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[ [ "LGBT people and Islam" ], [ "Introduction", "Within the Muslim world, sentiment towards LGBT people varies and has varied between societies and individual Muslims, but is contemporarily quite negative.", "While colloquial, and in many cases, ''de facto'' official acceptance of at least some homosexual behavior was commonplace in pre-modern periods, later developments, starting from the 19th-century, have created a generally hostile environment for LGBT people.", "Most Muslim-majority countries have opposed moves to advance LGBT rights and recognition at the United Nations (UN), including within the UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council.", "Meanwhile, contemporary Islamic jurisprudence generally accepts the possibility for transgender people (''mukhannith''/''mutarajjilah'') to change their gender status, but only after surgery, linking one's gender to biological markers.", "Trans people are nonetheless confronted with stigma, discrimination, intimidation, and harassment in many Muslim majority societies.", "Transgender identities are often considered under the gender-binary, although some pre-modern scholars had recognized ''effeminate men'' as a form of third gender, as long as their behaviour was naturally in contrast to their assigned gender at birth.", "There are differences between how the Qur'an and later ''hadith'' traditions (orally transmitted collections of Muhammad's teachings) treat homosexuality, with many Western scholars arguing that the latter is far more explicitly negative.", "Using these differences, these scholars have argued that Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet, never forbade homosexual relationships outright, although he disapproved of them in line with his contemporaries.", "There is, however, comparatively little evidence of homosexual practices being prevalent in Muslim societies for the first century and a half of Islamic history; male homosexual relationships were known of and discriminated against in Arabia, but were generally not met with legal sanctions.", "In later pre-modern periods, historical evidence of homosexual relationships are more common; and show ''de facto'' tolerance of these relationships.", "Historical records suggest that laws against homosexuality were invoked infrequently — mainly in cases of rape or other \"exceptionally blatant infringement on public morals\" as defined by Islamic law.", "This allowed themes of homoeroticism and pederasty to be cultivated in Islamic poetry and other Islamic literary genres, written in major languages of the Muslim world, from the 8th century CE into the modern era.", "The conceptions of homosexuality found in these texts resembled the traditions of ancient Greece and ancient Rome as opposed to the modern understanding of sexual orientation.In the modern era, Muslim public attitudes towards homosexuality underwent a marked change beginning in the 19th century, largely due to the global spread of Islamic fundamentalist movements, namely Salafism and Wahhabism.", "The Muslim world was also influenced by the sexual notions and restrictive norms that were prevalent in the Christian world at the time, particularly with regard to anti-homosexual legislation throughout European societies, most of which adhered to Christian law.", "As such, a number of Muslim-majority countries that were once colonies of European empires retain the criminal penalties that were originally implemented by European colonial authorities against those who were convicted of engaging in non-heterosexual acts.", "Therefore, modern Muslim homophobia is generally not thought to be a direct continuation of pre-modern mores, but a phenomenon that has been shaped by a variety of local and imported frameworks.", "As Western culture eventually moved towards secularism and thus enabled a platform for the flourishing of many LGBT movements, many Muslim fundamentalists came to associate the Western world with \"ravaging moral decay\" and rampant homosexuality.", "In contemporary society, prejudice, anti-LGBT discrimination and/or anti-LGBT violence — including within legal systems — persist in much of the Muslim world, exacerbated by socially conservative attitudes and the recent rise of Islamist ideologies in some countries; there are laws in place against homosexual activities in a larger number of Muslim-majority countries, with a number of them prescribing the death penalty for convicted offenders." ], [ "History", "Societies in the Islamic world have recognized \"both erotic attraction and sexual behavior between members of the same sex\".", "Attitudes varied; legal scholars condemned and often formulated punishments for homosexual acts, yet lenient (or often non-existent) enforcement allowed for toleration, and sometimes \"celebration\" of such acts.", "Homoeroticism was idealized in the form of poetry or artistic declarations of love, often from an older man to a younger man or adolescent boy.", "Accordingly, the Arabic language had an appreciable vocabulary of homoerotic terms, with dozens of words just to describe types of male prostitutes.", "Schmitt (1992) identifies some twenty words in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish to identify those who are penetrated.", "Other related Arabic words includes ''mukhannathun'', ''ma'bûn'', ''halaqī'', and ''baghghā''.===Pre-modern era===There is little evidence of homosexual practice in Islamic societies for the first century and a half of the Islamic era.", "Homoerotic poetry appears suddenly at the end of the 8th century CE, particularly in Baghdad in the work of Abu Nuwas (756–814), who became a master of all the contemporary genres of Arabic poetry.", "The famous author Jahiz tried to explain the abrupt change in attitudes toward homosexuality after the Abbasid Revolution by the arrival of the Abbasid army from Khurasan, who are said to have consoled themselves with male pages when they were forbidden to take their wives with them.", "The increased prosperity following the early conquests was accompanied by a \"corruption of morals\" in the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and it can be inferred that homosexual practice became more widespread during this time as a result of acculturation to foreign customs, such as the music and dance practiced by ''mukhannathun'', who were mostly foreign in origin.", "The Abbasid caliph Al-Amin (r. 809–813) was said to have required slave women to be dressed in masculine clothing so he could be persuaded to have sex with them, and a broader fashion for ''ghulamiyyat'' (boy-like girls) is reflected in literature of the period.", "The same was said of Andalusian ruler al-Hakam II (r. 961–976).The conceptions of homosexuality found in classical Islamic texts resemble the traditions of classical Greece and those of ancient Rome, rather than the modern understanding of sexual orientation.", "It was expected that many mature men would be sexually attracted to both women and adolescent boys (with different views about the appropriate age range for the latter), and such men were expected to wish to play only an active role in homosexual intercourse once they reached adulthood.", "However, any confident assessment of the actual incidence of homosexual behavior remains elusive.", "Preference for homosexual over heterosexual relations was regarded as a matter of personal taste rather than a marker of homosexual identity in a modern sense.", "While playing an active role in homosexual relations carried no social stigma beyond that of licentious behavior, seeking to play a passive role was considered both unnatural and shameful for a mature man.", "Following Greek precedents, the Islamic medical tradition only regarded this latter case as pathological, and showed no concern for other forms of homosexual behavior.", "As evident from an eleventh-century discussion among the scholars of Baghdad, some scholars who showed traits of bisexuality argued, that it is natural for a man to desire anal intercourse with a fellow man, but this would be only allowed in the afterlife.The medieval Islamic concept of homoerotic relationships was distinct from modern concept of homosexuality, and related to the pederasty of Ancient Greece.", "During the early period, growth of a beard was considered to be the conventional age when an adolescent lost his homoerotic appeal, as evidenced by poetic protestations that the author still found his lover beautiful despite the growing beard.", "During later periods, the age of the stereotypical beloved became more ambiguous, and this prototype was often represented in Persian poetry by Turkic slave-soldiers.", "This trend is illustrated by the story of Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030), the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire, and his cupbearer Malik Ayaz.", "Their relationship started when Malik was a slave boy: \"At the time of the coins’ minting, Mahmud of Ghazni was in a passionate romantic relationship with his male slave Malik Ayaz, and had exalted him to various positions of power across the Ghazanid Empire.", "While the story of their love affair had been censored until recently — the result of Western colonialism and changing attitudes towards homosexuality in the Middle East — Jasmine explains how Ghazni's subjects saw their relationship as a higher form of love.", "\"Mahmud of Ghazni (in red robe), shaking hands with a sheikh, with his companion Malik Ayaz standing behind him (1515)Other famous examples of homosexuality include the Aghlabid Emir Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya (ruled 875–902), who was said to have been surrounded by some sixty catamites, yet whom he was said to have treated in a most horrific manner.", "Caliph al-Mutasim in the 9th century and some of his successors were accused of homosexuality.", "The Christian martyr Pelagius of Córdoba was executed by Andalusian ruler Abd al-Rahman III because the boy refused his advances.The 14th-century Iranian poet Obeid Zakani, in his scores of satirical stories and poems, ridiculed the contradiction between the strict legalistic prohibitions of homosexuality on the one hand and its common practice on the other.", "Following is an example from his Ressaleh Delgosha: “Two old men, who used to exchange sex since their very childhood, were making love on the top of a mosque’s minaret in the holy city of Qom.", "When both finished their turns, one told the other: “shameless practices have ruined our city.” The other man nodded and said, “You and I are the city’s blessed seniors, what then do you expect from others?”European sources state that Mehmed the Conqueror, an Ottoman sultan from the 15th century, \"was known to have ambivalent sexual tastes, sent a eunuch to the house of Notaras, demanding that he supply his good-looking fourteen-year-old son for the Sultan's pleasure.", "When he refused, the Sultan instantly ordered the decapitation of Notaras, together with that of his son and his son-in-law; and their three heads … were placed on the banqueting table before him\".", "Another youth Mehmed found attractive, and who was presumably more accommodating, was Radu III the Fair, the brother of Vlad the Impaler: \"Radu, a hostage in Istanbul whose good looks had caught the Sultan's fancy, and who was thus singled out to serve as one of his most favored pages.\"", "After the defeat of Vlad, Mehmed placed Radu on the throne of Wallachia as a vassal ruler.", "However, some Turkish sources deny these stories.According to the ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'':Whatever the legal strictures on sexual activity, the positive expression of male homoerotic sentiment in literature was accepted, and assiduously cultivated, from the late eighth century until modern times.", "First in Arabic, but later also in Persian, Turkish and Urdu, love poetry by men about boys more than competed with that about women, it overwhelmed it.", "Anecdotal literature reinforces this impression of general societal acceptance of the public celebration of male-male love (which hostile Western caricatures of Islamic societies in medieval and early modern times simply exaggerate).Shah Abbas of Iran with a page (1627), Persian miniature by Muhammad Qasim in the Louvre Museum; European travellers who had visited Iran during the reign of Shah Abbas have spoken of his strong desire for charming young pages and cup-bearers.European travellers remarked on the taste that Shah Abbas of Iran (1588–1629) had for wine and festivities, but also for attractive pages and cup-bearers.", "A painting by Riza Abbasi with homo-erotic qualities shows the ruler enjoying such delights.According to Daniel Eisenberg, \"Homosexuality was a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Islamic Iberia.", "As was customary everywhere until the nineteenth century, homosexuality was not viewed as a congenital disposition or 'identity'; the focus was on nonprocreative sexual practices, of which sodomy was the most controversial.\"", "For example, in al-Andalus \"homosexual pleasures were much indulged by the intellectual and political elite.", "Evidence includes the behavior of rulers .", ".", ".", "who kept male harems.\"", "Although early Islamic writings such as the Quran expressed a mildly negative attitude towards homosexuality, laypersons usually apprehended the idea with indifference, if not admiration.", "Few literary works displayed hostility towards non-heterosexuality, apart from partisan statements and debates about types of love (which also occurred in heterosexual contexts).", "Khaled el-Rouayheb (2014) maintains that \"much if not most of the extant love poetry of the period 16th to 18th century is pederastic in tone, portraying an adult male poet's passionate love for a teenage boy\".", "In mystic writings of the medieval era, such as Sufi texts, it is \"unclear whether the beloved being addressed is a teenage boy or God.\"", "European chroniclers censured \"the indulgent attitudes to gay sex in the Caliphs' courts.", "\"El-Rouayheb suggests that even though religious scholars considered sodomy as an abhorrent sin, most of them did not genuinely believe that it was illicit to merely fall in love with a boy or express this love via poetry.", "In secular society however, a male's desire to penetrate a desirable youth was seen as understandable, even if unlawful.", "On the other hand, men adopting the passive role were more subjected to stigma.", "The medical term ''ubnah'' qualified the pathological desire of a male to exclusively be on the receiving end of anal intercourse.", "Physicians that theorized on ''ubnah'' includes Rhazes, who thought that it was correlated with small genitals and that a treatment was possible provided that the subject was deemed to be not too effeminate and the behavior not \"prolonged\".", "Dawud al-Antaki advanced that it could have been caused by an acidic substance embedded in the veins of the anus, causing itchiness and thus the need to seek relief.===Modern era===Ottoman Turkish manuscript from 1773The 18th and 19th centuries saw the rise of Islamic fundamentalism such as Wahhabism, which came to call for stricter adherence to the Hadith.", "In 1744, Muhammad bin Saud, the tribal ruler of the town of Diriyah, endorsed ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s mission and the two swore an oath to establish a state together run according to true Islamic principles.", "For the next seventy years, until the dismantlement of the first state in 1818, the Wahhabis dominated from Damascus to Baghdad.", "Homosexuality, which had been largely tolerated in the Ottoman Empire, also became criminalized, and those found guilty were thrown to their deaths from the top of the minarets.Homosexuality in the Ottoman Empire was decriminalized in 1858, as part of wider reforms during the Tanzimat.", "However, authors Lapidus and Salaymeh write that before the 19th century Ottoman society had been open and welcoming to homosexuals, and that by the 1850s via European influence they began censoring homosexuality in their society.", "In Iran, several hundred political opponents were executed in the aftermath of the 1979 Islamic Revolution and justified it by accusing them of homosexuality.", "Homosexual intercourse became a capital offense in Iran's ''Islamic Penal Code'' in 1991.Though the grounds for execution in Iran are difficult to track, there is evidence that several people were hanged for homosexual behavior in 2005–2006 and in 2016, mostly in cases of dubious charges of rape.", "In some countries like Iran and Iraq the dominant discourse is that Western imperialism has spread homosexuality.", "In Egypt, though homosexuality is not explicitly criminalized, it has been widely prosecuted under vaguely formulated \"morality\" laws.", "Under the current rule of Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, arrests of LGBT individuals have risen fivefold, apparently reflecting an effort to appeal to conservatives.", "In Uzbekistan, an anti-sodomy law, passed after World War II with the goal of increasing the birth rate, was invoked in 2004 against a gay rights activist, who was imprisoned and subjected to extreme abuse.", "In Iraq, where homosexuality is legal, the breakdown of law and order following the Second Gulf War allowed Islamist militias and vigilantes to act on their prejudice against gays, with ISIS gaining particular notoriety for the gruesome acts of anti-LGBT violence committed under its rule of parts of Syria and Iraq.", "Scott Siraj al-Haqq Kugle has argued that while Muslims \"commemorate the early days of Islam when they were oppressed as a marginalized few,\" many of them now forget their history and fail to protect \"Muslims who are gay, transgender and lesbian.", "\"Ottoman illustration depicting a young man used for group sex (from ''Sawaqub al-Manaquib''), 19th centuryAccording to Georg Klauda, in the 19th and early 20th century, homosexual sexual contact was viewed as relatively commonplace in parts of the Middle East, owing in part to widespread sex segregation, which made heterosexual encounters outside marriage more difficult.", "Klauda states that \"Countless writers and artists such as André Gide, Oscar Wilde, Edward M. Forster, and Jean Genet made pilgrimages in the 19th and 20th centuries from homophobic Europe to Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, and various other Arab countries, where homosexual sex was not only met without any discrimination or subcultural ghettoization whatsoever, but rather, additionally as a result of rigid segregation of the sexes, seemed to be available on every corner.\"", "Views about homosexuality have never been universal all across the Islamic world.", "With reference to the Muslim world more broadly, Tilo Beckers writes that \"Besides the endogenous changes in the interpretation of scriptures having a deliberalizing influence that came from within Islamic cultures, the rejection of homosexuality in Islam gained momentum through the exogenous effects of European colonialism, that is, the import of Western cultural understandings of homosexuality as a perversion.\"", "University of Münster professor Thomas Bauer points that even though there were many orders of stoning for homosexuality, there is not a single proven case of it being carried out.", "Bauer continues that \"Although contemporary Islamist movements decry homosexuality as a form of Western decadence, the current prejudice against it among Muslim publics stems from an amalgamation of traditional Islamic legal theory with popular notions that were imported from Europe during the colonial era, when Western military and economic superiority made Western notions of sexuality particularly influential in the Muslim world.", "\"In some Muslim-majority countries, current anti-LGBT laws were enacted by United Kingdom or Soviet organs and retained following independence.", "The 1860 Indian Penal Code, which included an anti-sodomy statute, was used as a basis of penal laws in other parts of the empire.", "However, as Dynes and Donaldson point out, North African countries under French colonial tutelage lacked anti-homosexual laws which were only born afterwards, with the full weight of Islamic opinion descending on those who, on the model of the gay liberationists of the West, would seek to make \"homosexuality\" (above all, adult men taking passive roles) publicly respectable.", "Jordan, Bahrain, and - more recently - India, a country with a substantial Muslim minority, have abolished the criminal penalties for consensual homosexual acts introduced under colonial rule.", "Persecution of homosexuals has been exacerbated in recent decades by a rise in Islamic fundamentalism and the emergence of the gay-rights movement in the West, which allowed Islamists to paint homosexuality as a noxious Western import." ], [ "Scripture and Islamic jurisprudence", "=== In the Quran ======= Messengers to Lot ====Lut fleeing the city with his daughters; his wife is killed by a rock.", "Persian miniature (16th century), National Library of France, Paris.The Quran contains several allusions to homosexual activity, which has prompted considerable exegetical and legal commentaries over the centuries.", "The subject is most clearly addressed in the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (seven verses) after the men of the city demand to have sex with the (seemingly male) messengers sent by God to the prophet Lot (or Lut).", "The Quranic narrative largely conforms to that found in Genesis.", "In one passage the Quran says that the men \"solicited his guests of him\" (Quran 54:37), using an expression that parallels phrasing used to describe the attempted seduction of Joseph, and in multiple passages they are accused of \"coming with lust\" to men instead of women (or their wives).", "The Quran terms this lewdness or fahisha () unprecedented in the history of the world:The destruction of the \"people of Lut\" is thought to be explicitly associated with their sexual practices.", "Later exegetical literature built on these verses as writers attempted to give their own views as to what went on; and there was general agreement among exegetes that the \"lewdness\" alluded to by the Quranic passages was attempted sodomy (specifically anal intercourse) between men.", "Some Muslim scholars, such as the ''Ẓāhirī scholar'' (literalist) ibn Ḥazm, argue that the \"people of Lut\" were destroyed not because of participation in homosexuality ''per se'', but because of disregarding Prophets and messengers and attempting to rape one of them.The sins of the \"people of Lut\" () subsequently became proverbial and the Arabic words for the act of anal sex between men such as ''liwat'' () and for a person who performs such acts () both derive from his name, although Lut was not the one demanding sex.Some Western and Modern Islamic scholars argue that in the course of the Quranic Lot story, homosexuality in the modern sense is not addressed, but that the destruction of the \"people of Lut\" was a result of breaking the ancient hospitality law and sexual violence, in this case they attempted rape of men.==== ''Zina'' verse ====Only one passage in the Quran prescribes a strictly legal position.", "It is not restricted to homosexual behaviour, however, and deals more generally with ''zina'' (illicit sexual intercourse):In the exegetical Islamic literature, this verse has provided the basis for the view that Muhammad took a lenient approach towards male homosexual practices.", "The Orientalist scholar Pinhas Ben Nahum has argued that \"it is obvious that the Prophet viewed the vice with philosophic indifference.", "Not only is the punishment not indicated—it was probably some public reproach or insult of a slight nature—but mere penitence sufficed to escape the punishment\".", "Most exegetes hold that these verses refer to illicit heterosexual relationships, although a minority view attributed to the Mu'tazilite scholar Abu Muslim al-Isfahani interpreted them as referring to homosexual relations.", "This view was widely rejected by medieval scholars, but has found some acceptance in modern times.==== Cupbearers in paradise ====Some Quranic verses describing the Islamic paradise refer to perpetually youthful attendants which inhabit it, and they are described as both male and female servants: the females are referred to as ''ḥūr'', whereas the males are referred to as ''ghilmān'', ''wildān'', and ''suqāh''.", "The slave boys are referred to in the Quran as \"immortal boys\" (, ) or \"young men\" () who serve wine and meals to the blessed.", "Although the ''tafsir'' literature does not interpret this as a homoerotic allusion, the connection was made in other literary genres, mostly humorously.", "For example, the Abbasid-era poet Abu Nuwas wrote:Jurists of the Hanafi school took up the question seriously, considering, but ultimately rejecting the suggestion that homosexual pleasures were, like wine, forbidden in this world but enjoyed in the afterlife.", "Ibn 'Âbidîn's Hâshiya refers to a debate among the scholars of Baghdad in the eleventh century, that some scholars argued in favor of that analogy.", "This was opposed by those who found anal intercourse repulsive.=== In the hadith ===The hadith (sayings and actions attributed to Muhammad) show that homosexual behaviour was not unknown in seventh-century Arabia.", "However, given that the Quran did not specify the punishment of homosexual practices, Islamic jurists increasingly turned to several \"more explicit\" hadiths in an attempt to find guidance on appropriate punishment.While there are no reports relating to homosexuality in the best known and authentic hadith collections of ''Sahih al-Bukhari'' and ''Sahih Muslim'', other canonical collections record a number of condemnations of the \"act of the people of Lut\" (male-to-male anal intercourse).", "For example, Abu 'Isa Muhammad ibn 'Isa at-Tirmidhi (compiling the ''Sunan al-Tirmidhi'' around 884) wrote that Muhammad had indeed prescribed the death penalty for both the active and passive partners:Ibn al-Jawzi (1114–1200), writing in the 12th century, claimed that Muhammad had cursed \"sodomites\" in several hadith, and had recommended the death penalty for both the active and passive partners in homosexual acts.Al-Nuwayri (1272–1332), writing in the 13th century, reported in his ''Nihaya'' that Muhammad is \"alleged to have said what he feared most for his community were the practices of the people of Lot (he seems to have expressed the same idea in regard to wine and female seduction).", "\"According to Oliver Leaman, other hadiths seem to permit homoerotic feelings as long as they are not translated into action.", "However, in one hadith attributed to Muhammad himself, which exists in multiple variants, the Islamic prophet acknowledged homoerotic temptation towards young boys and warned his Companions against it: \"Do not gaze at the beardless youths, for verily they have eyes more tempting than the ''houris''\" or \"... for verily they resemble the ''houris''\".", "These beardless youths are also described as wearing sumptuous robes and having perfumed hair.", "Consequently, Islamic religious leaders, skeptical of Muslim men's capacity of self-control over their sexual urges, have forbidden looking and yearning both at males and females.In addition, there is a number of \"purported (but mutually inconsistent) reports\" (''athar'') of punishments of sodomy ordered by some of the early caliphs.", "Abu Bakr apparently recommended toppling a wall on the culprit, or else burning him alive, while Ali ibn Abi Talib is said to have ordered death by stoning for one sodomite and had another thrown head-first from the top of the highest building in the town; according to Ibn Abbas, the latter punishment must be followed by stoning.There are, however, fewer hadith mentioning homosexual behaviour in women;but punishment (if any) for lesbianism was not clarified.===Gender-variant people===In Classical Arabic and Islamic literature, the plural term ''mukhannathun'' (singular: ''mukhannath'') was a term used to describe gender-variant people, and it has typically referred to effeminate men or people with ambiguous sexual characteristics, who appeared feminine and functioned sexually or socially in roles typically carried out by women.", "According to the Iranian scholar Mehrdad Alipour, \"in the premodern period, Muslim societies were aware of five manifestations of gender ambiguity: This can be seen through figures such as the ''khasi'' (eunuch), the ''hijra'', the ''mukhannath'', the ''mamsuh'' and the ''khuntha'' (hermaphrodite/intersex).