head of science at Wyedean, described Anne as \"absolutely brilliant, a sparkling character ... very imaginative\".Anne Rowling was diagnosed with a \"virulent strain\" of multiple sclerosis when she was 34 or 35 and Jo was 15, and had to give up her job.", "Rowling's home life was complicated by her mother's illness and a strained relationship with her father.", "Rowling later said \"home was a difficult place to be\", and that her teenage years were unhappy.", "In 2020, she wrote that her father would have preferred a son and described herself as having severe obsessive–compulsive disorder in her teens.", "She began to smoke, took an interest in alternative rock, and adopted Siouxsie Sioux's back-combed hair and black eyeliner.", "Sean Harris, her best friend in the Upper Sixth, owned a turquoise Ford Anglia that provided an escape from her difficult home life and the means for Harris and Rowling to broaden their activities.Living in a small town with pressures at home, Rowling became more interested in her schoolwork.", "Steve Eddy, her first secondary school English teacher, remembers her as \"not exceptional\" but \"one of a group of girls who were bright, and quite good at English\".", "Rowling took A-levels in English, French, and German, achieving two As and a B, and was named head girl at Wyedean.", "She applied to Oxford University in 1982 but was rejected.", "Biographers attribute her rejection to privilege, as she had attended a state school rather than a private one.Rowling always wanted to be a writer, but chose to study French and the classics at the University of Exeter for practical reasons, influenced by her parents who thought job prospects would be better with evidence of bilingualism.", "She later stated that Exeter was not initially what she expected (\"to be among lots of similar people – thinking radical thoughts\") but that she enjoyed herself after she met more people like her.", "She was an average student at Exeter, described by biographers as prioritising her social life over her studies, and lacking ambition and enthusiasm.", "Rowling recalls doing little work at university, preferring to read Dickens and Tolkien.", "She earned a BA in French from Exeter, graduating in 1987 after a year of study in Paris.===Inspiration and mother's death===After university, Rowling moved to a flat in Clapham Junction with friends, and took a course to become a bilingual secretary.", "While she was working temp jobs in London, Amnesty International hired her to document human rights issues in French-speaking Africa.", "She began writing adult novels while working as a temp, although they were never published.", "In 1990, she planned to move with her boyfriend to Manchester, and frequently took long train trips to visit.", "In mid-1990, she was on a train delayed by four hours from Manchester to London, when the characters Harry Potter, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger came plainly into her mind.", "Having no pen or paper allowed her to fully explore the characters and their story in her imagination before she reached her flat and began to write.Rowling moved to Manchester around November 1990.She described her time in Manchester, where she worked for the Chamber of Commerce and at Manchester University in temp jobs, as a \"year of misery\".", "Her mother died of multiple sclerosis on 30 December 1990.At the time, she was writing ''Harry Potter'' and had never told her mother about it.", "Her mother's death heavily affected Rowling's writing.", "She later said that her literary creation of the Mirror of Erised is about her mother's death, and noted an \"evident parallelism\" between Harry confronting his own mortality and her life.The pain of the loss of her mother was compounded when some personal effects her mother had left her were stolen.", "With the end of the relationship with her boyfriend, and \"being made redundant from an office job in Manchester\", Rowling described herself as being in a state of \"fight or flight\".", "An advertisement in ''The Guardian'' led her to move to Porto, Portugal, in November 1991 to teach night classes in English as a foreign language, writing during the day.===Marriage, divorce, and single parenthood===Porto, Portugal, to teach English.\|alt=A panned out image of city buildings.Five months after arriving in Porto, Rowling met the Portuguese television journalist Jorge Arantes in a bar and found that they shared an interest in Jane Austen.", "By mid-1992, they were planning a trip to London to introduce Arantes to Rowling's family, when she had a miscarriage.", "The relationship was troubled, but they married on 16 October 1992.Their daughter Jessica Isabel Rowling Arantes (named after Jessica Mitford) was born on 27 July 1993 in Portugal.", "By this time, Rowling had finished the first three chapters of ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' – almost as they were eventually published – and had drafted the rest of the novel.Rowling experienced domestic abuse during her marriage.", "Arantes said in June 2020 that he had slapped her and did not regret it.", "Rowling described the marriage as \"short and catastrophic\".", "She says she was not allowed to have a house key and that her husband used the growing manuscript of her first book as a hostage.", "Rowling and Arantes separated on 17 November 1993 after Arantes threw her out of the house; she returned with the police to retrieve Jessica and went into hiding for two weeks before she left Portugal.", "In late 1993, with a draft of ''Harry Potter'' in her suitcase, Rowling moved with her daughter to Edinburgh, Scotland, planning to stay with her sister until Christmas.Her biographer Sean Smith raises the question of why Rowling chose to stay with her sister rather than her father.", "Rowling has spoken of an estrangement from her father, stating in an interview with Oprah Winfrey that \"It wasn't a good relationship from my point of view for a very long time but I had a need to please and I kept that going for a long time and then there ... just came a point at which I had to pull up and say I can't do this anymore.\"", "Pete had married his secretary within two years of Anne's death, and ''The Scotsman'' reported in 2003 that \"the speed of his decision to move in with his secretary ... distressed both sisters and a fault-line now separated them and their father.\"", "Rowling said in 2012 that they had not spoken in the last nine years.Rowling sought government assistance and got £69 (US$103) per week from Social Security; not wanting to burden her recently married sister, she moved to a flat that she described as mouse-ridden.", "She later described her economic status as being as \"poor as it is possible to be in modern Britain, without being homeless\".", "Seven years after graduating from university, she saw herself as a failure.", "Tison Pugh writes that the \"grinding effects of poverty, coupled with her concern for providing for her daughter as a single parent, caused great hardship\".", "Her marriage had failed, and she was jobless with a dependent child, but she later described this as \"liberating\" her to focus on writing.", "She has said that \"Jessica kept me going\".", "Her old school friend, Sean Harris, lent her £600 ($900), which allowed her to move to a flat in Leith, where she finished ''Philosopher's Stone''.Arantes arrived in Scotland in March 1994 seeking both Rowling and Jessica.", "On 15 March 1994, Rowling sought an action of interdict (order of restraint); the interdict was granted and Arantes returned to Portugal.", "Early in the year, Rowling began to experience a deep depression and sought medical help when she contemplated suicide.", "With nine months of therapy, her mental health gradually improved.", "She filed for divorce on 10 August 1994; the divorce was finalised on 26 June 1995.Rowling wanted to finish the book before enrolling in a teacher training course, fearing she might not be able to finish once she started the course.", "She often wrote in cafés, including Nicolson's, part-owned by her brother-in-law.", "Secretarial work brought in £15 ($22.50) per week, but she would lose government benefits if she earned more.", "In mid-1995, a friend gave her money that allowed her to come off benefits and enrol full-time in college.", "Still needing money and expecting to make a living by teaching, Rowling began a teacher training course in August 1995 at Moray House School of Education after completing her first novel.", "She earned her teaching certificate in July 1996 and began teaching at Leith Academy.", "Rowling later said that writing the first ''Harry Potter'' book had saved her life and that her concerns about \"love, loss, separation, death ... are reflected in the first book\".===Publishing ''Harry Potter''===Deathly Hallows'' was releasedRowling completed ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' in June 1995.The initial draft included an illustration of Harry by a fireplace, showing a lightning-shaped scar on his forehead.", "Following an enthusiastic report from an early reader, Christopher Little Literary Agency agreed to represent Rowling.", "Her manuscript was submitted to twelve publishers, all of which rejected it.", "Barry Cunningham, who ran the children's literature department at Bloomsbury Publishing, bought it, after Nigel Newton, who headed Bloomsbury at the time, saw his eight-year-old daughter finish one chapter and want to keep reading.", "Rowling recalls Cunningham telling her, \"You'll never make any money out of children's books, Jo.\"", "Rowling was awarded a writer's grant by the Scottish Arts Council to support her childcare costs and finances before ''Philosopher's Stone'' publication, and to aid in writing the sequel, ''Chamber of Secrets''.", "On 26 June 1997, Bloomsbury published ''Philosopher's Stone'' with an initial print run of 5,650 copies.", "Before ''Chamber of Secrets'' was published, Rowling had received £2,800 ($4,200) in royalties.", "''Philosopher's Stone'' introduces Harry Potter.", "Harry is a wizard who lives with his non-magical relatives until his eleventh birthday, when he is invited to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.", "Rowling wrote six sequels, which follow Harry's adventures at Hogwarts with friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley and his attempts to defeat Lord Voldemort, who killed Harry's parents when he was a child.", "In ''Philosopher's Stone'', Harry foils Voldemort's plan to acquire an elixir of life; in ''Deathly Hallows'', the final book, he kills Voldemort.Rowling received the news that the US rights were being auctioned at the Bologna Children's Book Fair.", "To her surprise and delight, Scholastic Corporation bought the rights for $105,000.She bought a flat in Edinburgh with the money from the sale.", "Arthur A. Levine, head of the imprint at Scholastic, pushed for a name change.", "He wanted ''Harry Potter and the School of Magic''; as a compromise Rowling suggested ''Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone''.", "''Sorcerer's Stone'' was released in the United States in September 1998.It was not widely reviewed, but the reviews it received were generally positive.", "''Sorcerer's Stone'' became a ''New York Times'' bestseller by December.The next three books in the series were released in quick succession between 1998 and 2000: ''Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets'' (1998), ''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban'' (1999), and ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire'' (2000), each selling millions of copies.", "When ''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix'' had not appeared by 2002, rumours circulated that Rowling was suffering writer's block.", "It was published in June 2003, selling millions of copies on the first day.", "Two years later, ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'' was released in July, again selling millions of copies on the first day.", "The series ended with ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows'', published in July 2007.===Films===Deathly Hallows – Part 2'', 2011In 1999, Warner Bros. purchased film rights to the first two ''Harry Potter'' novels for a reported $1 million.", "Rowling accepted the offer with the provision that the studio only produce ''Harry Potter'' films based on books she authored, while retaining the right to final script approval, and some control over merchandising.", "''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'', an adaptation of the first ''Harry Potter'' book, was released in November 2001.Steve Kloves wrote the screenplays for all but the fifth film, with Rowling's assistance, ensuring that his scripts kept to the plots of the novels.The film series concluded with ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows'', which was adapted in two parts; part one was released on 19 November 2010, and part two followed on 15 July 2011.Warner Bros. announced an expanded relationship with Rowling in 2013, including a planned series of films about her character Newt Scamander, fictitious author of ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them''.", "The first film of five, a prequel to the ''Harry Potter'' series, set roughly 70 years earlier, was released in November 2016.Rowling wrote the screenplay, which was released as a book.", "''Crimes of Grindelwald'' was released in November 2018.", "''Secrets of Dumbledore'' was released in April 2022.===Religion, wealth and remarriage===By 1998, Rowling was portrayed in the media as a \"penniless divorcee hitting the jackpot\".", "According to her biographer Sean Smith, the publicity became effective marketing for ''Harry Potter'', but her journey from living on benefits to wealth brought, along with fame, concerns from different groups about the books' portrayals of the occult and gender roles.", "Ultimately, Smith says that these concerns served to \"enhance her public profile rather than damage it\".Rowling identifies as a Christian.", "Although she grew up next door to her church, accounts of the family's church attendance differ.", "She began attending a Church of Scotland congregation, where Jessica was christened, around the time she was writing ''Harry Potter''.", "In a 2012 interview, she said she belonged to the Scottish Episcopal Church.", "Rowling has stated that she believes in God, but has experienced doubt, and that her struggles with faith play a part in her books.", "She does not believe in magic or witchcraft.Rowling married Neil Murray, a doctor, in 2001.The couple intended to marry that July in the Galapagos, but when this leaked to the press, they delayed their wedding and changed their holiday destination to Mauritius.", "After the UK Press Complaints Commission ruled that a magazine had breached Jessica's privacy when the eight-year-old was included in a photograph of the family taken during that trip, Murray and Rowling sought a more private and quiet place to live and work.", "Rowling bought Killiechassie House and its estate in Perthshire, Scotland, and on 26 December 2001, the couple had a small, private wedding there, officiated by an Episcopalian priest who travelled from Edinburgh.", "Their son, David Gordon Rowling Murray, was born in 2003, and their daughter Mackenzie Jean Rowling Murray in 2005.In 2004, ''Forbes'' named Rowling \"the first billion-dollar author\".", "Rowling denied that she was a billionaire in a 2005 interview.", "By 2012, ''Forbes'' concluded she was no longer a billionaire due to her charitable donations and high UK taxes.", "She was named the world's highest paid author by ''Forbes'' in 2008, 2017 and 2019.Her UK sales total in excess of £238 million, making her the best-selling living author in Britain.", "The 2021 ''Sunday Times'' Rich List estimated Rowling's fortune at £820 million, ranking her as the 196th-richest person in the UK.", "As of 2020, she also owns a £4.5 million Georgian house in Kensington and a £2 million home in Edinburgh.===Adult fiction and Robert Galbraith===In mid-2011, Rowling left Christopher Little Literary Agency and followed her agent Neil Blair to the Blair Partnership.", "He represented her for the publication of ''The Casual Vacancy'', released in September 2012 by Little, Brown and Company.", "It was Rowling's first since ''Harry Potter'' ended, and her first book for adults.", "A contemporary take on 19th-century British fiction about village life, ''Casual Vacancy'' was promoted as a black comedy, while the critic Ian Parker described it as a \"rural comedy of manners\".", "It was adapted to a miniseries co-created by the BBC and HBO.Little, Brown published ''The Cuckoo's Calling'', the purported début novel of Robert Galbraith, in April 2013.It initially sold 1,500 copies in hardback.", "After an investigation prompted by discussion on Twitter, the journalist Richard Brooks contacted Rowling's agent, who confirmed Galbraith was Rowling's pseudonym.", "Rowling later said she enjoyed working as Robert Galbraith, a name she took from Robert F. Kennedy, a personal hero, and Ella Galbraith, a name she invented for herself in childhood.", "After the revelation of her identity, sales of ''Cuckoo's Calling'' escalated.Continuing the ''Cormoran Strike'' series of detective novels, ''The Silkworm'' was released in 2014; ''Career of Evil'' in 2015; ''Lethal White'' in 2018; ''Troubled Blood'' in 2020; ''The Ink Black Heart'' in 2022; and ''The Running Grave'' in 2023.Cormoran Strike, a disabled veteran of the War in Afghanistan with a prosthetic leg, is unfriendly and sometimes oblivious, but acts with a deep moral sensibility.", "In 2017, BBC One aired the first episode of the five-season series ''Strike'', a television adaptation of the ''Cormoran Strike'' novels starring Tom Burke.", "The series was picked up by HBO for distribution in the United States and Canada.===Later ''Harry Potter'' works=== ''Harry Potter and the Cursed Child'' at the Palace Theatre in the West End''Pottermore'', a website with information and stories about characters in the ''Harry Potter'' universe, launched in 2011.On its release, ''Pottermore'' was rooted in the ''Harry Potter'' novels, tracing the series's story in an interactive format.", "Its brand was associated with Rowling: she introduced the site in a video as a shared media environment to which she and ''Harry Potter'' fans would contribute.", "The site was substantially revised in 2015 to resemble an encyclopedia of ''Harry Potter''.", "Beyond encyclopedia content, the post-2015 ''Pottermore'' included promotions for Warner Bros. films including ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them''.", "''Harry Potter and the Cursed Child'' premiered in the West End in May 2016 and on Broadway in July.", "At its London premiere, Rowling confirmed that she would not write any more ''Harry Potter'' books.", "Rowling collaborated with writer Jack Thorne and director John Tiffany.", "''Cursed Child'' script was published as a book in July 2016.The play follows the friendship between Harry's son Albus and Scorpius Malfoy, Draco Malfoy's son, at Hogwarts.In April 2023, it was announced that the ''Harry Potter'' television series on Max streaming service will feature a season dedicated to each of the seven ''Harry Potter'' books, with Rowling as executive producer.===Children's stories===''The Ickabog'' was Rowling's first book aimed at children since ''Harry Potter''.", "Ickabog is a monster that turns out to be real; a group of children find out the truth about the Ickabog and save the day.", "Rowling released ''The Ickabog'' for free online in mid-2020, during the COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom.", "She began writing it in 2009 but set it aside to focus on other works including ''Casual Vacancy''.", "Scholastic held a competition to select children's art for the print edition, which was published in the US and Canada on 10 November 2020.Profits went to charities focused on COVID-19 relief.In ''The Christmas Pig'', a young boy loses his favourite stuffed animal, a pig, and the Christmas Pig guides him through the fantastical Land of the Lost to retrieve it.", "The novel was published on 12 October 2021 and became a bestseller in the UK and the US." ], [ "Influences", "Rowling has named Jessica Mitford as her greatest influence.", "She said Mitford had \"been my heroine since I was 14 years old, when I overheard my formidable great-aunt discussing how Mitford had run away at the age of 19 to fight with the Reds in the Spanish Civil War\", and that what inspired her about Mitford was that she was \"incurably and instinctively rebellious, brave, adventurous, funny and irreverent, she liked nothing better than a good fight, preferably against a pompous and hypocritical target\".", "As a child, Rowling read C. S. Lewis's ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', Elizabeth Goudge's ''The Little White Horse'', ''Manxmouse'' by Paul Gallico, and books by E. Nesbit and Noel Streatfeild.", "Rowling describes Jane Austen as her \"favourite author of all time\".Rowling acknowledges Homer, Geoffrey Chaucer, and William Shakespeare as literary influences.", "Scholars agree that ''Harry Potter'' is heavily influenced by the children's fantasy of writers such as Lewis, Goudge, Nesbit, J. R. R. Tolkien, Ursula K. Le Guin, and Diana Wynne Jones.", "According to the critic Beatrice Groves, ''Harry Potter'' is also \"rooted in the Western literary tradition\", including the classics.", "Commentators also note similarities to the children's stories of Enid Blyton and Roald Dahl.", "Rowling expresses admiration for Lewis, in whose writing battles between good and evil are also prominent, but rejects any connection with Dahl.Earlier works prominently featuring characters who learn to use magic include Le Guin's ''Earthsea'' series, in which a school of wizardry also appears, and the ''Chrestomanci'' books by Jones.", "Rowling's setting of a \"school of witchcraft and wizardry\" departs from the still older tradition of protagonists as apprentices to magicians, exemplified by ''The Sorcerer's Apprentice'': yet this trope does appear in ''Harry Potter'', when Harry receives individual instruction from Remus Lupin and other teachers.", "Rowling also draws on the tradition of stories set in boarding schools, a major example of which is Thomas Hughes's 1857 volume ''Tom Brown's School Days''." ], [ "Style and themes", "===Style and allusions===Rowling is known primarily as an author of fantasy and children's literature.", "Her writing in other genres, including literary fiction and murder mystery, has received less critical attention.", "Rowling's most famous work, ''Harry Potter'', has been defined as a fairy tale, a Bildungsroman and a boarding-school story.", "Her other writings have been described by Pugh as gritty contemporary fiction with historical influences (''The Casual Vacancy'') and hardboiled detective fiction (''Cormoran Strike'').In ''Harry Potter'', Rowling juxtaposes the extraordinary against the ordinary.", "Her narrative features two worlds – the mundane and the fantastic – but it differs from typical portal fantasy in that its magical elements stay grounded in the everyday.", "Paintings move and talk; books bite readers; letters shout messages; and maps show live journeys, making the wizarding world \"both exotic and cosily familiar\" according to the scholar Catherine Butler.", "This blend of realistic and romantic elements extends to Rowling's characters.", "Their names often include morphemes that correspond to their characteristics: Malfoy is difficult, Filch unpleasant and Lupin a werewolf.", "Harry is ordinary and relatable, with down-to-earth features such as wearing broken glasses; Roni Natov terms him an \"everychild\".", "These elements serve to highlight Harry when he is heroic, making him both an everyman and a fairytale hero.Arthurian, Christian and fairytale motifs are frequently found in Rowling's writing.", "Harry's ability to draw the Sword of Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat resembles the Arthurian sword in the stone legend.", "His life with the Dursleys has been compared to Cinderella.", "Like C. S. Lewis's ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', ''Harry Potter'' contains Christian symbolism and allegory.", "The series has been viewed as a Christian moral fable in the psychomachia tradition, in which stand-ins for good and evil fight for supremacy over a person's soul.", "The critic of children's literature Joy Farmer sees parallels between Harry and Jesus Christ.", "Comparing Rowling with Lewis, she argues that \"magic is both authors' way of talking about spiritual reality\".", "According to Maria Nikolajeva, Christian imagery is particularly strong in the final scenes of the series: she writes that Harry dies in self-sacrifice and Voldemort delivers an speech, after which Harry is resurrected and defeats his enemy.===Themes===Death is Rowling's overarching theme in ''Harry Potter''.", "In the first book, when Harry looks into the Mirror of Erised, he feels both joy and \"a terrible sadness\" at seeing his desire: his parents, alive and with him.", "Confronting their loss is central to Harry's character arc and manifests in different ways through the series, such as in his struggles with Dementors.", "Other characters in Harry's life die; he even faces his own death in ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows''.", "The series has an existential perspective – Harry must grow mature enough to accept death.", "In Harry's world, death is not binary but mutable, a state that exists in degrees.", "Unlike Voldemort, who evades death by separating and hiding his soul in seven parts, Harry's soul is whole, nourished by friendship and love.", "Love distinguishes the two characters.", "Harry is a hero because he loves others, even willing to accept death to save them; Voldemort is a villain because he does not.While ''Harry Potter'' can be viewed as a story about good versus evil, its moral divisions are not absolute.", "First impressions of characters are often misleading.", "Harry assumes in the first book that Quirrell is good because he opposes Snape, who appears malicious; in reality, their positions are reversed.", "This pattern later recurs with Moody and Snape.", "In Rowling's world, good and evil are choices rather than inherent attributes: second chances and redemption are key themes of the series.", "This is reflected in Harry's self-doubts after learning his connections to Voldemort, such as the ability of both to communicate with snakes in their language of Parseltongue; and prominently in Snape's characterisation, which has been described as complex and multifaceted.", "In some scholars' view, while Rowling's narrative appears on the surface to be about Harry, her focus may actually be on Snape's morality and character arc." ], [ "Reception", "Rowling has enjoyed enormous commercial success as an author.", "Her ''Harry Potter'' series topped bestseller lists, spawned a global media franchise including films and video games, and had been translated into 84 languages by 2023.The first three ''Harry Potter'' books occupied the top three spots of ''The New York Times'' bestseller list for more than a year; they were then moved to a newly created children's list.", "The final four books each set records as the fastest-selling books in the UK or US, and the series as a whole had sold more than 600 million copies .", "Neither of Rowling's later works, ''The Casual Vacancy'' and the ''Cormoran Strike'' series, has been as successful, though ''Casual Vacancy'' was still a bestseller in the UK within weeks of its release.", "''Harry Potter'' popularity has been attributed to factors including the nostalgia evoked by the boarding-school story, the endearing nature of Rowling's characters, and the accessibility of her books to a variety of readers.", "According to Julia Eccleshare, the books are \"neither too literary nor too popular, too difficult nor too easy, neither too young nor too old\", and hence bridge traditional reading divides.Critical response to ''Harry Potter'' has been more mixed.", "Harold Bloom regarded Rowling's prose as poor and her plots as conventional, while Jack Zipes argues that the series would not be successful if it were not formulaic.", "Zipes states that the early novels have the same plot: in each book, Harry escapes the Dursleys to visit Hogwarts, where he confronts Lord Voldemort and then heads back successful.", "Rowling's prose has been described as simple and not innovative; Le Guin, like several other critics, considered it \"stylistically ordinary\".", "According to the novelist A. S. Byatt, the books reflect a dumbed-down culture dominated by soap operas and reality television.", "Thus, some critics argue, ''Harry Potter'' does not innovate on established literary forms; nor does it challenge readers' preconceived ideas.", "Conversely, the scholar Philip Nel rejects such critiques as \"snobbery\" that reacts to the novels' popularity, whereas Mary Pharr argues that ''Harry Potter'' conventionalism is the point: by amalgamating literary forms familiar to her readers, Rowling invites them to \"ponder their own ideas\".", "Other critics who see artistic merit in Rowling's writing include Marina Warner, who views ''Harry Potter'' as part of an \"alternative genealogy\" of English literature that she traces from Edmund Spenser to Christina Rossetti.", "Michiko Kakutani praises Rowling's fictional world and the darker tone of the series' later entries.Reception of Rowling's later works has varied among critics.", "''The Casual Vacancy'', her attempt at literary fiction, drew mixed reviews.", "Some critics praised its characterisation, while others stated that it would have been better if it had contained magic.", "The ''Cormoran Strike'' series was more warmly received as a work of British detective fiction, even as some reviewers noted that its plots are occasionally contrived.", "Theatrical reviews of ''Harry Potter and the Cursed Child'' were highly positive.", "Fans have been more critical of the play's use of time travel, changes to characters' personalities, and perceived queerbaiting in Albus and Scorpius's relationship, leading some to question its connection to the ''Harry Potter'' canon.===Gender and social division===Rowling's portrayal of women in ''Harry Potter'' has been described as complex and varied, but nonetheless conforming to stereotypical and patriarchal depictions of gender.", "Gender divides are ostensibly absent in the books: Hogwarts is coeducational and women hold positions of power in wizarding society.", "However, this setting obscures the typecasting of female characters and the general depiction of conventional gender roles.", "According to the scholars Elizabeth Heilman and Trevor Donaldson, the subordination of female characters goes further early in the series.", "The final three books \"showcase richer roles and more powerful females\": for instance, the series' \"most matriarchal character\", Molly Weasley, engages substantially in the final battle of ''Deathly Hallows'', while other women are shown as leaders.", "Hermione Granger, in particular, becomes an active and independent character essential to the protagonists' battle against evil.", "Yet, even particularly capable female characters such as Hermione and Minerva McGonagall are placed in supporting roles, and Hermione's status as a feminist model is debated.", "Girls and women are frequently shown as emotional, defined by their appearance, and denied agency in family settings.The social hierarchies in Rowling's magical world have been a matter of debate among scholars and critics.", "The primary antagonists of ''Harry Potter'', Voldemort and his followers, believe blood purity is paramount, and that non-wizards, or \"muggles\", are subhuman.", "Their ideology of racial difference is depicted as unambiguously evil.", "However, the series cannot wholly reject racial division, according to several scholars, as it still depicts wizards as fundamentally superior to muggles.", "Blake and Zipes argue that numerous examples of wizardly superiority are depicted as \"natural and comfortable\".", "Thus, according to Gupta, ''Harry Potter'' depicts superior races as having a moral obligation of tolerance and altruism towards lesser races, rather than explicitly depicting equality.Rowling's depictions of the status of magical non-humans is similarly debated.", "Discussing the slavery of house-elves within ''Harry Potter'', scholars such as Brycchan Carey have praised the books' abolitionist sentiments, viewing Hermione's Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare as a model for younger readers' political engagement.", "Other critics, including Farah Mendlesohn, find the portrayal of house-elves extremely troublesome; they are written as happy in their slavery, and Hermione's efforts on their behalf are implied to be naïve.", "Pharr terms the house-elves a disharmonious element in the series, writing that Rowling leaves their fate hanging; at the end of ''Deathly Hallows'', the elves remain enslaved and cheerful.", "More generally, the subordination of magical non-humans remains in place, unchanged by the defeat of Voldemort.", "Thus, scholars suggest, the series's message is essentially conservative; it sees no reason to transform social hierarchies, only being concerned with who holds positions of power.===Religious reactions===There have been attempts to ban ''Harry Potter'' around the world, especially in the United States, and in the Bible Belt in particular.", "The series topped the American Library Association's list of most challenged books in the first three years of its publication.", "In the following years, parents in several US cities launched protests against teaching it in schools.", "Some Christian critics, particularly Evangelical Christians, have claimed that the novels promote witchcraft and harm children; similar opposition has been expressed to the film adaptations.", "Criticism has taken two main forms: allegations that ''Harry Potter'' is a pagan text; and claims that it encourages children to oppose authority, derived mainly from Harry's rejection of the Dursleys, his adoptive parents.", "The author and scholar Amanda Cockrell suggests that ''Harry Potter'' popularity, and recent preoccupation with fantasy and the occult among Christian fundamentalists, explains why the series received particular opposition.", "Some groups of Shia and Sunni Muslims also argued that the series contained satanic subtext, and it was banned in private schools in the United Arab Emirates.The ''Harry Potter'' books also have a group of vocal religious supporters who believe that ''Harry Potter'' espouses Christian values, or that the Bible does not prohibit the forms of magic described in the series.", "Christian analyses of the series have argued that it embraces ideals of friendship, loyalty, courage, love, and the temptation of power.", "After the final volume was published, Rowling said she intentionally incorporated Christian themes, in particular the idea that love may hold power over death.", "According to Farmer, it is a profound misreading to think that ''Harry Potter'' promotes witchcraft.", "The scholar Em McAvan writes that evangelical objections to ''Harry Potter'' are superficial, based on the presence of magic in the books: they do not attempt to understand the moral messages in the series." ], [ "Legacy", "Sculpture of Harry Potter in Leicester Square, London, 2020Rowling's ''Harry Potter'' series has been credited with a resurgence in crossover fiction: children's literature with an adult appeal.", "Crossovers were prevalent in 19th-century American and British fiction, but fell out of favour in the 20th century and did not occur at the same scale.", "The post-''Harry Potter'' crossover trend is associated with the fantasy genre.", "In the 1970s, children's books were generally realistic as opposed to fantastic, while adult fantasy became popular because of the influence of ''The Lord of the Rings''.", "The next decade saw an increasing interest in grim, realist themes, with an outflow of fantasy readers and writers to adult works.The commercial success of ''Harry Potter'' in 1997 reversed this trend.", "The scale of its growth had no precedent in the children's market: within four years, it occupied 28% of that field by revenue.", "Children's literature rose in cultural status, and fantasy became a dominant genre.", "Older works of children's fantasy, including Diana Wynne Jones's ''Chrestomanci'' series and Diane Duane's ''Young Wizards'', were reprinted and rose in popularity; some authors re-established their careers.", "In the following decades, many ''Harry Potter'' imitators and subversive responses grew popular.Rowling has been compared with Enid Blyton, who also wrote in simple language about groups of children and long held sway over the British children's market.", "She has also been described as an heir to Roald Dahl.", "Some critics view ''Harry Potter'' rise, along with the concurrent success of Philip Pullman's ''His Dark Materials'', as part of a broader shift in reading tastes: a rejection of literary fiction in favour of plot and adventure.", "This is reflected in the BBC's 2003 \"Big Read\" survey of the UK's favourite books, where Pullman and Rowling ranked at numbers 3 and 5, respectively, with very few British literary classics in the top 10.", "''Harry Potter'' popularity led its publishers to plan elaborate releases and spawned a textual afterlife among fans and forgers.", "Beginning with the release of ''Prisoner of Azkaban'' on 8 July 1999 at 3:45 pm, its publishers coordinated selling the books at the same time globally, introduced security protocols to prevent premature purchases, and required booksellers to agree not to sell copies before the appointed time.", "Driven by the growth of the internet, fan fiction about the series proliferated and has spawned a diverse community of readers and writers.", "While Rowling has supported fan fiction, her statements about characters – for instance, that Harry and Hermione could have been a couple, and that Dumbledore was gay – have complicated her relationship with readers.", "According to scholars, this shows that modern readers feel a sense of ownership over the text that is independent of, and sometimes contradicts, authorial intent." ], [ "Legal disputes", "In the 1990s and 2000s, Rowling was both a plaintiff and defendant in lawsuits alleging copyright infringement.", "Nancy Stouffer sued Rowling in 1999, alleging that ''Harry Potter'' was based on stories she published in 1984.Rowling won in September 2002.Richard Posner describes Stouffer's suit as deeply flawed and notes that the court, finding she had used \"forged and altered documents\", assessed a $50,000 penalty against her.With her literary agents and Warner Bros., Rowling has brought legal action against publishers and writers of ''Harry Potter'' knockoffs in several countries.", "In the mid-2000s, Rowling and her publishers obtained a series of injunctions prohibiting sales or published reviews of her books before their official release dates.Beginning in 2001, after Rowling sold film rights to Warner Bros., the studio tried to take ''Harry Potter'' fan sites offline unless it determined that they were made by \"authentic\" fans for innocuous purposes.", "In 2007, with Warner Bros., Rowling started proceedings to cease publication of a book based on content from a fan site called ''The Harry Potter Lexicon''.", "The court held that ''Lexicon'' was neither a fair use of Rowling's material nor a derivative work, but it did not prevent the book from being published in a different form.", "''Lexicon'' was published in 2009." ], [ "Philanthropy", "Aware of the good fortune that led to her wealth and fame, Rowling wanted to use her public image to help others despite her concerns about publicity and the press; she became, in the words of Smith, \"emboldened ... to stand up and be counted on issues that were important to her\".", "Rowling's charitable donations before 2012 were estimated by ''Forbes'' at $160 million.", "She was the second most generous UK donor in 2015 (following the singer Elton John), giving about $14 million.Long interested in issues affecting women and children, Rowling established the Volant Charitable Trust in 2000, named after her mother to address social deprivation in at-risk women, children and youth.", "She was appointed president of One Parent Families (now Gingerbread) in 2004, after becoming its first ambassador in 2000.She collaborated with Sarah Brown on a book of children's stories to benefit One Parent Families.", "Together with the MEP Emma Nicholson, Rowling founded the charity now known as Lumos in 2005.Lumos has worked with an orphanage west of Kyiv, Ukraine since 2013; after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Rowling offered to personally match up to £1million in donations to Lumos for Ukraine.", "Later in 2022, during her advocacy against the proposed Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill, Rowling stated she had founded and would fund Beira's Place, a women-centred rape help center to provide free support services for biological women survivors of sexual violence.", "She has donated several hundred thousand pounds to help women lawyers flee from the Taliban's control, helping hundreds of Afghans escape.Rowling has made donations to support other medical causes.", "She named another institution after her mother in 2010, when she donated £10 million to found a multiple sclerosis research centre at the University of Edinburgh.", "She gave an additional £15.3 million to the centre in 2019.During the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, accompanied by an inflatable representation of Lord Voldemort, she read from ''Peter Pan'' as part of a tribute to the Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children.", "To support COVID-19 relief, she donated six-figure sums to both Khalsa Aid and the British Asian Trust from royalties for ''The Ickabog''.Several publications in the ''Harry Potter'' universe have been sold for charitable purposes.", "Profits from ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' and ''Quidditch Through the Ages'', both published in 2001, went to Comic Relief.", "To support Children's Voice, later renamed Lumos, Rowling sold a deluxe copy of ''The Tales of Beedle the Bard'' at auction in 2007.Amazon's £1.95 million purchase set a record for a contemporary literary work and for children's literature.", "Rowling published the book and, in 2013, donated the proceeds of nearly £19 million (then about $30 million) to Lumos.", "Rowling and 12 other writers composed short pieces in 2008 to be sold to benefit Dyslexia Action and English PEN.", "Rowling's contribution was an 800-word ''Harry Potter'' prequel.", "When the revelation that Rowling wrote ''The Cuckoo's Calling'' led to an increase in sales, she donated the royalties to ABF The Soldiers' Charity (formerly the Army Benevolent Fund)." ], [ "Views", "Rowling was actively engaged on the internet before author webpages were common.", "She has at times used Twitter unreservedly to reach her ''Harry Potter'' fans and followers.", "She often tweets about her political opinions using wit and sarcasm, sometimes generating controversy.===Politics===In 2008, Rowling donated £1 million to the Labour Party, endorsed the Labour prime minister Gordon Brown over his Conservative challenger David Cameron, and commended Labour's policies on child poverty.", "When asked about the 2008 United States presidential election, she stated that \"it is a pity that Clinton and Obama have to be rivals because both are extraordinary.", "\"In her \"Single mother's manifesto\" published in ''The Times'' in 2010, Rowling criticised the prime minister David Cameron's plan to offer married couples an annual tax credit.", "She thought that the proposal discriminated against single parents, whose interests the Conservative Party failed to consider.Rowling opposed the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, due to concerns about the economic consequences, and donated £1 million to the Better Together anti-independence campaign.", "She campaigned for the UK to stay in the European Union in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum.", "She defined herself as an internationalist, \"the mongrel product of this European continent\", and expressed concern that \"racists and bigots\" were directing parts of the Leave campaign.She opposed Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, but refused to support a cultural boycott of Israel in 2015, believing that depriving Israelis of shared culture would not dislodge him.", "In 2015, Rowling joined 150 others in signing a letter published in ''The Guardian'' in favour of cultural engagement with Israel.===Press===Rowling has a difficult relationship with the press and has tried to influence the type of coverage she receives.", "She described herself in 2003 as \"too thin-skinned\".", "As of 2011, she had taken more than 50 actions against the press.", "Rowling dislikes the British tabloid the ''Daily Mail'', which she successfully sued in 2014 for libel about her time as a single mother.The Leveson Inquiry, an investigation of the British press, named Rowling as a \"core participant\" in 2011.She was one of many celebrities alleged to have been victims of phone hacking.", "In 2012, she wrote an op-ed for ''The Guardian'' in response to Cameron's decision not to implement all the inquiry's recommendations.", "She reaffirmed her stance on \"Hacked Off\", a campaign supporting the self-regulation of the press, by co-signing a 2014 declaration to \"safeguard the press from political interference while also giving vital protection to the vulnerable\" with other British celebrities.===Transgender people===Rowling's responses to proposed changes to UK gender recognition laws, and her views on sex and gender, have provoked controversy.", "Her statements have divided feminists; fuelled debates on freedom of speech, academic freedom and cancel culture; and prompted declarations of support for transgender people from the literary, arts and culture sectors.When Maya Forstater's employment contract with the London branch of the Center for Global Development was not renewed after she tweeted gender-critical views, Rowling responded in December 2019 with a tweet that transgender people should live their lives as they pleased in \"peace and security\", but questioned women being \"forced out of their jobs for stating that sex is real\".", "In another controversial tweet in June 2020, Rowling mocked an article for using the phrase \"people who menstruate\", and tweeted that women's rights and \"lived reality\" would be \"erased\" if \"sex isn't real\".LGBT charities and leading actors of the Wizarding World franchise condemned Rowling's comments; GLAAD called them \"cruel\" and \"inaccurate\".", "Rowling responded with an essay on her website in which she revealed that her views on women's rights were informed by her experience as a survivor of domestic abuse and sexual assault.", "While affirming that \"the majority of trans-identified people not only pose zero threat to others, but are vulnerable ... Trans people need and deserve protection\", she believed that it would be unsafe to allow \"any man who believes or feels he's a woman\" into bathrooms or changing rooms.", "Writing of her own experiences with sexism and misogyny, she wondered if the \"allure of escaping womanhood\" would have led her to transition if she had been born later, and said that trans activism was \"seeking to erode 'woman' as a political and biological class\".Rowling's continual statements – beginning in 2017 – have been called transphobic by critics and she has been referred to as a TERF.", "She rejects these characterisations and the notion that she holds animosity towards transgender people, saying that her viewpoint has been misunderstood.", "Criticism of Rowling's views has come from the ''Harry Potter'' fansites MuggleNet and The Leaky Cauldron; and the charities Mermaids, Stonewall, and Human Rights Campaign.", "After Kerry Kennedy expressed \"profound disappointment\" in her views, Rowling returned the Ripple of Hope Award given to her by the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights organisation.As Rowling's views on the legal status of transgender people came under scrutiny, she received insults and death threats and discussion moved beyond the Twitter community.", "Some performers and feminists have supported her.", "Figures from the arts world criticised \"hate speech directed against her\"." ], [ "Awards and honours", "Rowling after receiving an honorary degree from the University of Aberdeen in 2006Rowling's ''Harry Potter'' series has won awards for general literature, children's literature and speculative fiction.", "It has earned multiple British Book Awards, beginning with the Children's Book of the Year for the first two volumes, ''Philosopher's Stone'' and ''Chamber of Secrets''.", "The third novel, ''Prisoner of Azkaban'', was nominated for an adult award, the Whitbread Book of the Year, where it competed against the Nobel prize laureate Seamus Heaney's translation of ''Beowulf''.", "The award body gave Rowling the children's prize instead (worth half the cash amount), which some scholars felt exemplified a literary prejudice against children's books.", "She won the World Science Fiction Convention's Hugo Award for the fourth book, ''Goblet of Fire'', and the British Book Awards' adult prize – the Book of the Year – for the sixth novel, ''Half-Blood Prince''.Rowling was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2000 Birthday Honours for services to children's literature, and three years later received Spain's Prince of Asturias Award for Concord.", "Following the conclusion of the ''Harry Potter'' series, she won the Outstanding Achievement prize at the 2008 British Book Awards.", "The next year, she was made a by the French president Nicolas Sarkozy, and leading magazine editors named her the \"Most Influential Woman in the UK\" in 2010.For services to literature and philanthropy, she was awarded the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in 2017.Many academic institutions have bestowed honorary degrees on Rowling, including her alma mater, the University of Exeter, and Harvard University, where she spoke at the 2008 commencement ceremony.", "She is a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature (FRSL), the Royal Society of Edinburgh (HonFRSE), and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (FRCPE).Rowling shared the British Academy Film Award (BAFTA) for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema with the cast and crew of the ''Harry Potter'' films in 2011.Her other awards include the 2017 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play for ''Harry Potter and the Cursed Child'', and the 2021 British Book Awards' Crime and Thriller prize for the fifth volume of her ''Cormoran Strike'' series." ], [ "Bibliography", "+ Target/TypeSeries/DescriptionTitleDate Young adultfiction''Harry Potter'' series1.", "''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone''2.", "''Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets''3.", "''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban''4.", "''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire''5.", "''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix''6.", "''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince''7.", "''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows''''Harry Potter''–related books''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' (supplement to the ''Harry Potter'' series)''Quidditch Through the Ages'' (supplement to the ''Harry Potter'' series)''Harry Potter'' prequel (short story published in ''What's Your Story Postcard Collection'')''The Tales of Beedle the Bard'' (supplement to the ''Harry Potter'' series)''Harry Potter and the Cursed Child'' (story concept for play)premiere''Short Stories from Hogwarts of Power, Politics and Pesky Poltergeists''''Short Stories from Hogwarts of Heroism, Hardship and Dangerous Hobbies''''Hogwarts: An Incomplete and Unreliable Guide''''Harry Potter''–related original screenplays''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them''''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald''premiere''Fantastic Beasts: The Secrets of Dumbledore'' Adultfiction''The Casual Vacancy''''Cormoran Strike'' series (as Robert Galbraith)1.", "''The Cuckoo's Calling''2.", "''The Silkworm''3.", "''Career of Evil''4.", "''Lethal White''5.", "''Troubled Blood''6.", "''The Ink Black Heart''7.", "''The Running Grave'' Children'sfiction''The Ickabog''''The Christmas Pig'' Non-fiction Books''Very Good Lives: The Fringe Benefits of Failure and Importance of Imagination'', illustrated by Joel Holland, Sphere.", "''A Love Letter to Europe: an Outpouring of Love and Sadness from our Writers, Thinkers and Artists'', Coronet (contributor).", "Articles\"The first it girl: J. K. Rowling reviews ''Decca: the Letters by Jessica Mitford''\".", "Sussman, Peter Y., editor.", "''The Daily Telegraph''.", "\"The fringe benefits of failure, and the importance of imagination\".", "''Harvard Magazine''.", "\"Gordon Brown – the 2009 Time 100\".", "''Time'' magazine.", "\"The single mother's manifesto\".", "''The Times''.", "\"I feel duped and angry at David Cameron's reaction to Leveson\".", "''The Guardian''.", "\"Isn't it time we left orphanages to fairytales?\"", "''The Guardian''.", "BookForeword/IntroductionReynolds, Kim; Cooling, Wendy, project consultants.", "''Families Just Like Us: The One Parent Families Good Book Guide''.", "National Council for One Parent Families; Book Trust.2000McNeil, Gil; Brown, Sarah, editors.", "''Magic''.", "Bloomsbury.Brown, Gordon.", "\"Ending child poverty\" in ''Moving Britain Forward.", "Selected Speeches 1997–2006''.", "Bloomsbury.Anelli, Melissa.", "''Harry, A History''.", "Pocket Books." ], [ "Filmography", "+ Year Title Credited as Notes Actress Screenwriter Producer Executive producer2003 ''The Simpsons'' Voice cameo in \"The Regina Monologues\"2010''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1'' Film based on ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows'' 2011''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2'' 2015''The Casual Vacancy'' Television miniseries based on ''The Casual Vacancy''2016''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' Film inspired by the ''Harry Potter'' supplementary book ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them''2017–present''Strike'' Television series based on ''Cormoran Strike'' novels2018''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'' Film inspired by ''Harry Potter'' supplementary book ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them'' 2022''Fantastic Beasts: The Secrets of Dumbledore'' Film inspired by ''Harry Potter'' supplementary book ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "'''Books'''* ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * '''Journal articles'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Non-English news articles'''* * " ], [ "External links", " * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jan Hus" ], [ "Introduction", "File:German or Austrian 16th Century, John Huss Centenary Medal (reverse), 1515, NGA 45407.jpg\|alt=A gold-colored medal, struck in silver, about four and a half centimeters across, showing the image of Jan Hus tied to a band of stakes.", "Inscriptions in capital letters read: (around the circumference), CENTVM REVOLVTIS ANNIS DEO RESPONDEBITIS ETMIHI / ANNO A CHRISTo NATO 1415 IOannes HVS; (and across the center), CONDEM / NATVR\|thumb\|German or Austrian 16th Century.", "''John Huss Centenary Medal'' reverse .", "Silver, 4.33 cm.", "National Gallery of Art, Washington.", "Samuel H. Kress Collection'''Jan Hus''' (; ; 1370 – 6 July 1415), sometimes anglicized as '''John Hus''' or '''John Huss''', and referred to in historical texts as ''Iohannes Hus'' or ''Johannes Huss'', was a Czech theologian and philosopher who became a Church reformer and the inspiration of Hussitism, a key predecessor to Protestantism, and a seminal figure in the Bohemian Reformation.", "Hus is considered to be the first Church reformer, even though some designate the theorist John Wycliffe.", "His teachings had a strong influence, most immediately in the approval of a reformed Bohemian religious denomination and, over a century later, on Martin Luther.", "After being ordained as a Catholic priest, Hus began to preach in Prague.", "He opposed many aspects of the Catholic Church in Bohemia, such as its views on ecclesiology, simony, the Eucharist, and other theological topics.", "Hus was a master, dean and rector at the Charles University in Prague between 1409 and 1410.Alexander V issued a Papal bull that excommunicated Hus; however, it was not enforced, and Hus continued to preach.", "Hus then spoke out against Alexander V's successor, Antipope John XXIII, for his selling of indulgences.", "Hus's excommunication was then enforced, and he spent the next two years living in exile.", "When the Council of Constance assembled, Hus was asked to be there and present his views on the dissension within the Church.", "When he arrived, with a promise of safe-conduct, he was arrested and put in prison.", "He was eventually taken in front of the council and asked to recant his views.", "He refused.", "On 6 July 1415, he was burned at the stake for heresy against the teachings of the Catholic Church.", "After Hus was executed, the followers of his religious teachings (known as Hussites) refused to elect another Catholic monarch and defeated five consecutive papal crusades between 1420 and 1431 in what became known as the Hussite Wars.", "Both the Bohemian and the Moravian populations remained majority Hussite until the 1620s, when a Protestant defeat in the Battle of the White Mountain resulted in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown coming under Habsburg dominion for the next 300 years and being subject to immediate and forced conversion in an intense campaign of return to Catholicism." ], [ "Early life", "The exact date of Hus's birth is disputed.", "Some claim he was born around 1369, while others claim he was born between 1373 and 1375.Though older sources state the latter, more contemporary research states that 1372 is more likely.", "The belief that he was born on 6 July, also his death day, has no factual basis.", "Hus was born in Husinec, southern Bohemia, to peasant parents.", "It is well known that Hus took his name from the village where he lived (Husinec).", "The reason behind him taking his name from his village rather than from his father is up to speculation; some believe that it was because Hus did not know of his father, while others say it was simply a custom at that time.", "The name \"Hus,\" however, means \"goose\" in Bohemian (now called Czech), and he was a century later referenced as a \"Bohemian goose\" in a dream given to Frederick, the Elector of Saxony.", "Nearly all other information we have about Hus's very early life is unsubstantiated.", "Similarly, we know little of Hus's family.", "His father's name was Michael; his mother's name is unknown.", "It is known that Hus had a brother due to him expressing concerns for his nephew while awaiting execution at Constance.", "Whether or not Hus had any other family is unknown.At the age of roughly 10, Hus was sent away to a monastery.", "The exact reason is not known; some claim that his father had died, others say he went there due to his devotion to God.", "He impressed the teachers with his studies, and they recommended him to move to Prague, one of the largest cities in Bohemia at that time.", "Hus apparently supported himself by securing employment in Prague, which allowed him to fulfill his basic necessities, and access to the Prague Library.Three years later, he was admitted to the University of Prague.", "Though not an exceptional student, he pursued his studies with ferocity.", "In 1393, Hus earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of Prague, and he earned his master's degree in 1396.The strongly anti-papal views that were held by many of the professors there likely influenced Hus's future works.", "During his studies, he served as a choir boy, to supplement his earnings." ], [ "Career", "Hus began teaching at the University of Prague in 1398 and in 1399, he first publicly defended propositions of Wycliffe.", "He was ordained as a Catholic priest in 1400.In 1401, his students and faculty promoted him to dean of the philosophical department, and a year later, he became a rector of the University of Prague.", "He was appointed a preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel in 1402.Hus was a strong advocate for the Czechs and the Realists, and he was influenced by the writings of John Wycliffe.", "Although Church authorities banned many of Wycliffe's works in 1403, Hus translated ''Trialogus'' into Czech and helped to distribute it.Jan Hus preaching, illumination from a Czech manuscript, 1490sHus denounced the moral failings of clergy, bishops, and even the papacy from his pulpit.", "Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc tolerated this, and even appointed Hus a preacher at the clergy's biennial synod.", "On 24 June 1405, Pope Innocent VII directed the Archbishop to counter Wycliffe's teachings, especially the idea of impanation in the Eucharist.", "The archbishop complied by issuing a synod decree against Wycliffe, as well as forbidding any further attacks on the clergy.In 1406, two Bohemian students brought to Prague a document bearing the seal of the University of Oxford and praising Wycliffe.", "Hus proudly read the document from his pulpit.", "Then, in 1408, Pope Gregory XII warned Archbishop Zajic that the Church in Rome had been informed of Wycliffe's heresies and of the sympathies of King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia for nonconformists.", "In response, the king and university ordered all of Wycliffe's writings surrendered to the archdiocesan chancery for correction.", "Hus obeyed, declaring that he condemned the errors in those writings.===Papal Schism===In 1408, the Charles University in Prague was divided by the Western Schism, in which Gregory XII in Rome and Benedict XIII in Avignon both claimed the papacy.", "Wenceslaus felt Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor.", "He denounced Gregory, ordered the clergy in Bohemia to observe a strict neutrality in the schism and said that he expected the same of the university.", "Archbishop Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory.", "At the University, only the scholars of the Bohemian \"nation\" (one of the four governing sections), with Hus as their leader, vowed neutrality.====Kutná Hora Decree====In January 1409, Wenceslaus summoned representatives of the four nations comprising the university to the Czech city of Kutná Hora to demand statements of allegiance.", "The Czech nation agreed, but the other three nations declined.", "The king then decreed that the Czech nation would have three votes in university affairs, while the \"German nation\" (composed of the former Bavarian, Saxon, and Polish nations) would have one vote in total.", "Due to the change in voting structure by May 1409 the German dean and rector were deposed and replaced by Czechs.", "The Palatine Elector called the Germans to his own University of Heidelberg, while the Margrave of Meissen started a new university in Leipzig.", "It is estimated that over one thousand students and masters left Prague.", "The emigrants also spread accusations of Bohemian heresy.====Antipope Alexander V====In 1409, the Council of Pisa tried to end the schism by electing Alexander V as Pope, but Gregory and Benedict did not submit.", "(Alexander was declared an \"antipope\" by the Council of Constance in 1418.)", "Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus IV transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure fromKing Wenceslaus IV, Archbishop Zajíc did the same.", "Zajíc then lodged an accusation of \"ecclesiastical disturbances\" against Wycliffites in Prague with Alexander V.On 20 December 1409, Alexander V issued a papal bull that empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism in Prague.", "All copies of Wycliffe's writings were to be surrendered and his views repudiated, and free preaching discontinued.", "After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed to Alexander V, but in vain.", "The Wycliffe books and valuable manuscripts were burned, and Hus and his adherents were excommunicated by Alexander V.====Crusade against Naples====Alexander V died in 1410, and was succeeded by John XXIII (also later declared an antipope).", "In 1411, John XXIII proclaimed a crusade against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of rival Pope Gregory XII.", "This crusade was preached in Prague as well.", "John XXIII also authorized indulgences to raise money for the war.", "Priests urged the people on, and they crowded into churches to give their offerings.", "This traffic in indulgences was a sign of the corruption of the Church needing remediation.====Condemnation of indulgences and Crusade====Archbishop Zajíc died in 1411 and with his death the religious movement in Bohemia entered a new phase during which the disputes concerning indulgences assumed great importance.", "Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university.", "In 1412, a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address ''Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis''.", "It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, ''De ecclesia'', and his treatise, ''De absolutione a pena et culpa''.", "Hus asserted that no pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those who curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by true repentance, not money.", "The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success.", "A few days afterward some of Hus followers led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burned the Papal bulls.", "Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and Simonists.In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded.", "They were later considered the first martyrs of the Hussite Church.", "In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles and added several other theses, deemed heretical, which had originated with Hus.", "The king forbade the teaching of these articles but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling.", "They requested that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural.", "The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation.", "Papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties.====Attempts at reconciliation====King Wenceslaus IV made efforts to harmonize the opposing parties.", "In 1412, he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation and, at their suggestion, ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412.The synod was instead held in the palace of the archbishops at Prague in order to exclude Hus from participation.", "Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church.", "Hus declared that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power.", "This was the view of Wycliffe (''Sermones'', iii.", "519, etc.", ").There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained.", "\"Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me,\" Hus wrote at the time, \"I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty.\"", "The synod did not produce any results but the king ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation.", "The doctors of the university demanded Hus and his followers approve the university's conception of the Church.", "According to this conception, the pope is the head of the Church and the Cardinals are the body of the Church.", "Hus protested vigorously.", "The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation.", "To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only \"so far as every pious Christian is bound\".", "Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others.==== Hus leaves Prague and appeals to Jesus Christ ====By this time, Hus's ideas had become widely accepted in Bohemia and there was broad resentment against the Church hierarchy.", "The attack on Hus by the pope and archbishop caused riots in parts of Bohemia.", "King Wenceslaus IV and his government took the side of Hus and the power of his adherents increased from day to day.", "Hus continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel.", "The churches of the city were put under the ban, and the interdict was pronounced against Prague.", "To protect the city, Hus left and went into the countryside where he continued to preach and write.Before Hus left Prague, he decided to take a step which gave a new dimension to his endeavors.", "He wanted to become a preacher and then taught at the university he studied at before.", "He no longer put his trust in an indecisive king, a hostile pope or an ineffective council.", "On 18 October 1412, he appealed to Jesus Christ as the supreme judge.", "By appealing directly to the highest Christian authority, Christ himself, he bypassed the laws and structures of the medieval Church.", "For the Bohemian Reformation, this step was as significant as the 95 theses posted in Wittenberg by Martin Luther in 1517.After Hus left Prague for the country, he realized what a gulf there was between university education and theological speculation and the life of uneducated country priests and the laymen entrusted to their care.", "Therefore he started to write many texts in Czech, such as basics of the Christian faith or preachings, intended mainly for the priests whose knowledge of Latin was poor.====Writings of Hus and Wycliffe====Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled ''De Ecclesia'', were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized, yet their first ten chapters are an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title and the following chapters are an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works (''De potentate papae'') on the power of the pope.", "Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted primarily of the clergy, and Hus now found himself making the same point.", "He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek and sent it to Prague where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem Chapel.", "It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán z Pálče (also Štěpán Páleč) with treatises of the same title.After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground.", "Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek.", "Bohemian Wycliffism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria.", "But in January 1413, a general council in Rome condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned.===Council of Constance===King Wenceslaus's brother Sigismund of Hungary, who was \"King of the Romans\" (that is, head of the Holy Roman Empire though not then Emperor) and heir to the Bohemian crown, was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the Church.", "To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long-desired reform of the Church, he arranged for a general council to convene on 1 November 1414, at Konstanz (Constance).", "The Council of Constance (1414–1418) became the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church.", "Hus, willing to make an end to all dissensions, agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of safe-conduct.====Imprisonment and preparations for trial====Jan Hus at the Council of Constance.", "19th-century painting by Karl Friedrich LessingIt is not known whether Hus knew what his fate would be, however, he made his will before setting out.", "He started on his journey on 11 October 1414, arriving in Constance on 3 November 1414.The following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu (Michal de Causis) would be opposing Hus.", "In the beginning, Hus was at liberty under his safe-conduct from Sigismund and lived at the house of a widow.", "But he continued celebrating mass and preaching to the people, in violation of restrictions decreed by the Church.", "After a few weeks on 28 November 1414, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him on the strength of a rumor that he intended to flee.", "He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then on 6 December 1414 into the prison of the Dominican monastery.", "Sigismund, as the guarantor of Hus's safety, was greatly angered and threatened the prelates with dismissal.", "The prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic.On 4 December 1414, John XXIII entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus.", "As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense.", "His situation became worse after the downfall of John XXIII, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating.", "Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends, but now he was delivered to the bishop of Constance and brought to his castle, ''Gottlieben on the Rhine''.", "Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill.===Trial===On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time and was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life.", "Extracts from his works were read and witnesses were heard.", "He refused all formulae of submission but declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible.", "Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was.", "On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's view of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation.", "King Sigismund admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic.At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, thirty-nine sentences were read to him.", "Of these, twenty-six had been excerpted from his book on the Church (''De ecclesia''), seven from his treatise against Páleč (Contra Palecz), and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma (''Contra Stanislaum'').", "The danger of some of these views to worldly power was explained to Sigismund to incite him against Hus.", "Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors.", "This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess:1.That he had erred in the theses which he had hitherto maintained;2.That he renounced them for the future;3.That he recanted them; and4.That he declared the opposite of these sentences.He asked to be exempted from recanting teachings which he had never taught.", "Other views, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was not willing to revoke and to act differently would be against his conscience.", "These words found no favorable reception.", "After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were purportedly made to induce him to recant, which he resisted.====Condemnation====The monument in Konstanz, where reformer Jan Hus was executed (1862)The condemnation of Jan Hus took place on 6 July 1415 in the presence of the assembly of the council in the cathedral.", "After the High Mass and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church.", "The Bishop of Lodi (then Giacomo Balardi Arrigoni) delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; various theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were then read.An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings.", "Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything but to be convinced from Scripture.", "He fell upon his knees and asked God with a soft voice to forgive all his enemies.", "Then followed his degradation from the priesthood.", "He was dressed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant and again he refused.", "With curses, Hus's ornaments were taken from him, his priestly tonsure was destroyed.", "The judgment of the Church was pronounced:A tall paper hat was allegedly put upon his head with the inscription \"''Haeresiarcha''\" (''i.e.", "'', the leader of a heretical movement).", "Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men.Before his execution, Hus is said to have declared, \"You may kill a weak goose ''Hus'' is Czech for \"goose\", but more powerful birds, eagles and falcons, will come after me.\"", "Luther modified the statement and reported that Hus had said that they might have roasted a goose, but that in a hundred years a swan would sing to whom they be forced to listen.", "In 1546, in his funeral sermon for Luther, Johannes Bugenhagen gave a further twist to Hus's declaration: \"You may burn a goose, but in a hundred years will come a swan you will not be able to burn.\"", "Twenty years later, in 1566, Johannes Mathesius, Luther's first biographer, found Hus's prophecy to be evidence of Luther's divine inspiration.===Execution===The oldest-known representation of Jan Hus is from the Martinická Bible 1430.The last surviving copy of the famous protest of the Bohemian nobles against the burning of the religious reformer Jan Hus in 1415stake, Jena codex (c. 1500)At the place of execution, he knelt down, spread out his hands and prayed aloud.", "The executioner undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes.", "His neck was bound with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck.", "At the last moment, the imperial marshal, von Pappenheim, in the presence of the Count Palatine, asked Hus to recant and thus save his own life.", "Hus declined, stating:Anecdotally, it has been said that the executioners had trouble intensifying the fire.", "An old woman then came to the stake and threw a relatively small amount of brushwood on it.", "Upon seeing her act, a suffering Hus then exclaimed, \"O ''Sancta Simplicitas!''\"", "It is said that when he was about to expire, he cried out, \"Christ, son of the Living God, have mercy on us!\"", "(a variant of the Jesus Prayer).", "Hus's ashes were later thrown into the Rhine river as a means of preventing the veneration of his remains." ], [ "Aftermath", "=== Bohemian Protest ===As news of Hus's death spread outrage was brewing from the local nobles and doctors.", "On 2 September 1415, a document now called the Bohemian Protest was signed with corresponding attached wax seals by 100 notable people from Bohemia and Moravia in protest of Jan Hus's burning.", "There is evidence that four documents of this kind were made in total, however only this one is known to survive and is currently held at the University of Edinburgh.", "The statement inside reads that \"Master John Hus was a good, just and catholic man\" that \"consistently detested all error and heresies\" and that anyone that believed that heresy was arising within Bohemia or Moravia to be \"the worst of traitors\".===Hussite Wars===Jan Žižka leading troops of HussitesSome two thousand of Hus's followers thrown into the Kutná Hora mines by pro-Catholic townsmenResponding with horror to the execution of Hus, the people of Bohemia moved even more rapidly away from Papal teachings.", "Rome then pronounced a crusade against them (1 March 1420): Pope Martin V issued a Papal bull authorizing the execution of all supporters of Hus and Wycliffe.", "King Wenceslaus IV died in August 1419, and his brother, Sigismund of Hungary, was unable to establish a real government in Bohemia due to the Hussite revolt.The Hussite community included most of the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia.", "Under the leadership of Jan Žižka (c. 1360–1424) and later of Prokop the Great (c. 1380–1434)—both excellent commanders—the Hussites defeated the crusade and the other three crusades that followed (1419–1434).", "Fighting ended after a compromise between the Utraquist Hussites and the Catholic Council of Basel in 1436.It resulted in the Basel Compacts, in which the Catholic Church officially allowed Bohemia to practice its own version of Christianity (Hussitism).", "A century later as much as ninety percent of the inhabitants of the Czech Crown lands still followed Hussite teachings.===Hus's scholarship and teachings===Luther and Hus serving Communion under both kinds together; picture from 16th-century Saxony demonstrating the affinity of Lutherans with HussitesHus left reformatory writings.", "He translated Wycliffe's ''Trialogus'' and was very familiar with his works on the body of Jesus, the Church, and the power of the pope, as well as and especially with his sermons.", "There are reasons to suppose that Wycliffe's view of the Lord's Supper (consubstantiation rather than transubstantiation) had spread to Prague as early as 1399, with strong evidence that students returning from England had brought the work back with them.", "It gained an even wider circulation after it had been prohibited in 1403, and Hus preached and taught it.", "The view was seized eagerly by the Taborites, who made it the central point of their system.", "According to their book, the Church is not the clerical hierarchy that was generally accepted as 'the Church'; the Church is the entire body of those who from eternity have been predestined for salvation.", "Christ, not the pope, is its head.", "It is no article of faith that one must obey the pope to be saved.", "Neither internal membership in the Church nor churchly offices and dignities are a surety that the persons in question are members of the true Church.Hus's efforts were designed to rid the Church of its ethical abuses.", "The seeds of the Reformation are clear in Hus's and Wycliffe's writings.", "In explaining the plight of the average Christian in Bohemia, Hus wrote, \"One pays for confession, for Mass, for the sacrament, for indulgences, for churching a woman, for a blessing, for burials, for funeral services and prayers.", "The very last penny which an old woman has hidden in her bundle for fear of thieves or robbery will not be saved.", "The villainous priest will grab it.\"", "After Hus's death, his followers, known as Hussites, split off into several groups including the Utraquists, Taborites and Orphans.===Apology of the Catholic Church===Nearly six centuries later in 1999, Pope John Paul II expressed \"deep regret for the cruel death inflicted\" on Hus and added \"deep sorrow\" for Hus's death and praised his \"moral courage\".", "Cardinal Miloslav Vlk of the Czech Republic was instrumental in crafting John Paul II's statement.", "Members of the Moravian Church believe that it remains for God to judge those who were involved in the death of Hus.