\"", "Gender specialists Aisya Aymanee M. Zaharin and Maria Pallotta-Chiarolli give the following explanation of the meaning of the term ''mukhannath'' and its derivate Arabic forms in the hadith literature:Moreover, within Islam, there is a tradition of the elaboration and refinement of extended religious doctrines through scholarship.", "This doctrine contains a passage by the scholar and hadith collector An-Nawawi:A mukhannath is the one (\"male\") who carries in his movements, in his appearance and in his language the characteristics of a woman.", "There are two types; the first is the one in whom these characteristics are innate, he did not put them on by himself, and therein is no guilt, no blame and no shame, as long as he does not perform any (illicit) act or exploit it for money (prostitution etc.).", "The second type acts like a woman out of immoral purposes and he is the sinner and blameworthy.The hadith collection of Bukhari (compiled in the 9th century from earlier oral traditions) includes a report regarding ''mukhannathun'', effeminate men who were granted access to secluded women's quarters and engaged in other non-normative gender behavior: This hadiths attributed to Muhammad's wives, a ''mukhannath'' in question expressed his appreciation of a woman's body and described it for the benefit of another man.", "According to one hadith, this incident was prompted by a ''mukhannath'' servant of Muhammad's wife Umm Salama commenting upon the body of a woman and following that, Muhammad cursed the ''mukhannathun'' and their female equivalents, ''mutarajjilat'' and ordered his followers to remove them from their homes.Early Islamic literature rarely comments upon the habits of the ''mukhannathun''.", "It seems there may have been some variance in how \"effeminate\" they were, though there are indications that some adopted aspects of feminine dress or at least ornamentation.", "One hadith states that a Muslim ''mukhannath'' who had dyed his hands and feet with henna (traditionally a feminine activity) was banished from Medina, but not killed for his behavior.Other hadiths also mention the punishment of banishment, both in connection with Umm Salama's servant and a man who worked as a musician.", "Muhammad described the musician as a ''mukhannath'' and threatened to banish him if he did not end his unacceptable career.According to Everett K. Rowson, professor of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies at New York University, none of the sources state that Muhammad banished more than two ''mukhannathun'', and it is not clear to what extent the action was taken because of their breaking of gender rules in itself or because of the \"perceived damage to social institutions from their activities as matchmakers and their corresponding access to women\".=== Traditional Islamic jurisprudence ===The scarcity of concrete prescriptions from hadith and the contradictory nature of information about the actions of early authorities resulted in the lack of agreement among classical jurists as to how homosexual activity should be treated.Classical Islamic jurists did not deal with homosexuality as a sexual orientation, since the latter concept is modern and has no equivalent in traditional law, which dealt with it under the technical terms of ''liwat'' and ''zina''.Broadly, traditional Islamic law took the view that homosexual activity could not be legally sanctioned because it takes place outside religiously recognised marriages.", "All major schools of law consider liwat (anal sex) as a punishable offence.", "Most legal schools treat homosexual intercourse with penetration similarly to unlawful heterosexual intercourse under the rubric of ''zina'', but there are differences of opinion with respect to methods of punishment.", "Some legal schools \"prescribed capital punishment for sodomy, but others opted only for a relatively mild discretionary punishment.\"", "The Hanbalites are the most severe among Sunni schools, insisting on capital punishment for anal sex in all cases, while the other schools generally restrict punishment to flagellation with or without banishment, unless the culprit is ''muhsan'' (Muslim free married adult), and Hanafis often suggest no physical punishment at all, leaving the choice to the judge's discretion.", "The founder of the Hanafi school Abu Hanifa refused to recognize the analogy between sodomy and ''zina'', although his two principal students disagreed with him on this point.", "The Hanafi scholar Abu Bakr Al-Jassas (d. 981 AD/370 AH) argued that the two hadiths on killing homosexuals \"are not reliable by any means and no legal punishment can be prescribed based on them\".", "Where capital punishment is prescribed and a particular method is recommended, the methods range from stoning (Hanbali, Maliki), to the sword (some Hanbalites and Shafi'ites), or leaving it to the court to choose between several methods, including throwing the culprit off a high building (Shi'ite).For unclear reasons, the treatment of homosexuality in Twelver Shi'ism jurisprudence is generally harsher than in Sunni fiqh, while Zaydi and Isma'ili Shia jurists took positions similar to the Sunnis.", "Where flogging is prescribed, there is a tendency for indulgence and some recommend that the prescribed penalty should not be applied in full, with Ibn Hazm reducing the number of strokes to 10.There was debate as to whether the active and passive partners in anal sex should be punished equally.", "Beyond penetrative anal sex, there was \"general agreement\" that \"other homosexual acts (including any between females) were lesser offenses, subject only to discretionary punishment.\"", "Some jurists viewed sexual intercourse as possible only for an individual who possesses a phallus; hence those definitions of sexual intercourse that rely on the entry of as little of the corona of the phallus into a partner's orifice.", "Since women do not possess a phallus and cannot have intercourse with one another, they are, in this interpretation, physically incapable of committing zinā.====Practicality====Since a ''hadd'' punishment for ''zina'' requires testimony from four witnesses of the actual act of penetration or a confession from the accused repeated four times, the legal criteria for the prescribed harsh punishments of homosexual acts were very difficult to fulfill.", "The debates of classical jurists are \"to a large extent theoretical, since homosexual relations have always been tolerated\" in pre-modern Islamic societies.", "While it is difficult to determine to what extent the legal sanctions were enforced in different times and places, historical record suggests that the laws were invoked mainly in cases of rape or other \"exceptionally blatant infringement on public morals\".", "Documented instances of prosecution for homosexual acts are rare, and those which followed legal procedure prescribed by Islamic law are even rarer.===Modern interpretation===In Kecia Ali's book, she cites that \"contemporary scholars disagree sharply about the Qur'anic perspective on same-sex intimacy.\"", "One scholar represents the conventional perspective by arguing that the Qur'an \"is very explicit in its condemnation of homosexuality leaving scarcely any loophole for a theological accommodation of homosexuality in Islam.\"", "Another scholar argues that \"the Qur'an does not address homosexuality or homosexuals explicitly.\"", "Overall, Ali says that \"there is no one Muslim perspective on anything.", "\"Many Muslim scholars have followed a \"don't ask, don't tell\" policy in regards to homosexuality in Islam, by treating the subject with passivity.Mohamed El-Moctar El-Shinqiti, director of the Islamic Center of South Plains in Texas, has argued that \"even though homosexuality is a grievous sin...a no legal punishment is stated in the Qur'an for homosexuality...b it is not reported that Prophet Muhammad has punished somebody for committing homosexuality...c there is no authentic hadith reported from the Prophet prescribing a punishment for the homosexuals...\" Classical hadith scholars such as Al-Bukhari, Yahya ibn Ma'in, Al-Nasa'i, Ibn Hazm, Al-Tirmidhi, and others have disputed the authenticity of hadith reporting these statements.Egyptian Islamist journalist Muhammad Jalal Kishk also found no punishment for homosexual acts prescribed in the Quran, regarding the hadith that mentioned it as poorly attested.", "He did not approve of such acts, but believed that Muslims who abstained from sodomy would be rewarded by sex with youthful boys in paradise.Faisal Kutty, a professor of Islamic law at Indiana-based Valparaiso University Law School and Toronto-based Osgoode Hall Law School, commented on the contemporary same-sex marriage debate in a 27 March 2014 essay in the Huffington Post.", "He acknowledged that while Islamic law iterations prohibit pre- and extra-marital as well as same-sex sexual activity, it does not attempt to \"regulate feelings, emotions and urges, but only its translation into action that authorities had declared unlawful\".", "Kutty, who teaches comparative law and legal reasoning, also wrote that many Islamic scholars have \"even argued that homosexual tendencies themselves were not haram prohibited but had to be suppressed for the public good\".", "He claimed that this may not be \"what the LGBTQ community wants to hear\", but that, \"it reveals that even classical Islamic jurists struggled with this issue and had a more sophisticated attitude than many contemporary Muslims\".", "Kutty, who in the past wrote in support of allowing Islamic principles in dispute resolution, also noted that \"most Muslims have no problem extending full human rights to those—even Muslims—who live together 'in sin'\".", "He argued that it therefore seems hypocritical to deny fundamental rights to same-sex couples.", "Moreover, he concurred with Islamic legal scholar Mohamed Fadel in arguing that this is not about changing Islamic marriage (nikah), but about making \"sure that all citizens have access to the same kinds of public benefits\".Scott Siraj al-Haqq Kugle, a professor of Islamic Studies at Emory University, has argued for a different interpretation of the Lot narrative focusing not on the sexual act but on the infidelity of the tribe and their rejection of Lot's Prophethood.", "According to Kugle, \"where the Qur'an treats same-sex acts, it condemns them only so far as they are exploitive or violent.\"", "More generally, Kugle notes that the Quran refers to four different levels of personality.", "One level is \"genetic inheritance.\"", "The Qur'an refers to this level as one's \"physical stamp\" that \"determines one's temperamental nature\" including one's sexuality.", "On the basis of this reading of the Qur'an, Kugle asserts that homosexuality is \"caused by divine will,\" so \"homosexuals have no rational choice in their internal disposition to be attracted to same-sex mates.\"", "Kugle argues that if the classical commentators had seen \"sexual orientation as an integral aspect of human personality,\" they would have read the narrative of Lot and his tribe \"as addressing male rape of men in particular\" and not as \"addressing homosexuality in general.\"", "Kugle furthermore reads the Qur'an as holding \"a positive assessment of diversity.\"", "Under this reading, Islam can be described as \"a religion that positively assesses diversity in creation and in human societies,\" allowing gay and lesbian Muslims to view homosexuality as representing the \"natural diversity in sexuality in human societies.\"", "A critique of Kugle's approach, interpretations and conclusions was published in 2016 by Mobeen Vaid.In a 2012 book, Aisha Geissinger writes that there are \"apparently irreconcilable Muslim standpoints on same-sex desires and acts,\" all of which claim \"interpretative authenticity.\"", "One of these standpoints results from \"queer-friendly\" interpretations of the Lot story and the Quran.", "The Lot story is interpreted as condemning \"rape and inhospitality rather than today's consensual same-sex relationships.", "\"In their book ''Islamic Law and Muslim Same-Sex Unions'', Junaid Jahangir and Hussein Abdullatif argue that interpretations which view the Quranic narrative of the people of Lot and the derived classical notion of ''liwat'' as applying to same-sex relationships reflect the sociocultural norms and medical knowledge of societies that produced those interpretations.", "They further argue that the notion of ''liwat'' is compatible with the Quranic narrative, but not with the contemporary understanding of same-sex relationships based on love and shared responsibilities.In his 2010 article ''Sexuality and Islam'', Abdessamad Dialmy addressed \"sexual norms defined by the sacred texts (Koran and Sunna).\"", "He wrote that \"sexual standards in Islam are paradoxical.\"", "The sacred texts \"allow and actually are an enticement to the exercise of sexuality.\"", "However, they also \"discriminate ... between heterosexuality and homosexuality.\"", "Islam's paradoxical standards result in \"the current back and forth swing of sexual practices between repression and openness.\"", "Dialmy sees a solution to this back and forth swing by a \"reinterpretation of repressive holy texts.\"" ], [ "Modern laws in Muslim-majority countries {{anchor\|Homosexuality_laws_in_majority-Muslim_countries}}", "Same-sex intercourse illegal: ===Criminalization===According to the International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) seven countries still retain capital punishment for homosexual behavior: Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iran, Afghanistan, Mauritania, northern Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates.", "Afghanistan also has the death penalty for homosexuality since the 2021 Taliban takeover.", "In Qatar, Algeria, Uzbekistan, and the Maldives, homosexuality is punished with time in prison or a fine.", "This has led to controversy regarding Qatar, which hosted the 2022 FIFA World Cup.", "In 2010, human rights groups questioned the awarding of hosting rights to Qatar, due to concerns that gay football fans may be jailed.", "In response, Sepp Blatter, head of FIFA, joked that they would have to \"refrain from sexual activity\" while in Qatar.", "He later withdrew the remarks after condemnation from rights groups.Same-sex sexual activity is illegal in Chad since 1 August 2017 under a new penal code.", "Before that, homosexuality between consenting adults had not been criminalized ever prior to this law.In Egypt, openly gay men have been prosecuted under general public morality laws.", "(See Cairo 52.)", "\"Sexual relations between consenting adult persons of the same sex in private are not prohibited as such.", "However, the Law on the Combating of Prostitution, and the law against debauchery have been used to imprison gay men in recent years.\"", "An Egyptian TV host was recently sentenced to a year in prison for interviewing a gay man in January 2019.The Sunni Islamist militant group and Salafi-jihadist terrorist organization ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh, which invaded and claimed parts of Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2017, enacted the political and religious persecution of LGBT people and decreed capital punishment for them.", "ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh terrorists have executed more than two dozen men and women for suspected homosexual activity, including several thrown off the top of buildings in highly publicized executions.In India, which has the third-largest Muslim population in the world, and where Islam is the largest minority religion, the largest Islamic seminary (Darul Uloom Deoband) has vehemently opposed recent government moves to abrogate and liberalize laws from the colonial era that banned homosexuality.", "As of September 2018, homosexuality is no longer a criminal act in India, and most of the religious groups withdrew their opposing claims against it in the Supreme Court.In Iraq, homosexuality is allowed by the government, but terrorist groups often carry out illegal executions of gay people.", "Saddam Hussein was \"unbothered by sexual mores.\"", "Ali Hili reports that \"since the 2003 invasion more than 700 people have been killed because of their sexuality.\"", "He calls Iraq the \"most dangerous place in the world for sexual minorities.", "\"In Jordan, where homosexuality is legal, \"gay hangouts have been raided or closed on bogus charges, such as serving alcohol illegally.\"", "Despite this legality, social attitudes towards homosexuality are still hostile and hateful.In Pakistan, its law is a mixture of both British colonial law as well as Islamic law, both which prescribe criminal penalties for same-sex sexual acts.", "The Pakistan Penal Code of 1860, originally developed under colonial rule, punishes sodomy with a possible prison sentence.", "Yet, the more likely situation for gay and bisexual men is sporadic police fines, and jail sentences.In Bangladesh, homosexual acts are illegal and punishable according to section 377.In 2009 and 2013, the Bangladeshi Parliament refused to overturn Section 377.In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexual acts is public execution by beheading.In Malaysia, homosexual acts are illegal and punishable with jail, fine, deportation, whipping or chemical castration.", "In October 2018, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad stated that Malaysia would not \"copy\" Western nations' approach towards LGBT rights, indicating that these countries were exhibiting a disregard for the institutions of the traditional family and marriage, as the value system in Malaysia is good.", "In May 2019, in response to the warning of George Clooney about intending to impose death penalty for homosexuals like Brunei, the Deputy Foreign Minister Marzuki Yahya pointed out that Malaysia does not kill gay people, and will not resort to killing sexual minorities.", "He also said, although such lifestyles deviate from Islam, the government would not impose such a punishment on the group.Indonesia does not have a sodomy law and does not currently criminalize private, non-commercial homosexual acts among consenting adults, except in Aceh province where homosexuality is illegal for Muslims under Islamic Sharia law, and punishable by flogging.", "While it does not criminalise homosexuality, the country does not recognise same-sex marriage.", "In July 2015, the Minister of Religious Affairs stated that it is difficult in Indonesia to legalize Gay Marriage, because strongly held religious norms speak strongly against it.", "According to some jurists, there should be death stoning penalty for homosexuals.", "While another group consider flogging with 100 lashes is the correct punishment.In Turkey, homosexuality is legal, but \"official censure can be fierce\".", "A former interior minister, İdris Naim Şahin, called homosexuality an example of \"dishonour, immorality and inhuman situations\".", "Turkey held its 16th Gay Pride Parade in Istanbul on 30 June 2019.As the latest addition in the list of criminalizing Muslim countries, Brunei's has implemented penalty for homosexuals within ''Sharia Penal Code'' in stages since 2014.It prescribes death by stoning as punishment for sex between men, and sex between women is punishable by caning or imprisonment.", "The sultanate currently has a moratorium in effect on death penalty.====Death penalty====All nations currently having capital punishment as a potential penalty for homosexual activity are Muslim-majority countries and base those laws on interpretations of Islamic teachings.", "In 2020, the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA) released its most recent ''State Sponsored Homophobia Report''.", "The report found that eleven countries or regions impose the death penalty for \"same-sex sexual acts\" with reference to sharia-based laws.", "In Iran, according to article 129 and 131 there are up to 100 lashes of whip first three times and fourth time death penalty for lesbians.", "The death penalty is implemented nationwide in Brunei, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Yemen, northern Nigeria, United Arab Emirates, Mauritania and Somalia.", "This punishment is also allowed by the law but not implemented in Qatar, and Pakistan; and was back then implemented through non-state courts by ISIS in parts of Iraq and Syria (now no longer existing).Due to Brunei's law dictating that gay sex be punishable by stoning, many of its targeted citizens fled to Canada in hopes of finding refuge.", "The law is also set to impose the same punishment for adultery among heterosexual couples.", "Despite pushback from citizens in the LGBTQ+ community, Brunei prime minister's office produced a statement explaining Brunei's intention for carrying through with the law.", "It has been suggested that this is part of a plan to separate Brunei from the western world and towards a Muslim one.In the Chechen Republic, a part of the Russian Federation, Ramzan Kadyrov has actively discriminated against homosexual individuals and presided over a campaign of arbitrary detention and extrajudicial killing.It has been suggested that \"to counteract popular support for an Islamist insurgency that erupted after the Soviet breakup, President Vladimir V. Putin of Russia has granted wide latitude to Kadyrov to co-opt elements of the Islamist agenda, including an intolerance of gays.\"", "Reports of the discrimination in Chechnya have in turn been used to stoke Islamophobia, racist, and anti-Russia rhetoric.", "Jessica Stern, executive director of OutRight Action International, has criticized this bigotry, noting: “Using a violent attack on men accused of being gay to legitimize islamophobia is dangerous and misleading.", "It negates the experiences of queer muslims and essentializes all muslims as homophobic.", "We cannot permit this tragedy to be co-opted by ethno-nationalists to perpetuate anti-Muslim or anti-Russian sentiment.", "The people and their government are never the same.”====Minor penalty====In Algeria, Bangladesh, Chad, Morocco, Aceh, Maldives, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Syria, and Tunisia, it is illegal, and penalties may be imposed.", "In Kuwait, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, homosexual acts between males are illegal, but homosexual relations between females are legal.===Legalization===Istanbul LGBT Pride parade in 2013, Taksim Square, Istanbul, Turkey.", "''Gay Pride'' ride 2016 in Tirana, Albania.Same-sex sexual intercourse is legal in Albania, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burkina Faso, Djibouti (de jure), Guinea-Bissau, Iraq (de jure), Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Mali, Niger, Tajikistan, Turkey, West Bank (State of Palestine), Indonesia, and in Northern Cyprus.", "In Albania and Turkey, there have been discussions about legalizing same-sex marriage.", "Albania, Northern Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo also protect LGBT people with anti-discrimination laws.In Lebanon, courts have ruled that the country's penal code must not be used to target homosexuals, but the law has yet to be changed by parliament.====Same-sex marriage====In 2007, there was a gay party in the Moroccan town of al-Qasr al-Kabir.", "Rumours spread that this was a gay marriage and more than 600 people took to the streets, condemning the alleged event and protesting against leniency towards homosexuals.", "Several persons who attended the party were detained and eventually six Moroccan men were sentenced to between four and ten months in prison for \"homosexuality\".In France, there was an Islamic same-sex marriage on 18 February 2012.In Paris in November 2012 a room in a Buddhist prayer hall was used by gay Muslims and called a \"gay-friendly mosque\", and a French Islamic website is supporting religious same-sex marriage.", "The French overseas department of Mayotte, which has a majority-Muslim population, legalized same-sex marriage in 2013, along with the rest of France.The first American Muslim in the United States Congress, Keith Ellison (D-MN) said in 2010 that all discrimination against LGBT people is wrong.", "He further expressed support for gay marriage stating:I believe that the right to marry someone who you please is so fundamental it should not be subject to popular approval any more than we should vote on whether blacks should be allowed to sit in the front of the bus.In 2014, eight men were jailed for three years by a Cairo court after the circulation of a video of them allegedly taking part in a private wedding ceremony between two men on a boat on the Nile.====Transgender====hijras'' and transgender people protest in Islamabad, Pakistan.In the late 1980s, Mufti Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy of Egypt issued a ''fatwa'' supporting the right for those who fit the description of ''mukhannathun'' and ''mukhannathin'' to have sex reassignment surgery; Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran issued similar ''fatwas'' around the same time.", "Khomeini's initial ''fatwa'' concerned intersex individuals as well, but he later specified that sex reassignment surgery was also permissible in the case of transgender individuals.", "Because homosexuality is illegal in Iran but gender transition is legal, some gay individuals have been forced to undergo sex reassignment surgery and transition into the opposite sex, regardless of their actual gender identity.While Iran has outlawed homosexuality, Iranian thinkers such as Ayatollah Khomeini have allowed for transgender people to change their sex so that they can enter heterosexual relationships.", "Iran is the only Muslim-majority country in the Persian Gulf region that allows transgender people to express themselves by recognizing their self-identified gender and subsidizing reassignment surgery.", "Despite this, those who do not commit to reassignment surgery are not accepted to be trans.The government even provides up to half the cost for those needing financial assistance and a sex change is recognized on the birth certificate.In Pakistan, transgender people make up 0.005 percent of the total population.", "Previously, transgender people were isolated from society and had no legal rights or protections.", "They also suffered discrimination in healthcare services.", "For example, in 2016 a transgender individual died in a hospital while doctors were trying to decide which ward the patient should be placed in.", "Transgender people also faced discrimination in finding employment resulting from incorrect identity cards and incongruous legal status.", "Many were forced into poverty, dancing, singing, and begging on the streets to scrape by.", "On 26 June 2016, clerics affiliated to the Pakistan-based organization Tanzeem Ittehad-i-Ummat issued a fatwa on transgender people where a trans woman (born male) with \"visible signs of being a woman\" is allowed to marry a man, and a trans man (born female) with \"visible signs of being a man\" is allowed to marry a woman.", "Pakistani transgender persons can also change their (legal) sex.", "Muslim ritual funerals also apply.", "Depriving transgender people of their inheritance, humiliating, insulting or teasing them were also declared haraam.", "In May 2018, the Pakistani parliament passed a bill giving transgender individuals the right to choose their legal sex and correct their official documents, such as ID cards, driver licenses, and passports.", "Today, transgender people in Pakistan have the right to vote and to search for a job free from discrimination.", "As of 2018, one transgender woman became a news anchor, and two others were appointed to the Supreme Court." ], [ "Public opinion among Muslims", "Islamic anti-LGBT protesters at an LGBT Pride march in Nottingham, EnglandThe Muslim community as a whole, worldwide, has become polarized on the subject of homosexuality.", "Some Muslims say that \"no good Muslim can be gay\", and \"traditional schools of Islamic law consider homosexuality a grave sin\".", "At the opposite pole, \"some Muslims .", ".", ".", "are welcoming what they see as an opening within their communities to address anti-gay attitudes.\"", "Especially, it is \"young Muslims\" who are \"increasingly speaking out in support of gay rights\".According to the Albert Kennedy Trust, one in four young homeless people identify as LGBT due to their religious parents disowning them.", "The Trust suggests that the majority of individuals who are homeless due to religious out casting are either Christian or Muslim.", "Many young adults who come out to their parents are often forced out of the house to find refuge in a more accepting place.", "This leads many individual to be homeless or even attempt suicide.===Opinion polls===In 2013, the Pew Research Center conducted a study on the global acceptance of homosexuality and found a widespread rejection of homosexuality in many nations that are predominantly Muslim.", "In some countries, views were becoming more conservative among younger people.+ Country 18–29 30–49 50+ Homosexualityshould be accepted % % % Turkey 9 7 10 Egypt 3 2 3 Jordan 5 1 1 Lebanon 27 17 10 Palestine 5 3 – Tunisia 3 2 1 Indonesia 4 2 3 Malaysia 7 10 11 Pakistan 2 2 2 Senegal 5 2 22019 Arab Barometer Survey: Country Acceptance of Homosexuality Algeria 26% Morocco 19% Sudan 17% Jordan 7% Tunisia 7% Lebanon 6% Palestine territories 5%* A 2007 survey of British Muslims showed that 61% believe homosexuality should be illegal.", "A later Gallup poll in 2009 showed that none of the 500 British Muslims polled believed homosexuality to be \"morally acceptable\".", "In a 2016 ICM poll of 1,081 British Muslims, 52% of those polled disagreed with the statement 'Homosexuality should be legal in Britain' while 18% agreed.", "In the same poll, 56% of British Muslims polled disagreed with the statement 'Gay marriage should be legal in Britain' compared with 20% of the control group and 47% disagreed with the statement 'It is acceptable for a homosexual person to be a teacher in a school' compared with 14% of the control group.", "* According to a 2012 poll, 51% of the Turks in Germany, who account for nearly two thirds of the total Muslim population in Germany, believed that homosexuality is an illness.", "However, a more recent poll from 2015 found that more than 60% of Muslims in Germany support gay marriage.", "A poll in 2017 also found 60% support for gay marriage.", "* American Muslims – in line with general public attitudes in the United States – have become much more accepting of homosexuality over recent years.", "In a 2007 poll conducted by Pew Research Center, only 27% of American Muslims believed that homosexuality should be accepted.", "In a 2011 poll, that rose to 39%.", "In a July 2017 poll, Muslims who say homosexuality should be accepted by society clearly outnumber those who say it should be discouraged (52% versus 33%), a level of acceptance similar to American Protestants (52% in 2016).", "According to research by the Public Religion Research Institute's 2017 American Values Atlas, 51% of American Muslims favor same-sex marriage, while 34% are opposed.", "* The 2009 Gallup poll showed that 35% of the French Muslims believed that homosexuality to be \"morally acceptable\".", "* A 2016 iVOX survey of Belgian Muslims found that 53% agreed with the statement: \"I have no issues with homosexuality.\"", "Approximately 30% disagreed with the statement while the rest refused to answer or were unsure.", "* A 2016 survey of Canadian Muslims showed that 36% agreed with the statement homosexuality should be accepted by society with 47% young Canadian Muslims (18–34) holding this belief.", "The survey also stated that 43% of Canadian Muslims agreed with the statement homosexuality should not be accepted by society.", "The Muslim groups that mostly opposed acceptance of homosexuality by society were the older age group 45 to 59 (55%) and the lowest income group <$30K (56%).", "* Turkey Muslims: According to the survey conducted by the Kadir Has University in Istanbul in 2016, 33 per cent of people said that LGBT people should have equal rights.", "This increased to 45 per cent in 2020.Another survey by Kadir Has University in 2018 found that 55.3 percent of people wouldn't want a homosexual neighbour.", "This decreased to 46.5 per cent in 2019.===Muslim leaders=======Sunni====* In 2017, the Egyptian cleric, Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi (who has served as chairman of the European Council for Fatwa and Research) was asked how gay people should be punished.", "He replied that \"there is disagreement,\" but \"the important thing is to treat this act as a crime.", "\"====Shia====* Iran's current Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has stated that \"There is no worst form of moral degeneration than homosexuality.", "...", "But it won't stop here.", "In the future, not sure exactly when, they will legalize incest and even worse.\"", "According to the conservative news website Khabaronline, Mohammad Javad Larijani, Khamenei's close adviser, stated \"In our society, homosexuality is regarded as an illness and malady,\" and that \"Promoting homosexuality is illegal and we have strong laws against it.\"", "He added, \"It homosexuality is considered as a norm in the West and they are forcing us to accept it.", "We are strongly against this.", "\"* Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani in Iraq has stated \"It is not permissible for a man to look at another man with lust; similarly, it is not permissible for a woman to look at another woman with lust.", "Homosexuality (Ash-shudhûdh al-jinsi) is harãm.", "Similarly, it is forbidden for a female to engage in a sexual act with another female, i.e.", "lesbianism.\"" ], [ "LGBT-related movements within Islam", "===LGBT acceptance===The coming together of \"human rights discourses and sexual orientation struggles\" has resulted in an abundance of \"social movements and organizations concerned with gender and sexual minority oppression and discrimination.\"", "Today, most LGBTQ-affirming Islamic organizations and individual congregations are primarily based in the Western world and South Asian countries; they usually identify themselves with the liberal and progressive movements within Islam.In France there was an Islamic same-sex marriage on February 18, 2012.In Paris in November 2012 a room in a Buddhist prayer hall was used by gay Muslims and called a \"gay-friendly mosque\", and a French Islamic website is supporting religious same-sex marriage.", "The Ibn Ruschd-Goethe mosque in Berlin is a liberal mosque open to all types of Muslims, where men and women pray together and LGBT worshippers are welcomed and supported.", "Other significant LGBT-inclusive mosques or prayer groups include the El-Tawhid Juma Circle Unity Mosque in Toronto, Masjid an-Nur al-Isslaah (Light of Reform Mosque) in Washington D.C., Masjid Al-Rabia in Chicago, Unity Mosque in Atlanta, People's Mosque in Cape Town South Africa, Masjid Ul-Umam mosque in Cape Town, Qal'bu Maryamin in California, and the Nur Ashki Jerrahi Sufi Community in New York City.Muslims for Progressive Values, based in the United States and Malaysia, is \"a faith-based, grassroots, human rights organization that embodies and advocates for the traditional Qur'anic values of social justice and equality for all, for the 21st Century.\"", "The Mecca Institute is an LGBT-inclusive and progressive online Islamic seminary, and serves as an online center of Islamic learning and research.====Defunct movements====Members of ''Al Fatiha'' at the LGBT Pride parade in San Francisco 2008.The Al-Fatiha Foundation was an organization which tried to advance the cause of gay, lesbian, and transgender Muslims.", "It was founded in 1998 by Faisal Alam, a Pakistani American, and was registered as a nonprofit organization in the United States.", "The organization was an offshoot of an internet listserve that brought together many gay, lesbian and questioning Muslims from various countries.====Active movements====* In November 2012, a prayer room was set up in Paris by gay Islamic scholar and founder of the group 'Homosexual Muslims of France' Ludovic-Mohamed Zahed.", "It was described by the press as the first gay-friendly mosque in Europe.", "The reaction from the rest of the Muslim community in France has been mixed.", "The opening has been condemned by the Grand Mosque of Paris.Pride London 2011.", "* In September 2019, a group of Muslims known as Imaan who identify and support LGBTQ+ members of Islam religion attempted to crowdfund £5,000 to host a festival for LGBTQ+ Muslims.", "Since homosexuality is against the law in some Middle Eastern countries, Imaan is taking a large stance against these laws and is attempting to change the way Middle Eastern countries look at LGBTQ+ individuals.", "Many LGBTQ+ Muslims are forced to choose between their sexuality and their religion, often forcing individuals to not express who they truly are.", "* The Ibn Ruschd-Goethe mosque in Berlin is a liberal mosque open to all types of Muslims, where men and women pray together and LGBT worshippers are welcomed and supported.", "* Nur Warsame has been an advocate for LGBTQ Muslims.", "He founded Marhaba, a support group for queer Muslims in Melbourne, Australia.", "In May 2016, Wahrsage revealed that he is homosexual in an interview on SBS2's The Feed, being the first openly gay Imam in Australia.", "* The Muslim Alliance for Sexual and Gender Diversity (MASGD) in the United States began on 23 January 2013.On 20 June 2016, an interview with Mirna Haidar (a member of the MASGD's steering committee) was published in The Washington Post.", "She described the MASGD as supporting \"LGBT Muslims who want or need to embrace both their sexual and religious identities.\"", "Haidar said that the support which the MASGD provides is needed because a person who is \"Muslim and queer \" faces \"two different systems of oppression\": Islamophobia and homophobia.", "* Muslims for Progressive Values, based in the United States and in Malaysia, is \"a faith-based, grassroots, human rights organization that embodies and advocates for the traditional Qur'anic values of social justice and equality for all, for the 21st Century.", "\"* The Safra Project for women is based in the UK.", "It supports and works on issues relating to prejudice LGBTQ Muslim women.", "It was founded in October 2001 by Muslim LBT women.", "The Safra Project's \"ethos is one of inclusiveness and diversity.", "\"El-Farouk Khaki, founding member of Salaam group and the Toronto Unity Mosque / el-Tawhid Juma Circle* Salaam is the first gay Muslim group in Canada and second in the world.", "Salaam was found in 1993 by El-Farouk Khaki, who organized the Salaam/Al-Fateha International Conference in 2003.", "* Sarajevo Open Centre (), abbreviated SOC, is an independent feminist civil society organization and advocacy group which campaigns for lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and intersex (LGBTI) people and women rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "The organization also gives asylum and psychological support to victims of discrimination and violence.", "* The ''Pink Report'' is an annual report made by the organization on the state of the Human Rights of LGBTI People in the country and is supported by the Norwegian Embassy.", "* In May 2009, the Toronto Unity Mosque / el-Tawhid Juma Circle was founded by Laury Silvers, a University of Toronto religious studies scholar, alongside Muslim gay-rights activists El-Farouk Khaki and Troy Jackson.", "Unity Mosque/ETJC is a gender-equal, LGBT+ affirming, mosque.", "The mosque offers aims to eliminate gender segregation by removing a dress code for women.", "While it was the only mosques of its kind when it first opened, more communities and mosques have become more accepting of LGBT members.", "El-Farouk Khaki has been quoted as saying “more and more groups, communities and mosques that celebrate and embrace inclusion and diversity are forming”.", "* Imam Daayiee Abdullah, one of America's first openly gay Imams, argues that the existing view towards homosexuality among Muslims is based on tradition, not an interpretation of scriptures.", "In 2011, Abdullah created an LGBTQ+ mosques, known as the Light of Reform Mosque, to provide members of the LGBTQ+ community with marriage ceremonies.", "Abdullah opened the Mecca Institute in an attempt to open at least 50 LGBTQ+ friendly mosques by 2030.===Anti-LGBT=======Ex-gay organizations====There are a number of Islamic ex-gay organizations, that is, those composed of people claiming to have experienced a basic change in sexual orientation from exclusive homosexuality to exclusive heterosexuality.", "These groups, like those based in socially conservative Christianity, are aimed at attempting to guide homosexuals towards heterosexuality.One of the leading LGBT reformatory Muslim organization is StraightWay Foundation, which was established in the United Kingdom in 2004 as an organization that provides information and advice for Muslims who struggle with homosexual attraction.", "They believe \"that through following God's guidance\", one may \"cease to be\" gay.", "They teach that the male-female pair is the \"basis for humanity's growth\" and that homosexual acts \"are forbidden by God\".", "NARTH has written favourably of the group.", "In 2004, Straightway entered into a controversy with the contemporary Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, and the controversial Islamic cleric Yusuf al-Qaradawi.", "It was suggested that Livingstone was giving a platform to Islamic fundamentalists, and not liberal and progressive Muslims.", "Straightway responded to this by sending Livingstone a letter thanking him for his support of al-Qaradawi.", "Livingstone then ignited controversy when he thanked Straightway for the letter.=== Action against LGBT people ===Several anti-LGBT incidents have occurred:* In 2012, in the English city of Derby, some Muslim men \"distributed .", ".", ".", "leaflets depicting gay men being executed in an attempt to encourage hatred against homosexuals.\"", "The leaflets had such titles as \"Turn or Burn\" and \"God abhors you\" and they advocated a death penalty for homosexuality.", "The men were \"convicted of hate crimes\" on 20 January 2012.One of the men said that he was doing his Muslim duty.", "* 31 December 2013 – New Year's Eve arson attack on gay nightclub in Seattle, packed with 300+ revelers, but no one injured.", "Subject charged prosecuted under federal terror and hate-crime charges.", "* 12 February 2016 – Across Europe, gay refugees facing abuse at migrant asylum shelters are forced to flee shelters.", "* 25 April 2016 – Xulhaz Mannan, an employee of the United States embassy in Dhaka and the editor of Bangladesh's first and only LGBT magazine, was killed in his apartment by a gang of Islamic militants.", "* 12 June 2016 – At least 49 people were killed and 50 injured in a mass shooting at Pulse gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida, in the second deadliest mass shooting by an individual and the deadliest incident of violence against LGBT people in U.S. history.", "The shooter, Omar Mateen, pledged allegiance to ISIL.", "The act has been described by investigators as an Islamic terrorist attack and a hate crime.", "Upon further review, investigators indicated Omar Mateen showed few signs of radicalization, suggesting that the shooter's pledge to ISIL may have been a calculated move to garner more news coverage.", "Muslim American and their community leaders swiftly condemned the attack, and prayer vigils for the victims were held at mosques across the country.", "The Florida mosque where Mateen sometimes prayed issued a statement condemning the attack and offering condolences to the victims.", "The Council on American–Islamic Relations called the attack \"monstrous\" and offered its condolences to the victims.", "CAIR Florida urged Muslims to donate blood and contribute funds in support of the victims' families.", "* During March 2019, British Muslim parents began protesting Parkfield Community School, a town where more than a third of the children are Muslim, due to the school's implementation of a “No Outsiders” sex-education program.", "The aim of this program was to provide students with lessons on same-sex relationships.", "The protest led to the school backing down by no longer following through with the “No Outsider” program.", "Regardless of this, the school's minister emphasized that the school tries to express equality." ], [ "Muslim LGBT rights activists", "Gay Muslim activists of the Al-Fatiha Foundation holding the flag of Turkey at the San Francisco Pride (2008)There are numbers of Muslim LGBT activists from different parts of the world.", "Some of them are listed below:* Nemat Sadat, Afghan-American journalist, novelist, human rights and LGBTQIA+ rights activist, former professor of political science at the American University of Afghanistan.", "* Afdhere Jama, Somali-American Queer Muslim editor of ''Huriyah''.", "* El-Farouk Khaki, Tanzanian-born Canadian lawyer and founder of Salaam, the first homosexual Muslim group in Canada.", "* Faisal Alam, Pakistani-American founder of Al-Fatiha Foundation.", "* Irshad Manji, Canadian lesbian and human rights activist of Egyptian descent.", "* Maryam Hatoon Molkara, Iranian campaigner for transsexual rights in Iran.", "* Parvez Sharma, Indian-American filmmaker and LGBT rights activist.", "* Ahmad Zahra, first openly LGBTI Muslim elected to public office in the United States.", "* Daayiee Abdullah, African-American gay imam from the United States.", "* Ludovic-Mohamed Zahed, Algerian-French gay imam from Algeria.", "* Amal Aden, Somali-Norwegian author, lecturer, and lesbian rights activist.", "* Waheed Alli, Baron Alli, British media entrepreneur and a member of the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, sitting as a life peer for the Labour Party.", "* Sumaya Dalmar, also known as Sumaya YSL, is a Somali-Canadian transgender activist and model.", "* Blair Imani, African-American gay rights activist.", "* Florina Kaja, American reality television personality, singer, actress, and activist.", "* Saleem Kidwai, medieval historian, gay rights activist, and translator.", "* Tynan Power, progressive Muslim faith leader, writer/editor, communications specialist, activist, and educator.", "* Ahmad Danny Ramadan, Syrian-Canadian novelist, public speaker, columnist, and gay refugee activist.", "* Omar Sharif Jr., Egyptian-Canadian actor, model, and gay rights activist.", "* Hamed Sinno, Lebanese singer, songwriter, and musician.", "* Samra Habib, Queer Muslim photographer.", "* Sarah Hegazi, Egyptian socialist and lesbian rights activist." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Books=======''Islam and Homosexuality''====In 2010, an anthology ''Islam and Homosexuality'' was published.", "In the Forward, Parvez Sharma sounded a pessimistic note about the future: \"In my lifetime I do not see Islam drafting a uniform edict that homosexuality is permissible.\"", "Following is material from two chapters dealing with the present:Rusmir Musić in a chapter \"Queer Visions of Islam\" said that \"Queer Muslims struggle daily to reconcile their sexuality and their faith.\"", "Musić began to study in college \"whether or not my love for somebody of the same gender disgusts God and whether it will propel me to hell.", "The answer, for me, is an unequivocal ''no''.", "Furthermore, Musić wrote, \"my research and reflection helped me to imagine my sexuality as a gift from a loving, not hateful, God.", "\"Marhuq Fatima Khan in a chapter \"Queer, American, and Muslim: Cultivating Identities and Communities of Affirmation,\" says that \"Queer Muslims employ a few narratives to enable them to reconcile their religious and sexual identities.\"", "They \"fall into three broad categories: (1) God Is Merciful; (2) That Is Just Who I Am; and (3) It's Not Just Islam.", "\"====''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism''====In his 2003 book ''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism'', Professor Scott Siraj al-Haqq Kugle asserts \"that Islam does not address homosexuality.\"", "In Kugle's reading, the Quran holds \"a positive assessment of diversity.\"", "It \"respects diversity in physical appearance, constitution, stature, and color of human beings as a natural consequence of Divine wisdom in creation.\"", "Therefore, Islam can be described as \"a religion that positively assesses diversity in creation and in human societies.\"", "Furthermore, in Kugle's reading, the Quran \"implies that some people are different in their sexual desires than others.\"", "Thus, homosexuality can be seen as part of the \"natural diversity in sexuality in human societies.\"", "This is the way \"gay and lesbian Muslims\" view their homosexuality.In addition to the Qur'an, Kugle refers to the benediction of Imam Al-Ghazali (the 11th-century Muslim theologian) which says \"praise be to God, the marvels of whose creation are not subject to the arrows of accident.\"", "For Kugle, this benediction implies that \"if sexuality is inherent in a person's personality, then sexual diversity is a part of creation, which is never accidental but is always marvelous.\"", "Kugle also refers to \"a rich archive of same-sex sexual desires and expressions, written by or reported about respected members of society: literati, educated elites, and religious scholars.\"", "Given these writings, Kugle concludes that \"one might consider Islamic societies (like classical Greece) to provide a vivid illustration of a 'homosexual-friendly' environment.\"", "This evoked from \"medieval and early modern Christian Europeans\" accusations that Muslim were \"engaging openly in same-sex practices.", "\"Kugle goes a step further in his argument and asserts that \"if some Muslims find it necessary to deny that sexual diversity is part of the natural created world, then the burden of proof rests on their shoulders to illustrate their denial from the Qur'anic discourse itself.", "\"====''Sexual Ethics and Islam''====Kecia Ali in her 2016 book ''Sexual Ethics and Islam'' says that \"there is no one Muslim perspective on anything.\"", "Regarding the Quran, Ali says that modern scholars disagree about what it says about \"same-sex intimacy.\"", "Some scholars argue that \"the Qur'an does not address homosexuality or homosexuals explicitly.", "\"Regarding homosexuality, Ali says the belief that \"exclusively homosexual desire is innate in some individuals\" has been adopted \"even among some relatively conservative Western Muslim thinkers.\"", "100 Homosexual Muslims believe their homosexuality to be innate and view \"their sexual orientation as God-given and immutable.\"", "She observes that \"queer and trans people are sometimes treated as defective or deviant,\" and adds that it is \"vital not to assume that variation implies imperfection or disability.", "\"Regarding \"medieval Muslim culture,\" Ali says that \"male desire to penetrate desirable youth ... was perfectly normal.\"", "Even if same-sex relations were not lawful, there was \"an unwillingness to seek out and condemn instances of same-sex activity, but rather to let them pass by ...", "unpunished.\"", "Ali states that some scholars claim that Islamic societies were 'homosexual-friendly' in history.In her article \"Same-sex Sexual Activity and Lesbian and Bisexual Women\", Ali elaborates on homosexuality as an aspect of medieval Muslim culture.", "She says that \"same-sex sexual expression has been a more or less recognized aspect of Muslim societies for many centuries.\"", "There are many explicit discussions of \"same-sex sexual activity\" in medieval Arabic literature.", "Ali states there is a lack of focus in medieval tradition on female same-sex sexual activity, where the Qur'an mainly focuses male/male sex.", "With female same-sex sexual activity there is more focus on the punishment for the acts and the complications with the dower, compared to men where there is a focus on punishment but also the need for ablutions and the effect of the act on possible marriage decisions.====Miscellaneous====* ''Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature'' (1997) — essay collection* In February 2019, the government of Indonesia – a country with a majority Muslim population – threatened to ban Instagram due to an account that was posting “Gay Muslim” comics.", "@Alpantuni was a profile that posted comics that tackled gay-identity and religious bigotry to connect with members of the LGBT community.", "Although Instagram refused to remove the account as it would violate its own terms and conditions, the account is currently unavailable.===Films and media===* In 2007, the documentary film ''A Jihad for Love'' was released.", "It was produced by Sandi Simcha DuBowski and directed by Parvez Sharma.", "As of 2016 the film has been shown in 49 nations to four million plus viewers.", "* ''Out in the Dark'' is a 2012 film about the gay love story of a Palestinian Muslim and an Israeli Jew.", "* ''Breaking Fast'' is a love story between Mo, a gay Muslim doctor in Los Angeles and Kal who get to know each other over nightly iftars.", "* In 2015, the documentary film ''A Sinner in Mecca'' was released.", "It was directed by Parvez Sharma.", "The film chronicles Sharma's Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia as an openly gay Muslim.", "The film premiered at the 2015 Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival to great critical acclaim.", "The film opened in theaters in the US on 4 September 2015 and is a New York Times Critics' Pick.", "* In 2015's ''How Gay is Pakistan?''", "Mawaan Rizwan traveled to Pakistan, his country of birth, to film a documentary which explored the issues faced by other LGBTQ Muslims living under Islamic law that deems homosexuality illegal.", "The documentary was televised internationally, including on ABC2 in Australia, CBC in Canada and in various markets via Amazon Prime Video.", "* In 2016, Vice News released a short documentary ''Blackout: Being LGBT in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan'' in which they showed different members of the LGBT community in Lahore.", "Young men who are sex workers were shown in the video and they explained the difficulties of being gay in Pakistan.", "The documentary also focused on some underground organisations that work for basic human rights for the LGBT community.", "In the film, there is a short clip shown of a young boy getting beaten up and is later sodomised with a tree branch after he was caught in homosexual acts by conservative religious society members.", "It also displayed how gay and transgender people use social media apps like Tinder to get in contact with other people of the community.", "However, this documentary, made in collaboration with Google's technology incubator Jigsaw, has been criticised by some for its sensational approach and blatantly showcasing Google's agenda of juxtaposing empowerment through digital technologies such as Tinder and the collective backwardness and oppression as shown through the blurred video of the young boy being beaten.", "* Gay Muslims is a six-part documentary on Channel 4 about the LGBT among Muslims, broadcast in the UK in January.", "* The Muslim Debate Initiative (MDI) is made up of Muslims \"with experience in public speaking, apologetics, polemics, research and community work.\"", "One of its aims is \"to support, encourage and promote debate that contrasts Islam against other intellectual and political discourses for the purpose of the pursuit of truth, intellectual scrutiny with respect, and the clarifying accurate understandings of other worldviews between people of different cultures, beliefs and political persuasions.", "\"===Terminology===* Bacha bazi — Afghan slang term (lit.", "\"boy play\")* Hijra – South Asian transgender society* Khanith – A term for Arab \"effeminate\" men* Khawal – Egyptian cross-dressed male dancers (often used as an anti-gay slur)" ], [ "See also", "* Gender roles in Islam* Islam and gender segregation* Islamic sexual jurisprudence* LGBT in the Middle East* LGBT in the Ottoman Empire* Inclusive Mosque Initiative" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * Georg Klauda: ''Die Vertreibung aus dem Serail.", "Europa und die Heteronormierung der islamischen Welt.''", "Männerschwarm Verlag, Hamburg 2008, .", "See pages at Google Books.", "* * * * * Duran, Khalid.", "''Homosexuality in Islam'', in: Swidler, Anne (ed.)", "\"''Homosexuality and World Religions''\" (1993).", "Trinity Press International, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.", "* Kilgerman, Nicole (2007).", "''Homosexuality in Islam: A Difficult Paradox''.", "Macalester Islam Journal 2(3):52–64, Berkeley Electronic press.", "* Khaled El-Rouayheb, ''Before Homosexuality in the Arab–Islamic World, 1500–1800'' Chicago, 2009..* Luongo, Michael (ed.", "), ''Gay Travels in the Muslim World'' Haworth Press, 2007..* * Everett K. Rowson, J.W.", "Wright (eds.", "), ''Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature'' New York, 1997* Arno Schmitt and Jehoeda Sofer (eds.", "), ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies'' Harrington Park Press 1992* Arno Schmitt and Gianni de Martino, ''Kleine Schriften zu zwischenmännlicher Sexualität und Erotik in der muslimischen Gesellschaft'', Berlin, Gustav-Müller-Str.", "10 : A. Schmitt, 1985* * Wafer, Jim (1997) \"Muhammad and Male Homosexuality\" in \"Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature\" by Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.", "), NYU Press New York* Wafer, Jim (1997) \"The Symbolism of Male Love in Islamic Mysthical Literature\" in \"Islamic Homosexualities: culture, history, and literature\" by Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe (eds.", "), NYU Press New York 1997* Vincenzo Patanè, \"Homosexuality in the Middle East and North Africa\" in: Aldrich, Robert (ed.)", "''Gay Life and Culture: A World History'', Thames & Hudson, London, 2006* Pellat, Charles.", "\"Liwat\".", "''Encyclopedia of Islam''.", "New edition.", "Vol.", "5.Leiden: Brill, 1986.pp. 776–79.", "* Richard C. Martin (ed.", "), ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (Macmillan Reference USA, 2003)* The Huffington Post has eighteen article about LGBT Muslims at LGBT Muslims Articles * Cambridge Journal, Queer History: a tour of gender and identity through time and culture " ], [ "External links", " LGBTQI Lecture Series – Muslims for Progressive Values lecture series on homophobia in Muslim communities* BBC3 'Free Speech' 'Can you be Gay and Muslim?'", "Maajid Nawaz vs Abdullah al Andalusi – BBC3's \"Gay and Muslim\" debate between Maajid Nawaz and Abdullah al Andalusi* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Infanticide" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Infanticide''' (or '''infant homicide''') is the intentional killing of infants or offspring.", "Infanticide was a widespread practice throughout human history that was mainly used to dispose of unwanted children, its main purpose being the prevention of resources being spent on weak or disabled offspring.", "Unwanted infants were usually abandoned to die of exposure, but in some societies they were deliberately killed.", "Infanticide is broadly illegal, but in some places the practice is tolerated, or the prohibition is not strictly enforced.Most Stone Age human societies routinely practiced infanticide, and estimates of children killed by infanticide in the Mesolithic and Neolithic eras vary from 15 to 50 percent.", "Infanticide continued to be common in most societies after the historical era began, including ancient Greece, ancient Rome, the Phoenicians, ancient China, ancient Japan, Pre-Islamic Arabia, Aboriginal Australia, Native Americans, and Native Alaskans.Infanticide became forbidden in Europe and the Near East during the 1st millennium.", "Christianity forbade infanticide from its earliest times, which led Constantine the Great and Valentinian I to ban infanticide across the Roman Empire in the 4th century.", "Yet, infanticide was not unacceptable in some wars, and infanticide in Europe reached its peak during World War II (1939–45), during the Holocaust and the T4 Program.", "The practice ceased in Arabia in the 7th century after the founding of Islam, since the Quran prohibits infanticide.", "Infanticide of male babies had become uncommon in China by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), whereas infanticide of female babies became more common during the One-Child Policy era (1979–2015).", "During the period of Company rule in India, the East India Company attempted to eliminate infanticide but were only partially successful, and female infanticide in some parts of India still continues.", "Infanticide is very rare in industrialised countries but may persist elsewhere.Parental infanticide researchers have found that mothers are more likely to commit infanticide.", "In the special case of neonaticide (murder in the first 24 hours of life), mothers account for almost all the perpetrators.", "Fatherly cases of neonaticide are so rare that they are individually recorded." ], [ "History", "''Infanticidio'' by Mexican artist Antonio García VegaThe practice of infanticide has taken many forms over time.", "Child sacrifice to supernatural figures or forces, such as that believed to have been practiced in ancient Carthage, may be only the most notorious example in the ancient world.A frequent method of infanticide in ancient Europe and Asia was simply to abandon the infant, leaving it to die by exposure (i.e., hypothermia, hunger, thirst, or animal attack).On at least one island in Oceania, infanticide was carried out until the 20th century by suffocating the infant, while in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and in the Inca Empire it was carried out by sacrifice (see below).