===Hus and the Czech language===The works of Jan Hus incorporate reforms to medieval Czech orthography, including the \"hook\" (háček) diacritic which was used to form the graphemes , , , and , which replaced digraphs like , , , and ; the \"dot\" above letters for strong accent, as well as the acute accent to mark long vowels , , , , and , in order to represent each phoneme by a single symbol.", "Some sources mention documented use of the special symbols in Bible translations (1462), the Schaffhausen Bible, and handwritten notes in the Bible.", "The symbol (instead of ) came later.", "The book ''Orthographia Bohemica'' (1406) was attributed to Hus by František Palacký, but it is possible that it was compiled by another author from Charles University." ], [ "Legacy", "Jan Hus Memorial at Old Town Square in Prague built in 1915A century after the Hussite Wars began, as many as 90% of inhabitants of the Czech lands were Hussites (although in the Utraquist tradition following a joint Utraquist—Catholic victory in the Hussite Wars).", "Bohemia was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements, and there are still Protestant adherents remaining in modern times; though they no longer comprise the majority: suggested historical reasons include the persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs, particularly after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620; restrictions during the Communist rule; and also the ongoing secularization.", "Modern Czechs exhibit very high distrust of religious and other institutions.Jan Hus was a key contributor to Protestantism, whose teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe and on Martin Luther.", "The Hussite Wars resulted in the Basel Compacts, which allowed for a reformed Church in the Kingdom of Bohemia—almost a century before such developments would take place in the Lutheran Reformation.", "The Unitas Fratrum (or Moravian Church) is the modern-day home of Hus's followers.", "Hus's extensive writings earned him a prominent place in Czech literary history.In 1883 the Czech composer Antonin Dvorak composed his Hussite Overture based on melodies used by Hussite soldiers.", "It was often performed by the German conductor Hans von Bülow.Professor Thomas Garrigue Masaryk used Hus's name in his speech at Geneva University on 6 July 1915, for defense against Austria and in July 1917 for the title of the first corps of troops of his legions in Russia.Today, the Jan Hus Memorial is located at the Prague Old Town Square (), and there are many smaller memorials in other towns throughout the Czech Republic.In New York City, a church in Brooklyn (located at 153 Ocean Avenue) and a church and a theatre in Manhattan (located at 351 East 74th Street) are named for Hus, the John Hus Moravian Church and the Jan Hus Playhouse, respectively.", "Although Manhattan's church and theatre share a single building and management, the playhouse's productions are usually nonreligious or nondenominational.A statue of Jan Hus was erected at the Union Cemetery in Bohemia, New York (on Long Island) by Czech immigrants to the New York area in 1893.In contrast to the popular perception that Hus was a proto-Protestant, some Eastern Orthodox Christians have argued that his theology was far closer to Eastern Orthodox Christianity.", "Jan Hus is considered a martyr saint in some jurisdictions of the Orthodox Church.", "The Czechoslovak Hussite Church claims to trace its origin to Hus, to be \"neo-Hussite\", and contains mixed Eastern Orthodox and Protestant elements.", "Nowadays, he is considered a saint by the orthodox churches of Greece, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, and several others.Hus was voted the greatest hero of the Czech nation in a 2015 survey by Czech Radio." ], [ "In popular culture", "Hus appears in the ''Mezi proudy'' trilogy by writer Alois Jirásek.Jan Hus is a major character of the \"Hussite Revolutionary Trilogy\" directed by Otakar Vávra.", "He is played by Zdeněk Štěpánek in the 1954 film ''Jan Hus.", "''Jan Hus is played by Rod Colbin in the 1977 American film ''John Hus''.Jan Hus is a major character in the stage play ''České nebe''.The Czech television film ''Jan Hus'' was released in 2015.It starred Matěj Hádek.Hus appears in the 2022 film ''Medieval'' played by Viktor Krištof.The lives of Hus and Petr Chelčický are the subject of the 2014 ''Hus a Chelčický'' book for older children, written and illustrated by Renáta Fučíková.", "The book won the Association of Czech Graphic Artists HOLLAR award for its illustrations.=== Holidays commemorating Hus ===* Moravian Church – 6 July.", "Members of the Unitas Fratrum and Czech Brethren claim Hus as a spiritual forerunner.", "* – Jan Hus Day (''Den upálení mistra Jana Husa'', literally: The day of burning of Master Jan Hus) on 6 July, the anniversary of Hus martyrdom.", "It is a public holiday in the Czech Republic.", "* He is also commemorated as a martyr on the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America." ], [ "Famous followers of Jan Hus", "* Jerome of Prague, Hus's friend and devoted follower shared his fate and on 30 May 1416 was also burned at Konstanz* Jan Kardinál z Rejnštejna (1375–1428) ()* Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha (c. 1360–1424), Czech general and Hussite leader* Matěj z Knína (died 26 March 1410) (in German: Matthäus von Knin)* Mikuláš of Pelhřimov (1385 Pelhřimov – 1460 Poděbrady) (in Latin: Nicolaus Pilgramensis, in German: Nikolaus von Pelgrims)* John Amos Comenius (1592–1670) () – pastor, teacher, philosopher, educator and writer.", "The last bishop of Unitas Fratrum prior to its renewal and a pastor in the Moravian Church.", "Early champion of universal education, and education in one's mother language." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Jan Hus 2.jpg\|Portrait of Jan Hus, 16th centuryFile:Vaclav Brozik - Hus.jpg\|Painting of Jan Hus at the Council of Constance by Václav Brožík (1883)File:Burning of jan hus at the stake at council of constance.jpg\|Preparing the execution of Jan HusFile:Kazani mistra jana husa v kapli betlemske 81x61m.jpg\|Alphonse Mucha: Master Jan Hus Preaching at the Bethlehem Chapel: Truth prevails, 1916; part of the 20-painting work, ''The Slav Epic''File:Betlemska kaple.jpg\|Bethlehem Chapel (exterior) in PragueFile:Betlémská kaple interior.JPG\|Bethlehem Chapel (interior) in PragueFile:Portrait of Jan Hus.jpg\|Medallion portrait of Jan HusFile:Execution of Jan Hus.jpg\|Preparing to burn Jan Hus at the stakeFile:Medallion of Jan Hus.jpg\|Medallion of Jan Hus, showing his portrait and executionFile:6664 - Roma - Ettore Ferrari, Monumento a Giordano Bruno (1889) - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 6-Apr-2008.jpg\|Profile of Jan Hus on the Giordano Bruno Statue" ], [ "Works", "* ''Iohannes Hus.", "Postilla adumbrata'', ed.", "G. Silagi (''Corpus Christianorum.", "Continuatio Mediaevalis'' 261), Turnhout: Brepols Publishers ()* De Ecclesia.", "The Church, Jan Hus; David S. Schaff, translator, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1915.", "* Letters of John Huss Written During His Exile and Imprisonment, Jan Hus; Campbell Mackenzie, translator, Edinburgh, William Whyte & co., 1846* The letters of John Hus, Jan Hus; Herbert B.", "Workman; R. Martin Pope, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1904.", "* The Letters of John Hus, Jan Hus; Matthew Spinka, translator.", "* The Letters of John Hus" ], [ "See also", "Orthographia bohemica, a treatise thought to have been written by Jan HusJan Hus Presbyterian Church, a New York City parish of the Presbyterian Church (USA) and named after Jan Hus" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Budgen, Victor.", "\"On Fire For God.\"", "Evangelical Press, 2007.", "* Richard Friedenthal: ''Jan Hus.", "Der Ketzer und das Jahrhundert der Revolutionskriege.", "2.''", "Auflage 1987, * Fudge, Thomas A.", "''Jan Hus: Religious Reform and Social Revolution in Bohemia'', I.B.", "Tauris, London, 2010* Fudge, Thomas A.", "''The Memory and Morivation of Jan Hus, Medieval Priest and Martyr'', Turnhout, Brepols, 2013* Fudge, Thomas A.", "''The Trial of Jan Hus: Medieval Heresy and Criminal Procedure'', Oxford University Press, New York, 2013* Fudge, Thomas A. n''Jan Hus Between Time and Eternity: Reconsidering a Medieval Heretic'', Lexington Books, Lanham, MD, 2016* Fudge, Thomas A.", "''Living With Jan Hus: A Modern Journey Across a Medieval Landscape'', Center for Christian Studies, Portland, OR, 2015* Count Lützow: ''Life & Times of Master John Hus'', E. P. Dutton & Co. London, 1909* Pietro Ratto: ''Il gioco dell'oca.", "I retroscena segreti del processo al riformatore Jan Hus'', Bibliotheka Edizioni it, Rome, 2020.", "* Philip Schaff-Herzog: ''Encyclopedia of Religion''**** Matthew Spinka: ''John Hus at the Council of Constance'' Columbia University Press, 1965 (Includes the eye-witness account by Peter of Mladonovice)* Wilhelm, J.", "(1910).", "Jan Hus.", "In The Catholic Encyclopedia.", "New York: Robert Appleton Company.", "Retrieved 16 May 2011 from New Advent." ], [ "External links", "* John Hus, a movie produced by Faith for Today (1977)* Jan Hus, a Czechoslovak movie directed by Otakar Vávra (1955)* Hussitism and the heritage of Jan Hus – Official Website of the Czech Republic* Final Declaration written on 1 July 1415 – ''Modern History Sourcebook'', Fordham University* ''Letters of John Huss Written During His Exile and Imprisonment'', with a preface by Martin Luther, by Jan Hus, François Paul Émile Boisnormand de Bonnechose, tr.", "Campbell Mackenzie, Edinburgh, William Whyte & Co., 1846** The life and times of John Huss \"btm\" format* ''Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice'' – online translation of a Czech academic journal* Jan Hus and the Hussite Wars on Medieval Archives Podcast* Jan Hus Centre (historical Jan Hus Birth-house in Husinec, Czech Republic)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Juruá River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Juruá River''' (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristics of the Purus as regards curvature, sluggishness and general features of the low, half-flooded forest country it traverses.For most of its length, the river flows through the Purus várzea ecoregion.This is surrounded by the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion.It rises among the Ucayali highlands, and is navigable and unobstructed for a distance of above its junction with the Amazon.", "It has a total length of approximately , and is one of the longest tributaries of the Amazon.The Médio Juruá Extractive Reserve, created in 1997, is on the left bank of the river as it meanders in a generally northeast direction through the municipality of Carauari.The lower Juruá River forms the western boundary of the Baixo Juruá Extractive Reserve, created in 2001.Since 2018, the lower portion of the river in Brazil has been designated a protected Ramsar site." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Javary River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Javary River''', '''Javari River''' or '''Yavarí River''' (; ) is a tributary of the Amazon that forms the boundary between Brazil and Peru for more than .", "It is navigable by canoe for from above its mouth to its source in the Ucayali highlands, but only 260 were found suitable for steam navigation.The Brazilian Boundary Commission ascended it in 1866 to the junction of the Shino with its Jaquirana branch.", "The country it traverses in its extremely sinuous course is very level, similar in character to that of the Juruá.There are a number of small private reserves along the river, which arrange wildlife viewing.The town of Benjamin Constant lies at the mouth of the river, on the Brazilian bank." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Julio-Claudian dynasty" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Julio-Claudian dynasty''' comprised the first five Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.This line of emperors ruled the Roman Empire, from its formation (under Augustus, in 27 BC) until the last of the line, Emperor Nero, committed suicide (in AD 68).The name ''Julio-Claudian'' is a historiographical term, deriving from the two families composing the imperial dynasty: the Julii Caesares and Claudii Nerones." ], [ "Nomenclature", "''Julius'' and ''Claudius'' were two Roman family names; in classical Latin, they came second.", "Roman family names were inherited from father to son, but a Roman aristocrat could—either during his life or in his will—adopt an heir if he lacked a natural son.", "In accordance with Roman naming conventions, the adopted son would replace his original family name with the name of his adopted family.", "A famous example of this custom is Julius Caesar's adoption of his great-nephew, Gaius Octavius.Primogeniture is notably absent in the history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.", "Augustus, Caligula and Nero failed to father biological and legitimate sons.", "Tiberius' own son, Drusus predeceased him.", "Only Claudius was outlived by his son, Britannicus, although he opted to promote his adopted son Nero as his successor to the throne.", "Adoption ultimately became a tool that most Julio-Claudian emperors utilized in order to promote their chosen heir to the front of the succession.", "Augustus—himself an adopted son of his great-uncle, the Roman dictator Julius Caesar—adopted his stepson Tiberius as his son and heir.", "Tiberius was, in turn, required to adopt his nephew Germanicus, the father of Caligula and brother of Claudius.", "Caligula adopted his cousin Tiberius Gemellus (grandson of the emperor Tiberius) shortly before executing him.", "Claudius adopted his great-nephew and stepson Nero, who, lacking a natural or adopted son of his own, ended the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty with his fall from power and subsequent suicide.", "'''Augustus''' (''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus''), as Caesar's adopted son and heir, discarded the family name of his natural father and initially renamed himself \"Gaius Julius Caesar\" after his adoptive father.", "It was also customary for the adopted son to acknowledge his original family by adding an extra name at the end of his new name.", "As such, Augustus' adopted name would have been \"Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus\".", "However, there is no evidence that he ever used the name Octavianus.Following Augustus' ascension as the first emperor of the Roman Empire in 27 BC, his family became a ''de facto'' royal house, known in historiography as the \"Julio-Claudian dynasty\".", "For various reasons, the Julio-Claudians followed in the example of Julius Caesar and Augustus by utilizing adoption as a tool for dynastic succession.", "The next four emperors were closely related through a combination of blood relation, marriage and adoption.", "'''Tiberius''' (''Tiberius Caesar Divi Augusti Filius Augustus''), a Claudian by birth, became Augustus' stepson after the latter's marriage to Livia, who divorced Tiberius' natural father in the process.", "Tiberius' connection to the Julian side of the Imperial family grew closer when he married Augustus' only daughter, Julia the Elder.", "He ultimately succeeded Augustus as emperor in AD 14 after becoming his stepfather's adopted son and heir.", "'''Caligula''' (''Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus'') was born into the Julian and Claudian branches of the Imperial family, thereby making him the first actual \"Julio-Claudian\" emperor.", "His father, Germanicus, was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, the son of Livia and the daughter of Octavia Minor respectively.", "Germanicus was also a great-nephew of Augustus on his mother's side and nephew of Tiberius on his father's side.", "His wife, Agrippina the Elder, was a granddaughter of Augustus.", "Through Agrippina, Germanicus' children—including Caligula—were Augustus' great-grandchildren.", "When Augustus adopted Tiberius, the latter was required to adopt his brother's eldest son as well, thus allowing Germanicus' side of the Imperial family to inherit the Julius nomen.", "'''Claudius''' (''Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''), the younger brother of Germanicus, was a Claudian on the side of his father, Nero Claudius Drusus, younger brother of Tiberius.", "However, he was also related to the Julian branch of the Imperial family through his mother, Antonia Minor.", "As a son of Antonia, Claudius was a great-nephew of Augustus.", "Moreover, he was also Augustus' step-grandson due to the fact that his father was a stepson of Augustus.", "Unlike Tiberius and Germanicus, both of whom were born as Claudians and became adopted Julians, Claudius was not adopted into the Julian family.", "Upon becoming emperor, however, he added the Julian-affiliated cognomen ''Caesar'' to his full name.", "'''Nero''' (''Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus'') was a great-great-grandson of Augustus and Livia through his mother, Agrippina the Younger.", "The younger Agrippina was a daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, as well as Caligula's sister.", "Through his mother, Nero was related by blood to the Julian and Claudian branches of the Imperial family.", "However, he was born into the Domitii Ahenobarbi on his father's side.", "Nero became a Claudian in name as a result of Agrippina's marriage to her uncle, Claudius, who ultimately adopted her son as his own.", "He succeeded Claudius in AD 54, becoming the last direct descendant of Augustus to rule the Roman Empire.", "Within a year of Nero's suicide in AD 68, the Julio-Claudian dynasty was succeeded by the Flavian emperors following a brief civil war over the vacant Imperial throne." ], [ "Rise and fall of the Julio-Claudians", "The Great Cameo of France, a cameo five layers sardonyx, Rome, c. AD 23, depicting the emperor Tiberius seated with his mother Livia and in front of his designated heir Germanicus, with the latter's wife Agrippina the Elder; above them float the deceased members of their house: Augustus, Drusus Julius Caesar, and Nero Claudius Drusus=== Augustus ===Lacking any male child and heir, Augustus married his only child—a daughter—Julia to his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus.", "Marcellus, however, died of food poisoning in 23 BC.", "Augustus then married his widowed daughter to his loyal friend, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, previously married to Augustus' niece, the sister of Marcellus.", "This marriage produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Julia the Younger, Agrippina the Elder, and Agrippa Postumus.Gaius and Lucius, the first two children of Julia and Agrippa, were adopted by Augustus and became heirs to the throne; however, Augustus also showed great favour toward his wife Livia's two children from her first marriage: Tiberius and Drusus.", "They were successful military leaders who had fought against the barbarian Germanic tribes.Agrippa died in 12 BC, and Tiberius was ordered by Augustus to divorce his wife Vipsania Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa by his first marriage, and marry his stepsister, the twice-widowed Julia.", "Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, died in 9 BC after falling from a horse.", "Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter, in 6 BC, he went into voluntary exile in Rhodes.", "After the early deaths of both Lucius (AD 2) and Gaius (AD 4) and the exile of both Julia the Elder and Younger for adultery, a turn of events which saw the elder Julia's half brother Publius Cornelius Scipio exiled for treason, Mark Antony's son Iullus Antonius committing suicide and Julia the Younger's husband Lucius Aemilius Paullus being executed for conspiracy, Augustus was forced to recognize Tiberius as the next Roman emperor.", "Augustus banished his grandson Postumus Agrippa, who was adopted after the death of his brothers, to the small island of Planasia (around AD 6 or 7) where he was later executed, and Tiberius was recalled to Rome and officially adopted by Augustus.", "By Augustus' request, Tiberius adopted his nephew Germanicus, son of his late brother Drusus and biological great-nephew of Augustus through his mother.", "Germanicus subsequently married Augustus' granddaughter Agrippina.===Tiberius===On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died.", "Tiberius had already been established as Princeps in all but name, and his position as heir was confirmed in Augustus' will.Despite his difficult relationship with the Senate, Tiberius' first years were generally good.", "He stayed true to Augustus's plans for the succession and favoured his adopted son and nephew Germanicus over his natural son, Drusus, as did the Roman populace.", "On Tiberius' request, Germanicus was granted proconsular power and assumed command in the prime military zone of Germania, where he suppressed the mutiny there and led the formerly restless legions on campaigns against Germanic tribes from AD 14 to 16.Germanicus died in Syria in AD 19 and, on his deathbed, accused the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, of murdering him at Tiberius's orders.", "With Germanicus dead, Tiberius began elevating his own son Drusus to replace him as the Imperial successor.", "By this time Tiberius had left more of the day-to-day running of the Empire to Lucius Aelius Sejanus.Sejanus created an atmosphere of fear in Rome, controlling a network of informers and spies whose incentive to accuse others of treason was a share in the accused's property after their conviction and death.", "Treason trials became commonplace; few members of the Roman aristocracy were safe.", "The trials played up to Tiberius' growing paranoia, which made him more reliant on Sejanus, as well as allowing Sejanus to eliminate potential rivals.", "Victims of this reign of terror related to the imperial family included Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus, second husband of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania, who had since died, and Decimus Haterius Agrippa, grandson of Agrippa and husband of Augustus' great-niece.Tiberius, perhaps sensitive to this ambition, rejected Sejanus's initial proposal to marry Livilla, Germanicus' sister and the widow of Tiberius' son Drusus the Younger, who had since died, in AD 25, but later had withdrawn his objections so that, in AD 30, Sejanus was betrothed to Julia Livia, daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger.", "Sejanus' family connection to the Imperial house was now imminent, and in AD 31 Sejanus held the Consulship with the emperor as his colleague, an honour Tiberius reserved only for heirs to the throne.", "When he was summoned to a meeting of the Senate later that year on 18 October AD 31, he probably expected to receive a share of the tribunician power.", "Instead, however, Tiberius' letter to the Senate, completely unexpectedly, requested the destruction of Sejanus and his faction.", "A purge followed, in which Sejanus and his most prominent supporters were killed.", "With Drusus dead and having had Germanicus' elder two sons Nero and Drusus convicted of treason and killed, along with their mother Agrippina, Tiberius appointed Caligula, Germanicus' youngest son, and Tiberius Gemellus, the son of Drusus the Younger and grandson of Tiberius, co-heirs.", "Drusus III's wife Aemilia Lepida was later forced to commit suicide after being accused of adultery.Rome's second Emperor died at the port town of Misenum on 16 March AD 37, at the age of 78 years, having reigned for 23 years.", "Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession.", "According to Suetonius, he was known for his cruelty and debauchery through his perversion on the island of Capri where he forced young boys and girls into orgies.", "On one account when one of the boys complained, Tiberius had his legs broken.===Caligula===Although Augustus' succession plans were all but ruined due to the deaths of more than several family members, including many of his own descendants, in the end, Tiberius remained faithful to his predecessor's wishes that the next emperor would hail from the Julian side of the Imperial family.", "Thus, Tiberius was succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the sole-remaining son of his nephew and adopted son Germanicus.", "The new emperor was a great grandson of Augustus through his mother Agrippina the Elder thus making him a Julian but he was also a Claudian through his father Germanicus being the son of Livia's younger son Drusus the Elder.", "More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname Caligula, he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from AD 37 to 41.When Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, Caligula was well-positioned to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius's will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus as joint heirs.", "Caligula ordered Gemellus killed within his first year in power.", "Backed by Naevius Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted himself as sole princeps, though he later had Macro disposed of as well..", "Following Gemellus' death, Caligula marked his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, husband of his sister Julia Drusilla, as his heir.", "However, after Drusilla's death, Lepidus was accused of having affairs with Caligula's other sisters Agrippina the Younger and Julia Livilla and he was executed.", "He had previously had Drusilla's first husband Lucius Cassius Longinus killed and upon the death of Agrippina's husband Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, he seized his inheritance.Several unsuccessful assassination attempts were made on Caligula's life.", "The successful conspiracy that ended Caligula's life was hatched by the disgruntled Praetorian Guard with backing by the Senate.", "The historian Josephus claims that the conspirators wished to restore the Republic while the historian Suetonius claims their motivations were mostly personal.", "On 24 January AD 41, the Praetorian tribune Cassius Chaerea and his men stopped Caligula alone in an underground passage leading to a theater.", "They stabbed him to death.", "Together with another tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he killed Caligula's wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla on the same day.===Claudius===After Caligula's death, the Senate attempted and failed to restore the Republic.", "Claudius, Caligula's paternal uncle, became emperor by the instigation of the Praetorian Guards.Despite his lack of political experience, and the disapproval of the people of Rome, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works.", "His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the invasion of Britain in AD 43.He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day; however, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility.", "Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths of many senators.", "Claudius also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life.", "He married four times (to, in order, Plautia Urgulanilla, Aelia Paetina, Valeria Messalina and, finally, Agrippina the Younger) and is referenced by Suetonius as being easily manipulated.", "This is particularly evident during his marriage to Agrippina the Younger, his niece.", "Messalina saw several members of the dynasty eliminated, notably arranging for the executions of Claudius' nieces Julia Livilla, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, and Julia Livia, daughter of Livilla and Drusus the Younger, as well as Julia Livilla's husband Marcus Vinicius, her mother's husband Appius Junius Silanus, Gaius Asinius Pollio, son of Tiberius' first wife Vipsania by her second husband and whose brother Servius Asinius Celer was also killed around this time, Claudius' son-in-law Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and his parents Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi and Scribonia.", "Messalina herself was finally executed after being charged with adultery.Claudius' reign also included several attempts on his life.", "In order to gain political support, he married Agrippina and adopted his great-nephew Nero.With his adoption on 25 February AD 50, Nero became heir to the throne, over Claudius' own son Britannicus.", "Claudius died on 13 October AD 54, and Nero became emperor.", "A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Claudius, but details on these private events vary widely.", "These events are recounted in book 12 of the Annals of Tacitus, book 61 of Cassius Dio's Roman History, and in the biographies of Nero and Claudius by Suetonius.===Nero===Nero became emperor in AD 54 at sixteen, the youngest emperor yet.", "Like his maternal uncle Caligula before him, Nero was also a direct descendant of Augustus, a fact which made his ascension to the throne much easier and smoother than it had been for Tiberius or Claudius.", "Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina the Younger, his tutor Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Burrus, especially in the first year.", "In the first year of his reign, Nero had left all of the day-to-day running of the Empire to his mother Agrippina the Younger.", "He was made Emperor over his step-brother, Claudius' son Britannicus, who he had killed.", "Agrippina was believed to have poisoned Claudius, having allegedly poisoned her second husband Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus.", "She had also arranged the deaths of Caligula's third wife, Lollia Paulina and Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida the Younger.", "She saw that the dynasty's numbers dwindle with the execution of Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, a grandson of Julia the Younger, to strengthen Nero's claim, having previously arranged the death of his brother Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus.", "In AD 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator.", "He was consul four times between AD 55 and 60.Nero consolidated power over time through the execution and banishment of his rivals and slowly usurped authority from the Senate.", "He reportedly arranged the death of his own mother and after divorcing his wife Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius' and Messalina, he had her killed.", "Other relatives whom Nero was believed to have had killed were Claudius' daughter by Aelia Paetina, Claudia Antonia, her husband and half-brother of Messalina, Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus, brother of Marcus and Lucius Junius Silanus Torquantus, as well as Marcus' son, also named Lucius, his aunt Domitia Lepida the Elder, and Rubellius Plautus, son of Julia Livia along with his wife, children and father-in-law.In AD 64 Rome burned.", "Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as large reconstruction projects.", "To fund this, the provinces were heavily taxed following the fire.By AD 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy, led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso, an adoptive descendant of Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, a governor of Syria who committed suicide after being accused of killing Germanicus, and first husband of Livia Orestilla, Caligula's second wife.", "The conspiracy failed and its members were executed.", "Vacancies after the conspiracy allowed Nymphidius Sabinus, a grandson of former imperial freedman Gaius Julius Callistus, who claimed to be an illegitimate son of Caligula, to rise in the Praetorian Guard.In late AD 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against Nero's tax policies.", "Lucius Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany, was sent to put down the rebellion.", "To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior (in the Iberian Peninsula), to become emperor.", "Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide.", "Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia.Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome.", "Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself, bribed the Praetorian Guard to betray Nero.", "Sabinus was later murdered in favour of Galba.Nero reportedly committed suicide with the help of his scribe Epaphroditus.", "The Senate had been trying to preserve the dynastic bloodline by saving Nero's life, and were additionally reluctant to let someone who was not of the family become emperor; however, once he had committed suicide, and with Galba marching on the city, it had no choice but to declare him a public enemy posthumously.", "With his death, the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end.", "Chaos then ensued in the Year of the Four Emperors.===Survival after the fall of Nero===The lineage of Augustus endured into the era of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty, the house that succeeded the Flavians.", "Augustus' bloodline outlived his dynasty through the descendants of his first granddaughter, Julia the Younger, who married Lucius Aemilius Paullus and gave birth to Aemilia Lepida.", "After marrying Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, Aemilia gave birth to several children, including Junia Calvina and Junia Lepida.", "Although Calvina died childless, she was married to Lucius Vitellius, whose elder brother was the short-lived emperor Vitellius.", "Her younger sister, Junia Lepida, married Gaius Cassius Longinus and produced a daughter called Cassia Longina.", "The Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo married Cassia, who provided him with two daughters, including Domitia Longina, later wife of the emperor Domitian.", "By her first husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus, Domitia Longina may have been the mother or maternal grandmother of Lucius Fundanius Lamia Aelianus.", "Fundanius married Rupilia, sister of Rupilia Faustina, and had a son, Lucius Plautius Lamia Silvanus, consul in AD 145, as well as a daughter, Fundania, married to Marcus Annius Libo, consul in AD 128.Fundania's offspring included Marcus Annius Libo, suffect consul in AD 161, and Annia Fundania Faustina (d. AD 192), wife of Titus Pomponius Proculus Vitrasius Pollio.", "Faustina and both of her children, Titus Fundanius Vitrasius Pollio (d. AD 182) and Vitrasia Faustina, were executed by Commodus on the charge of conspiracy.In addition to Cassia Longina, Junia Lepida gave birth to a son called Cassius Lepidus.", "Around AD 80 Lepidus had a daughter named Cassia Lepida, who married Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus, a descendant of Herod the Great, Ptolemy VI Philometor and Antiochus VIII Gryphus.", "Julia Cassia Alexandria, Lepida's daughter by Berenicianus, married Gaius Avidius Heliodorus and ultimately gave birth to Gaius Avidius Cassius.", "Avidius Cassius had three children with his wife (named either Volusia Vettia or Volusia Maeciana); they were Avidius Heliodorus, Avidius Maecianus and Avidia Alexandra.", "In AD 175 Cassius was proclaimed emperor after he received erroneous news of the death of Marcus Aurelius, whose survival made Cassius a usurper of the empire.", "Cassius' rebellion ended three months into his bid for the throne when one of his centurions assassinated him in favour of Marcus Aurelius.", "Cassius' daughter, Avidia, is known to have had four children with her husband, Titius Claudius Dryantianus Antonius: the senator Claudius Cassius Aggripinus, Claudia Maeciana Alexandra, Claudia Vettia Agrippina, and Claudia Dryantilla Platonis, one of the women who took part in the ''ludi saeculares'' of the year AD 204.Tiberius' lineage may have survived into the 2nd century through the offspring of his granddaughter Julia Livia, wife of Gaius Rubellius Blandus.", "Apart from a son, Rubellius Plautus, executed by Nero in AD 62, Julia had a daughter or step-daughter, Rubellia Bassa, who married a maternal uncle of the future Roman Emperor Nerva by the name of Gaius Octavius Laenas.", "Together Laenas and Bassa had at least one child, a surmised son, who was the grandfather of Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus, consul in AD 131." ], [ "Relationships among the rulers", "Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises (circa AD 30/50–80).", "'''Obv''' Laureate \"Julio-Claudian\" style head right.", "'''Rev''' Kujula Kadphises seated right, raising hand; tripartite symbol to left.The great-uncle/great-nephew blood relationship and/or adopted son relationship was commonly found among the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.# Augustus was the great-nephew and posthumously adopted son of Julius Caesar; his mother Atia was the daughter of Caesar's sister Julia.# Caligula was the great-nephew and adoptive grandson (via the adoption of his father Germanicus) of Tiberius; his father was the son of Tiberius' brother Drusus.# Claudius was the great-nephew of Augustus, as well as the nephew of Tiberius (and the only Julio-Claudian who was not adopted); his mother Antonia was the daughter of Augustus' sister Octavia, and his father Drusus was the brother of Tiberius.# Nero was the great-nephew and adopted son of Claudius; his mother Agrippina, in addition to being married to Claudius, was the daughter of Claudius' brother Germanicus.The other recurring relationship between emperor and successor is that of stepfather/stepson, a relationship not by blood but by marriage:# Tiberius was Augustus' stepson due to the latter's marriage to Livia Drusilla.", "He and his brother Drusus were Livia's sons through her previous marriage to Tiberius Claudius Nero.# Nero, biological son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, became the stepson of his great-uncle Claudius when the emperor married his niece Agrippina the Younger.The uncle/nephew relationship is also prominent:# Tiberius was Claudius's paternal uncle, being the older brother of Drusus, Claudius' father.# Claudius was Caligula's paternal uncle, being the younger brother of Germanicus, Caligula's father.", "# Caligula was Nero's maternal uncle, being the older brother of Agrippina the Younger, Nero's mother.There were several instances of Emperors being father-in-law and son-in-law to each other:#Tiberius, in addition to being Augustus' stepson and adopted son, was married to Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus.#Nero, in addition to being Claudius' great-nephew, stepson and adopted son, was married to Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius.The following bullet points illustrate the lineage of Julio-Claudian emperors (adoptions included; emperors in '''bold'''):'''Augustus''', adopted son of Julius Caesar'''Tiberius''', adopted son of AugustusGermanicus, adopted son of Tiberius'''Caligula''', son of GermanicusDrusus, stepson of Augustus*'''Claudius''', son of Drusus*'''Nero''', adopted son of ClaudiusNo Julio-Claudian emperor was a blood descendant of his immediate predecessor.", "Although Tiberius and Claudius had potential heirs (Tiberius Gemellus, grandson of Tiberius through his son Drusus, and Britannicus, son of Claudius, respectively) available for the succession, both were, in turn, ultimately succeeded by their great-nephews Caligula and Nero, respectively.The fact that ordinary father-son (or grandfather-grandson) succession did not occur has contributed to the image of the Julio-Claudian court presented in Robert Graves's ''I, Claudius'' as a dangerous world where scheming family members were all too ready to murder the direct heirs so as to bring themselves, their own immediate families, or their lovers closer to the succession." ], [ "Dynastic timeline", "ImageSize = width:800 height:60PlotArea = top: 0 width:790 left:10 bottom:20Colors = id:pink value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # light pink id:pink value:rgb(1,0.7,0.7) # light pink id:green value:rgb(0.7,1,0.7) # light green id:blue value:rgb(1,1,0.7) # light blue id:black value:rgb(0.7,1,1) # light black id:black value:rgb(1,0.7,1) # light black id:grey value:gray(0.8) # greyPeriod = from:-27 till:68TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:-25ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:-27BarData= bar:barre1PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) shift:(0,0) bar:barre1 from: -27 till: 14 color:pink text:Augustus from: 14 till: 37 color:red text:Tiberius from: 37 till: 41 color:yellow text:Caligula from: 41 till: 54 color:black text:Claudius from: 54 till: 68 color:green text:Nero#Augustus (27 BC–AD 14)#Tiberius (14–37)#Caligula (37–41)#Claudius (41–54)#Nero (54–68)" ], [ "Family tree", "1000px" ], [ "See also", " Augustan and Julio-Claudian art* Julia gens" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* *" ], [ "Further reading", " Matyszak, Philip.", "''The Sons of Caesar: Imperial Rome's First Dynasty'', London: Thames & Hudson, 2006 (hardcover, )* Anthony Kamm, ''The Romans an Introduction''* Suetonius, ''The Lives of the twelve Caesars'' http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-index.html* Anthony A. Barrett, ''Agrippina : sex, power, and politics in the early Empire''* Lecture and notes from CLCV 1003A (Classical Roman Civilization); Carleton University* Wood, Susan, ''The Incredible, Vanishing Wives of Nero'' http://www.portraitsofcaligula.com/3/miscellaneous1.htm * Holztrattner, Franz, ''Poppaea Neronis Potens: Studien zu Poppaea Sabina'', Berger & Söhne: Graz-Horn, 1995* N.A.", "''Octavia'', tragedy preserved with the writings of Seneca* Tacitus, ''Annals''* Robert Graves, ''I, Claudius''* Robert Graves, ''Claudius the God''" ], [ "External links", "* Julio-Claudian Art group, at Flickr" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johnson solid" ], [ "Introduction", "The elongated square gyrobicupola (), a Johnson solid24 equilateral triangle example is not a Johnson solid because it is not convexThis 24-square example is not a Johnson solid because it is not strictly convex (has 180° dihedral angles)In geometry, a '''Johnson solid''' is a strictly convex polyhedron each face of which is a regular polygon.", "There is no requirement that each face must be the same polygon, or that the same polygons join around each vertex.", "An example of a Johnson solid is the square-based pyramid with equilateral sides (); it has 1 square face and 4 triangular faces.", "Some authors require that the solid not be uniform (i.e., not Platonic solid, Archimedean solid, uniform prism, or uniform antiprism) before they refer to it as a \"Johnson solid\".As in any strictly convex solid, at least three faces meet at every vertex, and the total of their angles is less than 360 degrees.", "Since a regular polygon has angles at least 60 degrees, it follows that at most five faces meet at any vertex.", "The pentagonal pyramid () is an example that has a degree-5 vertex.Although there is no obvious restriction that any given regular polygon cannot be a face of a Johnson solid, it turns out that the faces of Johnson solids which are not uniform (i.e., not a Platonic solid, Archimedean solid, uniform prism, or uniform antiprism) always have 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, or 10 sides.In 1966, Norman Johnson published a list which included all 92 Johnson solids (excluding the 5 Platonic solids, the 13 Archimedean solids, the infinitely many uniform prisms, and the infinitely many uniform antiprisms), and gave them their names and numbers.", "He did not prove that there were only 92, but he did conjecture that there were no others.", "Victor Zalgaller in 1969 proved that Johnson's list was complete.Of the Johnson solids, the elongated square gyrobicupola (), also called the pseudorhombicuboctahedron, is unique in being locally vertex-uniform: there are 4 faces at each vertex, and their arrangement is always the same: 3 squares and 1 triangle.", "However, it is not vertex-transitive, as it has different isometry at different vertices, making it a Johnson solid rather than an Archimedean solid." ], [ "Names", "The naming of Johnson solids follows a flexible and precise descriptive formula, such that many solids can be named in different ways without compromising their accuracy as a description.", "Most Johnson solids can be constructed from the first few (pyramids, cupolae, and rotundas), together with the Platonic and Archimedean solids, prisms, and antiprisms; the centre of a particular solid's name will reflect these ingredients.", "From there, a series of prefixes are attached to the word to indicate additions, rotations, and transformations:'''Bi-''' indicates that two copies of the solid in question are joined base-to-base.", "For cupolae and rotundas, the solids can be joined so that either like faces ('''ortho-''') or unlike faces ('''gyro-''') meet.", "Using this nomenclature, an octahedron can be described as a ''square bipyramid4'', a cuboctahedron as a ''triangular gyrobicupola3cc'', and an icosidodecahedron as a ''pentagonal gyrobirotunda5rr''.", "'''Elongated=''' indicates a prism is joined to the base of the solid in question, or between the bases in the case of Bi- solids.", "A rhombicuboctahedron can thus be described as an ''elongated square orthobicupola''.", "'''Gyroelongatedz''' indicates an antiprism is joined to the base of the solid in question or between the bases in the case of Bi- solids.", "An icosahedron can thus be described as a ''gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid''.", "'''Augmented+''' indicates another polyhedron, namely a pyramid or cupola, is joined to one or more faces of the solid in question.", "'''Diminished-''' indicates a pyramid or cupola is removed from one or more faces of the solid in question.", "'''Gyrate''' indicates a cupola mounted on or featured in the solid in question is rotated such that different edges match up, as in the difference between ortho- and gyrobicupolae.The last three operations—''augmentation'', ''diminution'', and ''gyration''—can be performed multiple times for certain large solids.", "''Bi-'' & ''Tri-'' indicate a double and triple operation respectively.", "For example, a ''bigyrate'' solid has two rotated cupolae, and a ''tridiminished'' solid has three removed pyramids or cupolae.In certain large solids, a distinction is made between solids where altered faces are parallel and solids where altered faces are oblique.", "''Para-'' indicates the former, that the solid in question has altered parallel faces, and ''meta-'' the latter, altered oblique faces.", "For example, a ''parabiaugmented'' solid has had two parallel faces augmented, and a ''metabigyrate'' solid has had 2 oblique faces gyrated.The last few Johnson solids have names based on certain polygon complexes from which they are assembled.", "These names are defined by Johnsonwith the following nomenclature:A ''lune'' is a complex of two triangles attached to opposite sides of a square.", "''Spheno''- indicates a wedgelike complex formed by two adjacent lunes.", "''Dispheno-'' indicates two such complexes.", "''Hebespheno''- indicates a blunt complex of two lunes separated by a third lune.", "''Corona'' is a crownlike complex of eight triangles.", "''Megacorona'' is a larger crownlike complex of 12 triangles.", "The suffix -''cingulum'' indicates a belt of 12 triangles." ], [ "Enumeration", "=== Pyramids, cupolae, and rotundas ===The first 6 Johnson solids are pyramids, cupolae, or rotundas with at most 5 lateral faces.", "Pyramids and cupolae with 6 or more lateral faces are coplanar and are hence not Johnson solids.==== Pyramids ====The first two Johnson solids, J1 and J2, are pyramids.", "The ''triangular pyramid'' is the regular tetrahedron, so it is not a Johnson solid.", "They represent sections of regular polyhedra.Regular 3> TJ1 4>J2 5> Triangular pyramid(Tetrahedron) Square pyramid Pentagonal pyramid 120px 120px 120px 120px 120px 120pxRelated regular polyhedraTetrahedronOctahedronIcosahedron 80px 80px 80px==== Cupolae and rotunda ====The next four Johnson solids are three cupolae and one rotunda.", "They represent sections of uniform polyhedra.CupolaRotundaUniformJ3 3c aC-J4 4cJ5 5cJ6 5r aD- Fastigium(Digonal cupola)(Triangular prism) Triangular cupola Square cupola Pentagonal cupola Pentagonal rotunda80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxRelated uniform polyhedraRhombohedronCuboctahedronRhombicuboctahedronRhombicosidodecahedronIcosidodecahedron 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px=== Modified pyramids ===Johnson solids 7 to 17 are derived from pyramids.==== Elongated and gyroelongated pyramids ====In the gyroelongated triangular pyramid, three pairs of adjacent triangles are coplanar and form non-square rhombi, so it is not a Johnson solid.Elongated pyramidsGyroelongated pyramidsJ7 3=>J8 4=>J9 5=>CoplanarJ10 4z>J11 5z> I- Elongated triangular pyramid Elongated square pyramid Elongated pentagonal pyramid Gyroelongated triangular pyramid(diminished trigonal trapezohedron) Gyroelongated square pyramid Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedratetrahedrontriangular prismsquare pyramidcubepentagonal pyramidpentagonal prismtetrahedronoctahedronsquare pyramidsquare antiprismpentagonal pyramidpentagonal antiprism40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px==== Bipyramids ====The ''square bipyramid'' is the regular octahedron, while the ''gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid'' is the regular icosahedron, so they are not Johnson solids.", "In the gyroelongated triangular bipyramid, six pairs of adjacent triangles are coplanar and form non-square rhombi, so it is also not a Johnson solid.BipyramidsElongated bipyramidsGyroelongated bipyramidsJ12 3RegularJ13 5J14 3J15 4J16 5CoplanarJ17 4Regular Triangular bipyramid Square bipyramid(octahedron) Pentagonal bipyramid Elongated triangular bipyramid Elongated square bipyramid Elongated pentagonal bipyramid Gyroelongated triangular bipyramid(trigonal trapezohedron) Gyroelongated square bipyramid Gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid(icosahedron) 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedratetrahedronsquare pyramidpentagonal pyramidtetrahedrontriangular prismsquare pyramidcubepentagonal pyramidpentagonal prismtetrahedronOctahedronsquare pyramidsquare antiprismpentagonal pyramidpentagonal antiprism40px40px40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px=== Modified cupolae and rotundas ===Johnson solids 18 to 48 are derived from cupolae and rotundas.==== Elongated and gyroelongated cupolae and rotundas ====Elongated cupolaElongated rotundaGyroelongated cupolaGyroelongated rotundaCoplanarJ18 3c=J19 4c= eC-J20 5c=J21 5r=ConcaveJ22 3czJ23 4czJ24 5czJ25 5rz Elongated fastigium Elongated triangular cupola Elongated square cupola Elongated pentagonal cupola Elongated pentagonal rotunda Gyroelongated fastigium Gyroelongated triangular cupola Gyroelongated square cupola Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedraSquare prismTriangular prismHexagonal prismTriangular cupolaOctagonal prismSquare cupolaDecagonal prismPentagonal cupolaDecagonal prismPentagonal rotundasquare antiprismTriangular prismHexagonal antiprismTriangular cupolaOctagonal antiprismSquare cupolaDecagonal antiprismPentagonal cupolaDecagonal antiprismPentagonal rotunda40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px==== Bicupolae ====The triangular gyrobicupola is an Archimedean solid (in this case the cuboctahedron), so it is not a Johnson solid.OrthobicupolaGyrobicupolaCoplanarJ27 3ccJ28 4ccJ30 5ccJ26 2ccSemiregularJ29 4ccJ31 5cc* Orthobifastigium Triangular orthobicupola Square orthobicupola Pentagonal orthobicupola Gyrobifastigium Triangular gyrobicupola (cuboctahedron) Square gyrobicupola Pentagonal gyrobicupola 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedronTriangular prismTriangular cupolaSquare cupolaPentagonal cupolaTriangular prismTriangular cupolaSquare cupolaPentagonal cupola 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px==== Cupola-rotundas and birotundas ====The pentagonal gyrobirotunda is an Archimedean solid (in this case the icosidodecahedron), so it is not a Johnson solid.Cupola-rotundaBirotundaJ32 5crJ33 5crJ34 5rr aDSemiregular Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda Pentagonal orthobirotunda Pentagonal gyrobirotunda(icosidodecahedron) 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedraPentagonal cupolaPentagonal rotundaPentagonal rotunda40px 40px40px==== Elongated bicupolae ====The elongated square orthobicupola is an Archimedean solid (in this case the rhombicuboctahedron), so it is not a Johnson solid.Elongated orthobicupolaElongated gyrobicupolaCoplanarJ35 3c=cSemiregularJ38 5c=cCoplanarJ36 3c=cJ37 4c=c eCJ39 5c=c Elongated orthobifastigium Elongated triangular orthobicupola Elongated square orthobicupola(rhombicuboctahedron) Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola Elongated gyrobifastigium Elongated triangular gyrobicupola Elongated square gyrobicupola Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola 60px 80px 80px 80px 60px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedraSquare prismTriangular prismHexagonal prismTriangular cupolaOctagonal prismSquare cupolaDecagonal prismPentagonal cupolaSquare prismTriangular prismHexagonal prismTriangular cupolaOctagonal prismSquare cupolaDecagonal prismPentagonal cupola40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px==== Elongated cupola-rotundas and birotundas ====Elongated cupola-rotundaElongated birotundaJ40 5c=rJ41 5c=rJ42 5r=rJ43 5r=r Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedraDecagonal prismPentagonal cupolaPentagonal rotundaDecagonal prismPentagonal rotunda40px 40px 40px40px 40px==== Gyroelongated bicupolae, cupola-rotundas, and birotundas ====These Johnson solids have 2 chiral forms.Gyroelongated bicupolaGyroelongated cupola-rotundaGyroelongated birotundaConcaveJ44 3czcJ45 4czcJ46 5czcJ47 5czrJ48 5rzr Gyroelongated bifastigium Gyroelongated triangular bicupola Gyroelongated square bicupola Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedra Triangular prismSquare antiprism Triangular cupolaHexagonal antiprism Square cupolaOctagonal antiprism Pentagonal cupolaDecagonal antiprism Pentagonal cupolaPentagonal rotundaDecagonal antiprism Pentagonal rotundaDecagonal antiprism 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px 40px=== Augmented prisms ===Johnson solids 49 to 57 are built by augmenting the sides of prisms with square pyramids.", "Augmented triangular prismsAugmented pentagonal prismsAugmented hexagonal prismsJ49 3=+J50 3=++J51 3=+++J52 5=+J53 5=++J54 6=+J55 6=++J56 6=+xJ57 6=+++ Augmented triangular prism Biaugmented triangular prism Triaugmented triangular prism Augmented pentagonal prism Biaugmented pentagonal prism Augmented hexagonal prism Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism Triaugmented hexagonal prism 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedraTriangular prismSquare pyramidPentagonal prismSquare pyramidHexagonal prismSquare pyramid40px 40px40px 40px40px 40pxJ8 and J15 would also fit here, as an augmented square prism and biaugmented square prism.=== Modified Platonic solids ===Johnson solids 58 to 64 are built by augmenting or diminishing Platonic solids.==== Augmented dodecahedra ====J58 D+J59 D++J60 D+xJ61 D+++ Augmented dodecahedron Parabiaugmented dodecahedron Metabiaugmented dodecahedron Triaugmented dodecahedron 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedraDodecahedron and pentagonal pyramid40px 40px==== Diminished and augmented diminished icosahedra ====Diminished icosahedronAugmented tridiminished icosahedronJ11(Repeated)UniformJ62 I-/J63 I---J64 I---+ Diminished icosahedron(Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid) Parabidiminished icosahedron(Pentagonal antiprism) Metabidiminished icosahedron Tridiminished icosahedron Augmented tridiminished icosahedron 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px=== Modified Archimedean solids ===Johnson solids 65 to 83 are built by augmenting, diminishing or gyrating Archimedean solids.==== Augmented Archimedean solids====Augmented truncated tetrahedronAugmented truncated cubesAugmented truncated dodecahedraJ65 tT+J66 tC+J67 tC++J68 tD+J69 tD++J70 tD+xJ71 tD+++ Augmented truncated tetrahedron Augmented truncated cube Biaugmented truncated cube Augmented truncated dodecahedron Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxAugmented from polyhedratruncated tetrahedrontriangular cupolatruncated cubesquare cupolatruncated dodecahedronpentagonal cupola40px 40px40px 40px40px 40px==== Gyrate and diminished rhombicosidodecahedra ====Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedraJ72 eDJ73 eDJ74 eD'J75 eD*** Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxDiminished rhombicosidodecahedraJ76 eD-J80 eD--J81 eD-/J83 eD--- Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxGyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedraJ77 -J78 -'J79 -J82 -- Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxJ37 would also appear here as a duplicate (it is a gyrate rhombicuboctahedron).==== Other gyrate and diminished archimedean solids ====Other archimedean solids can be gyrated and diminished, but they all result in previously counted solids.J27J3J34J6J37J19Uniform Gyrate cuboctahedron(triangular orthobicupola) Diminished cuboctahedron(triangular cupola) Gyrate icosidodecahedron(pentagonal orthobirotunda) Diminished icosidodecahedron(pentagonal rotunda) Gyrate rhombicuboctahedron(elongated square gyrobicupola) Diminished rhombicuboctahedron(elongated square cupola) Bidiminished rhombicuboctahedron(octagonal prism) 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxGyrated or diminished from polyhedraCuboctahedronIcosidodecahedronRhombicuboctahedron80px80px80px=== Elementary solids ===Johnson solids 84 to 92 are not derived from \"cut-and-paste\" manipulations of uniform solids.==== Snub antiprisms ====The snub antiprisms can be constructed as an alternation of a truncated antiprism.", "The gyrobianticupolae are another construction for the snub antiprisms.", "Only snub antiprisms with at most 4 sides can be constructed from regular polygons.", "The snub triangular antiprism is the regular icosahedron, so it is not a Johnson solid.J84RegularJ85Snub disphenoidss{2,4}Icosahedronss{2,6}Snub square antiprismss{2,8}Digonal gyrobianticupolaTriangular gyrobianticupolaSquare gyrobianticupola50px80px80px 80px 100px 120px==== Others ====J86J87J88 Sphenocorona Augmented sphenocorona Sphenomegacorona 80px 80px 80px 80px 80px 80pxJ89J90J91J92 Hebesphenomegacorona Disphenocingulum Bilunabirotunda Triangular hebesphenorotunda 80px 80px 80px 80px 100px 100px 80px 80px" ], [ "Classification by types of faces", "=== Triangle-faced Johnson solids ===Five Johnson solids are deltahedra, with all equilateral triangle faces::J12 Triangular bipyramid 40px:J13 Pentagonal bipyramid 40px:J17 Gyroelongated square bipyramid 40px:J51 Triaugmented triangular prism 40px:J84 Snub disphenoid 40px=== Triangle and square-faced Johnson solids ===Twenty four Johnson solids have only triangle or square faces::J1 Square pyramid 40px:J7 Elongated triangular pyramid 40px:J8 Elongated square pyramid 40px:J10 Gyroelongated square pyramid 40px:J14 Elongated triangular bipyramid 40px:J15 Elongated square bipyramid 40px:J16 Elongated pentagonal bipyramid 40px:J26 Gyrobifastigium 40px:J27 Triangular orthobicupola 40px:J28 Square orthobicupola 40px:J29 Square gyrobicupola 40px:J35 Elongated triangular orthobicupola 40px:J36 Elongated triangular gyrobicupola 40px:J37 Elongated square gyrobicupola 40px:J44 Gyroelongated triangular bicupola 40px:J45 Gyroelongated square bicupola 40px:J49 Augmented triangular prism 40px:J50 Biaugmented triangular prism 40px:J85 Snub square antiprism 40px:J86 Sphenocorona 40px:J87 Augmented sphenocorona 40px:J88 Sphenomegacorona 40px:J89 Hebesphenomegacorona 40px:J90 Disphenocingulum 40px=== Triangle and pentagon-faced Johnson solids ===Eleven Johnson solids have only triangle and pentagon faces::J2 Pentagonal pyramid 40px:J11 Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid 40px:J34 Pentagonal orthobirotunda 40px:J48 Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda 40px:J58 Augmented dodecahedron 40px:J59 Parabiaugmented dodecahedron 40px:J60 Metabiaugmented dodecahedron 40px:J61 Triaugmented dodecahedron 40px:J62 Metabidiminished icosahedron 40px:J63 Tridiminished icosahedron 40px:J64 Augmented tridiminished icosahedron 40px=== Triangle, square, and pentagon-faced Johnson solids ===Twenty Johnson solids have only triangle, square, and pentagon faces::J09 Elongated pentagonal pyramid 40px:J30 Pentagonal orthobicupola 40px:J31 Pentagonal gyrobicupola 40px:J32 Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda 40px:J33 Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda 40px:J38 Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola 40px:J39 Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola 40px:J40 Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda 40px:J41 Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda 40px:J42 Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda 40px:J43 Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda 40px:J46 Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola 40px:J47 Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda 40px:J52 Augmented pentagonal prism 40px:J53 Biaugmented pentagonal prism 40px:J72 Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J73 Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J74 Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J75 Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J91 Bilunabirotunda 40px=== Triangle, square, and hexagon-faced Johnson solids ===Eight Johnson solids have only triangle, square, and hexagon faces::J3 Triangular cupola 40px:J18 Elongated triangular cupola 40px:J22 Gyroelongated triangular cupola 40px:J54 Augmented hexagonal prism 40px:J55 Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism 40px:J56 Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism 40px:J57 Triaugmented hexagonal prism 40px:J65 Augmented truncated tetrahedron 40px=== Triangle, square, and octagon-faced Johnson solids ===Five Johnson solids have only triangle, square, and octagon faces::J4 Square cupola 40px:J19 Elongated square cupola 40px:J23 Gyroelongated square cupola 40px:J66 Augmented truncated cube 40px:J67 Biaugmented truncated cube 40px=== Triangle, pentagon, and decagon-faced Johnson solids ===Two Johnson solids have only triangle, pentagon, and decagon faces::J06 Pentagonal rotunda 40px:J25 Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda 40px=== Triangle, square, pentagon, and hexagon-faced Johnson solids ===Only one Johnson solid has triangle, square, pentagon, and hexagon faces::J92 Triangular hebesphenorotunda 40px=== Triangle, square, pentagon, and decagon-faced Johnson solids ===Sixteen Johnson solids have only triangle, square, pentagon, and decagon faces::J05 Pentagonal cupola 40px:J20 Elongated pentagonal cupola 40px:J21 Elongated pentagonal rotunda 40px:J24 Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola 40px:J68 Augmented truncated dodecahedron 40px:J69 Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron 40px:J70 Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron 40px:J71 Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron 40px:J76 Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J77 Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J78 Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J79 Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J80 Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J81 Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J82 Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px:J83 Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 40px" ], [ "Circumscribable Johnson solids", "25 of the Johnson solids have vertices that exist on the surface of a sphere: 1–6,11,19,27,34,37,62,63,72–83.All of them can be seen to be related to a regular or uniform polyhedra by gyration, diminishment, or dissection.", "OctahedronCuboctahedronRhombicuboctahedron J180px J380px J2780px J480px J1980px J3780pxIcosahedronIcosidodecahedron J280px J1180px J6280px J6380px J680px J3480pxRhombicosidodecahedron J580px J7280px J7380px J7480px J7580px J7680px J7780px J7880px J7980px J8080px J8180px J8280px J8380px" ], [ "See also", "* Near-miss Johnson solid* Catalan solid* Toroidal polyhedron" ], [ "References", "* Contains the original enumeration of the 92 solids and the conjecture that there are no others.", "* The first proof that there are only 92 Johnson solids.", "English translation: * Chapter 3 Further Convex polyhedra* olyhedra.\"", "J.", "Math.", "Sci.", "162, 710-729, 2009." ], [ "External links", "* * Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links* Johnson Solids by George W.", "Hart.", "* Images of all 92 solids, categorized, on one page** VRML models of Johnson Solids by Jim McNeill* VRML models of Johnson Solids by Vladimir Bulatov* CRF polychora discovery project attempts to discover CRF polychora (''C''onvex 4-dimensional polytopes with ''R''egular polygons as 2-dimensional ''F''aces), a generalization of the Johnson solids to 4-dimensional space*https://levskaya.github.io/polyhedronisme/ a generator of polyhedrons and Conway operations applied to them, including Johnson solids." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Peel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Robert Parker Ravenscroft''' (30 August 1939 – 25 October 2004), better known as '''John Peel''', was an English radio presenter and journalist.", "He was the longest-serving of the original disc jockeys on BBC Radio 1, broadcasting regularly from 1967 until his death in 2004.Peel was one of the first broadcasters to play psychedelic rock and progressive rock records on British radio.", "He is widely acknowledged for promoting artists of many genres, including pop, dub reggae, punk rock and post-punk, electronic music and dance music, indie rock, extreme metal and British hip hop.", "Fellow DJ Paul Gambaccini described Peel as \"the most important single person in popular music from approximately 1967 through 1978.He broke more important artists than any individual.", "\"Peel's Radio 1 shows were notable for the regular \"Peel sessions\", which usually consisted of four songs recorded by an artist in the BBC's studios, often providing the first major national coverage to bands that later achieved fame.", "Another feature was the annual Festive Fifty countdown of his listeners' favourite records of the year.Peel appeared on television occasionally as one of the presenters of ''Top of the Pops'' in the 1980s, and provided voice-over commentary for a number of BBC programmes.", "He became popular with the audience of BBC Radio 4 for his ''Home Truths'' programme, which ran from the 1990s, featuring unusual stories from listeners' domestic lives." ], [ "Early life", "Peel was born John Robert Parker Ravenscroft at a nursing home in Heswall on 30 August 1939, the son of Joan Mary (née Swainson) and cotton merchant Robert Leslie Ravenscroft.", "He had two younger brothers and grew up in the nearby village of Burton.", "He was educated as a boarder at Shrewsbury School, where future Monty Python member Michael Palin was his contemporary.", "In his posthumously published autobiography, Peel said that he was raped by an older pupil while at the school.Peel was an avid radio listener and record collector from an early age, beginning with music offered by the American Forces Network and Radio Luxembourg.", "He recalled an early desire to host a radio programme of his own \"so that I could play music that I heard and wanted others to hear\".", "His housemaster, R. H. J. Brooke, whom Peel described as \"extraordinarily eccentric\" and \"amazingly perceptive\", wrote on one of his school reports, \"Perhaps it's possible that John can form some kind of nightmarish career out of his enthusiasm for unlistenable records and his delight in writing long and facetious essays.", "\"Peel completed his national service in 1959 in the Royal Artillery as a B2 radar operator.", "Afterwards, he worked as a mill operative at Townhead Mill in Rochdale and returned each weekend to Heswall on a scooter borrowed from his sister.", "While in Rochdale during the week, he stayed in a bed-and-breakfast in the area of Milkstone Road and Drake Street, and developed long-term associations with the town as the years progressed." ], [ "Career", "=== United States ===In 1960, aged 21, Peel went to the United States to work for a cotton producer who had business dealings with his father.", "He took a number of other jobs afterwards, including working as a travelling insurance salesman.", "While in Dallas, Texas, where the insurance company he worked for was based, he conversed with the presidential candidate John F. Kennedy, and his running mate Lyndon B. Johnson, who were touring the city during the 1960 election campaign, and took photographs of them.", "Following Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, Peel passed himself off as a reporter for the ''Liverpool Echo'' in order to attend the arraignment of Lee Harvey Oswald.", "He and a friend can be seen in the footage of the 22/23 November midnight press conference at the Dallas Police Department when Oswald was paraded before the media.", "He later phoned in the story to the ''Echo''.While working for the insurance company, Peel wrote programs for punched card entry for an IBM 1410 computer (which led to his entry in ''Who's Who'' noting him as a former computer programmer), and he got his first radio job working unpaid for WRR (AM) in Dallas.", "There, he presented the second hour of the Monday night programme ''Kat's Karavan'', which was primarily hosted by the American singer and radio personality Jim Lowe.", "Following this, and as Beatlemania hit the United States, Peel was hired by the Dallas radio station KLIF as the official Beatles correspondent on the strength of his connection to Liverpool.", "He later worked for KOMA in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, until 1965, when he moved to KMEN in San Bernardino, California, and used his birth name, John Ravenscroft, to present the breakfast show.=== Return to England ===Peel returned to England in early 1967 and found work with the offshore pirate radio station Radio London.", "He was offered the midnight-to-two shift, which gradually developed into a programme, ''The Perfumed Garden''.", "Peel's show was an outlet for the music of the UK underground scene.", "He played classic blues, folk music and psychedelic rock, with an emphasis on the new music emerging from Los Angeles and San Francisco.", "As important as the musical content of the programme was the personal – sometimes confessional – tone of Peel's presentation, and the listener participation it engendered.", "Underground events he had attended during his periods of shore leave, such as the UFO Club and the 14 Hour Technicolor Dream, together with causes célèbres like the drug busts of the Rolling Stones and John \"Hoppy\" Hopkins, were discussed between records.", "All this was far removed from Radio London's daytime format.", "Listeners sent Peel letters, poems and records from their own collections so that the programme became a vehicle for two-way communication; by the final week of Radio London he was receiving far more mail than any other DJ on the station.After the closure of Radio London in 1967, Peel wrote a column, ''The Perfumed Garden'', for the underground newspaper the ''International Times'' (from autumn 1967 to mid-1969).=== BBC ===Peel in a record shop in Bochum, GermanyWhen Radio London closed on 14 August 1967, Peel joined the BBC's new music station, BBC Radio 1, which began broadcasting on 30 September 1967.Unlike Big L, Radio 1 was not a full-time station but a broadcaster of a mixture of recorded music and live studio orchestras.", "Peel said he felt he was hired because the BBC \"had no real idea what they were doing so they had to take people off the pirate ships because there wasn't anybody else\".", "Peel presented a programme called ''Top Gear.''", "At first he was obliged to share presentation duties with other DJs (Pete Drummond and Tommy Vance were among his co-hosts) but in February 1968 he was given sole charge of ''Top Gear.''", "He presented the show until it ended in 1975.In 1969, after hosting a trailer for a BBC programme on VD on his ''Night Ride'' programme, Peel received significant media attention because he divulged on air that he had suffered from a sexually transmitted disease earlier that year.", "This admission was later used in an attempt to discredit him when he appeared as a defence witness in the 1971 ''Oz'' obscenity trial.The ''Night Ride'' programme, advertised by the BBC as an exploration of words and music, seemed to take up from where ''The Perfumed Garden'' had left off.", "It featured rock, folk, blues, classical and electronic music.", "A unique feature of the programme was the inclusion of tracks, mostly of exotic non-Western music, drawn from the BBC Sound Archive; the most popular of these were gathered on a BBC Records LP, ''John Peel's Archive Things'' (1970).", "''Night Ride'' also featured poetry readings and numerous interviews with a wide range of guests, including his friends Marc Bolan, journalist and musician Mick Farren, poet Pete Roche, singer-songwriter Bridget St John and stars such as the Byrds, the Rolling Stones and John Lennon and Yoko Ono.", "The programme captured much of the creative activity of the underground scene.", "Its anti-establishment stance and unpredictability, however, did not find approval with the BBC hierarchy and it ended in September 1969 after 18 months.", "In his sleeve notes to the ''Archive Things'' LP Peel calls the free-form nature of ''Night Ride'' his preferred radio format.", "His subsequent shows featured a mixture of records and live sessions, a format that would characterise his Radio 1 programmes for the rest of his career.=== Punk era ===Peel's enthusiasm for music outside the mainstream occasionally brought him into conflict with the Radio 1 hierarchy.", "On one occasion, the station controller Derek Chinnery contacted John Walters and asked him to confirm that the show was not playing any punk, which he (Chinnery) had read about in the press and of which he disapproved.", "Chinnery was evidently somewhat surprised by Walters' reply that in recent weeks they had been playing little else.In a 1990 interview, Peel recalled his 1976 discovery of the first album by New York punk band the Ramones as a seminal event,In 1979, Peel stated: \"They leave you to get on with it.", "I'm paid money by the BBC not to go off and work for a commercial radio station ...", "I wouldn't want to go to one anyway, because they wouldn't let me do what the BBC let me do.", "\"Peel Acres in Great Finborough, SuffolkPeel's reputation as an important DJ who broke unsigned acts into the mainstream was such that young hopefuls sent him an enormous number of records, CDs, and tapes.", "When he returned home from a three-week holiday at the end of 1986 there were 173 LPs, 91 12\"s and 179 7\"s waiting for him.", "In 1983 Alan Melina and Jeff Chegwin, the music publishers for unsigned artist Billy Bragg, drove to the Radio 1 studios with a mushroom biryani and a copy of his record after hearing Peel mention that he was hungry; the subsequent airplay launched Billy Bragg's career.Studio at Peel AcresIn addition to his Radio 1 show, Peel broadcast as a disc jockey on the BBC World Service, on the British Forces Broadcasting Service (''John Peel's Music on BFBS'') for 30 years, VPRO Radio3 in the Netherlands, YLE Radio Mafia in Finland, Ö3 in Austria (Nachtexpress), and on Radio 4U, Radio Eins (Peel ...), Radio Bremen (Ritz) and some independent radio stations around FSK Hamburg in Germany.", "As a result of his BFBS programme he was voted, in Germany, \"Top DJ in Europe\".Peel was an occasional presenter of ''Top of the Pops'' on BBC1 from the late 1960s until the mid-1990s, and in particular from 1982 to 1987 when he appeared regularly.", "In 1971 he appeared not as presenter but performer, alongside Rod Stewart and the Faces, pretending to play mandolin on \"Maggie May\".", "He often presented the BBC's television coverage of music events, notably the Glastonbury Festival.=== Later years ===Between 1995 and 1997, Peel presented ''Offspring'', a show about children, on BBC Radio 4.In 1998, ''Offspring'' grew into the magazine-style documentary show ''Home Truths''.", "When he took on the job presenting the programme, which was about everyday life in British families, Peel requested that it be free from celebrities, as he found real-life stories more entertaining.", "''Home Truths'' was described by occasional stand-in presenter John Walters as being \"about people who had fridges called Renfrewshire\".", "Peel also made regular contributions to BBC Two's humorous look at the irritations of modern life ''Grumpy Old Men''.", "His only appearances in an acting role in film or television were in Harry Enfield's ''Smashie and Nicey: The End of an Era'' as John Past Bedtime, and in 1999 as a \"grumpy old man who catalogues records\" in the film ''Five Seconds to Spare''.", "However, he had provided narration for others.He appeared as a celebrity guest on a number of TV shows, including ''This Is Your Life'' (1996, BBC), ''Travels With My Camera'' (1996, Channel 4 TV) and ''Going Home'' (2002, ITV TV), and presented the 1997 Channel 4 series ''Classic Trains''.", "He was also in demand as a voice-over artist for television documentaries, such as BBC One's ''A Life of Grime''.In April 2003, the publishers Transworld successfully wooed Peel with a package worth £1.5 million for his autobiography, having placed an advert in a national newspaper aimed only at Peel.", "Unfinished at the time of his death, it was completed by Sheila and journalist Ryan Gilbey.", "It was published in October 2005 under the title ''Margrave of the Marshes''.", "A collection of Peel's miscellaneous writings, ''The Olivetti Chronicles'', was published in 2008." ], [ "Personal life", "=== Marriages ===At the age of 25, while residing in Dallas in 1965, Peel married 15-year-old American girl Shirley Anne Milburn.", "The marriage was never happy, with reports that she was often violent towards him.", "Although she accompanied Peel back to England in 1967, they were soon separated and the divorce became final in 1973.Milburn later took her own life.Peel married Sheila Gilhooly on 31 August 1974.The reception was held at Regent's Park, with Rod Stewart as best man.", "In the 1970s, Peel and Gilhooly moved to \"Peel Acres\", a thatched cottage in Great Finborough.", "In later years, Peel broadcast many of his shows from a studio in the house, with Gilhooly and their children often being involved or at least mentioned.", "Peel's passion for Liverpool FC was reflected in his children's names: William Robert Anfield Ravenscroft, Alexandra Mary Anfield Ravenscroft, Thomas James Dalglish Ravenscroft, and Florence Victoria Shankly Ravenscroft.", "Thomas, now better known as Tom Ravenscroft, also became a radio DJ.=== Health problems ===At the age of 62, in 2001, Peel was diagnosed with diabetes following many years of fatigue.=== Allegations of sexual misconduct ===Peel has been accused of sexual misconduct, although he was never charged with any offences.", "His first marriage to Milburn in 1965 has been cited as an example, given her age of 15 and his age of 25 when they married, however this was legal in Texas at the time.Peel told ''The Guardian'' in 1975 that when it came to young women, \"All they wanted me to do was abuse them, sexually, which, of course, I was only too happy to do.\"", "He told ''The Sunday Correspondent'' in 1989, \"Girls used to queue up outside.", "By and large not usually for shagging.", "Oral sex they were particularly keen on, I remember.", "... One of my, er, regular customers, as it were, turned out to be 13, though she looked older.