===Paleolithic and Neolithic===Many Neolithic groups routinely resorted to infanticide in order to control their numbers so that their lands could support them.", "Joseph Birdsell believed that infanticide rates in prehistoric times were between 15% and 50% of the total number of births, while Laila Williamson estimated a lower rate ranging from 15% to 20%.", "Both anthropologists believed that these high rates of infanticide persisted until the development of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution.", "A book published in 1981 stated that comparative anthropologists estimated that 50% of female newborn babies may have been killed by their parents during the Paleolithic era.", "The anthropologist Raymond Dart has interpreted fractures on the skulls of hominid infants (e.g.", "the Taung Child) as due to deliberate killing followed by cannibalism, but such explanations are by now considered uncertain and possibly wrong.", "Children were not necessarily actively killed, but neglect and intentional malnourishment may also have occurred, as proposed by Vicente Lull as an explanation for an apparent surplus of men and the below average height of women in prehistoric Menorca.===In ancient history=======In the New World====Archaeologists have uncovered physical evidence of child sacrifice at several locations.", "Some of the best attested examples are the diverse rites which were part of the religious practices in Mesoamerica and the Inca Empire.====In the Old World====Three thousand bones of young children, with evidence of sacrificial rituals, have been found in Sardinia.", "Pelasgians offered a sacrifice of every tenth child during difficult times.", "Many remains of children have been found in Gezer excavations with signs of sacrifice.", "Child skeletons with the marks of sacrifice have been found also in Egypt dating 950–720 BCE.", "In Carthage \"child sacrifice in the ancient world reached its infamous zenith\".", "Besides the Carthaginians, other Phoenicians, and the Canaanites, Moabites and Sepharvites offered their first-born as a sacrifice to their gods.=====Ancient Egypt=====In Egyptian households, at all social levels, children of both sexes were valued and there is no evidence of infanticide.", "The religion of the ancient Egyptians forbade infanticide and during the Greco-Roman period they rescued abandoned babies from manure heaps, a common method of infanticide by Greeks or Romans, and were allowed to either adopt them as foundling or raise them as slaves, often giving them names such as \"copro -\" to memorialize their rescue.", "Strabo considered it a peculiarity of the Egyptians that every child must be reared.", "Diodorus indicates infanticide was a punishable offence.", "Egypt was heavily dependent on the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate the land and in years of low inundation, severe famine could occur with breakdowns in social order resulting, notably between and .", "Instances of cannibalism are recorded during these periods, but it is unknown if this happened during the pharaonic era of ancient Egypt.", "Beatrix Midant-Reynes describes human sacrifice as having occurred at Abydos in the early dynastic period ( ), while Jan Assmann asserts there is no clear evidence of human sacrifice ever happening in ancient Egypt.=====Carthage=====According to Shelby Brown, Carthaginians, descendants of the Phoenicians, sacrificed infants to their gods.", "Charred bones of hundreds of infants have been found in Carthaginian archaeological sites.", "One such area harbored as many as 20,000 burial urns.", "Skeptics suggest that the bodies of children found in Carthaginian and Phoenician cemeteries were merely the cremated remains of children who died naturally.Plutarch ( ) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius, Diodorus Siculus and Philo.", "The Hebrew Bible also mentions what appears to be child sacrifice practiced at a place called the Tophet (from the Hebrew ''taph'' or ''toph'', to burn) by the Canaanites.", "Writing in the , Kleitarchos, one of the historians of Alexander the Great, described that the infants rolled into the flaming pit.", "Diodorus Siculus wrote that babies were roasted to death inside the burning pit of the god Baal Hamon, a bronze statue.=====Greece and Rome=====Medea killing her sons, by Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix (1862)The historical Greeks considered the practice of adult and child sacrifice barbarous, however, infant exposure was widely practiced in ancient Greece.", "It was advocated by Aristotle in the case of congenital deformity: \"As to the exposure of children, let there be a law that no deformed child shall live.\"", "In Greece, the decision to expose a child was typically the father's, although in Sparta the decision was made by a group of elders.", "Exposure was the preferred method of disposal, as that act in itself was not considered to be murder; moreover, the exposed child technically had a chance of being rescued by the gods or any passersby.", "This very situation was a recurring motif in Greek mythology.To notify the neighbors of a birth of a child, a woolen strip was hung over the front door to indicate a female baby and an olive branch to indicate a boy had been born.", "Families did not always keep their new child.", "After a woman had a baby, she would show it to her husband.", "If the husband accepted it, it would live, but if he refused it, it would die.", "Babies would often be rejected if they were illegitimate, unhealthy or deformed, the wrong sex, or too great a burden on the family.", "These babies would not be directly killed, but put in a clay pot or jar and deserted outside the front door or on the roadway.", "In ancient Greek religion, this practice took the responsibility away from the parents because the child would die of natural causes, for example, hunger, asphyxiation or exposure to the elements.The practice was prevalent in ancient Rome, as well.", "Philo was the first known philosopher to speak out against it.", "A letter from a Roman citizen to his sister, or a pregnant wife from her husband, dating from , demonstrates the casual nature with which infanticide was often viewed::\"I am still in Alexandria.", "...", "I beg and plead with you to take care of our little child, and as soon as we receive wages, I will send them to you.", "In the meantime, if (good fortune to you!)", "you give birth, if it is a boy, let it live; if it is a girl, expose it.", "\", ''\"If you give birth to a boy, keep it.", "If it is a girl, expose it.", "Try not to worry.", "I'll send the money as soon as we get paid.", "\"''Massacre of the Innocents by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld, 1860In some periods of Roman history it was traditional for a newborn to be brought to the ''pater familias'', the family patriarch, who would then decide whether the child was to be kept and raised, or left to die by exposure.", "The Twelve Tables of Roman law obliged him to put to death a child that was visibly deformed.", "The concurrent practices of slavery and infanticide contributed to the \"background noise\" of the crises during the Republic.Infanticide became a capital offense in Roman law in 374, but offenders were rarely if ever prosecuted.According to mythology, Romulus and Remus, twin infant sons of the war god Mars, survived near-infanticide after being tossed into the Tiber River.", "According to the myth, they were raised by wolves, and later founded the city of Rome.=====Middle Ages=====Whereas theologians and clerics preached sparing their lives, newborn abandonment continued as registered in both the literature record and in legal documents.", "According to William Lecky, exposure in the early Middle Ages, as distinct from other forms of infanticide, \"was practiced on a gigantic scale with absolute impunity, noticed by writers with most frigid indifference and, at least in the case of destitute parents, considered a very venial offence\".", "However the first foundling house in Europe was established in Milan in 787 on account of the high number of infanticides and out-of-wedlock births.", "The Hospital of the Holy Spirit in Rome was founded by Pope Innocent III because women were throwing their infants into the Tiber river.Unlike other European regions, in the Middle Ages the German mother had the right to expose the newborn.In the High Middle Ages, abandoning unwanted children finally eclipsed infanticide.", "Unwanted children were left at the door of church or abbey, and the clergy was assumed to take care of their upbringing.", "This practice also gave rise to the first orphanages.However, very high sex ratios were common in even late medieval Europe, which may indicate sex-selective infanticide.", "The Waldensians, a pre-Reformation medieval Christian sect deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, were accused of participating in infanticide.=====Judaism=====In this depiction of the Binding of Isaac by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld, 1860, Abraham is shown not sacrificing Isaac.Judaism prohibits infanticide, and has for some time, dating back to at least early Common Era.", "Roman historians wrote about the ideas and customs of other peoples, which often diverged from their own.", "Tacitus recorded that the Jews \"take thought to increase their numbers, for they regard it as a crime to kill any late-born children\".", "Josephus, whose works give an important insight into 1st-century Judaism, wrote that God \"forbids women to cause abortion of what is begotten, or to destroy it afterward\".=====Pagan European tribes=====In his book ''Germania'', Tacitus wrote in that the ancient Germanic tribes enforced a similar prohibition.", "He found such mores remarkable and commented: \"To restrain generation and the increase of children, is esteemed by the Germans an abominable sin, as also to kill infants newly born.\"", "It has become clear over the millennia, though, that Tacitus' description was inaccurate; the consensus of modern scholarship significantly differs.", "John Boswell believed that in ancient Germanic tribes unwanted children were exposed, usually in the forest.", "\"It was the custom of the Teutonic pagans, that if they wanted to kill a son or daughter, they would be killed before they had been given any food.\"", "Usually children born out of wedlock were disposed of that way.In his highly influential ''Pre-historic Times'', John Lubbock described burnt bones indicating the practice of child sacrifice in pagan Britain.The last canto, ''Marjatan poika'' (Son of Marjatta), of Finnish national epic ''Kalevala'' describes assumed infanticide.", "Väinämöinen orders the infant bastard son of Marjatta to be drowned in a marsh.The ''Íslendingabók'', the main source for the early history of Iceland, recounts that on the Conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 1000 it was provided – in order to make the transition more palatable to Pagans – that \"the old laws allowing exposure of newborn children will remain in force\".However, this provision – among other concessions made at the time to the Pagans – was abolished some years later.===Christianity===Christianity explicitly rejects infanticide.", "The ''Teachings of the Apostles'' or ''Didache'' said \"thou shalt not kill a child by abortion, neither shalt thou slay it when born\".", "The ''Epistle of Barnabas'' stated an identical command, both thus conflating abortion and infanticide.", "Apologists Tertullian, Athenagoras, Minucius Felix, Justin Martyr and Lactantius also maintained that exposing a baby to death was a wicked act.", "In 318, Constantine I considered infanticide a crime, and in 374, Valentinian I mandated the rearing of all children (exposing babies, especially girls, was still common).", "The Council of Constantinople declared that infanticide was homicide, and in 589, the Third Council of Toledo took measures against the custom of killing their own children.===Arabia===Some Muslim sources allege that pre-Islamic Arabian society practiced infanticide as a form of \"post-partum birth control\".", "The word ''waʾd'' was used to describe the practice.", "These sources state that infanticide was practiced either out of destitution (thus practiced on males and females alike), or as \"disappointment and fear of social disgrace felt by a father upon the birth of a daughter\".Some authors believe that there is little evidence that infanticide was prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia or early Muslim history, except for the case of the Tamim tribe, who practiced it during severe famine according to Islamic sources.", "Others state that \"female infanticide was common all over Arabia during this period of time\" (pre-Islamic Arabia), especially by burying alive a female newborn.", "A tablet discovered in Yemen, forbidding the people of a certain town from engaging in the practice, is the only written reference to infanticide within the peninsula in pre-Islamic times.===Islam===Infanticide is explicitly prohibited by the Qur'an.", "\"And do not kill your children for fear of poverty; We give them sustenance and yourselves too; surely to kill them is a great wrong.", "\"Together with polytheism and homicide, infanticide is regarded as a grave sin (see and ).", "Infanticide is also implicitly denounced in the story of Pharaoh's slaughter of the male children of Israelites (see ; ; ; ; ; ).===Ukraine and Russia===abandonnant ses enfants à des loups'' (\"Russian Woman Abandoning Her Children to the Wolves\").", ", 1845Infanticide may have been practiced as human sacrifice, as part of the pagan cult of Perun.", "Ibn Fadlan describes sacrificial practices at the time of his trip to Kiev Rus (present-day Ukraine) in 921–922, and describes an incident of a woman voluntarily sacrificing her life as part of a funeral rite for a prominent leader, but makes no mention of infanticide.", "The Primary Chronicle, one of the most important literary sources before the 12th century, indicates that human sacrifice to idols may have been introduced by Vladimir the Great in 980.The same Vladimir the Great formally converted Kiev Rus into Christianity just 8 years later, but pagan cults continued to be practiced clandestinely in remote areas as late as the 13th century.American explorer George Kennan noted that among the Koryaks, a people of north-eastern Siberia, infanticide was still common in the nineteenth century.", "One of a pair of twins was always sacrificed.=== Great Britain ===Infanticide (as a crime) gained both popular and bureaucratic significance in Victorian Britain.", "By the mid-19th century, in the context of criminal lunacy and the insanity defence, killing one's own child(ren) attracted ferocious debate, as the role of women in society was defined by motherhood, and it was thought that any woman who murdered her own child was by definition insane and could not be held responsible for her actions.", "Several cases were subsequently highlighted during the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment 1864–66, as a particular felony where an effective avoidance of the death penalty had informally begun.Baby killer Amelia Dyer (pictured upon entry to Wells Asylum in 1893).", "Her trial led to stricter laws for adoption and raised the profile of the fledgling National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) which formed in 1884.The New Poor Law Act of 1834 ended parish relief for unmarried mothers and allowed fathers of illegitimate children to avoid paying for \"child support\".", "Unmarried mothers then received little assistance, and the poor were left with the option of either entering the workhouse, turning to prostitution, resorting to infanticide, or choosing abortion.", "By the middle of the century infanticide was common for social reasons, such as illegitimacy, and the introduction of child life insurance additionally encouraged some women to kill their children for gain.", "Examples include Mary Ann Cotton, who murdered many of her 15 children as well as three husbands; Margaret Waters, the 'Brixton Baby Farmer', a professional baby-farmer who was found guilty of infanticide in 1870; Jessie King, who was hanged in 1889; Amelia Dyer, the 'Angel Maker', who murdered over 400 babies in her care; and Ada Chard-Williams, a baby farmer who was later hanged at Newgate prison.", "''The Times'' reported that 67 infants were murdered in London in 1861 and 150 more recorded as \"found dead\", many of which were found on the streets.", "Another 250 were suffocated, half of them not recorded as accidental deaths.", "The report noted that \"infancy in London has to creep into life in the midst of foes.", "\"Recording a birth as a still-birth was also another way of concealing infanticide because still-births did not need to be registered until 1926 and they did not need to be buried in public cemeteries.", "In 1895 ''The Sun'' (London) published the article, \"Massacre of the Innocents\", highlighting the dangers of baby-farming, the recording of stillbirths, and quoting Athelstan Braxton Hicks, the London coroner, on lying-in houses: The last British woman to be executed for infanticide of her own child was Rebecca Smith, who was hanged in Wiltshire in 1849.The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 required local authorities to be notified within 48 hours of changes in custody or the death of children under seven years.", "Under the Children's Act of 1908 \"no infant could be kept in a home that was so unfit and so overcrowded as to endanger its health, and no infant could be kept by an unfit nurse who threatened, by neglect or abuse, its proper care, and maintenance.", "\"===Asia=======China====Burying Babies in China (p. 40, March 1865, XXII)As of the 3rd century BC, short of execution, the harshest penalties were imposed on practitioners of infanticide by the legal codes of the Qin dynasty and Han dynasty of ancient China.China's society practiced sex selective infanticide.", "Philosopher Han Fei Tzu, a member of the ruling aristocracy of the , who developed a school of law, wrote: \"As to children, a father and mother when they produce a boy congratulate one another, but when they produce a girl they put it to death.\"", "Among the Hakka people, and in Yunnan, Anhui, Sichuan, Jiangxi and Fujian a method of killing the baby was to put her into a bucket of cold water, which was called \"baby water\".Infanticide was reported as early as the , and, by the time of the Song dynasty (), it was widespread in some provinces.", "Belief in transmigration allowed poor residents of the country to kill their newborn children if they felt unable to care for them, hoping that they would be reborn in better circumstances.", "Furthermore, some Chinese did not consider newborn children fully \"human\" and saw \"life\" beginning at some point after the sixth month after birth.The Venetian explorer Marco Polo claimed to have seen newborns exposed in Manzi.", "Contemporary writers from the Song dynasty note that, in Hubei and Fujian provinces, residents would only keep three sons and two daughters (among poor farmers, two sons, and one daughter), and kill all babies beyond that number at birth.", "Initially the sex of the child was only one factor to consider.", "By the time of the Ming Dynasty, however (1368–1644), male infanticide was becoming increasingly uncommon.", "The prevalence of female infanticide remained high much longer.", "The magnitude of this practice is subject to some dispute; however, one commonly quoted estimate is that, by late Qing, between one fifth and one-quarter of all newborn girls, across the entire social spectrum, were victims of infanticide.", "If one includes excess mortality among female children under 10 (ascribed to gender-differential neglect), the share of victims rises to one third.Scottish physician John Dudgeon, who worked in Peking, China, during the early 20th century said that, \"Infanticide does not prevail to the extent so generally believed among us, and in the north, it does not exist at all.", "\"Sex ratio at birth in mainland China, males per 100 females, 1980–2010Gender-selected abortion or sex identification (without medical uses), abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in present-day Mainland China.", "Nevertheless, the US State Department, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that Mainland China's family planning programs, called the one child policy (which has since changed to a two-child policy), contribute to infanticide.", "The sex gap between males and females aged 0–19 years old was estimated to be 25 million in 2010 by the United Nations Population Fund.", "But in some cases, in order to avoid Mainland China's family planning programs, parents will not report to government when a child is born (in most cases a girl), so she or he will not have an identity in the government and they can keep on giving birth until they are satisfied, without fines or punishment.", "In 2017, the government announced that all children without an identity can now have an identity legally, known as family register.====Japan====Since feudal Edo era Japan the common slang for infanticide was ''mabiki'' (間引き), which means to pull plants from an overcrowded garden.", "A typical method in Japan was smothering the baby's mouth and nose with wet paper.", "It became common as a method of population control.", "Farmers would often kill their second or third sons.", "Daughters were usually spared, as they could be married off, sold off as servants or prostitutes, or sent off to become geishas.", "''Mabiki'' persisted in the 19th century and early 20th century.", "To bear twins was perceived as barbarous and unlucky and efforts were made to hide or kill one or both twins.====South Asia====Hindu Woman carrying her child to be drowned in the River Ganges at Bengal (1852)Hindoo Mother Sacrificing her infant (November 1853, X, p. 120)Female infanticide of newborn girls was systematic in feudatory Rajputs in South Asia for illegitimate female children during the Middle Ages.", "According to Firishta, as soon as the illegitimate female child was born she was held \"in one hand, and a knife in the other, that any person who wanted a wife might take her now, otherwise she was immediately put to death\".", "The practice of female infanticide was also common among the Kutch, Kehtri, Nagar, Bengal, Miazed, Kalowries and Sindh communities.It was not uncommon that parents threw a child to the sharks in the Ganges River as a sacrificial offering.", "The East India Company administration were unable to outlaw the custom until the beginning of the 19th century.According to social activists, female infanticide has remained a problem in India into the 21st century, with both NGOs and the government conducting awareness campaigns to combat it.===Africa===In some African societies some neonates were killed because of beliefs in evil omens or because they were considered unlucky.", "Twins were usually put to death in Arebo; as well as by the Nama people of South West Africa; in the Lake Victoria Nyanza region; by the Tswana in Portuguese East Africa; in some parts of Igboland, Nigeria twins were sometimes abandoned in a forest at birth (as depicted in ''Things Fall Apart''), oftentimes one twin was killed or hidden by midwives of wealthier mothers; and by the ǃKung people of the Kalahari Desert.", "The Kikuyu, Kenya's most populous ethnic group, practiced ritual killing of twins.Infanticide is rooted in the old traditions and beliefs prevailing all over the country.", "A survey conducted by Disability Rights International found that 45% of women interviewed by them in Kenya were pressured to kill their children born with disabilities.", "The pressure is much higher in the rural areas, with every two mothers being forced out of three.===Australia===Estimations of the prevalence of infanticide among Aboriginal Australians vary widely.Many early European settlers considered it to be extremely common.For example, an 1866 issue of ''The Australian News for Home Readers'' informed readers that \"the crime of infanticide is so prevalent amongst the natives that it is rare to see an infant\".In later times, attitudes shifted and the issue became contested.Author Susanna de Vries said in 2007 that her accounts of Aboriginal violence, including infanticide, were censored by publishers in the 1980s and 1990s.", "She told reporters that the censorship \"stemmed from guilt over the stolen children question\".", "Keith Windschuttle weighed in on the conversation, saying this type of censorship started in the 1970s.", "In the same article Louis Nowra suggested that infanticide in customary Aboriginal law may have been because it was difficult to keep an abundant number of Aboriginal children alive; there were life-and-death decisions modern-day Australians no longer have to face.Daisy Bates with a group of Aboriginal women, circa 1911Liz Conor's 2016 work, ''Skin Deep: Settler Impressions of Aboriginal Women'', a culmination of 10 years of research, found that stories about Aboriginal women were told through a colonial lens of racism and misogyny.", "Vague stories of infanticide and cannibalism were repeated as reliable facts, and sometimes originated in accounts told by members of rival tribes about the other.", "She also refers to Daisy Bates' now contested accounts of such practices, reproaching some historians for accepting them too uncritically.The anthropologists Ronald and Catherine Berndt are more balanced in their evaluation, noting that \"infanticide does seem to have been practised occasionally almost all over Aboriginal Australia, but it cannot have been so frequent as Taplin ... and Bates ... suggest\", while also cautioning that others \"underestimated\" its prevalence.", "The flesh of killed infants could be eaten, but this was not always the case.====South Australia and Victoria====According to William D. Rubinstein, \"Nineteenth-century European observers of Aboriginal life in South Australia and Victoria reported that about 30% of Aboriginal infants were killed at birth.", "\"In 1881 James Dawson wrote a passage about infanticide among Indigenous people in the western district of Victoria, which stated that \"Twins are as common among them as among Europeans; but as food is occasionally very scarce, and a large family troublesome to move about, it is lawful and customary to destroy the weakest twin child, irrespective of sex.It is usual also to destroy those which are malformed.", "\"Reprinted in He also wrote \"When a woman has children too rapidly for the convenience and necessities of the parents, she makes up her mind to let one be killed, and consults with her husband which it is to be.", "As the strength of a tribe depends more on males than females, the girls are generally sacrificed.The child is put to death and buried, or burned without ceremony; not, however, by its father or mother, but by relatives.", "No one wears mourning for it.Sickly children are never killed on account of their bad health, and are allowed to die naturally.", "\"====Western Australia====In 1937, a Christian reverend in the Kimberley offered a \"baby bonus\" to Aboriginal families as a deterrent against infanticide and to increase the birthrate of the local Indigenous population.====Australian Capital Territory====A Canberran journalist in 1927 wrote of the \"cheapness of life\" to the Aboriginal people local to the Canberra area 100 years before.", "\"If drought or bush fires had devastated the country and curtailed food supplies, babies got a short shift.", "Ailing babies, too would not be kept\", he wrote.====New South Wales====A bishop wrote in 1928 that it was common for Aboriginal Australians to restrict the size of their tribal groups, including by infanticide, so that the food resources of the tribal area may be sufficient for them.====Northern Territory====Annette Hamilton, a professor of anthropology at Macquarie University, who carried out research in the Aboriginal community of Maningrida in Arnhem Land during the 1960s, wrote that prior to that time part-European babies born to Aboriginal mothers had not been allowed to live, and that \"mixed-unions are frowned on by men and women alike as a matter of principle\".===Oceania=======New Zealand========Marshall Islands====When Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue visited the Marshall Islands in Micronesia in 1817, he noted that Marshallese families practiced infanticide after the birth of a third child as a form of population planning due to frequent famines.", "===North America=======Inuit====There is no agreement about the actual estimates of the frequency of newborn female infanticide in the Inuit population.", "Carmel Schrire mentions diverse studies ranging from 15% to 80%.Polar Inuit (Inughuit) killed the child by throwing him or her into the sea.", "There is even a legend in Inuit mythology, \"The Unwanted Child\", where a mother throws her child into the fjord.The Yukon and the Mahlemuit tribes of Alaska exposed the female newborns by first stuffing their mouths with grass before leaving them to die.", "In Arctic Canada the Inuit exposed their babies on the ice and left them to die.Female Inuit infanticide disappeared in the 1930s and 1940s after contact with the Western cultures from the South.However, it must be acknowledged these infanticide claims came from non-Inuit observers, whose writings were later used to justify the forced westernization of indigenous peoples.", "In 2009, Travis Hedwig argued that infanticide runs counter to cultural norms at the time and that researchers were misinterpreting the actions of an unfamiliar culture and people.====Canada====The ''Handbook of North American Indians'' reports infanticide among the Dene Natives and those of the Mackenzie Mountains.====Native Americans====In the Eastern Shoshone there was a scarcity of Native American women as a result of female infanticide.", "For the Maidu Native Americans twins were so dangerous that they not only killed them, but the mother as well.", "In the region known today as southern Texas, the Mariame Native Americans practiced infanticide of females on a large scale.", "Wives had to be obtained from neighboring groups.====Mexico====Bernal Díaz recounted that, after landing on the Veracruz coast, they came across a temple dedicated to Tezcatlipoca.", "\"That day they had sacrificed two boys, cutting open their chests and offering their blood and hearts to that accursed idol\".", "In ''The Conquest of New Spain'' Díaz describes more child sacrifices in the towns before the Spaniards reached the large Aztec city Tenochtitlan.===South America===Although academic data of infanticides among the indigenous people in South America is not as abundant as that of North America, the estimates seem to be similar.====Brazil====The Tapirapé indigenous people of Brazil allowed no more than three children per woman, and no more than two of the same sex.", "If the rule was broken infanticide was practiced.", "The Bororo killed all the newborns that did not appear healthy enough.", "Infanticide is also documented in the case of the Korubo people in the Amazon.The Yanomami men killed children while raiding enemy villages.", "Helena Valero, a Brazilian woman kidnapped by Yanomami warriors in the 1930s, witnessed a Karawetari raid on her tribe:====Peru, Paraguay and Bolivia====While ''qhapaq hucha'' was practiced in the Peruvian large cities, child sacrifice in the pre-Columbian tribes of the region is less documented.", "However, even today studies on the Aymara Indians reveal high incidences of mortality among the newborn, especially female deaths, suggesting infanticide.", "The Abipones, a small tribe of Guaycuruan stock, of about 5,000 by the end of the 18th century in Paraguay, practiced systematic infanticide; with never more than two children being reared in one family.", "The Machigenga killed their disabled children.", "Infanticide among the Chaco in Paraguay was estimated as high as 50% of all newborns in that tribe, who were usually buried.", "The infanticidal custom had such roots among the Ayoreo in Bolivia and Paraguay that it persisted until the late 20th century." ], [ "Modern times", "Infanticide has become less common in the Western world.", "The frequency has been estimated to be 1 in approximately 3000 to 5000 children of all ages and 2.1 per 100,000 newborns per year.", "It is thought that infanticide today continues at a much higher rate in areas of extremely high poverty and overpopulation, such as parts of India.", "Female infants, then and even now, are particularly vulnerable, a factor in sex-selective infanticide.", "Recent estimates suggest that over 100 million girls and women are 'missing' in Asia.===Benin===In spite of the fact that it is illegal, in Benin, West Africa, parents secretly continue with infanticidal customs.===Mainland China===There have been some accusations that infanticide occurs in Mainland China due to the one-child policy.", "In the 1990s, a certain stretch of the Yangtze River was known to be a common site of infanticide by drowning, until government projects made access to it more difficult.", "A study from 2012 suggests that over 40 million girls and women are missing in Mainland China (Klasen and Wink 2002).===India===The practice has continued in some rural areas of India.", "India has the highest infanticide rate in the world, despite infanticide being illegal.According to a 2005 report by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) up to 50 million girls and women are missing in India's population as a result of systematic sex discrimination and sex selective abortions.===Pakistan===Killings of newborn babies have been on the rise in Pakistan, corresponding to an increase in poverty across the country.", "More than 1,000 infants, mostly girls, were killed or abandoned to die in Pakistan in 2009 according to a Pakistani charity organization.The Edhi Foundation found 1,210 dead babies in 2010.Many more are abandoned and left at the doorsteps of mosques.", "As a result, Edhi centers feature signs \"Do not murder, lay them here.\"", "Though female infanticide is punishable by life in prison, such crimes are rarely prosecuted.===Oceania===On November 28, 2008, ''The National'', one of Papua New Guinea's two largest newspapers at the time, ran a story entitled \"Male Babies Killed To Stop Fights\" which claimed that in Agibu and Amosa villages of Gimi region of Eastern Highlands province of Papua New Guinea where tribal fighting in the region of Gimi has been going on since 1986 (many of the clashes arising over claims of sorcery) women had agreed that if they stopped producing males, allowing only female babies to survive, their tribe's stock of boys would go down and there would be no men in the future to fight.", "They had supposedly agreed to have all newborn male babies killed.", "It is not known how many male babies were supposedly killed by being smothered, but it had reportedly happened to all males over a 10-year period.However, this claim about male infanticide in Papua New Guinea was probably just the result of inaccurate and sensationalistic news reporting, because Salvation Army workers in the region of Gimi denied that the supposed male infanticide actually happened, and said that the tribal women were merely speaking hypothetically and hyperbolically about male infanticide at a peace and reconciliation workshop in order to make a point.", "The tribal women had never planned to actually kill their own sons.===England and Wales===In England and Wales there were typically 30 to 50 homicides per million children less than 1 year old between 1982 and 1996.The younger the infant, the higher the risk.", "The rate for children 1 to 5 years was around 10 per million children.", "The homicide rate of infants less than 1 year is significantly higher than for the general population.In English law infanticide is established as a distinct offence by the Infanticide Acts.", "Defined as the killing of a child under 12 months of age by their mother, the effect of the Acts are to establish a partial defence to charges of murder.===United States===In the United States the infanticide rate during the first hour of life outside the womb dropped from 1.41 per 100,000 during 1963 to 1972 to 0.44 per 100,000 for 1974 to 1983; the rates during the first month after birth also declined, whereas those for older infants rose during this time.", "The legalization of abortion, which was completed in 1973, was the most important factor in the decline in neonatal mortality during the period from 1964 to 1977, according to a study by economists associated with the National Bureau of Economic Research.===Canada===In Canada, 114 cases of infanticide by a parent were reported during 1964–1968.===Spain===In Spain, far-right political party Vox has claimed that female perpetrators of infanticide outnumber male perpetrators of femicide.", "However, neither the Spanish National Statistics Institute nor the Ministry of the Interior keep data on the gender of perpetrators, but victims of femicide consistently number higher than victims of infanticide.", "From 2013 to March 2018, 28 infanticide cases perpetrated by 22 mothers and three stepmothers were reported in Spain.===Intersex children===Intersex infants commonly suffer from infanticide particularly in developing countries, largely caused by stigma surrounding intersex conditions.", "Often intersex infants are abandoned, while others are actively killed.", "Many intersex individuals are forced to flee due to persecution and violence.", "Many intersex individuals commonly seek political asylum due to oppression according to the United Nations Human Rights Council." ], [ "Explanations for the practice", "There are various reasons for infanticide.", "Neonaticide typically has different patterns and causes than for the killing of older infants.", "Traditional neonaticide is often related to economic necessity – the inability to provide for the infant.In the United Kingdom and the United States, older infants are typically killed for reasons related to child abuse, domestic violence or mental illness.", "For infants older than one day, younger infants are more at risk, and boys are more at risk than girls.", "Risk factors for the parent include: Family history of violence, violence in a current relationship, history of abuse or neglect of children, and personality disorder and/or depression.===Religious===In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, \"loopholes\" were invented by some suicidal members of Lutheran churches who wanted to avoid the damnation that was promised by most Christian doctrine as a penalty of suicide.", "One famous example of someone who wished to end their life but avoid the eternity in hell was Christina Johansdotter (died 1740).", "She was a Swedish murderer who killed a child in Stockholm with the sole purpose of being executed.", "She is an example of those who seek suicide through execution by committing a murder.", "It was a common act, frequently targeting young children or infants as they were believed to be free from sin, thus believing to go \"straight to heaven\".Although mainstream Christian denominations, including Lutherans, view the murder of an innocent as being condemned in the Fifth Commandment, the suicidal members of Lutheran churches who deliberately killed children with the intent of getting executed were usually well aware of Christian doctrine against murder, and planned to repent and seek forgiveness of their sins afterwards.", "For example, in 18th century Denmark up until the year 1767, murderers were given the opportunity to repent of their sins before they were executed either way.", "In Denmark on the year of 1767, the religiously motivated suicidal murders finally ceased in that country with the abolishment of the death penalty.In 1888, Lieut.", "F. Elton reported that Ugi beach people in the Solomon Islands killed their infants at birth by burying them, and women were also said to practice abortion.", "They reported that it was too much trouble to raise a child, and instead preferred to buy one from the bush people.===Economic===Many historians believe the reason to be primarily economic, with more children born than the family is prepared to support.", "In societies that are patrilineal and patrilocal, the family may choose to allow more sons to live and kill some daughters, as the former will support their birth family until they die, whereas the latter will leave economically and geographically to join their husband's family, possibly only after the payment of a burdensome dowry price.", "Thus the decision to bring up a boy is more economically rewarding to the parents.", "However, this does not explain why infanticide would occur equally among rich and poor, nor why it would be as frequent during decadent periods of the Roman Empire as during earlier, less affluent, periods.Before the appearance of effective contraception, infanticide was a common occurrence in ancient brothels.", "Unlike usual infanticide – where historically girls have been more likely to be killed – prostitutes in certain areas preferred to kill their male offspring.====UK 18th and 19th century====Instances of infanticide in Britain in 18th and 19th centuries are often attributed to the economic position of the women, with juries committing \"pious perjury\" in many subsequent murder cases.", "The knowledge of the difficulties faced in the 18th century by those women who attempted to keep their children can be seen as a reason for juries to show compassion.", "If the woman chose to keep the child, society was not set up to ease the pressure placed upon the woman, legally, socially or economically.In mid-18th century Britain there was assistance available for women who were not able to raise their children.", "The Foundling Hospital opened in 1756 and was able to take in some of the illegitimate children.", "However, the conditions within the hospital caused Parliament to withdraw funding and the governors to live off of their own incomes.", "This resulted in a stringent entrance policy, with the committee requiring that the hospital::Will not receive a child that is more than a year old, nor the child of a domestic servant, nor any child whose father can be compelled to maintain it.Once a mother had admitted her child to the hospital, the hospital did all it could to ensure that the parent and child were not re-united.MacFarlane argues in ''Illegitimacy and Illegitimates in Britain'' (1980) that English society greatly concerned itself with the burden that a bastard child places upon its communities and had gone to some lengths to ensure that the father of the child is identified in order to maintain its well-being.", "Assistance could be gained through maintenance payments from the father, however, this was capped \"at a miserable 2 s and 6 d a week\".", "If the father fell behind with the payments he could only be asked \"to pay a maximum of 13 weeks arrears\".Despite the accusations of some that women were getting a free hand-out, there is evidence that many women were far from receiving adequate assistance from their parish.", "\"Within Leeds in 1822 ... relief was limited to 1 s per week\".", "Sheffield required women to enter the workhouse, whereas Halifax gave no relief to the women who required it.", "The prospect of entering the workhouse was certainly something to be avoided.", "Lionel Rose quotes Dr Joseph Rogers in ''Massacre of the Innocents ...'' (1986).", "Rogers, who was employed by a London workhouse in 1856 stated that conditions in the nursery were 'wretchedly damp and miserable ... and ... overcrowded with young mothers and their infants'.The loss of social standing for a servant girl was a particular problem in respect of producing a bastard child as they relied upon a good character reference in order to maintain their job and more importantly, to get a new or better job.", "In a large number of trials for the crime of infanticide, it is the servant girl that stood accused.", "The disadvantage of being a servant girl is that they had to live to the social standards of their superiors or risk dismissal and no references.", "Whereas within other professions, such as in the factory, the relationship between employer and employee was much more anonymous and the mother would be better able to make other provisions, such as employing a minder.", "The result of the lack of basic social care in Britain in the 18th and 19th century is the numerous accounts in court records of women, particularly servant girls, standing trial for the murder of their child.There may have been no specific offense of infanticide in England before about 1623 because infanticide was a matter for the by ecclesiastical courts, possibly because infant mortality from natural causes was high (about 15% or one in six).Thereafter the accusation of the suppression of bastard children by lewd mothers was a crime incurring the presumption of guilt.The Infanticide Acts are several laws.", "That of 1922 made the killing of an infant child by its mother during the early months of life as a lesser crime than murder.", "The acts of 1938 and 1939 abolished the earlier act, but introduced the idea that postpartum depression was legally to be regarded as a form of diminished responsibility.===Population control===Marvin Harris estimated that among Paleolithic hunters 23–50% of newborn children were killed.", "He argued that the goal was to preserve the 0.001% population growth of that time.", "He also wrote that female infanticide may be a form of population control.", "Population control is achieved not only by limiting the number of potential mothers; increased fighting among men for access to relatively scarce wives would also lead to a decline in population.", "For example, on the Melanesian island of Tikopia infanticide was used to keep a stable population in line with its resource base.", "Research by Marvin Harris and William Divale supports this argument, it has been cited as an example of environmental determinism.===Psychological=======Evolutionary psychology====Evolutionary psychology has proposed several theories for different forms of infanticide.", "Infanticide by stepfathers, as well as child abuse in general by stepfathers, has been explained by spending resources on not genetically related children reducing reproductive success (See the Cinderella effect and Infanticide (zoology)).", "Infanticide is one of the few forms of violence more often done by women than men.", "Cross-cultural research has found that this is more likely to occur when the child has deformities or illnesses as well as when there are lacking resources due to factors such as poverty, other children requiring resources, and no male support.", "Such a child may have a low chance of reproductive success in which case it would decrease the mother's inclusive fitness, in particular since women generally have a greater parental investment than men, to spend resources on the child.====\"Early infanticidal childrearing\"====A minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought, considering the practice as \"early infanticidal childrearing\".", "They attribute parental infanticidal wishes to massive projection or displacement of the parents' unconscious onto the child, because of intergenerational, ancestral abuse by their own parents.", "Clearly, an infanticidal parent may have multiple motivations, conflicts, emotions, and thoughts about their baby and their relationship with their baby, which are often colored both by their individual psychology, current relational context and attachment history, and, perhaps most saliently, their psychopathology Almeida, Merminod, and Schechter suggest that parents with fantasies, projections, and delusions involving infanticide need to be taken seriously and assessed carefully, whenever possible, by an interdisciplinary team that includes infant mental health specialists or mental health practitioners who have experience in working with parents, children, and families.====Wider effects====In addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself, there is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children, and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction infanticide.", "Some argue that the practice of infanticide in any widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in children.", "Conversely, studying societies that practice infanticide Géza Róheim reported that even infanticidal mothers in New Guinea, who ate a child, did not affect the personality development of the surviving children; that \"these are good mothers who eat their own children\".", "Harris and Divale's work on the relationship between female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are, however, extensive negative effects.===Psychiatric===Postpartum psychosis is also a causative factor of infanticide.", "Stuart S. Asch, MD, a professor of psychiatry at Cornell University established the connections between some cases of infanticide and post-partum depression., The books, ''From Cradle to Grave'', and ''The Death of Innocents'', describe selected cases of maternal infanticide and the investigative research of Professor Asch working in concert with the New York City Medical Examiner's Office.Stanley Hopwood wrote that childbirth and lactation entail severe stress on the female sex, and that under certain circumstances attempts at infanticide and suicide are common.", "A study published in the ''American Journal of Psychiatry'' revealed that 44% of filicidal fathers had a diagnosis of psychosis.", "In addition to postpartum psychosis, dissociative psychopathology and sociopathy have also been found to be associated with neonaticide in some casesIn addition, severe postpartum depression can lead to infanticide.===Sex selection===Sex selection may be one of the contributing factors of infanticide.", "In the absence of sex-selective abortion, sex-selective infanticide can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics.", "The biologically normal sex ratio for humans at birth is approximately 105 males per 100 females; normal ratios hardly ranging beyond 102–108.When a society has an infant male to female ratio which is significantly higher or lower than the biological norm, and biased data can be ruled out, sex selection can usually be inferred.", "Intersex infants with ambiguous or atypical genitalia often suffer from infanticide." ], [ "Current law", "===Australia===In New South Wales, infanticide is defined in Section 22A(1) of the Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) as follows:Because Infanticide is punishable as manslaughter, as per s24, the maximum penalty for this offence is therefore 25 years imprisonment.In Victoria, infanticide is defined by Section 6 of the Crimes Act of 1958 with a maximum penalty of five years.=== New Zealand ===In New Zealand, infanticide is provided for by Section 178 of the Crimes Act 1961 which states:===Canada===In Canada, infanticide is a specific offence under section 237 of the ''Criminal Code''.", "It is defined as a form of culpable homicide which is neither murder nor manslaughter, and occurs when \"a female person... by a wilful act or omission... causes the death of her newly-born child defined as a child under one year of age, if at the time of the act or omission she is not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth to the child and by reason thereof or of the effect of lactation consequent on the birth of the child her mind is then disturbed.\"", "Infanticide is also a defence to murder, in that a person accused of murder who successfully presents the defence is entitled to be convicted of infanticide rather than murder.", "The maximum sentence for infanticide is five years' imprisonment; by contrast, the maximum sentence for manslaughter is life, and the mandatory sentence for murder is life.The offence derives from an offence created in English law in 1922, which aimed to address the issue of judges and juries who were reluctant to return verdicts of murder against women and girls who killed their newborns out of poverty, depression, the shame of illegitimacy, or otherwise desperate circumstances, since the mandatory sentence was death (even though in those circumstances the death penalty was likely not to be carried out).", "With infanticide as a separate offence with a lesser penalty, convictions were more likely.", "The offence of infanticide was created in Canada in 1948.There is ongoing debate in the Canadian legal and political fields about whether section 237 of the ''Criminal Code'' should be amended or abolished altogether.===England and Wales===In England and Wales, the Infanticide Act 1938 describes the offense of infanticide as one which would otherwise amount to murder (by their mother) if the victim was older than 12 months and the mother did not have an \"imbalance of mind\" due to the effects of childbirth or lactation.", "Where a mother who has killed such an infant has been charged with murder rather than infanticide s.1(3) of the Act confirms that a jury has the power to find alternative verdicts of Manslaughter in English law or guilty but insane.===The Netherlands===Infanticide is illegal in the Netherlands, although the maximum sentence is lower than for homicide.", "The Groningen Protocol regulates euthanasia for infants who are believed to \"suffer hopelessly and unbearably\" under strict conditions.===Poland===Article 149 of the Penal Code of Poland stipulates that a mother who kills her child in labour, while under the influence of the course of the delivery, is punishable by imprisonment of three months to five years.===Romania===Article 200 of the Penal Code of Romania stipulates that the killing of a newborn during the first 24 hours, by the mother who is in a state of mental distress, shall be punished with imprisonment of one to five years.", "The previous Romanian Penal Code also defined infanticide (''pruncucidere'') as a distinct criminal offense, providing for punishment of two to seven years imprisonment, recognizing the fact that a mother's judgment may be impaired immediately after birth but did not define the term \"infant\", and this had led to debates regarding the precise moment when infanticide becomes homicide.", "This issue was resolved by the new Penal Code, which came into force in 2014.===United States===While legislation regarding infanticide in some countries focuses on rehabilitation, believing that treatment and education will prevent repetitive action, the United States remains focused on delivering punishment.", "One justification for punishment is the difficulty of implementing rehabilitation services.", "With an overcrowded prison system, the United States can not provide the necessary treatment and services.==== State Legislation ====In 2009, Texas state representative Jessica Farrar proposed legislation that would define infanticide as a distinct and lesser crime than homicide.", "Under the terms of the proposed legislation, if jurors concluded that a mother's \"judgment was impaired as a result of the effects of giving birth or the effects of lactation following the birth,\" they would be allowed to convict her of the crime of infanticide, rather than murder.", "The maximum penalty for infanticide would be two years in prison.", "Farrar's introduction of this bill prompted liberal bioethics scholar Jacob M. Appel to call her \"the bravest politician in America\".==== Federal Legislation ====The ''MOTHERS Act'' ('''M'''oms '''O'''pportunity '''T'''o access '''H'''ealth, '''E'''ducation, '''R'''esearch and '''S'''upport), precipitated by the death of a Chicago woman with postpartum psychosis was introduced in 2009.The act was ultimately incorporated into the ''Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act'' which passed in 2010.The act requires screening for postpartum mood disorders at any time of the adult lifespan as well as expands research on postpartum depression.", "Provisions of the act also authorize grants to support clinical services for women who have, or are at risk for, postpartum psychosis." ], [ "Prevention", "=== Sex education and birth control ===Since infanticide, especially neonaticide, is often a response to an unwanted birth, preventing unwanted pregnancies through improved sex education and increased contraceptive access are advocated as ways of preventing infanticide.", "Increased use of contraceptives and access to safe legal abortions have greatly reduced neonaticide in many developed nations.", "Some say that where abortion is illegal, as in Pakistan, infanticide would decline if safer legal abortions were available.