\"", "He jokingly added that he \"didn't ask for ID\".", "An interview originally published in ''The Herald'' in April 2004 stated that he admitted to sexual contact with \"an awful lot\" of underage girls.", "He said that the only available women in the early 1960s were in high school.In 2012, a woman stated that she had a three-month affair with Peel in 1969, when she was 15 and he was 30.She said they had unprotected sex; this was shortly after Peel discussed contracting a sexually transmitted disease.", "The relationship resulted in a \"traumatic\" abortion.", "She stated that, \"Looking back, it was terribly wrong and I was perhaps manipulated.", "\"In July 2022, a petition was launched to rename the \"John Peel Stage\" at the Glastonbury Festival due to the sexual abuse of which Peel was accused.", "In 2023, the stage was renamed \"Woodsies\"; Emily Eavis, co-organiser of Glastonbury Festival, said the name change \"was not related to a recent petition\"." ], [ "Death", "On 25 October 2004, during a working holiday in the Peruvian city of Cusco, Peel suffered a heart attack and died suddenly at the age of 65.Shortly after the announcement of his death, tributes began to arrive from fans and supporters.", "The following day, BBC Radio 1 cleared its schedule to broadcast a day of tributes.", "London's ''Evening Standard'' boards that afternoon read \"the day the music died\", quoting Don McLean's hit \"American Pie\".Peel had often spoken wryly of his eventual death.", "He once said on the Channel 4 miniseries ''Sounds of the Suburbs'', \"I've always imagined I'd die by driving into the back of a truck while trying to read the name on a cassette and people would say, 'He would have wanted to go that way.'", "Well, I want them to know that I wouldn't.", "\"Peel once said that if he died before his producer John Walters, he wanted Walters to play Roy Harper's song \"When an Old Cricketer Leaves the Crease\".", "Walters had died in 2001, leaving Andy Kershaw to end his tribute programme to Peel on BBC Radio 3 with the song.", "Peel's stand-in on his Radio 1 slot, Rob da Bank, also played the song at the start of the final show before his funeral.", "Another time, Peel said he would like to be remembered with a gospel song.", "He stated that the final record he would play would be the C. L. Franklin sermon \"Dry Bones in the Valley\".On his ''Home Truths'' BBC radio show, Peel once commented about his own death, I definitely want to be buried, although not yet.", "I'm 61 on Wednesdayjust a working day for me, I'm afraidso actually I should have a mile or two left in me, but I do want the children to be able to stand solemnly at my graveside and think lovely thoughts along the lines of 'get out of that one, you swine', which they won't be able to do if I've been cremated.", "\"John Peel's gravePeel's funeral took place in Bury St Edmunds on 12 November 2004 and was attended by over 1,000 people, including many of the artists he had championed.", "Eulogies were read by his brother Alan and fellow DJ Paul Gambaccini.", "The service ended with clips of him talking about his life.", "His coffin was carried out to the accompaniment of his favourite song, the Undertones' \"Teenage Kicks\".", "Peel had written that, apart from his name, all he wanted on his gravestone were the \"Teenage Kicks\" lyrics \"teenage dreams, so hard to beat\".", "A headstone featuring the lyrics and the liver bird from his favourite football team, Liverpool FC, was placed at his grave in 2008.He was buried in the graveyard of St Andrew's Church in Great Finborough." ], [ "Life in music", "=== Peel sessions ===John Peel Sessions were a feature of his BBC Radio 1 shows, which usually consisted of four pieces of music pre-recorded at the BBC's studios.", "The sessions originally came about due to restrictions imposed on the BBC by the Musicians' Union and Phonographic Performance Limited which represented the record companies dominated by the EMI cartel.", "Due to these restrictions, the BBC had been forced to hire bands and orchestras to render cover versions of recorded music.", "The theory behind this device was that it would create employment and force people to buy records and not listen to them free of charge on the air.", "One of the reasons why the offshore broadcasting stations of the 1960s were called \"pirates\" was because they operated outside of British laws and were not bound by the needle time restriction on the number of records they could play on the air.The BBC employed its own house bands and orchestras and it also engaged outside bands to record exclusive tracks for its programmes in BBC studios.", "This was the reason why Peel was able to use \"session men\" in his own programmes.", "Sessions were usually four tracks recorded and mixed in a single day; as such they often had a rough-and-ready, demo-like feel, somewhere between a live performance and a finished recording.", "During the 37 years Peel remained on BBC Radio 1, over 4,000 sessions were recorded by over 2,000 artists.", "Many classic Peel Sessions have been released on record, particularly by the Strange Fruit label.", "In May 2020, an alphabetised catalogue of hundreds of classic Peel Sessions others had previously uploaded to YouTube was published.=== Festive Fifty ===The Festive Fifty – a countdown of the best tracks of the year as voted for by the listeners – was an annual tradition of Peel's Radio 1 show.", "Despite his eclectic play list, it tended to be composed largely of \"white boys with guitars\", as Peel complained in 1988.In 1991, the broadcast of the chart was cancelled due to a lack of votes.Topped by Nirvana's \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\", this Phantom Fifty was eventually broadcast at the rate of one track per programme in 1993.The 1997 chart was initially cancelled due to the lack of air-time Peel had been allocated for the period, but enough \"spontaneous\" votes were received over the phone that a Festive Thirty-One was compiled and broadcast.Peel wrote that \"The Festive 50 dates back to what was doubtless a crisp September morning in the early-to-mid Seventies, when John Walters and I were musing on life in his uniquely squalid office.", "In our waggish way, we decided to mock the enthusiasm of the Radio 1 management of the time for programmes with alliterative titles.", "Content, we felt, was of less importance than a snappy ''Radio Times'' billing.", "In the course of our historic meeting we had, I imagine, some fine reasons for dismissing the idea of a Festive 40 and going instead for a Festive 50, a decision that was to ruin my Decembers for years to come, condemning me to night after night at home with a ledger, when I could have been out and about having fun, fun, fun.", "\"After his death, the Festive Fifty was continued on Radio 1 by Rob da Bank, Huw Stephens and Ras Kwame for two years, but then given to Peel-inspired Internet radio station Dandelion Radio, and continues to be compiled.=== Dandelion Records and Strange Fruit ===In 1969, Peel founded Dandelion Records (named after his pet hamster) so that he could release the debut album by Bridget St John, which he also produced.", "The label released 27 albums by 18 different artists before folding in 1972.Of its albums, ''There is Some Fun Going Forward'' was a sampler intended to present its acts to a wide audience, but Dandelion was never a great success, with only two releases charting nationally: Medicine Head in the UK with \"(And the) Pictures in the Sky\" and Beau in Lebanon with \"1917 Revolution\".", "Having had an affinity with the Manchester area from working in a cotton mill in Rochdale in 1959, Peel signed Manchester bands Stack Waddy and Tractor to Dandelion and was always supportive of both bands throughout his life.", "It is alleged that Peel spotted a Rochdale postmark on the envelope containing the tape sent to him by Tractor, then called \"The Way We Live\".As Peel stated:It was never a success financially.", "In fact, we lost money, if I remember correctly, on every single release bar one.", "I did quite like it but it was terribly indulgent.", "Not as indulgent as it would have been had I not had a business partner, admittedly...", "I liked having a label.", "It enabled you to put out stuff that you liked without, in those days, having to worry about whether it was going to work commercially.", "I've never been a good business man.Peel appeared on one Dandelion release: the David Bedford album ''Nurses Song with Elephants'', recorded at the Marquee Studios, as part of a group playing twenty-seven plastic pipe twirlers on the track \"Some Bright Stars for Queen's College\".In the 1980s Peel set up Strange Fruit Records with Clive Selwood to release material recorded by the BBC for Peel Sessions.=== Production (albums) ===* 1969: ''Mike Hart Bleeds'' – Mike Hart* 1969: ''The Year of the Great Leap Sideways'' – Occasional Word Ensemble* 1969: ''Soundtrack'' – Principal Edwards Magic Theatre* 1970: ''New Bottles Old Medicine'' – Medicine Head* 1970: ''Burnin' Red Ivanhoe'' – Burnin' Red Ivanhoe (co-produced w/ Tony Reeves)* 1970: ''The Asmoto Running Band'' – Principal Edwards Magic Theatre* 1972: ''Bugger Off!''", "– Stack WaddyJohn Peel is sometimes confused with the more prolific record producer Jonathan Peel, who was an in-house music producer for EMI before going freelance in 1970.=== Favourite music ===John Peel wrote in his autobiography, ''Margrave of the Marshes'', that the band of which he owned the most records was The Fall.", "Regulars in the Festive 50, and easily recognised by vocalist Mark E. Smith's distinctive delivery, The Fall became synonymous with Peel's Radio 1 show through the 1980s and 1990s.", "Peel kept in contact with many of the artists he championed but only met Smith on two, apparently awkward, occasions.The Misunderstood is the only band that Peel ever personally managed – he first met the band in Riverside, California in 1966 and convinced them to move to London.", "He championed their music throughout his career; in 1968, he described their 1966 single \"I Can Take You to the Sun\" as \"the best popular record that's ever been recorded.\"", "and shortly before his death, he stated, \"If I had to list the ten greatest performances I've seen in my life, one would be The Misunderstood at Pandora's Box, Hollywood, 1966 ... My god, they were a great band!", "\"His favourite single is widely known to have been \"Teenage Kicks\" by The Undertones; in an interview in 2001, he stated \"There's nothing you could add to it or subtract from it that would improve it.\"", "In the same 2001 interview, he also listed \"No More Ghettos in America\" by Stanley Winston, \"There Must Be Thousands\" by The Quads and \"Lonely Saturday Night\" by Don French as being among his all-time favourites.", "He also described Lianne Hall as one of the great English voices.In 1997 ''The Guardian'' asked Peel to list his top 20 albums.", "He listed Captain Beefheart's ''Trout Mask Replica'' as his number 1, having previously described it as \"a work of art\".", "The top 20 also included LPs by The Velvet Underground, The Ramones, Pulp, Misty in Roots, Nirvana, Neil Young, Pink Floyd, The Four Brothers, Dave Clarke, Richard and Linda Thompson and The Rolling Stones.A longer list of his favourite singles was revealed in 2005 when the contents of a wooden box in which he stored the records that meant the most to him were made public.", "The box was the subject of a television documentary, ''John Peel's Record Box''.", "Out of 130 vinyl singles in the box, 11 of them were by The White Stripes, more than any other band in the box.In 1999 Peel presented a nightly segment on his programme titled the Peelennium, in which he played four recordings from each year of the 20th century.=== Awards and honorary degrees ===Peel was 11 times ''Melody Maker''′s DJ of the year, Sony Broadcaster of the Year in 1993, winner of the publicly voted Godlike Genius Award from the ''NME'' in 1994, Sony Gold Award winner in 2002 and is a member of the Radio Academy Hall of Fame.", "At the NME awards in 2005, he was Hero of the Year and was posthumously given a special award for \"Lifelong Service To Music\".", "At the same event the \"John Peel Award For Musical Innovation\" was awarded to The Others.He was awarded many honorary degrees including an MA from the University of East Anglia, doctorates (Anglia Polytechnic University and Sheffield Hallam University), various degrees (University of Liverpool, Open University, University of Portsmouth, University of Bradford) and a fellowship of Liverpool John Moores University.He was appointed an OBE in 1998, for his services to British music.", "In 2002, the BBC conducted a vote to discover the 100 Greatest Britons of all time, in which Peel was voted 43rd.=== Various shows === Name of show Radio station First show Last show Frequency Remarks ''Kat's Karavan'' WRR, Dallas 1961 ?", "weekly unpaid ?", "KLIF ?", "?", "?", "KOMA, Oklahoma City ?", "?", "?", "KLMA, Oklahoma City ?", "?", "?", "KMEN, San Bernardino 1966 1967 ''The Perfumed Garden'' Wonderful Radio London ca 8 March 1967 14 August 1967 ''Top Gear'' BBC Radio 1 1967 1975 ''Nightride'' BBC Radio 1 6 March 1968 1969 ''John Peel'' BBC Radio 1 1975 2004 Rock Today BFBS Radio 1 April 1977 December 1979 weekly John Peel's Music on BFBS BFBS Radio 1 Jan 1980 ?", "weekly ?", "DT64 ?", "?", "The John Peel Show: essentiële popmuziek zonder ondertiteling VPRO Radio3 26 September 1984 24 September 1986 weekly every Wednesday ?", "Hansawelle ?", "?", "''John Peel'' Radio Mafia, Helsinki 1990 2003 ''John Peel Show'' Rockradio, Finland 1987 1990 ?", "YleX, Finland ?", "?", "?", "Radio Bremen 2 1985 ?", "?", "Radio Bremen Vier 1987 ?", "?", "BBC Radio Cambridgeshire 1988 1990 weekly ''Nachtexpress'' Hitradio Ö3 1989 1994 monthly ''Offspring'' BBC Radio 4 1995 1997 ''Peel'' Radio Eins, Berlin September 1997 18 December 2003 weekly ''Home Truths'' BBC Radio 4 1998 16 October 2004" ], [ "Legacy", "Since his death various parties have recognised Peel's influence.", "A stage for new bands at the Glastonbury Festival, previously known as \"The New Bands Tent\" was renamed \"The John Peel Stage\" in 2005, although this was renamed again as \"Woodsies\" in 2023.In 2008 Merseytravel announced it would be naming a train after him.The John Peel Centre for Creative Arts opened in Stowmarket in early 2013.The main purposes of the centre is to serve as a live venue for music and performance and as a community meeting point.The 2005 Mogwai live compilation album ''Government Commissions: BBC Sessions 1996–2003'' was dedicated to Peel as some of the tracks had been performed during the Peel Sessions.", "Peel's voice announces \"Ladies and Gentlemen, Mogwai!\"", "at the beginning of \"Hunted by a Freak\", the album's opener.On 8 October 2005 Cotswold Rail locomotive 47813 was named ''John Peel'' by Peel's widow Shelia at Bury St Edmunds station.On 13 October 2005, the first \"John Peel Day\" was held to mark the anniversary of his last show.", "The BBC encouraged as many bands as possible to stage gigs on the 13th, and over 500 gigs took place in the UK and as far away as Canada and New Zealand, from bands ranging from Peel favourites New Order and The Fall, to many new and unsigned bands.", "A second John Peel day was held on 12 October 2006, and a third on 11 October 2007.The BBC had originally planned to hold a John Peel Day annually, but Radio 1 has not held any official commemoration of the event since 2007, though gigs still took place around the country to mark the anniversary for a number of years afterwards.At the annual Gilles Peterson's Worldwide Awards, the \"John Peel Play More Jazz Award\" was named in his honour.In Peel's hometown of Heswall, a pub was opened in his honour in 2007.Named The Ravenscroft, the pub was converted from the old Heswall Telephone Exchange but has since been renamed.In 2012 Peel was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' ''Sgt.", "Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' album cover.Several Peel-related compilation albums have been released since his death, including ''John Peel and Sheila: The Pig's Big 78s: A Beginner's Guide'', a project Peel started with his wife that was left unfinished when he died, and ''Kats Karavan: The History of John Peel on the Radio'' (2009), a 4 CD box set.", "Rock music critic Peter Paphides said in a review of the box set that \"some artists remain forever associated with him\", including ...And the Native Hipsters with \"There Goes Concorde Again\", and Ivor Cutler with \"Jam\".", "A sizable online community has also emerged dedicated to sharing recordings of his radio shows.In May 2012 a campaign was started to turn demolition-threatened Bradford Odeon into the John Peel Creative Arts Centre in the North, though this was ultimately unsuccessful.=== Blue plaques ===In 2009 blue plaques bearing Peel's name were unveiled at two former recording studios in Rochdale – one at the site of Tractor Sound Studios in Heywood, the other at the site of the Kenion Street Music Building – to recognise Peel's contribution to the local music industry.In June 2017 Peel's widow Sheila unveiled a blue plaque in his honour in Great Finborough." ], [ "See also", "* List of Peel sessions* Alan Bangs" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "Further reading", " ''Margrave of the Marshes'', Autobiography with Sheila Ravenscroft, Bantam Press, 2005.", "* ''The Olivetti Chronicles''.", "Articles for ''The Observer'', ''Radio Times'', ''The Guardian'' a.o., selected by his wife Sheila and their children.", "Bantam Press 2008.", "* ''Good Night and Good Riddance: How Thirty-Five Years of John Peel Helped to Shape Modern Life'', David Cavanagh, Faber & Faber, 2015," ], [ "External links", "* BBC – Radio 1 – Keeping It Peel* Archived BBC – Radio 1 – John Peel* BBC John Peel Biography (PDF)* John Peel Archive Project* John Peel Everyday* John Peel on Desert Island Discs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Josephus on Jesus" ], [ "Introduction", "A page from a 1466 copy of ''Antiquities of the Jews''The extant manuscripts of the book ''Antiquities of the Jews'', written by the first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus around AD 93–94, contain two references to Jesus of Nazareth and one reference to John the Baptist.The first and most extensive reference to Jesus in the ''Antiquities'', found in Book 18, states that Jesus was the Messiah and a wise teacher who was crucified by Pontius Pilate.", "It is commonly called the ''Testimonium Flavianum''.", "Some modern scholars reject the authenticity of this passage in its present form, while most scholars nevertheless hold that it contains an authentic nucleus referencing the life and execution of Jesus by Pilate, which was then subject to supposed Christian interpolation or alteration.", "However, the exact nature and extent of the Christian addition remains unclear.Modern scholarship has largely acknowledged the authenticity of the second reference to Jesus in the ''Antiquities'', found in Book 20, Chapter 9, which mentions \"the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James.\"", "This reference is considered to be more authentic than the ''Testimonium''.Almost all modern scholars consider the reference in Book 18, Chapter 5 of the ''Antiquities'' to the imprisonment and death of John the Baptist also to be authentic and not a Christian interpolation.", "A number of differences exist between the statements by Josephus regarding the death of John the Baptist and the New Testament accounts.", "Scholars generally view these variations as indications that the Josephus passages are not interpolations, since a Christian interpolator would likely have made them correspond to the New Testament accounts, not differ from them.", "Scholars have provided explanations for their inclusion in Josephus' later works." ], [ "Extant manuscripts", "A 1640 edition of the ''Works of Josephus''Josephus wrote all of his surviving works after his establishment in Rome () under the patronage of the Flavian Emperor Vespasian.", "As is common with ancient texts, however, there are no known manuscripts of Josephus' works that can be dated before the 11th century, and the oldest which do survive were copied by Christian monks.", "Jews are not known to have preserved the writings of Josephus perhaps because he was considered a traitor, and/or because his works circulated in Greek, the use of which declined among Jews shortly after Josephus' era.There are about 120 extant Greek manuscripts of Josephus, of which 33 predate the 14th century, with two thirds from the Komnenos period.", "The earliest surviving Greek manuscript that contains the ''Testimonium'' is the 11th century Ambrosianus 370 (F 128), preserved in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, which includes almost all of the second half of the ''Antiquities''.", "There are about 170 extant Latin translations of Josephus, some of which go back to the sixth century.", "According to Louis Feldman these have proven very useful in reconstructing the Josephus texts through comparisons with the Greek manuscripts, confirming proper names and filling in gaps.", "One of the reasons the works of Josephus were copied and maintained by Christians was that his writings provided a good deal of information about a number of figures mentioned in the New Testament, and the background to events such as the death of James during a gap in Roman governing authority.===Slavonic Josephus===The three references found in Book 18 and Book 20 of the ''Antiquities'' do not appear in any other versions of Josephus' ''The Jewish War'' except for a Slavonic version of the ''Testimonium Flavianum'' (at times called ''Testimonium Slavonium'') which surfaced in the west at the beginning of the 20th century, after its discovery in Russia at the end of the 19th century.Although originally hailed as authentic (notably by Robert Eisler), it is now almost universally acknowledged by scholars to have been the product of an 11th-century creation as part of a larger ideological struggle against the Khazars.", "As a result, it has little place in the ongoing debate over the authenticity and nature of the references to Jesus in the ''Antiquities.''", "Craig A. Evans states that although some scholars had in the past supported the ''Slavonic Josephus'', \"to my knowledge no one today believes that they contain anything of value for Jesus research\".===Arabic and Syriac Josephus===In 1971, a 10th-century Arabic version of the ''Testimonium'' from the chronicle of Agapius of Hierapolis was brought to light by Shlomo Pines, who also discovered a 12th-century Syriac version of the ''Testimonium'' in the chronicle of Michael the Syrian.", "These additional manuscript sources of the ''Testimonium'' have furnished additional ways to evaluate Josephus' mention of Jesus in the ''Antiquities'', principally through a close textual comparison between the Arabic, Syriac and Greek versions to the ''Testimonium''.There are subtle yet key differences between the Greek manuscripts and these texts.", "For instance, the Arabic version does not blame the Jews for the death of Jesus.", "The key phrase \"at the suggestion of the principal men among us\" reads instead \"Pilate condemned him to be crucified\".", "Instead of \"he was Christ\", the Syriac version has the phrase \"he was believed to be Christ\".", "Drawing on these textual variations, scholars have suggested that these versions of the ''Testimonium'' more closely reflect what a non-Christian Jew might have written.====Potential dependence on Eusebius====In 2008, however, Alice Whealey published an article arguing that Agapius' and Michael's versions of the ''Testimonium'' are not independent witnesses to the original text of Josephus' ''Antiquities''.", "Rather, they both ultimately derive from the Syriac translation of the ''Church History'' written by Eusebius, which in turn quotes the ''Testimonium''.", "Whealey notes that Michael's Syriac ''Testimonium'' shares several peculiar choices of vocabulary with the version found in the Syriac translation of the ''Church History''.", "These words and phrases are not shared by an independent Syriac translation of the ''Testimonium'' from Eusebius' book ''Theophania'', strongly indicating that Agapius's text is simply a paraphrased quotation from the Syriac ''Church History'', and not a direct quotation of Josephus himself.", "Michael's text, in contrast, she concludes is much closer to what Josephus actually wrote.One of the key prongs in her argument is that Agapius' and Michael's ''Testimonia'' share the unique peculiarity that they both explicitly state that Jesus died after being condemned to the cross, while the Greek original does not include this detail.", "According to Whealey, the differences between the two ''Testimonia'' are simply due to the fact that Agapius' chronicle more freely paraphrases and abbreviates its sources, whereas Michael's version is probably a ''verbatim'' copy.", "The implication of this argument, if valid, is that Agapius' abbreviated ''Testimonium'' cannot be an earlier version of the passage than what we find in extant manuscripts of Josephus' ''Antiquities''.Whealey furthermore notices that Michael's version of the ''Testimonium'' shares common features with Jerome's Latin translation.", "Most importantly for her, instead of ''\"he was the Messiah,\"'' as in the Greek ''Testimonium'', Jerome's and Michael's versions both read, ''\"he was thought to be the Messiah.\"''", "She considers it likely, therefore, that the Latin and Arabic translations go back to an original Greek version with the same reading.", "Since they otherwise have no substantial disagreement from the Greek version we possess, and since that sole variant is sufficient to explain the most powerful objections to the ''Testimonium's'' integrity, she concludes that it is \"the only major alteration\" that has been made to what Josephus originally wrote." ], [ "The ''Testimonium Flavianum''", "The ''Testimonium Flavianum'' (meaning the testimony of Flavius Josephus) is a passage found in Book 18, Chapter 3, 3 (or see Greek text) of the ''Antiquities'' which describes the condemnation and crucifixion of Jesus at the hands of the Roman authorities.", "The ''Testimonium'' is probably the most discussed passage in Josephus.The earliest secure reference to this passage is found in the writings of the fourth-century Christian apologist and historian Eusebius, who used Josephus' works extensively as a source for his own ''Historia Ecclesiastica''.", "Writing no later than 324, Eusebius quotes the passage in essentially the same form as that preserved in extant manuscripts.", "It has therefore been suggested by a minority of scholars that part or all of the passage may have been Eusebius' own invention, in order to provide an outside Jewish authority for the life of Christ.", "Some argue that the wording in the Testimonium differs from Josephus' usual writing style and that as a Jew, he would not have used a word like Christos (Χριστός), at Josephus' time being the Greek term for \"Messiah\".", "See also the arguments for authenticity in the sections below.Of the three passages found in Josephus' Antiquities, this passage, if authentic, would offer the most direct support for the crucifixion of Jesus.", "It is broadly agreed that while the Testimonium Flavianum cannot be authentic in its entirety, it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate which was then subject to interpolation.", "James Dunn states that there is \"broad consensus\" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to Jesus in the ''Testimonium'' and what the passage would look like without the interpolations.", "Among other things, the authenticity of this passage would help make sense of the later reference in Josephus' ''Antiquities of the Jews'' Book 20, Chapter 9, 1 where Josephus refers to the stoning of \"James the brother of Jesus\".===Three perspectives on authenticity===The complete works of Josephus, 1582Paul L. Maier and Zvi Baras state that there are three possible perspectives on the authenticity of the ''Testimonium'': # It is entirely authentic.# It is entirely a Christian forgery.# It contains Christian interpolations in what was Josephus' authentic material about Jesus.Paul Maier states that the first case is generally seen as hopeless given that as a Jew, Josephus would not have claimed Jesus as the Messiah, and that the second option is hardly tenable given the presence of the passage in all extant Greek manuscripts; thus a large majority of modern scholars accept the third alternative, i.e., partial authenticity.", "Baras adds that the third position is more plausible because it accepts parts of the passage as genuine, but discounts other parts as interpolations.", "Craig Evans (and separately Robert Van Voorst) state that most modern scholars accept the position that the ''Testimonium'' is partially authentic, had a kernel with an authentic reference to Jesus, and that the analysis of its content and style support this conclusion.While before the advent of literary criticism most scholars considered the ''Testimonium'' entirely authentic, thereafter the number of supporters of full authenticity declined.", "However, most scholars now accept partial authenticity and many attempt to reconstruct their own version of the authentic kernel, and scholars such as Geza Vermes have argued that the overall characterizations of Jesus in the ''Testimonium'' are in accord with the style and approach of Josephus.===Arguments for complete authenticity=======Pre-modern criticism====Until the rise of modern criticism, many scholars believed the ''Testimonium'' was nearly or completely authentic with little or no Christian interpolations.", "Some of these arguments relied on the language used in the ''Testimonium''.", "For instance, Jesus is called \"a wise man\" (and Josephus described others like Solomon, Daniel, and John the Baptist in the same fashion), which would not have been a common Christian label for Christ at the time.", "He referred to Jesus merely as \"a worker of amazing deeds\" and nothing more, again disagreeing with how Christians viewed Christ.", "Referring to Jesus as \"a teacher of people who accept the truth with pleasure\", where \"pleasure\" (ἡδονή) connotes hedonistic value, is not in line with how Christians saw the point of Jesus' teachings.", "Claiming that Jesus won over \"both Jews and Greeks\" is a misunderstanding that a Christian scribe would not likely have made, knowing that Jesus mainly ministered to Jews.", "Also, the phrase \"Those who had first loved him did not cease doing so\" is Josephan in style, and calling Christians a \"tribe\" would not have made sense to a Christian writer.=== The Paraphrase Model of Josephan Authenticity ===The ''paraphrase model'', advanced by G. J. Goldberg in 2022, is based on the observation that Josephus wrote most of the ''Jewish Antiquities'' by paraphrasing Greek and Hebrew sources.", "Goldberg proposes that the Jesus passage in the ''Antiquities'' is also a paraphrase in the same manner.", "Josephus's methods of revising his sources have been well established and can be used to objectively test whether a proposed candidate source could have been adapted in the same way for the Jesus passage.", "In a phrase-by-phrase study, Goldberg finds that the Jesus account can be derived from Luke's Emmaus narrative using transformations Josephus is demonstrated to have employed in paraphrasing known sources for the ''Antiquities''.", "He finds these paraphrase precedents in word adoption, word and phrase substitution, content order preservation and content modification.", "As these stylistic pairings are unlike the relationships found among any other ancient Jesus texts, Goldberg proposes the most plausible explanation of these findings is that the Jesus passage in the ''Antiquities'' is indeed Josephus's paraphrase of a Christian text very much like, if not identical to, Luke's Emmaus narrative (Luke 24:18–24).This paraphrase model, Goldberg argues, is not only a natural application of Josephus's writing processes but also resolves the questions that researchers have raised about the passage, shedding light on the origin of specific difficult phrases and accounting for its brevity and its mixture of Josephan language with a Christian creedal structure.", "While many had previously suspected that an original Josephus passage had been edited by a later Christian to give the creedal appearance, the paraphrase model argues such edits cannot explain the end-to-end consistency of a paraphrase relationship with the Emmaus text.", "The more plausible explanation is rather the reverse: an original Christian document was edited by Josephus by applying his usual revision method for the ''Antiquities''.The historical implications of the model, Goldberg argues, include the following.", "First, it shows Jesus was a historical figure and not a myth, based on the reasoning that Josephus's treatment of his source indicates he thought it reliable; it must have conformed with what he knew of events under Pilate.", "The model also provides unique evidence about the dating of at least one passage of Luke's Gospel.", "And as the paraphrase shows Josephus had obtained a Christian source and treated it with a degree of respect, it provides an unexpected window into a cordial relationship between Christians and Jews in Rome at the end of the first century.===Arguments for presence of Christian interpolations===The ''Testimonium'' has been the subject of a great deal of research and debate among scholars, being one of the most discussed passages among all antiquities.", "Louis Feldman has stated that in the period from 1937 to 1980 at least 87 articles had appeared on the topic, the overwhelming majority of which questioned the total or partial authenticity of the ''Testimonium''.", "While early scholars considered the ''Testimonium'' to be a total forgery, the majority of modern scholars consider it partially authentic, despite some clear Christian interpolations in the text.The arguments surrounding the authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' fall into two categories: internal arguments that rely on textual analysis and compare the passage with the rest of Josephus' work; and external arguments, that consider the wider cultural and historical context.", "Some of the external arguments are \"arguments from silence\" that question the authenticity of the entire passage not for what it says, but due to lack of references to it among other ancient sources.The external analyses of the ''Testimonium'' have even used computer-based methods, e.g.", "the matching of the text of the ''Testimonium'' with the Gospel of Luke performed by Gary Goldberg in 1995.Goldberg found some partial matches between the ''Testimonium'' and Luke 24:19–21, 26–27 stating \"the Emmaus narrative more closely resembles the Testimonium in its phrase-by-phrase outline of content and order than any other known text of comparable age.\"", "Goldberg's analyses suggested three possibilities: that the matches were random, that the ''Testimonium'' was a Christian interpolation based on Luke, or that both the ''Testimonium'' and Luke were based on the same sources.", "In a later work, published in 2022, Goldberg investigated Josephus's paraphrase style and concluded only the last of these possibilities could explain why the Emmaus-Testimonium language relationships were end-to-end consistent with Josephus's methods of revision.===Internal arguments===An 1879 copy of the ''Antiquities''====Christian phraseology====One of the key internal arguments against the complete authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' is that the clear inclusion of Christian phraseology strongly indicates the presence of some interpolations.", "For instance, the phrases \"if it be lawful to call him a man\" suggests that Jesus was more than human and is likely a Christian interpolation.", "Some scholars have attempted to reconstruct the original ''Testimonium'', but others contend that attempts to discriminate the passage into Josephan and non-Josephan elements are inherently circular.====Eusebian phraseology====Another example of the textual arguments against the ''Testimonium'' is that it uses the Greek term ''poietes'' to mean \"doer\" (as part of the phrase \"doer of wonderful works\") but elsewhere in his works, Josephus only uses the term ''poietes'' to mean \"poet,\" whereas this use of \"poietes\" seems consistent with the Greek of Eusebius.===External arguments===Eusebius====Origen's references to Josephus====According to Wataru Mizugaki, Origen explicitly mentions the name of Josephus 11 times, never mentioning the ''Testimonium'', both in Greek and Latin.", "Furthermore, Origen's statement in his ''Commentary on Matthew'' (Book X, Chapter 17) that Josephus \"did not accept Jesus as Christ\", is usually seen as a confirmation of the generally accepted fact that Josephus did not believe Jesus to be the Messiah.", "This forms a key external argument against the total authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' in that Josephus, as a Jew, would not have claimed Jesus as the Messiah, and the reference to \"he was the Christ\" in the ''Testimonium'' must be a Christian interpolation.", "Based on this observation alone, Paul L. Maier calls the case for the total authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' \"hopeless\".", "Almost all modern scholars reject the total authenticity of the ''Testimonium'', while the majority of scholars still hold that it includes an authentic kernel.===Arguments from silence===A different set of external arguments against the authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' (either partial or total) are \"arguments from silence\", e.g.", "that although twelve Christian authors refer to Josephus before Eusebius in AD 324, none mentions the ''Testimonium''.Even after Eusebius' AD 324 reference, it is not until Jerome's ''De Viris Illustribus'' () that the passage from Josephus is referenced again, even though the ''Testimonium'''s reference to Jesus would seem appropriate in the works of many intervening patristic authors.", "However, Bart D. Ehrman and John P. Meier have argued that this silence is mainly due to the fact that the original ''Testimonium'' probably had a neutral tone toward Jesus and did not contain elements that would have been useful to Christian apologetics, since it did not recognize him as the Messiah, nor did it speak about his resurrection; it was, therefore, not a useful instrument in their polemics with Pagan writers.Some scholars also point to the silence of Photios as late as the 9th century, and the fact that he does not mention the ''Testimonium'' at all in his broad review of Josephus.", "However, Photios argues in his ''Bibliotheca'' that Josephus's works mention the Massacre of the Innocents and the virgin birth of Jesus (which no works of Josephus make any reference to), leading many scholars to think that he actually had a scant knowledge of the writings he was reviewing or that the documents he was working on were grossly interpolated.", "Also, Photios had clearly read Eusebius's ''Church History'' and Jerome's ''De Viris Illustribus'', since he lists them both in his ''Bibliotheca''.====Table of Josephus excludes the Testimonium====A separate argument from silence against the total or partial authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' is that a 5th- or 6th-century table of contents of Josephus (albeit selective) makes no mention of it.====Arabic Testimonium lacks Christian terminology====Andreas Köstenberger argues that the fact that the 10th-century Arabic version of the ''Testimonium'' (discovered in the 1970s) lacks distinct Christian terminology while sharing the essential elements of the passage indicates that the Greek ''Testimonium'' has been subject to interpolation.====No parallel in other works====A final argument from silence relates to Josephus' own writings and questions the authenticity of ''Testimonium'' based on the fact that it has no parallel in the ''Jewish War'', which includes a discussion of Pontius Pilate at about the same level of detail.====Timing of the interpolations====Zvi Baras believes that the ''Testimonium'' was subject to interpolation before Eusebius wrote.", "Baras believes that Origen had seen the original ''Testimonium'' but that the ''Testimonium'' seen by Origen had no negative reference to Jesus, else Origen would have reacted against it.", "Baras states that the interpolation in the ''Testimonium'' took place between Origen and Eusebius.Paul L. Maier states that a comparison of Eusebius' reference with the 10th-century Arabic version of the ''Testimonium'' due to Agapius of Hierapolis indicates that the Christian interpolation present in the ''Testimonium'' must have come early, before Eusebius.", "Robert E. Van Voorst also states that the interpolation likely took place some time between Origen and Eusebius.===Arguments for partial authenticity===A copy of Josephus' ''Antiquities'' c. 1200====Arguments from style and content========Lack of Jewish deicide====Craig Evans states that an argument in favor of the partial authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' is that the passage does not stress the role played by the Jewish leaders in the death of Jesus.", "According to Evans, if the passage had been an interpolation after the emergence of conflicts between Jews and Christians, it would have had a more accusatory tone, but in its current form reads as one would expect it to read for a passage composed by Josephus towards the end of the first century.", "Geza Vermes concurs, arguing that if the ''Testimonium'' had been the work of a Christian forger, it would have placed blame on the Jewish leaders, but as is it is \"perfectly in line\" with the attitude of Josephus towards Pilate.", "Vermes also states that the detached depiction of the followers of Jesus is not the work of a Christian interpolator.", "Vermes calls the Jesus notice in the ''Testimonium'' a \"veritable tour de force\" in which Josephus plays the role of a neutral witness.====Josephan vocabulary and style====Andreas Köstenberger argues that the ''Testimonium'' includes vocabulary that is typically Josephan, and the style is consistent with that of Josephus.", "Köstenberger (and separately Van Voorst) state that the Josephus' reference to the large number of followers of Jesus during his public ministry is unlikely to have been due to a Christian scribe familiar with the New Testament accounts, and is hence unlikely to be an interpolation.====Josephan beliefs about Jesus====Claudia Setzer holds that while \"tribe is an odd way to describe Christians,\" it does not necessarily have negative connotations.", "Setzer argues for the existence of an authentic kernel because \"the style and vocabulary are Josephan\" and specific parts (e.g.", "the use of \"wise man\") are not what one would expect from a Christian forger.", "Setzer argues that the Testimonium indicates that Josephus had heard of Jesus and the basic elements surrounding his death, and that he saw Jesus as primarily a miracle worker.", "Van Voorst also states that calling Christians a \"tribe\" would have been very out of character for a Christian scribe, while Josephus has used it to refer both to Jewish and Christian groups.===Arguments from external attestation=======Origen's complaint about Josephus referencing Jesus====Lester L. Grabbe notes that in two works (''Commentary on Matthew'' 10.17 and ''Contra Celsum'' 1.47; see ) Origen had actually complained that Josephus had mentioned Jesus, while not recognizing Jesus as the messiah, and this provided an early independent support of the partial Testimonium in a more neutral form.", "Zvi Baras argues from this that Origen had seen a version of the ''Testimonium'' that included no interpolations.", "Baras asserts that a ''Testimonium'' seen by Origen must have had a neutral tone, and included no derogatory references towards Christians, and hence required no reaction from Origen.", "He claims that the neutral tone of the ''Testimonium'' was then modified between the time of Origen and Eusebius.", "John P. Meier similarly argues that the fact that Origen complains that Josephus had not recognized Jesus as the Messiah points to the fact that Origen had read the original version of the ''Testimonium'', since such a clear statement could not have simply arisen from the \"James, brother of Jesus\" passage.====Arabic Testimonium more authentic version====Andreas Köstenberger argues that a comparison of the Greek manuscripts with the Arabic quotation discovered by Shlomo Pines in the 1970s provides an indication of the original Josephan text.", "Köstenberger states that many modern scholars believe that the Arabic version reflects the state of Josephus' original text before it was subject to Christian interpolation.===Other arguments=======Comparison to Philo's works====Steve Mason has argued for partial authenticity for the \"Testimonium\" because no other parts of any of the works of Josephus have been contested to have had scribal tempering, Christian copyists were usually conservative when transmitting texts in general, and seeing that the works of Philo were unaltered by Christian scribes through the centuries strongly support that it is very unlikely that the passage was invented out of thin air by a Christian scribe.", "Philo often wrote in a way that was favorable to Christian ideas and yet no Christian scribes took advantage of that to insert Jesus or Christian beliefs into Philo's text.===Authenticity of the James passage===Chilton and Evans state that the general acceptance of the authenticity of the James passage lends support to the partial authenticity of the ''Testimonium'' in that the brief reference to \"Jesus, who was called Christ\" in ''Antiquities'' XX, 9, 1 \"clearly implies a prior reference\" and that \"in all probability the ''Testimonium'' is that prior reference\".", "Paul L. Maier concurs with the analysis of Chilton and Evans and states that Josephus' first reference was the ''Testimonium''.", "Geza Vermes also considers the \"who was called Christ\" reference in the James passage as the second reference to Jesus in the ''Antiquities'' and states that the first reference is likely to be the ''Testimonium''.====Reconstruction of an authentic kernel====''The Works of Josephus'', 1879Robert Van Voorst states that most modern scholars believe that the ''Testimonium'' is partially authentic, and has a reference to Jesus.", "However, he states that scholars are divided on the tone of the original reference and while some scholars believe that it had a negative tone which was softened by Christian interpolators, others believe that it had a neutral tone, in keeping with the style and approach of Josephus regarding the issue.", "According to Van Voorst, scholars who support the negative reconstruction contend that the reference read something like \"source of further trouble in Jesus a wise man\" and that it stated \"he was the so-called Christ\".", "Van Voorst states that most scholars support a neutral reconstruction which states \"Around this time lived Jesus, a wise man\" and includes no reference to \"he was the Christ\".", "Van Voorst states that if the original references to Jesus had had a negative tone, the Christian scribes would have likely deleted it entirely.", "Van Voorst also states that the neutral reconstruction fits better with the Arabic ''Testimonium'' discovered by Pines in the 1970s.", "Van Voorst states that the neutral reconstruction is supported by the majority of scholars because it involves far less conjectural wording and fits better with the style of Josephus.====Exclusion of three divisive elements====Craig Blomberg states that if the three elements \"lawful to call him a man\", \"he was the Christ\" and the reference to the resurrection are removed from the ''Testimonium'' the rest of the passage flows smoothly within the context, fits the style of Josephus and is likely to be authentic.", "Blomberg adds that after the removal of these three elements (which are likely interpolations) from the Greek versions the remaining passage fits well with the Arabic version and supports the authenticity of the reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.", "Joel B.", "Green also states that the removal of some elements from the ''Testimonium'' produces a passage that is likely to be an authentic reference to the death of Jesus.In the estimation of James Dunn, there is \"broad consensus\" among scholars regarding what the ''Testimonium'' would look like without the interpolations.", "According to Dunn's reconstruction, the original passage likely read:In this passage, which is based on John P. Meier's reconstruction, Jesus is called a \"wise man\", but \"lawful to call him a man\" and \"he was the Christ\" are removed, as is the reference to the resurrection.", "According to Bart D. Ehrman, Meier's reconstruction is currently the most accepted among scholars.Geza Vermes has performed a detailed analysis of the ''Testimonium'' and modified it to remove what he considers the interpolations.", "In Vermes' reconstruction \"there was Jesus, a wise man\" is retained, but the reference to \"he was the Christ\" is changed to \"he was called the Christ\" and the resurrection reference is omitted.", "Vermes states that the ''Testimonium'' provides Josephus' authentic portrayal of Jesus, depicting him as a wise teacher and miracle worker with an enthusiastic group of followers who remained faithful to him after his crucifixion by Pilate, up to the time of Josephus.", "Vermes's version reads:Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man.", "For he was a doer of startling deeds, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure.", "And he gained a following both among many Jews and many of Greek origin.", "He was called the Christ.", "And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him.", "And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.===Arguments for complete forgery=======Textual similarities to Eusebian works====In addition to the arguments listed above, a minority of scholars have put forward arguments to the effect that the entire ''Testimonium'' is a Christian interpolation.", "For example, Kenneth Olson has argued that the entire ''Testimonium'' must have been forged by Eusebius himself, basing his argument on textual similarities between the ''Testimonium'' and Eusebius' writings in the ''Demonstrations of the Gospels''.====Three Eusebian phrases====In 2012, Josephus scholar Louis Feldman reversed his prior support for the partial authenticity of the ''Testimonium'', proposing that the passage was interpolated in its entirety by Eusebius.", "In support of this view, Feldman points out, following Olson, that the ''Testimonium'' features three phrases ('one who wrought surprising feats,' 'the tribe of the Christians,' and 'still to this day') which are used nowhere else in the whole of Greek literature except Eusebius.", "Feldman's new theory was criticized by James Carleton Paget, who accused Feldman of misreading the data and of using anachronistic criteria.Both Carleton Paget and Alice Whealey had already responded to Olson's argument, rejecting its arguments and conclusion.", "In his 2000 book Van Voorst had also argued that the word \"tribe\" is actually used by Josephus to describe other Jewish groups, while Geza Vermes argued in 2009 that the expression \"surprising feats\" (''paradoxon ergon'') is repeatedly used by Josephus in his works to describe many miracles associated with the Old Testament (such as the burning bush and the miracles of Moses and Elisha).====4th-century Christian creedal statements====In 2014, Carnegie Mellon linguistics professor Paul Hopper wrote a book chapter in which he argued that the style and narrative structure of the ''Testimonium'' is sharply in contrast with the rest of Josephus' work.", "According to Hopper, the language of the ''Testimonium'' has more in common with fourth-century Christian creedal statements than the historiographical work of first-century authors, including Josephus.", "He concluded that the most likely explanation is that the passage was simply interpolated in its entirety by a Christian scribe.The concordance of the language used in the ''Testimonium'', its flow within the text, and its length have formed components of the internal arguments against its authenticity, e.g.", "that the brief and compact character of the ''Testimonium'' stands in marked contrast to Josephus' more extensive accounts presented elsewhere in his works.", "For example, Josephus' description of the death of John the Baptist includes consideration of his virtues, the theology associated with his baptismal practices, his oratorical skills, his influence, the circumstances of his death, and the belief that the destruction of Herod's army was a divine punishment for Herod's slaughter of John.", "G. A.", "Wells has argued against the authenticity of the ''Testimonium'', stating that the passage is noticeably shorter and more cursory than such notices generally used by Josephus in the ''Antiquities'', and that had it been authentic, it would have included more details and a longer introduction.====Intrusion that breaks the narrative====A further internal argument against the ''Testimonium's'' authenticity is the context of the passage in the ''Antiquities of the Jews''.", "Some scholars argue that the passage is an intrusion into the progression of Josephus' text at the point in which it appears in the ''Antiquities'' and breaks the thread of the narrative." ], [ "\"James, the brother of Jesus\" passage", "In the ''Antiquities of the Jews'' (Book 20, Chapter 9, 1) Josephus refers to the stoning of \"James the brother of Jesus\" (James the Just) by order of Ananus ben Ananus, a Herodian-era High Priest.", "The James referred to in this passage is most likely the James to whom the ''Epistle of James'' has been attributed.", "The translations of Josephus' writing into other languages have at times included passages that are not found in the Greek texts, raising the possibility of interpolation, but this passage on James is found in all manuscripts, including the Greek texts.The context of the passage is the period following the death of Porcius Festus, and the journey to Alexandria by Lucceius Albinus, the new Roman Procurator of Judea, who held that position from AD 62 to 64.Because Albinus' journey to Alexandria had to have concluded no later than the summer of AD 62, the date of James' death can be assigned with some certainty to around that year.", "The 2nd century chronicler Hegesippus also left an account of the death of James, and while the details he provides diverge from those of Josephus, the two accounts share similar elements.Modern scholarship has almost universally acknowledged the authenticity of the reference to \"the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James\" (τὸν ἀδελφὸν Ἰησοῦ τοῦ λεγομένου Χριστοῦ, Ἰάκωβος ὄνομα αὐτῷ) and has rejected its being the result of later Christian interpolation.", "Moreover, in comparison with Hegesippus' account of James' death, most scholars consider Josephus' to be the more historically reliable.", "However, a few scholars question the authenticity of the reference, based on various arguments, but primarily based on the observation that various details in ''The Jewish War'' differ from it.===Early references=======Origen of Alexandria====In the 3rd century, Origen of Alexandria claimed in two works that Josephus had mentioned James, the brother of Jesus.", "In Origen's commentary on Matthew, he writes:In Origen's apologetic work ''Contra Celsum'', he made a similar remark:Many commentators have concluded that Origen is making reference to the \"James, the brother of Jesus\" passage found in ''Antiquities'', Book 20 here, but there are some problems with this view.", "Origen is attributing statements to Josephus that he never wrote in any of his extant works (such as the claim that the killing of James caused the destruction of the Jerusalem temple), suggesting that he is at least partially confused.====Eusebius of Caesarea====In Book II, Chapter 23.20 of his ''Church History'', Eusebius mentions Josephus' reference to the death of James.", "Eusebius attributes the following quote to Josephus: \"These things happened to the Jews to avenge James the Just, who was a brother of Jesus, that is called the Christ.", "For the Jews slew him, although he was a most just man.\"", "However, this statement does not appear in the extant manuscripts of Josephus.", "Moreover, in Book III, ch.", "11 of his ''Church History'' Eusebius states that the conquest of Jerusalem immediately followed the martyrdom of James setting the martyrdom at rather than the given by Josephus.===Arguments for authenticity===Louis Feldman states that the authenticity of the Josephus passage on James has been \"almost universally acknowledged.\"", "Feldman states that this passage, above others, indicates that Josephus did say something about Jesus.", "Feldman states that it would make no sense for Origen to show amazement that Josephus did not acknowledge Jesus as Christ (Book X, Chapter 17), if Josephus had not referred to Jesus at all.", "Paul L. Maier states that most scholars agree with Feldman's assessment that \"few have doubted the genuineness of this passage\" Zvi Baras also states that most modern scholars consider the James passage to be authentic.Gračanica, KosovoAccording to Robert E. Van Voorst the overwhelming majority of scholars consider both the reference to \"the brother of Jesus called Christ\" and the entire passage that includes it as authentic.", "Van Voorst states that the James passage fits well in the context in the ''Antiquities'' and an indication for its authenticity is the lack of the laudatory language that a Christian interpolator would have used to refer to Jesus as \"the Lord\", or a similar term.", "Van Voorst also states that the use of a neutral term \"called Christ\" which neither denies nor affirms Jesus as the Messiah points to authenticity, and indicates that Josephus used it to distinguish Jesus from the many other people called Jesus at the time, in the same way that James is distinguished, given that it was also a common name.Richard Bauckham states that although a few scholars have questioned the James passage, \"the vast majority have considered it to be authentic\", and that among the several accounts of the death of James the account in Josephus is generally considered to be historically the most reliable.", "Bauckham states that the method of killing James by stoning, and the description provided by Josephus via the assembly of the Sanhedrin of judges are consistent with the policies of the Temple authorities towards the early Christian Church at the time.Andreas Köstenberger considers the James passage to be authentic and states that the James passage attests to the existence of Jesus as a historical person, and that his followers considered him the Messiah.", "(Köstenberger pages 104–5) Köstenberger states that the statement by Josephus that some people recognized Jesus as the Messiah is consistent with the grammar of Josephus elsewhere but does not imply that Josephus himself considered Jesus the Messiah.", "(Köstenberger pages 104–5) Köstenberger concurs with John Meier that it is highly unlikely for the passage to be a Christian interpolation given that in New Testament texts James is referred to as the \"brother of the Lord\" rather than the \"brother of Jesus\", and that a Christian interpolator would have provided a more detailed account at that point.", "(Köstenberger pages 104–5)Claudia Setzer states that few have questioned the authenticity of the James passage, partly based on the observation that a Christian interpolator would have provided more praise for James.", "Setzer states that the passage indicates that Josephus, a Jewish historian writing towards the end of the first century, could use a neutral tone towards Christians, with some tones of sympathy, implying that they may be worthy of Roman protection.John Painter states that nothing in the James passage looks suspiciously like a Christian interpolation and that the account can be accepted as historical.", "(Painter pages 139–42).", "Painter discusses the role of Ananus and the background to the passage, and states that after being deposed as High Priest for killing James and being replaced by Jesus the son of Damnaeus, Ananus had maintained his influence within Jerusalem through bribery.", "(Painter page 136) Painter points out that as described in the Antiquities of the Jews (Book 20, Chapter 9, 2) Ananus was bribing both Albinus and Jesus the son of Damnaeus so that his men could take the tithes of other priests outside Jerusalem, to the point that some priests then starved to death.", "(Painter pages 139–42).", "Philip Carrington states that there is no reason to question the authenticity of the Josephus passage on James, and elaborates the background by stating that Ananus continued to remain a power within the Jewish circles at the time even after being deposed, and that it is likely that the charges brought against James by Ananus were not only because of his Christian association but because he objected to the oppressive policies against the poor; hence explaining the later indignation of the more moderate Jewish leaders.===Arguments against authenticity===Church History''A comparative argument made against the authenticity of the James passage by scholars such as Tessa Rajak is that the passage has a negative tone regarding the High Priest Ananus, presenting him as impulsive while in the ''Jewish Wars'' Josephus presents a positive view of Ananus and portrays him as prudent.A textual argument against the authenticity of the James passage is that the use of the term \"Christos\" there seems unusual for Josephus.", "An argument based on the flow of the text in the document is that given that the mention of Jesus appears in the ''Antiquities'' before that of John the Baptist, a Christian interpolator may have inserted it to place Jesus in the text before John.", "A further argument against the authenticity of the James passage is that it would have read well even without a reference to Jesus.===Differences with Christian sources===Josephus's account places the date of the death of James as AD 62.This date is supported by Jerome's 'seventh year of the Emperor Nero', although Jerome may simply be drawing this from Josephus.", "However, James's successor as leader of the Jerusalem church, Simeon, is not, in tradition, appointed till after the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70, and Eusebius's notice of Simeon implies a date for the death of James immediately before the siege, i.e.", "about AD 69.The method of death of James is not mentioned in the New Testament.", "However, the account of Josephus differs from that of later works by Hegesippus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen, and Eusebius of Caesarea in that it simply has James stoned while the others have other variations such as having James thrown from the top of the Temple, stoned, and finally beaten to death by a fuller as well as his death occurring during the siege of Jerusalem in AD 69.Herod Antipas from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493John Painter states that the relationship of the death of James to the siege is an important theologoumenon in the early church.", "On the basis of the Gospel accounts it was concluded that the fate of the city was determined by the death there of Jesus.", "To account for the 35 year difference, Painter states that the city was preserved temporarily by the presence within it of a 'just man' (see also Sodom); who was identified with James, as confirmed by Origen.", "Hence Painter states that the killing of James restarted the clock that led to the destruction of the city and that the traditional dating of AD 69 simply arose from an over-literal application of the theologoumenon, and is not to be regarded as founded on a historical source.", "The difference between Josephus and the Christian accounts of the death of James is seen as an indication that the Josephus passage is not a Christian interpolation by scholars such as Eddy, Boyd, and Kostenberger.", "Géza Vermes states that compared to the Christian accounts: \"the sober picture of Josephus appears all the more believable\".", "G. A.", "Wells, on the other hand, has stated that in view of Origen's statements these variations from the Christian accounts may be signs of interpolation in the James passage." ], [ "John the Baptist passage", "In the ''Antiquities of the Jews'' (Book 18, Chapter 5, 2) Josephus refers to the imprisonment and death of John the Baptist by order of Herod Antipas, the ruler of Galilee and Perea.", "The context of this reference is the AD 36 defeat of Herod Antipas in his conflict with Aretas IV of Nabatea, which the Jews of the time attributed to misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution of John.Almost all modern scholars consider this passage to be authentic in its entirety, although a small number of authors have questioned it.", "Because the death of John also appears prominently in the Christian gospels, this passage is considered an important connection between the events Josephus recorded, the chronology of the gospels and the dates for the ministry of Jesus.", "A few scholars have questioned the passage, contending that the absence of Christian tampering or interpolation does not itself prove authenticity.", "While this passage is the only reference to John the Baptist outside the New Testament, it is widely seen by most scholars as confirming the historicity of the baptisms that John performed.", "According to Marsh, any contrast between Josephus and the Gospel's accounts of John would be because the former lacked interest in the messianic element of John's mission.===Arguments for authenticity===John the Baptist in prison, by Hafner, 1750.Craig Evans states that almost all modern scholars consider the Josephus passage on John to be authentic in its entirety, and that what Josephus states about John fits well both with the general depiction of John in the New Testament and within the historical context of the activities of other men, their preachings and their promises during that period.Louis Feldman, who believes the Josephus passage on John is authentic, states that Christian interpolators would have been very unlikely to have devoted almost twice as much space to John (163 words) as to Jesus (89 words).", "Feldman also states that a Christian interpolator would have likely altered Josephus's passage about John the Baptist to make the circumstances of the death of John become similar to the New Testament, and to indicate that John was a forerunner of Jesus.James Dunn states that the accounts of Josephus and the New Testament regarding John the Baptist are closer than they may appear at a first reading.", "Dunn states that Josephus positions John as a righteous preacher (''dikaiosyne'') who encourages his followers to practice \"righteousness towards one another, and piety towards God\" and that Mark 6:20 similarly calls John \"a righteous (''dikaios'') and holy man\".", "Dunn states that Antipas likely saw John as a figure whose ascetic lifestyle and calls for moral reform could provoke a popular uprising on moral grounds, as both Josephus and the New Testament suggest.Justin Meggitt states that there are fundamental similarities between the Josephus' portrayal of John the Baptist and the New Testament narrative in that in both accounts John is positioned as a preacher of morality, not as someone who had challenged the political authority of Herod Antipas.", "W. E. Nunnally states that the John passage is considered authentic and that Josephus' emphasis on the egalitarian nature of John's teachings fit well into the biblical and historical traditions.In Origen's apologetic work ''Contra Celsum'', made an explicit reference to the Josephus passage discussing John the Baptist:Here, Origen provides a clear, unambiguous indication that the passage concerning John the Baptist existed in his early manuscript of ''Antiquities of the Jews''.", "This implies that the John the Baptist passage would have had to have been interpolated into the ''Antiquities'' at quite an early date, before the time of Origen, if it is inauthentic.In Eusebius of Caesarea's 4th-century work ''Church History'' (Book I, Chapter XI), Eusebius also discusses the Josephus reference to Herod Antipas's killing of John the Baptist, and mentions the marriage to Herodias in paragraphs 1 to 6.===Arguments against authenticity===Rivka Nir argues that the kind of baptism performed by John the Baptist was not considered legitimate in the mainstream Jewish circles to which Josephus belonged, and therefore Josephus could not have described John as positively as he is in ''Antiquities'', Book 18.Nir therefore concludes that the passage is likely a Christian interpolation.", "Joel Marcus states that Nir's argument is based on an outdated notion of \"mainstream Judaism\" which fails to consider the essential diversity of Second Temple Judaism during this period.Claire Rothschild has stated that the absence of Christian interpolations in the Josephus passage on John the Baptist can not by itself be used as an argument for its authenticity, but is merely an indication of the lack of tampering.===Differences with Christian sources===The marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias is mentioned both in Josephus and in the gospels, and scholars consider Josephus as a key connection in establishing the approximate chronology of specific episodes related to John the Baptist.", "However, although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details and motives, e.g.", "whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias (as indicated in Matthew 14:4, Mark 6:18), or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage to quell a possible uprising based on the remarks of John, as Josephus suggests in Antiquities 18.5.2.Jean Daniélou contends that Josephus missed the religious meaning while recording only the political aspect of the conflict between Herod and John, which led to the latter's death.While Josephus identifies the location of the imprisonment of John as Machaerus, southeast of the mouth of the Jordan river, the gospels mention no location for the place where John was imprisoned.", "According to other historical accounts Machaerus was rebuilt by Herod the Great around 30 BC and then passed to Herod Antipas.", "The AD 36 date of the conflict with Aretas IV (mentioned by Josephus) is consistent with the approximate date of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias estimated by other historical methods.Louis Feldman has stated that there is \"no necessary contradiction between Josephus and the gospels as to the reason why John was put to death\" in that the Christians chose to emphasize the moral charges while Josephus emphasized the political fears that John stirred in Herod.Josephus stated (Antiquities 18.5.2) that the AD 36 defeat of Herod Antipas in the conflicts with Aretas IV of Nabatea was widely considered by the Jews of the time as misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution of John the Baptist.", "The approximate dates presented by Josephus are in concordance with other historical records, and most scholars view the variation between the motive presented by Josephus and the New Testament accounts is seen as an indication that the Josephus passage is not a Christian interpolation." ], [ "The three passages in relation to ''The Jewish Wars''", "A 15th-century copy of ''The Jewish War'' in ItalianLouis Feldman states that it is significant that the passages on James and John are found in the ''Antiquities'' and not in the ''Jewish Wars'', but provides three explanations for their absence from the ''Jewish Wars''.", "One explanation is that the ''Antiquities'' covers the time period involved at a greater length than the ''Jewish Wars''.", "The second explanation is that during the gap between the writing of the ''Jewish Wars'' () and ''Antiquities'' (after AD 90) Christians had become more important in Rome and were hence given attention in the ''Antiquities''.", "Another explanation is that the passages were added to the ''Antiquities'' to highlight the power of the Pharisees, but he considers the last explanation less likely than the others.One of the arguments against the authenticity of the James passage has been that in the ''Jewish Wars'' Josephus portrays the High Priest Ananus in a positive manner, while in the ''Antiquities'' he writes of Ananus in a negative tone.", "Louis Feldman rejects these arguments against the authenticity of the James passage and states that in several other unrelated cases the ''Jewish Wars'' also differs from the ''Antiquities'', and that an interpolator would have made the two accounts correspond more closely to each other, not make them differ.The twenty-year gap between the writing of the ''Jewish Wars'' and the ''Antiquities'' has also been used to explain some of the differences in tone between them.", "Clemens Thoma provides an explanation for this based on the observation that Josephus may have learned of the details of the actions of Ananus in the twenty-year gap between the writing of the Jewish Wars and the Antiquities, and thus avoided a positive tone when writing of Ananus in the ''Antiquities''.John Painter states that the difference in the context for the ''Jewish Wars'' and the ''Antiquities'' may also account for some of the differences in tone between them, e.g.", "when writing of Ananus in a positive tone in the ''Jewish Wars'' the context was Ananus' prudence in avoiding a war and hence Josephus considered that a positive aspect.", "However, when writing in the ''Antiquities'' about the actions of Ananus which resulted in his demotion from the High Priesthood, the context required the manifestation of a negative aspect of Ananus' character." ], [ "See also", "* Caesar's Messiah* Christianity in the 1st century* Historicity of Jesus* History of early Christianity* Mara bar Serapion on Jesus* Roman Judaea* Sources for the historicity of Jesus* Tacitus on Jesus" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===***********************************************************" ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "July 28" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1364 – Troops of the Republic of Pisa and the Republic of Florence clash in the Battle of Cascina.", "1540 – Henry VIII of England marries his fifth wife, Catherine Howard.", "1571 – La Laguna encomienda, known today as the Laguna province in the Philippines, is founded by the Spaniards as one of the oldest encomiendas (provinces) in the country.===1601–1900===1635 – In the Eighty Years' War, the Spanish capture the strategic Dutch fortress of Schenkenschans.", "1656 – Second Northern War: Battle of Warsaw begins.", "1778 – Constitution of the province of Cantabria ratified at the Assembly Hall in Bárcena la Puente, Reocín, Spain.", "1794 – French Revolution: Maximilien Robespierre and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just are executed by guillotine in Paris, France.", "1808 – Mahmud II became Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and Caliph of Islam.", "1809 – Peninsular War: Battle of Talavera: Sir Arthur Wellesley's British, Portuguese and Spanish army defeats a French force led by Joseph Bonaparte.", "1821 – José de San Martín declares the independence of Peru from Spain.", "1854 – , the last all-sail warship built by the United States Navy and now a museum ship in Baltimore Harbor, is commissioned.", "1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Ezra Church: Confederate troops make a third unsuccessful attempt to drive Union forces from Atlanta, Georgia.", "1866 – At the age of 18, Vinnie Ream becomes the first and youngest female artist to receive a commission from the United States government for a statue (of Abraham Lincoln).", "1868 – The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution is certified, establishing African American citizenship and guaranteeing due process of law.", "1883 – A moderate earthquake measuring magnitude 4.3–5.2 strikes the Italian island of Ischia, killing over 2,300 people.", "1896 – The city of Miami is incorporated.===1901–present===1911 – The Australasian Antarctic Expedition began as the SY ''Aurora'' departed London.", "1914 – In the culmination of the July Crisis, Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia, igniting World War I.", "1915 – The United States begins a 19-year occupation of Haiti.", "1917 – The Silent Parade takes place in New York City, in protest against murders, lynchings, and other violence directed towards African Americans.", "1932 – U.S. President Herbert Hoover orders the United States Army to forcibly evict the \"Bonus Army\" of World War I veterans gathered in Washington, D.C.1935 – First flight of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress.", "1938 – ''Hawaii Clipper'' disappears between Guam and Manila as the first loss of an airliner in trans-Pacific ''China Clipper'' service.", "1939 – The Sutton Hoo helmet is discovered.", "1942 – World War II: Soviet leader Joseph Stalin issues Order No.", "227.In response to alarming German advances, all those who retreat or otherwise leave their positions without orders to do so are to be tried in a military court, with punishment ranging from duty in a shtrafbat battalion, imprisonment in a Gulag, or execution.", "1943 – World War II: Operation Gomorrah: The Royal Air Force bombs Hamburg, Germany causing a firestorm that kills 42,000 German civilians.", "1945 – A U.S. Army B-25 bomber crashes into the 79th floor of the Empire State Building killing 14 and injuring 26.", "1957 – Heavy rain and a mudslide in Isahaya, western Kyushu, Japan, kills 992.", "1960 – The German Volkswagen Act comes into force.", "1962 – Beginning of the 8th World Festival of Youth and Students1965 – Vietnam War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson announces his order to increase the number of United States troops in South Vietnam from 75,000 to 125,000.", "1973 – Summer Jam at Watkins Glen: Nearly 600,000 people attend a rock festival at the Watkins Glen International Raceway.", "1974 – Spetsgruppa A, Russia's elite special force, was formed.", "1976 – The Tangshan earthquake measuring between 7.8 and 8.2 moment magnitude flattens Tangshan in the People's Republic of China, killing 242,769 and injuring 164,851.", "1984 – Olympic Games: Games of the XXIII Olympiad: The summer Olympics were opened in Los Angeles.", "1996 – The remains of a prehistoric man are discovered near Kennewick, Washington.", "Such remains will be known as the Kennewick Man.", "2001 – Australian Ian Thorpe becomes the first swimmer to win six gold medals at a single World Championship meeting.", "2002 – Nine coal miners trapped in the flooded Quecreek Mine in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, are rescued after 77 hours underground.", "* 2002 – Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 9560 crashes after takeoff from Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow, Russia, killing 14 of the 16 people on board.", "2005 – The Provisional Irish Republican Army calls an end to its thirty-year-long armed campaign against British rule in Northern Ireland.", "2010 – Airblue Flight 202 crashes into the Margalla Hills north of Islamabad, Pakistan, killing all 152 people aboard.", "It is the deadliest aviation accident in Pakistan history and the first involving an Airbus A321.", "2011 – While flying from Seoul, South Korea to Shanghai, China, Asiana Airlines Flight 991 develops an in-flight fire in the cargo hold.", "The Boeing 747-400F freighter attempts to divert to Jeju International Airport, but crashes into the sea South-West of Jeju island, killing both crew members on board.", "2017 – Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif was disqualified from office for life by Supreme Court of Pakistan after finding him guilty of corruption charges.", "2018 – Australian Wendy Tuck becomes the first female skipper to win the Clipper Round the World Yacht Race." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1347 – Margaret of Durazzo, Queen of Naples and Hungary (d. 1412)1458 – Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet, humanist and epigrammist (d. 1530)1516 – William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, German nobleman (d. 1592)===1601–1900===1609 – Judith Leyster, Dutch painter (d. 1660)1645 – Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, French princess (d. 1721)1659 – Charles Ancillon, French jurist and diplomat (d. 1715)1746 – Thomas Heyward, Jr., American judge and politician (d. 1809)1750 – Fabre d'Églantine, French actor, playwright, and politician (d. 1794)1783 – Friedrich Wilhelm von Bismarck, German army officer and writer (d. 1860)1796 – Ignaz Bösendorfer, Austrian businessman, founded the Bösendorfer Company (d. 1859)1804 – Ludwig Feuerbach, German anthropologist and philosopher (d. 1872)1815 – Stefan Dunjov, Bulgarian colonel (d. 1889)1844 – Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet (d. 1889)1849 – James Edson White, American author and publisher, second son of Ellen G. White and James S. White1857 – Ballington Booth, English-American activist, co-founded Volunteers of America (d. 1940)1860 – Elias M. Ammons, American businessman and politician, 19th Governor of Colorado (d. 1925) 1860 – Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia (d. 1922)1863 – Huseyn Khan Nakhchivanski, Russian general (d. 1919)1866 – Beatrix Potter, English children's book writer and illustrator (d. 1943)* 1866 – Albertson Van Zo Post, American fencer (d. 1938)1867 – Charles Dillon Perrine, American-Argentinian astronomer (d. 1951)1872 – Albert Sarraut, French journalist and politician, 106th Prime Minister of France (d. 1962)1874 – Ernst Cassirer, Polish-American philosopher and academic (d. 1945)1879 – Lucy Burns, American activist, co-founded the National Woman's Party (d. 1966)* 1879 – Stefan Filipkiewicz, Polish painter (d. 1944)1887 – Marcel Duchamp, French-American painter and sculptor (d. 1968) 1887 – Willard Price, Canadian-American journalist and author (d. 1983)1893 – Rued Langgaard, Danish organist and composer (d. 1952)1896 – Barbara La Marr, American actress and screenwriter (d. 1926)1898 – Lawrence Gray, American actor (d. 1970)===1901–present===1901 – Freddie Fitzsimmons, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1979)* 1901 – Rudy Vallée, American actor, singer, and saxophonist (d. 1986)1902 – Albert Namatjira, Australian painter (d. 1959) 1902 – Sir Karl Popper, Austrian-English philosopher and academic (d. 1994)1907 – Earl Tupper, American inventor and businessman, founded Tupperware Brands (d. 1983)1909 – Aenne Burda, German publisher (d. 2005)* 1909 – Malcolm Lowry, English novelist and poet (d. 1957)1914 – Carmen Dragon, American conductor and composer (d. 1984)1915 – Charles Hard Townes, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)* 1915 – Dick Sprang, American illustrator (d. 2000)* 1915 – Frankie Yankovic, American polka musician (d. 1998)1916 – David Brown, American journalist and producer (d. 2010)1920 – Andrew V. McLaglen, English-American director and producer (d. 2014)1922 – Jacques Piccard, Belgian-Swiss oceanographer and engineer (d. 2008)1923 – Ray Ellis, American conductor and producer (d. 2008)1924 – Luigi Musso, Italian racing driver (d. 1958) 1924 – C. T. Vivian, American minister, author, and activist (d. 2020)1925 – Baruch Samuel Blumberg, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)1926 – Charlie Biddle, American-Canadian bassist (d. 2003)1927 – John Ashbery, American poet (d. 2017)1929 – Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, American journalist and socialite, 37th First Lady of the United States (d. 1994)* 1929 – Shirley Ann Grau, American novelist and short story writer (d. 2020)1930 – Firoza Begum, Bangladeshi singer (d. 2014) 1930 – Junior Kimbrough, American singer and guitarist (d. 1998)* 1930 – Jean Roba, Belgian author and illustrator (d. 2006)* 1930 – Ramsey Muir Withers, Canadian general (d. 2014)1931 – Alan Brownjohn, English poet and author 1931 – Johnny Martin, Australian cricketer (d. 1992)1932 – Natalie Babbitt, American author and illustrator (d. 2016) 1932 – Carlos Alberto Brilhante Ustra, Brazilian colonel (d. 2015)1933 – Charlie Hodge, Canadian ice hockey player and scout (d. 2016)1934 – Jacques d'Amboise, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2021)1935 – Neil McKendrick, English historian and academic1936 – Russ Jackson, Canadian football player and coach* 1936 – Garfield Sobers, Barbadian cricketer1937 – Francis Veber, French director and screenwriter1938 – Luis Aragonés, Spanish footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2014)* 1938 – Arsen Dedić, Croatian singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2015)* 1938 – Alberto Fujimori, Peruvian engineer, academic, and politician, 90th President of Peru* 1938 – Chuan Leekpai, Thai lawyer and politician, 20th Prime Minister of Thailand1941 – Bill Crider, American author (d. 2018) 1941 – Riccardo Muti, Italian conductor and educator* 1941 – Susan Roces, Filipino actress and producer (d. 2022)1942 – Tonia Marketaki, Greek director and screenwriter (d. 1994) 1942 – John Sattler, Australian rugby league player (d. 2023)1943 – Mike Bloomfield, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 1981) 1943 – Bill Bradley, American basketball player and politician* 1943 – Richard Wright, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player (d. 2008)1945 – Jim Davis, American cartoonist, created ''Garfield''1946 – Jonathan Edwards, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1946 – Linda Kelsey, American actress* 1946 – Fahmida Riaz, Pakistani poet and activist (d. 2018)1947 – Peter Cosgrove, Australian general and politician, 26th Governor General of Australia 1947 – Sally Struthers, American actress 1948 – Gerald Casale, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and director 1948 – Eiichi Ohtaki, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)1949 – Vida Blue, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2023) 1949 – Randall Wallace, American screenwriter and producer1950 – Shahyar Ghanbari, Iranian singer-songwriter 1950 – Tapley Seaton, Kittitian politician, 4th Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis (d. 2023)1951 – Santiago Calatrava, Spanish architect and engineer, designed the Athens Olympic Sports Complex 1951 – Doug Collins, American basketball player and coach* 1951 – Gregg Giuffria, American rock musician and businessman * 1951 – Ray Kennedy, English footballer (d. 2021)1952 – Glenn A. Baker, Australian journalist and author 1952 – Vajiralongkorn, King of Thailand1954 – Hugo Chávez, Venezuelan colonel and politician, President of Venezuela (d. 2013) 1954 – Gerd Faltings, German mathematician and academic* 1954 – Steve Morse, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1954 – Mikey Sheehy, Irish footballer1956 – John Feinstein, American journalist and author 1956 – Robert Swan, English explorer1958 – Terry Fox, Canadian runner and activist (d. 1981) 1958 – Michael Hitchcock, American actor, producer, and screenwriter1959 – William T. Vollmann, American novelist, short story writer and journalist1960 – Luiz Fernando Carvalho, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1960 – Jon J. Muth, American author and illustrator* 1960 – Yōichi Takahashi, Japanese illustrator1961 – Yannick Dalmas, French racing driver1962 – Rachel Sweet, American singer, television writer, and actress1964 – Lori Loughlin, American actress1965 – Priscilla Chan, Hong Kong singer1966 – Sossina M. Haile, Ethiopian American chemist 1966 – Miguel Ángel Nadal, Spanish footballer * 1966 – Jimmy Pardo, American stand-up comedian, actor, and host* 1966 – Shikao Suga, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist1967 – Taka Hirose, Japanese bass player 1969 – Alexis Arquette, American actress (d. 2016)* 1969 – Garth Snow, American ice hockey player and manager* 1969 – Dana White, American businessman, president of the Ultimate Fighting Championship1970 – Michael Amott, Swedish guitarist and songwriter 1970 – Isabelle Brasseur, Canadian figure skater* 1970 – Paul Strang, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach1971 – Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, Iraqi leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (d. 2019) 1971 – Ludmilla Lacueva Canut, Andorran writer* 1971 – Stephen Lynch, American singer-songwriter and actor* 1971 – Annie Perreault, Canadian speed skater1972 – Robert Chapman, English cricketer1973 – Marc Dupré, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1973 – Steve Staios, Canadian ice hockey player1974 – Afroman, American rapper and comedian 1974 – Elizabeth Berkley, American actress* 1974 – Alexis Tsipras, Greek engineer and politician, 186th Prime Minister of Greece1975 – Leonor Watling, Spanish actress 1976 – Jacoby Shaddix, American singer-songwriter 1977 – Aki Berg, Finnish-Canadian ice hockey player 1977 – Manu Ginóbili, Argentinian basketball player* 1977 – Miyabiyama Tetsushi, Japanese sumo wrestler1978 – Kārlis Vērdiņš, Latvian poet 1978 – Hitomi Yaida, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist 1979 – Henrik Hansen, Danish footballer 1979 – Birgitta Haukdal, Icelandic singer-songwriter and producer * 1979 – Lee Min-woo, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer* 1979 – Alena Popchanka, Belarusian-French swimmer and coach1981 – Michael Carrick, English footballer and coach1982 – Cain Velasquez, Mexican-American mixed martial artist and wrestler1983 – Sam Dastyari, Iranian-Australian politician 1983 – Cody Hay, Canadian figure skater* 1983 – Ilir Latifi, Swedish-Kosovar mixed martial artist1984 – Zach Parise, American ice hockey player 1984 – John David Washington, American actor and football player1985 – Mathieu Debuchy, French footballer 1985 – Dustin Milligan, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter1986 – Alexandra Chando, American actress 1986 – Lauri Korpikoski, Finnish ice hockey player1987 – Yevhen Khacheridi, Ukrainian-Greek footballer 1987 – Pedro, Spanish footballer1990 – Soulja Boy, American rapper, producer, and actor 1990 – Simone Pizzuti, Italian footballer1992 – Spencer Boldman, American actor1993 – Harry Kane, English footballer* 1993 – Cher Lloyd, English singer1994 – Choi Hyo-jung, South Korean singer1996 – Harriet Dart, British tennis player 2000 – Emile Smith Rowe, English footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 450 – Theodosius II, Roman emperor (b.", "401)* 631 – Athanasius I Gammolo, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch.", "* 938 – Thankmar, half-brother of Otto I (during Siege of Eresburg) (b. c. 908)* 942 – Shi Jingtang, emperor of Later Jin (b.", "892)1057 – Victor II, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "1018)1128 – William Clito, English son of Sybilla of Conversano (b.", "1102)1230 – Leopold VI, Duke of Austria (b.", "1176)1271 – Walter de Burgh, 1st Earl of Ulster (b.", "1220)1285 – Keran, Queen of Armenia ( b. before 1262)1333 – Guy VIII of Viennois, Dauphin of Vienne (b.", "1309)1345 – Sancia of Majorca, queen regent of Naples (b. c. 1285)1458 – John II, king of Cyprus and Armenia (b.", "1418)1488 – Edward Woodville, Lord Scales (at the Battle of St. Aubin-du-Cormier)1508 – Robert Blackadder, bishop of Glasgow1527 – Rodrigo de Bastidas, Spanish explorer, founded the city of Santa Marta (b.", "1460)1540 – Thomas Cromwell, English lawyer and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b.", "1495)1585 – Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford (b.", "1527)===1601–1900===1631 – Guillén de Castro y Bellvis, Spanish playwright (b.", "1569)1655 – Cyrano de Bergerac, French poet and playwright (b.", "1619)1667 – Abraham Cowley, English poet and author (b.", "1618)1675 – Bulstrode Whitelocke, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1605)1685 – Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington, English politician and diplomat, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b.", "1618)1718 – Étienne Baluze, French scholar and academic (b.", "1630)1741 – Antonio Vivaldi, Italian violinist and composer (b.", "1678)1750 – Johann Sebastian Bach, German organist and composer (b.", "1685)1762 – George Dodington, 1st Baron Melcombe, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Somerset (b.", "1691)1794 – Maximilien Robespierre, French politician, (b.", "1758) 1794 – Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, French soldier and politician (b.", "1767)1808 – Selim III, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1761)1809 – Richard Beckett, English cricketer and captain (b.", "1772)1818 – Gaspard Monge, French mathematician and engineer (b.", "1746)1835 – Édouard Mortier, duc de Trévise, French general and politician, 15th Prime Minister of France (b.", "1768)1836 – Nathan Mayer Rothschild, German-English banker and financier (b.", "1777)1838 – Bernhard Crusell, Finnish composer (b.", "1775)1842 – Clemens Brentano, German author and poet (b.", "1778)1844 – Joseph Bonaparte, French diplomat and brother of Napoleon (b.", "1768)1849 – Charles Albert of Sardinia (b.", "1798)1869 – Jan Evangelista Purkyně, Czech anatomist and physiologist (b.", "1787)1878 – George Law Curry, American publisher and politician (b.", "1820)1885 – Moses Montefiore, British philanthropist, sheriff and banker (b.", "1784)1895 – Edward Beecher, American minister and theologian (b.", "1803)===1901–present===1928 – Édouard-Henri Avril, French painter (b.", "1849)1930 – John DeWitt, American hammer thrower (b.", "1881) 1930 – Allvar Gullstrand, Swedish ophthalmologist and optician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1862)1933 – Nishinoumi Kajirō III, Japanese sumo wrestler, 30th yokozuna (b.", "1890)1934 – Marie Dressler, Canadian-American actress and singer (b.", "1868)* 1934 – Louis Tancred, South African cricketer and pilot (b.", "1876)1935 – Meletius IV of Constantinople (b.", "1871)1942 – Flinders Petrie, English archaeologist and academic (b.", "1853)1946 – Saint Alphonsa, first woman of Indian origin to be canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church (b.", "1910)1957 – Edith Abbott, American economist, social worker, and educator (b.", "1876)* 1957 – Isaac Heinemann, German-Israeli scholar and academic (b.", "1876)1963 – Carl Borgward, German engineer, founder of Borgward Group1965 – Edogawa Ranpo, Japanese author and critic (b.", "1894)* 1965 – Attallah Suheimat, Jordanian politician (b.", "1875)1967 – Karl W. Richter, American lieutenant and pilot (b.", "1942)1968 – Otto Hahn, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1879)1969 – Ramón Grau, Cuban physician and politician, 6th President of Cuba (b.", "1882) 1969 – Frank Loesser, American composer (b.", "1910)1971 – Lawrence Moore Cosgrave, Canadian colonel and diplomat (b.", "1890) 1971 – Myril Hoag, American baseball player (b.", "1908)* 1971 – Charles E. Pont, French-American minister and painter (b.", "1898)1972 – Helen Traubel, American soprano and actress (b.", "1903)1976 – Maggie Gripenberg, Finnish dancer and choreographer (b.", "1881)1979 – Don Miller, American football player and coach (b.", "1902) 1979 – Charles Shadwell, English conductor and bandleader (b.", "1898)1980 – Rose Rand, Austrian-born American logician and philosopher (b.", "1903)1981 – Stanley Rother, American priest and missionary (b.", "1935)1982 – Keith Green, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1953)1987 – Jack Renshaw, Australian politician, 31st Premier of New South Wales (b.", "1909)1990 – Jill Esmond, English actress (b.", "1908)1992 – Sulev Nõmmik, Estonian actor and director (b.", "1931)1993 – Stanley Woods, Irish motorcycle racer (b.", "1903)1996 – Roger Tory Peterson, American ornithologist and academic (b.", "1908)1997 – Rosalie Crutchley, English actress (b.", "1920) 1997 – Seni Pramoj, Thai lawyer and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Thailand (b.", "1905)1998 – Zbigniew Herbert, Polish poet and author (b.", "1924) 1998 – Lenny McLean, English boxer, actor, and author (b.", "1949)* 1998 – Consalvo Sanesi, Italian racing driver (b.", "1911)1999 – Trygve Haavelmo, Norwegian economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1911)2000 – Abraham Pais, Dutch-American physicist and historian (b.", "1918)2001 – Ahmed Sofa, Bangladeshi poet, author, and critic (b.", "1943)2002 – Archer John Porter Martin, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1910)2003 – Valerie Goulding, Irish activist and politician (b.", "1918)2004 – Francis Crick, English biologist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1916)* 2004 – Tiziano Terzani, Italian journalist and author (b.", "1938)2006 – David Gemmell, English author (b.", "1948)2007 – Karl Gotch, Belgian-American wrestler and trainer (b.", "1924)* 2007 – Jim LeRoy, American soldier and pilot (b.", "1961)2009 – Jim Johnson, American football player and coach (b.", "1941)2011 – Abdul Fatah Younis, Libyan general (b.", "1944)2012 – Colin Horsley, New Zealand-English pianist and educator (b.", "1920) 2012 – Sepp Mayerl, Austrian mountaineer (b.", "1937)* 2012 – William F. Milliken Jr., American race car driver and engineer (b.", "1911)2013 – Mustafa Adrisi, Ugandan general and politician, 3rd Vice President of Uganda (b.", "1922) 2013 – Eileen Brennan, American actress and singer (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Rita Reys, Dutch jazz singer (b.", "1924)* 2013 – William Scranton, American captain and politician, 13th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b.", "1917)* 2013 – Ersilio Tonini, Italian cardinal (b.", "1914)2014 – Alex Forbes, Scottish footballer and manager (b.", "1925) 2014 – Alakbar Mammadov, Azerbaijani footballer and manager (b.", "1930)2015 – Jan Kulczyk, Polish businessman (b.", "1950) 2015 – Edward Natapei, Vanuatuan politician, 6th Prime Minister of Vanuatu (b.", "1954)* 2015 – Clive Rice, South African cricketer and coach (b.", "1949)2016 – Émile Derlin Zinsou, Beninese politician (b.", "1918) 2016 – Mahasweta Devi, Indian Bengali fiction writer and socio-political activist (b.", "1926)2018 – Wanny van Gils, Dutch footballer (b.", "1959)2020 – Junrey Balawing, Filipino record holder (b.", "1993)2021 – Dusty Hill, American musician (b.", "1949)2022 – Bernard Cribbins, British actor (b.", "1928)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Alphonsa Muttathupadathu (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church)BotvidJohann Sebastian Bach, George Frederick Handel, Henry Purcell (Episcopal Church commemoration)Johann Sebastian Bach, Heinrich Schütz, George Frederick Handel (Lutheran commemoration)Nazarius and CelsusPedro Poveda CastroverdePope Innocent IPope Victor ISamson of DolJuly 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Day of Commemoration of the Great Upheaval (Canada)Fiestas Patrias, celebrates the independence of Peru from Spain by General José de San Martín in 1821.", "Liberation Day (San Marino)Ólavsøka Eve (Faroe Islands)World Hepatitis Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jerusalem" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerusalem''' (; '''', ; '''', , ) is an ancient city in West Asia, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea.", "It is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.", "Both Israel and Palestine claim Jerusalem as their capital; Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there, and the State of Palestine ultimately foresees it as its seat of power.", "Neither claim, however, is widely recognized internationally.Throughout its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52 times.", "The part of Jerusalem called the City of David shows first signs of settlement in the 4th millennium BCE, in the shape of encampments of nomadic shepherds.", "During the Canaanite period (14th century BCE), Jerusalem was named as ''Urusalim'' on ancient Egyptian tablets, probably meaning \"City of Shalem\" after a Canaanite deity.", "During the Israelite period, significant construction activity in Jerusalem began in the 10th century BCE (Iron Age II), and by the 9th century BCE, the city had developed into the religious and administrative centre of the Kingdom of Judah.", "In 1538, the city walls were rebuilt for a last time around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire.", "Today those walls define the Old City, which since the 19th century has been divided into four quarters – the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim quarters.", "The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger.", "Since 1860, Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries.", "In 2022, Jerusalem had a population of some 971,800 residents, of which almost 60% were Jews and almost 40% Palestinians.", "In 2020, the population was 951,100, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353,800 (37.2%), Christians 16,300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).According to the Hebrew Bible, King David conquered the city from the Jebusites and established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son, King Solomon, commissioned the building of the First Temple.", "Modern scholars argue that Jews branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centred on El/Yahweh.", "These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, assumed central symbolic importance for the Jewish people.", "The sobriquet of holy city () was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times.", "The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which Christians adopted as their own \"Old Testament\", was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection there.", "In Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina.", "The city was the first qibla, the standard direction for Muslim prayers (salah), and in Islamic tradition, Muhammad made his Night Journey there in 621, ascending to heaven where he speaks to God, according to the Quran.", "As a result, despite having an area of only , the Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance, among them the Temple Mount with its Western Wall, Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.At present, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.", "During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas incorporated into Israel, while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was occupied and annexed by Jordan.", "Israel occupied East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into the city's municipality, together with additional surrounding territory.", "One of Israel's Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the country's undivided capital.", "All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister (Beit Aghion) and President (Beit HaNassi), and the Supreme Court.", "The international community rejects the annexation as illegal and regards East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory occupied by Israel." ], [ "Etymology and names", "===Etymology===The name \"Jerusalem\" is variously etymologized to mean \"foundation (Semitic ''yry''' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god Shalem\"; the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for \"peace\" is derived (''Shalom'' in Hebrew, cognate with Arabic ''Salam'').", "The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as \"The City of Peace\", \"Abode of Peace\", \"Dwelling of Peace\" (\"founded in safety\"), or \"Vision of Peace\" in some Christian authors.The ending ''-ayim'' indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name ''Yerushalayim'' refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.===Ancient Egyptian sources===The Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called ''rwšꜣlmm'' or ''ꜣwšꜣmm'', variously transcribed as ''Rušalimum'', or ''Urušalimum'', may indicate Jerusalem.", "Alternatively, the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE), which reference an ''Úrušalim'', may be the earliest mention of the city.===Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources===The form ''Yerushalem'' or ''Yerushalayim'' first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua.", "According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, ''Yireh'' (\"the abiding place\", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and ''Shalem'' (\"Place of Peace\", the name given by high priest Shem).===Oldest written mention of ''Jerusalem''===One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word ''Jerusalem'' is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961.The inscription states: \"I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem\", or as other scholars suggest: \"Yahweh is the God of the whole earth.", "The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem\".", "An older example on papyrus is known from the previous century.Khirbet Beit Lei inscription, showing the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word ''Jerusalem'', dated to the seventh or sixth century BCEIn extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the ''-ayim'' ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.===Jebus, Zion, City of David===An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, named Jebus.", "Called the \"Fortress of Zion\" (''metsudat Zion''), it was renamed as the \"City of David\", and was known by this name in antiquity.", "Another name, \"Zion\", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical Land of Israel.===Greek, Roman and Byzantine names===In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated ''Hierosolyma'' (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek ''hieròs'', ''ἱερός'', means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.===Salem===The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier \"Salem\" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14.Other early Hebrew sources, early Christian renderings of the verse and ''targumim'', however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing.", "Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans.", "However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.===Arabic names===In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as , transliterated as ''al-Quds'' and meaning \"the holy\" or \"the holy sanctuary\", cognate with .", "The name is possibly a shortened form of ''Madīnat al-Quds'' \"city of the holy sanctuary\" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, ''Ir ha-Qodesh'' ().", "The (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic.", "Official Israeli government policy mandates that , transliterated as ''Ūrušalīm'', which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic, be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with , giving , Ūrušalīm-al-Quds.", "Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called \"''Qudsi''\" () or \"''Maqdasi''\" (), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym." ], [ "History", "Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and Palestinian nationalism, the selectivity required to summarize some 5,000 years of inhabited history is often influenced by ideological bias or background.", "Israeli or Jewish nationalists claim a right to the city based on Jewish indigeneity to the land, particularly their origins in and descent from the Israelites, for whom Jerusalem is their capital, and their yearning for return.", "In contrast, Palestinian nationalists claim the right to the city based on modern Palestinians' longstanding presence and descent from many different peoples who have settled or lived in the region over the centuries.", "Both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city, and that this is borne out by the different focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history.===Overview of Jerusalem's historical periods (by rulers)======Prehistory===The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of flints dated to between 6000 and 7000 years ago, with ceramic remains appearing during the Chalcolithic period, and the first signs of permanent settlement appearing in the Early Bronze Age in 3000–2800 BCE.===Bronze and Iron Ages===Stepped Stone Structure from the Bronze Age and Iron Age on the southeastern slope of old JerusalemThe earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the Mid to Late Bronze Age and could date to around the 18th century BCE.", "By around 1550–1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state, a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king Abdi-Heba.", "At the time of Seti I (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased.", "The city's inhabitants at this time were Canaanites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved into the Israelites via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system.The Siloam Inscription, written in Biblical Hebrew, commemorates the construction of the Siloam tunnel (c. 700 BCE)Archaeological remains from the ancient Israelite period include the Siloam Tunnel, an aqueduct built by Judahite king Hezekiah and once containing an ancient Hebrew inscription, known as the Siloam Inscription; the so-called Broad Wall, a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE, also by Hezekiah; the Silwan necropolis (9th–7th c. BCE) with the Monolith of Silwan and the Tomb of the Royal Steward, which were decorated with monumental Hebrew inscriptions; and the so-called Israelite Tower, remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones.", "A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near Robinson's Arch, indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the Kingdom of Judah.When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom.", "When Hezekiah ruled, Jerusalem had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including Solomon's Temple.", "The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were exiled to Babylon.", "These events mark the end of the First Temple period.==== Biblical account ====This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to Joshua's invasion, but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.Modern-day reconstruction of Jerusalem during the reign of Solomon (10th century BCE).", "Solomon's Temple appears on top.In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin though still inhabited by Jebusites.", "David is said to have conquered these in the siege of Jebus, and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem which then became the capital of a United Kingdom of Israel, and one of its several religious centres.", "The choice was perhaps dictated by the fact that Jerusalem did not form part of Israel's tribal system, and was thus suited to serve as the centre of its confederation.", "Opinion is divided over whether the so-called Large Stone Structure and the nearby Stepped Stone Structure may be identified with King David's palace, or dates to a later period.According to the Bible, King David reigned for 40 years and was succeeded by his son Solomon, who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah.", "Solomon's Temple (later known as the ''First Temple''), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish religion as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant.", "On Solomon's death, ten of the northern tribes of Israel broke with the United Monarchy to form their own nation, with its kings, prophets, priests, traditions relating to religion, capitals and temples in northern Israel.", "The southern tribes, together with the Aaronid priesthood, remained in Jerusalem, with the city becoming the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.===Classical antiquity======= Second Temple period ====In 538 BCE, the Achaemenid King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews of Babylon to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple.", "Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.Sometime soon after 485 BCE Jerusalem was besieged, conquered and largely destroyed by a coalition of neighbouring states.", "In about 445 BCE, King Artaxerxes I of Persia issued a decree allowing the city (including its walls) to be rebuilt.", "Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and centre of Jewish worship.Holyland Model of Jerusalem, depicting the city during the late Second Temple period.", "First created in 1966, it is continuously updated according to advancing archaeological knowledge.Many Jewish tombs from the Second Temple period have been unearthed in Jerusalem.", "One example, discovered north of the Old City, contains human remains in a 1st-century CE ossuary decorated with the Aramaic inscription \"Simon the Temple Builder\".", "The Tomb of Abba, also located north of the Old City, bears an Aramaic inscription with Paleo-Hebrew letters reading: \"I, Abba, son of the priest Eleaz(ar), son of Aaron the high (priest), Abba, the oppressed and the persecuted, who was born in Jerusalem, and went into exile into Babylonia and brought (back to Jerusalem) Mattathi(ah), son of Jud(ah), and buried him in a cave which I bought by deed.\"", "The Tomb of Benei Hezir located in Kidron Valley is decorated by monumental Doric columns and Hebrew inscription, identifying it as the burial site of Second Temple priests.", "The Tombs of the Sanhedrin, an underground complex of 63 rock-cut tombs, is located in a public park in the northern Jerusalem neighbourhood of Sanhedria.", "These tombs, probably reserved for members of the Sanhedrin and inscribed by ancient Hebrew and Aramaic writings, are dated to between 100 BCE and 100 CE.When Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I.", "In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V Epiphanes lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III.", "The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital.A coin issued by the Jewish rebels in 68 CE.", "Obverse: \"Shekel, Israel.", "Year 3\".", "Reverse: \"Jerusalem the Holy\", in the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet''The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans'' (David Roberts, 1850)In 63 BCE, Pompey the Great intervened in a struggle for the Hasmonean throne and captured Jerusalem, extending the influence of the Roman Republic over Judea.", "Following a short invasion by Parthians, backing the rival Hasmonean rulers, Judea became a scene of struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian forces, eventually leading to the emergence of an Edomite named Herod.", "As Rome became stronger, it installed Herod as a client king of the Jews.", "Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city.", "He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons.", "Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size.", "Shortly after Herod's death, in 6 CE Judea came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province, although the Herodian dynasty through Agrippa II remained client kings of neighbouring territories until 96 CE.Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), which ended with a Roman victory.", "Early on, the city was devastated by a brutal civil war between several Jewish factions fighting for control of the city.", "In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple.", "The contemporary Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the city \"was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation.\"", "Of the 600,000 (Tacitus) or 1,000,000 (Josephus) Jews of Jerusalem, all of them either died of starvation, were killed or were sold into slavery.", "Roman rule was again challenged during the Bar Kokhba revolt, beginning in 132 CE and suppressed by the Romans in 135 CE.", "More recent research indicates that the Romans had founded Aelia Capitolina before the outbreak of the revolt, and found no evidence for Bar Kokhba ever managing to hold the city.Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered and had a population of 200,000.==== Late Antiquity ====Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighbouring provinces under the new name of ''Syria Palaestina'', replacing the name of Judea.", "The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town.", "Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av.", "Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially \"secularized\" the city.", "Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the rebuilt city was now inhabited by veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire.The ban against Jews was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.", "Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.The Byzantine Madaba Map showing the city, dating to the 5th century AD, it is the oldest surviving depiction of Jerusalem.In the 5th century, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, ruled from the recently renamed Constantinople, maintained control of the city.", "Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion.", "Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early 7th century push through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem () aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured.", "Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.", "This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians.", "The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.===Middle Ages=======Early Muslim period====Umayyad Dome of the Rock mosque commissioned in late 7th century AD, which was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and called \"Jerusalem's most recognizable landmark\".Depiction of Jerusalem in the Byzantine Umm ar-Rasas mosaics, identified as Hagia Polis in Greek, the Holy City, during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate in 785.After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Byzantine Jerusalem was taken by Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 CE.", "Among the first Muslims, it was referred to as ''Madinat bayt al-Maqdis'' (\"City of the Temple\"), a name restricted to the Temple Mount.", "The rest of the city \"was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE: ''Aelia Capitolina''\".", "Later the Temple Mount became known as ''al-Haram al-Sharif'', \"The Noble Sanctuary\", while the city around it became known as ''Bayt al-Maqdis'', and later still, ''al-Quds al-Sharif'' \"The Holy, Noble\".", "The Islamization of Jerusalem began in the first year A.H. (623 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place.", "After 13 years, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca.", "In 638 CE the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem.", "With the Muslim conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city.", "The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule.", "Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque.", "He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar (Omar) stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.", "According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.When the Arab armies under Umar went to ''Bayt Al-Maqdes'' in 637 CE, they searched for the site of ''al-masjid al-aqsa'', \"the farthest place of prayer/mosque\", that was mentioned in the Quran and Hadith according to Islamic beliefs.", "Contemporary Arabic and Hebrew sources say the site was full of rubbish, and that Arabs and Jews cleaned it.", "The Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of a shrine on the Temple Mount, now known as the Dome of the Rock, in the late 7th century.", "Two of the city's most-distinguished Arab citizens of the 10th-century were Al-Muqaddasi, the geographer, and Al-Tamimi, the physician.", "Al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the edifice on the Temple Mount in order to compete in grandeur with Jerusalem's monumental churches.Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region vied for control of the city.", "Jerusalem was captured in 1073 by the Seljuk Turkish commander Atsız.", "After Atsız was killed, the Seljuk prince Tutush I granted the city to Artuk Bey, another Seljuk commander.", "After Artuk's death in 1091 his sons Sökmen and Ilghazi governed in the city up to 1098 when the Fatimids recaptured the city.A messianic Karaite movement to gather in Jerusalem took place at the turn of the millennium, leading to a \"Golden Age\" of Karaite scholarship there, which was only terminated by the Crusades.====Crusader/Ayyubid period====Medieval illustration of capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099.In 1099, the Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was besieged by the soldiers of the First Crusade.", "After taking the solidly defended city by assault, the Crusaders massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, and made it the capital of their Kingdom of Jerusalem.", "The city, which had been virtually emptied, was recolonized by a variegated inflow of Greeks, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Georgians, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptians, Nestorians, Maronites, Jacobite Miaphysites, Copts and others, to block the return of the surviving Muslims and Jews.", "The north-eastern quarter was repopulated with Eastern Christians from the Transjordan.", "As a result, by 1099 Jerusalem's population had climbed back to some 30,000.In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.", "Under the terms of surrender, once ransomed, 60,000 Franks were expelled.", "The Eastern Christian populace was permitted to stay.", "Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin, a period of huge investment began in the construction of houses, markets, public baths, and pilgrim hostels as well as the establishment of religious endowments.", "However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a village due to city's fall of strategic value and Ayyubid internecine struggles.From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 treaty agreed between the crusading Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and al-Kamil, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, that ended the Sixth Crusade.", "The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications.In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tatars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.", "The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247.====Mamluk period====From 1260 to 1516/17, Jerusalem was ruled by the Mamluks.", "In the wider region and until around 1300, many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side, and the crusaders and the Mongols, on the other side.", "The area also suffered from many earthquakes and black plague.", "When Nachmanides visited in 1267 he found only two Jewish families, in a population of 2,000, 300 of whom were Christians, in the city.", "The well-known and far-traveled lexicographer Fairuzabadi (1329–1414) spent ten years in Jerusalem.Bernhard von Breydenbach (1486)The 13th to 15th centuries was a period of frequent building activity in the city, as evidenced by the 90 remaining structures from this time.", "The city was also a significant site of Mamluk architectural patronage.", "The types of structures built included madrasas, libraries, hospitals, caravanserais, fountains (or sabils), and public baths.", "Much of the building activity was concentrated around the edges of the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif.", "Old gates to the Haram lost importance and new gates were built, while significant parts of the northern and western porticoes along the edge of the Temple Mount plaza were built or rebuilt in this period.", "Tankiz, the Mamluk amir in charge of Syria during the reign of al-Nasir Muhammad, built a new market called ''Suq al-Qattatin'' (Cotton Market) in 1336–7, along with the gate known as ''Bab al-Qattanin'' (Cotton Gate), which gave access to the Temple Mount from this market.", "The late Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay also took interest in the city.", "He commissioned the building of the Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya, completed in 1482, and the nearby Sabil of Qaytbay, built shortly after in 1482; both were located on the Temple Mount.", "Qaytbay's monuments were the last major Mamluk constructions in the city.===Modern era=======Ottoman period (16th–19th centuries)====In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917.Jerusalem enjoyed a prosperous period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent—including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the Old City.", "Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important centre, and did not straddle the main trade route between Damascus and Cairo.", "The English reference book ''Modern history or the present state of all nations'', written in 1744, stated that \"Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine, though much fallen from its ancient grandeaur\".1455 painting of the Holy Land.", "Jerusalem is viewed from the west; the octagonal Dome of the Rock stands left of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, shown as a church, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands on the left side of the picture.The Ottomans brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates and regular stagecoach and carriage services were among the first signs of modernization in the city.", "In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.With the annexation of Jerusalem by Muhammad Ali of Egypt in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city.", "In 1836, Ibrahim Pasha allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the Hurva.", "In the countrywide Peasants' Revolt, Qasim al-Ahmad led his forces from Nablus and attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Abu Ghosh clan, and entered the city on 31 May 1834.The Christians and Jews of Jerusalem were subjected to attacks.", "Ibrahim's Egyptian army routed Qasim's forces in Jerusalem the following month.Ottoman rule was reinstated in 1840, but many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem and Jews from Algiers and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers.", "In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the region's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem.", "According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans.", "The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.1844 daguerreotype by Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey (the earliest photograph of the city)In the 1860s, new neighbourhoods began to develop outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city.", "The Russian Compound and Mishkenot Sha'ananim were founded in 1860, followed by many others that included Mahane Israel (1868), Nahalat Shiv'a (1869), German Colony (1872), Beit David (1873), Mea Shearim (1874), Shimon HaZadiq (1876), Beit Ya'aqov (1877), Abu Tor (1880s), American-Swedish Colony (1882), Yemin Moshe (1891), and Mamilla, Wadi al-Joz around the turn of the century.", "In 1867 an American Missionary reports an estimated population of Jerusalem of 'above' 15,000, with 4,000 to 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims.", "Every year there were 5,000 to 6,000 Russian Christian Pilgrims.", "In 1872 Jerusalem became the centre of a special administrative district, independent of the Syria Vilayet and under the direct authority of Istanbul called the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem.The great number of Christian orphans resulting from the 1860 civil war in Mount Lebanon and the Damascus massacre led in the same year to the opening of the German Protestant Syrian Orphanage, better known as the Schneller Orphanage after its founder.", "Until the 1880s there were no formal Jewish orphanages in Jerusalem, as families generally took care of each other.", "In 1881 the Diskin Orphanage was founded in Jerusalem with the arrival of Jewish children orphaned by a Russian pogrom.", "Other orphanages founded in Jerusalem at the beginning of the 20th century were Zion Blumenthal Orphanage (1900) and General Israel Orphan's Home for Girls (1902).====Jewish immigration to Palestine====During the reign of Sultan Bayezid II (1481–1512), the gates of Ottoman Turkey were opened to the Jews expelled from Spain, and in the days of Sultan Selim I, they were allowed to enter the territories he conquered, including Palestine.", "Rabbi Moses Bassola, who visited Palestine in 1521–1522, testified that, largely due to this immigration, the Jewish community in Jerusalem grew and the deportees from Spain became the majority of the Jewish population in Jerusalem (which at that time numbered about 300 families).File:מגדל דוד-חן חנה נחום.jpg\|Tower of David citadel and the Ottoman wallsFile:Ben Zakai.jpg\|Ben-Zakai synagogue, photo taken in 1893File:Mishkenot Sha'ananim 1.jpg\|Guesthouse in Mishkenot Sha'ananim, the first Jewish neighborhood built outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem (1860), on a hill directly across from Mount Zion====British Mandate (1917–1948)====William McLean's 1918 plan was the first urban planning scheme for Jerusalem.", "It laid the foundations for what became West Jerusalem and East Jerusalem.VE Day, 8 May 1945In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city.", "In 1922, the League of Nations at the Conference of Lausanne entrusted the United Kingdom to administer Palestine, neighbouring Transjordan, and Iraq beyond it.From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000, comprising two-thirds Jews and one-third Arabs (Muslims and Christians).", "Relations between Arab Christians and Muslims and the growing Jewish population in Jerusalem deteriorated, resulting in recurring unrest.", "In Jerusalem, in particular, Arab riots occurred in 1920 and in 1929.Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city and institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University were founded.===Contemporary era=======Divided city: Jordanian and Israeli rule (1948–1967)====As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the 1947 UN Partition Plan recommended \"the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a ''corpus separatum'' under the administration of the UN.\"", "The international regime (which also included the city of Bethlehem) was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a referendum was to be held in which the residents were to decide the future regime of their city.", "However, this plan was not implemented, as the 1948 war erupted, while the British withdrew from Palestine and Israel declared its independence.In contradiction to the Partition Plan, which envisioned a city separated from the Arab state and the Jewish state, Israel took control of the area which later would become West Jerusalem, along with major parts of the Arab territory allotted to the future Arab State; Jordan took control of East Jerusalem, along with the West Bank.", "The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city.", "The 1,500 residents of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May.", "Arab residents of Katamon, Talbiya, and the German Colony were driven from their homes.", "By the time of the armistice that ended active fighting, Israel had control of 12 of Jerusalem's 15 Arab residential quarters.", "An estimated minimum of 30,000 people had become refugees.The war of 1948 resulted in the division of Jerusalem, so that the old walled city lay entirely on the Jordanian side of the line.", "A no-man's land between East and West Jerusalem came into being in November 1948: Moshe Dayan, commander of the Israeli forces in Jerusalem, met with his Jordanian counterpart Abdullah el-Tell in a deserted house in Jerusalem's Musrara neighbourhood and marked out their respective positions: Israel's position in red and Jordan's in green.", "This rough map, which was not meant as an official one, became the final line in the 1949 Armistice Agreements, which divided the city and left Mount Scopus as an Israeli exclave inside East Jerusalem.", "Barbed wire and concrete barriers ran down the centre of the city, passing close by Jaffa Gate on the western side of the old walled city, and a crossing point was established at Mandelbaum Gate slightly to the north of the old walled city.", "Military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire.After the establishment of the state of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital city.", "Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law, and in 1953 declared it the \"second capital\" of Jordan.", "Only the United Kingdom and Pakistan formally recognized such annexation, which, in regard to Jerusalem, was on a ''de facto'' basis.", "Some scholars argue that the view that Pakistan recognized Jordan's annexation is dubious.After 1948, since the old walled city in its entirety was to the east of the armistice line, Jordan was able to take control of all the holy places therein.", "While Muslim holy sites were maintained and renovated, contrary to the terms of the armistice agreement, Jews were denied access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were destroyed or desecrated.", "Jordan allowed only very limited access to Christian holy sites, and restrictions were imposed on the Christian population that led many to leave the city.", "Of the 58 synagogues in the Old City, half were either razed or converted to stables and hen-houses over the course of the next 19 years, including the Hurva and the Tiferet Yisrael Synagogue.", "The 3,000-year-old Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery was desecrated, with gravestones used to build roads, latrines and Jordanian army fortifications.", "38,000 graves in the Jewish Cemetery were destroyed, and Jews were forbidden from being buried there.", "The Western Wall was transformed into an exclusively Muslim holy site associated with ''al-Buraq''.", "Israeli authorities neglected to protect the tombs in the Muslim Mamilla Cemetery in West Jerusalem, which contains the remains of figures from the early Islamic period, facilitating the creation of a parking lot and public lavatories in 1964.Many other historic and religiously significant buildings were demolished and replaced by modern structures during the Jordanian occupation.", "During this period, the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque underwent major renovations.During the 1948 war, the Jewish residents of Eastern Jerusalem were expelled by Jordan's Arab Legion.", "Jordan allowed Arab Palestinian refugees from the war to settle in the vacated Jewish Quarter, which became known as ''Harat al-Sharaf''.", "In 1966 the Jordanian authorities relocated 500 of them to the Shua'fat refugee camp as part of plans to turn the Jewish quarter into a public park.File:Mandelbaum Gate Jerusalem.jpg\|Israeli policemen meet a Jordanian Legionnaire near the Mandelbaum Gate ()File:King Hussein flying over Temple Mount when it was under Jordanian control.jpg\|King Hussein of Jordan flying over the Temple Mount in East Jerusalem when it was under Jordanian control, 1965====Israeli rule (1967–present)====Map of East Jerusalem (2010)In 1967, the Six-Day War erupted between Israel and its Arab neighbors.", "Jordan joined Egypt and attacked Israeli-held West Jerusalem on the war's second day.", "After hand-to-hand fighting between Israeli and Jordanian soldiers on the Temple Mount, the Israel Defense Forces occupied East Jerusalem, along with the entire West Bank.", "On 27 June 1967, three weeks after the war ended, in what Israel terms the reunification of Jerusalem, Israel extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, including the city's Christian and Muslim holy sites, along with some nearby West Bank territory which comprised 28 Palestinian villages, incorporating it into the Jerusalem Municipality, although it carefully avoided using the term \"annexation\".", "On 10 July, Foreign Minister Abba Eban explained to the UN Secretary General: \"The term 'annexation' which was used by supporters of the vote is not accurate.", "The steps that were taken by Israel relate to the integration of Jerusalem in administrative and municipal areas, and served as a legal basis for the protection of the holy places of Jerusalem.\"", "Israel conducted a census of Arab residents in the areas annexed.", "Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship.", "Since 1967, new Jewish residential areas have mushroomed in the eastern sector, while no new Palestinian neighbourhoods have been created.Jewish and Christian access to the holy sites inside the old walled city was restored.", "Israel left the Temple Mount under the jurisdiction of an Islamic ''waqf'', but opened the Western Wall to Jewish access.", "The Moroccan Quarter, which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was evacuated and razed to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall.", "On 18 April 1968, an expropriation order by the Israeli Ministry of Finance more than doubled the size of the Jewish Quarter, evicting its Arab residents and seizing over 700 buildings of which 105 belonged to Jewish inhabitants prior to the Jordanian occupation of the city.", "The order designated these areas for public use, but they were intended for Jews alone.", "The government offered 200 Jordanian dinars to each displaced Arab family.After the Six-Day War the population of Jerusalem increased by 196%.", "The Jewish population grew by 155%, while the Arab population grew by 314%.", "The proportion of the Jewish population fell from 74% in 1967 to 72% in 1980, to 68% in 2000, and to 64% in 2010.Israeli Agriculture Minister Ariel Sharon proposed building a ring of Jewish neighbourhoods around the city's eastern edges.", "The plan was intended to make East Jerusalem more Jewish and prevent it from becoming part of an urban Palestinian bloc stretching from Bethlehem to Ramallah.", "On 2 October 1977, the Israeli cabinet approved the plan, and seven neighbourhoods were subsequently built on the city's eastern edges.", "They became known as the Ring Neighbourhoods.", "Other Jewish neighbourhoods were built within East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews also settled in Arab neighbourhoods.The annexation of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism.", "The Israeli Foreign Ministry disputes that the annexation of Jerusalem was a violation of international law.", "The final status of Jerusalem has been one of the most important areas of discord between Palestinian and Israeli negotiators for peace.", "Areas of discord have included whether the Palestinian flag can be raised over areas of Palestinian custodianship and the specificity of Israeli and Palestinian territorial borders." ], [ "Political status", "Israeli stamp from 1968, quotingPsalm 122:6;''Pray for the peace of Jerusalem...''From 1923 until 1948, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of Mandatory Palestine.From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city.", "As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control.", "On 27 June 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons.", "The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.", "The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian Authority.", "The accords banned any official Palestinian presence in the city until a final peace agreement, but provided for the opening of a Palestinian trade office in East Jerusalem.", "The Palestinian Authority regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.", "President Mahmoud Abbas has said that any agreement that did not include East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine would be unacceptable.", "Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has similarly stated that Jerusalem would remain the undivided capital of Israel.", "Due to its proximity to the city, especially the Temple Mount, Abu Dis, a Palestinian suburb of Jerusalem, has been proposed as the future capital of a Palestinian state by Israel.", "Israel has not incorporated Abu Dis within its security wall around Jerusalem.", "The Palestinian Authority has built a possible future parliament building for the Palestinian Legislative Council in the town, and its Jerusalem Affairs Offices are all located in Abu Dis.===International status===While the international community regards East Jerusalem, including the entire Old City, as part of the occupied Palestinian territories, neither part, West or East Jerusalem, is recognized as part of the territory of Israel or the State of Palestine.", "Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1947, Jerusalem was envisaged to become a corpus separatum administered by the United Nations.", "In the war of 1948, the western part of the city was occupied by forces of the nascent state of Israel, while the eastern part was occupied by Jordan.", "The international community largely considers the legal status of Jerusalem to derive from the partition plan, and correspondingly refuses to recognize Israeli sovereignty over the city.===Status under Israeli rule===Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel extended its jurisdiction and administration over East Jerusalem, establishing new municipal borders.The Knesset houses the legislature of IsraelIn 2010, Israel approved legislation giving Jerusalem the highest national priority status in Israel.", "The law prioritized construction throughout the city, and offered grants and tax benefits to residents to make housing, infrastructure, education, employment, business, tourism, and cultural events more affordable.", "Communications Minister Moshe Kahlon said that the bill sent \"a clear, unequivocal political message that Jerusalem will not be divided\", and that \"all those within the Palestinian and international community who expect the current Israeli government to accept any demands regarding Israel's sovereignty over its capital are mistaken and misleading\".The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.", "The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque.", "Palestinians regard Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine, and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks.", "A team of experts assembled by the then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there.", "However, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in 2014 that \"Jerusalem will never be divided\".", "A poll conducted in June 2013 found that 74% of Israeli Jews reject the idea of a Palestinian capital in any portion of Jerusalem, though 72% of the public regarded it as a divided city.", "A poll conducted by Palestinian Centre for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for the Council on Foreign Relations, among East Jerusalem Arab residents in 2011 revealed that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship contrary to 31% who opted for Palestinian citizenship.", "According to the poll, 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighbourhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule.Supreme Court of Israel===Jerusalem as capital of Israel===Israeli Foreign Ministry buildingOn 5 December 1949, Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's \"eternal\" and \"sacred\" capital, and eight days later specified that only the war had \"compelled\" the Israeli leadership \"to establish the seat of Government in Tel Aviv\", while \"for the State of Israel there has always been and always will be one capital only – Jerusalem the Eternal\", and that after the war, efforts had been ongoing for creating the conditions for \"the Knesset... returning to Jerusalem.\"", "This indeed took place, and since the beginning of 1950 all branches of the Israeli government—legislative, judicial, and executive—have resided there, except for the Ministry of Defense, which is located at HaKirya in Tel Aviv.", "At the time of Ben Gurion's proclamations and the ensuing Knesset vote of 24 January 1950, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, and thus the proclamation only applied to West Jerusalem.In July 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law as Basic Law.", "The law declared Jerusalem the \"complete and united\" capital of Israel.", "The Jerusalem Law was condemned by the international community, which did not recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.", "The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 478 on 20 August 1980, which declared that the Jerusalem Law is ''\"a violation of international law\"'', is ''\"null and void and must be rescinded forthwith\"''.", "Member states were called upon to withdraw their diplomatic representation from Jerusalem.", "Following the resolution, 22 of the 24 countries that previously had their embassy in (West) Jerusalem relocated them in Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478.Costa Rica and El Salvador followed in 2006.There are two embassies—United States and Guatemala—and two consulates located within the city limits of Jerusalem, and two Latin American states maintain embassies in the Jerusalem District town of Mevaseret Zion (Bolivia and Paraguay).", "There are a number of consulates-general located in Jerusalem, which work primarily either with Israel, or the Palestinian authorities.In 1995, the United States Congress passed the Jerusalem Embassy Act, which required, subject to conditions, that its embassy be moved from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.", "On 6 December 2017 U.S. President Donald Trump officially recognized Jerusalem as Israel's capital and announced his intention to move the American embassy to Jerusalem, reversing decades of United States policy on the issue.", "The move was criticized by many nations.", "A resolution condemning the US decision was supported by all the 14 other members of the UN Security Council, but was vetoed by the US on 18 December 2017, and a subsequent resolution condemning the US decision was passed in the United Nations General Assembly.", "On 14 May 2018, the United States officially opened its embassy in Jerusalem, transforming its Tel Aviv location into a consulate.", "Due to the general lack of international recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, some non-Israeli media outlets use Tel Aviv as a metonym for Israel.In April 2017, the Russian Foreign Ministry announced it viewed Western Jerusalem as Israel's capital in the context of UN-approved principles which include the status of East Jerusalem as the capital of the future Palestinian state.", "On , Australia officially recognized West Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but said their embassy in Tel Aviv would stay until a two-state resolution was settled.", "The decision was reversed in October 2022.====Government precinct and national institutions====The Kiryat HaLeom (national precinct) project is intended to house most government agencies and national cultural institutions.", "They are located in the Kiryat HaMemshala (government complex) in the Givat Ram neighbourhood.", "Some government buildings are located in Kiryat Menachem Begin.", "The city is home to the Knesset, the Supreme Court, the Bank of Israel, the National Headquarters of the Israel Police, the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and all ministries except for the Ministry of Defense (which is located in central Tel Aviv's HaKirya district) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (which is located in Rishon LeZion, in the wider Tel Aviv metropolitan area, near Beit Dagan).====Israeli settlements====Since its capture in 1967, the Israeli government has built 12 Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem, with a population amounting to 220,000 Israeli Jewish settlers as of 2019.The international community consider Israeli settlements to be illegal under international law.===Jerusalem as capital of Palestine===Orient House in East Jerusalem that served as the headquarters of the PLO in the 1980s and 1990s.", "It was closed by Israel in 2001, two days after the Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing.The Palestinian National Authority views East Jerusalem as occupied territory according to United Nations Security Council Resolution 242.The Palestinian Authority claims Jerusalem, including the Haram al-Sharif, as the capital of the State of Palestine,See ''2003 Amended Basic Law'' .", "Retrieved 2 June 2013; Arafat Signs Law Making Jerusalem Palestinian Capital , People's Daily, published 6 October 2002; Arafat names Jerusalem as capital , BBC News, published 6 October 2002.The PLO claims that West Jerusalem is also subject to permanent status negotiations.", "However, it has stated that it would be willing to consider alternative solutions, such as making Jerusalem an open city.The PLO's position is that East Jerusalem, as defined by the pre-1967 municipal boundaries, shall be the capital of Palestine and West Jerusalem the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city and with its own municipality.", "A joint ''development council'' would be responsible for coordinated development.Some states, such as Russia and China, recognize the Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital.", "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 58/292 affirmed that the Palestinian people have the right to sovereignty over East Jerusalem." ], [ "Municipal administration", "The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints eight deputies.", "The former mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003.In the November 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat was elected.", "In November 2018, Moshe Lion was elected mayor.Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis.", "The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent 28 years—six consecutive terms—in office.", "Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.", "Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.", "The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (''Kikar Safra'') on Jaffa Road.", "The municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993 when it moved from the old town hall building built by the Mandate authorities.", "The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital.", "37% of the population is Palestinian, but in 2014 not more than 10% of tax revenues were allocated for them.", "In East Jerusalem, 52% of the land was excluded from development, 35% designated for Jewish settlements, and 13% for Palestinian use, almost all of which was already built on." ], [ "Geography", "Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judaean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East).", "The elevation of the Old City is approximately .", "The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (''wadis'').", "The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.", "The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper.", "Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell.", "The Tyropoeon Valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the centre of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west (the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus).", "Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.", "In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees.", "Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed.", "Farmers in the Jerusalem region thus built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient aqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.Jerusalem is east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea.", "On the opposite side of the city, approximately away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth.", "Neighbouring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.Mount Herzl, at the western side of the city near the Jerusalem Forest, serves as the national cemetery of Israel.File:Jerusalem, Israel.JPG\|Astronauts' view of JerusalemFile:Israel-2013-Aerial-Mount of Olives.jpg\|Sunset aerial photograph of the Mount of Olives===Climate===Snow visible on roofs in the Old City of JerusalemThe city is characterized by a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: ''Csa''), with hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters.", "Snow flurries usually occur once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years, on average, with short-lived accumulation.January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of ; July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of , and the summer months are usually rainless.", "The average annual precipitation is around , with rain occurring almost entirely between October and May.", "Snowfall is rare, and large snowfalls are even more rare.", "Jerusalem received over of snow on 13 December 2013, which nearly paralyzed the city.", "A day in Jerusalem has on average, 9.3 sunshine hours.", "With summers averaging similar temperatures as the coastline, the maritime influence from the Mediterranean Sea is strong, in particular given that Jerusalem is located on a similar latitude as scorching hot deserts not far to its east.The highest recorded temperature in Jerusalem was on 28 and 30 August 1881, and the lowest temperature recorded was on 25 January 1907.Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.", "Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air.", "Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city." ], [ "Demographics", "===Demographic history===Demographic history of Jerusalem by religion based on available dataJerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000-year history.", "Since the 19th century, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian quarters.", "Matthew Teller writes that this convention may have originated in the 1841 British Royal Engineers map of Jerusalem, or at least Reverend George Williams' subsequent labelling of it.Most population data before 1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.", "These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century.Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became an absolute majority of the population.===Current demographics===Jerusalem population pyramid in 2021+Approximate 2021 population for East/West Jerusalem (UN-recognized 1967 border) West or East(1967 borders) Total Jewsandothers Jewsandothers% Approx.# ofUltra-Orthodox Ultra-Orthodoxas %of \"Jewsand Others\"\t Arabs/Pale-stinians Pale-stinian% '''East Jerusalem''' 611,370 240,831 39.4% 111,121 46.1%370,532 \t60.6% '''West Jerusalem''' 354,840 349,734 98.6% 166,688 47.7% 5,088 1.4% '''Total Jerusalem''' '''966,210''' '''590,565'''\t 61% '''277,809''' 29% '''375,620''' 39% Some sub-quarters straddle the Green Line and in those cases the sub-quarter is assigned to the sector (East or West) into which most of the area falls.", "Source: Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem, 2021.Totals do not sum exactly due to the presentation of some ethnoreligious groups as percentages of totals.In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—63.7% were Jewish, 33.1% Muslim, and 2% Christian.According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Muslim birth rate, and Jewish residents leaving.", "The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.", "Of the Jewish population, 200,000 live in East Jerusalem settlements which are considered illegal under international law.In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the former Soviet Union.", "In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents.", "In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in.", "Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high birth rate, especially in the Haredi Jewish and Arab communities.", "Consequently, the total fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90.The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%)—similar to the Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting.", "While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent.", "Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city, although proportionally, young Haredim are leaving in higher numbers.", "The percentage of secular Jews, or those who 'wear their faith lightly' is dropping, with some 20,000 leaving the city over the past seven years (2012).", "They now number 31% of the population, the same percentage as the rising Haredi population.In 2010, 61% of all Jewish children in Jerusalem studied in Haredi (Ultra-Orthodox) schools.", "This correlates with the high number of children in Haredi families.While some secular Jews leave Jerusalem for its relative lack of development and religious and political tensions, Jerusalem-born Palestinians cannot leave Jerusalem, or they lose their right to live in the city.", "Palestinians with a \"Jerusalem resident status\" are entitled to the subsidized healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides to its citizens, and have the right to vote in municipal elections, but not to be voted in municipal elections, or to vote in national elections.", "Arabs in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighbourhood has one, and universities.", "Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such as Hadassah Medical Centre are available to residents.Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem.", "In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority expanded city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.Within the past few years, there has been a steady increase in the Jewish birthrate and a steady decrease in the Arab birthrate.", "In May 2012, it was reported that the Jewish birthrate had overtaken the Arab birthrate.", "The city's birthrate stands about 4.2 children per Jewish family and 3.9 children per Arab family.", "In addition, increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants chose to settle in Jerusalem.", "In the last few years, thousands of Palestinians have moved to previously fully Jewish neighbourhoods of East Jerusalem, built after the 1967 Six-Day War.", "In 2007, 1,300 Palestinians lived in the previously exclusively Jewish neighbourhood of Pisgat Ze'ev and constituted three percent of the population in Neve Ya'akov.", "In the French Hill neighbourhood, Palestinians today constitute one-sixth of the overall population.Sheikh Jarrah, a predominantly Arab neighbourhood on the road to Mount ScopusAt the end of 2008, the population of East Jerusalem was 456,300, comprising 60% of Jerusalem's residents.", "Of these, 195,500 (43%) were Jews, (comprising 40% of the Jewish population of Jerusalem as a whole), and 260,800 (57%) were Muslim (comprising 98% of the Muslim population of Jerusalem).", "In 2008, the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics reported the number of Palestinians living in East Jerusalem was 208,000 according to a recently completed census.Jerusalem's Jewish population is overwhelmingly religious.", "Only 18% of Jewish residents are secular.", "In addition, Haredi Jews comprise 35% of the city's adult Jewish population.", "In a phenomenon seen rarely around the world, the percentage of Jewish women who work, 81%, exceeds the percentage of Jewish men who work, 70%.Jerusalem had a population of 804,400 in 2011, of which Jews comprised 499,400 (62.1%), Muslims 281,100 (34.9%), Christians 14,700 (1.8%), and 9,000 (1.1%) were not classified by religion.Jerusalem had a population of 882,700 in 2016, of which Jews comprised 536,600 (60.8%), Muslims 319,800 (36.2%), Christians 15,800 (1.8%), and 10,300 unclassified (1.2%).Jerusalem had a population of 951,100 in 2020, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353.800 (37.2%), Christians 16.300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).According to Peace Now, approvals for building in Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem have expanded by 60% under Donald Trump's term as U.S. president.", "Since 1991, Palestinians, who make up the majority of the residents in East Jerusalem, have only received 30% of the building permits.Armenian in the Armenian Quarter===Urban planning issues===Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Jerusalem say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.", "According to a World Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighbourhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Arabs in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and \"the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators\" than Jewish violators of the permit process.", "In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the City of David archaeological site in the 60% Arab neighbourhood of Silwan (adjacent to the Old City), and the Museum of Tolerance on Mamilla Cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square)." ], [ "Religious significance", "Jerusalem has been sacred to Judaism for roughly 3000 years, to Christianity for around 2000 years, and to Islam for approximately 1400 years.", "The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.", "Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy.Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance for the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.=== Judaism ===Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE.", "Without counting its other names, Jerusalem appears in the Hebrew Bible 669 times.", "The first section, the Torah (Pentateuch), only mentions Moriah, but in later parts of the Bible, the city is mentioned explicitly.", "The Temple Mount, which was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple, is the holiest site in Judaism and the place Jews turn towards during prayer.", "The Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.", "Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem, and Arks within Jerusalem face the Holy of Holies.", "As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the ''Shulchan Aruch'', daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount.", "Many Jews have \"Mizrach\" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.=== Christianity ===Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of Christianity.", "Christianity reveres Jerusalem for its Old Testament history, and also for its significance in the life of Jesus.", "According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.", "The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.", "Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion.", "The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem, but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.", "The land occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past 2000 years.", "The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is generally considered the most important church in Christendom.=== Islam ===Jerusalem is the third-holiest city in Sunni Islam.", "Islamic tradition holds that for approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the Kaaba in Mecca, the ''qibla'' (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.", "The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night Journey ().", "Muslims believe that Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from the Great Mosque of Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam.", "The first verse in the Qur'an's ''Surat al-Isra'' notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as ''al-masjid al-aqṣā'' (\"the farthest place of prayer\").", "In the earliest days of Islam, this was understood as a reference to a site in the heavens, however, Post-Rashidun Islamic scholars understood it as relating to Jerusalem, and particularly to the site of the former Jewish Temple.", "The hadith, a collection of the sayings of Muhammad, mentions that the location of the Al-Aqsa Mosque is in Jerusalem.", "The Al-Aqsa Mosque, originally named after the wider compound it sits within, was built on the Temple Mount under the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid several decades after Muhammad's death to commemorate the place from which Muslims believe he had ascended to Heaven.File:THE TEMPLE MOUNT JERUSALEM.jpg\|The Temple Mount is the holiest spot in Judaism and the third holiest site in Islam.", "Jews venerate it as the site of the two former Temples and Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Great Mosque of Mecca to this location during the Night Journey.File:Western Wall at night (20063).jpg\|The Western Wall, also known as the Wailing Wall and the Kotel, is a remnant of the Second Temple and the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.File:The Church of the Holy Sepulchre-Jerusalem.JPG\|The Church of the Holy Sepulchre contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have been buried and resurrected.File:Al-Aqsa Mosque (Jerusalem).jpg\|Al-Aqsa Mosque, the primary Muslim prayer hall on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif or Al-Aqsa compound)File:Jerusalem-Garden-Tomb-KTM-1266.jpg\|The Garden Tomb – a new holy site established by British Protestants in the 19th century" ], [ "Economy", "Bank of IsraelHistorically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza.", "Jerusalem's religious and cultural landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City.", "In 2010, Jerusalem was named the top leisure travel city in Africa and the Middle East by ''Travel + Leisure magazine''.in 2013, 75% of the 3.5 million tourists to Israel visited Jerusalem.Har Hotzvim high-tech parkSince the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy.", "The government, centred in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.", "Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial centre, a growing number of high tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim industrial park and the Jerusalem Technology Park in south Jerusalem are home to large Research and Development centres of international tech companies, among them Intel, Cisco Systems, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, IBM, Mobileye, Johnson & Johnson, Medtronic and more.", "In April 2015, Time Magazine picked Jerusalem as one of the five emerging tech hubs in the world, proclaiming that \"The city has become a flourishing centre for biomed, cleantech, Internet/mobile startups, accelerators, investors and supporting service providers.", "\"Mamilla Mall adorned with upscale shops stands just outside the Old City Walls.Malha MallHigher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).", "During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.", "Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for \"industry and infrastructure\".", "By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.", "Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%).Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967, East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.", "Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%).", "The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labour force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older—lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).", "Poverty remains a problem in the city as 37% of the families in Jerusalem lived in 2011 below the poverty line.", "According to a report by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), 78% of Arabs in Jerusalem lived in poverty in 2012, up from 64% in 2006.While the ACRI attributes the increase to the lack of employment opportunities, infrastructure and a worsening educational system, Ir Amim blames the legal status of Palestinians in Jerusalem.===High-rise construction===Jerusalem has traditionally had a low-rise skyline.", "About 18 tall buildings were built at different times in the downtown area when there was no clear policy over the matter.", "One of them, Holyland Tower 1, Jerusalem's tallest building, is a skyscraper by international standards, rising 32 stories.", "Holyland Tower 2, which has been approved for construction, will reach the same height.Holyland Tower, Jerusalem's tallest buildingA new master plan for the city will see many high-rise buildings, including skyscrapers, built in certain, designated areas of downtown Jerusalem.", "Under the plan, towers will line Jaffa Road and King George Street.", "One of the proposed towers along King George Street, the Migdal Merkaz HaYekum, is planned as a 65-story building, which would make it one of the tallest buildings in Israel.", "At the entrance to the city, near the Jerusalem Chords Bridge and the Central Bus Station, twelve towers rising between 24 and 33 stories will be built, as part of a complex that will also include an open square and an underground train station serving a new express line between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, and will be connected by bridges and tunnels.", "Eleven of the skyscrapers will be either office or apartment buildings, and one will be a 2,000-room hotel.", "The complex is expected to attract many businesses from Tel Aviv, and become the city's main business hub.", "In addition, a complex for the city's courts and the prosecutor's office will be built, as well as new buildings for Central Zionist Archives and Israel State Archives.", "The skyscrapers built throughout the city are expected to contain public space, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues, and it has been speculated that this may lead to a revitalization of downtown Jerusalem.", "In August 2015, the city council approved construction of a 344-foot pyramid-shaped skyscraper designed by Daniel Libeskind and Yigal Levi, in place of a rejected previous design by Libeskind; it is set to break ground by 2019." ], [ "Transportation", "Jerusalem Chords BridgeJerusalem is served by highly developed communication infrastructures, making it a leading logistics hub for Israel.The Jerusalem Central Bus Station, located on Jaffa Road, is the busiest bus station in Israel.", "It is served by Egged Bus Cooperative, which is the second-largest bus company in the world, The Dan serves the Bnei Brak-Jerusalem route along with Egged, and Superbus serves the routes between Jerusalem, Modi'in Illit, and Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut.", "The companies operate from Jerusalem Central Bus Station.", "Arab neighbourhoods in East Jerusalem and routes between Jerusalem and locations in the West Bank are served by the East Jerusalem Central Bus Station, a transportation hub located near the Old City's Damascus Gate.", "The Jerusalem Light Rail initiated service in August 2011.According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and has 23 stops.", "The route is from Pisgat Ze'ev in the north via the Old City and city centre to Mt.", "Herzl in the south.Light Rail tram on Jaffa RoadAnother work in progress is a new high-speed rail line from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, which became partially operational in 2018 and is expected to be completed in 2019.Its terminus will be a new underground station ( deep) serving the International Convention Centre and the Central Bus Station, and is planned to be extended eventually to Malha station.", "Israel Railways operates train services to Malha train station from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh.Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north–south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north with Route 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv.", "Route 60 runs through the centre of the city near the Green Line between East and West Jerusalem.", "Construction is progressing on parts of a ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.", "The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.===Airport===Jerusalem is served by Ben Gurion Airport, some northwest of the Jerusalem, on the route to Tel Aviv.", "The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem railway runs non-stop from Jerusalem–Yitzhak Navon railway station to the airport and began operation in 2018.In the past, Jerusalem was also served by the local Atarot Airport.", "Atarot ceased operation in 2000." ], [ "Education", "===Universities===Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in Hebrew, Arabic and English.Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus campusFounded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world.", "The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.", "The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko, David Gross, and Daniel Kahneman.", "One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books.", "The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects.", "Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.", "The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital.", "The Academy of the Hebrew Language are located in the Hebrew university in Givat Ram and the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities located near the Presidents House.Hand in Hand, a bilingual Jewish-Arab school in JerusalemHebron Yeshiva in Givat Mordechai neighbourhoodThe Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies programme.", "It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies.", "Numerous religious educational institutions and ''Yeshivot'', including some of the most prestigious yeshivas, among them the Brisk, Chevron, Midrash Shmuel and Mir, are based in the city, with the Mir Yeshiva claiming to be the largest.", "There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.", "However, due to the large portion of students in Haredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took matriculation exams (''Bagrut'') and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate.", "Unlike public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.", "To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.Al-Quds University was established in 1984 to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples.", "It describes itself as the \"only Arab university in Jerusalem\".", "Bard College of Annandale-on-Hudson, New York and Al-Quds University agreed to open a joint college in a building originally built to house the Palestinian Legislative Council and Yasser Arafat's office.", "The college gives Master of Arts in Teaching degrees.", "Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a Abu Dis campus.Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University.===Arab schools===Israel's public schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of the country have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.", "While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighbourhoods.", "Schools in Ras el-Amud and Umm Lison opened in 2008.In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a five-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector.", "A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project.", "In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools for Arabs in East Jerusalem.", "Arab high school students take the ''Bagrut'' matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects." ], [ "Culture", "The Shrine of the Book, housing the Dead Sea Scrolls, at the Israel MuseumAlthough Jerusalem is known primarily for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues.", "The Israel Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists.", "The museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art.", "The Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-20th century in the Qumran Caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.", "The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education programme, is visited by 100,000 children a year.", "The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden and includes the Holyland Model of Jerusalem, a scale-model of the city during the late Second Temple period.", "The Ticho House in downtown Jerusalem houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.Jerusalem Biblical ZooNext to the Israel Museum is the Bible Lands Museum, near The National Campus for the Archaeology of Israel, which includes the Israel Antiquities Authority offices.", "A World Bible Centre is planned to be built adjacent to Mount Zion at a site called the \"Bible Hill\".", "A planned World Kabbalah Centre is to be located on the nearby promenade, overlooking the Old City.", "The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East.", "It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.", "In 2006, a Jerusalem Trail was opened, a hiking trail that goes to many cultural sites and national parks in and around Jerusalem.", "The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo has ranked consistently as Israel's top tourist attraction for Israelis.The national cemetery of Israel is located at the city's western edge, near the Jerusalem Forest on Mount Herzl.", "The western extension of Mount Herzl is the Mount of Remembrance, where the main Holocaust museum of Israel is located.", "Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information.", "It houses an estimated 100,000 books and articles.", "The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust.", "An art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished is also present.", "Further, Yad Vashem commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and honours the Righteous among the Nations.The new building of the National Library of IsraelThe Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s, has appeared around the world.", "The International Convention Centre (''Binyanei HaUma'') near the entrance to city houses the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra.", "The Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Centre (formerly Beit Ha'Am) in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Centre in Yemin Moshe, and the Targ Music Centre in Ein Kerem also present the arts.", "The Israel Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays, and street theatre has been held annually since 1961, and Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event.", "The Jerusalem Theatre in the Talbiya neighbourhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theatre and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.", "The Khan Theatre, located in a caravanserai opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's only repertoire theatre.", "The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years as the site of ''Shav'ua Hasefer'' (an annual week-long book fair) and outdoor music performances.", "The Jerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.", "In 1974 the Jerusalem Cinematheque was founded.", "In 1981 it was moved to a new building on Hebron Road near the Valley of Hinnom and the Old City.Jerusalem was declared the Capital of Arab Culture in 2009.Jerusalem is home to the Palestinian National Theatre, which engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to rekindle Palestinian interest in the arts.", "The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music sponsors the Palestine Youth Orchestra which toured Arab states of the Persian Gulf and other Middle East countries in 2009.The Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny kohl flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns.", "Al-Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.", "While Israel approves and financially supports some Arab cultural activities, Arab Capital of Culture events were banned because they were sponsored by the Palestine National Authority.", "In 2009, a four-day culture festival was held in the Beit 'Anan suburb of Jerusalem, attended by more than 15,000 peopleThe Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art, is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.", "The Abraham Fund and the Jerusalem Intercultural Centre (JICC) promote joint Jewish-Palestinian cultural projects.", "The Jerusalem Centre for Middle Eastern Music and Dance is open to Arabs and Jews and offers workshops on Jewish-Arab dialogue through the arts.", "The Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra performs both European classical and Middle Eastern music.", "In 2008, the Tolerance Monument, an outdoor sculpture by Czesław Dźwigaj, was erected on a hill between Jewish Armon HaNetziv and Arab Jebl Mukaber as a symbol of Jerusalem's quest for peace.=== Media ===Jerusalem is the state broadcasting centre of Israel.", "The Israel Broadcasting Authority's main office is located in Jerusalem, as well as the TV and radio studios for Israel Radio, Channel 2, Channel 10, and part of the radio studios of BBC News.", "The Jerusalem Post and The Times of Israel are also headquartered in Jerusalem.", "Local newspapers include Kol Ha'Ir and The Jerusalem Times.", "God TV, an international Christian television network is also based in the city.=== Sports ===Teddy Stadium, MalhaPais ArenaThe two most popular sports are football (soccer) and basketball.", "Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most well known in Israel.", "Fans include political figures who often attend its games.", "Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Jerusalem F.C.", "Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion seven times, Hapoel has won the Cup only once.", "Beitar has won the top league six times, while Hapoel has never succeeded.", "Beitar plays in the more prestigious Ligat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the second division Liga Leumit.", "Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 31,733 The most popular Palestinian football club is Jabal Al Mukaber (since 1976) which plays in West Bank Premier League.", "The club hails from Mount Scopus at Jerusalem, part of the Asian Football Confederation, and plays at the Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium at Al-Ram, across the West Bank Barrier.In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem is one of the top teams in the top division.", "The club has won Israel's championship in 2015, the State Cup four times, and the ULEB Cup in 2004.The Jerusalem Marathon, established in 2011, is an international marathon race held annually in Jerusalem in the month of March.", "The full 42-kilometre race begins at the Knesset, passes through Mount Scopus and the Old City's Armenian Quarter, and concludes at Sacher Park.", "In 2012, the Jerusalem Marathon drew 15,000 runners, including 1,500 from fifty countries outside Israel.A popular non-competitive sports event is the Jerusalem March, held annually during the Sukkot festival." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Jerusalem is twinned with:* Ayabe, Japan* Cusco, Peru* Jersey City, United States* New York City, United States* Niterói, Brazil* Rio de Janeiro, Brazil* Salvador, Brazil" ], [ "See also", "Greater JerusalemList of people from JerusalemList of places in JerusalemList of songs about Jerusalem" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "Gilbert, Martin (1978).", "''Jerusalem: Illustrated History Atlas''.", "New York: Macmillan Publishing.", "" ], [ "Further reading", "Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999).", "''Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem''.", "Harvard University Press.", ".", "Cline, Eric (2004).", "''Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel''.", "Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.", ".", "Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988).", "''O Jerusalem!''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster .", "Gold, Dore (2007) ''The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City''.", "International Publishing Company J-M, Ltd.", ".", "Köchler, Hans (1981) ''The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem'' Vienna: Braumüller .", "''The Holy Cities: Jerusalem'' produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) ''Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City'' New Haven and London: Yale University Press.", ".", "\" Keys to Jerusalem: A Brief Overview\", The Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Center, Amman, Jordan, 2010.", "Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2011) ''Jerusalem: The Biography'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, .", "Young, Robb A (2012) ''Hezekiah in History and Tradition'' Brill Global Oriental Hotei Publishing, Netherlands.", "* Klein, Konstantin M.: Wienand, Johannes (2022) (eds.", "): ''City of Caesar, City of God: Constantinople and Jerusalem in Late Antiquity.''", "De Gruyter, Berlin 2022, .", ".", "John D. Hosler, _Jerusalem Falls: Seven Centuries of War and Peace_ (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2022)," ], [ "External links", " of the Jerusalem Municipality* What makes Jerusalem so holy?", "BBC* The Status of Jerusalem.", "United Nations document related to the dispute over the city* Jerusalem Virtual Library, joint project by Al-Quds University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem* Official website of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the city's foremost institution of higher education* Official website of Al-Quds University, the only Palestinian university in Jerusalem**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "J. Edgar Hoover" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Edgar Hoover''' (January 1, 1895 – May 2, 1972) was an American law-enforcement administrator who served as the final Director of the Bureau of Investigation (BOI) and the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).", "President Calvin Coolidge first appointed Hoover as director of the BOI, the predecessor to the FBI, in 1924.After 11 years in the post, Hoover became instrumental in founding the FBI in June 1935, where he remained as director for an additional 37 years until his death in May 1972 – serving a total of 48 years leading both the BOI and the FBI and under eight Presidents.Hoover expanded the FBI into a larger crime-fighting agency and instituted a number of modernizations to policing technology, such as a centralized fingerprint file and forensic laboratories.", "Hoover also established and expanded a national blacklist, referred to as the FBI Index or Index List.Later in life and after his death, Hoover became a controversial figure as evidence of his secretive abuses of power began to surface.", "He was also found to have routinely violated both the FBI's own policies and the very laws which the FBI was charged with enforcing, and to have collected evidence using illegal surveillance, wiretapping, and burglaries.", "Hoover consequently amassed a great deal of power and was able to intimidate and threaten political figures, including high-ranking ones." ], [ "Early life and education", "Dickerson Naylor HooverHoover was born on New Year's Day 1895 in Washington, D.C., to Anna Marie (''née'' Scheitlin; 1860–1938) and Dickerson Naylor Hoover (1856–1921), chief of the printing division of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, formerly a plate maker for the same organization.", "Dickerson Hoover was of English and German ancestry.", "Hoover's maternal great-uncle, John Hitz, was a Swiss honorary consul general to the United States.", "Among his family, he was the closest to his mother, who despite being \"more inclined to instruction\", showed great affection towards her son.Hoover was born in a house on the present site of Capitol Hill United Methodist Church, located on Seward Square near Eastern Market in Washington's Capitol Hill neighborhood.", "A stained glass window in the church is dedicated to him.", "Hoover did not have a birth certificate filed upon his birth, although it was required in 1895 in Washington.", "Two of his siblings did have certificates, but Hoover's was not filed until 1938 when he was 43.Hoover lived his entire life in Washington, D.C.", "He attended Central High School, where he sang in the school choir, participated in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps program, and competed on the debate team.", "Hoover stuttered as a boy, which he later learned to manage by teaching himself to talk quickly—a style that he carried through his adult career.", "He eventually spoke with such ferocious speed that stenographers had a hard time following him.Hoover was 18 years old when he accepted his first job, an entry-level position as messenger in the orders department at the Library of Congress.", "The library was a half mile from his house.", "The experience shaped both Hoover and the creation of the FBI profiles; as Hoover noted in a 1951 letter: \"This job ... trained me in the value of collating material.", "It gave me an excellent foundation for my work in the FBI where it has been necessary to collate information and evidence.", "\"Hoover obtained a Bachelor of Laws from the George Washington University Law School in 1916, where he was a member of the Alpha Nu Chapter of the Kappa Alpha Order, a southern fraternity that was born out of a desire to \"carry on the legacy of the 'incomparable flower of Southern Knighthood'\" after the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865.Some prominent Kappa Alpha alumni, who had an influence on Hoover's future beliefs, included author Thomas Dixon and John Temple Graves.", "Hoover graduated with an LL.M.", "in 1917 from the same university.", "While a law student, Hoover became interested in the career of Anthony Comstock, the New York City U.S.", "Postal Inspector, who waged prolonged campaigns against fraud, vice, pornography, and birth control." ], [ "Department of Justice", "Hoover in 1932===War Emergency Division===Immediately after getting his LL.M.", "degree, Hoover was hired by the Justice Department to work in the War Emergency Division.", "He accepted the clerkship on July 27, 1917, aged 22.The job paid $990 a year ($ in dollars) and was exempt from the draft.Hoover soon became the head of the Division's Alien Enemy Bureau, authorized by President Woodrow Wilson at the beginning of World War I to arrest and jail allegedly disloyal foreigners without trial.", "He received additional authority from the 1917 Espionage Act.", "Out of a list of 1,400 suspicious Germans living in the U.S., the Bureau arrested 98 and designated 1,172 as arrestable.===Bureau of Investigation=======Head of the Radical Division====In August 1919, the 24-year-old Hoover became head of the Bureau of Investigation's new General Intelligence Division, also known as the Radical Division because its goal was to monitor and disrupt the work of domestic radicals.", "America's First Red Scare was beginning, and one of Hoover's first assignments was to carry out the Palmer Raids.Hoover and his chosen assistant, George Ruch, monitored a variety of U.S. radicals with the intent to punish, arrest, or deport those whose politics they decided were dangerous.", "Targets during this period included Marcus Garvey; Rose Pastor Stokes and Cyril Briggs; Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman; and future Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter, who, Hoover maintained, was \"the most dangerous man in the United States.", "\"In 1920 the 25-year-old Edgar Hoover was initiated as a Freemason at D.C.'s Federal Lodge No.", "1 in Washington, D.C.", "He went on to join the Scottish Rite in which he was made a 33rd Degree Inspector General Honorary in 1955.====Head of the Bureau of Investigation====In 1921, Hoover rose in the Bureau of Investigation to deputy head, and in 1924 the Attorney General made him the acting director.", "On May 10, 1924, President Calvin Coolidge appointed Hoover as the fifth Director of the Bureau of Investigation, partly in response to allegations that the prior director, William J. Burns, was involved in the Teapot Dome scandal.", "When Hoover took over the Bureau of Investigation, it had approximately 650 employees, including 441 Special Agents.Hoover fired all female agents and banned the future hiring of them.Hoover in 1940Hoover was sometimes unpredictable in his leadership.", "He frequently fired Bureau agents, singling out those he thought \"looked stupid like truck drivers,\" or whom he considered \"pinheads.\"", "He also relocated agents who had displeased him to career-ending assignments and locations.", "Melvin Purvis was a prime example: Purvis was one of the most effective agents in capturing and breaking up 1930s gangs, and it is alleged that Hoover maneuvered him out of the Bureau because he was envious of the substantial public recognition Purvis received.In December 1929, Hoover oversaw the protection detail for the Japanese Naval Delegation who were visiting Washington, D.C., on their way to attend negotiations for the 1930 London Naval Treaty (officially called Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament).", "The Japanese delegation was greeted at Washington Union (train) Station by U.S. Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson and the Japanese Ambassador Katsuji Debuchi.", "The Japanese delegation then visited the White House to meet with President Herbert Hoover.===Depression-era gangsters===In the early 1930s, criminal gangs carried out large numbers of bank robberies in the Midwest.", "They used their superior firepower and fast getaway cars to elude local law enforcement agencies and avoid arrest.", "Many of these criminals frequently made newspaper headlines across the United States, particularly John Dillinger, who became famous for leaping over bank cages, and repeatedly escaping from jails and police traps.", "The gangsters enjoyed a level of sympathy in the Midwest, as banks and bankers were widely seen as oppressors of common people during the Great Depression.The robbers operated across state lines, and Hoover pressed to have their crimes recognized as federal offenses so that he and his men would have the authority to pursue them and get the credit for capturing them.", "Initially, the Bureau suffered some embarrassing foul-ups, in particular with Dillinger and his conspirators.", "A raid on a summer lodge in Manitowish Waters, Wisconsin, called \"Little Bohemia\", left a Bureau agent and a civilian bystander dead and others wounded; all the gangsters escaped.Video clips of famous Depression Era gangsters, including Pretty Boy Floyd, Baby Face Nelson, and Machine Gun Kelly.Hoover realized that his job was then on the line, and he pulled out all stops to capture the culprits.", "In late July 1934, Special Agent Melvin Purvis, the Director of Operations in the Chicago office, received a tip on Dillinger's whereabouts that paid off when Dillinger was located, ambushed, and killed by Bureau agents outside the Biograph Theater.Hoover was credited for overseeing several highly publicized captures or shootings of outlaws and bank robbers.", "These included those of Machine Gun Kelly in 1933, of Dillinger in 1934, and of Alvin Karpis in 1936, which led to the Bureau's powers being broadened.In 1935, the ''Bureau of Investigation'' was renamed the ''Federal Bureau of Investigation'' (FBI).", "It was not simply a name change.", "A great deal of restructuring was done.", "In fact, Hoover visited the lab of Canadian forensic scientist Wilfrid Derome twice – in 1929 and 1932 – to plan the foundation of his own FBI laboratory in the USA.", "It was the insight gained from these visits which helped him transform the BOI into FBI in 1935.In 1939, the FBI became pre-eminent in domestic intelligence, thanks in large part to changes made by Hoover, such as expanding and combining fingerprint files in the Identification Division, to compiling the largest collection of fingerprints to date, and Hoover's help to expand the FBI's recruitment and create the FBI Laboratory, a division established in 1932 to examine and analyze evidence found by the FBI.===American Mafia===During the 1930s, Hoover persistently denied the existence of organized crime, despite numerous organized crime shootings as Mafia groups struggled for control of the lucrative profits deriving from illegal alcohol sales during Prohibition, and later for control of prostitution, illegal drugs and other criminal enterprises.", "Many writers believe Hoover's denial of the Mafia's existence and his failure to use the full force of the FBI to investigate it were due to Mafia gangsters Meyer Lansky and Frank Costello's possession of embarrassing photographs of Hoover in the company of his ''protégé'', FBI Deputy Director Clyde Tolson.", "Other writers believe Costello corrupted Hoover by providing him with horseracing tips, passed through a mutual friend, gossip columnist Walter Winchell.", "Hoover had a reputation as \"an inveterate horseplayer\" and was known to send Special Agents to place $100 bets for him.", "Hoover once said the Bureau had \"much more important functions\" than arresting bookmakers and gamblers.Although Hoover built the reputation of the FBI arresting bank robbers in the 1930s, his main interest had always been Communist subversion, and during the Cold War he was able to focus the FBI's attention on these investigations.", "From the mid-1940s through the mid-50s, he paid little attention to criminal vice rackets such as illegal drugs, prostitution, extortion, and flatly denied the existence of the Mafia in the United States.", "In the 1950s, evidence of the FBI's unwillingness to investigate the Mafia became a topic of public criticism.", "After the Apalachin meeting of crime bosses in 1957, Hoover could no longer deny the existence of a nationwide crime syndicate.", "In fact, Cosa Nostra's control of the Syndicate's many branches operating criminal activities throughout North America prevailed and was heavily reported in popular newspapers and magazines.", "Hoover created the \"Top Hoodlum Program\" and went after the syndicate's top bosses throughout the country.===Investigation of subversion and radicals===Hoover investigated ex-Beatle John Lennon by putting the singer under surveillance, and Hoover wrote this letter to Richard Kleindienst, the US Attorney General in 1972.A 25-year battle by historian Jon Wiener under the Freedom of Information Act eventually resulted in the release of documents related to John Lennon, such as this one.Hoover was concerned about what he claimed was subversion, and under his leadership, the FBI investigated tens of thousands of suspected subversives and radicals.", "According to critics, Hoover tended to exaggerate the dangers of these alleged subversives and many times overstepped his bounds in his pursuit of eliminating that perceived threat.", "William G. Hundley, a Justice Department prosecutor, joked that Hoover's investigations had actually helped the American communist movement survive, as Hoover's \"informants were nearly the only ones that paid the party dues.\"", "Due to the FBI's aggressive targeting, by 1957 CPUSA membership had dwindled to less than 10,000, of whom some 1,500 were informants for the FBI.====Florida and Long Island U-boat landings====The FBI investigated rings of German saboteurs and spies starting in the late 1930s and had primary responsibility for counterespionage.", "The first arrests of German agents were made in 1938 and continued throughout World War II.", "In the Quirin affair, during World War II, German U-boats set two small groups of Nazi agents ashore in Florida and on Long Island to cause acts of sabotage within the country.", "The two teams were apprehended after one of the agents contacted the FBI and told them everything – he was also charged and convicted.====Illegal wiretapping====During this time period President Franklin D. Roosevelt, out of concern over Nazi agents in the United States, gave \"qualified permission\" to wiretap persons \"suspected ... of subversive activities\".", "He went on to add, in 1941, that the United States Attorney General had to be informed of its use in each case.The Attorney General Robert H. Jackson left it to Hoover to decide how and when to use wiretaps, as he found the \"whole business\" distasteful.", "Jackson's successor at the post of Attorney General, Francis Biddle, did turn down Hoover's requests on occasion.====Concealed espionage discoveries====In the late 1930s, President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave Hoover the task to investigate both foreign espionage in the United States and the activities of domestic communists and fascists.", "When the Cold War began in the late 1940s, the FBI under Hoover undertook the intensive surveillance of communists and other left-wing activists in the United States.The FBI also participated in the Venona project, a pre-World War II joint project with the British to eavesdrop on Soviet spies in the UK and the United States.", "They did not initially realize that espionage was being committed, but the Soviets' multiple use of one-time pad ciphers (which with single use are unbreakable) created redundancies that allowed some intercepts to be decoded.", "These established that espionage was being carried out.Hoover kept the intercepts – America's greatest counterintelligence secret – in a locked safe in his office.", "He chose not to inform President Truman, Attorney General J. Howard McGrath, or Secretaries of State Dean Acheson and General George Marshall while they held office.", "He informed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the Venona Project in 1952.====Plans for expanding the FBI to do global intelligence====After World War II, Hoover advanced plans to create a \"World-Wide Intelligence Service\".", "These plans were shot down by the Truman administration.", "Truman objected to the plan, emerging bureaucratic competitors opposed the centralization of power inherent in the plans, and there was a considerable aversion to creating an American version of the \"Gestapo\".====Plans for suspending ''habeas corpus''====In 1946, Attorney General Tom C. Clark authorized Hoover to compile a list of potentially disloyal Americans who might be detained during a wartime national emergency.", "In 1950, at the outbreak of the Korean War, Hoover submitted a plan to President Truman to suspend the writ of ''habeas corpus'' and detain 12,000 Americans suspected of disloyalty.", "Truman did not act on the plan.====COINTELPRO and the 1950s====Hoover photographed in 1959In 1956, Hoover was becoming increasingly frustrated by U.S. Supreme Court decisions that limited the Justice Department's ability to prosecute people for their political opinions, most notably communists.", "Some of his aides reported that he purposely exaggerated the threat of communism to \"ensure financial and public support for the FBI.\"", "At this time he formalized a covert \"dirty tricks\" program under the name COINTELPRO.", "COINTELPRO was first used to disrupt the Communist Party USA, where Hoover ordered observation and pursuit of targets that ranged from suspected citizen spies to larger celebrity figures, such as Charlie Chaplin, whom he saw as spreading Communist Party propaganda.COINTELPRO's methods included infiltration, burglaries, setting up illegal wiretaps, planting forged documents, and spreading false rumors about key members of target organizations.", "Some authors have charged that COINTELPRO methods also included inciting violence and arranging murders.This program remained in place until it was exposed to the public in 1971, after the burglary by a group of eight activists of many internal documents from an office in Media, Pennsylvania, whereupon COINTELPRO became the cause of some of the harshest criticism of Hoover and the FBI.", "COINTELPRO's activities were investigated in 1975 by the United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, called the \"Church Committee\" after its chairman, Senator Frank Church (D-Idaho); the committee declared COINTELPRO's activities were illegal and contrary to the Constitution.Hoover amassed significant power by collecting files containing large amounts of compromising and potentially embarrassing information on many powerful people, especially politicians.", "According to Laurence Silberman, appointed Deputy Attorney General in early 1974, FBI Director Clarence M. Kelley thought such files either did not exist or had been destroyed.", "After ''The Washington Post'' broke a story in January 1975, Kelley searched and found them in his outer office.", "The House Judiciary Committee then demanded that Silberman testify about them.===Reaction to civil rights groups===July 24, 1967.President Lyndon B. Johnson (seated, foreground) confers with (background L-R): Marvin Watson, J. Edgar Hoover, Sec.", "Robert McNamara, Gen. Harold Keith Johnson, Joe Califano, Sec.", "of the Army Stanley Rogers Resor, on responding to the Detroit riotsIn 1956, several years before he targeted Martin Luther King Jr., Hoover had a public showdown with T. R. M. Howard, a civil rights leader from Mound Bayou, Mississippi.", "During a national speaking tour, Howard had criticized the FBI's failure to investigate thoroughly the racially motivated murders of George W. Lee, Lamar Smith, and Emmett Till.", "Hoover wrote an open letter to the press singling out these statements as \"irresponsible.", "\"In the 1960s, Hoover's FBI monitored John Lennon, Malcolm X, and Muhammad Ali.", "The COINTELPRO tactics were later extended to organizations such as the Nation of Islam, the Black Panther Party, King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference and others.", "Hoover's moves against people who maintained contacts with subversive elements, some of whom were members of the civil rights movement, also led to accusations of trying to undermine their reputations.The treatment of Martin Luther King Jr. and actress Jean Seberg are two examples: Jacqueline Kennedy recalled that Hoover told President John F. Kennedy that King had tried to arrange a sex party while in the capital for the March on Washington and that Hoover told Robert F. Kennedy that King had made derogatory comments during the President's funeral.", "Under Hoover's leadership, the FBI sent an anonymous blackmail letter to King in 1964, indicating that \"There is only one thing left for you to do,\" which King interpreted as an exhortation for him to commit suicide.President Lyndon B. Johnson at the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.White House East Room.", "People watching include Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Senate Minority Leader Everett M. Dirksen, Senator Hubert Humphrey, First Lady \"Lady Bird\" Johnson, Rev.", "Martin Luther King Jr., F.B.I.", "Director J. Edgar Hoover, Speaker of the House John McCormack.", "Television cameras are broadcasting the ceremony.King's aide Andrew Young claimed in a 2013 interview with the Academy of Achievement that the main source of tension between the SCLC and FBI was the government agency's lack of black agents, and that both parties were willing to co-operate with each other by the time the Selma to Montgomery marches had taken place.In one 1965 incident, white civil rights worker Viola Liuzzo was murdered by Ku Klux Klansmen, who had given chase and fired shots into her car after noticing that her passenger was a young black man; one of the Klansmen was Gary Thomas Rowe, an acknowledged FBI informant.", "The FBI spread rumors that Liuzzo was a member of the Communist Party and had abandoned her children to have sexual relationships with African Americans involved in the civil rights movement.", "FBI records show that Hoover personally communicated these insinuations to President Lyndon B. Johnson.Hoover also personally ordered to cease the Federal inquiry into the 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing by members of the Ku Klux Klan that killed four girls.", "By May 1965, local investigators and the FBI had identified suspects in the bombing and witnesses, and this information was relayed to Hoover.", "No prosecutions of the four suspects ensued, however, even though the evidence was reportedly \"so strong that even a white Alabama jury would convict\".", "There had been a history of mistrust between local and federal investigators.", "Hoover wrote in a memo that the chances of a conviction were remote and told his agents not to share their results with federal or state prosecutors.", "In 1968, the FBI formally closed their investigation into the bombing without filing charges against any of their named suspects.", "The files were sealed by order of Hoover.Hoover in 1970 personally authorized \"black-bag\" jobs against the Weather Underground per testimony from William C. Sullivan.===Late career and death===One of his biographers, Kenneth Ackerman, wrote that the allegation that Hoover's secret files kept presidents from firing him \"is a myth.\"", "However, Richard Nixon was recorded in 1971 as stating that one of the reasons he would not fire Hoover was that he was afraid of Hoover's reprisals against him.", "Similarly, Presidents Harry Truman and John F. Kennedy considered dismissing Hoover as FBI Director, but ultimately concluded that the political cost of doing so would be too great.", "In 1964, Hoover's FBI investigated Jack Valenti, a special assistant and confidant of President Lyndon Johnson, married to Johnson's personal secretary, but who allegedly maintained gay relationship with a commercial photographer friend.Hoover personally directed the FBI investigation of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.", "In 1964, just days before Hoover testified in the earliest stages of the Warren Commission hearings, President Lyndon B. Johnson waived the then-mandatory U.S. Government Service Retirement Age of 70, allowing Hoover to remain the FBI Director \"for an indefinite period of time\".", "The House Select Committee on Assassinations issued a report in 1979 critical of the performance by the FBI, the Warren Commission, and other agencies.", "The report criticized the FBI's (Hoover's) reluctance to investigate thoroughly the possibility of a conspiracy to assassinate the President.When Richard Nixon took office in January 1969, Hoover had just turned 74.There was a growing sentiment in Washington, D.C., that the aging FBI chief should retire, but Hoover's power and friends in Congress remained too strong for him to be forced to do so.Hoover remained director of the FBI until he died of a heart attack in his Washington home, on May 2, 1972, whereupon operational command of the Bureau was passed onto Associate Director Clyde Tolson.", "On May 3, 1972, Nixon appointed L. Patrick Gray – a Justice Department official with no FBI experience – as acting director of the FBI, with W. Mark Felt becoming associate director.Hoover's body lay in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol, where Chief Justice Warren Burger eulogized him.", "Up to that time, Hoover was the only civil servant to have lain in state, according to ''The New York Daily News''.", "At the time, ''The New York Times'' observed that this was \"an honor accorded to only 21 persons before, of whom eight were Presidents or former Presidents.\"", "President Nixon delivered another eulogy at the funeral service in the National Presbyterian Church, and called Hoover \"one of the Giants, whose long life brimmed over with magnificent achievement and dedicated service to this country which he loved so well\".", "Hoover was buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C., next to the graves of his parents and a sister who had died in infancy." ], [ "Legacy", "FBI Headquarters in Washington, DCBiographer Kenneth D. Ackerman summarizes Hoover's legacy thus:For better or worse, he built the FBI into a modern, national organization stressing professionalism and scientific crime-fighting.", "For most of his life, Americans considered him a hero.", "He made the G-Man brand so popular that, at its height, it was harder to become an FBI agent than to be accepted into an Ivy League college.Hoover worked to groom the image of the FBI in American media; he was a consultant to Warner Brothers for a theatrical film about the FBI, ''The FBI Story'' (1959), and in 1965 on Warner's long-running spin-off television series, ''The F.B.I.''U.S.", "President Harry S Truman said that Hoover transformed the FBI into his private secret police force:... we want no Gestapo or secret police.", "The FBI is tending in that direction.", "They are dabbling in sex-life scandals and plain blackmail.", "J. Edgar Hoover would give his right eye to take over, and all congressmen and senators are afraid of him.Because Hoover's actions came to be seen as abuses of power, FBI directors are now limited to one 10-year term, subject to extension by the United States Senate.Jacob Heilbrunn, journalist and senior editor at ''The'' ''National Interest'' gives a mixed assessment of Hoover's legacy:The FBI Headquarters in Washington, D.C. is named the J. Edgar Hoover Building, after Hoover.", "Because of the controversial nature of Hoover's legacy, both Republicans and Democrats have periodically introduced legislation in the House and Senate to rename it.", "The first such proposal came just two months after the building's inauguration.", "On December 12, 1979, Gilbert Gude – a Republican congressman from Maryland – introduced H.R.", "11137, which would have changed the name of the edifice from the \"J. Edgar Hoover F.B.I.", "Building\" to simply the \"F.B.I.", "Building\".", "However, that bill never made it out of committee, nor did two subsequent attempts by Gude.", "Another notable attempt came in 1993 when Democratic Senator Howard Metzenbaum pushed for a name change following a new report about Hoover's ordered \"loyalty investigation\" of future Senator Quentin Burdick.", "In 1998, Democratic Senator Harry Reid sponsored an amendment to strip Hoover's name from the building, stating that \"J. Edgar Hoover's name on the FBI building is a stain on the building.\"", "The Senate did not adopt the amendment.", "The building is \"aging\" and \"deteriorating\" and its naming might eventually be made moot by the FBI moving its headquarters to a new suburban site.Hoover's practice of violating civil liberties for the stated sake of national security has been questioned in reference to recent national surveillance programs.", "An example is a lecture titled ''Civil Liberties and National Security: Did Hoover Get it Right?", "'', given at The Institute of World Politics on April 21, 2015." ], [ "Private life", "Hoover with Bebe Rebozo (left) and Richard Nixon.", "The three men relax before dinner, Key Biscayne, Florida, December 1971.===Pets===Hoover received his first dog from his parents when he was a child, after which he was never without one.", "He owned many throughout his lifetime and became an aficionado especially knowledgeable in breeding of pedigrees, particularly Cairn Terriers and Beagles.", "He gave many dogs to notable people, such as Presidents Herbert Hoover (not closely related) and Lyndon B. Johnson, and buried seven canine pets, including a Cairn Terrier named Spee De Bozo, at Aspen Hill Memorial Park, in Silver Spring, Maryland.===Sexuality===From the 1940s, rumors circulated that Hoover, who was still living with his mother in his early 40s, was homosexual.", "The historians John Stuart Cox and Athan G. Theoharis speculated that Clyde Tolson, who became an assistant director to Hoover in his mid 40s and became his primary heir, had a sexual relationship with Hoover until the latter's death.", "Hoover reportedly hunted down and threatened anyone who made insinuations about his sexuality.", "Truman Capote, who enjoyed repeating salacious rumors about Hoover, once remarked that he was more interested in making Hoover angry than determining whether the rumors were true.", "On May 2, 1969, ''Screw'' published the first reference in print to Hoover's sexuality, titled \"Is J. Edgar Hoover a Fag?", "\"Some associates and scholars dismiss rumors about Hoover's sexuality, and rumors about his relationship with Tolson in particular, as unlikely, while others have described them as probable or even \"confirmed\".", "Still other scholars have reported the rumors without expressing an opinion.Cox and Theoharis concluded that \"the strange likelihood is that Hoover never knew sexual desire at all.\"", "Anthony Summers, who wrote ''Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover'' (1993), stated that there was no ambiguity about the FBI director's sexual proclivities and described him as \"bisexual with failed heterosexuality.", "\"====Hoover and Tolson====Hoover and his assistant Clyde Tolson sitting in beach lounge chairs, c. 1939Hoover described Tolson as his alter ego: the men worked closely together during the day and, both single, frequently took meals, went to night clubs, and vacationed together.", "This closeness between the two men is often cited as evidence that they were lovers.", "Some FBI employees who knew them, such as Mark Felt, say the relationship was \"brotherly\"; however, former FBI executive assistant director Mike Mason suggested that some of Hoover's colleagues denied that he had a sexual relationship with Tolson in an effort to protect Hoover's image.The novelist William Styron told Summers that he once saw Hoover and Tolson in a California beach house, where the director was painting his friend's toenails.", "Harry Hay, founder of the Mattachine Society, one of the first gay rights organizations, said Hoover and Tolson sat in boxes owned by and used exclusively by gay men at the Del Mar racetrack in California.Hoover bequeathed his estate to Tolson, who moved into Hoover's house after Hoover died.", "Tolson accepted the American flag that draped Hoover's casket.", "Tolson is buried a few yards away from Hoover in the Congressional Cemetery.====Other romantic allegations====One of Hoover's biographers, Richard Hack, does not believe the director was gay.", "Hack notes that Hoover was romantically linked to actress Dorothy Lamour in the late 1930s and early 1940s and that after Hoover's death, Lamour did not deny rumors that she had had an affair with him.Hack further reported that, during the 1940s and 1950s, Hoover attended social events with Lela Rogers, the divorced mother of dancer and actress Ginger Rogers, so often that many of their mutual friends assumed the pair would eventually marry.====Pornography for blackmail====Hoover kept a large collection of pornographic material, possibly the world's largest, of films, photographs, and written materials, with particular emphasis on nude photos of celebrities.", "He reportedly used these for his own titillation and held them for blackmail purposes.====Cross-dressing story====Lewis Rosenstiel, founder of Schenley Industries, was a close friend of Hoover's and the primary contributor to the J. Edgar Hoover Foundation.", "In his biography ''Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover'' (1993), journalist Anthony Summers quoted Rosenstiel's fourth wife, Susan, as claiming to have seen Hoover engaging in cross-dressing in the 1950s at all-male parties at the Plaza Hotel with Rosenstiel, attorney Roy Cohn, and young male prostitutes.Another Hoover biographer, Burton Hersh, later corroborated this story.Summers alleged the Mafia had blackmail material on Hoover, which made Hoover reluctant to pursue organized crime aggressively.", "According to Summers, organized crime figures Meyer Lansky and Frank Costello obtained photos of Hoover having sex with Tolson and used them to ensure that the FBI did not target their illegal activities.", "Additionally, Summers claimed that Hoover was friends with Billy Byars Jr., an alleged child pornographer and producer of the film ''The Genesis Children''.Another Hoover biographer who heard the rumors of homosexuality and blackmail, however, said he was unable to corroborate them, though it has been acknowledged that Lansky and other organized crime figures had frequently been allowed to visit the Del Charro Hotel in La Jolla, California, which was owned by Hoover's friend, and staunch Lyndon Johnson supporter, Clint Murchison Sr. Hoover and Tolson also frequently visited the Del Charro Hotel.", "Summers quoted a source named Charles Krebs as saying, \"on three occasions that I knew about, maybe four, boys were driven down to La Jolla at Hoover's request.", "\"Skeptics of the cross-dressing story point to Susan Rosenstiel's lack of credibility (she pleaded guilty to attempted perjury in a 1971 case and later served time in a New York City jail).", "Recklessly indiscreet behavior by Hoover would have been totally out of character, whatever his sexuality.", "Most biographers consider the story of Mafia blackmail unlikely in light of the FBI's continuing investigations of the Mafia.Although never corroborated, the allegation of cross-dressing has been widely repeated.", "In the words of author Thomas Doherty, \"For American popular culture, the image of the zaftig FBI director as a Christine Jorgensen wanna-be was too delicious not to savor.\"", "Biographer Kenneth Ackerman says that Summers' accusations have been \"widely debunked by historians\".The journalist Liz Smith wrote that Cohn told her about Hoover's rumored transvestism \"long before it became common gossip.", "\"====Lavender Scare====The attorney Roy Cohn served as general counsel on the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations during Senator Joseph McCarthy's tenure as chairman and assisted Hoover during the 1950s investigations of Communists and was generally known to be a closeted homosexual.", "According to Richard Hack, Cohn's opinion was that Hoover was too frightened of his own sexuality to have anything approaching a normal sexual or romantic relationship.", "Some of Cohn's former clients, including Bill Bonanno, son of crime boss Joseph Bonanno, also cite photographs of Hoover in drag allegedly possessed by Cohn.During the Lavender scare, Cohn and McCarthy further enhanced anti-Communist fervor by suggesting that Communists overseas had convinced several closeted homosexuals within the U.S. government to leak important government information in exchange for the assurance that their sexual identity would remain a secret.", "A federal investigation that followed convinced President Dwight D. Eisenhower to sign Executive Order 10450 on April 29, 1953, that barred homosexuals from obtaining jobs at the federal level.In his 2004 study of the event, historian David K. Johnson attacked the speculations about Hoover's homosexuality as relying on \"the kind of tactics Hoover and the security program he oversaw perfected: guilt by association, rumor, and unverified gossip.\"", "He views Rosenstiel as a liar who was paid for her story, whose \"description of Hoover in drag engaging in sex with young blond boys in leather while desecrating the Bible is clearly a homophobic fantasy.\"", "He believes only those who have forgotten the virulence of the decades-long campaign against homosexuals in government can believe reports that Hoover appeared in compromising situations.====Supportive friends====Some people associated with Hoover have supported the rumors about his homosexuality.", "According to Anthony Summers, Hoover often frequented New York City's Stork Club.", "Luisa Stuart, a model who was 18 or 19 at the time, told Summers that she had seen Hoover holding hands with Tolson as they all rode in a limo uptown to the Cotton Club in 1936.Actress and singer Ethel Merman was a friend of Hoover's since 1938, and familiar with all parties during his alleged romance of Lela Rogers.", "In a 1978 interview and in response to Anita Bryant's anti-gay campaign, she said: \"Some of my best friends are homosexual: Everybody knew about J. Edgar Hoover, but he was the best chief the FBI ever had.\"" ], [ "Written works", "J. Edgar Hoover was the nominal author of a number of books and articles, although it is widely believed that all of these were ghostwritten by FBI employees.", "Hoover received the credit and royalties.", "***" ], [ "Honors", "1938: Oklahoma Baptist University awarded Hoover an honorary doctorate during commencement exercises, at which he spoke.", "1939: the National Academy of Sciences awarded Hoover its Public Welfare Medal.", "1950: King George VI of the United Kingdom appoints Hoover Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.", "1955: President Dwight D. Eisenhower awarded Hoover the National Security Medal.", "1966: President Lyndon B. Johnson bestowed the State Department's Distinguished Service Award on Hoover for his service as director of the FBI.", "1973: The newly built FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C., was named the J. Edgar Hoover Building.", "1974: Congress voted to honor Hoover's memory by publishing a memorial book, ''J.", "Edgar Hoover: Memorial Tributes in the Congress of the United States and Various Articles and Editorials Relating to His Life and Work''.", "1974: In Schaumburg, Illinois, a grade school was named after J. Edgar Hoover.", "However, in 1994, after information about Hoover's illegal activities was released, the school's name was changed to commemorate Herbert Hoover instead." ], [ "Theater and media portrayals", "Hoover has been portrayed by numerous actors in films and stage productions featuring him as FBI Director.", "The first known portrayal was by Kent Rogers in the 1941 Looney Tunes short \"Hollywood Steps Out\".", "Some notable portrayals (listed chronologically) include: Hoover portrayed himself (filmed from behind) in a cameo, addressing FBI agents in the 1959 film ''The FBI Story''.", "* Dorothi Fox \"portrayed\" Hoover in disguise in the 1971 film ''Bananas''.", "* Broderick Crawford and James Wainwright in the Larry Cohen film ''The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover'' (1977).", "* Dolph Sweet in the television miniseries ''King'' (1978).", "* Sheldon Leonard in the William Friedkin film ''The Brink's Job'' (1978).", "* Ernest Borgnine in the television film ''Blood Feud'' (1983).", "* Vincent Gardenia in the television miniseries ''Kennedy'' (1983).", "* Jack Warden in the television film ''Hoover vs.", "The Kennedys'' (1987).", "* Treat Williams in the television film ''J.", "Edgar Hoover'' (1987).", "* Kevin Dunn in the film ''Chaplin'' (1992).", "* Pat Hingle in the television film ''Citizen Cohn'' (1992).", "* Richard Dysart in the television film ''Marilyn & Bobby: Her Final Affair'' (1993)* Kelsey Grammer portrayed Hoover, with John Goodman as Tolson, in the Harry Shearer comic musical ''J.", "Edgar!''", "at The Guest Quarters Suite Hotel in Santa Monica (1994).", "* Richard Dysart in the theatrical film ''Panther'' (1995).", "* Bob Hoskins in the Oliver Stone drama ''Nixon'' (1995).", "* Wayne Tippit in two episodes of ''Dark Skies'' (1996) and (1997).", "* David Fredericks in the episodes \"Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man\" (1996) and \"Travelers\" (1998) of ''The X-Files''.", "* David Fredericks in the episode \"Matryoshka\" (1999) of ''Millennium''.", "* Ernest Borgnine in the theatrical film ''Hoover'' (2000).", "* Larry Drake in the Robert Dyke film ''Timequest'' (2002).", "* Ryan Drummond voiced him in the Bethesda Softworks game ''Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth'' (2005).", "* Billy Crudup in the Michael Mann film ''Public Enemies'' (2009).", "* Enrico Colantoni in the television miniseries ''The Kennedys'' (2011).", "* Leonardo DiCaprio in the Clint Eastwood biopic ''J.", "Edgar'' (2011).", "* William Harrison-Wallace in the Dollar Baby 2012 screen adaptation of Stephen King's short story, \"The Death of Jack Hamilton\" (2001).", "* Rob Riggle in the \"Atlanta\" (2013) episode of Comedy Central's ''Drunk History''.", "* Eric Ladin in the HBO series ''Boardwalk Empire'', season 4 (2013).", "* Michael McKean in Robert Schenkkan's play ''All the Way'' at the American Repertory Theater (2013).", "* Sean McNall in the movie ''No God, No Master'' (2014).", "* Dylan Baker in Ava DuVernay's Martin Luther King Jr. biopic ''Selma'' (2014).", "* Stephen Root in the HBO television film ''All the Way'' (2016).", "* T. R. Knight in the National Geographic television series ''Genius'' (2017).", "* William Forsythe in the Amazon television series ''The Man in the High Castle'' (2018).", "* Stephen Stanton in the film ''Bad Times at the El Royale'' (2018)* Martin Sheen in the film ''Judas and the Black Messiah'' (2021).", "* Giacomo Baessato in the CW television series ''Legends of Tomorrow'' (2021)." ], [ "See also", "Deep state in the United StatesG-ManHarry J. AnslingerHelen GandyMcCarthyism" ], [ "References", "===Citations====== General and cited references === – Total pages: 848 \"The Secret File on J. Edgar Hoover\".", "''Frontline'' episode #11.4 (1993)." ], [ "Further reading", "* Caballero, Raymond.", "''McCarthyism vs. Clinton Jencks''.", "Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.", "* Cecil, Matthew (2016).", "''Branding Hoover's FBI: How the Boss's PR Men Sold the Bureau to America''.", "Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2016.", "**** * Martin, Lerone A.", "(Feb. 2023) The Gospel of J. Edgar Hoover: How the FBI Aided and Abetted the Rise of White Christian Nationalism *" ], [ "External links", "*****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Thurber" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Grover Thurber''' (December 8, 1894 – November 2, 1961) was an American cartoonist, writer, humorist, journalist and playwright.", "He was best known for his cartoons and short stories, published mainly in ''The New Yorker'' and collected in his numerous books.Thurber was one of the most popular humorists of his time and celebrated the comic frustrations and eccentricities of ordinary people.", "His works have frequently been adapted into films, including ''The Male Animal'' (1942), ''The Battle of the Sexes'' (1959, based on Thurber's \"The Catbird Seat\"), and ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty'' (adapted twice, in 1947 and in 2013)." ], [ "Life", "Thurber was born in Columbus, Ohio, to Charles L. Thurber and Mary Agnes \"Mame\" (née Fisher) Thurber on December 8, 1894.Both of his parents greatly influenced his work.", "His father was a sporadically employed clerk and minor politician who dreamed of being a lawyer or an actor.", "Thurber described his mother as a \"born comedian\" and \"one of the finest comic talents I think I have ever known.\"", "She was a practical joker and, on one occasion, pretended to be disabled and attended a faith healer revival, only to jump up and proclaim herself healed.Thurber at age 14When Thurber was seven years old, he and one of his brothers were playing a game of William Tell, when his brother shot James in the eye with an arrow.", "He lost that eye, and the injury later caused him to become almost entirely blind.", "He was unable to participate in sports and other activities in his childhood because of this injury, but he developed a creative mind, which he used to express himself in writings.", "Neurologist V. S. Ramachandran suggests that Thurber's imagination may be partly explained by Charles Bonnet syndrome, a neurological condition that causes complex visual hallucinations in people who have had some level of visual loss.", "(This was the basis for the piece \"The Admiral on the Wheel\".", ")High school graduation photo, East High SchoolThurber family portrait taken in Columbus, Ohio in 1915.From left to right: seated: Robert and Charles.", "Back row: William, James, and MameFrom 1913 to 1918, Thurber attended Ohio State University where he was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity and editor of the student magazine, the Sundial.", "It was during this time he rented the house on 77 Jefferson Avenue, which became Thurber House in 1984.He never graduated from the university because his poor eyesight prevented him from taking a mandatory Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) course.", "In 1995 he was posthumously awarded a degree.The Thurber House in Columbus, OhioFrom 1918 to 1920, Thurber worked as a code clerk for the United States Department of State, first in Washington, D.C., and then at the embassy in Paris.", "On returning to Columbus, he began his career as a reporter for ''The Columbus Dispatch'' from 1921 to 1924.During part of this time, he reviewed books, films, and plays in a weekly column called \"Credos and Curios\", a title that was given to a posthumous collection of his work.", "Thurber returned to Paris during this period, where he wrote for the ''Chicago Tribune'' and other newspapers.===Move to New York===In 1925, Thurber moved to Greenwich Village in New York City, obtaining a job as a reporter with the ''New York Evening Post''.", "He joined the staff of ''The New Yorker'' in 1927 as an editor, with the help of E. B.", "White, his friend and fellow ''New Yorker'' contributor.", "His career as a cartoonist began in 1930 after White found some of Thurber's drawings in a trash can and submitted them for publication; White inked-in some of these earlier drawings to make them reproduce better for the magazine, and years later expressed deep regret he had done such a thing.", "Thurber contributed both his writings and his drawings to ''The New Yorker'' until the 1950s.===Marriage and family===Thurber married Althea Adams in 1922, although the marriage, as he later wrote to a friend, devolved into “a relationship charming, fine, and hurting.” They lived in the Sanford–Curtis–Thurber House, in Fairfield County, Connecticut, with their daughter Rosemary (b.", "1931).", "The marriage ended in divorce in May 1935, and Althea kept Sanford–Curtis–Thurber House.", "He married his editor, Helen Muriel Wismer (1902–1986) in June 1935.After meeting Mark Van Doren on a ferry to Martha's Vineyard, Thurber began summering in Cornwall, Connecticut, along with many other prominent artists and authors of the time.", "After three years of renting, Thurber found a home, which he referred to as \"The Great Good Place\", in Cornwall, Connecticut.===Death===Thurber's behavior became erratic and unpredictable in his last year.", "Thurber was stricken with a blood clot on the brain on October 4, 1961, and underwent emergency surgery, drifting in and out of consciousness.", "Although the operation was initially successful, Thurber died a few weeks later, on November 2, aged 66, due to complications from pneumonia.", "The doctors said his brain was senescent from several small strokes and hardening of the arteries.", "His last words, aside from the repeated word \"God\", were \"God bless... God damn\", according to his wife, Helen." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "* Established in 1997, the annual Thurber Prize honors outstanding examples of American humor.", "* In 2008, the Library of America selected Thurber's story, \"A Sort of Genius\", first published in ''The New Yorker'', for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American True Crime.", "* Two of his residences have been listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places: his childhood Thurber House in Ohio and the Sanford–Curtis–Thurber House in Fairfield County, Connecticut." ], [ "Career", "Thurber also became well known for his simple, outlandish drawings and cartoons.", "Both his literary and his drawing skills were helped along by the support of, and collaboration with, fellow ''New Yorker'' staff member E. B.", "White, who insisted that Thurber's sketches could stand on their own as artistic expressions.", "Thurber drew six covers and numerous classic illustrations for ''The New Yorker''.===Writer===Many of Thurber's short stories are humorous fictional memoirs from his life, but he also wrote darker material, such as \"The Whip-Poor-Will\", a story of madness and murder.", "His best-known short stories are \"The Dog That Bit People\" and \"The Night the Bed Fell\"; they can be found in ''My Life and Hard Times'', which was his \"break-out\" book.", "Among his other classics are \"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty\", \"The Catbird Seat\", \"The Night the Ghost Got In\", \"A Couple of Hamburgers\", \"The Greatest Man in the World\", and \"If Grant Had Been Drinking at Appomattox\".", "''The Middle-Aged Man on the Flying Trapeze'' has several short stories with a tense undercurrent of marital discord.", "The book was published the year of his divorce and remarriage.Although his 1941 story \"You Could Look It Up\", about a three-foot adult being brought in to take a walk in a baseball game, has been said to have inspired Bill Veeck's stunt with Eddie Gaedel with the St. Louis Browns in 1951, Veeck claimed an older provenance for the stunt.In addition to his other fiction, Thurber wrote over seventy-five fables, some of which were first published in ''The New Yorker'' (1939), then collected in ''Fables for Our Time and Famous Poems Illustrated'' (1940) and ''Further Fables for Our Time'' (1956).", "These were short stories that featured anthropomorphic animals (e.g.", "\"The Little Girl and the Wolf\", his version of Little Red Riding Hood) as main characters, and ended with a moral as a tagline.", "An exception to this format was his most famous fable, \"The Unicorn in the Garden\", which featured an all-human cast except for the unicorn, which doesn't speak.", "Thurber's fables were satirical, and the morals served as punch lines as well as advice to the reader, demonstrating \"the complexity of life by depicting the world as an uncertain, precarious place, where few reliable guidelines exist.\"", "His stories also included several book-length fairy tales, such as ''The White Deer'' (1945), ''The 13 Clocks'' (1950) and ''The Wonderful O'' (1957).", "The latter two were among several of Thurber's works illustrated by Marc Simont.", "Thurber's prose for ''The New Yorker'' and other venues included numerous humorous essays.", "A favorite subject, especially toward the end of his life, was the English language.", "Pieces on this subject included \"The Spreading 'You Know',\" which decried the overuse of that pair of words in conversation, \"The New Vocabularianism\", and \"What Do You Mean It ''Was'' Brillig?\".", "His short pieces – whether stories, essays or something in between – were referred to as \"casuals\" by Thurber and the staff of ''The New Yorker''.Thurber wrote a five-part ''New Yorker'' series, between 1947 and 1948, examining in depth the radio soap opera phenomenon, based on near-constant listening and researching over the same period.", "Leaving nearly no element of these programs unexamined, including their writers, producers, sponsors, performers, and listeners alike, Thurber republished the series in his anthology, ''The Beast in Me and Other Animals'' (1948), under the section title \"Soapland.\"", "The series was one of the first to examine such a pop-culture phenomenon in depth.The last twenty years of Thurber's life were filled with material and professional success in spite of his blindness.", "He published at least fourteen books in that era, including ''The Thurber Carnival'' (1945), ''Thurber Country'' (1953), and the extremely popular book about ''New Yorker'' founder/editor Harold Ross, ''The Years with Ross'' (1959).", "A number of his short stories were made into movies, including ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty'' in 1947.===Cartoonist===While Thurber drew his cartoons in the usual fashion in the 1920s and 1930s, his failing eyesight later required changes.", "He drew them on very large sheets of paper using a thick black crayon (or on black paper using white chalk, from which they were photographed and the colors reversed for publication).", "Regardless of method, his cartoons became as noted as his writings; they possessed an eerie, wobbly feel that seems to mirror his idiosyncratic view on life.", "He once wrote that people said it looked like he drew them under water.", "Dorothy Parker, a contemporary and friend of Thurber, referred to his cartoons as having the \"semblance of unbaked cookies\".", "The last drawing Thurber completed was a self-portrait in yellow crayon on black paper, which was featured as the cover of ''Time'' magazine on July 9, 1951.The same drawing was used for the dust jacket of ''The Thurber Album'' (1952).===Adaptations===Thurber teamed with college schoolmate (and actor/director) Elliott Nugent to write ''The Male Animal,'' a comic drama that became a major Broadway hit in 1939.The play was adapted as a film by the same name in 1942, starring Henry Fonda, Olivia de Havilland and Jack Carson.", "In 1947 his short story \"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty\", was loosely adapted as a film by the same name.", "Danny Kaye played the title character.", "In 1951 United Productions of America announced an animated feature to be based on Thurber's work, titled ''Men, Women and Dogs''.", "The only part of the ambitious project that was eventually released was the UPA cartoon ''The Unicorn in the Garden'' (1953).", "In 1958, Thurber's short story \"One Is a Wanderer\" was adapted for General Electric Theatre, resulting in Emmy nominations for writer Samuel Taylor and director Herschel Daugherty.", "* The 1959 film ''The Battle of the Sexes'' was based on Thurber's 1942 short story \"The Catbird Seat\".", "In 1960, Thurber fulfilled a long-standing desire to be on the professional stage and played himself in 88 performances of the revue ''A Thurber Carnival'' (which echoes the title of his 1945 book, ''The Thurber Carnival'').", "It was based on a selection of Thurber's stories and cartoon captions.", "Thurber appeared in the sketch \"File and Forget\".", "The sketch consists of Thurber dictating a series of letters in a vain attempt to keep one of his publishers from sending him books he did not order, and the escalating confusion of the replies.", "Thurber received a Special Tony Award for the adapted script of the ''Carnival''.", "In 1961, \"The Secret Life of James Thurber\" aired on ''The DuPont Show with June Allyson''.", "Adolphe Menjou appeared in the program as Fitch, and Orson Bean and Sue Randall portrayed John and Ellen Monroe.", "In 1969–70, a full series based on Thurber's writings and life, titled ''My World... and Welcome to It,'' was broadcast on NBC.", "It starred William Windom as the Thurber figure.", "Featuring animated portions in addition to live actors, the show won a 1970 Emmy Award as the year's best comedy series.", "Windom won an Emmy as well.", "He went on to perform Thurber material in a one-man stage show.", "In 1972 another film adaptation, ''The War Between Men and Women'', starring Jack Lemmon, concludes with an animated version of Thurber's classic anti-war work \"The Last Flower\".", "In 2013, a new adaptation of ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty'', starring Ben Stiller as the title character." ], [ "In popular culture", "Beginning during his own father's terminal illness, television broadcaster Keith Olbermann read excerpts from Thurber's short stories during the closing segment of his MSNBC program ''Countdown with Keith Olbermann'' on Fridays, which he called \"Fridays with Thurber.\"", "He reintroduced this during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, reading Thurber stories daily at 8:00 p.m. EDT on Twitter.", "On an episode of Norm Macdonald's video podcast, ''Norm Macdonald Live'', Norm tells a story in which comedian Larry Miller acknowledges that his biggest influence in comedy was Thurber.", "In 2021 film ''The French Dispatch'' by Wes Anderson, he was mentioned in the end title credits as inspiration." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===''Is Sex Necessary?", "Or, Why You Feel the Way You Do'', (1929 with E. B.", "White), ::75th anniv.", "edition (2004) with foreword by John Updike, ''The Owl in the Attic and Other Perplexities'', 1931''The Seal in the Bedroom and Other Predicaments'', 1932''My Life and Hard Times'', 1933 ''The Middle-Aged Man on the Flying Trapeze'', 1935''Let Your Mind Alone!", "and Other More Or Less Inspirational Pieces'', 1937''The Last Flower'', 1939, reissued 2007 ''Fables for Our Time and Famous Poems Illustrated'', 1940 ''My World—And Welcome to It'', 1942 ''Men, Women and Dogs'', 1943''The Thurber Carnival'' (anthology), 1945, , :: (Modern Library Edition)''The Beast in Me and Other Animals'', 1948 ''The Thurber Album'', 1952''Thurber Country'', 1953''Thurber's Dogs'', 1955''Further Fables for Our Time'', 1956''Alarms and Diversions'' (anthology), 1957''The Years with Ross'', 1959 ''Lanterns and Lances'', 1961===Children's books===''Many Moons'', 1943''The Great Quillow'', 1944''The White Deer'', 1945''The 13 Clocks'', 1950''The Wonderful O'', 1957===Plays===''The Male Animal'', 1940 (with Elliott Nugent)''A Thurber Carnival'', 1960===Posthumous books===''Credos and Curios'', 1962 (ed.", "Helen W. Thurber)''Thurber & Company'', 1966 (ed.", "Helen W. Thurber)''Selected Letters of James Thurber'', 1981 (ed.", "Helen W. Thurber & Edward Weeks) ''Collecting Himself: James Thurber on Writing and Writers, Humor and Himself'', 1989 (ed.", "Michael J. Rosen)''Thurber on Crime'', 1991 (ed.", "Robert Lopresti) ''People Have More Fun Than Anybody: A Centennial Celebration of Drawings and Writings by James Thurber'', 1994 (ed.", "Michael J. Rosen) ''James Thurber: Writings and Drawings'' (anthology), 1996, (ed.", "Garrison Keillor), Library of America, ''The Dog Department: James Thurber on Hounds, Scotties, and Talking Poodles'', 2001 (ed.", "Michael J. Rosen) ''The Thurber Letters: The Wit, Wisdom, and Surprising Life of James Thurber'', 2002 (ed.", "Harrison Kinney, with Rosemary A. Thurber) ''Collected Fables'', 2019 (ed.", "Michael J. Rosen), ISBN''A Mile and a Half of Lines: The Art of James Thurber'', 2019 (ed.", "Michael J. Rosen) ===Short stories=== “A Box to Hide In”* \"The Admiral on the Wheel\"* \"A Couple of Hamburgers\"* \"A Ride with Olympy\"* \"A Sequence of Servants\"* \"The Bear Who Let it Alone\"* \"The Black Magic of Barney Haller\"* \"The Breaking Up of the Winships\", 1945* \"The Cane in the Corridor\"* \"The Car We Had to Push\"* \"The Catbird Seat\", 1942* \"The Crow and the Oriole\"* \"The Curb in the Sky\"* \"The Day the Dam Broke\"* \"The Departure of Emma Inch\"* \"Destructive Forces Life\"* \"Doc Marlowe\"* \"Draft Board Nights\"* \"File and Forget\"* \"If Grant had been Drinking at Appomattox\"* \"More Alarms at Night\"* \"Mr. Preble Gets Rid of His Wife\"* \"Oh When I Was...\"* \"One is a Wanderer\"* \"Sex Ex Machina\"* \"Snapshot of a Dog\"* \"The Dog That Bit People\"* \"The Evening's at Seven\"* \"The Figgerin' Of Aunt Wilma\"* “A Friend to Alexander”* \"The Glass in the Field\"* \"The Greatest Man in the World\"* \"The Lady on 142\"* \"The Little Girl and the Wolf\"* \"The Macbeth Murder Mystery\", 1937 * \"The Man Who Hated Moonbaum\"* \"The Moth and the Star\"* \"The Night the Bed Fell\"* \"The Night the Ghost Got In\"* \"The Owl Who Was God\"\"The Peacelike Mongoose\" \"The Princess and the Tin Box\"* \"The Rabbits Who Caused All the Trouble\"* \"The Remarkable Case of Mr.Bruhl\"* \"The Scotty Who Knew Too Much\"* \"The Seal Who Became Famous\"* \"The Secret Life of James Thurber\", 1943* \"The Secret Life of Walter Mitty\"* \"The Sheep in Wolf's Clothing\", 1939* \"The Subjunctive Mood\", 1929* \"The Tiger Who Was to Be King\"* \"The Topaz Cuff Links Mystery\"* \"The Unicorn in the Garden\"* \"The Whip-Poor-Will\"* \"The Wood Duck\"* \"University Days\"* \"What Do You Mean It Was Brillig?", "\"* \"You Could Look It Up\", 1941" ], [ "Further reading", "===Interviews===::Transcript of Alistair Cookes Interview With James Thurber on ''Omnibus (U.S. TV series)'' ===Biographies of Thurber===* Bernstein, Burton.", "1975.''Thurber''.", "William Morrow & Co. * Fensch, Thomas.", "2001.", "''The Man Who Was Walter Mitty: The Life and Work of James Thurber''.", "* Grauer, Neil A.", "1994.", "''Remember Laughter: A Life of James Thurber''.", "University of Nebraska Press.", "* Kinney, Harrison.", "1995.", "''James Thurber: His Life and Times''.", "Henry Holt & Co. ===Literature review===* Holmes, Charles S.", "1972.", "''The Clocks Of Columbus: The Literary Career of James Thurber'' Atheneum." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Battle of the Sexes'' (1959 film) based on \"The Catbird Seat\"* Walter Mitty, expression" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official Website of James Thurber – overseen by the Thurber estate and editor Michael J. Rosen:Provided to YouTube by Masterworks Broadway; ℗ Originally released 1960 Sony Music Entertainment Pathfinder: James Grover Thurber – links portal* ''The Last Flower'' – ballet after an idea by James Thurber; 1975* Origins of \"the Thurber Dog\"* – 1982 dramatization of the James Thurber short story;The Ohio State University Libraries Rare Books and Manuscripts Collection* The James Thurber Papers* Charles S. Holmes Research for The Clocks of Columbus* The Harrison Kinney Archive for James Thurber: His Life and Times;Works* * ''New Yorker'' magazine digital archive – abstracts of 1,758 Thurber short stories, poems, cartoons and commentaries* a list of James Thurber books * an alphabetical list of James Thurber short stories*Helen Thurber, letters and cards, to Geoffrey Woolley — National Library of Wales" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Cagney" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Francis Cagney Jr.''' (; July 17, 1899March 30, 1986) was an American actor, dancer and film director.", "On stage and in film, he was known for his consistently energetic performances, distinctive vocal style, and deadpan comic timing.", "He won acclaim and major awards for a wide variety of performances.", "Cagney is remembered for playing multifaceted tough guys in films such as ''The Public Enemy'' (1931), ''Taxi!''", "(1932), ''Angels with Dirty Faces'' (1938), ''The Roaring Twenties'' (1939), ''City for Conquest'' (1940) and ''White Heat'' (1949), finding himself typecast or limited by this reputation earlier in his career.", "He was able to negotiate dancing opportunities in his films and ended up winning the Academy Award for his role in the musical ''Yankee Doodle Dandy'' (1942).", "In 1999 the American Film Institute ranked him eighth on its list of greatest male stars of the Golden Age of Hollywood.", "Orson Welles described him as \"maybe the greatest actor who ever appeared in front of a camera\".In his first professional acting performance in 1919, Cagney was costumed as a woman when he danced in the chorus line of the revue ''Every Sailor''.", "He spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian, until he got his first major acting part in 1925.He secured several other roles, receiving good notices, before landing the lead in the 1929 play ''Penny Arcade''.", "Al Jolson saw him in the play and bought the movie rights, before selling them to Warner Bros. with the proviso that James Cagney and Joan Blondell be able to reprise their stage roles in the movie.", "After rave reviews, Warner Bros. signed him for an initial $400-a-week, three-week contract; when the executives at the studio saw the first dailies for the film, Cagney's contract was immediately extended.Cagney's fifth film, ''The Public Enemy'', became one of the most influential gangster movies of the period.", "Notable for a famous scene in which Cagney pushes half a grapefruit against Mae Clarke's face, the film thrust him into the spotlight.", "He became one of Hollywood's leading stars and one of Warner Bros.' biggest contracts.", "In 1938 he received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor for his subtle portrayal of the tough guy/man-child Rocky Sullivan in ''Angels with Dirty Faces''.", "In 1942 Cagney won the Oscar for his energetic portrayal of George M. Cohan in ''Yankee Doodle Dandy''.", "He was nominated a third time in 1955 for ''Love Me or Leave Me'' with Doris Day.", "Cagney retired from acting and dancing in 1961 to spend time on his farm with his family.", "He came out of retirement 20 years later for a part in the movie ''Ragtime'' (1981), mainly to aid his recovery from a stroke.Cagney walked out on Warner Bros. several times over the course of his career, each time returning on much improved personal and artistic terms.", "In 1935 he sued Warner for breach of contract and won.", "This was one of the first times an actor prevailed over a studio on a contract issue.", "He worked for the independent film company Grand National (starring in two films: the musical ''Something to Sing About'' and the drama ''Great Guy'') for a year while the suit was being settled, then in 1942 establishing his own production company, Cagney Productions, before returning to Warner seven years later.", "In reference to Cagney's refusal to be pushed around, Jack L. Warner called him \"the Professional Againster\".", "Cagney also made numerous USO troop tours before and during World War II and served as president of the Screen Actors Guild for two years." ], [ "Early life", "James Francis \"Jimmy\" Cagney Jr. was born in 1899 on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City.", "His biographers disagree as to the actual location: either on the corner of Avenue D and 8th Street, or in a top-floor apartment at 391 East 8th Street, the address that is on his birth certificate.", "His father, James Francis Cagney Sr. (1875–1918), was of Irish descent.", "At the time of his son's birth, he was a bartender and amateur boxer, although on Cagney's birth certificate, he is listed as a telegraphist.", "His mother was Carolyn Elizabeth (née Nelson; 1877–1945); her father was a Norwegian ship's captain, and her mother was Irish.Cagney was the second of seven children, two of whom died within months of their births.", "He was sickly as an infant—so much so that his mother feared he would die before he could be baptized.", "He later attributed his sickly health to the poverty his family endured.", "The family moved twice while he was still young, first to East 79th Street, and then to East 96th Street.", "He was confirmed at St. Francis de Sales Roman Catholic Church in Manhattan; his funeral service would eventually be held in the same church.The red-haired, blue-eyed Cagney graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York City in 1918, and attended Columbia College, where he intended to major in Art.", "He also took German and joined the Student Army Training Corps, but he dropped out after one semester, returning home upon the death of his father during the 1918 flu pandemic.Cagney held a variety of jobs early in his life: junior architect, copy boy for the ''New York Sun'', book custodian at the New York Public Library, bellhop, draughtsman, and night doorkeeper.", "He gave all his earnings to his family.", "While Cagney was working for the New York Public Library, he met Florence James, who helped him into an acting career.", "Cagney believed in hard work, later stating, \"It was good for me.", "I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it.", "Suddenly he has to come face-to-face with the realities of life without any mama or papa to do his thinking for him.", "\"He started tap dance as a boy (a skill that eventually contributed to his Academy Award) and was nicknamed \"Cellar-Door Cagney\" after his habit of dancing on slanted cellar doors.", "He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, when necessary.", "He engaged in amateur boxing, and was a runner-up for the New York state lightweight title.", "His coaches encouraged him to turn professional, but his mother would not allow it.", "He also played semi-professional baseball for a local team, and entertained dreams of playing in the Major Leagues.His introduction to films was unusual.", "When visiting an aunt who lived in Brooklyn, opposite Vitagraph Studios, Cagney would climb over the fence to watch the filming of John Bunny movies.", "He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House (one of the first settlement houses in the nation) where his brother Harry performed and Florence James directed.", "He was initially content working behind the scenes and had no interest in performing.", "One night, however, Harry became ill, and although Cagney was not an understudy, his photographic memory of rehearsals enabled him to stand in for his brother without making a single mistake." ], [ "Career", "===1919–1930: Early career===In 1919, while Cagney was working at Wanamaker's Department Store, a colleague saw him dance and informed him about a role in the upcoming production, ''Every Sailor''.", "It was a wartime play in which the chorus was made up of servicemen dressed as women that was originally titled ''Ever Sailor''.", "Cagney auditioned for the chorus, although considering it a waste of time, as he knew only one dance step, the complicated Peabody, but he knew it perfectly.", "This was enough to convince the producers that he could dance, and he copied the other dancers' moves and added them to his repertoire while waiting to go on.", "He did not find it odd to play a woman, nor was he embarrassed.", "He later recalled how he was able to shed his own naturally shy persona when he stepped onto the stage: \"For there I am not myself.", "I am not that fellow, Jim Cagney, at all.", "I certainly lost all consciousness of him when I put on skirts, wig, paint, powder, feathers and spangles.", "\"Had Cagney's mother had her way, his stage career would have ended when he quit ''Every Sailor'' after two months; proud as she was of his performance, she preferred that he get an education.", "Cagney appreciated the $35 a week he was paid, which he later remembered as \"a mountain of money for me in those worrisome days.\"", "In deference to his mother's concerns, he got a job as a brokerage house runner.", "This did not stop him from looking for more stage work, however, and he went on to audition successfully for a chorus part in the William B. Friedlander musical ''Pitter Patter'', for which he earned $55 a week.", "(He sent $40 to his mother each week.)", "So strong was his habit of holding down more than one job at a time, that he also worked as a dresser for one of the leads, portered the casts' luggage, and understudied for the lead.", "Among the chorus line performers was 20-year-old Frances Willard \"Billie\" Vernon; they married in 1922.The show began Cagney's 10-year association with vaudeville and Broadway.", "The Cagneys were among the early residents of Free Acres, a social experiment established by Bolton Hall in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey.", "''Pitter Patter'' was not hugely successful, but it did well enough to run for 32 weeks, making it possible for Cagney to join the vaudeville circuit.", "He and Vernon toured separately with a number of different troupes, reuniting as \"Vernon and Nye\" to do simple comedy routines and musical numbers.", "\"Nye\" was a rearrangement of the last syllable of Cagney's surname.", "One of the troupes Cagney joined was Parker, Rand, and Leach, taking over the spot vacated when Archie Leach—who later changed his name to Cary Grant—left.In 1924, after years of touring and struggling to make money, Cagney and Vernon moved to Hawthorne, California, partly for Cagney to meet his new mother-in-law, who had just moved there from Chicago, and partly to investigate breaking into the movies.", "Their train fares were paid for by a friend, the press officer of ''Pitter Patter'', who was also desperate to act.", "They were not successful at first; the dance studio Cagney set up had few clients and folded; Vernon and he toured the studios, but there was no interest.", "Eventually, they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee, enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage.Cagney and Gloria Stuart (later of 1997's ''Titanic'') in 1934's ''Here Comes the Navy''.", "Cagney played sailors or naval officers several times.Cagney secured his first significant nondancing role in 1925.He played a young tough guy in the three-act play ''Outside Looking In'' by Maxwell Anderson, earning $200 a week.", "As with ''Pitter Patter'', Cagney went to the audition with little confidence he would get the part.", "At this point, he had had no experience with drama.", "Cagney felt that he only got the role because his hair was redder than that of Alan Bunce, the only other red-headed performer in New York.", "Both the play and Cagney received good reviews; ''Life'' magazine wrote, \"Mr. Cagney, in a less spectacular role than his co-star makes a few minutes silence during his mock-trial scene something that many a more established actor might watch with profit.\"", "Burns Mantle wrote that it \"...contained the most honest acting now to be seen in New York.", "\"Following the four-month run of ''Outside Looking In'', the Cagneys were financially secure enough for Cagney to return to vaudeville over the next few years, achieving various success.", "During this period, he met George M. Cohan, whom he later portrayed in ''Yankee Doodle Dandy'', though they never spoke.Cagney secured the lead role in the 1926–27 season West End production of ''Broadway'' by George Abbott.", "The show's management insisted that he copy Broadway lead Lee Tracy's performance, despite Cagney's discomfort in doing so, but the day before the show sailed for England, they decided to replace him.", "This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney apart from the logistical difficulties this presented - the couple's luggage was in the hold of the ship and they had given up their apartment.", "He almost quit show business.", "As Vernon recalled, \"Jimmy said that it was all over.", "He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else.", "\"The Cagneys had run-of-the-play contracts, which lasted as long as the play did.", "Vernon was in the chorus line of the show, and with help from the Actors' Equity Association, Cagney understudied Tracy on the Broadway show, providing them with a desperately needed steady income.", "Cagney also established a dance school for professionals, and then landed a part in the play ''Women Go On Forever'', directed by John Cromwell, which ran for four months.", "By the end of the run, Cagney was exhausted from acting and running the dance school.Cagney had built a reputation as an innovative teacher; when he was cast as the lead in ''Grand Street Follies of 1928'', he was also appointed choreographer.", "The show received rave reviews and was followed by ''Grand Street Follies of 1929''.", "These roles led to a part in George Kelly's ''Maggie the Magnificent'', a play the critics disliked, though they liked Cagney's performance.", "Cagney saw this role (and ''Women Go on Forever'') as significant because of the talented directors he met.", "He learned \"...what a director was for and what a director could do.", "They were directors who could play all the parts in the play better than the actors cast for them.", "\"===1930–1935: Warner Bros.=======''Sinners' Holiday'' (1930) and ''The Doorway to Hell'' (1930)====Playing opposite Cagney in ''Maggie the Magnificent'' was Joan Blondell, who starred again with him a few months later in Marie Baumer's new play, ''Penny Arcade''.", "While the critics panned ''Penny Arcade'', they praised Cagney and Blondell.", "Al Jolson, sensing film potential, bought the rights for $20,000.He then sold the play to Warner Bros., with the stipulation that they cast Cagney and Blondell in the film version.", "Retitled ''Sinners' Holiday'', the film was released in 1930, starring Grant Withers and Evalyn Knapp.", "Joan Blondell recalled that when they were casting the film, studio head Jack Warner believed that she and Cagney had no future, and that Withers and Knapp were destined for stardom.", "Cagney was given a $500-a-week, three-week contract with Warner Bros.In the film, he portrayed Harry Delano, a tough guy who becomes a killer but generates sympathy because of his unfortunate upbringing.", "This role of the sympathetic \"bad\" guy was to become a recurring character type for Cagney throughout his career.", "During filming of ''Sinners' Holiday'', he also demonstrated the stubbornness that characterized his attitude toward the work.", "He later recalled an argument he had with director John Adolfi about a line: \"There was a line in the show where I was supposed to be crying on my mother's breast...", "The line was 'I'm your baby, ain't I?'", "I refused to say it.", "Adolfi said 'I'm going to tell Zanuck.'", "I said 'I don't give a shit what you tell him, I'm not going to say that line.", "They took the line out.Despite this outburst, the studio liked him, and before his three-week contract was up—while the film was still shooting—they gave Cagney a three-week extension, which was followed by a full seven-year contract at $400 a week.", "However, the contract allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40-week period, effectively guaranteeing him only 40 weeks’ income at a time.", "As he did when he was growing up, Cagney shared his income with his family.", "Cagney received good reviews, and immediately played another colorful gangster supporting role in ''The Doorway to Hell'' (1930) starring Lew Ayres.", "The film was a financial hit, and helped to cement Cagney's growing reputation.", "He made four more movies before his breakthrough role.====''The Public Enemy'' (1931)====Cagney and Edward Woods in ''The Public Enemy'' (1931)Warner Brothers' succession of gangster movie hits, in particular ''Little Caesar'' with Edward G. Robinson, culminated in the 1931 film ''The Public Enemy''.", "Due to the strong reviews he had received in his short film career, Cagney was cast as nice-guy Matt Doyle, opposite Edward Woods as Tom Powers.", "However, after the initial rushes, the actors switched roles.", "Years later, Joan Blondell recalled that a few days into the filming, director William Wellman turned to Cagney and said \"Now you’re the lead, kid!\"", "\"Jimmy's charisma was so outstanding,\" she added.", "The film cost only $151,000 to make, but it became one of the first low-budget films to gross $1 million.Cagney received widespread praise for his performance.", "The ''New York Herald Tribune'' described his interpretation as \"...the most ruthless, unsentimental appraisal of the meanness of a petty killer the cinema has yet devised.\"", "He received top billing after the film, but while he acknowledged the importance of the role to his career, he always disputed the suggestion that it changed the way heroes and leading men were portrayed.", "He cited Clark Gable's slapping of Barbara Stanwyck six months earlier (in ''Night Nurse'') as more important.", "''Night Nurse'' was actually released three months after ''The Public Enemy.''", "Gable's character punched Stanwyck's, knocking the nurse unconscious.Cagney mashes a grapefruit into Mae Clarke's face in a famous scene from Cagney's breakthrough movie, ''The Public Enemy'' (1931)Many critics view the scene in which Cagney pushes half a grapefruit into Mae Clarke's face as one of the most famous moments in movie history.", "The scene itself was a late addition, and the origin of the idea is a matter of debate: producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference, Wellman said the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot, and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed it was based on the real life of gangster Hymie Weiss, who threw an omelette into his girlfriend's face.", "Joan Blondell recalled that the change was made when Cagney decided the omelette wouldn't work.", "Cagney himself usually cited the writers' version, but the fruit's victim, Clarke, agreed that it was Wellman's idea, saying, \"I'm sorry I ever agreed to do the grapefruit bit.", "I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie.", "Director Bill Wellman thought of the idea suddenly.", "It wasn't even written into the script.\"", "However, according to Turner Classic Movies (TCM), the grapefruit scene was a practical joke that Cagney and costar Mae Clarke decided to play on the crew while the cameras were rolling.", "Wellman liked it so much that he left it in.", "TCM also notes that the scene made Clarke's ex-husband, Lew Brice, very happy.", "\"He saw the film repeatedly just to see that scene, and was often shushed by angry patrons when his delighted laughter got too loud.", "\"Cagney's stubbornness became well known behind the scenes, especially after he refused to join in a 100% participation-free charity drive pushed by Douglas Fairbanks Jr. Cagney did not object to donating money to charity, but he did object to being forced to give.", "Already he had acquired the nickname \"The Professional Againster\".====''Smart Money'' (1931), ''Blonde Crazy'' (1931), and ''Taxi!''", "(1932)====Lobby card for ''Taxi!''", "(1932)Loretta Young and Cagney in ''Taxi!''", "(1932)David Landau, Loretta Young and Cagney in ''Taxi!''", "(1932)Warner Bros. was quick to team its two rising gangster stars, Edward G. Robinson and Cagney, for the 1931 film ''Smart Money''.", "Eager to follow the success of Robinson's ''Little Caesar'', the studio filmed ''Smart Money'' concurrently with ''The Public Enemy''.With the introduction of the Motion Picture Production Code of 1930 that placed limits upon on-screen violence, Warner Bros. allowed Cagney a change of pace, casting him in the comedy ''Blonde Crazy'', again opposite Blondell.", "''The Public Enemy'' was an enormous box-office success, and Cagney began to compare his pay with that of his peers, believing that his contract allowed for salary adjustments based on the success of his films.", "However, Warner Bros. refused to allow him a pay raise.", "The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films, even those in which he did not appear, despite his opposition.", "Cagney returned to New York, leaving his brother Bill to look after his apartment.While Cagney was in New York, his brother, who had effectively become his agent, sought a substantial pay raise and more personal freedom for him.", "Following the success of ''The Public Enemy'' and ''Blonde Crazy'', Warner Bros. offered Cagney a contract for $1,000 per week.", "Cagney's first film upon returning from New York was ''Taxi!''", "(1932), a critical success in which Cagney danced for the first time on screen.", "It also marked the last time that he permitted live ammunition to be shot at him, a relatively common occurrence at the time, as blank cartridges and squibs were rare and expensive.", "During filming for ''Taxi!", "'', he was almost hit by gunfire.", "In the film's opening scene, Cagney speaks fluent Yiddish, a language that he had learned during childhood in New York City.", "''Blonde Crazy'' and ''Taxi!''", "contain lines that became the basis of many misquoted celebrity impersonations of Cagney.", "He never said \"Mmm, you dirty rat!\"", "on film; in ''Blonde Crazy'', he says: \"That dirty, double-crossin' rat!\"", "and in ''Taxi!", "'', he says: \"Come out and take it, you dirty, yellow-bellied rat, or I'll give it to you through the door!\"", "The quote from ''Blonde Crazy'' was nominated for the American Film Institute's 2005 AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes list.", "The film was swiftly followed by ''The Crowd Roars'' and ''Winner Take All''.====Fighting with Warner Bros.====Along with George Raft, Edward G. Robinson, and Humphrey Bogart, all of whom were Warner Bros. actors, Cagney defined what a movie gangster was.", "In ''G Men'' (1935), however, he played a lawyer who joins the FBI.Cagney, Ann Dvorak and Joan Blondell in ''The Crowd Roars'' (1932)Cagney and Olivia de Havilland in ''The Irish in Us'' (1935)Pat O'Brien in ''Here Comes the Navy'' (1934), their first of nine films togetherDespite his success, Cagney remained dissatisfied with his contract.", "He wanted more money for his successful films, but he also offered to take a smaller salary should his star wane.", "Warner Bros. refused, so Cagney once again walked out.", "He held out for $4000 a week, the same salary as Edward G. Robinson, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Kay Francis.", "Warner Bros. refused to cave in this time, and suspended him.", "Cagney announced that he would do his next three pictures for free if they canceled the five years remaining on his contract.", "He also threatened to quit Hollywood and go back to Columbia University to follow his brothers into medicine.", "After six months of suspension, Frank Capra brokered a deal that increased Cagney's salary to around $3000 a week, and guaranteed top billing and no more than four films a year.Having learned about the block-booking studio system that virtually guaranteed the studios huge profits, Cagney was determined to spread the wealth.", "He regularly sent money and goods to old friends from his neighborhood, though he did not generally make this known.", "His insistence on no more than four films a year was based on his having witnessed actors—even teenagers—regularly being worked 100 hours a week to turn out more films.", "This experience was an integral reason for his involvement in forming the Screen Actors Guild in 1933.Cagney returned to the studio and made ''Hard to Handle'' (1933).", "This was followed by a steady stream of crowd-pleasing films, including the highly regarded ''Footlight Parade'', which gave Cagney the chance to return to his song-and-dance roots.", "The film includes show-stopping scenes with Busby Berkeley-choreographed routines.", "In 1934, ''Here Comes the Navy'' paired him with Pat O'Brien for the first of nine films together.", "The two would have an enduring friendship.", "Also in 1934, Cagney made his first of two raucous comedies with Bette Davis, ''Jimmy the Gent'', for which he had himself heavily made up with thick eyebrows and procured an odd haircut for the period without the studio's permission, shaved on the back and sides.", "Cagney initially had the make-up department put prominent scars on the back of his head for a close-up but the studio demanded that he remove them.", "Cagney's and Davis's fast-paced scenes together were particularly energetic.", "''Here Comes the Navy'' (1934)In 1935 Cagney was listed as one of the Top Ten Moneymakers in Hollywood for the first time, and was cast more frequently in non-gangster roles; he played a lawyer who joins the FBI in ''G-Men'', and he also took on his first, and only, Shakespearean role, as top-billed Nick Bottom in ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' alongside Joe E. Brown as Francis Flute and Mickey Rooney as Puck.Cagney's last movie in 1935 was ''Ceiling Zero'', his third film with Pat O'Brien.", "O'Brien received top billing, which was a clear breach of Cagney's contract.", "This, combined with the fact that Cagney had made five movies in 1934, again against his contract terms, caused him to bring legal proceedings against Warner Bros. for breach of contract.", "The dispute dragged on for several months.", "Cagney received calls from David Selznick and Sam Goldwyn, but neither felt in a position to offer him work while the dispute went on.", "Meanwhile, while being represented by his brother William in court, Cagney went back to New York to search for a country property where he could indulge his passion for farming.===1936–1937: Independent years===Cagney spent most of the next year on his farm, and went back to work only when Edward L. Alperson from Grand National Films, a newly established, independent studio, approached him to make movies for $100,000 a film and 10% of the profits.", "Cagney made two films for Grand National: ''Great Guy'' and ''Something to Sing About''.", "He received good reviews for both, but overall the production quality was not up to Warner Bros. standards, and the films did not do well.", "A third film, ''Dynamite'', was planned, but Grand National ran out of money.Cagney also became involved in political causes, and in 1936, agreed to sponsor the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League.", "Unknown to Cagney, the League was in fact a front organization for the Communist International (Comintern), which sought to enlist support for the Soviet Union and its foreign policies.Something to Sing About'' (1937)The courts eventually decided the Warner Bros. lawsuit in Cagney's favor.", "He had done what many thought unthinkable: taking on the studios and winning.", "Not only did he win, but Warner Bros. also knew that he was still their foremost box office draw and invited him back for a five-year, $150,000-a-film deal, with no more than two pictures a year.", "Cagney also had full say over what films he did and did not make.", "Additionally, William Cagney was guaranteed the position of assistant producer for the movies in which his brother starred.Cagney had demonstrated the power of the walkout in keeping the studios to their word.", "He later explained his reasons, saying, \"I walked out because I depended on the studio heads to keep their word on this, that or other promise, and when the promise was not kept, my only recourse was to deprive them of my services.\"", "Cagney himself acknowledged the importance of the walkout for other actors in breaking the dominance of the studio system.", "Normally, when a star walked out, the time he or she was absent was added onto the end of an already long contract, as happened with Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis.", "Cagney, however, walked out and came back to a better contract.", "Many in Hollywood watched the case closely for hints of how future contracts might be handled.Artistically, the Grand National experiment was a success for Cagney, who was able to move away from his traditional Warner Bros. tough guy roles to more sympathetic characters.", "How far he could have experimented and developed will never be known, but back in the Warner fold, he was once again playing tough guys.===1938–1942: Return to Warner Bros.=======''Angels with Dirty Faces'' (1938)====Pat O'Brien in ''Angels with Dirty Faces'' (1938), the sixth of nine feature films they would make togetherCagney and Pat O'Brien in the endlessly debated final walkCagney takes the controversial final walkAnn Sheridan and Cagney in ''Angels with Dirty Faces'' (1938)Cagney's two films of 1938, ''Boy Meets Girl'' and ''Angels with Dirty Faces'', both costarred Pat O'Brien.", "The former had Cagney in a comedy role, and received mixed reviews.", "Warner Bros. had allowed Cagney his change of pace, but was keen to get him back to playing tough guys, which was more lucrative.", "Ironically, the script for ''Angels'' was one that Cagney had hoped to do while with Grand National, but the studio had been unable to secure funding.Cagney starred as Rocky Sullivan, a gangster fresh out of jail and looking for his former associate, played by Humphrey Bogart, who owes him money.", "While revisiting his old haunts, he runs into his old friend Jerry Connolly, played by O'Brien, who is now a priest concerned about the Dead End Kids' futures, particularly as they idolize Rocky.", "After a messy shootout, Sullivan is eventually captured by the police and sentenced to death in the electric chair.", "Connolly pleads with Rocky to \"turn yellow\" on his way to the chair so the Kids will lose their admiration for him, and hopefully avoid turning to crime.", "Sullivan refuses, but on his way to his execution, he breaks down and begs for his life.", "It is unclear whether this cowardice is real or just feigned for the Kids' benefit.", "Cagney himself refused to say, insisting he liked the ambiguity.", "The film is regarded by many as one of Cagney's finest, and garnered him an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination for 1938.He lost to Spencer Tracy in ''Boys Town''.", "Cagney had been considered for the role, but lost out on it due to his typecasting.", "(He also lost the role of Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne in ''Knute Rockne, All American'' to his friend Pat O'Brien for the same reason.)", "Cagney did, however, win that year's New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor.His earlier insistence on not filming with live ammunition proved to be a good decision.", "Having been told while filming ''Angels with Dirty Faces'' that he would be doing a scene with real machine gun bullets (a common practice in the Hollywood of the time), Cagney refused and insisted the shots be added afterwards.", "As it turned out, a ricocheting bullet passed through exactly where his head would have been.====''The Roaring Twenties'' (1939)====Humphrey Bogart with Cagney and Jeffrey Lynn in ''The Roaring Twenties'' (1939)Cagney and Bogart in ''The Roaring Twenties'' (1939)During his first year back at Warner Bros., Cagney became the studio's highest earner, making $324,000.He starred with George Raft in the smash hit ''Each Dawn I Die'', an extremely entertaining prison movie that was so successful at the box office that it prompted the studio to offer Raft an important contract in the wake of his departure from Paramount.", "In addition, Cagney made ''The Oklahoma Kid'', a memorable Western with Humphrey Bogart as the black-clad villain.", "Cagney completed his first decade of movie-making in 1939 with ''The Roaring Twenties'', his first film with Raoul Walsh and his last with Bogart.", "After ''The Roaring Twenties'', it would be a decade before Cagney made another gangster film.", "Cagney again received good reviews; Graham Greene stated, \"Mr. Cagney, of the bull-calf brow, is as always a superb and witty actor\".", "''The Roaring Twenties'' was the last film in which Cagney's character's violence was explained by poor upbringing, or his environment, as was the case in ''The Public Enemy''.", "From that point on, violence was attached to mania, as in ''White Heat''.", "In 1939 Cagney was second to only Gary Cooper in the national acting wage stakes, earning $368,333.====1940–1941: ''City for Conquest'', ''The Fighting 69th'', and ''The Strawberry Blonde''====Passerby views original movie poster for ''The Fighting 69th'' in 1940In 1940, Cagney portrayed a boxer in the epic thriller ''City for Conquest'' with Ann Sheridan as Cagney's leading lady, Arthur Kennedy in his first screen role as Cagney's younger brother attempting to compose musical symphonies, Anthony Quinn as a brutish dancer, and Elia Kazan as a flamboyantly dressed young gangster originally from the local neighborhood.", "The well-received film with its shocking plot twists features one of Cagney's most moving performances.", "Later the same year, Cagney and Sheridan reunited with Pat O'Brien in ''Torrid Zone'', a turbulent comedy set in a Central American country in which a labor organizer is turning the workers against O'Brien's character's banana company, with Cagney's \"Nick Butler\" intervening.", "The supporting cast features Andy Devine and George Reeves.Cagney's third film in 1940 was ''The Fighting 69th'', a World War I film about a real-life unit with Cagney playing a fictional private, alongside Pat O'Brien as Father Francis P. Duffy, George Brent as future OSS leader Maj. \"Wild Bill\" Donovan, and Jeffrey Lynn as famous young poet Sgt.", "Joyce Kilmer.", "Alan Hale Sr., Frank McHugh and Dick Foran also appear.", "In 1941, Cagney and Bette Davis reunited for a comedy set in the contemporary West titled ''The Bride Came C.O.D.", "'', followed by a change of pace with the gentle turn-of-the-century romantic comedy ''The Strawberry Blonde'' (1941) featuring songs of the period and also starring Olivia de Havilland and rising young phenomenon Rita Hayworth, along with Alan Hale Sr. and Jack Carson.====''Yankee Doodle Dandy'' (1942)====Cagney as George M. Cohan, performing \"The Yankee Doodle Boy\" from ''Yankee Doodle Dandy'' (1942)In 1942, Cagney portrayed George M. Cohan in ''Yankee Doodle Dandy'', a film Cagney \"took great pride in\" and considered his best.", "Producer Hal Wallis said that having seen Cohan in ''I'd Rather Be Right'', he never considered anyone other than Cagney for the part.", "Cagney, though, insisted that Fred Astaire had been the first choice, but turned it down.", "Many critics of the time and since have declared it Cagney's best film, drawing parallels between Cohan and Cagney; they both began their careers in vaudeville, struggled for years before reaching the peak of their profession, were surrounded with family and married early, and both had a wife who was happy to sit back while he went on to stardom.", "The film was nominated for eight Academy Awards and won three, including Cagney's for Best Actor.", "In his acceptance speech, Cagney said, \"I've always maintained that in this business, you're only as good as the other fellow thinks you are.", "It's nice to know that you people thought I did a good job.", "And don't forget that it was a good part, too.", "\"Filming began the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the cast and crew worked in a \"patriotic frenzy\" as the United States' involvement in World War II gave the workers a feeling that \"they might be sending the last message from the free world\", according to actress Rosemary DeCamp.", "Cohan was given a private showing of the film shortly before his death, and thanked Cagney \"for a wonderful job,\" exclaiming, \"My God, what an act to follow!\"", "A paid première, with seats ranging from $25 to $25,000, raised $5,750,000 for war bonds for the US treasury.===1942–1948: Independent again===Cagney announced in March 1942 that his brother William and he were setting up Cagney Productions to release films though United Artists.", "Free of Warner Bros. again, Cagney spent some time relaxing on his farm in Martha's Vineyard before volunteering to join the USO.", "He spent several weeks touring the US, entertaining troops with vaudeville routines and scenes from ''Yankee Doodle Dandy''.", "In September 1942, he was elected president of the Screen Actors Guild.Almost a year after its creation, Cagney Productions produced its first film, ''Johnny Come Lately'', in 1943.While the major studios were producing patriotic war movies, Cagney was determined to continue dispelling his tough-guy image, so he produced a movie that was a \"complete and exhilarating exposition of the Cagney 'alter-ego' on film\".", "According to Cagney, the film \"made money but it was no great winner\", and reviews varied from excellent (''Time'') to poor (New York's ''PM'').Following the film's completion, Cagney went back to the USO and toured US military bases in the UK.", "He refused to give interviews to the British press, preferring to concentrate on rehearsals and performances.", "He gave several performances a day for the Army Signal Corps of ''The American Cavalcade of Dance'', which consisted of a history of American dance, from the earliest days to Fred Astaire, and culminated with dances from ''Yankee Doodle Dandy''.The second movie Cagney's company produced was ''Blood on the Sun''.", "Insisting on doing his own stunts, Cagney required judo training from expert Ken Kuniyuki and Jack Halloran, a former policeman.", "The Cagneys had hoped that an action film would appeal more to audiences, but it fared worse at the box office than ''Johnny Come Lately''.", "At this time, Cagney heard of young war hero Audie Murphy, who had appeared on the cover of ''Life'' magazine.", "Cagney thought that Murphy had the looks to be a movie star, and suggested that he come to Hollywood.", "Cagney felt, however, that Murphy could not act, and his contract was loaned out and then sold.While negotiating the rights for his third independent film, Cagney starred in 20th Century Fox's ''13 Rue Madeleine'' for $300,000 for two months of work.", "The wartime spy film was a success, and Cagney was keen to begin production of his new project, an adaptation of William Saroyan's Broadway play ''The Time of Your Life''.", "Saroyan himself loved the film, but it was a commercial disaster, costing the company half a million dollars to make; audiences again struggled to accept Cagney in a nontough-guy role.Cagney Productions was in serious trouble; poor returns from the produced films, and a legal dispute with Sam Goldwyn Studio over a rental agreement forced Cagney back to Warner Bros.", "He signed a distribution-production deal with the studio for the film ''White Heat'', effectively making Cagney Productions a unit of Warner Bros.===1949–1955: Back to Warner Bros.=======''White Heat'' (1949)====Cagney as Cody Jarrett in ''White Heat'' (1949)With Virginia Mayo in ''White Heat'' (1949)Cagney's portrayal of Cody Jarrett in the 1949 film ''White Heat'' is one of his most memorable.", "Cinema had changed in the 10 years since Walsh last directed Cagney (in ''The Strawberry Blonde''), and the actor's portrayal of gangsters had also changed.", "Unlike Tom Powers in ''The Public Enemy'', Jarrett was portrayed as a raging lunatic with few if any sympathetic qualities.", "In the 18 intervening years, Cagney's hair had begun to gray, and he developed a paunch for the first time.", "He was no longer a dashing romantic commodity in precisely the same way he obviously was before, and this was reflected in his performance.", "Cagney himself had the idea of playing Jarrett as psychotic; he later stated, \"it was essentially a cheapie one-two-three-four kind of thing, so I suggested we make him nuts.", "It was agreed so we put in all those fits and headaches.", "\"Cagney's final lines in the film – \"Made it, Ma!", "Top of the world!\"", "– was voted the 18th-greatest movie line by the American Film Institute.", "Likewise, Jarrett's explosion of rage in prison on being told of his mother's death is widely hailed as one of Cagney's most memorable performances.", "Some of the extras on set actually became terrified of the actor because of his violent portrayal.", "Cagney attributed the performance to his father's alcoholic rages, which he had witnessed as a child, as well as someone that he had seen on a visit to a mental hospital.The film was a critical success, though some critics wondered about the social impact of a character that they saw as sympathetic.", "Cagney was still struggling against his gangster typecasting.", "He said to a journalist, \"It's what the people want me to do.", "Some day, though, I'd like to make another movie that kids could go and see.\"", "However, Warner Bros., perhaps searching for another ''Yankee Doodle Dandy'', assigned Cagney a musical for his next picture, 1950's ''The West Point Story'' with Doris Day, an actress he admired.His next film, ''Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye'', was another gangster movie, which was the first by Cagney Productions since its acquisition.", "While compared unfavorably to ''White Heat'' by critics, it was fairly successful at the box office, with $500,000 going straight to Cagney Productions' bankers to pay off their losses.", "Cagney Productions was not a great success, however, and in 1953, after William Cagney produced his last film, ''A Lion Is in the Streets'', a drama loosely based on flamboyant politician Huey Long, the company came to an end.====''Love Me or Leave Me'' (1955)====Martin \"Moe the Gimp\" Snyder in ''Love Me or Leave Me'' (1955)Cagney's next notable role was the 1955 film ''Love Me or Leave Me'', his third with Doris Day, who was top-billed above Cagney for this picture, the first movie for which he'd accepted second billing since ''Smart Money'' in 1931.Cagney played Martin \"Moe the Gimp\" Snyder, a lame Jewish-American gangster from Chicago, a part Spencer Tracy had turned down.", "Cagney described the script as \"that extremely rare thing, the perfect script\".", "When the film was released, Snyder reportedly asked how Cagney had so accurately copied his limp, but Cagney himself insisted he had not, having based it on personal observation of other people when they limped: \"What I did was very simple.", "I just slapped my foot down as I turned it out while walking.", "That's all\".His performance earned him another Best Actor Academy Award nomination, 17 years after his first.", "Reviews were strong, and the film is considered one of the best of his later career.", "In Day, he found a co-star with whom he could build a rapport, such as he had had with Blondell at the start of his career.", "Day herself was full of praise for Cagney, stating that he was \"the most professional actor I've ever known.", "He was always 'real'.", "I simply forgot we were making a picture.", "His eyes would actually fill up when we were working on a tender scene.", "And you never needed drops to make your eyes shine when Jimmy was on the set.", "\"====''Mister Roberts'' (1955)====Mister Roberts'' (1955) with Henry Fonda, Cagney, William Powell and Jack LemmonCagney's next film was ''Mister Roberts'', directed by John Ford and slated to star Spencer Tracy.", "Tracy's involvement ensured that Cagney accepted a supporting role in his close friend's movie, although in the end, Tracy did not take part and Henry Fonda played the titular role instead.", "Cagney enjoyed working with the film's superb cast despite the absence of Tracy.", "Major film star William Powell played a rare supporting role as \"Doc\" in the film, his final picture before retirement from a stellar career that had spanned 33 years, since his first appearance in ''Sherlock Holmes'' with John Barrymore in 1922.Cagney had worked with Ford on ''What Price Glory?''", "three years earlier, and they had gotten along fairly well.", "However, as soon as Ford had met Cagney at the airport for that film, the director warned him that they would eventually \"tangle asses\", which caught Cagney by surprise.", "He later said, \"I would have kicked his brains out.", "He was so goddamned mean to everybody.", "He was truly a nasty old man.\"", "The next day, Cagney was slightly late on set, incensing Ford.", "Cagney cut short his imminent tirade, saying \"When I started this picture, you said that we would tangle asses before this was over.", "I'm ready now – are you?\"", "Ford walked away, and they had no more problems, though Cagney never particularly liked Ford.Cagney's skill at noticing tiny details in other actors' performances became apparent during the shooting of ''Mister Roberts''.", "While watching the ''Kraft Music Hall'' anthology television show some months before, Cagney had noticed Jack Lemmon performing left-handed, doing practically everything with his left hand.", "The first thing that Cagney asked Lemmon when they met was if he was still using his left hand.", "Lemmon was shocked; he had done it on a whim, and thought no one else had noticed.", "He said of his co-star, \"his powers of observation must be absolutely incredible, in addition to the fact that he remembered it.", "I was very flattered.", "\"The film was a success, securing three Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Sound Recording and Best Supporting Actor for Lemmon, who won.", "While Cagney was not nominated, he had thoroughly enjoyed the production.", "Filming on Midway Island and in a more minor role meant that he had time to relax and engage in his hobby of painting.", "He also drew caricatures of the cast and crew.===1955–1961: Later career===In 1955 Cagney replaced Spencer Tracy on the Western film ''Tribute to a Bad Man'' for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.", "He received praise for his performance, and the studio liked his work enough to offer him ''These Wilder Years'' with Barbara Stanwyck.", "The two stars got on well; they had both previously worked in vaudeville, and they entertained the cast and crew off-screen by singing and dancing.In 1956 Cagney undertook one of his very rare television roles, starring in Robert Montgomery's ''Soldiers From the War Returning''.", "This was a favor to Montgomery, who needed a strong fall season opener to stop the network from dropping his series.", "Cagney's appearance ensured that it was a success.", "The actor made it clear to reporters afterwards that television was not his medium: \"I do enough work in movies.", "This is a high-tension business.", "I have tremendous admiration for the people who go through this sort of thing every week, but it's not for me.", "\"The following year, Cagney appeared in ''Man of a Thousand Faces'', in which he played a fictionalized version of Lon Chaney.", "He received excellent reviews, with the ''New York Journal American'' rating it one of his best performances, and the film, made for Universal, was a box office hit.", "Cagney's skill at mimicry, combined with a physical similarity to Chaney, helped him generate empathy for his character.Later in 1957, Cagney ventured behind the camera for the first and only time to direct ''Short Cut to Hell'', a remake of the 1941 Alan Ladd film ''This Gun for Hire'', which in turn was based on the Graham Greene novel ''A Gun for Sale''.", "Cagney had long been told by friends that he would make an excellent director, so when he was approached by his friend, producer A. C. Lyles, he instinctively said yes.", "He refused all offers of payment, saying he was an actor, not a director.", "The film was low budget, and shot quickly.", "As Cagney recalled, \"We shot it in twenty days, and that was long enough for me.", "I find directing a bore, I have no desire to tell other people their business\".In 1959 Cagney played a labor leader in what proved to be his final musical, ''Never Steal Anything Small'', which featured a comical song and dance duet with Cara Williams, who played his girlfriend.For Cagney's next film, he traveled to Ireland for ''Shake Hands with the Devil'', directed by Michael Anderson.", "Cagney had hoped to spend some time tracing his Irish ancestry, but time constraints and poor weather meant that he was unable to do so.", "The overriding message of violence inevitably leading to more violence attracted Cagney to the role of an Irish Republican Army commander, and resulted in what some critics would regard as the finest performance of his final years.====''The Gallant Hours'' (1960)====Robert Montgomery, \"Bull\" Halsey, and Cagney on setCagney's career began winding down, and he made only one film in 1960, the critically acclaimed ''The Gallant Hours'', in which he played Admiral William F. \"Bull\" Halsey.", "The film, although set during the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific Theater during World War II, was not a war film, but instead focused on the impact of command.", "Cagney Productions, which shared the production credit with Robert Montgomery's company, made a brief return, though in name only.", "The film was a success, and ''The New York Times''s Bosley Crowther singled its star out for praise: \"It is Mr. Cagney's performance, controlled to the last detail, that gives life and strong, heroic stature to the principal figure in the film.", "There is no braggadocio in it, no straining for bold or sharp effects.", "It is one of the quietest, most reflective, subtlest jobs that Mr. Cagney has ever done.", "\"====''One, Two, Three'' (1961)====''One, Two, Three'' theatrical trailerCagney's penultimate film was a comedy.", "He was hand-picked by Billy Wilder to play a hard-driving Coca-Cola executive in the film ''One, Two, Three''.", "Cagney had concerns with the script, remembering back 23 years to ''Boy Meets Girl'', in which scenes were reshot to try to make them funnier by speeding up the pacing, with the opposite effect.", "Cagney received assurances from Wilder that the script was balanced.", "Filming did not go well, though, with one scene requiring 50 takes, something to which Cagney was unaccustomed.", "In fact, it was one of the worst experiences of his long career.", "Cagney noted, \"I never had the slightest difficulty with a fellow actor.", "Not until ''One, Two, Three''.", "In that picture, Horst Buchholz tried all sorts of scene-stealing didoes.", "I came close to knocking him on his ass.\"", "For the first time, Cagney considered walking out of a film.", "He felt he had worked too many years inside studios, and combined with a visit to Dachau concentration camp during filming, he decided that he had had enough, and retired afterward.", "One of the few positive aspects was his friendship with Pamela Tiffin, to whom he gave acting guidance, including the secret that he had learned over his career: \"You walk in, plant yourself squarely on both feet, look the other fella in the eye, and tell the truth.", "\"===1961–1986: Later years and retirement===Cagney remained in retirement for 20 years, conjuring up images of Jack L. Warner every time he was tempted to return, which soon dispelled the notion.", "After he had turned down an offer to play Alfred Doolittle in ''My Fair Lady'', he found it easier to rebuff others, including a part in ''The Godfather Part II''.", "He made few public appearances, preferring to spend winters in Los Angeles, and summers either at his Martha's Vineyard farm or at Verney Farms in New York.", "When in New York, Billie Vernon and he held numerous parties at the Silver Horn restaurant, where they got to know Marge Zimmermann, the proprietress.====American Film Institute Life Achievement Award (1974)====Cagney was diagnosed with glaucoma and began taking eye drops, but continued to have vision problems.", "On Zimmermann's recommendation, he visited a different doctor, who determined that glaucoma had been a misdiagnosis, and that Cagney was actually diabetic.", "Zimmermann then took it upon herself to look after Cagney, preparing his meals to reduce his blood triglycerides, which had reached alarming levels.", "Such was her success that, by the time Cagney made a rare public appearance at his American Film Institute Life Achievement Award ceremony in 1974, he had lost and his vision had improved.", "Charlton Heston opened the ceremony, and Frank Sinatra introduced Cagney.", "So many Hollywood stars attended—said to be more than for any event in history—that one columnist wrote at the time that a bomb in the dining room would have ended the movie industry.", "In his acceptance speech, Cagney lightly chastised the impressionist Frank Gorshin, saying, \"Oh, Frankie, just in passing, I never said 'MMMMmmmm, you dirty rat!'", "What I actually did say was 'Judy, Judy, Judy!", "'\"—a joking reference to a similar misquotation attributed to Cary Grant.====''Ragtime'' (1981)====While at Coldwater Canyon in 1977, Cagney had a minor stroke.", "After he spent two weeks in the hospital, Zimmermann became his full-time caregiver, traveling with Billie Vernon and him wherever they went.", "After the stroke, Cagney was no longer able to undertake many of his favorite pastimes, including horseback riding and dancing, and as he became more depressed, he even gave up painting.", "Encouraged by his wife and Zimmermann, Cagney accepted an offer from the director Miloš Forman to star in a small but pivotal role in the film ''Ragtime'' (1981).This film was shot mainly at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, and on his arrival at Southampton aboard the ''Queen Elizabeth 2'', Cagney was mobbed by hundreds of fans.", "Cunard Line officials, who were responsible for security at the dock, said they had never seen anything like it, although they had experienced past visits by Marlon Brando and Robert Redford.Despite the fact that ''Ragtime'' was his first film in 20 years, Cagney was immediately at ease: Flubbed lines and miscues were committed by his co-stars, often simply through sheer awe.", "Howard Rollins, who received a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination for his performance, said, \"I was frightened to meet Mr. Cagney.", "I asked him how to die in front of the camera.", "He said 'Just die!'", "It worked.", "Who would know more about dying than him?\"", "Cagney also repeated the advice he had given to Pamela Tiffin, Joan Leslie, and Lemmon.", "As filming progressed, Cagney's sciatica worsened, but he finished the nine-week filming, and reportedly stayed on the set after completing his scenes to help the other actors with their dialogue.Cagney's frequent co-star, Pat O'Brien, appeared with him on the British chat show ''Parkinson'' in the early 1980s and they both made a surprise appearance at the Queen Mother's command birthday performance at the London Palladium in 1980.His appearance onstage prompted the Queen Mother to rise to her feet, the only time she did so during the whole show, and she later broke protocol to go backstage to speak with Cagney directly.====''Terrible Joe Moran'' (1984)====Cagney made a rare TV appearance in the lead role of the movie ''Terrible Joe Moran'' in 1984.This was his last role.", "Cagney's health was fragile and more strokes had confined him to a wheelchair, but the producers worked his real-life mobility problem into the story.", "They also decided to dub his impaired speech, using the impersonator Rich Little.", "The film made use of fight clips from Cagney's boxing movie ''Winner Take All'' (1932)." ], [ "Personal life", "''Footlight Parade'' (1933)In 1920, Cagney was a member of the chorus for the show ''Pitter Patter'', where he met Frances Willard \"Billie\" Vernon.", "They married on September 28, 1922, and the marriage lasted until his death in 1986.Frances Cagney died in 1994.In 1940 they adopted a son whom they named James Francis Cagney III, and later a daughter, Cathleen \"Casey\" Cagney.", "Cagney was a very private man, and while he was willing to give the press opportunities for photographs, he generally spent his personal time out of the public eye.Cagney's son died from a heart attack on January 27, 1984, in Washington, D.C., two years before his father's death.", "James III had become estranged from him, and they had not seen or talked to one another since 1982.Cagney's daughter Cathleen was also estranged from her father during the final years of his life.", "She died on August 11, 2004.As a young man, Cagney became interested in farming – sparked by a soil conservation lecture he had attended – to the extent that during his first walkout from Warner Bros., he helped to found a farm in Martha's Vineyard.", "Cagney loved that no paved roads surrounded the property, only dirt tracks.", "The house was rather run-down and ramshackle, and Billie was initially reluctant to move in, but soon came to love the place as well.", "After being inundated by movie fans, Cagney sent out a rumor that he had hired a gunman for security.", "The ruse proved so successful that when Spencer Tracy came to visit, his taxi driver refused to drive up to the house, saying, \"I hear they shoot!\"", "Tracy had to go the rest of the way on foot.In 1955, having shot three films, Cagney bought a farm in Stanfordville, Dutchess County, New York, for $100,000.Cagney named it Verney Farm, taking the first syllable from Billie's maiden name and the second from his own surname.", "He turned it into a working farm, selling some of the dairy cattle and replacing them with beef cattle.", "He expanded it over the years to .", "Such was Cagney's enthusiasm for agriculture and farming that his diligence and efforts were rewarded by an honorary degree from Florida's Rollins College.", "Rather than just \"turning up with Ava Gardner on my arm\" to accept his honorary degree, Cagney turned the tables upon the college's faculty by writing and submitting a paper on soil conservation.Cagney was born in 1899 (prior to the widespread use of automobiles) and loved horses from childhood.", "As a child, he often sat on the horses of local deliverymen and rode in horse-drawn streetcars with his mother.", "As an adult, well after horses were replaced by automobiles as the primary mode of transportation, Cagney raised horses on his farms, specializing in Morgans, a breed of which he was particularly fond.Cagney was a keen sailor and owned boats that were harbored on both coasts of the U.S., including the ''Swift of Ipswich''.", "His joy in sailing, however, did not protect him from occasional seasickness—becoming ill, sometimes, on a calm day while weathering rougher, heavier seas at other times.", "Cagney greatly enjoyed painting, and claimed in his autobiography that he might have been happier, if somewhat poorer, as a painter than a movie star.", "The renowned painter Sergei Bongart taught Cagney in his later life and owned two of Cagney's works.", "Cagney often gave away his work but refused to sell his paintings, considering himself an amateur.", "He signed and sold only one painting, purchased by Johnny Carson to benefit a charity." ], [ "Political views", "In his autobiography, Cagney said that as a young man, he had no political views, since he was more concerned with from where his next meal was coming.", "However, the emerging labor movement of the 1920s and 1930s soon forced him to take sides.", "The first version of the National Labor Relations Act was passed in 1935, and growing tensions between labor and management fueled the movement.", "Fanzines in the 1930s, however, described his politics as \"radical\".This somewhat exaggerated view was enhanced by his public contractual wranglings with Warner Bros. at the time, his joining of the Screen Actors Guild in 1933, and his involvement in the revolt against the so-called \"Merriam tax\".", "The \"Merriam tax\" was an underhanded method of funnelling studio funds to politicians; during the 1934 Californian gubernatorial campaign, the studio executives would \"tax\" their actors, automatically taking a day's pay from their biggest earners, ultimately sending nearly half a million dollars to the gubernatorial campaign of Frank Merriam.", "Cagney (as well as Jean Harlow) publicly refused to pay and Cagney even threatened that, if the studios took a day's pay for Merriam's campaign, he would give a week's pay to Upton Sinclair, Merriam's opponent in the race.He supported political activist and labor leader Thomas Mooney's defense fund, but was repelled by the behavior of some of Mooney's supporters at a rally.", "Around the same time, he gave money for a Spanish Republican Army ambulance during the Spanish Civil War, which he put down to being \"a soft touch\".", "This donation enhanced his liberal reputation.", "He also became involved in a \"liberal group...with a leftist slant,\" along with Ronald Reagan.", "However, when he and Reagan saw the direction in which the group was heading, they resigned on the same night.Cagney and Humphrey Bogart in ''The Roaring Twenties'' (1939)Cagney was accused of being a communist sympathizer in 1934, and again in 1940.The accusation in 1934 stemmed from a letter police found from a local Communist official that alleged that Cagney would bring other Hollywood stars to meetings.", "Cagney denied this, and Lincoln Steffens, husband of the letter's writer, backed up this denial, asserting that the accusation stemmed solely from Cagney's donation to striking cotton workers in the San Joaquin Valley.", "William Cagney claimed this donation was the root of the charges in 1940.Cagney was cleared by U.S. Representative Martin Dies Jr. on the House Un-American Activities Committee.Cagney became president of the Screen Actors Guild in 1942 for a two-year term.", "He took a role in the Guild's fight against the Mafia and the Chicago Outfit, which had been using the threat of strike action by mobbed-controlled labor union to extort protection money from Hollywood studios.", "His wife, Billie Vernon, once received a phone call telling her that Cagney had died in an automobile accident.", "According to Cagney, having failed to scare off the Guild and him, the Chicago Outfit allegedly sent a hitman to kill him by dropping a heavy light onto his head.", "Upon hearing of the rumor of a hit, George Raft made a call, and the contract was supposedly canceled.During World War II, Cagney raised money for war bonds by taking part in racing exhibitions at the Roosevelt Raceway and selling seats for the premiere of ''Yankee Doodle Dandy''.", "He also let the United States Army practice maneuvers at his Martha's Vineyard estate.After the war, Cagney's politics started to change.", "He had worked on Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidential campaigns, including the 1940 presidential election against Wendell Willkie.", "However, by the time of the 1948 election, he had become disillusioned with Harry S. Truman, and he voted for Thomas E. Dewey, his first non-Democratic vote.", "He would also support Ronald Reagan in the 1966 California gubernatorial election.By 1980, Cagney was contributing financially to the Republican Party, supporting his friend Ronald Reagan's bid for the presidency in the 1980 election.", "As he got older, Cagney even began referring to himself in his autobiography as \"arch-conservative\".", "He regarded his move away from Marxism as \"a totally natural reaction once I began to see undisciplined elements in our country stimulating a breakdown of our system... Those functionless creatures, the hippies ... just didn't appear out of a vacuum.\"" ], [ "Death", "Cagney died of a heart attack at his Dutchess County farm in Stanford, New York, on Easter Sunday 1986; he was 86 years old.", "A funeral Mass was held at St. Francis de Sales Roman Catholic Church in Manhattan.", "The eulogy was delivered by his close friend, Ronald Reagan, who was also the President of the United States at the time.", "His pallbearers included boxer Floyd Patterson, dancer Mikhail Baryshnikov (who had hoped to play Cagney on Broadway), actor Ralph Bellamy, and director Miloš Forman.", "Governor Mario M. Cuomo and Mayor Edward I. Koch were also in attendance at the service.Cagney was interred in a crypt in the Garden Mausoleum at Cemetery of the Gate of Heaven in Hawthorne, New York." ], [ "Honors and legacy", "Cagney won the Academy Award in 1943 for his performance as George M. Cohan in ''Yankee Doodle Dandy''.For his contributions to the film industry, Cagney was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960 with a motion pictures star located at 6504 Hollywood Boulevard.In 1974, Cagney received the American Film Institute's Life Achievement Award.", "Charlton Heston, in announcing that Cagney was to be honored, called him \"one of the most significant figures of a generation when American film was dominant, Cagney, that most American of actors, somehow communicated eloquently to audiences all over the world ... and to actors as well.", "\"He received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1980, and a Career Achievement Award from the U.S. National Board of Review in 1981.In 1984, Ronald Reagan awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom.In 1999, the United States Postal Service issued a 33-cent stamp honoring Cagney.Cagney was among the most favored actors for director Stanley Kubrick and actor Marlon Brando, and was considered by Orson Welles to be \"maybe the greatest actor to ever appear in front of a camera.\"", "Warner Bros. arranged private screenings of Cagney films for Winston Churchill.On May 19, 2015, a new musical celebrating Cagney, and dramatizing his relationship with Warner Bros., opened off-Broadway in New York City at the York Theatre.", "''Cagney, The Musical'' then moved to the Westside Theatre until May 28, 2017." ], [ "Filmography", " Year Film Role Notes1930''Sinners' Holiday''Harry DelanoFilm debut ''The Doorway to Hell''Steve Mileaway 1931''Blonde Crazy''Bert Harris''Smart Money''JackThe only film starring both Edward G. Robinson and Cagney''The Millionaire''Schofield, Insurance Salesman''The Public Enemy''Tom PowersThe movie along with his character and voice was used in The Great Movie Ride at Disney's Hollywood Studios''Other Men's Women''Ed \"Eddie\" BaileyOriginally Titled: \"The Steel Highway\"1932 ''Winner Take All''Jim \"Jimmy\" KaneBoxing film ''The Crowd Roars''Joe GreerAutomobile racing film ''Taxi!", "''Matt Nolan 1933 ''Lady Killer''Dan Quigley ''Footlight Parade''Chester KentMusical film with dancing ''The Mayor of Hell''Richard \"Patsy\" Gargan ''Picture Snatcher''Danny KeanNewspaper photographer ''Hard to Handle''Myron C. \"Lefty\" Merrill 1934 ''The St. Louis Kid''Eddie Kennedy ''Here Comes the Navy''Chester \"Chesty\" J. O'Conner ''He Was Her Man''Flicker Hayes, a.k.a.", "Jerry Allen ''Jimmy the Gent''\"Jimmy\" CorriganThe first of two films with Bette Davis 1935 ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''Nick Bottom ''The Irish in Us''Danny O'Hara ''G Men''\"Brick\" Davis ''Devil Dogs of the Air''Thomas Jefferson \"Tommy\" O'Toole''Frisco Kid''Bat Morgan 1936 ''Great Guy''Johnny \"Red\" Cave ''Ceiling Zero''Dizzy Davis 1937 ''Something to Sing About''Terrence \"Terry\" Rooneystage name of Thadeus McGillicuddy 1938 ''Angels with Dirty Faces''Rocky SullivanNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorNominated – Academy Award for Best Actor ''Boy Meets Girl''Robert Law 1939 ''The Roaring Twenties''Eddie Bartlett ''Each Dawn I Die''Frank Ross ''The Oklahoma Kid''Jim Kincaid 1940 ''City for Conquest''Danny Kenny (Young Samson) ''Torrid Zone''Nick \"Nicky\" Butler ''The Fighting 69th''Jerry Plunkett 1941 ''The Bride Came C.O.D.", "''Steve Collins ''The Strawberry Blonde''T.", "L. \"Biff\" Grimes 1942 ''Yankee Doodle Dandy''George M. CohanAcademy Award for Best ActorNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor ''Captains of the Clouds''Brian MacLean 1943 ''Johnny Come Lately''Tom Richards 1945 ''Blood on the Sun''Nick Condon 1947''13 Rue Madeleine''Robert Emmett \"Bob\" Sharkey a.k.a.", "Gabriel Chavat 1948 ''The Time of Your Life''Joseph T. (who observes people) 1949 ''White Heat''Arthur \"Cody\" Jarrett 1950 ''The West Point Story''Elwin \"Bix\" Bixby ''Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye''Ralph Cotter 1951 ''Come Fill the Cup''Lew Marsh 1952 ''What Price Glory?''Capt.", "Flagg 1953 ''A Lion Is in the Streets''Hank Martin 1955 ''Mister Roberts''Capt.", "Morton ''The Seven Little Foys''George M. Cohan ''Love Me or Leave Me''Martin SnyderNominated – Academy Award for Best Actor ''Run for Cover''Matt Dow 1956 ''These Wilder Years''Steve Bradford ''Tribute to a Bad Man''Jeremy Rodock 1957 ''Man of a Thousand Faces''Lon Chaney ''Short Cut to Hell''Himself in the Pre-Credit Scene (Uncredited)Director only 1959 ''Never Steal Anything Small''Jake MacIllaney ''Shake Hands with the Devil''Sean Lenihan 1960 ''The Gallant Hours''Admiral William F. \"Bull\" Halsey 1961 ''One, Two, Three''C.R.", "MacNamaraNominated — Laurel Award for Top Male Comedy PerformanceNominated — New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor 1968 ''Arizona Bushwhackers''Narrator 1981''Ragtime''Commissioner Rhinelander Waldo" ], [ "Television", " Year Show Role Notes1956''Soldier from the Wars Returning'' George Bridgeman Aired on NBC on September 10, 1956, in the first episode of Season 6 of Robert Montgomery Presents1960''What's My Line?''", "Mystery Guest Aired on CBS on May 15, 19601966''The Ballad of Smokey the Bear'' Big Bear/Narrator Aired on NBC on November 24, 19661974''AFI Life Achievement Award'': A Tribute to James Cagney''Honoree/Keynote Speaker1984''Terrible Joe Moran''Joe Moran (Final role)" ], [ "Radio appearances", " Year Program Episode/source 1942 ''Screen Guild Players'' ''Yankee Doodle Dandy'' 1948 ''Suspense'' ''Love's Lovely Counterfeit'' 1948 ''Suspense'' ''No Escape'' 1952 ''Family Theater'' ''The Red Head''" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * FBI Records: The Vault - James Cagney at fbi.gov* Photographs and literature* James Cagney in the 1900 US Census , 1905 NY Census , 1910 US Census , 1920 US Census , 1930 US Census , and the Social Security Death Index ." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jonathan Richman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jonathan Michael Richman''' (born May 16, 1951) is an American singer, songwriter and guitarist.", "In 1970, he founded the Modern Lovers, an influential proto-punk band.", "Since the mid-1970s, Richman has worked either solo or with low-key acoustic and electric backing.", "He is known for his wide-eyed, unaffected, and childlike outlook, and music that, while rooted in rock and roll, is influenced by music from around the world." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life ===Born into a Jewish family in Boston, Massachusetts, and raised in Natick, Massachusetts, Richman began playing music and writing his own songs in the mid-1960s.", "He became infatuated with the Velvet Underground and, in 1969, he moved to New York City, lived on the couch of their manager, Steve Sesnick, worked odd jobs, and tried to break in as a professional musician.", "Failing at this, he returned to Boston.===The Modern Lovers===Richman formed the Modern Lovers, a proto-punk garage rock band, in Boston, Massachusetts.", "Other notable members of the group were keyboard player Jerry Harrison and drummer David Robinson, who later joined Talking Heads and the Cars, respectively.In 1972, they recorded a series of demos with producer John Cale (formerly of the Velvet Underground).", "Among these songs were the seminal \"Roadrunner\" and \"Pablo Picasso\", which were eventually released four years later in August 1976 as ''The Modern Lovers'' by which time the group had broken up.", "The album was strange for its time, featuring Velvets-influenced basic three-chord rock (\"Roadrunner\" – based on just two chords – is an homage to \"Sister Ray\") at a time when glam and progressive rock were the norm.Later in 1972, the group re-recorded some songs, along with other material, with producer Kim Fowley.", "These demos were eventually released in 1981 as ''The Original Modern Lovers'' LP.", "Despite playing live regularly, the Modern Lovers had a difficult time securing a recording contract.", "By late 1973, Richman wanted to scrap the recorded tracks and start again with a mellower, more lyrical sound, influenced by the laid-back local music he had heard when the band had a residency at the Inverurie Hotel in Bermuda earlier in the year.", "These stymied efforts to complete a debut album led to the breakup of the original Modern Lovers in February 1974.===Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers===In 1975, Richman moved to California to record as a solo singer/songwriter with the independent Beserkley Records label.", "His first released recordings appeared on 1975's ''Beserkley Chartbusters'' compilation, where he was backed by members of Earth Quake and the Rubinoos.", "The four songs on the compilation also appeared on singles released by Beserkley.In January 1976, Richman put together a new version of the Modern Lovers, which included original Modern Lovers drummer David Robinson, former Rubinoos bassist Greg 'Curly' Keranen and Leroy Radcliffe on guitar.", "The new group, now billed as Jonathan Richman and The Modern Lovers, found Richman turning away from the harder, Velvet Underground-influenced electric rock of the original Modern Lovers, toward a gentler sound mixing pop with 1950s rock and roll, and including a bigger emphasis on harmony vocals.", "During this period Richman recorded a mix of original songs and material by other writers, including Chuck Berry's \"Back in the USA\", the traditional spiritual songs \"Amazing Grace\" and \"Angels Watching Over Me\", and older pop songs like \"Emaline\", \"Buzz, Buzz, Buzz\", and \"Lydia\".Richman's own songs continued to mix straightforward love themes with more whimsical themes like Martians (\"Here Come the Martian Martians\"), Leprechauns (\"Rockin' Rockin' Leprechauns\"), the Abominable Snowman (\"Abominable Snowman in the Market\"), and mosquitoes (\"I'm Nature's Mosquito\").", "Richman's 1977 recording of the children's music standard \"The Wheels on the Bus\" made explicit his interest in making music for listeners of all ages.The album ''Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers'' was released in May 1976, three months before the older ''The Modern Lovers'' sessions were finally released.", "Drummer David Robinson left the group soon thereafter, due to frustration with Richman's quest for lower volume levels, and joined with Ric Ocasek in forming the band the Cars.After several months as a trio, Richman found a new drummer, D. Sharpe, an avant-garde jazz player on the Boston scene, who later went on to become a member of pianist Carla Bley's band.", "''Rock and Roll with the Modern Lovers'' was released in 1977 and, just as this record began to climb the charts in Europe, Keranen left the group to attend college.", "A subsequent live album, ''Modern Lovers Live'', was released in 1978, with Asa Brebner on bass.Jonathan Richman, live at the Soft Rock Cafe, Kitsilano, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (1984)In the United Kingdom, Richman was recognised as a progenitor of the punk rock scene, and several of his singles became hits.", "\"Roadrunner\" reached number 11 in the UK Singles Chart, and its follow-up, the instrumental \"Egyptian Reggae\", made number 5 in late 1977.", "\"Egyptian Reggae\" was a version of Jamaican musician Earl Zero's reggae song \"None Shall Escape the Judgment\"; Zero was credited as co-writer on Richman's later versions of the track.", "''Back in Your Life'' was released in 1979 under the \"Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers\" moniker, but only about half the disc featured a backup band.", "The balance of the album was Richman playing solo.", "Following this version of The Modern Lovers' final breakup, Richman went on sabbatical for a few years, staying in Appleton, Maine, and playing at local bars in Belfast, Maine.By 1981, Richman was recording and touring once again with various combinations of musicians under the band name Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers.", "The touring band was as large as five backup musicians during parts of 1981, when the group had bassist Curly Keranen once again, along with drummer Michael Guardabascio, keyboard player Ken Forfia, vocalist and guitarist Ellie Marshall, and vocalist Beth Harrington for a gig at New York's Bottom Line.", "This expanded Modern Lovers group would go on to record much of the music on the ''Jonathan Sings'' (1983), ''Rockin' & Romance'' (1985), and ''It's Time for Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers'' (1986) albums.From 1981 to 1984, Richman most often played live in a trio with Keranen and Marshall.", "In 1985, the group was reconfigured, and consisted of bassist Asa Brebner and drummer Andy Paley.", "From 1986 to 1988, most of Richman's concerts were played with guitarist Brennan Totten and drummer Johnny Avila.", "Signing with Rounder Records in 1987, Richman recorded his final album using the \"Modern Lovers\" group name (''Modern Lovers 88'').", "After this, the \"Modern Lovers\" moniker was retired.===Solo===Richman singing solo in 2014From 1988 to 1992, Richman performed mostly as a solo act to support his Rounder albums ''Jonathan Richman'' (1989), ''Jonathan Goes Country'' (1990), and ''Having a Party with Jonathan Richman'' (1991).", "Around the time of his ''I, Jonathan'' album (1992), he formed his performance duo with drummer Tommy Larkins (Giant Sand, Yard Trauma, Naked Prey, et al.", "), who would continue to play and record with Richman for more than 25 years.In 1993, he contributed the track \"Hot Nights\" to the AIDS-benefit album ''No Alternative'' produced by the Red Hot Organization.Always possessing an ardent cult following, Richman became better known in the 1990s thanks to a series of appearances on ''Late Night with Conan O'Brien''.", "Another career boost came with the Farrelly Brothers' 1998 film ''There's Something About Mary'', where Richman and Larkins served as a two-man Greek chorus, commenting on the plot while performing their music within the framed action itself.", "He also appeared briefly in a bar scene in a previous Farrelly Brothers film, ''Kingpin'', and performed the song \"As We Walk to Fenway Park\" for their 2005 comedy, ''Fever Pitch''.Richman continued to release albums throughout the 1990s and 2000s, with the Spanish-language ''¡Jonathan, Te Vas a Emocionar!''", "(1994), followed by ''You Must Ask the Heart'' (1995), ''Surrender to Jonathan!''", "(1996), ''I'm So Confused'' (1998), ''Her Mystery Not of High Heels and Eye Shadow'' (2001), and ''Not So Much to Be Loved as to Love'' (2004).", "In 1998, a live album of Modern Lovers recordings from the early 1970s was released, ''Live at the Long Branch & More''.", "A live filmed performance, ''Take Me to the Plaza'', was released on DVD in 2002.Richman's most recent albums are on the Cleveland, Ohio, based Blue Arrow Records: 2016's ''Ishkode!", "Ishkode!", "'', 2018's ''SA'' and 2022's ''Want to Visit My Inner House?", "''.=== Personal life ===His first marriage was to Gail Clook of Vermont, in 1982, with whom he has a daughter, Jenny Rae, and stepson, Jason (Gail's son from a previous relationship).", "This marriage ended in divorce sometime shortly before the release of ''Surrender to Jonathan!''", "(1996).In 2003, Richman married Nicole Montalbano of Chico, California.", "She contributed backing vocals to the album ''Not So Much to Be Loved as to Love'' (2004).Richman also runs a business, Arcane Masonry, in Chico, making pizza ovens as well as other projects." ], [ "Artistry and instruments", "Richman's minimalist songwriting style has been described as whimsical and childlike.", "He himself has stated, \"I don't write, really.", "I just make up songs.", "\"Richman has played a variety of electric and acoustic guitars throughout his career.", "In promotional and concert photos from the early 1970s (such as those reproduced in the album ''Precise Modern Lovers Order''), Richman is frequently seen using a white Fender Stratocaster.", "He later wrote a song (\"Fender Stratocaster\") expressing his affection for the Stratocaster design.In the late 1970s, working with his group The Modern Lovers, Richman often played a Fender Jazzmaster.", "He can be seen playing this guitar in the Dutch TV program ''TopPop'' filmed on September 16, 1978.A contemporaneous stage photo used on the cover of the \"Egyptian Reggae\" single shows Richman playing a sunburst Stratocaster.Late-1970s studio recordings, such as the ''Rock and Roll with the Modern Lovers'' album, also featured Richman playing nylon-stringed acoustic guitar.", "On a 1979 performance on French television, and in the cover photo of ''The Best of Jonathan Richman and The Modern Lovers'', Richman plays a late-1970s Ibanez model 2453CW hollow-body electric guitar, a guitar similar in style to the Epiphone he would use extensively a decade later.In the early- and mid-1980s, working with The Modern Lovers, Richman was frequently photographed playing a Harmony Hollywood hollow-body electric guitar.", "This guitar is seen on the back cover of Richman's ''It's Time For'' album.", "By the late 1980s, Richman was frequently performing solo concerts using a blonde 1980s Epiphone Regent hollow-body electric guitar.", "He can be seen holding this guitar on the back cover of the ''Having a Party with Jonathan Richman'' CD.Richman was still using his Epiphone Regent on stage when he began performing as a duo with drummer Tommy Larkins in 1992.After a short stint playing other electric guitars on stage including a Gibson SG, Richman switched to exclusively playing nylon-stringed acoustic guitars (of the classical and flamenco styles) in concert.", "Richman has played a number of different nylon-stringed guitars since the mid-1990s.After switching to nylon-stringed acoustic guitars, Richman initially used a pick and played in a style close to that of his electric guitar playing.", "Eventually, he stopped using both a guitar pick and a guitar strap in concert, preferring to play only with his fingers and to move frequently between playing guitar, dancing, and playing percussion instruments.Richman has also been photographed playing a Fender Telecaster and other electric and acoustic guitars, and he does not consider any specific instrument to be essential to his sound.", "In a 2006 interview with musician Chuck Prophet, Richman said \"It's not the guitar, it's the player.", "In fact, my most recent Flamenco guitar isn't even a real Flamenco guitar.", "It's not made out of the right woods.", "Made out of walnut.", "It's twangy.", "I bought it and I like it.", "\"During the early- and mid-1980s, Richman frequently played tenor saxophone during his concerts with The Modern Lovers.", "He can be heard playing the instrument on \"California Desert Party\", a song on his ''Modern Lovers 88'' album.", "The album also shows him holding the instrument in the cover photograph." ], [ "Influence", "Richman in Barcelona, 2009Richman's work with the first incarnation of Modern Lovers is a major influence on punk rock.", "One critic called him the \"Godfather of Punk\".", "On his second solo album, Brian Eno made mention of Richman's band in his lyrics, and the Sex Pistols and Joan Jett were among the first artists of note to cover the song \"Roadrunner\" in the 1970s.", "A version of \"Pablo Picasso\" performed by Burning Sensations was included in the 1984 cult film, ''Repo Man''.", "David Bowie covered \"Pablo Picasso\" on his album ''Reality''.", "Velvet Underground founding member John Cale has a version of the song on his 1975 album, ''Helen of Troy'', and continues to include the song in his live shows.", "Iggy Pop has performed \"Pablo Picasso\" live and wrote an extra verse for it.", "Echo and the Bunnymen covered \"She Cracked\" in concert in 1984 and 1985 and Siouxsie and the Banshees have a version of the song on ''Downside Up''.Richman's music has set the tone for many alternative rock bands, such as Violent Femmes, Galaxie 500, They Might Be Giants (\"Roadrunner\" reportedly inspired John Flansburgh to become a musician), Weezer, Tullycraft, Jens Lekman, Pixies leader Black Francis aka Frank Black (who composed the tribute song \"The Man Who Was Too Loud\"), Brandon Flowers, Art Brut, Craig Finn of the Hold Steady & Lifter Puller, Mac DeMarco and Nerf Herder who composed a song about him, titled \"Jonathan\", which appeared on the band's second album ''How To Meet Girls''.", "British country rock band the Rockingbirds released the single \"Jonathan, Jonathan\" in tribute to Richman in 1992.The Silos also covered the Modern Lovers' \"I'm Straight\".", "Boston ska-punk band Big D and the Kids Table also covered Richman's song \"New England\" for their ''Gypsy Hill'' EP.", "A tribute album, ''If I Were a Richman: a Tribute to the Music of Jonathan Richman'', was released by Wampus Multimedia in 2001.The Modern Lovers’ song \"Roadrunner\" appears on the soundtrack to the film ''School of Rock''.", "In the commentary, director Richard Linklater mentions it is often called \"the first punk song\" and wanted to include it for that reason, along with all the other seminal rock songs in that film.", "Rapper M.I.A.", "featured the opening lyrics from \"Roadrunner\" in the song \"Bamboo Banga\" on her 2007 album, ''Kala''.As a producer himself, Richman and drummer Tommy Larkins produced Vic Chesnutt's final album ''Skitter on Take-Off'' in 2009 which appeared on Vapor Records.", "Chesnutt opened for Richman at concerts many times during his later years." ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums===Jonathan Richman in Tokyo, in the late 1980s, playing an Epiphone RegentAnn Arbor, Michigan====The Modern Lovers====* ''The Modern Lovers'' (1976)* ''The Original Modern Lovers'' (1981)====Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers====* ''Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers'' (1976)* ''Rock 'n' Roll with the Modern Lovers'' (1977) UK No.", "50 * ''Back in Your Life'' (1979)* ''Jonathan Sings!''", "(1983)* ''Rockin' and Romance'' (1985)* ''It's Time For'' (1986)* ''Modern Lovers 88'' (1987)====Jonathan Richman====* ''Jonathan Richman'' (1989)* ''Jonathan Goes Country'' (1990)* ''Having a Party with Jonathan Richman'' (1991)* ''I, Jonathan'' (1992)* ''¡Jonathan, Te Vas a Emocionar!''", "(1994)* ''You Must Ask the Heart'' (1995)* ''Surrender to Jonathan!''", "(1996)* ''I'm So Confused'' (1998)* ''Her Mystery Not of High Heels and Eye Shadow'' (2001)* ''Not So Much to Be Loved as to Love'' (2004)* ''Revolution Summer'' (2007)* ''Because Her Beauty Is Raw and Wild'' (2008)* ''¿A qué venimos sino a caer?''", "(2008)* ''O Moon, Queen of Night on Earth'' (2010)* ''Ishkode!", "Ishkode!''", "(2016)* ''SA!''", "(2018)* ''Want to Visit My Inner House?''", "(2021)===Live albums===* ''Modern Lovers 'Live''' (1977)* ''Live at the Longbranch Saloon'' (1992)* ''Precise Modern Lovers Order'' (1994)* ''Live at the Longbranch and More'' (1998)(These last three live albums are from the same three 1971–3 performances, but add and subtract a few different songs.", "The last two, combined, contain all the songs.", ")===Compilations===* ''Jonathan Richman Songbook'' (1979)* ''The Beserkley Years: The Best of Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers'' (1986)* ''Mega Hits'' (1988)* ''23 Great Recordings by Jonathan Richman and the Modern Lovers'' (1990)* ''A Plea for Tenderness'' (1995)* ''Radio On: Stop and Shop with the Modern Lovers'' (1997)* ''I Must Be King'' (1998)* ''Roadrunner'' (1998)* ''The Best of Jonathan Richman & the Modern Lovers'' (1999)* ''Egyptian Reggae'' (2000)* ''An Introspective'' (2000)* ''Action Packed: The Best of Jonathan Richman'' (2002)* ''Roadrunner, Roadrunner: The Beserkley Collection'' (2004)* ''Vampire Girl'' (2006)* ''No Me Quejo De Mi Estrella'' (2014)===Various artists compilation appearances===* Alternate versions of \"Roadrunner\" and \"Government Center\", along with \"The New Teller\" and \"It Will Stand\", first appeared on ''Beserkley Chartbusters Vol.", "1'' (1975).", "* \"I'm Straight\" and \"Government Center\", from the Modern Lovers' Kim Fowley-produced Beserkley sessions, first appeared on the Warner Bros. Records compilation ''Troublemakers'' (1980).", "* \"I Like Gumby\", on the tribute album ''Gumby'' (1989).", "* \"Hot Nights\" (live), on the HIV/AIDS benefit album ''No Alternative'' (1993), produced by the Red Hot Organization.", "* \"Mustapha\" and \"Mustapha (Instrumental)\", on ''Think About Mustapha'' (1994).", "* \"Broken Promises\", on the Rainer Ptacek tribute album ''The Inner Flame'' (1997).", "* \"Stop Your Sobbing\", on the Kinks tribute album ''This Is Where I Belong'' (2002).", "* \"The Origin of Love\", on ''Wig in a Box'' (2003).", "* \"Our Dog Is Getting Older Now\", on the charity album ''Colours Are Brighter'' (2006).===Singles===US issues except where stated* \"Roadrunner\" / \"It Will Stand\" (United Artists UP36006, 1975)* \"Roadrunner\" / (\"Friday on My Mind\" by Earth Quake) (Beserkley B-4701, 1976)* \"Roadrunner (Once)\" / \"Roadrunner (Twice)\" (Beserkley BZZ 1, UK, 1976) UK No.", "11* \"Roadrunner\" / \"Pablo Picasso\" (Beserkley PA-205, 1976)* \"New England\" / \"Here Come The Martian Martians\" (Beserkley B-5743, 1976)* \"Egyptian Reggae\" / \"Ice Cream Man\" \t(Beserkley 6.12 217, 1977)* \"Egyptian Reggae\" / \"Rollercoaster by the Sea\" (Beserkley BZZ 2, UK, 1977) UK No.", "5, AUS No 50* \"The Morning of Our Lives (Live)\" / \"Roadrunner (Thrice) (Live)\" (Beserkley BZZ 7, UK, 1977) UK No.", "29* \"New England (Live)\" / \"Astral Plane (Live)\" (Beserkley BZZ 14, UK, 1978)* \"Abdul and Cleopatra\" / \"Astral Plane (Live)\" (Beserkley 11813, 1978)* \"Abdul and Cleopatra\" / \"Oh Carol\" (Beserkley BZZ 19, UK, 1978)* \"Buzz, Buzz, Buzz\" / \"Abdul and Cleopatra\" (Beserkley 6.12 311, 1978)* \"Buzz, Buzz, Buzz\" / \"Hospital (Live)\" (BZZ 25, UK, 1978)* \"My Little Kookenhaken\" / \"Roadrunner (Thrice) (Live)\" (Beserkley 11819, 1978)* \"South American Folk Song (Live)\" / \"Ice Cream Man (Live)\" (1978)* \"Lydia\" / \"Important in Your Life\" (BZZ 28, UK, 1979) \t \t* \"That Summer Feeling\" / \"This Kind of Music\" (1984)* \"That Summer Feeling\" / \"This Kind of Music\" / \"Tag Game\" (Rough Trade RTT 152, UK, 1984)* \"I'm Just Beginning To Live\" / \"Circle I\" (1985)* \"I'm Just Beginning To Live\" / \"Circle I\" / \"Shirin and Fahrad\" (Rough Trade RTT 154, UK, 1985)\t* \"California Desert Party\" / \"When Harpo Played His Harp\" (DRD 1D474, Spain, 1988)* \"Egyptian Reggae\" / \"Roadrunner\" (1989)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Tim Mitchell, ''There's Something About Jonathan'', London: Peter Owen Publishers, 1999, JC Brouchard, '' Our Time Is Now : A Farandole of Jonathan Richman Songs'', Mareuil sur Ay: Vivonzeureux, 2021," ], [ "External links", "* Jojo Blog – long running community-authored blog* Live recordings of rare songs not found on studio albums" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Japanese" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Japanese''' may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture** Japanese diaspora, Japanese emigrants and their descendants around the world* Japanese citizens, nationals of Japan under Japanese nationality law** Foreign-born Japanese, naturalized citizens of Japan* Japanese writing system, consisting of kanji and kana* Japanese cuisine, the food and food culture of Japan" ], [ "See also", "* List of Japanese people* * Japonica (disambiguation)* Japanese studies" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johann Bayer" ], [ "Introduction", "Orion in Bayer's ''Uranometria'''''Johann Bayer''' (1572 – 7 March 1625) was a German lawyer and uranographer (celestial cartographer).", "He was born in Rain, Lower Bavaria, in 1572.At twenty, in 1592 he began his study of philosophy and law at the University of Ingolstadt, after which he moved to Augsburg to begin work as a lawyer, becoming legal adviser to the city council in 1612.Bayer had several interests outside his work, including archaeology and mathematics.", "However, he is primarily known for his work in astronomy; particularly for his work on determining the positions of objects on the celestial sphere.", "He remained unmarried and died in 1625.Bayer's star atlas ''Uranometria Omnium Asterismorum'' (\"Uranometry of all the asterisms\") was first published in 1603 in Augsburg and dedicated to two prominent local citizens.", "This was the first atlas to cover the entire celestial sphere.", "It was based upon the work of Tycho Brahe and may have borrowed from Alessandro Piccolomini's 1540 star atlas, ''De le stelle fisse'' (\"Of the fixed stars\"), although Bayer included an additional 1,000 stars.", "The ''Uranometria'' introduced a new system of star designation which has become known as the Bayer designation.", "Bayer's atlas included twelve new constellations invented a few years earlier to fill in the far south of the night sky, which was unknown to ancient Greece and Rome.The crater Bayer on the Moon is named after him." ], [ "Works", "" ], [ "See also", "Julius SchillerBayer designation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jonathan Demme" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Robert Jonathan Demme''' ( ; February 22, 1944 – April 26, 2017) was an American filmmaker, whose career directing, producing, and screenwriting spanned more than 30 years and 70 feature films, documentaries, and television productions.", "He was an Academy Award and a Directors Guild of America Award winner, and received nominations for a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award, and three Independent Spirit Awards.Beginning his career under B-movie producer Roger Corman, Demme made his directorial debut with the 1974 women-in-prison film ''Caged Heat'', before becoming known for his casually humanist films such as ''Melvin and Howard'' (1980), ''Swing Shift'' (1984), ''Something Wild'' (1986), and ''Married to the Mob'' (1988).", "His 1991 psychological horror film ''The Silence of the Lambs'', based on the novel of the same title, won five Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Picture.His subsequent films earned similar acclaim, notably the HIV/AIDS-themed drama ''Philadelphia'' (1993), the supernatural Southern Gothic ''Beloved'' (1998), the conspiracy thriller ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (2004), and the independent drama ''Rachel Getting Married'' (2008).", "Demme also directed numerous concert films such as ''Stop Making Sense'' (1984), ''Neil Young: Heart of Gold'' (2006), and ''Justin Timberlake + The Tennessee Kids'' (2016), and worked on several television series as both a producer and director." ], [ "Early life", "Demme was born on February 22, 1944, in Baldwin, New York, the son of Dorothy Louise ( Rogers) and Robert Eugene Demme, a public relations executive.", "He was raised in Rockville Centre, New York and Miami, where he graduated from Southwest Miami High School before attending the University of Florida." ], [ "Career", "===Early films===Demme broke into feature film working for exploitation film producer Roger Corman early in his career, co-writing and producing ''Angels Hard as They Come'' (1971), a motorcycle movie very loosely based on ''Rashomon'', and ''The Hot Box'' (1972).", "He then moved on to directing three films for Corman's studio New World Pictures: ''Caged Heat'' (1974), ''Crazy Mama'' (1975), and ''Fighting Mad'' (1976).", "After ''Fighting Mad'', Demme directed the comedy film ''Handle with Care'' (originally titled ''Citizens Band'', 1977) for Paramount Pictures.", "The film was well received by critics, but received little promotion, and performed poorly at the box office.", "He also directed a 1978 episode of ''Columbo''.Demme's next film, ''Melvin and Howard'' (1980), did not get a wide release, but received a groundswell of critical acclaim and film award recognition, including Academy Award nominations, winning two of its three nominations (Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress – Mary Steenburgen, and Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay – Bo Goldman).", "This acclaim led to the signing of Demme to direct the Goldie Hawn and Kurt Russell star vehicle ''Swing Shift'' (1984).", "Intended as a prestige picture for Warner Bros. as well as a major commercial vehicle for Demme, it instead became a troubled production due to the conflicting visions of Demme and star Hawn.", "Demme ended up renouncing the finished product, and when the film was released in May 1984, it was generally panned by critics and neglected by moviegoers.", "After ''Swing Shift'', Demme stepped back from Hollywood to make the Talking Heads concert film ''Stop Making Sense'' (also 1984) which won the National Society of Film Critics Award for best documentary; the eclectic screwball action-romantic comedy ''Something Wild'' (1986); a film-version of the stage production ''Swimming to Cambodia'' (1987), by monologist Spalding Gray; and the New York Mafia-by-way-of Downtown comedy ''Married to the Mob'' (1988).Demme formed his production company, Clinica Estetico, with producers Edward Saxon and Peter Saraf in 1987.They were based out of New York City for fifteen years.===Later films===Demme won the Academy Award for ''The Silence of the Lambs'' (1991)—one of only three films to win all the major categories (Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Actor, and Best Actress).", "Inspired by his friend Juan Suárez Botas's illness with AIDS and fueled by his own moral convictions, Demme then used his influence to make ''Philadelphia'' (1993), one of the first major films to address the AIDS crisis and which garnered star Tom Hanks his first Best Actor Oscar.", "He also co-directed (with his nephew Ted) the music video for Bruce Springsteen's Best Song Oscar-winning \"Streets of Philadelphia\" from the film's soundtrack.", "Jonathan used several of the same actors for both movies.Subsequently, his films included an adaptation of Toni Morrison's ''Beloved'' (1998), and remakes of two films from the 1960s: ''The Truth About Charlie'' (2002), based on ''Charade'', that starred Mark Wahlberg in the Cary Grant role; and ''The Manchurian Candidate'' (2004), with Denzel Washington and Meryl Streep.", "Demme's documentary film ''Man from Plains'' (2007), a documentary about former U.S. President Jimmy Carter's promotional tour publicizing his book ''Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid'', had its premiere at the Venice Film Festival and Toronto International Film Festival.His art-house hit ''Rachel Getting Married'' (2008) was compared by many critics to Demme's films of the late 1970s and 1980s.", "It was included in many 2008 \"best of\" lists, and received numerous awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress by lead Anne Hathaway.", "In 2010, Demme made his first foray into theater, directing ''Family Week'', a play by Beth Henley.", "The play was produced by MCC Theater and co-starred Rosemarie DeWitt and Kathleen Chalfant.At one time, Demme was signed on to direct, produce, and write an adaptation of Stephen King's sci-fi novel ''11/22/63'', but later left the project due to disagreements with King on what should be included in the script.He returned to the concert documentary format with ''Justin Timberlake + the Tennessee Kids'' (2016), which he described as a \"performance film, but also a portrait of an artist at a certain moment in the arc of his career\", and his last project was a history of rock & roll for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame compiled from footage from Hall of Fame induction ceremonies set to debut in summer 2017.Demme directed music videos for artists such as Suburban Lawns, New Order, KRS-One's H.E.A.L.", "project and Bruce Springsteen.", "He also produced a compilation of Haitian music called ''Konbit: Burning Rhythms of Haiti'' that was released in 1989.", "(Lou Reed selected ''Konbit...'' as one of his 'picks of 1989').Demme was on the board of directors at Jacob Burns Film Center in Pleasantville, New York.", "In addition to his role on the board, he curated and hosted a monthly series called ''Rarely Seen Cinema''." ], [ "Style", "Throughout 1986–2004, Demme was known for his dramatic close-ups in films.", "This style of close-ups involves the character looking directly into the camera during crucial moments.", "According to Demme, this was done to put the viewer into the character's shoes.", "Beginning with ''Rachel Getting Married'' (2008), Demme adopted a documentary style of filmmaking.", "He was known for his use of recurring supporting players, including Charles Napier, Harry Northup, Tracey Walter, Ann Dowd, LisaGay Hamilton, Kimberly Elise, Paul Lazar, Dean Stockwell, Ted Levine, Paul Le Mat, Mary Steenburgen, Jason Robards and his former producer Roger Corman, as well as casting musicians and bands in roles.", "These included Sister Carol, Chris Isaak, Tunde Adebimpe, The Feelies, Charles Aznavour, Steve Scales, The Flirtations, Manno Charlemagne, Bernie Worrell, David Johansen, Beau Sia, Q Lazzarus, and Rick Springfield.", "In addition to Corman, Demme cast a number of other fellow directors in cameos, including John Sayles, Agnès Varda, George Romero, Sidney Lumet, and John Waters.", "Many of these performers received opening credits billing in films they appeared in, despite sometimes having only one or two lines.Writer/director Paul Thomas Anderson has paid homage to Demme in his films and has cited him as a major influence in his work.", "In an interview, Anderson jokingly stated that the three filmmakers who inspired him the most are \"Jonathan Demme, Jonathan Demme and Jonathan Demme.\"", "Other directors such as Alexander Payne and Wes Anderson have been known to be inspired by his close-ups in their own work." ], [ "Political activism", "Demme was involved in various political projects.", "In 1981, he directed a series of commercials for the liberal advocacy group People for the American Way.", "The spots, titled \"Eggs\", \"Music\", and \"Sports\", were produced by Norman Lear and featured Muhammad Ali, Carol Burnett, and Goldie Hawn celebrating Freedom of Expression.", "In 1985, he directed a video for Artists United Against Apartheid.", "The short, featured various international musicians including Afrika Bambaataa, Rubén Blades, Jimmy Cliff, Herbie Hancock, Little Steven, Run–D.M.C., and Bruce Springsteen, calling for a boycott of the South African luxury resort Sun City during Apartheid.", "His documentary ''Haiti Dreams of Democracy'' (1988) captured Haiti's era of democratic rebuilding after dictatorship, while his documentary ''The Agronomist'' (2008) profiled Haitian journalist and human rights activist Jean Dominique.", "Demme spent six years on the documentary ''I'm Carolyn Parker'' (2011), which highlighted rebuilding efforts in New Orleans Lower Ninth Ward after Hurricane Katrina" ], [ "Personal life", "Demme was married twice.", "His first marriage to Evelyn Purcell ended in divorce.", "In 1987, he married artist Joanne Howard, with whom he had three children.", "He was the uncle of film director Ted Demme, who died in 2002.Demme's cousin was the Rev.", "Robert Wilkinson Castle Jr., an Episcopal priest who appeared in some of Demme's films.Demme was a member of the steering committee of the Friends of the Apollo Theater, Oberlin, Ohio, along with Danny DeVito and Rhea Perlman.", "In 2013, he returned to Oberlin as part of an alumni reunion during the class of 2013 graduation ceremony and received the award for Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts.In 2009, Demme signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski, who had been detained while traveling to a film festival in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges, which the petition argued would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown \"freely and safely\", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door \"for actions of which no-one can know the effects.", "\"Demme was an avid collector and devotee of Haitian art, in particular of Hector Hyppolite - so much so that he called it \"an addiction\".", "In 2014, he held an auction in Philadelphia selling thousands from his collection, much of which was donated to a cultural center in Port-au-Prince." ], [ "Death", "Demme died at his home in Manhattan on April 26, 2017, from complications from esophageal cancer and heart disease; he was 73.Director Brady Corbet dedicated his 2018 film ''Vox Lux'' to Demme's memory, as did Luca Guadagnino with his 2018 film ''Suspiria'' and Paul Thomas Anderson with his 2017 film ''Phantom Thread'' starring Daniel Day Lewis.", "Demme is thanked in the credits of Spike Lee's 2020 concert film ''American Utopia'' starring David Byrne.", "The album ''A Beginner's Mind'' by musicians Sufjan Stevens and Angelo De Augustine is dedicated to Demme, with one of its songs, \"Cimmerian Shade\", mentioning him and referencing ''The Silence of the Lambs'' within its lyrics." ], [ "Directing filmography", "+Directed featuresYear TitleDistribution 1974''Caged Heat''New World Pictures1975''Crazy Mama''1976''Fighting Mad''20th Century Fox1977''Handle with Care''Paramount Pictures1979''Last Embrace''United Artists1980''Melvin and Howard''Universal Pictures1984''Swing Shift''Warner Bros.1984''Stop Making Sense''Cinecom PicturesIsland Alive Releasing1986''Something Wild''Orion Pictures1987''Swimming to Cambodia''Cinecom Pictures1988''Married to the Mob''Orion Pictures1991''The Silence of the Lambs''1993''Philadelphia''TriStar Pictures1998''Beloved''Buena Vista Pictures1998''Storefront Hitchcock''Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer United International Pictures 2002''The Truth About Charlie''Universal Pictures2004''The Manchurian Candidate''Paramount Pictures2008''Rachel Getting Married''Sony Pictures Classics2013''A Master Builder''Abramorama2015''Ricki and the Flash''Sony Pictures Releasing" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "YearAwardCategoryWork Result1992 Academy Award Best Director ''The Silence of the Lambs'' 1992BAFTA Award Best Film Best Film Direction 1992 Golden Globe Award Best Director – Motion Picture 1987 Grammy Award Best Long Form Music Video ''Sun City: Artists United Against Apartheid'' 1988Independent Spirit Award Best Directing of a Feature Film ''Swimming to Cambodia'' 2009 Best Feature Film ''Rachel Getting Married'' Best Directing of a Feature Film 1992 Directors Guild Award Outstanding Directorial Achievement – Feature Film ''The Silence of the Lambs'' 1991 National Board of Review of Motion Pictures Award Best Director 1980 New York Film Critics Circle Award Best Directing ''Melvin and Howard'' 1991 ''The Silence of the Lambs'' 1991 Berlin Film Festival Silver Bear Award for Best Director Golden Bear Award for Best Film 1994 ''Philadelphia''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Storefront Demme media-party.com* Jonathan Demme, Special Collections Library, University of Michigan* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Juan Gris" ], [ "Introduction", "'''José Victoriano González-Pérez ''' (23 March 1887 – 11 May 1927), better known as '''Juan Gris''' (; ), was a Spanish painter born in Madrid who lived and worked in France for most of his active period.", "Closely connected to the innovative artistic genre Cubism, his works are among the movement's most distinctive." ], [ "Life", "Gris was born in Madrid and later studied engineering at the Madrid School of Arts and Sciences.", "There, from 1902 to 1904, he contributed drawings to local periodicals.", "From 1904 to 1905, he studied painting with the academic artist José Moreno Carbonero.", "It was in 1905 that José Victoriano González adopted the more distinctive name Juan Gris.In 1909, Lucie Belin (1891–1942)—Gris' wife—gave birth to Georges Gonzalez-Gris (1909–2003), the artist's only child.", "The three lived at the Bateau-Lavoir, 13 Rue Ravignan, Paris, from 1909 to 1911.In 1912 Gris met Charlotte Augusta Fernande Herpin (1894–1983), also known as Josette.", "Late 1913 or early 1914 they lived together at the Bateau-Lavoir until 1922.Josette Gris was Juan Gris' second companion and unofficial wife." ], [ "Career", "''El 1 de mayo en el Kursall''.", "Illustration published in the magazine '''', Madrid 1907In 1906, after he sold all his possessions, he moved to Paris and became friends with the poets Guillaume Apollinaire, Max Jacob, and artists Henri Matisse, Georges Braque, Fernand Léger and Jean Metzinger.", "He submitted darkly humorous illustrations to journals such as the anarchist satirical magazine ''L'Assiette au Beurre'', and also ''Le Rire'', ''Le Charivari'', and ''Le Cri de Paris''.", "In Paris, Gris followed the lead of Metzinger and another friend and fellow countryman, Pablo Picasso.Gris began to paint seriously in 1911 (when he gave up working as a satirical cartoonist), developing at this time a personal Cubist style.", "In ''A Life of Picasso'', John Richardson writes that Jean Metzinger's 1911 work, ''Le goûter (Tea Time)'', persuaded Juan Gris of the importance of mathematics in painting.", "Gris exhibited for the first time at the 1912 Salon des Indépendants (a painting entitled ''Hommage à Pablo Picasso'').", "\"He appears with two styles\", writes art historian Peter Brooke, \"In one of them a grid structure appears that is clearly reminiscent of the ''Goûter'' and of Metzinger's later work in 1912.\"", "In the other, Brooke continues, \"the grid is still present but the lines are not stated and their continuity is broken.", "Their presence is suggested by the heavy, often triangular, shading of the angles between them...", "Both styles are distinguished from the work of Picasso and Braque by their clear, rational and measurable quality.\"", "Although Gris regarded Picasso as a teacher, Gertrude Stein wrote in ''The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas'' that \"Juan Gris was the only person whom Picasso wished away\".", "''Portrait of Picasso'', 1912, oil on canvas, the Art Institute of ChicagoIn 1912, Gris exhibited at the ''Exposició d'art cubista'', Galeries Dalmau in Barcelona, the first declared group exhibition of Cubism worldwide; the gallery Der Sturm in Berlin; the ''Salon de la Société Normande de Peinture Moderne'' in Rouen; and the Salon de la Section d'Or in Paris.", "Gris, in that same year, signed a contract that gave Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler exclusive rights to his work.At first Gris painted in the style of ''Analytical Cubism'', a term he himself later coined, but after 1913 he began his conversion to ''Synthetic Cubism'', of which he became a steadfast interpreter, with extensive use of papier collé or, collage.", "Unlike Picasso and Braque, whose Cubist works were practically monochromatic, Gris painted with bright harmonious colors in daring, novel combinations in the manner of his friend Matisse.", "Gris exhibited with the painters of the Puteaux Group in the Salon de ''la Section d'Or'' in 1912.His preference for clarity and order influenced the Purist style of Amédée Ozenfant and Charles Edouard Jeanneret (Le Corbusier), and made Gris an important exemplar of the post-war \"return to order\" movement.", "In 1915 he was painted by his friend, Amedeo Modigliani.", "In November 1917 he made one of his few sculptures, the polychrome plaster ''Harlequin''." ], [ "Crystal Cubism", "Juan Gris, September 1916, ''Woman with Mandolin, after Corot'' (''La femme à la mandoline, d'après Corot''), oil on canvas, 92 x 60 cm, Kunstmuseum BaselJuan Gris, 1915, ''Still Life before an Open Window, Place Ravignan'', oil on canvas, 115.9 x 88.9 cm, Philadelphia Museum of ArtGris's works from late 1916 through 1917 exhibit a greater simplification of geometric structure, a blurring of the distinction between objects and setting, between subject matter and background.", "The oblique overlapping planar constructions, tending away from equilibrium, can best be seen in ''Woman with Mandolin, after Corot'' (September 1916) and in its epilogue, ''Portrait of Josette Gris'' (October 1916; Museo Reina Sofia).The clear-cut underlying geometric framework of these works seemingly controls the finer elements of the compositions; the constituent components, including the small planes of the faces, become part of the unified whole.", "Though Gris certainly had planned the representation of his chosen subject matter, the abstract armature serves as the starting point.The geometric structure of Juan Gris's Crystal period is already palpable in ''Still Life before an Open Window, Place Ravignan'' (June 1915; Philadelphia Museum of Art).", "The overlapping elemental planar structure of the composition serves as a foundation to flatten the individual elements onto a unifying surface, foretelling the shape of things to come.In 1919 and particularly 1920, artists and critics began to write conspicuously about this 'synthetic' approach, and to assert its importance in the overall scheme of advanced Cubism." ], [ "Designer and theorist", "In 1924, he designed ballet sets and costumes for Sergei Diaghilev and the famous Ballets Russes.Gris articulated most of his aesthetic theories during 1924 and 1925.He delivered his definitive lecture, ''Des possibilités de la peinture'', at the Sorbonne in 1924.Major Gris exhibitions took place at the Galerie Simon in Paris and the Galerie Flechtheim in Berlin in 1923 and at the Galerie Flechtheim in Düsseldorf in 1925." ], [ "Death", "After October 1925, Gris was frequently ill with bouts of uremia and cardiac problems.", "He died of kidney failure in Boulogne-sur-Seine (Paris) on 11 May 1927, at the age of 40, leaving a wife, Josette, and a son, Georges." ], [ "Art market", "Nature morte à la nappe à carreaux (Still Life with Checkered Tablecloth)'', 1915, oil on canvas, 116.5 x 89.3 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkThe top auction price for a Gris work is $57.1 million (£34.8 million), achieved for his 1915 painting ''Nature morte à la nappe à carreaux (Still Life with Checked Tablecloth)''.", "This surpassed previous records of $20.8 million for his 1915 still life ''Livre, pipe et verres'', $28.6 million for the 1913 artwork ''Violon et guitare'' and $31.8 million for ''The musician's table'', now in the Met." ], [ "Selected works", "* ''Violin Hanging on a Wall (Le violon accroché)'', (1913).", "Guggenheim Museum, New York* ''Pears and Grapes on a Table'', (autumn 1913).", "Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.", "* ''Bottle of Rum and Newspaper (Bouteille de rhum et journal)'', (June 1914).", "Guggenheim Museum, New York* ''Cherries (Les cerises)'', (1915).", "Guggenheim Museum, New York * ''Fruit Dish on a Checkered Tablecloth (Compotier et nappe à carreaux)'', (November 1917).", "Guggenheim Museum, New York" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Juan Gris, 1911, Maisons à Paris (Houses in Paris), oil on canvas, 52.4 x 34.2 cm, Guggenheim Museum.jpg\|''Maisons à Paris'' (''Houses in Paris''), 1911, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New YorkFile:Juan Legua MET DT4462.jpg\|''Juan Legua'', 1911, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New YorkFile:Juan Gris - Guitar and Pipe.jpg\|''Guitar and Pipe,'' 1913, Dallas Museum of Art, TexasFile:Juan Gris - Glass of Beer and Playing Cards.jpg\|''Glass of Beer and Playing Cards'', 1913, Columbus Museum of Art, OhioFile:Juan Gris - Violin and Checkerboard.jpg\|''Violin and Checkerboard'', 1913, Private collectionFile:Juan Gris - La bouteille d'anis - Google Art Project.jpg\|''The Bottle of Anís del Mono'', 1914, Queen Sofia Museum, MadridFile:Fantômas - Juan Gris.JPG\|''Fantômas'', 1915, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.File:Juan gris, la colazione, 1915.JPG\|''The Breakfast'', 1915, Musée National d'Art Moderne, ParisFile:Newspaper and Fruit Dish Juan Gris.jpeg\|''Newspaper and Fruit Dish'', 1916, Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, CTFile:Juan Gris, Glass and Checkerboard, c. 1917, NGA 166491.jpg\|''Glass and Checkerboard'', c. 1917, National Gallery of ArtFile:Juan Gris, 1917, Compotier et nappe à carreaux, oil on wood panel, 80.6 x 53.9 cm, Guggenheim Museum.jpg\|''Compotier et nappe à carreaux'', 1917, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New YorkFile:Juan Gris.jpg\|''The Guitar (La Guitarra)'', 1918, Fundación Telefónica at Queen Sofia Museum, MadridFile:Juan Gris - Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin.jpg\|''Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin'', 1919, Private collection, ParisFile:Juan Gris, 1919, Arlequin à la guitare, oil on canvas, 116 x 89 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne.jpg\|''Harlequin with Guitar'', 1919, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, ParisFile:Le Canigou Juan Gris.jpeg\|''Le Canigou'', 1921, Albright–Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New YorkFile:Le Tapis bleu.jpg\|''The blue carpet'', 1925, Centre national d'art et de culture Georges-Pompidou, ParisFile:The Painter's Window Juan Gris.jpeg\|''The Painter's Window'', 1925, Baltimore Museum of Art, Maryland" ], [ "Tribute", "On 23 March 2012, Google celebrated Juan Gris’ 125th Birthday with a doodle." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Cowling, Elizabeth; Mundy, Jennifer.", "1990.''", "On Classic Ground: Picasso, Léger, de Chirico and the New Classicism 1910–1930''.", "London: Tate Gallery.", "* Green, Christopher. \"", "Gris, Juan.\"", "''Grove Art Online.", "Oxford Art Online''.", "Oxford University Press.", "Web.", "* Gris, Juan.", "1998.", "''Juan Gris: peintures et dessins, 1887–1927''.", "Marseille: Musées de Marseille.", ".", "(French language)" ], [ "External links", " Juan Gris, Joconde, Portail des collections des musées de France* Juan Gris, Culture.gouv.fr, le site du Ministère de la culture – base Mémoire* Artcyclopedia – Links to Gris' works* The Athenaeum – Extensive list and images of Gris' works* Juan Gris in Artfacts.Net See actual exhibitions and related galleries and museums for Juan Gris* * Juan Gris Estudios de obra temprana y catálogo de pinturas, LyP." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Whale" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Whale''' (22 July 1889 – 29 May 1957) was an English film director, theatre director and actor, who spent the greater part of his career in Hollywood.", "He is best remembered for several horror films: ''Frankenstein'' (1931), ''The Old Dark House'' (1932), ''The Invisible Man'' (1933) and ''Bride of Frankenstein'' (1935), all considered classics.", "Whale also directed films in other genres, including the 1936 film version of the musical ''Show Boat''.Whale was born into a large family in Dudley, Worcestershire now Metropolitan Borough of Dudley.", "He discovered his artistic talent early on and studied art.", "With the outbreak of World War I he enlisted in the British Army and became an officer.", "He was captured by the Germans and during his time as a prisoner of war he realised he was interested in drama.", "Following his release at the end of the war he became an actor, set designer and director.", "His success directing the 1928 play ''Journey's End'' led to his move to the US, first to direct the play on Broadway and then to Hollywood, California, to direct films.", "He lived in Hollywood for the rest of his life, most of that time with his longtime romantic partner, producer David Lewis.", "Apart from ''Journey's End'' (1930), which was released by Tiffany Films, and ''Hell's Angels'' (1930), released by United Artists, he directed a dozen films for Universal Pictures between 1931 and 1937, developing a style characterised by the influence of German Expressionism and a highly mobile camera.At the height of his career as a director, Whale directed ''The Road Back'' (1937), a sequel to ''All Quiet on the Western Front''.", "Studio interference, possibly spurred by political pressure from Nazi Germany, led to the film's being altered from Whale's vision, and it was a critical failure.", "A run of box-office disappointments followed and, while he would make one final short film in 1950, by 1941 his film directing career was effectively over.", "He continued to direct for the stage and also rediscovered his love for painting and travel.", "His investments made him wealthy and he lived a comfortable retirement until suffering strokes in 1956 that robbed him of his vigor and left him in pain.", "He took his own life on 29 May 1957 by drowning himself in his swimming pool.Whale was openly gay throughout his career, something that was very rare in the 1920s and 1930s.", "As knowledge of his sexual orientation has become more widespread, some of his films, ''Bride of Frankenstein'' in particular, have been interpreted as having a gay subtext and it has been claimed that his refusal to remain in the closet led to the end of his career.", "Other commentators have contended that his retirement was provoked by a succession of poorly received projects with which Whale was growing personally dissatisfied (particularly deleterious to his career was ''The Road Back'', which went through development hell at multiple stages, whereafter the buck was perceived to stop with Whale as principal director)." ], [ "Early years", "\"From early morn to dewy eve\": watercolour cartoon by Whale of prisoners in Holzminden prisoner-of-war camp, 1918Whale was born in Dudley, Worcestershire, at the heart of the Black Country, the sixth of seven children of William, a blast furnaceman, and Sarah, a nurse.", "He attended Kates Hill Board School, followed by Bayliss Charity School and finally Dudley Blue Coat School.", "His attendance stopped in his teenage years, because the cost would have been prohibitive and his labor was needed to help support the family.", "Thought not physically strong enough to follow his brothers into the local heavy industries, Whale started work as a cobbler, reclaiming the nails he recovered from replaced soles and selling them for scrap for extra money.", "He discovered he had some artistic ability and earned additional money lettering signs and price tags for his neighbors.", "He used his additional income to pay for evening classes at the Dudley School of Arts and Crafts.World War I broke out in early August 1914.Although Whale had little interest in the politics behind the war, he realized that conscription was inevitable, so he voluntarily enlisted just before it was introduced, into the British Army's Inns of Court Officer Training Corps in October 1915, and was stationed initially at Bristol.", "He was subsequently commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Worcestershire Regiment in July 1916.He was taken prisoner of war in battle on the Western Front in Flanders in August 1917, and was held at Holzminden Officers' Camp, where he remained until the war's end, being repatriated to England in December 1918.While imprisoned he became actively involved, as an actor, writer, producer and set-designer, in the amateur theatrical productions that took place in the camp, finding them \"a source of great pleasure and amusement\".", "He also developed a talent for poker, and after the war he cashed in the chits and IOUs from his fellow prisoners that he had amassed in gambling to provide himself with finances for re-entry into civilian life." ], [ "Career", "===Theatre===After the armistice, he returned to Birmingham and tried to find work as a cartoonist.", "He sold two cartoons to the ''Bystander'' in 1919 but was unable to secure a permanent position.", "Later that year he embarked on a professional stage career.", "Under the tutelage of actor-manager Nigel Playfair, he worked as an actor, set designer and builder, \"stage director\" (akin to a stage manager) and director.", "In 1922, while with Playfair, he met Doris Zinkeisen.", "They were considered a couple for some two years, despite Whale's living as an openly gay man.", "They were reportedly engaged in 1924, but by 1925 the engagement was off.In 1928 Whale was offered the opportunity to direct two private performances of R. C. Sherriff's then-unknown play ''Journey's End'' for the Incorporated Stage Society, a theatre society that mounted private Sunday performances of plays.", "Set over a four-day period in March 1918 in the trenches at Saint-Quentin, France, ''Journey's End'' gives a glimpse into the experiences of the officers of a British infantry company in World War I.", "The key conflict is between Capt.", "Stanhope, the company commander, and Lt. Raleigh, the brother of Stanhope's fiancée.", "Whale offered the part of Stanhope to the then barely known Laurence Olivier.", "Olivier initially declined the role, but after meeting the playwright agreed to take it on.", "Maurice Evans was cast as Raleigh.", "The play was well received and transferred to the Savoy Theatre in London's West End, opening on 21 January 1929.A young Colin Clive was now in the lead role, Olivier having accepted an offer to take the lead in a production of ''Beau Geste''.", "The play was a tremendous success, with critics uniform and effusive in their praise and with audiences sometimes sitting in stunned silence following its conclusion only to burst into thunderous ovations.", "As Whale biographer James Curtis wrote, the play \"managed to coalesce, at the right time and in the right manner, the impressions of a whole generation of men who were in the war and who had found it impossible, through words or deeds, to adequately express to their friends and families what the trenches had been like\".", "After three weeks at the Savoy, ''Journey's End'' transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre, where it ran for the next two years.Colin Clive in Whale's 1929 stage production of ''Journey's End''With the success of ''Journey's End'' at home, Broadway producer Gilbert Miller acquired the rights to mount a New York production with an all-British cast headed by Colin Keith-Johnston as Stanhope and Derek Williams as Raleigh.", "Whale also directed this version, which premiered at Henry Miller's Theatre on 22 March 1929.The play ran for over a year and cemented its reputation as the greatest play about World War I.===Early work in Hollywood===The success of the various productions of ''Journey's End'' brought Whale to the attention of movie producers.", "Coming at a time when motion pictures were making the transition from silent to talking, producers were interested in hiring actors and directors with experience with dialogue.", "Whale traveled to Hollywood in 1929 and signed a contract with Paramount Pictures.", "He was assigned as \"dialogue director\" for a film called ''The Love Doctor'' (1929).", "He completed work on the film in 15 days and his contract was allowed to expire.", "It was at around this time that he met David Lewis.Whale was hired by independent film producer and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes, who planned to turn the previously silent Hughes production ''Hell's Angels'' (1930) into a talkie.", "Whale directed the dialogue sequences.", "When his work for Hughes was completed, he headed to Chicago to direct another production of ''Journey's End''.Having purchased the film rights to ''Journey's End'', British producers Michael Balcon and Thomas Welsh agreed that Whale's experience directing the London and Broadway productions of the play made him the best choice to direct the film.", "The two partnered with a small American studio, Tiffany-Stahl, to shoot it in New York.", "Colin Clive reprised his role as Stanhope, and David Manners was cast as Raleigh.", "Filming got underway on 6 December 1929 and wrapped on 22 January 1930.", "''Journey's End'' was released in Great Britain on 14 April and in the United States on 15 April.", "On both sides of the Atlantic the film was a tremendous critical and commercial success.===With the Laemmles at Universal===Whale directed Boris Karloff in the iconic horror film ''Bride of Frankenstein'' (1935).Universal Studios signed Whale to a five-year contract in 1931 and his first project was ''Waterloo Bridge''.", "Based on the Broadway play by Robert E. Sherwood, the film stars Mae Clarke as Myra, a chorus girl in World War I London who becomes a prostitute.", "It too was a critical and popular success.", "At around this time, Whale and Lewis began living together.In 1931, Universal chief Carl Laemmle, Jr. offered Whale his choice of any property the studio owned.", "He chose ''Frankenstein'', mostly because none of Universal's other properties particularly interested him, and he wanted to make something other than a war picture.", "While Mary Shelley's 1818 novel ''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus'' itself was in the public domain, Universal owned the filming rights to a stage adaptation by Peggy Webling.", "Whale cast Colin Clive as Henry Frankenstein and Mae Clarke as his fiancée Elizabeth.", "For the Monster, he turned to the little known Boris Karloff, who had wide-ranging experience in supporting roles.", "Shooting began on 24 August 1931 and wrapped on 3 October.", "Previews were held 29 October, with wide release on 21 November.", "''Frankenstein'' was an instant hit with critics and the public.", "The film received glowing reviews and shattered box office records across the United States, earning Universal $12 million on first release.Next from Whale were ''The Impatient Maiden'' and ''The Old Dark House'' (both 1932).", "''The Impatient Maiden'' made little impression but ''The Old Dark House'', starring Karloff and Charles Laughton, is credited with reinventing the \"dark house\" subgenre of horror films.", "Thought lost for some years, a print was found by filmmaker Curtis Harrington in the Universal vaults in 1968.It was restored by George Eastman House, and released on Blu-ray disk in 2017.Whale's next film was ''The Kiss Before the Mirror'' (1933), a critical success but a box-office failure.", "He returned to horror with ''The Invisible Man'' (1933).", "Shot from a script approved by H. G. Wells, the film blended horror with humor and confounding visual effects.", "Much admired, ''The New York Times'' placed it in their list of the ten best films of the year, and the film broke box-office records in cities across America.", "So highly regarded was the film that France, which restricted the number of theatres in which undubbed American films could play, granted it a special waiver because of its \"extraordinary artistic merit\".Also in 1933 Whale directed the romantic comedy ''By Candlelight'' which gained good reviews and was a modest box office hit.", "In 1934 he directed ''One More River'', an adaptation of the novel of the same name by John Galsworthy.", "The film tells the story of a woman desperate to escape her abusive marriage to a member of the British aristocracy.", "This was the first of Whale's films for which Production Code Administration approval was required and Universal had a difficult time securing that approval because of the elements of sexual sadism implicit in the husband's abusive behavior.Karoly Grosz designed this offbeat 1935 advertisement.", "''Bride of Frankenstein'' (1935) was Whale's next project.", "He had resisted making a sequel to ''Frankenstein'' as he feared being pigeonholed as a horror director.", "''Bride'' hearkened back to an episode from Mary Shelley's original novel in which the Monster promises to leave Frankenstein and humanity alone if Frankenstein makes him a mate.", "He does, but the mate is repelled by the monster who then, setting Frankenstein and his wife free to live, chooses to destroy himself and his \"bride\".", "The film was a critical and box office success, having earned some $2 million for Universal by 1943.Lauded as \"the finest of all gothic horror movies\", ''Bride'' is frequently hailed as Whale's masterpiece.With the success of ''Bride'', Laemmle was eager to put Whale to work on ''Dracula's Daughter'' (1936), the sequel to Universal's first big horror hit of the sound era.", "Whale, wary of doing two horror films in a row and concerned that directing ''Dracula's Daughter'' could interfere with his plans for the first all-sound version of ''Show Boat'' (previously filmed as a part-talkie by Harry A. Pollard), instead convinced Laemmle to buy the rights to a novel called ''The Hangover Murders''.", "The novel is a comedy-mystery in the style of ''The Thin Man'', about a group of friends who were so drunk the night one of them was murdered that none can remember anything.", "Retitled ''Remember Last Night?", "'', the film was one of Whale's personal favorites, but met with sharply divided reviews and commercial uninterest.Boris Karloff and Whale on set of ''Bride of Frankenstein'' (1935)With the completion of ''Remember Last Night?''", "Whale immediately went to work on ''Show Boat'' (1936).", "Whale gathered as many of those as he could who had been involved in one production or another of the musical, including Helen Morgan, Paul Robeson, Charles Winninger, Sammy White, conductor Victor Baravalle, orchestrator Robert Russell Bennett, and, as Magnolia, Irene Dunne, who believed that Whale was the wrong director for the piece.", "The 1936 version of ''Show Boat'', faithfully adapted from the original stage production, is believed to be the definitive film version of the musical by many critics, but became unavailable following the 1951 remake.", "In 2014, a restoration of the film became available on DVD in the U.S. as part of Warner Home Video's Archive Collection line; and in 2020, a 4K restoration Blu-Ray was released by The Criterion Collection.", "''Show Boat'' was the last of Whale's films to be produced under the Laemmle family.", "The studio was now bankrupt, and the Laemmles lost control to J. Cheever Cowdin, head of the Standard Capital Corporation, and Charles R. Rogers, who was installed in Junior Laemmle's old job.===Career decline===Whale's career went into sharp decline following the release of his next film, ''The Road Back'' (1937).", "The sequel to Erich Maria Remarque's ''All Quiet on the Western Front'', which Universal had filmed in 1930, the novel and film follow the lives of several young German men who have returned from the trenches of World War I and their struggles to re-integrate into society.", "The Los Angeles consul for Nazi Germany, Georg Gyssling, learned that the film was in production.", "He protested to PCA enforcer Joseph Breen, arguing that the film gave an \"untrue and distorted picture of the German people\".", "Gyssling eventually met Whale, but nothing came of it.", "Gyssling then sent letters to members of the cast, threatening that their participation in the film might lead to difficulties in obtaining German filming permits for them and for anyone associated in a film with them.", "While the low volume of business conducted by Universal in Germany made such threats largely hollow, the State Department, under pressure from the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League and the Screen Actors Guild, stepped in and the German government backed down.", "Whale's original cut of the film was given generally positive reviews, but some time between preview screenings and the film's general release, Rogers capitulated to the Germans, ordering that cuts be made and additional scenes be shot and inserted.", "Whale was furious, and the altered film was banned in Germany anyway.", "The Germans were successful in persuading China, Greece, Italy and Switzerland to ban the film as well.Following the debacle of ''The Road Back'', Charles Rogers tried to get out of his contract with Whale; Whale refused.", "Rogers then assigned him to a string of B movies to run out his contractual obligation.", "Whale only made one additional successful feature film, ''The Man in the Iron Mask'' (1939), before retiring from the film industry in 1941." ], [ "Post-film life", "With his film career behind him, Whale found himself at a loose end.", "He was offered the occasional job, including the opportunity to direct ''Since You Went Away'' for David O. Selznick, but turned them down.", "Lewis, meanwhile, was busier than ever with his production duties and often worked late hours, leaving Whale lonely and bored.", "Lewis bought him a supply of paint and canvasses and Whale re-discovered his love of painting.", "Eventually he built a large studio for himself.With the outbreak of World War II, Whale volunteered his services to make a training film for the United States Army.", "He shot the film, called ''Personnel Placement in the Army'', in February 1942.Later that year, in association with actress Claire DuBrey, he created the Brentwood Service Players.", "The Players took over a 100–seat theatre.", "Sixty seats were provided free of charge to service personnel; the remaining were sold to the public, with the box office proceeds donated to wartime charities.", "The group expanded to the Playtime Theatre during the summer, where a series of shows ran through October.Whale returned to Broadway in 1944 to direct the psychological thriller ''Hand in Glove''.", "It was his first return to Broadway since his failed ''One, Two, Three!''", "in 1930.", "''Hand in Glove'' would fare no better than his earlier play, running the same number of performances, 40.Whale directed his final film in 1950, a short subject based on the William Saroyan one-act play ''Hello Out There''.", "The film, financed by supermarket heir Huntington Hartford, was the story of a man in a Texas jail falsely accused of rape and the woman who cleans the jail.", "Hartford intended for the short to be part of an anthology film along the lines of ''Quartet''.", "However, attempts to find appropriate short fiction companion pieces to adapt were unsuccessful and ''Hello Out There'' was never commercially released.Whale's last professional engagement was directing ''Pagan in the Parlour'', a farce about two New England spinster sisters who are visited by a Polynesian whom their father, when shipwrecked years earlier, had married.", "The production was mounted in Pasadena for two weeks in 1951.Plans were made to take it to New York, but Whale suggested taking the play to London first.", "Before opening the play in England, Whale decided to tour the art museums of Europe.", "In France he renewed his acquaintanceship with Curtis Harrington, whom he had met in 1947.While visiting Harrington in Paris, he went to some gay bars.", "At one he met a 25-year-old bartender named Pierre Foegel, whom Harrington believed was nothing but \"a hustler out for what he could get\".", "The 62-year-old Whale was smitten with the younger man and hired him as his chauffeur.A provincial tour of ''Pagan in the Parlour'' began in September 1952 and it appeared that the play would be a hit.", "However, Hermione Baddeley, starring in the play as the cannibal \"Noo-ga\", was drinking heavily and began engaging in bizarre antics and disrupting performances.", "Because she had a run of the play contract she could not be replaced and so producers were forced to close the show.Whale returned to California in November 1952 and advised David Lewis that he planned to bring Foegel over early the following year.", "Appalled, Lewis moved out of their home.", "While this ended their 23-year romantic relationship, the two men remained friends.", "Lewis bought a small house and dug a swimming pool, prompting Whale to have his own pool dug, although he did not himself swim in it.", "He began throwing all-male swim parties and would watch the young men cavort in and around the pool.", "Foegel moved in with Whale in early 1953 and remained there for several months before returning to France.", "He returned in 1954 permanently, and Whale installed him as manager of a gas station that he owned.Whale and Foegel settled into a quiet routine until the spring of 1956, when Whale suffered a small stroke.", "A few months later he suffered a larger stroke and was hospitalized.", "While in the hospital he was treated for depression with shock treatments.Upon his release, Whale hired one of the male nurses from the hospital to be his personal live-in nurse.", "A jealous Foegel maneuvered the nurse out of the house and hired a female nurse as a non-live-in replacement.", "Whale suffered from mood swings and grew increasingly and frustratingly more dependent on others as his mental faculties were diminishing." ], [ "Death", "Whale died by suicide by drowning himself in his Pacific Palisades swimming pool on 29 May 1957 at the age of 67.He left a suicide note, which Lewis withheld until shortly before his own death decades later.", "Because the note was suppressed, the death was initially ruled accidental.", "The note read in part:Whale's body was cremated per his request, and his ashes were interred in the Columbarium of Memory at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale.", "Because of his habit of periodically revising his date of birth, his niche lists the incorrect date of 1893.When his longtime partner David Lewis died in 1987, his executor and Whale biographer James Curtis had his ashes interred in a niche across from Whale's." ], [ "Sexual orientation", "James Whale lived as an openly gay man throughout his career in the British theatre and in Hollywood, something that was virtually unheard of in that era.", "He and David Lewis lived together as a couple from around 1930 to 1952.While he did not go out of his way to publicize his homosexuality, he did not do anything to conceal it either.", "As filmmaker Curtis Harrington, a friend and confidant of Whale's, put it, \"Not in the sense of screaming it from the rooftops or coming out.", "But yes, he was openly homosexual.", "Any sophisticated person who knew him knew he was gay.\"", "While there have been suggestions that Whale's career was terminated because of homophobia, and Whale was supposedly dubbed \"The Queen of Hollywood\", Harrington states that \"nobody made a thing out of it as far as I could perceive\".With knowledge of his sexuality becoming more common beginning in the 1970s, some film historians and gay studies scholars have detected homosexual themes in Whale's work, particularly in ''Bride of Frankenstein'' in which a number of the creative people associated with the cast, including Ernest Thesiger and Colin Clive, were alleged to be gay or bisexual.", "Scholars have identified a gay sensibility suffused through the film, especially a camp sensibility, particularly embodied in the character of Pretorius (Thesiger) and his relationship with Henry Frankenstein (Clive).", "Minnie introduces Pretorius to Frankenstein with the line, \"He's a very queer-looking old gentleman, sir....\" at 16:56 in the film.Gay film historian Vito Russo, in considering Pretorius, stops short of identifying the character as gay, instead referring to him as \"sissified\" (\"sissy\" itself being a Hollywood's gay stock character).", "Pretorius serves as a \"gay Mephistopheles\", a figure of seduction and temptation, going so far as to pull Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of non-procreative life.", "A novelisation of the film published in England made the implication clear, having Pretorius say to Frankenstein \"'Be fruitful and multiply.'", "Let us obey the Biblical injunction: you of course, have the choice of natural means; but as for me, I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way.\"", "Russo goes so far as to suggest that Whale's homosexuality is expressed in both ''Frankenstein'' and ''Bride'' as \"a vision both films had of the monster as an antisocial figure in the same way that gay people were 'things' that should not have happened\".Whale's partner David Lewis stated flatly that Whale's sexual orientation was \"not germane\" to his filmmaking.", "\"Jimmy was first and foremost an artist, and his films represent the work of an artist—not a gay artist, but an artist.\"", "Whale's biographer Curtis rejects the notion that Whale would have identified with the Monster from a homosexual perspective, stating that if the highly class-conscious Whale felt himself to be an antisocial figure, it would have been based not in his sexuality but in his origin in the lower classes." ], [ "Film style", "Whale was heavily influenced by German Expressionism.", "He was a particular admirer of the films of Paul Leni, combining as they did elements of gothic horror and comedy.", "This influence was most evident in ''Bride of Frankenstein''.", "Expressionist influence is also in evidence in ''Frankenstein'', drawn in part from the work of Paul Wegener and his films ''The Golem'' (1915) and ''The Golem: How He Came into the World'' (1920) along with ''The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari'' (1920) from Robert Wiene, which Whale reportedly screened repeatedly while preparing to shoot ''Frankenstein''.", "''Frankenstein'' roughly alternates between distorted expressionistic shots and more conventional styles, with the character of Dr. Waldman serving as \"a bridge between everyday and expressionist spaces\".", "Expressionist influence is also evident in the acting, costuming and the design of the Monster.", "Whale and makeup artist Jack Pierce may also have been influenced by the Bauhaus school of design.", "The expressionist influence lasted throughout Whale's career, with Whale's final film, ''Hello Out There'', praised by ''Sight & Sound'' as \"a virtuoso pattern of light and shade, a piece of fully blown expressionist filmmaking plonked down unceremoniously in the midst of neo-realism's heyday\".Whale was known for his use of camera movement.", "He is credited with being the first director to use a 360-degree panning shot in a feature film, included in ''Frankenstein''.", "Whale used a similar technique during the ''Ol' Man River'' sequence in ''Show Boat'', in which the camera tracked around Paul Robeson as he sang the song.", "(The sequence also uses expressionist montages illustrating some of the lyrics.)", "Often singled out for praise in ''Frankenstein'' is the series of shots used to introduce the Monster: \"Nothing can ever quite efface the thrill of watching the successive views Whale's mobile camera allows us of the lumbering figure\".", "These shots, starting with a medium shot and culminating in two close-ups of the Monster's face, were repeated by Whale to introduce Griffin in ''The Invisible Man'' and the abusive husband in ''One More River''.", "Modified to a single cut rather than two, Whale uses the same technique in ''The Road Back'' to signal the instability of a returning World War I veteran." ], [ "Legacy", "James Whale memorial sculpture (2001) by Charles Hadcock, in Dudley, EnglandInfluential film critic Andrew Sarris, in his 1968 ranking of directors, lists Whale as \"lightly likable\".", "Noting that Whale's reputation has been subsumed by the \"Karloff cult\", Sarris cites ''Bride of Frankenstein'' as the \"true gem\" of the ''Frankenstein'' series and concludes that Whale's career \"reflects the stylistic ambitions and dramatic disappointments of an expressionist in the studio-controlled Hollywood of the thirties\".Whale's final months are the subject of the novel ''Father of Frankenstein'' (1995) by Christopher Bram.", "The novel focuses on the relationship between Whale and a fictional gardener named Clayton Boone.", "''Father of Frankenstein'' served as the basis of the 1998 film ''Gods and Monsters'' with Ian McKellen as Whale and Brendan Fraser as Boone.", "McKellen was nominated for an Academy Award for his portrayal of Whale.", "Bram's novel has also been adapted as a play which premiered in London at the Southwark Playhouse in February 2015.Only two of Whale's films received Oscar nominations: ''The Man in the Iron Mask'' (for its musical score), and ''Bride of Frankenstein'' (for its sound recording).A memorial sculpture was erected for Whale in September 2001 on the grounds of a new multiplex cinema in his home town of Dudley.", "The sculpture, by Charles Hadcock, depicts a roll of film with the face of Frankenstein's monster engraved into the frames, and the names of his most famous films etched into a cast concrete base in the shape of film canisters.", "Other sculptures related to Whale's cinema career were planned, referencing his early work in a local sheet metal factory, but none had been installed as of 2019.", "''Horror in Hollywood: The James Whale Story'', a retrospective of Whale's artwork, opened at the Dudley Museum and Art Gallery in October 2012 and ran through to January 2013." ], [ "Filmography", " Title Year Notes''Journey's End''1930directorial debut''Hell's Angels''1930(directed dialogue)''Waterloo Bridge''1931''Frankenstein''1931''The Impatient Maiden'' 1932''The Old Dark House'' 1932''The Kiss Before the Mirror'' 1933''The Invisible Man'' 1933''By Candlelight'' 1933''One More River'' 1934 One of the first films subject to the Production Code Administration's censorship''Bride of Frankenstein'' 1935''Remember Last Night?''", "1935''Show Boat'' 1936''The Road Back'' 1937''The Great Garrick'' 1937''Port of Seven Seas'' 1938''Sinners in Paradise'' 1938''Wives Under Suspicion'' 1938''The Man in the Iron Mask'' 1939''Green Hell'' 1940''They Dare Not Love'' 1941 final film" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Anger, Kenneth (1984).", "''Hollywood Babylon II''.", "Dutton.", "* Bansak, Edmund G. and Robert Wise (2003).", "''Fearing the Dark: The Val Lewton Career''.", "McFarland.", ".", "* Benshoff, Harry M. (1997).", "''Monsters in the Closet: Homosexuality and the Horror Film''.", "Manchester University Press.", ".", "* Bordman, Gerald Martin (1995).", "''American Theatre: A Chronicle of Comedy and Drama, 1914–1930''.", "Oxford University Press US.", ".", "* Bryant, Wayne (1997).", "''Bisexual Characters in Film: From Anaïs to Zee''.", "Haworth Press.", ".", "* Buehrer, Beverly Bare (1993).", "''Boris Karloff: A Bio-bibliography''.", "Greenwood Publishing Group.", ".", "* Coleman, Terry (2005).", "''Olivier''.", "Macmillan.", ".", "* Curtis, James (1998).", "''James Whale: A New World of Gods and Monsters''.", "Boston, Faber and Faber.", ".", "* Early, Emmett (2003).", "''The War Veteran in Film''.", "McFarland.", ".", "* Ellis, Reed (1979).", "''A Journey into Darkness: The Art of James Whale's Horror Films''.", "University of Florida.", "* * Gifford, Denis (1973) ''Karloff: The Man, The Monster, The Movies''.", "Film Fan Monthly.", "* Glancy, Mark (1999).", "''When Hollywood Loved Britain: The Hollywood \"British\" Film 1939–1945'' Manchester University Press.", ".", "* Green, S. J. D. and R. C. Whiting (2002).", "''The Boundaries of the State in Modern Britain''.", "Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* Hofler, Robert (2006).", "''The Man Who Invented Rock Hudson: The Pretty Boys and Dirty Deals of Henry Willson''.", "Carroll & Graf Publishers.", ".", "* Kelly, Andrew (1997) ''Cinema and the Great War''.", "Routledge.", ".", "* Kelly, Andrew (2001) ''All Quiet on the Western Front': The Story of a Film''.", "I.B.Tauris.", ".", "* * Low, Rachael, Roger Manvell and Jeffrey Richards (2005).", "''History of British Film''.", "Routledge.", ".", "* Noszlopy, George Thomas and Fiona Waterhouse (2005).", "''Public Sculpture of Staffordshire and the Black Country''.", "Liverpool, Liverpool University Press.", ".", "* Prawer, Siegbert Salomon (1989).", "''Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror''.", "Da Capo Press.", ".", "* Robertson, Patrick (2001).", "''Film Facts''.", "Watson-Guptill.", ".", "* Russo, Vito (1987).", "''The Celluloid Closet: Homosexuality in the Movies'' (revised edition).", "New York, HarperCollins.", ".", "* Sarris, Andrew (1996).", "''The American Cinema: Directors and Directions 1929–1968''.", "Da Capo Press.", ".", "* Skal, David J.", "(1993).", "''The Monster Show: A Cultural History of Horror''.", "Penguin Books.", ".", "* Skal, David J. and Jessica Rains (2008).", "''Claude Rains: An Actor's Voice''.", "University Press of Kentucky.", ".", "* * Williamson, Audrey (1951).", "''Theatre of two decades''.", "Rockliff.", "* Worland, Rick (2007).", "''The Horror Film: An Introduction''.", "Blackwell Publishing.", ".", "* Young, Elizabeth.", "\"Here Comes The Bride\".", "Collected in Gelder, Ken (ed.)", "(2000).", "''The Horror Reader''.", "Routledge.", ".", "* Young, William H. and Nancy K. Young (2007).", "''The Great Depression in America: A Cultural Encyclopedia''.", "Greenwood Publishing Group.", "." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 9" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 681 – Twelfth Council of Toledo: King Erwig of the Visigoths initiates a council in which he implements diverse measures against the Jews in Spain.", "1127 – Jin–Song Wars: Invading Jurchen soldiers from the Jin dynasty besiege and sack Bianjing (Kaifeng), the capital of the Song dynasty of China, and abduct Emperor Qinzong of Song and others, ending the Northern Song dynasty.", "1349 – The Jewish population of Basel, believed by the residents to be the cause of the ongoing Black Death, is rounded up and incinerated.", "1431 – The trial of Joan of Arc begins in Rouen.", "1693 – Sicily earthquake: The first of two earthquakes destroys parts of Sicily and Malta.", "After the second quake on 11 January, the death toll is estimated at between 60,000 and 100,000 people.===1601–1900===1760 – Ahmad Shah Durrani defeats the Marathas in the Battle of Barari Ghat.", "1787 – The nationally known image of the Black Nazarene in the Philippines was transferred from what is now Rizal Park to its present shrine in the minor basilica of Quiapo Church.", "This is annually commemorated through its ''Traslación'' (solemn transfer) in the streets of Manila and is attended by millions of devotees.", "1788 – Connecticut becomes the fifth state to ratify the United States Constitution.", "1792 – Treaty of Jassy between Russian and Ottoman Empire is signed, ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–92.", "1793 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first person to fly in a balloon in the United States.", "1799 – British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger introduces an income tax of two shillings to the pound to raise funds for Great Britain's war effort in the Napoleonic Wars.", "1806 – Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson receives a state funeral and is interred in St Paul's Cathedral.", "1816 – Humphry Davy tests his safety lamp for miners at Hebburn Colliery.", "1822 – The Portuguese prince Pedro I of Brazil decides to stay in Brazil against the orders of the Portuguese King João VI, beginning the Brazilian independence process.", "1839 – The French Academy of Sciences announces the Daguerreotype photography process.", "1857 – The 7.9 Fort Tejon earthquake shakes Central and Southern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent'').", "1858 – British forces finally defeat Rajab Ali Khan of Chittagong1861 – American Civil War: \"Star of the West\" incident occurs near Charleston, South Carolina.", " 1861 – Mississippi becomes the second state to secede from the Union before the outbreak of the American Civil War.", "1878 – Umberto I becomes King of Italy.===1901–present===1903 – Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson, son of the poet Alfred Tennyson, becomes the second Governor-General of Australia.", "1909 – Ernest Shackleton, leading the Nimrod Expedition to the South Pole, plants the British flag from the South Pole, the farthest anyone had ever reached at that time.", "1914 – The Phi Beta Sigma fraternity is founded by African-American students at Howard University in Washington D.C., United States.", "1916 – World War I: The Battle of Gallipoli concludes with an Ottoman Empire victory when the last Allied forces are evacuated from the peninsula.", "1917 – World War I: The Battle of Rafa is fought near the Egyptian border with Palestine.", "1918 – Battle of Bear Valley: The last battle of the American Indian Wars.", "1920 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee outlaws the Makhnovshchina by decree, igniting the Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict.", "1921 – Greco-Turkish War: The First Battle of İnönü, the first battle of the war, begins near Eskişehir in Anatolia.", "1923 – Juan de la Cierva makes the first autogyro flight.", "* 1923 – Lithuanian residents of the Memel Territory rebel against the League of Nations' decision to leave the area as a mandated region under French control.", "1927 – A fire at the Laurier Palace movie theatre in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, kills 78 children.", "1941 – World War II: First flight of the Avro Lancaster.", "1945 – World War II: The Sixth United States Army begins the invasion of Lingayen Gulf.", "1957 – British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden resigns from office following his failure to retake the Suez Canal from Egyptian sovereignty.", "1959 – The Vega de Tera dam fails, triggering a disastrous flood that nearly destroys the town of Ribadelago and kills 144 residents.", "1960 – President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser opens construction on the Aswan Dam by detonating ten tons of dynamite to demolish twenty tons of granite on the east bank of the Nile.", "1961 – British authorities announce they have uncovered the Soviet Portland Spy Ring in London.", "1962 – Apollo program: NASA announces plans to build the C-5 rocket launch vehicle, then known as the \"Advanced Saturn\", to carry human beings to the Moon.", "1964 – Martyrs' Day: Several Panamanian youths try to raise the Panamanian flag in the U.S.-controlled Panama Canal Zone, leading to fighting between U.S. military and Panamanian civilians.", "1991 – Representatives from the United States and Iraq meet at the Geneva Peace Conference to try to find a peaceful resolution to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.", "1992 – The Assembly of the Serb People in Bosnia and Herzegovina proclaims the creation of Republika Srpska, a new state within Yugoslavia.", " 1992 – The first discoveries of extrasolar planets are announced by astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail.", "They discovered two planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12.", "1996 – First Chechen War: Chechen separatists launch a raid against the helicopter airfield and later a civilian hospital in the city of Kizlyar in the neighboring Dagestan, which turns into a massive hostage crisis involving thousands of civilians.", "1997 – Comair Flight 3272 crashes in Raisinville Township in Monroe County, Michigan, killing 29 people.", "2003 – TANS Perú Flight 222 crashes on approach to Chachapoyas Airport in Chachapoyas, Peru, killing 46 people.", "2004 – An inflatable boat carrying illegal Albanian emigrants stalls near the Karaburun Peninsula en route to Brindisi, Italy; exposure to the elements kills 28.This is the second deadliest marine disaster in Albanian history.", "2005 – Mahmoud Abbas wins the election to succeed Yasser Arafat as President of the Palestinian National Authority, replacing interim president Rawhi Fattouh.", " 2005 – The Sudan People's Liberation Movement and the Government of Sudan sign the Comprehensive Peace Agreement to end the Second Sudanese Civil War.", "2007 – Apple CEO Steve Jobs introduces the original iPhone at a Macworld keynote in San Francisco.", "2011 – Iran Air Flight 277 crashes near Urmia in the northwest of the country, in icy conditions, killing 78 people.", "2014 – An explosion at a Mitsubishi Materials chemical plant in Yokkaichi, Japan, kills at least five people and injures 17 others.", "2015 – The perpetrators of the ''Charlie Hebdo'' shooting in Paris two days earlier are both killed after a hostage situation; a second hostage situation, related to the ''Charlie Hebdo'' shooting, occurs at a Jewish market in Vincennes.", "* 2015 – A mass poisoning at a funeral in Mozambique involving beer that was contaminated with ''Burkholderia gladioli'' leaves 75 dead and over 230 people ill.2021 – Sriwijaya Air Flight 182 crashes north of Jakarta, Indonesia, killing all 62 people on board." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===727 – Emperor Daizong of Tang (d. 779)1418 – Juan Ramón Folch III de Cardona, Aragonese admiral (d. 1485)1554 – Pope Gregory XV (d. 1623)1571 – Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy, French commander (d. 1621)1590 – Simon Vouet, French painter (d. 1649)===1601–1900===1606 – William Dugard, English printer (d. 1662)1624 – Empress Meishō of Japan (d. 1696)1645 – Sir William Villiers, 3rd Baronet, English noble and politician (date baptized; d. 1712)1674 – Reinhard Keiser, German composer (d. 1739)1685 – Tiberius Hemsterhuis, Dutch philologist and critic (d. 1766)1728 – Thomas Warton, English poet, historian, and critic (d. 1790)1735 – John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent, English admiral and politician (d. 1823)1745 – Caleb Strong, American lawyer and politician, 6th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1819)1753 – Luísa Todi, Portuguese soprano and actress (d. 1833)1773 – Cassandra Austen, English painter and illustrator (d. 1845)1778 – Hammamizade İsmail Dede Efendi, Turkish Ney player and composer (d. 1846)1811 – Gilbert Abbott à Beckett, English journalist and author (d. 1856)1818 – Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon, French sculptor and photographer (d. 1881)1819 – James Francis, English-Australian businessman and politician, 9th Premier of Victoria (d. 1884)1822 – Carol Benesch, Czech-Romanian architect, designed the Peleș Castle (d. 1896)1823 – Friedrich von Esmarch, German surgeon and academic (d. 1908)1829 – Thomas William Robertson, English director and playwright (d. 1871) 1829 – Adolf Schlagintweit, German botanist and explorer (d. 1857)1832 – Félix-Gabriel Marchand, Canadian journalist and politician, 11th Premier of Quebec (d. 1900)1839 – John Knowles Paine, American composer and academic (d. 1906)1848 – Princess Frederica of Hanover (d. 1926)1849 – John Hartley, English tennis player (d. 1935)1854 – Jennie Jerome, American-born wife of Lord Randolph Churchill, mother of Sir Winston Churchill (d. 1921) 1856 – Anton Aškerc, Slovenian priest and poet (d. 1912)1859 – Carrie Chapman Catt, American activist, founded the League of Women Voters and International Alliance of Women (d. 1947)1864 – Vladimir Steklov, Russian mathematician and physicist (d. 1926)1868 – S. P. L. Sørensen, Danish chemist and academic (d. 1939)1870 – Joseph Strauss, American engineer, co-designed the Golden Gate Bridge (d. 1938)1873 – Hayim Nahman Bialik, Ukrainian-Austrian journalist, author, and poet (d. 1934) 1873 – Thomas Curtis, American sprinter and hurdler (d. 1944)* 1873 – John Flanagan, Irish-American hammer thrower (d. 1938)1875 – Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, American sculptor and art collector, founded the Whitney Museum of American Art (d. 1942)1879 – John B. Watson, American psychologist and academic (d. 1958)1881 – Lascelles Abercrombie, English poet and critic (d. 1938) 1881 – Giovanni Papini, Italian journalist, author, and poet (d. 1956)1885 – Charles Bacon, American runner and hurdler (d. 1968)1886 – Lloyd Loar, American sound engineer and instrument designer (d. 1943)1889 – Vrindavan Lal Verma, Indian author and playwright (d. 1969)1890 – Karel Čapek, Czech author and playwright (d. 1938)* 1890 – Kurt Tucholsky, German-Swedish journalist and author (d. 1935)1892 – Eva Bowring, American lawyer and politician (d. 1985)1893 – Edwin Baker, Canadian soldier and educator, co-founded the Canadian National Institute for the Blind (d. 1968)1896 – Warwick Braithwaite, New Zealand-English conductor and director (d. 1971)1897 – Karl Löwith, German philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1973)* 1897 – Halyna Kuzmenko, Ukrainian teacher and anarchist revolutionary (d. 1978)1898 – Gracie Fields, English actress and singer (d. 1979)1899 – Harald Tammer, Estonian journalist and weightlifter (d. 1942)1900 – Richard Halliburton, American journalist and author (d. 1939)===1901–present===1901 – Vilma Bánky, Hungarian-American actress (d. 1991)1902 – Rudolf Bing, American impresario and businessman (d. 1997) 1902 – Josemaría Escrivá, Spanish priest and saint, founded Opus Dei (d. 1975)1908 – Simone de Beauvoir, French philosopher and author (d. 1986) 1909 – Anthony Mamo, Maltese lawyer and politician, 1st President of Malta (d. 2008)* 1909 – Patrick Peyton, Irish-American priest, television personality, and activist (d. 1992)1912 – Basil Langton, English actor, director, photographer, and teacher (d. 2003) 1912 – Ralph Tubbs, English architect, designed the Dome of Discovery (d. 1996)1913 – Richard Nixon, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 37th President of the United States (d. 1994)1914 – Kenny Clarke, American jazz drummer and bandleader (d. 1985)1915 – Fernando Lamas, Argentinian-American actor, singer, and director (d. 1982) 1915 – Anita Louise, American actress (d. 1970)1918 – Alma Ziegler, American baseball player and golfer (d. 2005)1919 – William Morris Meredith, Jr., American poet and academic (d. 2007)1920 – Clive Dunn, English actor (d. 2012) 1920 – Hakim Said, Pakistani scholar and politician, 20th Governor of Sindh (d. 1998)1921 – Ágnes Keleti, Hungarian Olympic gymnast 1922 – Har Gobind Khorana, Indian-American biochemist and academic, Nobel laureate (d. 2011)* 1922 – Ahmed Sékou Touré, Guinean politician, 1st President of Guinea (d. 1984)1924 – Sergei Parajanov, Georgian-Armenian director and screenwriter (d. 1990)1925 – Len Quested, English footballer and manager (d. 2012)* 1925 – Lee Van Cleef, American actor (d. 1989)1926 – Jean-Pierre Côté, Canadian lawyer and politician, 23rd Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 2002)1928 – Judith Krantz, American novelist (d. 2019)* 1928 – Domenico Modugno, Italian singer-songwriter, actor, and politician (d. 1994)1929 – Brian Friel, Irish author, playwright, and director (d. 2015) 1929 – Heiner Müller, German poet, playwright, and director (d. 1995)1931 – Algis Budrys, Lithuanian-American author and critic (d. 2008)1933 – Roy Dwight, English footballer (d. 2002)* 1933 – Wilbur Smith, Zambian-English journalist and author (d. 2021)1934 – Bart Starr, American football player and coach (d. 2019)1935 – Bob Denver, American actor (d. 2005)* 1935 – Dick Enberg, American sportscaster (d. 2017)* 1935 – John Graham, New Zealand rugby player and educator (d. 2017)* 1935 – Brian Harradine, Australian politician (d. 2014)1936 – K Callan, American actress and author 1936 – Marko Veselica, Croatian academic and politician (d. 2017)1938 – Claudette Boyer, Canadian educator and politician (d. 2013)1939 – Susannah York, English actress and activist (d. 2011)1940 – Barbara Buczek, Polish composer (d. 1993) 1940 – Ruth Dreifuss, Swiss journalist and politician, 86th President of the Swiss Confederation1941 – Joan Baez, American singer-songwriter, guitarist and activist1943 – Robert Drewe, Australian author and playwright* 1943 – Elmer MacFadyen, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2007)* 1943 – Scott Walker, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (d. 2019)1944 – Harun Farocki, German filmmaker (d. 2014) 1944 – Jimmy Page, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer* 1944 – Mihalis Violaris, Cypriot singer-songwriter and actor1945 – John Doman, American actor 1945 – Levon Ter-Petrosyan, Syrian-Armenian scholar and politician, 1st President of Armenia1946 – Mohammad Ishaq Khan, Indian historian and academic (d. 2013) 1946 – Mogens Lykketoft, Danish politician, 45th Danish Minister of Foreign Affairs1948 – Bill Cowsill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006) 1948 – Jan Tomaszewski, Polish footballer, manager, and politician1950 – Alec Jeffreys, English geneticist and academic 1950 – David Johansen, American singer-songwriter and actor1951 – M. L. Carr, American basketball player, coach, and executive 1951 – Crystal Gayle, American singer-songwriter and producer 1952 – Kaushik Basu, Indian economist and academic1954 – Philippa Gregory, Kenyan-English author and academic1955 – Bruce Boudreau, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1955 – J. K. Simmons, American actor1956 – Waltraud Meier, German soprano and actress 1956 – Imelda Staunton, English actress and singer1957 – Phil Lewis, English musician, singer and songwriter1958 – Rob McClanahan, American ice hockey player* 1958 – Mehmet Ali Ağca, Turkish assassin1959 – Rigoberta Menchú, Guatemalan activist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate1960 – Lisa Walters, Canadian golfer1961 – Didier Camberabero, French rugby player1962 – Ray Houghton, Scottish-born footballer 1963 – Eric Erlandson, American musician and songwriter 1963 – Irwin McLean, Northern Irish biologist and academic1965 – Muggsy Bogues, American basketball player 1965 – Haddaway, Trinidadian-German singer and musician* 1965 – Joely Richardson, English actress1967 – Matt Bevin, American politician, 62nd Governor of Kentucky 1967 – Claudio Caniggia, Argentinian footballer* 1967 – David Costabile, American actor* 1967 – Steve Harwell, American rock singer (d. 2023)* 1967 – Dave Matthews, South African-American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor1968 – Jimmy Adams, Jamaican cricketer and coach 1968 – Joey Lauren Adams, American actress* 1968 – Giorgos Theofanous, Greek-Cypriot composer and producer1970 – Lara Fabian, Belgian-Italian singer-songwriter and actress1971 – Angie Martinez, American rapper, actress, and radio host1973 – Angela Bettis, American actress, director, and producer 1973 – Sean Paul, Jamaican rapper, singer-songwriter, musician, record producer, and actor1974 – Omari Hardwick, American actor1975 – James Beckford, Jamaican long jumper1976 – Radek Bonk, Czech ice hockey player1978 – Mathieu Garon, Canadian ice hockey player* 1978 – Gennaro Gattuso, Italian footballer and manager* 1978 – Chad Johnson, American football player* 1978 – AJ McLean, American singer, dancer, and actor1980 – Édgar Álvarez, Honduran footballer 1980 – Sergio García, Spanish golfer* 1980 – Shaun Hill, American football player* 1980 – Luke Patten, Australian rugby league player and referee* 1980 – Francisco Pavón, Spanish footballer1981 – Ebi Smolarek, Polish footballer and manager1982 – Catherine, Princess of Wales* 1982 – Sharrod Ford, American basketball player1985 – Juan Francisco Torres, Spanish footballer1986 – Raphael Diaz, Swiss ice hockey player* 1986 – Jéferson Gomes, Brazilian footballer* 1986 – Amanda Mynhardt, South African netball player1987 – Lucas Leiva, Brazilian footballer 1987 – Paolo Nutini, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1987 – Jami Puustinen, Finnish footballer1988 – Lee Yeon-hee, South Korean actress1989 – Michael Beasley, American basketball player* 1989 – Nina Dobrev, Bulgarian-Canadian actress* 1989 – Yana Maksimava, Belarusian heptathlete* 1989 – Samardo Samuels, Jamaican-American basketball player* 1989 – Chris Sandow, Australian rugby league player* 1989 – Haris Sohail, Pakistani cricketer1991 – Ruby Soho, American wrestler 1991 – Álvaro Soler, Spanish singer-songwriter1992 – Jack Campbell, American ice hockey player 1992 – Terrence Jones, American basketball player* 1992 – Joseph Parker, Samoan heavyweight boxer1993 – Katarina Johnson-Thompson, English long jumper and heptathlete 1993 – Marcus Peters, American football player1994 – Radek Faksa, Czech ice hockey player1995 – Braden Hamlin-Uele, New Zealand rugby league player* 1995 – Dominik Livaković, Croatian football goalkeeper* 1995 – Nicola Peltz, American actress1996 – Vítek Vaněček, Czech ice hockey player1998 – Kerris Dorsey, American actress* 1998 – Brent Rivera, American social media personality and actor2000 – Luka Šamanić, Croatian basketball player2001 – Peter Mamouzelos, Australian rugby league player* 2001 – Zeke Nnaji, American basketball player2004 – Souhardya De, Indian author and columnist" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 710 – Adrian of Canterbury, abbot and scholar1150 – Emperor Xizong of Jin (b.", "1119)1282 – Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd ibn Hakam al Qurashi, Minorcan ruler (b.", "1204)1283 – Wen Tianxiang, Chinese general and scholar (b.", "1236)1367 – Giulia della Rena, Italian saint (b.", "1319)1450 – Adam Moleyns, Bishop of Chichester1463 – William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent, English soldier (b.", "1405)1499 – John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (b.", "1455)1511 – Demetrios Chalkokondyles, Greek scholar and academic (b.", "1423)1514 – Anne of Brittany, queen of Charles VIII of France and Louis XII of France (b.", "1477)1529 – Wang Yangming, Chinese Neo-Confucian scholar (b.", "1472)1534 – Johannes Aventinus, Bavarian historian and philologist (b.", "1477)1543 – Guillaume du Bellay, French general and diplomat (b.", "1491)1561 – Amago Haruhisa, Japanese warlord (b.", "1514)1571 – Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon, French admiral (b.", "1510)1598 – Jasper Heywood, English poet and scholar (b.", "1553)===1601–1900===1612 – Leonard Holliday, Lord Mayor of London (b.", "1550)1622 – Alix Le Clerc, French Canoness Regular and foundress (b.", "1576)1757 – Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, French author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1657)1762 – Antonio de Benavides, colonial governor of Florida (b.", "1678)1766 – Thomas Birch, English historian and author (b.", "1705)1799 – Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1718)1800 – Jean Étienne Championnet, French general (b.", "1762)1805 – Noble Wimberly Jones, American physician and politician (b.", "1723)1833 – Adrien-Marie Legendre, French mathematician and theorist (b.", "1752)1843 – William Hedley, English engineer (b.", "1773)1848 – Caroline Herschel, German-English astronomer (b.", "1750)1856 – Neophytos Vamvas, Greek cleric and educator (b.", "1770)1858 – Anson Jones, American physician and politician; 4th President of the Republic of Texas (b.", "1798)1873 – Napoleon III, French politician, 1st President of France (b.", "1808)1876 – Samuel Gridley Howe, American physician and activist (b.", "1801)1878 – Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (b.", "1820)1895 – Aaron Lufkin Dennison, American-English businessman (b.", "1812)===1901–present===1901 – Richard Copley Christie, English lawyer and academic (b.", "1830)1908 – Wilhelm Busch, German poet, illustrator, and painter (b.", "1832)* 1908 – Abraham Goldfaden, Russian actor, playwright, and author (b.", "1840)1911 – Edwin Arthur Jones, American violinist and composer (b.", "1853) 1911 – Edvard Rusjan, Italian-Slovene pilot and engineer (b.", "1886)1917 – Luther D. Bradley, American cartoonist (b.", "1853)1918 – Charles-Émile Reynaud, French scientist and educator, invented the Praxinoscope (b.", "1844)1923 – Katherine Mansfield, New Zealand novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b.", "1888)1924 – Ponnambalam Arunachalam, Sri Lankan civil servant and politician (b.", "1853)1927 – Houston Stewart Chamberlain, English-German philosopher and author (b.", "1855)1930 – Edward Bok, Dutch-American journalist and author (b.", "1863)1931 – Wayne Munn, American football player and wrestler (b.", "1896)1936 – John Gilbert, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1899)1939 – Johann Strauss III, Austrian violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1866)1941 – Dimitrios Golemis, Greek runner (b.", "1874)1945 – Shigekazu Shimazaki, Japanese admiral and pilot (b.", "1908) 1945 – Jüri Uluots, Estonian journalist and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Estonia (b.", "1890)* 1945 – Osman Cemal Kaygılı, Turkish journalist, author, and playwright (b.", "1890)1946 – Countee Cullen, American poet and playwright (b.", "1903)1947 – Karl Mannheim, Hungarian-English sociologist and academic (b.", "1893)1960 – Elsie J. Oxenham, English author and educator (b.", "1880)1961 – Emily Greene Balch, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1867)1964 – Halide Edib Adıvar, Turkish author and academic (b.", "1884)1971 – Elmer Flick, American baseball player and scout (b.", "1876)1972 – Ted Shawn, American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1891)1975 – Pierre Fresnay, French actor and screenwriter (b.", "1897)* 1975 – Pyotr Novikov, Russian mathematician and theorist (b.", "1901)1979 – Pier Luigi Nervi, Italian engineer and architect, designed the Tour de la Bourse and Pirelli Tower (b.", "1891)1981 – Kazimierz Serocki, Polish pianist and composer (b.", "1922)1984 – Bob Dyer, American-Australian radio and television host (b.", "1909)1985 – Robert Mayer, German-English businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1879)1987 – Arthur Lake, American actor (b.", "1905)1988 – Peter L. Rypdal, Norwegian fiddler and composer (b.", "1909)1990 – Spud Chandler, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1907) 1990 – Cemal Süreya, Turkish poet and journalist (b.", "1931)1992 – Steve Brodie, American actor (b.", "1919) 1992 – Bill Naughton, English playwright and screenwriter (b.", "1910)1993 – Paul Hasluck, Australian historian and politician, Governor-General of Australia (b.", "1905)1995 – Souphanouvong, Laotian politician, 1st President of Laos (b.", "1909)* 1995 – Peter Cook, English actor and screenwriter (b.", "1937)1996 – Walter M. Miller, Jr., American soldier and author (b.", "1923) 1996 – Abdullah al-Qasemi, Saudi atheist, writer, and intellectual (b.", "1907)1997 – Edward Osóbka-Morawski, Polish politician, Prime Minister of Poland (b.", "1909) 1997 – Jesse White, American actor (b.", "1917)1998 – Kenichi Fukui, Japanese chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918) 1998 – Imi Lichtenfeld, Slovakian-Israeli martial artist, founded Krav Maga (b.", "1910)2000 – Arnold Alexander Hall, English engineer and academic (b.", "1915) 2000 – Nigel Tranter, Scottish historian and author (b.", "1909)2001 – Maurice Prather, American photographer and director (b.", "1926)2003 – Will McDonough, American journalist (b.", "1935)2004 – Norberto Bobbio, Italian philosopher and academic (b.", "1909)2006 – Andy Caldecott, Australian motorcycle racer (b.", "1964)* 2006 – W. Cleon Skousen, American author and academic (b.", "1913)2007 – Elmer Symons, South African motorcycle racer (b.", "1977) 2007 – Jean-Pierre Vernant, French anthropologist and historian (b.", "1914)2008 – Johnny Grant, American radio host and producer (b.", "1923) 2008 – John Harvey-Jones, English businessman and television host (b.", "1924)2009 – Rob Gauntlett, English mountaineer and explorer (b.", "1987) 2009 – T. Llew Jones, Welsh author and poet (b.", "1914)* 2009 – Tan Chor Jin, Singaporean murderer and triad leader of Ang Soon Tong (b.", "1966)2011 – Makinti Napanangka, Australian painter (b.", "1930)2012 – Brian Curvis, Welsh boxer (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Augusto Gansser-Biaggi, Swiss geologist and academic (b.", "1910)* 2012 – William G. Roll, German-American psychologist and parapsychologist (b.", "1926)* 2012 – Malam Bacai Sanhá, Guinea-Bissau politician, President of Guinea-Bissau (b.", "1947)* 2012 – László Szekeres, Hungarian physician and academic (b.", "1921)2013 – Brigitte Askonas, Austrian-English immunologist and academic (b.", "1923) 2013 – James M. Buchanan, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1919)* 2013 – Robert L. Rock, American businessman and politician, 42nd Lieutenant Governor of Indiana (b.", "1927)* 2013 – John Wise, Canadian farmer and politician, 23rd Canadian Minister of Agriculture (b.", "1935)2014 – Amiri Baraka, American poet, playwright, and academic (b.", "1934) 2014 – Josep Maria Castellet, Spanish poet and critic (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Paul du Toit, South African painter and sculptor (b.", "1965)* 2014 – Dale T. Mortensen, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1939)2015 – Michel Jeury, French author (b.", "1934) 2015 – Józef Oleksy, Polish economist and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Poland (b.", "1946)* 2015 – Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, Malaysian politician, 3rd Chief Minister of Sarawak (b.", "1928) * 2015 – Roy Tarpley, American basketball player (b.", "1964)2016 – John Harvard, Canadian journalist and politician, 23rd Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba (b.", "1938) 2016 – Angus Scrimm, American actor and author (b.", "1926)2017 – Zygmunt Bauman, Polish sociologist (b.", "1925) 2018 – Kato Ottio, Papua New Guinean rugby league player (b.", "1994)2019 – Verna Bloom, American actress (b.", "1938) 2019 – Paul Koslo, German-Canadian actor (b.", "1944)2021 – John Reilly, American actor (b.", "1934)2022 – Bob Saget, American comedian, actor, and television host (b.", "1956)2022 - Maria Ewing, American opera singer (b.", "1950)2023 – Séamus Begley, Irish accordion player, fiddler and Irish traditional musician (b.", "1949) 2024 – Rashid Khan, Indian classical musician (b.", "1968)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", " Christian feast day: Adrian of Canterbury Berhtwald Feast of the Black Nazarene (Manila, Philippines) Philip II, Metropolitan of Moscow Julia Chester Emery (Episcopal Church (USA))Stephen (old calendar Eastern Orthodox)** January 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Start of Hōonkō (Nishi Honganji) January 9–16 (Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism) Martyrs' Day (Panama)* Non-Resident Indian Day (India)* Day of Republika Srpska (Republika Srpska entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina, result of 2016 Republika Srpska National Day referendum) (note: not celebrated and disputed in wider Bosnia and Herzegovina, having been declared unconstitutional in 2015)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 9" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January 10" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===49 BC – Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signalling the start of civil war.", "9 – The Western Han dynasty ends when Wang Mang claims that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the dynasty and the beginning of his own, the Xin dynasty.", "69 – Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus is appointed by Galba as deputy Roman Emperor.", " 236 – Pope Fabian succeeds Anterus to become the twentieth pope of Rome.", "1072 – Robert Guiscard conquers Palermo in Sicily for the Normans.", "1430 – Philip the Good, the Duke of Burgundy, establishes the Order of the Golden Fleece, the most prestigious, exclusive, and expensive order of chivalry in the world.", "1475 – Stephen III of Moldavia defeats the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Vaslui.===1601–1900===1645 – Archbishop William Laud is beheaded for treason at the Tower of London.", "1776 – American Revolution: Thomas Paine publishes his pamphlet ''Common Sense''.", "1791 – The Siege of Dunlap's Station begins near Cincinnati during the Northwest Indian War.", "1812 – The first steamboat on the Ohio River or the Mississippi River arrives in New Orleans, 82 days after departing from Pittsburgh.", "1861 – American Civil War: Florida becomes the third state to secede from the Union.", "1863 – The Metropolitan Railway, the world's oldest underground railway, opens between Paddington and Farringdon, marking the beginning of the London Underground.", "1870 – John D. Rockefeller incorporates Standard Oil.", "1876 – The Plan of Tuxtepec is announced.===1901–present===1901 – The first great Texas oil gusher is discovered at Spindletop in Beaumont, Texas.", "1901 – New York: Automobile Club of America installs signs on major highways.", "1916 – World War I: Imperial Russia begins the Erzurum Offensive, leading to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire Third Army.", "* 1917 – Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition: Seven survivors of the Ross Sea party were rescued after being stranded for several months.", "1920 – The Treaty of Versailles takes effect, officially ending World War I for all combatant nations except the United States.", " 1920 – League of Nations Covenant automatically enters into force after the Treaty of Versailles is ratified by Germany.", "1927 – Fritz Lang's futuristic film ''Metropolis'' is released in Germany.", "1941 – World War II: The Greek army captures Kleisoura.", "1946 – The first General Assembly of the United Nations assembles in the Methodist Central Hall, Westminster.", "Fifty-one nations are represented.", " 1946 – The United States Army Signal Corps successfully conducts Project Diana, bouncing radio waves off the Moon and receiving the reflected signals.", "1954 – BOAC Flight 781, a de Havilland DH.106 Comet 1, explodes and falls into the Tyrrhenian Sea, killing 35 people.", "1966 – Tashkent Declaration, a peace agreement between India and Pakistan signed that resolved the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.", "1972 – Sheikh Mujibur Rahman returns to the newly independent Bangladesh as president after spending over nine months in prison in Pakistan.", "1980 – The New England Journal of Medicine publishes the letter Addiction Rare in Patients Treated with Narcotics, which is later misused to downplay the general risk of addiction to opioids.", "1981 – Salvadoran Civil War: The FMLN launches its first major offensive, gaining control of most of Morazán and Chalatenango departments1984 – Holy See–United States relations: The United States and Holy See (Vatican City) re-establish full diplomatic relations after almost 117 years, overturning the United States Congress's 1867 ban on public funding for such a diplomatic envoy.", "1985 – Sandinista Daniel Ortega becomes president of Nicaragua and vows to continue the transformation to socialism and alliance with the Soviet Union and Cuba; American policy continues to support the Contras in their revolt against the Nicaraguan government.", "1990 – Time Warner is formed by the merger of Time Inc. and Warner Communications.", "2000 – Crossair Flight 498, a Saab 340 aircraft, crashes in Niederhasli, Switzerland, after taking off from Zurich Airport, killing 13 people.", "2007 – A general strike begins in Guinea in an attempt to get President Lansana Conté to resign.", "2012 – A bombing at Jamrud in Pakistan, kills at least 30 people and injures 78 others.", "2013 – More than 100 people are killed and 270 injured in several bomb blasts in the Quetta area of Pakistan.", "2015 – A traffic accident between an oil tanker truck and passenger coach en route to Shikarpur from Karachi on the Pakistan National Highway Link Road near Gulshan-e-Hadeed, Karachi, killing at least 62 people.", "2019 – A 13-year-old American girl, Jayme Closs, is found alive in Gordon, Wisconsin, having been kidnapped 88 days earlier from her parents' home whilst they were murdered." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 626 – Husayn ibn Ali the third Shia Imam (d. 680)1480 – Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1530)1538 – Louis of Nassau (d. 1574)===1601–1900===1607 – Isaac Jogues, French priest and missionary (d. 1646)1644 – Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French general (d. 1711)1654 – Joshua Barnes, English historian and scholar (d. 1712)1702 – Johannes Zick, German painter (d. 1762)1715 – Christian August Crusius, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1775)1750 – Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, Scottish-English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1823)1760 – Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg, German composer and conductor (d. 1802)1769 – Michel Ney, French general (d. 1815)1776 – George Birkbeck, English physician and academic, founded Birkbeck, University of London (d. 1841)1780 – Martin Lichtenstein, German physician and explorer (d. 1857)1802 – Carl Ritter von Ghega, Italian-Austrian engineer, designed the Semmering railway (d. 1860)1810 – Ferdinand Barbedienne, French engineer (d. 1892)* 1810 – Jeremiah S. Black, American jurist and politician, 23rd United States Secretary of State (d. 1883)* 1810 – William Haines, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Victoria (d. 1866)1823 – Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev, Azerbaijani national industrial magnate and philanthropist (d. 1924)1827 – Amanda Cajander, Finnish medical reformer (d. 1871)1828 – Herman Koeckemann, German bishop and missionary (d. 1892)1829 – Epameinondas Deligeorgis, Greek lawyer, journalist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1879)1834 – John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton, Italian-English historian and politician (d. 1902)1840 – Louis-Nazaire Bégin, Canadian cardinal (d. 1925)1842 – Luigi Pigorini, Italian paleontologist, archaeologist, and ethnographer (d. 1925)1843 – Frank James, American soldier and criminal (d. 1915)1848 – Reinhold Sadler, American merchant and politician, 9th Governor of Nevada (d. 1906)1849 – Robert Crosbie, Canadian theosophist, founded the United Lodge of Theosophists (d. 1919)1850 – John Wellborn Root, American architect, designed the Rookery Building and Monadnock Building (d. 1891)1854 – Ramón Corral, Mexican general and politician, 6th Vice President of Mexico (d. 1912)1858 – Heinrich Zille, German illustrator and photographer (d. 1929)1859 – Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia, Spanish philosopher and academic (d. 1909)1860 – Charles G. D. Roberts, Canadian poet and author (d. 1943)1864 – Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (d. 1931)1873 – Algernon Maudslay, English sailor (d. 1948) 1873 – Jack O'Neill, Irish-American baseball player (d. 1935)* 1873 – George Orton, Canadian runner and hurdler (d. 1958)1875 – Issai Schur, German mathematician and academic (d. 1941)1877 – Frederick Gardner Cottrell, American physical chemist, inventor and philanthropist (d. 1948)1878 – John McLean, American hurdler, football player, and coach (d. 1955)1880 – Manuel Azaña, Spanish jurist and politician, 7th President of Spain (d. 1940)1883 – Francis X. Bushman, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1966) 1883 – Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, Russian journalist, author, and poet (d. 1945)1887 – Robinson Jeffers, American poet and philosopher (d. 1962)1890 – Pina Menichelli, Italian actress (d. 1984)1891 – Heinrich Behmann, German mathematician and academic (d. 1970) 1891 – Ann Shoemaker, American actress (d. 1978)1892 – Dumas Malone, American historian and author (d. 1986) 1892 – Melchior Wańkowicz, Polish soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1974)1893 – Albert Jacka, Australian captain, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1932)1894 – Pingali Lakshmikantam, Indian poet and author (d. 1972)1895 – Percy Cerutty, Australian athletics coach (d. 1975)1896 – Yong Mun Sen, Malaysian watercolour painter (d. 1962)* 1896 – Dinkar G. Kelkar, Indian art collector (d. 1990)1898 – Katharine Burr Blodgett, American physicist and engineer (d. 1979)1900 – Violette Cordery, English racing driver (d. 1983)===1901–present===1903 – Barbara Hepworth, English sculptor (d. 1975) 1903 – Voldemar Väli, Estonian wrestler (d. 1997)1904 – Ray Bolger, American actor and dancer (d. 1987)1907 – Gordon Kidd Teal, American engineer and inventor (d. 2003)1908 – Paul Henreid, Italian-American actor and director (d. 1992) 1908 – Bernard Lee, English actor (d. 1981)1910 – Jean Martinon, French conductor and composer (d. 1976)1911 – Binod Bihari Chowdhury, Bangladeshi activist (d. 2013)* 1911 – Norman Heatley, English biologist and chemist (d. 2004)1912 – Della H. Raney, American Army Air Corps officer (d. 1987)1913 – Gustáv Husák, Slovak politician, 9th President of Czechoslovakia (d. 1991)* 1913 – Mehmet Shehu, Albanian soldier and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Albania (d. 1981)1914 – Yu Kuo-hwa, Chinese politician, 23rd Premier of the Republic of China (d. 2000)1915 – Dean Dixon, American-Swiss conductor (d. 1976)* 1915 – Cynthia Freeman, American author (d. 1988)1916 – Sune Bergström, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004) 1916 – Eldzier Cortor, American painter (d. 2015)* 1916 – Don Metz, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2007)1917 – Jerry Wexler, American journalist and producer (d. 2008)1918 – Les Bennett, English footballer and manager (d. 1999)* 1918 – Arthur Chung, Guyanese lawyer and politician, 1st President of Guyana (d. 2008)1919 – Terukuni Manzō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 38th Yokozuna (d. 1977) 1919 – Milton Parker, American businessman, co-founded the Carnegie Deli (d. 2009)1920 – Rosella Hightower, American ballerina (d. 2008) 1920 – Roberto M. Levingston, Argentinian general and politician, 36th President of Argentina (d. 2015)1921 – Rodger Ward, American aviator, race car driver and sportscaster (d. 2004)1922 – Billy Liddell, Scottish-English footballer (d. 2001)1924 – Earl Bakken, American inventor (d. 2018) 1924 – Ludmilla Chiriaeff, Canadian ballerina, choreographer, and director (d. 1996)1925 – Billie Sol Estes, American financier and businessman (d. 2013)1926 – Musallam Bseiso, Palestinian journalist and politician (d. 2017)1927 – Gisele MacKenzie, Canadian-American singer and actress (d. 2003) 1927 – Johnnie Ray, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1990)* 1927 – Otto Stich, Swiss lawyer and politician, 140th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2012)1928 – Philip Levine, American poet and academic (d. 2015) 1928 – Peter Mathias, English historian and academic (d. 2016)1930 – Roy E. Disney, American businessman (d. 2009)1931 – Peter Barnes, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2004)* 1931 – Rosalind Howells, Baroness Howells of St Davids, Grenadian-English academic and politician* 1931 – Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat, Malaysian cleric and politician, 12th Menteri Besar of Kelantan (d. 2015)1932 – Lou Henson, American college basketball coach (d. 2020)1934 – Leonid Kravchuk, Ukrainian politician, 1st President of Ukraine (d. 2022)1935 – Ronnie Hawkins, American rockabilly singer-songwriter and guitarist (d.", "2022).", " 1935 – Sherrill Milnes, American opera singer and educator1936 – Stephen E. Ambrose, American historian and author (d. 2002) 1936 – Robert Woodrow Wilson, American physicist and astronomer, Nobel Prize laureate1938 – Elza Ibrahimova, Azerbaijani composer (d. 2012) 1938 – Donald Knuth, American computer scientist and mathematician* 1938 – Frank Mahovlich, Canadian ice hockey player and politician* 1938 – Willie McCovey, American baseball player (d. 2018)1939 – David Horowitz, American writer and activist 1939 – Scott McKenzie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2012)* 1939 – Sal Mineo, American actor (d. 1976)* 1939 – Bill Toomey, American athlete1940 – Godfrey Hewitt, English geneticist and academic (d. 2013) 1940 – K. J. Yesudas, Indian singer and music director1941 – Tom Clarke, Scottish politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland1942 – Graeme Gahan, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2018)1943 – Jim Croce, American singer-songwriter (d. 1973)1944 – Jeffrey Catherine Jones, American comics and fantasy artist (d. 2011)* 1944 – William Sanderson, American actor* 1944 – Frank Sinatra, Jr., American singer and actor (d. 2016)1945 – John Fahey, New Zealand-Australian lawyer and politician, 38th Premier of New South Wales (d. 2020) 1945 – Rod Stewart, British singer-songwriter* 1945 – Gunther von Hagens, German anatomist, invented plastination1947 – George Alec Effinger, American author (d. 2002) 1947 – James Morris, American opera singer* 1947 – Peer Steinbrück, German politician, German Minister of Finance* 1947 – Tiit Vähi, Estonian engineer and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Estonia1948 – Remu Aaltonen, Finnish musician 1948 – Donald Fagen, American singer-songwriter and musician* 1948 – Bernard Thévenet, French cyclist and sportscaster1949 – Kemal Derviş, Turkish economist and politician, Turkish Minister of Economy (d. 2023) 1949 – George Foreman, American boxer, actor, and businessman* 1949 – Linda Lovelace, American pornographic actress and activist (d. 2002)1953 – Pat Benatar, American singer-songwriter 1953 – Bobby Rahal, American race car driver1954 – Baba Vaziroglu, Azerbaijani writer, poet and translator1955 – Michael Schenker, German musician and songwriter1956 – Shawn Colvin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Antonio Muñoz Molina, Spanish author1959 – Chandra Cheeseborough, American sprinter and coach 1959 – Chris Van Hollen, American lawyer and politician* 1959 – Fran Walsh, New Zealand screenwriter and producer1960 – Gurinder Chadha, Kenyan-English director, producer, and screenwriter 1960 – Brian Cowen, Irish lawyer and politician, 12th Taoiseach of Ireland* 1960 – Benoît Pelletier, Canadian lawyer and politician1961 – Evan Handler, American actor 1961 – Nadja Salerno-Sonnenberg, Italian-American violinist, author, and educator1962 – Michael Fortier, Canadian lawyer and politician 1962 – Kathryn S. McKinley, American computer scientist and academic1963 – Malcolm Dunford, New Zealand-Australian footballer 1963 – Kira Ivanova, Russian figure skater (d. 2001)1964 – Brad Roberts, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist1967 – Trini Alvarado, American actress* 1967 – Maciej Śliwowski, Polish footballer1969 – Simone Bagel-Trah, German businessperson1970 – Alisa Marić, Serbian chess player and politician, Serbian Minister of Youth and Sports1972 – Mohammed Benzakour, Moroccan-Dutch journalist, poet, and author1973 – Glenn Robinson, American basketball player* 1973 – Félix Trinidad, Puerto Rican boxer1974 – Jemaine Clement, New Zealand comedian, actor, and musician 1974 – Davide Dionigi, Italian footballer and manager* 1974 – Steve Marlet, French footballer and coach* 1974 – Bob Peeters, Belgian footballer and manager* 1974 – Hrithik Roshan, Indian actor1975 – Jake Delhomme, American football player1976 – Khairy Jamaluddin, Malaysian politician, Malaysian Minister of Health* 1976 – Adam Kennedy, American baseball player* 1976 – Ian Poulter, English golfer1977 – A. J. Bramlett, American basketball player 1977 – Clark Haggans, American football player (d. 2023)1978 – Brent Smith, American singer and songwriter 1978 – Tamina Snuka, American wrestler* 1978 – Johan van der Wath, South African cricketer1979 – Simone Cavalli, Italian footballer 1979 – Henrik Tallinder, Swedish ice hockey player1980 – Sarah Shahi, American actress 1980 – Rastislav Staňa, Slovak ice hockey player1981 – Jared Kushner, American real estate investor and political figure 1981 – Belinda Snell, Australian basketball player1982 – Julien Brellier, French footballer 1982 – Tomasz Brzyski, Polish footballer1984 – Marouane Chamakh, Moroccan footballer 1984 – Ariane Friedrich, German high jumper* 1984 – Kalki Koechlin, Indian actress1985 – Robert Nilsson, Canadian-Swedish ice hockey player1986 – Kirsten Flipkens, Belgian tennis player1987 – César Cielo, Brazilian swimmer1988 – Leonard Patrick Komon, Kenyan runner1989 – Ali Gabr, Egyptian footballer1990 – John Carlson, American ice hockey player* 1990 – Martin Jones, Canadian ice hockey player* 1990 – Ishiura Shikanosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler* 1990 – Cody Walker, Australian rugby league player1991 – Chad Townsend, Australian rugby league player1993 – Tobias Rieder, German ice hockey player1996 – Budda Baker, American football player 1996 – Matthew Dufty, Australian rugby league player* 1996 – Dylan Edwards, Australian rugby league player* 1996 – Ahmed Sayed, Egyptian footballer1997 – Patrick Herbert, New Zealand rugby league player 1997 – Blake Lawrie, Australian rugby league player1999 – Mason Mount, English footballer2001 – Santi Aldama, Spanish basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 259 – Polyeuctus, Roman saint* 314 – Miltiades, pope of the Catholic Church* 681 – Agatho, pope of the Catholic Church* 976 – John I Tzimiskes, Byzantine emperor (b.", "925)* 987 – Pietro I Orseolo, doge of Venice (b.", "928)1055 – Bretislav I, duke of Bohemia1094 – Al-Mustansir Billah, Egyptian caliph (b.", "1029)1218 – Hugh I, king of Cyprus1276 – Gregory X, pope of the Catholic Church (b. c.1210)1322 – Petrus Aureolus, scholastic philosopher1358 – Abu Inan Faris, Marinid ruler of Morocco (b.", "1329)1552 – Johann Cochlaeus, German humanist and controversialist (b.", "1479)===1601–1900===1645 – William Laud, English archbishop and academic (b.", "1573)1654 – Nicholas Culpeper, English botanist, physician, and astrologer (b.", "1616)1698 – Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont, French priest and historian (b.", "1637)1754 – Edward Cave, English publisher, founded ''The Gentleman's Magazine'' (b.", "1691)1761 – Edward Boscawen, English admiral and politician (b.", "1711)1778 – Carl Linnaeus, Swedish botanist and physician (b.", "1707)1794 – Georg Forster, German-Polish ethnologist and journalist (b.", "1754)1811 – Joseph Chénier, French poet, playwright, and politician (b.", "1764)1824 – Victor Emmanuel I, duke of Savoy and king of Sardinia (b.", "1759)1828 – François de Neufchâteau, French poet, academic, and politician, French Minister of the Interior (b.", "1750)1829 – Gregorio Funes, Argentinian clergyman, historian, and educator (b.", "1749)1843 – Dimitrie Macedonski, Greek-Romanian captain and politician (b.", "1780)1851 – Karl Freiherr von Müffling, Prussian field marshal (b.", "1775)1855 – Mary Russell Mitford, English author and playwright (b.", "1787)1862 – Samuel Colt, American engineer and businessman, founded Colt's Manufacturing Company (b.", "1814)1863 – Lyman Beecher, American minister and activist, co-founded the American Temperance Society (b.", "1775)1895 – Benjamin Godard, French violinist and composer (b.", "1849)===1901–present===1901 – James Dickson, English-Australian businessman and politician, 1st Australian Minister for Defence (b.", "1832)1904 – Jean-Léon Gérôme, French painter and sculptor (b.", "1824)1905 – Kārlis Baumanis, Latvian composer (b.", "1835)1917 – Buffalo Bill, American soldier and hunter (b.", "1846)* 1917 – Feliks Leparsky, Russian fencer and captain (b.", "1875)1920 – Sali Nivica, Albanian journalist and politician (b.", "1890)1922 – Frank Tudor, Australian politician, 6th Australian Minister for Trade and Investment (b.", "1866)1926 – Eino Leino, Finnish poet and journalist (b.", "1878)1935 – Edwin Flack, Australian tennis player and runner (b.", "1873)* 1935 – Charlie McGahey, English cricketer and footballer (b.", "1871)1941 – Frank Bridge, English viola player and composer (b.", "1879) 1941 – John Lavery, Irish painter and academic (b.", "1856)* 1941 – Issai Schur, Belarusian-German mathematician and academic (b.", "1875)1946 – Matti Turkia, Finnish politician (b.", "1871)1949 – Erich von Drygalski, German geographer and geophysicist (b.", "1865)1951 – Sinclair Lewis, American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1885) 1951 – Yoshio Nishina, Japanese physicist and academic (b.", "1890)1954 – Chester Wilmot, American journalist and historian (b.", "1911)1956 – Zonia Baber, American geographer and geologist (b.", "1862)1957 – Gabriela Mistral, Chilean poet and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1889)1959 – Şükrü Kaya, Turkish jurist and politician, Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1883)1960 – Jack Laviolette, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b.", "1879)1961 – Dashiell Hammett, American detective novelist and screenwriter (b.", "1894)1967 – Charles E. Burchfield, American painter (b.", "1893)1968 – Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Turkish general and politician, 6th Speaker of the Parliament of Turkey (b.", "1882)1969 – Sampurnanand, Indian educator and politician, 2nd Governor of Rajasthan (b.", "1891)1970 – Pavel Belyayev, Russian pilot and astronaut (b.", "1925)1971 – Coco Chanel, French fashion designer, founded Chanel (b.", "1883) 1971 – Ignazio Giunti, Italian racing driver (b.", "1941)1972 – Aksel Larsen, Danish lawyer and politician (b.", "1897)1976 – Howlin' Wolf, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1910)1978 – Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal, Nicaraguan journalist and author (b.", "1924) 1978 – Don Gillis, American composer and conductor (b.", "1912)* 1978 – Hannah Gluckstein, British painter (b.", "1895)1981 – Fawn M. Brodie, American historian and author (b.", "1915)1984 – Souvanna Phouma, Laotian politician, 8th Prime Minister of Laos (b.", "1901)1986 – Jaroslav Seifert, Czech journalist and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1901)1987 – Marion Hutton, American singer (b.", "1919)* 1987 – David Robinson, English businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1904)1989 – Herbert Morrison, American journalist and producer (b.", "1905)1990 – Tochinishiki Kiyotaka, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 44th Yokozuna (b.", "1925)1992 – Roberto Bonomi, Argentinian racing driver (b.", "1919)1995 – Kathleen Tynan, Canadian-English journalist, author, and screenwriter (b.", "1937)1997 – Elspeth Huxley, Kenyan-English journalist and author (b.", "1907) 1997 – Sheldon Leonard, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1907)* 1997 – Alexander R. Todd, Baron Todd, Scottish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1907)1999 – Edward Williams, Australian lieutenant, pilot, and judge (b.", "1921)2000 – Sam Jaffe, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1901)2004 – Spalding Gray, American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1941)2005 – Wasyly, Ukrainian-Canadian bishop (b.", "1909)* 2005 – Jack Horner, American journalist (b.", "1912)* 2005 – Princess Joséphine Charlotte of Belgium (b.", "1927)2007 – Carlo Ponti, Italian film producer (b.", "1912) 2007 – Bradford Washburn, American explorer, photographer, and cartographer (b.", "1910)2008 – Christopher Bowman, American figure skater and actor (b.", "1967) 2008 – Maila Nurmi, Finnish-American actress, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1922)2010 – Patcha Ramachandra Rao, Indian metallurgist, educator and administrator (b.", "1942)2011 – Margaret Whiting, American singer (b.", "1924)2012 – Jean Pigott, Canadian businesswoman and politician (b.", "1924) 2012 – Gevork Vartanian, Russian intelligence agent (b.", "1924)2013 – George Gruntz, Swiss pianist and composer (b.", "1932) 2013 – Claude Nobs, Swiss businessman, founded the Montreux Jazz Festival (b.", "1936)2014 – Sam Berns, American activist (b.", "1996) 2014 – Petr Hlaváček, Czech shoemaker and academic (b.", "1950)* 2014 – Zbigniew Messner, Polish economist and politician, 9th Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland (b.", "1929)* 2014 – Larry Speakes, American journalist, 16th White House Press Secretary (b.", "1939)* 2014 – Dajikaka Gadgil, Indian jeweller (b.", "1915)2015 – Junior Malanda, Belgian footballer (b.", "1994) 2015 – Taylor Negron, American actor, playwright, and painter (b.", "1957)* 2015 – Francesco Rosi, Italian director and screenwriter (b.", "1922)* 2015 – Robert Stone, American novelist and short story writer (b.", "1937)2016 – David Bowie, English singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (b.", "1947) 2016 – George Jonas, Hungarian-Canadian journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1935)2017 – Buddy Greco, American jazz and pop singer and pianist (b.", "1926) 2017 – Clare Hollingworth, English journalist (b.", "1911)2020 – Qaboos bin Said, ruler of Oman (b.", "1940)2022 – Joyce Eliason, American television personality (b.", "1934)2022 – Robert Durst, American real estate heir and convicted murderer (b.", "1943)2023 – Jeff Beck, English guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1944)2023 – Constantine II of Greece, King of Greece (1964-1973) (b.", "1940)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", " Christian feast day: Behnam, Sarah, and the Forty Martyrs (Armenian Apostolic Church) Gregory of Nyssa Leonie Aviat Obadiah (Coptic Church) Peter Orseolo Pope Agatho (Roman Catholic) William Laud (Anglican Communion) William of Donjeon** January 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Fête du Vodoun (Benin)* Margaret Thatcher Day (Falkland Islands)* Majority Rule Day (Bahamas)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on January 10" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Hagelin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Samuel Hagelin''' (born June 9, 1954) is the leader of the Transcendental Meditation (TM) movement in the United States.", "He is president of Maharishi International University (MIU) in Fairfield, Iowa, and honorary chair of its board of trustees.", "The university was established in 1973 by the TM movement's founder, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, to deliver a \"consciousness-based education\".Hagelin graduated with a Ph.D., in physics, in 1981, from Harvard University, and did several months of post-doctoral research at the CERN, before moving to do further post-doctoral work at the SLAC.", "In 1984, he became a professor of physics at Maharishi International University (MIU), then later became university president.", "Hagelin postulates that his extended version of unified field theory is identified with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's \"unified field of consciousness\", a view that was rejected by \"virtually every theoretical physicist in the world\" in 2006.Hagelin stood as a candidate for President of the United States for the Natural Law Party, a party founded by the TM movement, in the 1992, 1996 and 2000 elections.", "He is the author of ''Manual for a Perfect Government'' (1998), which sets out how to apply \"natural law\" to matters of governance.", "Hagelin is also president of the David Lynch Foundation, which promotes TM." ], [ "Early life and education", "Hagelin was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the second of four sons, to Mary Lee Hagelin, née Stephenson, a school teacher, and Carl William Hagelin, a businessman.", "He was raised in Connecticut, and won a scholarship to the Taft School for boys in Watertown.", "In July 1970, while at Taft, he was involved in a motorcycle crash that led to a long stay, in a body cast, in the school infirmary.", "During his time there, he began reading about quantum mechanics, but was also introduced to TM by a practitioner, Rick Archer, who had been invited to the school to talk about the meditation form.After Taft, Hagelin attended Dartmouth College.", "At the end of his freshman year he studied TM in Vittel, France, and returned as a qualified TM teacher.", "In 1975 he obtained his A.B.", "in physics with highest honors (''summa cum laude'') from Dartmouth.", "He went on to study physics at Harvard University under Howard Georgi, earning a master's degree in 1976 and a Ph.D. in 1981.By the time he had received his Ph.D., he had published several papers on particle theory." ], [ "Career", "===Academic positions===Part of the Maharishi International UniversityIn 1981 Hagelin became a postdoctoral researcher for few months at the European Center for Particle Physics (CERN) in Switzerland, and in 1982 he moved to the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in California.", "He left SLAC in 1983, reportedly because of personal problems.", "A year later he joined Maharishi International University (MIU), as chair of the physics department.", "Two of Hagelin's previous collaborators, Dimitri Nanopoulos and John Ellis, were uncomfortable with his move to MIU, but they continued to work with him.", "While at MIU, Hagelin received funding from the National Science Foundation.Hagelin became a trustee of MUM and, in 2016, its president.", "It was intended that he become president of Maharishi Central University, which was under construction in Smith Center, Kansas, until early 2008, when, according to Hagelin, the project was put on hold while the TM organization dealt with the death of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.===Theoretical physics===During his time at CERN, SLAC and MUM, Hagelin worked on supersymmetric extensions of the standard model and grand unification theories.", "His work on the flipped SU(5) heterotic superstring theory is considered one of the more successful unified field theories, or \"theories of everything\", and was highlighted in 1991 in a cover story in ''Discover'' magazine.From 1979 to 1996, Hagelin published over 70 papers about particle physics, electroweak unification, grand unification, supersymmetry and cosmology, most of them in academic scientific journals.", "He co-authored a 1983 paper in ''Physics Letters B'', \"Weak symmetry breaking by radiative corrections in broken supergravity\", that became one of the 103 most-cited articles in the physical sciences in 1983 and 1984.In a 2012 interview in ''Science Watch'', co-author Keith Olive said that his work for the 1984 study was one of the areas that had given him the greatest sense of accomplishment.", "A 1984 paper by Hagelin and John Ellis in ''Nuclear Physics B'', \"Supersymmetric relics from the big bang\", had been cited over 500 times by 2007.===Efforts to link consciousness to the unified field===In a 1992 news article for ''Nature'' about Hagelin's first presidential campaign, Chris Anderson wrote that Hagelin was \"by all accounts a gifted scientist, well-known and respected by his colleagues\", but that his effort to link the flipped SU(5) unified field theory to TM \"infuriates his former collaborators\", who feared it might taint their own work and requests for funding.", "John Ellis, then director of CERN's department of theoretical physics—who worked with Hagelin on SU(5)—reportedly asked Hagelin to stop comparing it to TM.", "Anderson wrote that two-page advertisements containing rows of partial differential equations had been appearing in the U.S. media, purporting to show how TM affected distant events.", "In his book, ''Not Even Wrong: The Failure of String Theory and The Search for Unity In Physical Law'' (2007), the physicist Peter Woit wrote that identification of a unified field of consciousness with a unified field of superstring theory was wishful thinking, and that \"virtually every theoretical physicist in the world rejects all of this as nonsense and the work of a crackpot\".Philosopher Evan Fales and sociologist Barry Markovsky remarked that, because no such phenomena have been validated, Hagelin's \"far-fetched explanation lacks purpose\".", "They went on to say that the parallels Hagelin highlighted rest on ambiguity, obscurity and vague analogy, supported by the construction of arbitrary similarities.Hagelin was featured in the movies ''What the Bleep Do We Know!?''", "(2004) and ''The Secret'' (2006).", "João Magueijo, professor of theoretical physics at Imperial College London, described ''What the Bleep Do We Know!?''", "as \"horrendously tedious\", consisting of deliberate misrepresention of science and \"ludicrous extrapolations\".===Maharishi effect===In the summer of 1993, Hagelin directed a project aimed at demonstrating what TM practitioners call the Maharishi effect, the purported ability of a large group to affect the behavior of others by practising TM.", "The TM movement believes that one tenth of the square root of the population of a country meditating can bring about peace.", "However, critics point to a lack of credible supporting evidence.Approximately 4,000 people from 82 countries gathered in Washington, DC and practiced TM for six hours a day from June 7 to July 30.The meditation included \"yogic flying\", a technique taught through the TM-Sidhi program in which practitioners engage in a series of hops while seated in the lotus position.", "Hagelin claimed that there was a local reduction in crime due to this activity.", "According to Hagelin, the analysis was examined by an \"independent review board\", although all members of the board were TM practitioners.", "Robert L. Park, research professor and former chair of the physics department at the University of Maryland, called the study a \"clinic in data distortion\".", "In 1994 a science satire magazine, ''Annals of Improbable Research'', \"awarded\" Hagelin the Ig Nobel Prize for Peace, \"for his experimental conclusion that 4,000 trained meditators caused an 18 percent decrease in violent crime in Washington, D.C.\"In 1999 Hagelin held a press conference in Washington, D.C. to announce that the TM movement could end the Kosovo War with yogic flying.", "He suggested that NATO set up an elite corps of 7,000 yogic flyers at a cost of $33 million.===Enlightened Audio Designs Corporation===In 1990 Hagelin founded Enlightened Audio Designs Corporation (EAD) with Alastair Roxburgh.", "The company designed and manufactured high-end digital-to-analog converters.", "EAD was sold in 2001 to Alpha Digital Technologies in Oregon." ], [ "Politics", "===Natural Law Party===Hagelin and 12 others founded the Natural Law Party in April 1992 in Fairfeld, based on the view that problems of governance could be solved more effectively by following \"natural law\", the organizing principle of the universe.", "The party platform included preventive health care, sustainable agriculture and renewable energy technologies.", "Hagelin favored abortion rights without public financing, campaign-finance law reform, more restrictive gun control, and a flat tax, with no tax for families earning less than $34,000 per year.", "He campaigned to eradicate PACs and soft money campaign contributions, and advocated safety locks on guns, school vouchers, and efforts to prevent war in the Middle East by reducing \"people's tension\".The party chose Hagelin and Mike Tompkins as its presidential and vice-presidential candidates in 1992 and 1996.Hagelin received 39,212 votes from 32 states in 1992 (and 23 percent of the vote in Jefferson County, where MUM is located), and 113,659 votes from 43 states in 1996 (21 percent in Jefferson County).Hagelin ran for president again in 2000, nominated both by the NLP and by the Perot wing of the Reform Party, which disputed the nomination of Pat Buchanan.", "Hagelin's running mate was Nat Goldhaber.", "A dispute over the Reform Party's nomination generated legal action between the Hagelin and Buchanan campaigns.", "In September 2000 the Federal Election Commission ruled that Buchanan was the official candidate of the Reform Party, and hence eligible to receive federal election funds.", "The Reform Party convention that nominated Hagelin was declared invalid.", "In spite of the ruling, Hagelin remained on several state ballots as the Reform Party nominee because of the independent nature of some state affiliates; he was also the national nominee of the Natural Law Party, and in New York was the Independence Party nominee.", "He received 83,714 votes from 39 states.", "During the 2004 primary elections, Hagelin endorsed Democratic candidate Dennis Kucinich, and in April that year the Executive Committee of the NLP dissolved the NLP as a national organization.===Institute of Science, Technology and Public Policy===Hagelin is the director of the Institute of Science, Technology and Public Policy (ISTPP), a MUM think tank.", "According to the ISTPP's website, he has met with members of Congress and officials at the Department of State and Department of Defense to discuss terrorism.", "In 1993 he helped draft a paragraph in Hillary Rodham Clinton's 10,000-page health care plan; according to Hagelin, his was the only paragraph that addressed preventive health care.", "In 1998 the ISTPP testified about germ-line technologies to the DNA Advisory Committee of the National Institutes of Health; Hagelin's report to the committee said that \"recombinant DNA technology is inherently risky because of the high probability of unexpected side-effects\".===Other organizations===Hagelin in 2009Hagelin established the US Peace Government (USPG) in July 2003, as an affiliate of the Global Country of World Peace and served as the latter's minister of science and technology.", "According to USPG's website, the TM movement created US Peace Government and the Global Country of World Peace to promote evidence-based, sustainable problem-solving and governance policies that align with \"natural law\".Maharishi Mahesh Yogi appointed Hagelin the \"Raja of Invincible America\" in November 2007.Hagelin organized the Invincible America Assembly in Fairfield in July 2006.The assembly comprised individuals practicing TM and TM-Sidhi techniques twice daily.", "Hagelin predicted that as the number of Yogic flyers increased towards 3500, \"peace and prosperity will reign in America, and violence and conflict will subside completely\".", "In July 2007 he said that the assembly was responsible for the Dow Jones Industrial Average reaching a record high of 14,022 and predicted that it would top 17,000 within a year.Hagelin is also president of the Global Union of Scientists for Peace, an organization of scientists opposed to nuclear proliferation and war, and president of the David Lynch Foundation, which promotes TM." ], [ "Kilby International Award", "In 1992 Hagelin received a Kilby International Award from the North Dallas Chamber of Commerce \"for his promising work in particle physics in the development of supersymmetric grand unified field theory\".", "According to a member of the selection committee, Hagelin's nomination was proposed by another selection-committee member who was a fellow TM practitioner.", "Chris Anderson, in a 1992 ''Nature'' article about Hagelin's first presidential campaign, questioned the value of the award." ], [ "Personal life", "Hagelin's first marriage, to Margaret Hagelin, ended in divorce.", "He married Kara Anastasio, the former vice-chair of the Natural Law Party of Ohio, in 2010." ], [ "Selected works", "(1999) John S. Hagelin, et al.", "\"Effects of Group Practice of the Transcendental Meditation Program on Preventing Violent Crime in Washington, D.C.\", ''Social Indicators Research'', 47(2), June, 153–201.", "(1998) John S. Hagelin.", "''Manual for a Perfect Government: How to harness the laws of nature to bring maximum success to governmental administration'', Fairfield: Maharishi University of Management Press.", "(1994) John S. Hagelin, S. Kelley, Toshiaki Tanaka.", "\"Supersymmetric flavor-changing neutral currents: exact amplitudes and phenomenological analysis\", ''Nuclear Physics B'', 415(2), 7 March, 293–331.", "(1993) Lawrence Connors, Ashley J. Deans, and John S. Hagelin.", "\"Supersymmetry mechanism for naturally small density perturbations and baryogenesis, ''Physical Review Letters D'', 71, 27 December, 4291.", "(1992) Alon E. Faraggi, John S. Hagelin, et al.", "\"Sparticle spectroscopy\", ''Physical Review D'', 45(9), 1 May, 3272.", "(1990) John S. Hagelin, Stephen Kelley.", "\"Sparticle masses as a probe of GUT physics\", ''Nuclear Physics B'', 342(1), 24 September, 95–107.", "(1989) John S. Hagelin.", "\"Restructuring Physics from its Foundation in Light of Maharishi's Vedic Science\", ''Modern Science and Vedic Science'', 3(1), 3–72.", "(1988) I. Antoniadis, John Ellis, J. S. Hagelin, D. V. Nanopoulos.", "\"GUT model-building with fermionic four-dimensional strings\", ''Physics Letters B'', 205(4), 5 May, 459–465.", "(1987) John S. Hagelin.", "\"Is Consciousness the Unified Field?", "A Field Theorist's Perspective\", ''Modern Science and Vedic Science'', 1, 29–87.", "(1986) John S. Hagelin, Gordon L. Kane.", "\"Cosmic ray antimatter from supersymmetric dark matter\", ''Nuclear Physics B'', 263(2), 20 January, 399–412.", "(1985) John Ellis, John S. Hagelin.", "\"Cosmological constraints on supergravity models\", ''Physics Letters B'', 159(1), 12 September, 26–31.", "(1984) John Ellis, John S. Hagelin, et al.", "\"Search for violations of quantum mechanics\", ''Nuclear Physics B'', 241(2), 23 July, 381–405.", "(1984) John Ellis, J. S. Hagelin.", "\"Supersymmetric relics from the big bang\", ''Nuclear Physics B'', 238(2), 11 June, 453–476.", "(1983) John Ellis, John S. Hagelin.", "\"Weak symmetry breaking by radiative corrections in broken supergravity\", ''Physics Letters B'', 125(4), 2 June, 275–281.", "(1982) John Ellis, John Hagelin, D. V. Nanopoulos.", "\"Spin-zero leptons and the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon\", ''Physics Letters B'', 116(4), 14 October, 283–286.", "(1981) John S. Hagelin.", "\"Mass mixing and CP violation in the B0-B0 system\", ''Nuclear Physics B'', 193(1), 21 December, 123–149.", "(1981) Sally Dawson, John S. Hagelin, Lawrence Hall.", "\"Radiative corrections to sin2θW to leading logarithm in the W-boson mass\", ''Physical Review D'', 23, 1 June, 2666.", "(1979) John S. Hagelin.", "\"Weak mass mixing, CP violation, and the decay of b-quark mesons\", ''Physical Review D'', 20(11), 2893, 1 December." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Javelin throw" ], [ "Introduction", "German javelin thrower Stephan Steding during the 2007 World Championships in Athletics in Osaka, JapanThe '''javelin throw''' is a track and field event where the javelin, a spear about in length, is thrown as far as possible.", "The javelin thrower gains momentum by running within a predetermined area.", "Javelin throwing is an event of both the men's decathlon and the women's heptathlon." ], [ "History", "A scene depicting javelin throwers and other pentathletes.", "Originally found on a Panathenaic amphora from Ancient Greece, circa 525 B.C.", "British Museum.Julius Saaristo in 1912 Summer OlympicsThe javelin throw was added to the Ancient Olympic Games as part of the pentathlon in 708 BC.", "It included two events, one for distance and the other for accuracy in hitting a target.", "The javelin was thrown with the aid of a thong (''ankyle'' in Greek) that was wound around the middle of the shaft.", "Athletes held the javelin by the ''ankyle'', and when they released the shaft, the unwinding of the thong gave the javelin a spiral trajectory.Throwing javelin-like poles into targets was revived in Germany and Sweden in the early 1870s.", "In Sweden, these poles developed into the modern javelin, and throwing them for distance became a common event there and in Finland in the 1880s.", "The rules continued to evolve over the next decades; originally, javelins were thrown with no run-up, and holding them by the grip at the center of gravity was not always mandatory.", "Limited run-ups were introduced in the late 1890s, and soon developed into the modern unlimited run-up.Sweden's Eric Lemming, who threw his first world best (49.32 meters) in 1899 and ruled the event from 1902 to 1912, was the first dominant javelin thrower.", "When the men's javelin was introduced as an Olympic discipline at the 1906 Intercalated Games, Lemming won by almost nine metres and broke his own world record; Sweden swept the first four places, as Finland's best throwers were absent and the event had yet to become popular in any other country.", "Though challenged by younger talents, Lemming repeated as Olympic champion in 1908 and 1912; his eventual best mark (62.32 m, thrown after the 1912 Olympics) was the first javelin world record to be officially ratified by the International Association of Athletics Federations.In the late 19th and early 20th century, most javelin competitions were two-handed; the implement was thrown with the right hand and separately with the left hand, and the best marks for each hand were added together.", "Competitions for the better hand only were less common, though not unknown.", "At the Olympics, a both-hands contest was held only once, in 1912; Finland swept the medals, ahead of Lemming.", "After that, this version of the javelin rapidly faded into obscurity, together with similar variations of the shot and the discus; Sweden's Yngve Häckner, with his total of 114.28 m from 1917, was the last official both-hands world record holder.Another early variant was the freestyle javelin, in which holding the javelin by the grip at the center of gravity was not mandatory; such a freestyle competition was held at the 1908 Olympics, but was dropped from the program after that.", "Hungary's Mór Kóczán used a freestyle end grip to break the 60-meter barrier in 1911, a year before Lemming and Julius Saaristo first did so with a regular grip.The first known women's javelin marks were recorded in Finland in 1909.Originally, women threw the same implement as men; a lighter, shorter javelin for women was introduced in the 1920s.", "Women's javelin throw was added to the Olympic program in 1932; Mildred \"Babe\" Didrikson of the United States became the first champion.For a long time, javelins were made of solid wood, typically birch, with a steel tip.", "The hollow, highly aerodynamic Held javelin, invented by American thrower Bud Held and developed and manufactured by his brother Dick, was introduced in the 1950s; the first Held javelins were also wooden with steel tips, but later models were made entirely of metal.", "These new javelins flew further, but were also less likely to land neatly point first; as a response to the increasingly frequent flat or ambiguously flat landings, experiments with modified javelins started in the early 1980s.", "The resulting designs, which made flat landings much less common and reduced the distances thrown, became official for men starting in April 1986 and for women in April 1999, and the world records (then 104.80 m by Uwe Hohn, and 80.00 m by Petra Felke) were reset.", "The current () men's world record is held by Jan Železný at 98.48 m (1996); Barbora Špotáková holds the women's world record at 72.28 m (2008).Of the 69 Olympic medals that have been awarded in the men's javelin, 32 have gone to competitors from Norway, Sweden or Finland.", "Finland is the only nation to have swept the medals at a currently recognized official Olympics, and has done so twice, in 1920 and 1932, in addition to its 1912 sweep in the two-handed javelin; in 1920 Finland swept the first four places, which is no longer possible as only three entrants per country are allowed.", "Finland has, however, never been nearly as successful in the women's javelin.The javelin throw has been part of the decathlon since the decathlon was introduced in the early 1910s; the all-around, an earlier ten-event contest of American origin, did not include the javelin throw.", "The javelin was also part of some (though not all) of the many early forms of women's pentathlon and has always been included in the heptathlon after it replaced the pentathlon in 1981." ], [ "Rules and competitions", "The size, shape, minimum weight, and center of gravity of the javelin are all defined by World Athletics rules.", "In international competition, men throw a javelin between in length and in weight, and women throw a javelin between in length and in weight.", "The javelin has a grip, about wide, made of cord and located at the javelin's center of gravity () from the javelin tip for the men's javelin and from the javelin tip for the women's javelin.Matti Järvinen throwing the javelin at the 1932 OlympicsUnlike the other throwing events (shot put, discus, and hammer), the technique used to throw the javelin is dictated by World Athletics rules and \"non-orthodox\" techniques are not permitted.", "The javelin must be held at its grip and thrown overhand, over the athlete's shoulder or upper arm.", "Further, the athlete is prohibited from turning completely around or starting with their back facing the direction of the throw.", "This prevents athletes from attempting to spin and hurl the javelin sidearm in the style of a discus throw.", "This rule was put in place when a group of athletes began experimenting with a spin technique referred to as \"free style\".", "On 24 October 1956, Pentti Saarikoski threw using the technique holding the end of the javelin.", "Officials were so afraid of the out of control nature of the technique that the practice was banned through these rule specifications.Instead of being confined to a circle, javelin throwers have a runway wide and at least in length, ending in an radius ''throwing arc'' from which their throw is measured; athletes typically use this distance to gain momentum in a \"run-up\" to their throw.", "Like the other throwing events, the competitor may not leave the throwing area (the runway) until after the implement lands.", "The need to come to a stop behind the throwing arc limits both how close the athlete can come to the line before the release as well as the maximum speed achieved at the time of release.The javelin is thrown towards a 28.96º circular sector that is centered on the center point of the throwing arc.", "The angle of the throwing sector (28.96º) provides sector boundaries that are easy to construct and lay out on a field.", "A throw is only legal if the tip of the javelin lands within this sector and first strikes the ground with its tip before any other part.", "The distance of the throw is measured from the throwing arc to the point where the tip of the javelin landed, rounded down to the nearest centimeter.Competition rules are similar to other throwing events: a ''round'' consists of one attempt by each competitor in turn, and competitions typically consist of three to six rounds.", "The competitor with the longest single legal throw (over all rounds) is the winner; in case of a tie, the competitors' second-longest throws are also considered.", "Competitions involving large numbers of athletes sometimes use a ''cut'' whereby all competitors compete in the first three rounds but only those who are currently among the top eight or have achieved some minimum distances are permitted to attempt to improve on their distance in additional rounds (typically three).===Javelin redesigns===Uwe Hohn (pictured in 1984) holds the \"eternal world record\" with a throw of 104.80 m, as a new type of javelin (less debate of landing spot, less danger of reaching the spectators) was implemented in 1986.On 1 April 1986, the men's javelin () was redesigned by the governing body (the IAAF Technical Committee).", "They decided to change the rules for javelin design because of the increasingly frequent flat landings and the resulting discussions and protests when these attempts were declared valid or invalid by competition judges.", "The world record had also crept up to a potentially dangerous level, by Uwe Hohn.", "With throws exceeding 100 meters, it was becoming difficult to safely stage the competition within the confines of a stadium infield.", "The javelin was redesigned so that the centre of gravity was moved forward.", "In addition, the surface area in front of centre of gravity was reduced, while the surface area behind the centre of gravity was increased.", "This had an effect similar to that produced by the feathers on an arrow.", "The javelin turns into the relative wind.", "This relative wind appears to originate from the ground as the javelin descends, thus the javelin turns to face the ground.", "As the javelin turns into the wind less lift is generated, reducing the flight distance by around 10% but also causing the javelin to stick in the ground more consistently.", "In 1999, the women's javelin () was similarly redesigned.Modifications that manufacturers made to recover some of the lost distance, by increasing tail drag (using holes, rough paint or dimples), were forbidden at the end of 1991 and performances made using implements with such modifications removed from the record books.", "Seppo Räty had achieved a world record of in 1991 with such a design, but this record was nullified.See also: Timeline of changes in the sport of athletics===Weight rules by age group===The weight of the javelin in the Under-20 category is the same as the senior level.", "'''Men''' '''Women''''''Age group''' '''Weight''' '''Weight'''U14 U16 U18 Junior (U20) Senior 35–49 50–74 60–69 70–79 75+ 80+" ], [ "Technique and training", "Unlike other throwing events, javelin allows the competitor to build speed over a considerable distance.", "In addition, the core and upper body strength is necessary to deliver the implement, javelin throwers benefit from the agility and athleticism typically associated with running and jumping events.", "Thus, the athletes share more physical characteristics with sprinters than with others, although they still need the skill of heavier throwing athletes.Traditional free-weight training is often used by javelin throwers.", "Metal-rod exercises and resistance band exercises can be used to train a similar action to the javelin throw to increase power and intensity.", "Without proper strength and flexibility, throwers can become extremely injury prone, especially in the shoulder and elbow.", "Core stability can help in the transference of physical power and force from the ground through the body to the javelin.", "Stretching and sprint training are used to enhance the speed of the athlete at the point of release, and subsequently, the speed of the javelin.", "At release, a javelin can reach speeds approaching 113 km/h (70 mph).The javelin throw consists of three separate phases: the run-up, the transition, and the delivery.", "During each phase, the position of the javelin changes while the thrower changes his or her muscle recruitment.", "In the run-up phase as Luann Voza states, \"your arm is bent and kept close to your head, keeping the javelin in alignment with little to no arm movement\".", "This allows the thrower's bicep to contract, flexing the elbow.", "In order for the javelin to stay up high, the thrower's deltoid flexes.", "In the transition phase, the thrower's \"back muscles contract\" as \"the javelin is brought back in alignment with the shoulder with the thrower's palm up\".", "This, according to Voza, \"stretches your pectoral, or chest, muscles.", "From there, a stretch reflex, an involuntary contraction of your chest, helps bring your throwing arm forward with increased force\".", "During the final phase, the rotation of the shoulders initiates the release, which then \"transfers movement through the triceps muscles, wrists and fingers to extend the throwing arm forward to release the javelin\"." ], [ "Culture", "A women's (600-g, left) and men's (800-g, right) javelin.In 1994, Michael Torke composed ''Javelin'', commissioned by the Atlanta Committee for the Olympic Games in celebration of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra's 50th anniversary season, in conjunction with the 1996 Summer Olympics.Javelin throwers have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins.", "One of the recent samples is the €5 Finnish 10th IAAF World Championships in Athletics commemorative coin, minted in 2005 to commemorate the 2005 World Championships in Athletics.", "On the obverse of the coin, a javelin thrower is depicted.", "On the reverse, legs of hurdle runners with the Helsinki Olympic Stadium tower in the background can be seen." ], [ "All-time top 25 (current models)", "Tables show data for two definitions of \"Top 25\" - the top 25 '''distances''' and the top 25 '''athletes''': ''- denotes top performance for an athlete in the top 25 '''distances''''' ''- denotes lesser performances, still in the top 25 '''distances''', by a repeat athlete'' ''- denotes top performance (only) for other top 25 '''athletes''' who fall outside the top 25 '''distances'''''===Men===Correct as of August 2022.Mark Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 Jan Železný 25 May 1996 Jena 2 2 Johannes Vetter 6 September 2020 Chorzów 3 ''Vetter #2'' 29 May 2021 Chorzów 4 ''Železný #2'' 29 August 1993 Sheffield 5 ''Železný #3'' 6 April 1993 Pietersburg 6 ''Železný #4'' 31 May 1996 Ostrava 7 ''Vetter #3'' 11 July 2017 Luzern 8 ''Vetter #4'' 19 May 2021 Ostrava 9 ''Železný #5'' 26 March 1997 Stellenbosch 3 10 Thomas Röhler 5 May 2017 Doha 11 ''Vetter #5'' 18 August 2017 Thum 12 ''Vetter #6'' 26 June 2021 Kuortane 13 ''Vetter #7'' 21 May 2021 Dessau 4 14 Aki Parviainen 26 June 1999 Kuortane 5 15 Anderson Peters 13 May 2022 Doha 16 ''Železný #6'' 12 August 2001 Edmonton 6 17 Julius Yego 26 August 2015 Beijing 18 ''Vetter #8'' 11 March 2018 Leiria 7 19 Sergey Makarov 30 June 2002 Sheffield 8 20 Raymond Hecht 14 August 1996 Zürich 21 ''Železný #7'' 28 May 1997 Ostrava 22 ''Parviainen #2'' 24 June 2001 Vaasa 23 ''Železný #8'' 9 September 1995 Monaco ''Hecht #2'' 14 August 1996 Zürich 25 ''Vetter #9'' 29 June 2021 Luzern 9Andreas Hofmann2 June 2018Offenburg10Konstadinós Gatsioúdis24 June 2000Kuortane11Andreas Thorkildsen2 June 2006Oslo12Tero Pitkämäki26 June 2005Kuortane13Steve Backley25 January 1992Auckland14Cheng Chao-tsun26 August 2017Taipei15Breaux Greer21 June 2007Indianapolis16Jakub Vadlejch13 May 2022Doha17Kimmo Kinnunen26 August 1991Tokyo18Vadims Vasiļevskis22 July 2007Tallinn19Magnus Kirt22 June 2019Kuortane20Seppo Räty20 July 1992Nurmijärvi21Boris Henry9 July 1997Linz22Arshad Nadeem7 August 2022Birmingham23Keshorn Walcott9 July 2015Lausanne24Neeraj Chopra30 June 2022Stockholm25Oliver Helander14 June 2022Turku===Women===Correct as of September 2023.Mark Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 Barbora Špotáková 13 September 2008 Stuttgart 2 2 Osleidys Menéndez 14 August 2005 Helsinki 3 ''Špotáková #2'' 2 September 2011 Daegu 4 ''Menéndez #2'' 1 July 2001 Rethymno 5 ''Menéndez #3'' 27 August 2004 Athens 6 ''Špotáková #3'' 21 August 2008 Beijing 3 7 Maria Andrejczyk 9 May 2021 Split 4 8 Mariya Abakumova 1 September 2013 Berlin 5 9 Christina Obergföll 23 June 2007 Munich 10 ''Obergföll #2'' 14 August 2005 Helsinki 11 ''Menéndez #4'' 29 August 2001 Beijing 12 ''Obergföll #3'' 31 August 2008 Elstal 13 ''Abakumova #2'' 25 August 2013 Elstal 14 ''Obergföll #4'' 8 September 2011 Zürich 15 ''Špotáková #4'' 9 August 2012 London 16 ''Menéndez #5'' 6 August 2001 Edmonton 6 17 Trine Hattestad 28 July 2000 Oslo 18 ''Špotáková #5'' 22 July 2011 Monaco 7 19 Sunette Viljoen 9 June 2012 New York City 20 ''Abakumova #3'' 16 March 2013 Castellón 8 21 Christin Hussong 30 May 2021 Chorzów 22 ''Špotáková #6'' 31 May 2008 Zaragoza 23 ''Abakumova #4'' 16 August 2013 Moscow 24 ''Obergföll #5'' 18 August 2013 Moscow 25 ''Abakumova #5'' 29 August 2013 Zürich 9Kathryn Mitchell11 April 2018Gold Coast10Sara Kolak6 July 2017Lausanne11Steffi Nerius31 August 2008Elstal12Kara Winger2 September 2022Brussels13Lü Huihui2 August 2019Shenyang14Kelsey-Lee Barber9 July 2019Lucerne15Katharina Molitor30 August 2015Beijing16Sonia Bisset6 July 2005Salamanca17Mirela Manjani30 September 2000Sydney18Tatsiana Khaladovich7 June 2018Oslo19Nikola Ogrodníková26 May 2019OffenburgMaggie Malone17 July 2021East Stroudsburg21Haruka Kitaguchi8 September 2023Brussels22Linda Stahl14 June 2014New York City23Vera Rebrik19 February 2016Sochi24Hanna Hatsko-Fedusova26 July 2014KirovohradLiu Shiying15 September 2020Shaoxing====Annulled marks====In 2011, Mariya Abakumova threw 71.99 metres.", "This performance was annulled due to doping offences." ], [ "All-time top 5 (dimpled models 1990–1991)", "Marks set using dimpled rough-tailed javelins manufactured by several companies were nullified effective 20 September 1991.RankMarkAthleteDatePlaceRef196.962 June 1991Punkalaidun291.3615 September 1991Sheffield390.848 September 1991Gengenbach490.8226 August 1991Tokyo590.7210 July 1991Lausanne" ], [ "All-time top 15 (old models)", "===Men===RankMarkAthleteDatePlaceRef1104.8021 July 1984Berlin299.7215 May 1983Westwood396.7223 April 1980Tata9 June 1983Berlin595.8029 August 1982Stuttgart695.105 August 1985Eugene794.5826 July 1976Montreal894.223 August 1978Oslo994.205 June 1983Birmingham1094.085 May 1973Leverkusen1194.0626 July 1985Eugene1293.906 June 1973Helsinki1393.8427 January 1979Auckland1493.806 July 1972Stockholm 1593.7017 July 1985Kyiv ===Women===Tessa Sanderson appeared in every Summer Olympics from 1976 to 1996, winning the gold medal in the javelin at the 1984 Olympics.", "She was the first Black British woman to win an Olympic gold medal, and the second track and field athlete to compete at six Olympics.", "Sanderson won gold medals at three Commonwealth Games and at the 1992 IAAF World Cup.", "She set five Commonwealth records and ten British national records in the javelin, as well as records at junior and masters levels.", "Sanderson had a rivalry with fellow Briton Fatima Whitbread, who took the bronze in the 1984 Olympics.RankMarkAthleteDatePlaceRef180.008 September 1988Potsdam277.4428 August 1986Stuttgart374.7613 June 1983Tampere474.2026 September 1982Hania573.5826 June 1983Edinburgh672.7020 May 1984Hania772.165 May 1984Celje872.1210 July 1993Oslo971.8815 August 1981Zagreb1071.8230 August 1985Leverkusen1171.40 5 June 1994Sevilla1271.0025 June 1988Rostock1370.7622 June 1989Rostock1470.426 August 1990Tianjin 1570.209 May 1991Halle" ], [ "Olympic medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "World Championships medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "Season's bests", "===Men===YearMarkAthletePlace196790.98Odessa196891.98Saarijärvi196992.70Tampere197092.64Helsinki197190.68Helsinki197293.80Stockholm197394.08Leverkusen197489.58Rome197591.38Budapest197694.58Montreal197794.10Stockholm197894.22Oslo197993.84Auckland198096.72Tata198192.48Berlin198295.80Stuttgart198399.72Westwood1984104.80Berlin198596.96CanberraA new model was introduced in 1986, and all records started fresh.YearMarkAthletePlace198685.74Como198787.66Nitra198886.88Leverkusen198987.60San José199089.58Stockholm199190.82Tokyo199291.46Auckland199395.66Sheffield199491.82Sheffield199592.60Oslo199698.48Jena199794.02Stellenbosch199890.88Tartu199993.09Kuortane200091.69Kuortane200192.80Edmonton200292.61Sheffield200390.11Dessau200487.73Ostrava200591.53Kuortane200691.59Oslo200791.29Indianapolis200890.57Beijing200991.28Zürich201090.37Florø201190.61Byrkjelo201288.34London201389.03Bad Köstritz201489.21Shanghai201592.72Beijing201691.28Turku201794.44Lucerne201892.70Leiria201990.61Kuortane202097.76Chorzów202196.29Chorzów202293.07Doha===Women===YearMarkAthletePlace197366.10Edinburgh197467.22Rome197566.46Sudbury197669.12Berlin197769.32Fürth197869.16Prague197969.52Dresden198070.08Podolsk198171.88Zagreb198274.20Hania198374.76Tampere198474.72Celje198575.40Schwerin198677.44Stuttgart198778.90Leipzig198880.00Potsdam198976.88Macerata199073.08Manaus199171.44Fana199270.36Moscow199372.12Oslo199471.40Seville199571.18Zürich199669.42Monaco199769.66Helsinki199870.10BerlinA new model was introduced in 1999 and all records started fresh.YearMarkAthletePlace199968.19Fana200069.48Oslo200171.54Rethymno200267.47Munich200366.52Paris200471.53Athens200571.70Helsinki200666.91Athens200770.20Munich200872.28Stuttgart200968.59Leiria201068.66Rome201171.58Daegu201269.55London201370.53Berlin201467.99Brussels201567.69Beijing201667.30Sochi201768.43Lausanne201868.92Gold Coast201967.98Shenyang202067.61Beijing202171.40Split202268.11BrusselsMaria Abakumova at the 2011 World Athletics Championships" ], [ "See also", " List of javelin throw national champions (men)* List of javelin throwers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* IAAF list of javelin-throw records in XML* (IAAF Statement) – statement of reasons to modify the javelin design* Masters World Rankings * IAAF competition rules" ] ]	wikipedia

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