=== Psychiatric intervention ===Cases of infanticide have also garnered increasing attention and interest from advocates for the mentally ill as well as organizations dedicated to postpartum disorders.", "Following the trial of Andrea Yates, a mother from the United States who garnered national attention for drowning her 5 children, representatives from organizations such as the Postpartum Support International and the Marcé Society for Treatment and Prevention of Postpartum Disorders began requesting clarification of diagnostic criteria for postpartum disorders and improved guidelines for treatments.", "While accounts of postpartum psychosis have dated back over 2,000 years ago, perinatal mental illness is still largely under-diagnosed despite postpartum psychosis affecting 1 to 2 per 1000 women.", "However, with clinical research continuing to demonstrate the large role of rapid neurochemical fluctuation in postpartum psychosis, prevention of infanticide points ever strongly towards psychiatric intervention.Screening for psychiatric disorders or risk factors, and providing treatment or assistance to those at risk may help prevent infanticide.", "Current diagnostic considerations include symptoms, psychological history, thoughts of self-harm or harming one's children, physical and neurological examination, laboratory testing, substance abuse, and brain imaging.", "As psychotic symptoms may fluctuate, it is important that diagnostic assessments cover a wide range of factors.While studies on the treatment of postpartum psychosis are scarce, a number of case and cohort studies have found evidence describing the effectiveness of lithium monotherapy for both acute and maintenance treatment of postpartum psychosis, with the majority of patients achieving complete remission.", "Adjunctive treatments include electroconvulsive therapy, antipsychotic medication, or benzodiazepines.", "Electroconvulsive therapy, in particular, is the primary treatment for patients with catatonia, severe agitation, and difficulties eating or drinking.", "Antidepressants should be avoided throughout the acute treatment of postpartum psychosis due to risk of worsening mood instability.Though screening and treatment may help prevent infanticide, in the developed world, significant proportions of neonaticides that are detected occur in young women who deny their pregnancy and avoid outside contacts, many of whom may have limited contact with these health care services.=== Safe surrender ===In some areas baby hatches or ''safe surrender sites'', safe places for a mother to anonymously leave an infant, are offered, in part to reduce the rate of infanticide.", "In other places, like the United States, safe-haven laws allow mothers to anonymously give infants to designated officials; they are frequently located at hospitals and police and fire stations.", "Additionally, some countries in Europe have the laws of anonymous birth and confidential birth that allow mothers to give up an infant after birth.", "In anonymous birth, the mother does not attach her name to the birth certificate.", "In confidential birth, the mother registers her name and information, but the document containing her name is sealed until the child comes to age.", "Typically such babies are put up for adoption, or cared for in orphanages.=== Employment ===Granting women employment raises their status and autonomy.", "Having a gainful employment can raise the perceived worth of females.", "This can lead to an increase in the number of women getting an education and a decrease in the number of female infanticide.", "As a result, the infant mortality rate will decrease and economic development will increase." ], [ "In animals", "Occurs with animals, such as in Hanuman langurs.The practice has been observed in many other species of the animal kingdom since it was first seriously studied by Yukimaru Sugiyama.", "These include from microscopic rotifers and insects, to fish, amphibians, birds and mammals, including primates such as chacma baboons.According to studies carried out by Kyoto University in primates, including certain types of gorillas and chimpanzees, several conditions favor the tendency to kill their offspring in some species (to be performed only by males), among them are: Nocturnal life, the absence of nest construction, the marked sexual dimorphism in which the male is much larger than the female, the mating in a specific season and the high period of lactation without resumption of the estrus state in the female." ], [ "In Art and Literature", "An instance in which a child born on an inauspicious day is to live or die according to the chance of being trampled by cattle (death being likely) is provided by , painted by Henry Melville and engraved by J Redaway for Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 with a poetical illustration and notes by Letitia Elizabeth Landon." ], [ "See also", "* Child cannibalism* Child euthanasia* The Cruel Mother* Female perversion* Filicide* Margaret Garner* ''Jenůfa'' (opera by Leoš Janáček)* List of countries by infant mortality rate* ''La Llorona'' (Mexican legend)* ''Medea'' (Euripides' play)* Miyuki Ishikawa* ''A Modest Proposal'', by Jonathan Swift* Overlaying, child-smothering during carer's sleep* Sudden infant death syndrome" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Backhouse, Constance B.", "\"Desperate women and compassionate courts: infanticide in nineteenth-century Canada.\"", "''University of Toronto Law Journal'' 34.4 (1984): 447–78 online.", "* Bechtold, Brigitte H., and Donna Cooper Graves.", "\"The ties that bind: Infanticide, gender, and society.\"", "''History Compass'' 8.7 (2010): 704–17.", "* Donovan, James M. \"Infanticide and the Juries in France, 1825–1913.\"", "''Journal of family history'' 16.2 (1991): 157–76.", "* Feng, Wang; Campbell, Cameron; Lee, James.", "\"Infant and Child Mortality among the Qing Nobility.\"", "''Population Studies'' (Nov 1994) 48#3 pp.", "395–411; many upper-class Chinese couples regularly used infanticide to control the number and sex of their infants.", "* Giladi, Avner.", "\"Some observations on infanticide in medieval Muslim society.\"", "''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 22.2 (1990): 185–200 online.", "* Hoffer, Peter, and N.E.H.", "Hull.", "''Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and America, 1558–1803'' (1981).", "* Kilday, A.", "''A History of Infanticide in Britain, c. 1600 to the Present'' (Springer, 2013).", "* Langer, William L. \"Infanticide: A historical survey.\"", "''History of Childhood Quarterly: the Journal of Psychohistory'' 1.3 (1974): 353–65.", "* Leboutte, René.", "\"Offense against family order: infanticide in Belgium from the fifteenth through the early twentieth centuries.\"", "''Journal of the History of Sexuality'' 2.2 (1991): 159–85.", "* Lee, Bernice J.", "\"Female infanticide in China.\"", "''Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques'' (1981): 163–77 online.", "* Lewis, Margaret Brannan.", "''Infanticide and abortion in early modern Germany'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* Mays, Simon.", "\"Infanticide in Roman Britain.\"", "''Antiquity'' 67.257 (1993): 883–88.", "* Mungello, David Emil.", "''Drowning girls in China: Female infanticide since 1650'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).", "* Oberman, Michelle.", "\"Mothers who kill: coming to terms with modern American infanticide.\"", "''American Criminal Law Review'' 34 (1996) pp: 1–110 online.", "* Pomeroy, Sarah B.", "\"Infanticide in Hellenistic Greece\" in A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt, eds., ''Images of women in antiquity'' (Wayne State Univ Press, 1983), pp 207–222.", "* Rose, Lionel.", "''Massacre of the Innocents: Infanticide in Great Britain 1800–1939'' (1986).", "* Wheeler, Kenneth H. \"Infanticide in nineteenth-century Ohio.\"", "''Journal of Social History'' (1997): 407–18 online." ], [ "External links", "* A Brief History of Infanticide" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Internet protocol suite" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Internet protocol suite''', commonly known as '''TCP/IP''', is a framework for organizing the set of communication protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks according to functional criteria.", "The foundational protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and the Internet Protocol (IP).", "Early versions of this networking model were known as the '''Department of Defense''' ('''DoD''') '''model''' because the research and development were funded by the United States Department of Defense through DARPA.The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received.", "This functionality is organized into four abstraction layers, which classify all related protocols according to each protocol's scope of networking.", "An implementation of the layers for a particular application forms a protocol stack.", "From lowest to highest, the layers are the link layer, containing communication methods for data that remains within a single network segment (link); the internet layer, providing internetworking between independent networks; the transport layer, handling host-to-host communication; and the application layer, providing process-to-process data exchange for applications.The technical standards underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).", "The Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems." ], [ "History", "===Early research===Diagram of the first internetworked connectionAn SRI International Packet Radio Van, used for the first three-way internetworked transmissionInitially referred to as the ''DOD Internet Architecture Model'', the Internet protocol suite has its roots in research and development sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s.", "After DARPA initiated the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, Steve Crocker established a \"Networking Working Group\" which developed a host-host protocol, the Network Control Program (NCP).", "In the early 1970s, DARPA started work on several other data transmission technologies, including mobile packet radio, packet satellite service, local area networks, and other data networks in the public and private domains.", "In 1972, Bob Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both.", "In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf joined Kahn with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET to enable internetworking.", "They drew on the experience from the ARPANET research community, the International Network Working Group, which Cerf chaired, and researchers at Xerox PARC.By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the existing ARPANET protocols, this function was delegated to the hosts.", "Cerf credits Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann, designers of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design.", "The new protocol was implemented as the Transmission Control Program in 1974 by Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine.Initially, the Transmission Control Program (the Internet Protocol did not then exist as a separate protocol) provided only a reliable byte stream service to its users, not datagram.", "As experience with the protocol grew, collaborators recommended division of functionality into layers of distinct protocols, allowing users direct access to datagram service.", "Advocates included Danny Cohen, who needed it for his packet voice work; Jonathan Postel of the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, who edited the Request for Comments (RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development; and Bob Metcalfe and Yogen Dalal at Xerox PARC.", "Postel stated, \"We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering.\"", "Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers.", "A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues.", "In version 3 of TCP, written in 1978, Cerf, Cohen and Postel split the Transmission Control Program into two distinct protocols, the Internet Protocol as connectionless layer and the Transmission Control Protocol as a reliable connection-oriented service.The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes.", "This design is known as the end-to-end principle.", "Using this design, it became possible to connect other networks to the ARPANET that used the same principle, irrespective of other local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem.", "A popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over \"two tin cans and a string.\"", "Years later, as a joke, the IP over Avian Carriers formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested.DARPA contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on several hardware platforms.", "During development of the protocol the version number of the packet routing layer progressed from version 1 to version 4, the latter of which was installed in the ARPANET in 1983.It became known as ''Internet Protocol version 4'' (IPv4) as the protocol that is still in use in the Internet, alongside its current successor, Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).===Early implementation===In 1975, a two-network IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London.", "In November 1977, a three-network IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway.", "Several other IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983.A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network.", "It forwards network packets back and forth between them.", "Originally a router was called ''gateway'', but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways.===Adoption===In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking.", "In the same year, NORSAR/NDRE and Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London adopted the protocol.", "The migration of the ARPANET from NCP to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later Internet Architecture Board) held a three-day TCP/IP workshop for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use.", "In 1985, the first Interop conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP.", "The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist.", "From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting.IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, this despite having competing proprietary protocols.", "In IBM, from 1984, Barry Appelman's group did TCP/IP development.", "They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including MVS, VM, and OS/2.At the same time, several smaller companies, such as FTP Software and the Wollongong Group, began offering TCP/IP stacks for DOS and Microsoft Windows.", "The first VM/CMS TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.Some of the early TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few programmers.", "Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively.", "In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a ''ntcp'' multi-connection TCP which runs atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983–84.Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded.", "Starting in 1985, Phil Karn created a multi-connection TCP application for ham radio systems (KA9Q TCP).The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when the University of California, Berkeley agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for BSD UNIX into the public domain.", "Various corporate vendors, including IBM, included this code in commercial TCP/IP software releases.", "Microsoft released a native TCP/IP stack in Windows 95.This event helped cement TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols on Microsoft-based networks, which included IBM's Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and on other platforms such as Digital Equipment Corporation's DECnet, Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), and Xerox Network Systems (XNS).Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were polarized over the issue of which standard, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite, would result in the best and most robust computer networks.===Formal specification and standards===The technical standards underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols have been delegated to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).The characteristic architecture of the Internet protocol suite is its broad division into operating scopes for the protocols that constitute its core functionality.", "The defining specification of the suite is RFC 1122, which broadly outlines four abstraction layers.", "These have stood the test of time, as the IETF has never modified this structure.", "As such a model of networking, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems." ], [ "Key architectural principles", "Conceptual data flow in a simple network topology of two hosts (''A'' and ''B'') connected by a link between their respective routers.", "The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe.", "After establishment of this pipe, most details of the communication are hidden from each process, as the underlying principles of communication are implemented in the lower protocol layers.", "In analogy, at the transport layer the communication appears as host-to-host, without knowledge of the application data structures and the connecting routers, while at the internetworking layer, individual network boundaries are traversed at each router.Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122The end-to-end principle has evolved over time.", "Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity.", "Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.The robustness principle states: \"In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior.", "That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear).\"", "\"The second part of the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features.", "\"Encapsulation is used to provide abstraction of protocols and services.", "Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality.", "In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers.", "The data is further encapsulated at each level.An early architectural document, , titled ''Host Requirements'', emphasizes architectural principles over layering.", "RFC 1122 is structured in sections referring to layers, but the document refers to many other architectural principles, and does not emphasize layering.", "It loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows:* The application layer is the scope within which applications, or processes, create user data and communicate this data to other applications on another or the same host.", "The applications make use of the services provided by the underlying lower layers, especially the transport layer which provides reliable or unreliable ''pipes'' to other processes.", "The communications partners are characterized by the application architecture, such as the client–server model and peer-to-peer networking.", "This is the layer in which all application protocols, such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, operate.", "Processes are addressed via ports which essentially represent services.", "* The transport layer performs host-to-host communications on either the local network or remote networks separated by routers.", "It provides a channel for the communication needs of applications.", "UDP is the basic transport layer protocol, providing an unreliable connectionless datagram service.", "The Transmission Control Protocol provides flow-control, connection establishment, and reliable transmission of data.", "* The internet layer exchanges datagrams across network boundaries.", "It provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections.", "It is therefore also the layer that establishes internetworking.", "Indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet.", "This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite.", "The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP addresses.", "Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next host, functioning as an IP router, that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination.", "* The link layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers.", "This layer includes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed to affect the transmission of internet layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts." ], [ "Link layer", "The protocols of the link layer operate within the scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached.", "This regime is called the ''link'' in TCP/IP parlance and is the lowest component layer of the suite.", "The link includes all hosts accessible without traversing a router.", "The size of the link is therefore determined by the networking hardware design.", "In principle, TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent and may be implemented on top of virtually any link-layer technology.", "This includes not only hardware implementations but also virtual link layers such as virtual private networks and networking tunnels.The link layer is used to move packets between the internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link.", "The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on the link can be controlled in the device driver for the network card, as well as in firmware or by specialized chipsets.", "These perform functions, such as framing, to prepare the internet layer packets for transmission, and finally transmit the frames to the physical layer and over a transmission medium.", "The TCP/IP model includes specifications for translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to link-layer addresses, such as media access control (MAC) addresses.", "All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist and are not explicitly defined in the TCP/IP model.The link layer in the TCP/IP model has corresponding functions in Layer 2 of the OSI model." ], [ "Internet layer", "Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network.", "This process is called routing and is supported by host addressing and identification using the hierarchical IP addressing system.", "The internet layer provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination.", "The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially multiple networks.", "With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet.The internet layer does not distinguish between the various transport layer protocols.", "IP carries data for a variety of different upper layer protocols.", "These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts and to locate them on the network.", "The original address system of the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).", "It uses a 32-bit IP address and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts.", "This limitation was eliminated in 1998 by the standardization of Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) which uses 128-bit addresses.", "IPv6 production implementations emerged in approximately 2006." ], [ "Transport layer", "The transport layer establishes basic data channels that applications use for task-specific data exchange.", "The layer establishes host-to-host connectivity in the form of end-to-end message transfer services that are independent of the underlying network and independent of the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information.", "Connectivity at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in TCP, or connectionless, implemented in UDP.", "The protocols in this layer may provide error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers).For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels for applications, the layer establishes the concept of the network port.", "This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs.", "For many types of services, these ''port numbers'' have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of service discovery or directory services.Because IP provides only a best-effort delivery, some transport-layer protocols offer reliability.TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a reliable byte stream:* data arrives in-order* data has minimal error (i.e., correctness)* duplicate data is discarded* lost or discarded packets are resent* includes traffic congestion controlThe newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism.", "It is message-stream-oriented, not byte-stream-oriented like TCP, and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection.", "It also provides multihoming support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted.", "It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP).Reliability can also be achieved by running IP over a reliable data-link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless datagram protocol.", "Like IP, it is a best-effort, unreliable protocol.", "Reliability is addressed through error detection using a checksum algorithm.", "UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP, etc.)", "where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large.", "Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is used over UDP and is designed for real-time data such as streaming media.The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port.", "By convention, certain '' well-known ports'' are associated with specific applications.The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds roughly to the fourth layer in the OSI model, also called the transport layer.QUIC is rapidly emerging as an alternative transport protocol.", "Whilst it is technically carried via UDP packets it seeks to offer enhanced transport connectivity relative to TCP.", "HTTP/3 works exclusively via QUIC." ], [ "Application layer", "The application layer includes the protocols used by most applications for providing user services or exchanging application data over the network connections established by the lower-level protocols.", "This may include some basic network support services such as routing protocols and host configuration.", "Examples of application layer protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).", "Data coded according to application layer protocols are encapsulated into transport layer protocol units (such as TCP streams or UDP datagrams), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer.The TCP/IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data and does not define additional layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers).", "According to the TCP/IP model, such functions are the realm of libraries and application programming interfaces.", "The application layer in the TCP/IP model is often compared to a combination of the fifth (session), sixth (presentation), and seventh (application) layers of the OSI model.Application layer protocols are often associated with particular client–server applications, and common services have ''well-known'' port numbers reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).", "For example, the HyperText Transfer Protocol uses server port 80 and Telnet uses server port 23.Clients connecting to a service usually use ephemeral ports, i.e., port numbers assigned only for the duration of the transaction at random or from a specific range configured in the application.", "At the application layer, the TCP/IP model distinguishes between ''user protocols'' and ''support protocols''.", "Support protocols provide services to a system of network infrastructure.", "User protocols are used for actual user applications.", "For example, FTP is a user protocol and DNS is a support protocol.Although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the endpoint IP addresses and port numbers, application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as black boxes which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate.", "The transport layer and lower-level layers are unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols.", "Routers and switches do not typically examine the encapsulated traffic, rather they just provide a conduit for it.", "However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications use deep packet inspection to interpret application data.", "An example is the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP).", "It is also sometimes necessary for Applications affected by NAT to consider the application payload." ], [ "Layering evolution and representations in the literature", "The Internet protocol suite evolved through research and development funded over a period of time.", "In this process, the specifics of protocol components and their layering changed.", "In addition, parallel research and commercial interests from industry associations competed with design features.", "In particular, efforts in the International Organization for Standardization led to a similar goal, but with a wider scope of networking in general.", "Efforts to consolidate the two principal schools of layering, which were superficially similar, but diverged sharply in detail, led independent textbook authors to formulate abridging teaching tools.The following table shows various such networking models.", "The number of layers varies between three and seven.", "Arpanet Reference Model(RFC 871) Internet Standard(RFC 1122) Internet model(Cisco Academy) TCP/IP 5-layer reference model(Kozierok, Comer) TCP/IP 5-layer reference model(Tanenbaum) TCP/IP protocol suite or Five-layer Internet model(Forouzan, Kurose) TCP/IP model(Stallings) OSI model(ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994) ''Three layers'' ''Four layers'' ''Four layers'' ''Four+one layers'' ''Five layers'' ''Five layers'' ''Five layers'' ''Seven layers'' Application/ Process Application Application Application Application Application Application Application Presentation Session Host-to-host Transport Transport Transport Transport Transport Host-to-host or transport Transport Internet Internetwork Internet Internet Network Internet Network Network interface Link Network interface Data link (Network interface) Data link Data link Network access Data link (Hardware) Physical Physical Physical PhysicalSome of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may conflict with the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources." ], [ "Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering", "The three top layers in the OSI model, i.e.", "the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer, are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model which only has an application layer above the transport layer.", "While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer.", "For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the External Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called Remote Procedure Call (RPC).", "RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport.Different authors have interpreted the TCP/IP model differently, and disagree whether the link layer, or any aspect of the TCP/IP model, covers OSI layer 1 (physical layer) issues, or whether TCP/IP assumes a hardware layer exists below the link layer.Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by IEEE and ITU).", "This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2.The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering.", "Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers.", "The IETF has repeatedly stated that Internet Protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant.", "RFC 3439, referring to the internet architecture, contains a section entitled: \"Layering Considered Harmful\".For example, the session and presentation layers of the OSI suite are considered to be included in the application layer of the TCP/IP suite.", "The functionality of the session layer can be found in protocols like HTTP and SMTP and is more evident in protocols like Telnet and the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).", "Session-layer functionality is also realized with the port numbering of the TCP and UDP protocols, which are included in the transport layer of the TCP/IP suite.", "Functions of the presentation layer are realized in the TCP/IP applications with the MIME standard in data exchange.Another difference is in the treatment of routing protocols.", "The OSI routing protocol IS-IS belongs to the network layer, and does not depend on CLNS for delivering packets from one router to another, but defines its own layer-3 encapsulation.", "In contrast, OSPF, RIP, BGP and other routing protocols defined by the IETF are transported over IP, and, for the purpose of sending and receiving routing protocol packets, routers act as hosts.", "As a consequence, include routing protocols in the application layer.", "Some authors, such as Tanenbaum in ''Computer Networks'', describe routing protocols in the same layer as IP, reasoning that routing protocols inform decisions made by the forwarding process of routers.", "IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunnelling protocols such as Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE).", "GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunnelling at the network layer." ], [ "Implementations", "The Internet protocol suite does not presume any specific hardware or software environment.", "It only requires that hardware and a software layer exists that is capable of sending and receiving packets on a computer network.", "As a result, the suite has been implemented on essentially every computing platform.", "A minimal implementation of TCP/IP includes the following: Internet Protocol (IP), Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP).", "In addition to IP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, Internet Protocol version 6 requires Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP), ICMPv6, and Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) and is often accompanied by an integrated IPSec security layer." ], [ "See also", "* BBN Report 1822, an early layered network model* Fast Local Internet Protocol* List of automation protocols* List of information technology initialisms* List of IP protocol numbers* Lists of network protocols* List of TCP and UDP port numbers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Internet History – Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).", "* A TCP/IP Tutorial – from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991)* The Ultimate Guide to TCP/IP* The TCP/IP Guide – A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedure and processes involved*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi''' (; born '''Ali Mohamed Abdul Aziz al-Fakheri'''; 1963 – May 10, 2009) was a Libyan national captured in Afghanistan in November 2001 after the fall of the Taliban; he was interrogated by American and Egyptian forces.", "The information he gave under torture to Egyptian authorities was cited by the George W. Bush administration in the months preceding its 2003 invasion of Iraq as evidence of a connection between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda.", "That information was frequently repeated by members of the Bush administration, although reports from both the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) strongly questioned its credibility, suggesting that al-Libi was \"intentionally misleading\" interrogators.In 2006, the United States transferred al-Libi to Libya, where he was imprisoned by the government.", "He was reported to have tuberculosis.", "On May 19, 2009, the government reported that he had recently committed suicide in prison.", "Human Rights Watch, whose representatives had recently visited him, called for an investigation into the circumstances of his death; ''The New York Times'' reported that Ayman al-Zawahiri had asserted that Libya had tortured al-Libi to death." ], [ "Training camp director", "In Afghanistan, al-Libi led the Al Khaldan training camp, where Zacarias Moussaoui and Ahmed Ressam trained for attacks in the United States.", "An associate of Abu Zubaydah, al-Libi had his assets frozen by the U.S. government following the September 11 attacks; on September 26, 2002, the U.S. government published a list of terrorists who were covered by this restriction.The Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party's \"Islamic Turkistan\" magazine in its 5th edition published an obituary of its member Turghun (Ibn Umar al Turkistani) speaking of his time training at the Al Khaldan training camp and his meeting with Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi.", "The Uyghurs in Afghanistan fought against the American bombing and the Northern Alliance after the September 11, 2001, attacks.", "Ibn Umar died fighting against Americans at the Qalai Jangi prison riot.Al-Libi was captured by Pakistani officials in November 2001, as he attempted to flee Afghanistan following the collapse of the Taliban after the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, and was transferred to the US military in January 2002.Department of Defense spokesmen used to routinely describe the Khaldan training camp as an al-Qaeda training camp, and Al-Libi and Abu Zubaydah as senior members of al-Qaeda.", "But, during testimony at their Combatant Status Review Tribunals, several Guantanamo captives, including Zubaydah, described the Khaldan camp as having been run by a rival jihadist organizationone that did not support attacking civilians." ], [ "Cooperation with the FBI", "Al-Libi was turned over to the FBI and held at Bagram Air Base.", "When talking to the FBI interrogators Russell Fincher and Marty Mahon, he seemed \"genuinely friendly\" and spoke chiefly in English, calling for a translator only when necessary.", "He seemed to bond with Fincher, a devout Christian, and the two prayed together and discussed religion at length.Al-Libi told the interrogators details about Richard Reid, a British citizen who had joined al-Qaeda and trained to carry out a suicide bombing of an airliner, which he unsuccessfully attempted on December 22, 2001.Al-Libi agreed to continue cooperating if the United States would allow his wife and her family to emigrate, while he was prosecuted within the American legal system." ], [ "In CIA custody", "The CIA asked President Bush for permission to take al-Libi into their own custody and rendition him to a foreign country for more \"tough guy\" questioning, and were granted permission.", "They \"simply came and took al-Libi away from the FBI.\"", "One CIA officer was heard telling their new prisoner that \"You know where you are going.", "Before you get there, I am going to find your mother and fuck her\".In the second week of January 2002, al-Libi was flown to the USS ''Bataan'' in the northern Arabian Sea, a ship being used to hold eight other notable prisoners, including John Walker Lindh.", "He was subsequently transferred to Egyptian interrogators." ], [ "Information provided", "According to ''The Washington Post'',On September 15, 2002, ''Time'' published an article that detailed the CIA interrogations of Omar al-Faruq.", "It said,On Sept. 9, according to a secret CIA summary of the interview, al-Faruq confessed that he was, in fact, al-Qaeda's senior representative in Southeast Asia.", "Then came an even more shocking confession: according to the CIA document, al-Faruq said two senior al-Qaeda officials, Abu Zubaydah and Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi, had ordered him to 'plan large-scale attacks against U.S. interests in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam and Cambodia.", "'Al-Libi has been identified as a principal source of faulty prewar intelligence regarding chemical weapons training between Iraq and al-Qaeda that was used by the Bush administration to justify the invasion of Iraq.", "Specifically, he told interrogators that Iraq provided training to al-Qaeda in the area of \"chemical and biological weapons\".", "In Cincinnati in October 2002, Bush informed the public: \"Iraq has trained al Qaeda members in bomb making and poisons and gases.", "\"This claim was repeated several times in the run-up to the war, including in then-Secretary of State Colin Powell's speech to the UN Security Council on February 5, 2003, which concluded with a long recitation of the information provided by al-Libi.", "Powell's speech was made less than a month after a then-classified CIA report concluded that the information provided by al-Libi was unreliable, and about a year after a DIA report concluded the same thing.Al-Libi recanted these claims in January 2004 after U.S. interrogators presented \"new evidence from other detainees that cast doubt on his claims\", according to ''Newsweek''.", "The DIA concluded in February 2002 that al-Libi deliberately misled interrogators, in what the CIA called an \"attempt to exaggerate his importance\".", "Some speculate that his reason for giving disinformation was to draw the U.S. into an attack on Iraq—Islam's \"weakest\" state, a remark attributed to al-Libi—which al-Qaeda believed would lead to a global jihad.", "Others, including al-Libi himself, have insisted that he gave false information due to the use of torture (so-called \"enhanced interrogation techniques\").An article published in the November 5, 2005 edition of ''The New York Times'' quoted two paragraphs of a Defense Intelligence Agency report, declassified upon request by Senator Carl Levin, that expressed doubts about the results of al-Libi's interrogation in February 2002.Al-Libi told a foreign intelligence service that:Iraq — acting on the request of al-Qa'ida militant Abu Abdullah, who was Muhammad Atif's emissary — agreed to provide unspecified chemical or biological weapons training for two al-Qa'ida associates beginning in December 2000.The two individuals departed for Iraq but did not return, so al-Libi was not in a position to know if any training had taken place.", "The September 2002 version of ''Iraqi Support for Terrorism'' stated that al-Libi said Iraq had \"provided\" chemical and biological weapons training for two al-Qaeda associates in 2000, but also stated that al-Libi \"did not know the results of the training.", "\"The 2006 Senate Report on Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq stated that \"Although DIA coordinated on CIA's ''Iraqi Support for Terrorism'' paper, DIA analysis preceding that assessment was more skeptical of the al-Libi reporting.\"", "In July 2002, DIA assessedIt is plausible al-Qa'ida attempted to obtain CB assistance from Iraq and Ibn al-Shaykh is sufficiently senior to have access to such sensitive information.", "However, Ibn al-Shaykh's information lacks details concerning the individual Iraqis involved, the specific CB materials associated with the assistance and the location where the alleged training occurred.", "The information is also second hand, and not derived from Ibn al-Shaykh's personal experience.The Senate report also states \"According to al-Libi, after his decision to fabricate information for debriefers, he 'lied about being a member of al-Qa'ida.", "Although he considered himself close to, but not a member of, al-Qa'ida, he knew enough about the senior members, organization and operations to claim to be a member.'\"" ], [ "Senate Reports on Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq", "On September 8, 2006, the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence released \"Phase II\" of its report on prewar intelligence on Iraq.", "Conclusion 3 of the report states the following:On June 11, 2008, ''Newsweek'' published an account of material from a \"previously undisclosed CIA report written in the summer of 2002\".", "The article reported that on August 7, 2002, CIA analysts had drafted a high-level report that expressed serious doubts about the information flowing from al-Libi's interrogation.", "The information that al-Libi acknowledged being a member of al-Qaeda's executive council was not supported by other sources.", "According to al-Libi, in Egypt he was locked in a tiny box less than 20 inches high and held for 17 hours and after being let out he was thrown to the floor and punched for 15 minutes.", "According to CIA operational cables, only then did he tell his \"fabricated\" story about al-Qaeda members being dispatched to Iraq." ], [ "Book: ''Inside the Jihad''", "In November 2006, a Moroccan using the pseudonym Omar Nasiri, having infiltrated al-Qaeda in the 1990s, wrote the book, ''Inside the Jihad: My Life with al Qaeda, a Spy's story''.", "In the book, Nasiri claims that al-Libi deliberately planted information to encourage the U.S. to invade Iraq.", "In an interview with BBC2's ''Newsnight'', Nasiri said Libi \"needed the conflict in Iraq because months before I heard him telling us when a question was asked in the mosque after the prayer in the evening, where is the best country to fight the jihad?\"", "Nasiri said that Libi had identified Iraq as the \"weakest\" Muslim country.", "He suggested to ''Newsnight'' that al-Libi wanted to overthrow Saddam and use Iraq as a jihadist base.", "Nasiri describes al-Libi as one of the leaders at the Afghan camp, and characterizes him as \"brilliant in every way.\"", "He said that learning how to withstand interrogations and supply false information was a key part of the training in the camps.", "Al-Libi \"knew what his interrogators wanted, and he was happy to give it to them.", "He wanted to see Saddam toppled even more than the Americans did.\"" ], [ "Book: ''At the Center of the Storm''", "In April 2007, former Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet released his memoir titled ''At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA''.", "With regard to al-Libi, Tenet writes the following:" ], [ "Repatriation to Libya and death", "In 2006, the Bush administration announced that it was transferring high-value al-Qaeda detainees from CIA secret prisons so they could be put on trial by military commissions.", "However, the administration was conspicuously silent about al-Libi.", "In December 2014, it was revealed that he had been transferred to the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in 2003 and transferred to Morocco on March 27, 2004.Noman Benotman, a former Mujahideen who knew Libi, told ''Newsweek'' that during a recent trip to Tripoli, he met with a senior Libyan government official who confirmed to him that Libi had been transferred to Libya and was being held in prison there.", "He was suffering from tuberculosis.On May 10, 2009, the English language edition of the Libyan newspaper ''Ennahar'' reported that the government said that Al-Libi had been repatriated to Libyan custody in 2006, and had recently committed suicide by hanging.", "It attributed the information to another newspaper, ''Oea''.", "''Ennahar'' reported Al-Libi's real name was '''Ali Mohamed Abdul Aziz Al-Fakheri'''.", "It stated he was 46 years old, and had been allowed visits with international human rights workers from Human Rights Watch.", "The story was widely reported by other media outlets.Al-Libi had been visited in April 2009 by a team from Human Rights Watch.", "His sudden death so soon after this visit has led human rights organisations and Islamic groups to question whether it was truly a suicide.", "Clive Stafford Smith, Legal Director of the UK branch of the human rights group Reprieve, said, \"We are told that al-Libi committed suicide in his Libyan prison.", "If this is true it would be because of his torture and abuse.", "If false, it may reflect a desire to silence one of the greatest embarrassments to the Bush administration.\"", "Hafed Al-Ghwell, a Libya expert and director of communications at the Dubai campus of Harvard Kennedy School, commented:This is a regime with a long history of killing people in jail and then claiming it was suicide.", "My guess is Libya has seen the winds of change in America and wanted to bury this man before international organisations start demanding access to him.", "On June 19, 2009, Andy Worthington published new information on al-Libi's death.", "Worthington gave a detailed timeline of Al Libi's last years.The head of the Washington office of Human Rights Watch said al-Libi was \"Exhibit A\" in hearings on the relationship between pre-Iraq War false intelligence and torture.", "Confirmation of al-Libi's location came two weeks prior to his death.", "An independent investigation of his death has been requested by Human Rights Watch.On October 4, 2009, ''Reuters'' reported that Ayman Al Zawahiri, the head of al-Qaeda, had asserted that Libya had caused al-Libi's death through torture." ], [ "See also", "* Black site* Ghost detainee* Extraordinary rendition* ''Taxi to the Dark Side''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links and references", "* * * * Letter from DIA declassifying two paragraphs of DITSUM # 044-02, October 26, 2005* * * * Kurt Nimmo.", "CIA Patsy Spins Fairy Tale Plot to Assassinate Bush, ''Another Day in the Empire'', December 23, 2005.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "IDF" ], [ "Introduction", "'''IDF''' or '''idf''' may refer to:" ], [ "Defence forces", "Irish Defence ForcesIsrael Defense ForcesIceland Defense Force, of the US Armed Forces, 1951-2006Indian Defence Force, a part-time force, 1917" ], [ "Organizations", "Israeli Diving FederationInteraction Design FoundationInternational Diabetes FederationInternational DOI Foundation, of the digital object identifier" ], [ "Places", "Idiofa Airport, Idiofa, Democratic Republic of the Congo (IATA airport code)Île-de-France, region of France" ], [ "Other uses", "Intensity-duration-frequency curve, for rainfallIntel Developer ForumIntermediate Data Format, a file format for electronic design automationIntermediate distribution frame, for telecommunications wiringAIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo, Indigenous Defense Fighter, Taiwanese aircraftInverse Document Frequency, a factor in the tf–idf principleIndirect fire (''see also'' Glossary of military abbreviations#I)" ], [ "See also", " IDF1, a French TV channel" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement" ], [ "Introduction", "The organized '''International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement''' is a humanitarian movement with approximately 16 million volunteers, members, and staff worldwide.", "It was founded to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for all human beings, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering.", "Within it there are three distinct organisations that are legally independent from each other, but are united within the movement through common basic principles, objectives, symbols, statutes, and governing organisations." ], [ "History", "===Foundation===The Red Cross, after the Battle of Gravelotte in 1870Henry Dunant, author of ''A Memory of Solferino''Until the middle of the nineteenth century, there were no organized or well-established army nursing systems for casualties, nor safe or protected institutions, to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield.", "A devout Calvinist, the Swiss businessman Jean-Henri Dunant, traveled to Italy to meet then-French emperor Napoleon III in June 1859 with the intention of discussing difficulties in conducting business in Algeria, which at that time was occupied by France.", "He arrived in the small town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June after the Battle of Solferino, an engagement in the Austro-Sardinian War.", "In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field.", "Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care.", "He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded.", "He took point in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance with the local villagers to aid without discrimination.Original document of the First Geneva Convention, 1864Back at his home in Geneva, he decided to write a book entitled ''A Memory of Solferino'', which he published using his own money in 1862.He sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe, and people he thought could help him make a change.", "His book included vivid descriptions of his experiences in Solferino in 1859, and he explicitly advocated the formation of national voluntary relief organizations to help nurse wounded soldiers in the case of war, inspired by Christian teaching regarding social responsibility and his experience after the battlefield of Solferino.", "He called for the development of an international treaty to guarantee the protection of medics and field hospitals for soldiers wounded on the battlefield.In 1863, Gustave Moynier, a Geneva lawyer and president of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare, received a copy of Dunant's book and introduced it for discussion at a meeting of that society.", "As a result of this initial discussion, the society established an investigatory commission to examine the feasibility of Dunant's suggestions and eventually to organize an international conference about their possible implementation.", "The members of this committee, which has subsequently been referred to as the \"Committee of the Five\", aside from Dunant and Moynier were physician Louis Appia, who had significant experience working as a field surgeon; Appia's friend and colleague Théodore Maunoir, from the Geneva Hygiene and Health Commission; and Guillaume-Henri Dufour, a Swiss army general of great renown.", "Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the \"International Committee for Relief to the Wounded\".===International conference===From 26 to 29 October 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battlefield.", "The conference was attended by 36 individuals: eighteen official delegates from national governments, six delegates from non-governmental organizations, seven non-official foreign delegates, and the five members of the International Committee.", "The states and kingdoms represented by official delegates were: Austrian Empire, Grand Duchy of Baden, Kingdom of Bavaria, French Empire, Kingdom of Hanover, Grand Duchy of Hesse, Kingdom of Italy, Kingdom of the Netherlands, Kingdom of Prussia, Russian Empire, Kingdom of Saxony, Kingdom of Spain, United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "\"Committee of the Five\": Gustave Moynier, Guillaume-Henri Dufour, Henry Dunant, Louis Appia, Théodore MaunoirAmong the proposals written in the final resolutions of the conference, adopted on 29 October 1863, were:* The foundation of national relief societies for wounded soldiers;* Neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers;* The utilization of volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield;* The organization of additional conferences to enact these concepts;* The introduction of a common distinctive protection symbol for medical personnel in the field, namely a white armlet bearing a red cross.Memorial commemorating the first use of the Red Cross symbol in an armed conflict during the Battle of Dybbøl (Denmark) in 1864; jointly erected in 1989 by the national Red Cross societies of Denmark and Germany===Geneva Convention, national societies, and ICRC===Only a year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, the Empire of Brazil and the Mexican Empire to attend an official diplomatic conference.", "Sixteen countries sent a total of 26 delegates to Geneva.", "On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention \"for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field\".", "Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention:* * * * * * * * * * * * The convention contained ten articles, establishing for the first time legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers, field medical personnel, and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict.Directly following the establishment of the Geneva Convention, the first national societies were founded in Belgium, Denmark, France, Oldenburg, Prussia, Spain, and Württemberg.", "Also in 1864, Louis Appia and Charles van de Velde, a captain of the Dutch Army, became the first independent and neutral delegates to work under the symbol of the Red Cross in an armed conflict.The Ottoman government ratified this treaty on 5 July 1865.The Turkish Red Crescent organization was founded in the Ottoman Empire in 1868, partly in response to the experience of the Crimean War (1853–1856), in which disease overshadowed battle as the main cause of death and suffering among Turkish soldiers.", "It was the first Red Crescent society of its kind and one of the most important charity organizations in the Muslim world.In 1867, the first International Conference of National Aid Societies for the Nursing of the War Wounded was convened.Also in 1867, Jean-Henri Dunant was forced to declare bankruptcy due to business failures in Algeria, partly because he had neglected his business interests during his tireless activities for the International Committee.", "The controversy surrounding Dunant's business dealings and the resulting negative public opinion, combined with an ongoing conflict with Gustave Moynier, led to Dunant's expulsion from his position as a member and secretary.", "He was charged with fraudulent bankruptcy and a warrant for his arrest was issued.", "Thus, he was forced to leave Geneva and never returned to his home city.In the following years, national societies were founded in nearly every country in Europe.", "The project resonated well with patriotic sentiments that were on the rise in the late-nineteenth-century, and national societies were often encouraged as signifiers of national moral superiority.", "In 1876, the committee adopted the name \"International Committee of the Red Cross\" (ICRC), which is still its official designation today.", "Five years later, the American Red Cross was founded through the efforts of Clara Barton.", "More and more countries signed the Geneva Convention and began to respect it in practice during armed conflicts.", "In a rather short period of time, the Red Cross gained huge momentum as an internationally respected movement, and the national societies became increasingly popular as a venue for volunteer work.When the first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901, the Norwegian Nobel Committee opted to give it jointly to Jean-Henri Dunant and Frédéric Passy, a leading international pacifist.", "More significant than the honor of the prize itself, this prize marked the overdue rehabilitation of Jean-Henri Dunant and represented a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross.", "Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of Heiden.", "Only two months earlier his long-standing adversary Gustave Moynier had also died, leaving a mark in the history of the committee as its longest-serving president ever.Gōtarō Mikami's Red Cross flag with which in 1905 he prevented an attack by the Russian armyIn 1906, the 1864 Geneva Convention was revised for the first time.", "One year later, the Hague Convention X, adopted at the Second International Peace Conference in The Hague, extended the scope of the Geneva Convention to naval warfare.", "Shortly before the beginning of the First World War in 1914, 50 years after the foundation of the ICRC and the adoption of the first Geneva Convention, there were already 45 national relief societies throughout the world.", "The movement had extended itself beyond Europe and North America to Central and South America (Argentine Republic, the United States of Brazil, the Republic of Chile, the Republic of Cuba, the United Mexican States, the Republic of Peru, the Republic of El Salvador, the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, the United States of Venezuela), Asia (the Republic of China, the Empire of Japan and the Kingdom of Siam), and Africa (Union of South Africa).===World War I===Rath Museum.", "International Prisoners-of-War Agency.", "Researches department.", "German section.", "Express messages and communications to families.With the outbreak of World War I, the ICRC found itself confronted with enormous challenges that it could handle only by working closely with the national Red Cross societies.", "Red Cross nurses from around the world, including the United States and Japan, came to support the medical services of the armed forces of the European countries involved in the war.", "On 15 August 1914, immediately after the start of the war, the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War Agency (IPWA) to trace POWs and to re-establish communications with their respective families.", "The Austrian writer and pacifist Stefan Zweig described the situation at the Geneva headquarters of the ICRC:Group picture of the volunteers – mostly women – in front of the Musée Rath in 1914However, by the end of the year, the Agency already had some 1,200 volunteers who worked in the Musée Rath of Geneva, amongst them the French writer and pacifist Romain Rolland.", "When he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature for 1915, he donated half of the prize money to the Agency.", "Most of the staff were women, some of whom – like Marguerite van Berchem, Marguerite Cramer and Suzanne Ferrière – served in high positions as pioneers of gender equality in an organisation dominated by men.By the end of the war, the Agency had transferred about 20 million letters and messages, 1.9 million parcels, and about 18 million Swiss francs in monetary donations to POWs of all affected countries.", "Furthermore, due to the intervention of the Agency, about 200,000 prisoners were exchanged between the warring parties, released from captivity and returned to their home country.", "The organizational card index of the Agency accumulated about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923.The card index led to the identification of about 2 million POWs and the ability to contact their families.", "The complete index is on loan today from the ICRC to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva.", "The right to access the index is still strictly restricted to the ICRC.Red Cross ambulance from 1917During the entire war, the ICRC monitored warring parties' compliance with the Geneva Conventions of the 1907 revision and forwarded complaints about violations to the respective country.", "When chemical weapons were used in this war for the first time in history, the ICRC mounted a vigorous protest against their use.", "Even without having a mandate from the Geneva Conventions, the ICRC tried to ameliorate the suffering of civil populations.", "In territories that were officially designated as \"occupied territories\", the ICRC could assist the civilian population on the basis of the Hague Convention's \"Laws and Customs of War on Land\" of 1907.This convention was also the legal basis for the ICRC's work for prisoners of war.", "In addition to the work of the International Prisoner-of-War Agency as described above, this included inspection visits to POW camps.", "A total of 524 camps throughout Europe were visited by 41 delegates from the ICRC through the end of the war.The MV ''Red Cross'' in New York harbour ca 1915Red Cross nurses serving bread and coffee to American doughboys of the 16th Infantry, 1st Division, upon their arrival in Paris, July 4, 1917.Between 1916 and 1918, the ICRC published a number of postcards with scenes from the POW camps.", "The pictures showed the prisoners in day-to-day activities such as the distribution of letters from home.", "The intention of the ICRC was to provide the families of the prisoners with some hope and solace and to alleviate their uncertainties about the fate of their loved ones.", "After the end of the war, between 1920 and 1922, the ICRC organized the return of about 500,000 prisoners to their home countries.", "In 1920, the task of repatriation was handed over to the newly founded League of Nations, which appointed the Norwegian diplomat and scientist Fridtjof Nansen as its \"High Commissioner for Repatriation of the War Prisoners\".", "His legal mandate was later extended to support and care for war refugees and displaced persons when his office became that of the League of Nations \"High Commissioner for Refugees\".", "Nansen, who invented the Nansen passport for stateless refugees and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922, appointed two delegates from the ICRC as his deputies.", "A year before the end of the war, the ICRC received the 1917 Nobel Peace Prize for its outstanding wartime work.", "It was the only Nobel Peace Prize awarded in the period from 1914 to 1918.In 1923, the International Committee of the Red Cross adopted a change in its policy regarding the selection of new members.", "Until then, only citizens from the city of Geneva could serve in the committee.", "This limitation was expanded to include all Swiss citizens.", "As a direct consequence of World War I, a treaty was adopted in 1925 which outlawed the use of suffocating or poisonous gases and biological agents as weapons.", "Four years later, the original Convention was revised and the second Geneva Convention \"relative to the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea\" was established.", "The events of World War I and the respective activities of the ICRC significantly increased the reputation and authority of the Committee among the international community and led to an extension of its competencies.As early as in 1934, a draft proposal for an additional convention for the protection of the civil population in occupied territories during an armed conflict was adopted by the International Red Cross Conference.", "Unfortunately, most governments had little interest in implementing this convention, and it was thus prevented from entering into force before the beginning of World War II.=== World War II ===Photo taken by Maurice Rossel at choreographed Theresienstadt visit.", "Most of the children were murdered at Auschwitz in the fall of 1944.The Red Cross' response to the Holocaust has been the subject of significant controversy and criticism.", "As early as May 1944, the ICRC was criticized for its indifference to Jewish suffering and death—criticism that intensified after the end of the war, when the full extent of the Holocaust became undeniable.One defense to these allegations is that the Red Cross was trying to preserve its reputation as a neutral and impartial organization by not interfering with what was viewed as a German internal matter.", "The Red Cross also considered its primary focus to be prisoners of war whose countries had signed the Geneva Convention.The Geneva Conventions in their 1929 revision formed the legal basis of the work of the ICRC during World War II.", "The activities of the committee were similar to those during World War I: visiting and monitoring POW camps, organizing relief assistance for civilian populations, and administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons.", "By the end of the war, 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries.", "The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War (''Agence centrale des prisonniers de guerre'') had a staff of 3,000, the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards, and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency.", "One major obstacle was that the Nazi-controlled German Red Cross refused to cooperate with the Geneva statutes, including blatant violations such as the deportation of Jews from Germany, and the mass murders conducted in the Nazi concentration camps.War 1939–45.Geneva, Central Prisoners of war Agency, Electoral building/Palace of the General CouncilTwo other main parties to the conflict, the Soviet Union and Japan, were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions.During the war, the ICRC was unable to obtain an agreement with Nazi Germany about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps, and the ICRC eventually abandoned applying pressure, saying later it did so in order to avoid disrupting its work with POWs.", "The ICRC was also unable to obtain a response to reliable information about the extermination camps and the mass killing of European Jews, Roma, et al.", "After November 1943, the ICRC achieved permission to send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations.", "Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates, the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels, primarily to the concentration camps Dachau, Buchenwald, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen.Marcel Junod, delegate of the ICRC, visiting POWs in GermanyMaurice Rossel was sent to Berlin as a delegate of the International Red Cross; he visited Theresienstadt Ghetto in 1944.The choice of the inexperienced Rossel for this mission has been interpreted as indicative of his organization's indifference to the \"Jewish problem\", while his report has been described as \"emblematic of the failure of the ICRC\" to advocate for Jews during the Holocaust.", "Rossel's report was noted for its uncritical acceptance of Nazi propaganda.", "He erroneously stated that Jews were not deported from Theresienstadt.", "Claude Lanzmann recorded his experiences in 1979, producing a documentary entitled ''A Visitor from the Living''.On 12 March 1945, ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt received a message from SS General Ernst Kaltenbrunner allowing ICRC delegates to visit the concentration camps.", "This agreement was bound by the condition that these delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war.", "Ten delegates, among them Louis Haefliger (Mauthausen-Gusen), Paul Dunant (Theresienstadt), and Victor Maurer (Dachau) accepted the assignment and visited the camps.", "Louis Haefliger prevented the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen by alerting American troops.Telegram by ICRC delegate Fritz Bilfinger from Hiroshima three weeks after the atomic bombingFriedrich Born (1903–1963), an ICRC delegate in Budapest who saved the lives of about 11,000 to 15,000 Jewish people in Hungary.", "Marcel Junod (1904–1961), a physician from Geneva was one of the first foreigners to visit Hiroshima after the atomic bomb was dropped.In 1944, the ICRC received its second Nobel Peace Prize.", "As in World War I, it received the only Peace Prize awarded during the main period of war, 1939 to 1945.At the end of the war, the ICRC worked with national Red Cross societies to organize relief assistance to those countries most severely affected.", "In 1948, the Committee published a report reviewing its war-era activities from 1 September 1939 to 30 June 1947.The ICRC opened its archives from World War II in 1996.===After World War II; 20th century===Budapest 1945.Repatriation of 2,000 Italian prisoners of war.On 12 August 1949, further revisions to the existing two Geneva Conventions were adopted.", "An additional convention \"for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea\", now called the second Geneva Convention, was brought under the Geneva Convention umbrella as a successor to the 1907 Hague Convention X.", "The 1929 Geneva convention \"relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War\" may have been the second Geneva Convention from a historical point of view (because it was actually formulated in Geneva), but after 1949 it came to be called the third Convention because it came later chronologically than the Hague Convention.", "Reacting to the experience of World War II, the Fourth Geneva Convention, a new Convention \"relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War\", was established.", "Also, the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 were intended to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars.", "Today, the four conventions and their added protocols contain more than 600 articles, while there were only 10 articles in the first 1864 convention.In celebration of its centennial in 1963, the ICRC, together with the League of Red Cross Societies, received its third Nobel Peace Prize.ICRC Headquarters in GenevaOn 16 October 1990, the UN General Assembly granted the ICRC observer status for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings, the first observer status given to a private organization.", "The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the Italian ambassador, in memory of the organization's origins in the Battle of Solferino.", "An agreement with the Swiss government signed on 19 March 1993 affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the committee from any interference by Switzerland.", "The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland.At the end of the Cold War, the ICRC's work became more dangerous.", "In the 1990s, more delegates died than at any point in its history, especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts.", "These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols.", "Among the slain delegates were:* Nancy Malloy (Canada) and five others.", "They were shot at point-blank range while sleeping on 17 December 1996 in an ICRC field hospital in the Chechen city of Nowije Atagi near Grozny.", "Their murderers have never been caught.", "* Ricardo Munguia (El Salvador).", "He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues on 27 March 2003 when their car was stopped by unknown armed men.", "He was shot, while his colleagues were allowed to escape.", "His killing prompted the ICRC to temporarily suspend operations across Afghanistan.", "* Vatche Arslanian (Canada).", "He worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq.", "He was killed while travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent.", "On 8 April 2003 their car accidentally came into a cross-fire of fighting.On 27 January 2002, Palestinian Red Crescent volunteer paramedic and suicide bomber Wafa Idris was transported to Jerusalem, Israel, by a Red Crescent ambulance, whose driver was part of the plot, and killed herself while committing the Jaffa Street bombing.", "Idris, wearing a Red Crescent uniform, detonated a 22-pound (10 kilogram) bomb made up of TNT packed into pipes, in the center of Jerusalem outside a shoe store on the busy main shopping street Jaffa Road.", "The explosion she caused killed her and Pinhas Tokatli (81), and injured more than 100 others.===21st century=======Afghanistan====In the 2000s, the ICRC has been active in the Afghanistan conflict areas and has set up six physical rehabilitation centers to help land mine victims.", "Their support extends to the national and international armed forces, civilians and the armed opposition.", "They regularly visit detainees under the custody of the Afghan government and the international armed forces, but have also occasionally had access since 2009 to people detained by the Taliban.", "They have provided basic first aid training and aid kits to both the Afghan security forces and Taliban members because, according to an ICRC spokesperson, \"ICRC's constitution stipulates that all parties harmed by warfare will be treated as fairly as possible\".", "In August 2021, when NATO-led forces retreated from Afghanistan, the ICRC decided to remain in the country to continue its mission to assist and protect victims of conflict.", "Since June 2021, ICRC-supported facilities have treated more than 40,000 people wounded during armed confrontations there.====Russo-Ukrainian conflict====Among the ten largest ICRC deployments worldwide has been the mission in Ukraine, where the organization has been active since 2014, working closely with the Ukrainian Red Cross Society.", "At first, the ICRC was active primarily in the disputed regions of Donbas and Donetsk, assisting persons injured by armed confrontations there.", "When Russia invaded Ukraine on 24 February 2022, the fighting moved to more populated areas in East, North, and South Ukraine.", "The head of the ICRC delegation in Kyiv warned on 26 February 2022 that neighborhoods of major cities were becoming the frontline with significant consequences for their populations, including children, the sick, and elderly.", "The ICRC urgently called on all parties to the conflict not to forget their obligations under international humanitarian law to ensure the protection of the civilian population and infrastructure, and respect the dignity of refugees and prisoners of war.====Israel-Hamas conflict====Prior to the 2023 Israel–Hamas war Israeli authorities required Palestinian ambulances to undergo thorough searches when passing through checkpoints, saying the policy was driven by Palestinian organizations using ambulances to transport terrorists and armaments.", "The Israeli Ministry of Health said that: \"The Red Crescent closely cooperated with the MDA (Magen David Adom) until April 2002.At that time, the IDF claimed that Red Crescent ambulances were being used to carry terrorists.", "The Red Crescent personnel involved in this violation were interrogated.", "\"In October 2023, the ICRC responded to the 2023 Israel–Hamas war that has resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians.", "The ICRC has called the violence \"abhorrent\" and implored both sides to reduce the suffering of civilians.The ICRC, working closely with their Red Crescent partners, has a neutral, independent and exclusively humanitarian mandate during such escalations of violence in the Middle East and urged all parties to protect the lives of civilians, to reduce their suffering and protect their dignity.", "During the violent conflict, the ICRC and the Palestinian Red Crescent Society (PRCS) provided hospitals in the Gaza strip with support through large humanitarian convoys from Egypt, and was seriously affected by numerous aerial attacks on medical facilities and ambulances.", "The ICRC said in November that civilians have \"overwhelmingly borne the brunt\" civilians the fighting in the Palestinian enclave and Israel so far.", "Israeli forces have killed over 25,000 people, including civilians, Israeli nationals, and Hamas members in a devastating bombing campaign and ground offensive.In late November, the team of the ICRC started a multi-day operation to facilitate the release and transfer of hostages held in Gaza and of Palestinian prisoners to the West Bank.", "In early December, US Secretary of State Antony Blinken insisted that the Red Cross delegation must have access to the remaining hostages.", "The ICRC is not a negotiating power but the ICRC chief had direct talks with senior Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh in Qatar in November, demanding direct access to the remaining hostages.===IFRC=======History====Henry Davison, Founding father of the League of Red Cross societiesIn 1919, representatives from the national Red Cross societies of Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the US came together in Paris to found the \"League of Red Cross Societies\" (IFRC).", "The original idea came from Henry Davison, who was then president of the American Red Cross.", "This move, led by the American Red Cross, expanded the international activities of the Red Cross movement beyond the strict mission of the ICRC to include relief assistance in response to emergency situations which were not caused by war (such as man-made or natural disasters).", "The ARC already had great disaster relief mission experience extending back to its foundation.The formation of the League, as an additional international Red Cross organization alongside the ICRC, was not without controversy for a number of reasons.", "The ICRC had, to some extent, valid concerns about a possible rivalry between the two organizations.", "The foundation of the League was seen as an attempt to undermine the leadership position of the ICRC within the movement and to gradually transfer most of its tasks and competencies to a multilateral institution.", "In addition to that, all founding members of the League were national societies from countries of the Entente or from associated partners of the Entente.", "The original statutes of the League from May 1919 contained further regulations which gave the five founding societies a privileged status and, due to the efforts of Henry Davison, the right to permanently exclude the national Red Cross societies from the countries of the Central Powers, namely Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey, and in addition to that the national Red Cross society of Russia.", "These rules were contrary to the Red Cross principles of universality and equality among all national societies, a situation which furthered the concerns of the ICRC.The first relief assistance mission organized by the League was an aid mission for the victims of a famine and subsequent typhus epidemic in Poland.", "Only five years after its foundation, the League had already issued 47 donation appeals for missions in 34 countries, an impressive indication of the need for this type of Red Cross work.", "The total sum raised by these appeals reached 685 million Swiss francs, which were used to bring emergency supplies to the victims of famines in Russia, Germany, and Albania; earthquakes in Chile, Persia, Japan, Colombia, Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Turkey; and refugee flows in Greece and Turkey.", "The first large-scale disaster mission of the League came after the 1923 earthquake in Japan which killed about 200,000 people and left countless more wounded and without shelter.", "Due to the League's coordination, the Red Cross society of Japan received goods from its sister societies reaching a total worth of about $100 million.", "Another important new field initiated by the League was the creation of youth Red Cross organizations within the national societies.A stamp from the Faroe IslandsA stamp from TurkeyA joint mission of the ICRC and the League in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922 marked the first time the movement was involved in an internal conflict, although still without an explicit mandate from the Geneva Conventions.", "The League, with support from more than 25 national societies, organized assistance missions and the distribution of food and other aid goods for civil populations affected by hunger and disease.", "The ICRC worked with the Russian Red Cross Society and later the society of the Soviet Union, constantly emphasizing the ICRC's neutrality.", "In 1928, the \"International Council\" was founded to coordinate cooperation between the ICRC and the League, a task which was later taken over by the \"Standing Commission\".", "In the same year, a common statute for the movement was adopted for the first time, defining the respective roles of the ICRC and the League within the movement.During the Abyssinian war between Ethiopia and Italy from 1935 to 1936, the League contributed aid supplies worth about 1.7 million Swiss francs.", "Because the Italian fascist regime under Benito Mussolini refused any cooperation with the Red Cross, these goods were delivered solely to Ethiopia.", "During the war, an estimated 29 people died while being under explicit protection of the Red Cross symbol, most of them due to attacks by the Italian Army.", "During the civil war in Spain from 1936 to 1939 the League once again joined forces with the ICRC with the support of 41 national societies.", "In 1939 on the brink of the Second World War, the League relocated its headquarters from Paris to Geneva to take advantage of Swiss neutrality.Crown Prince Harald of Norway, King Olav of Norway, ICRC president Leopold Boissier, League Chairman John A. MacAulay.In 1952, the 1928 common statute of the movement was revised for the first time.", "Also, the period of decolonization from 1960 to 1970 was marked by a huge jump in the number of recognized national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies.", "By the end of the 1960s, there were more than 100 societies around the world.", "On 10 December 1963, the Federation and the ICRC received the Nobel Peace Prize.", "In 1983, the League was renamed to the \"League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies\" to reflect the growing number of national societies operating under the Red Crescent symbol.", "Three years later, the seven basic principles of the movement as adopted in 1965 were incorporated into its statutes.", "The name of the League was changed again in 1991 to its current official designation the \"International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies\".", "In 1997, the ICRC and the IFRC signed the Seville Agreement which further defined the responsibilities of both organizations within the movement.", "In 2004, the IFRC began its largest mission to date after the tsunami disaster in South Asia.", "More than 40 national societies have worked with more than 22,000 volunteers to bring relief to the countless victims left without food and shelter and endangered by the risk of epidemics." ], [ "Activities", "===Organization===Entry to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in GenevaA Turkish Red Crescent staff conducting activities for childrenAltogether, there are about 80 million people worldwide who serve with the ICRC, the International Federation, and the National Societies, the majority with the latter.===Fundamental principles===At the 20th International Conference in Neue Hofburg, Vienna, from 2–9 October 1965, delegates \"proclaimed\" seven fundamental principles which are shared by all components of the Movement, and they were added to the official statutes of the Movement in 1986.The durability and universal acceptance is a result of the process through which they came into being in the form they have.", "Rather than an effort to arrive at agreement, it was an attempt to discover what successful operations and organisational units, over the past 100 years, had in common.", "As a result, the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent were not revealed, but ''found –'' through a deliberate and participative process of discovery.That makes it even more important to note that the definition that appears for each principle is an integral part of the Principle in question and not an interpretation that can vary with time and place.+ Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Principle Definition '''Humanity''' The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, born of a desire to bring assistance without discrimination to the wounded on the battlefield, endeavours, in its international and national capacity, to prevent and alleviate human suffering wherever it may be found.", "Its purpose is to protect life and health and to ensure respect for the human being.", "It promotes mutual understanding, friendship, cooperation and lasting peace amongst all peoples.", "'''Impartiality''' It makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political opinions.", "It endeavours to relieve the suffering of individuals, being guided solely by their needs, and to give priority to the most urgent cases of distress.", "'''Neutrality''' In order to continue to enjoy the confidence of all, the Movement may not take sides in hostilities or engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature.", "'''Independence''' The Movement is independent.", "The National Societies, while auxiliaries in the humanitarian services of their governments and subject to the laws of their respective countries, must always maintain their autonomy so that they may be able at all times to act in accordance with the principles of the Movement.", "'''Voluntary Service''' It is a voluntary relief movement not prompted in any manner by desire for gain.", "'''Unity''' There can be only one Red Cross or one Red Crescent Society in any one country.", "It must be open to all.", "It must carry on its humanitarian work throughout its territory.", "'''Universality''' The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, in which all Societies have equal status and share equal responsibilities and duties in helping each other, is worldwide.===International Conference and the Standing Commission===The International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, which occurs once every four years, is the highest institutional body of the Movement.", "It gathers delegations from all of the national societies as well as from the ICRC, the IFRC and the signatory states to the Geneva Conventions.", "In between the conferences, the Standing Commission of the Red Cross and Red Crescent acts as the supreme body and supervises implementation of and compliance with the resolutions of the conference.", "In addition, the Standing Commission coordinates the cooperation between the ICRC and the IFRC.", "It consists of two representatives from the ICRC (including its president), two from the IFRC (including its president), and five individuals who are elected by the International Conference.", "The Standing Commission convenes every six months on average.", "Moreover, a convention of the Council of Delegates of the Movement takes place every two years in the course of the conferences of the General Assembly of the International Federation.", "The Council of Delegates plans and coordinates joint activities for the Movement." ], [ "International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)", "=== Mission ===The emblem of the International Committee of the Red Cross (French: Comité international de la Croix-rouge)The official mission of the ICRC as an impartial, neutral, and independent organization is to stand for the protection of the life and dignity of victims of international and internal armed conflicts.", "According to the revised Seville Agreement of 2022, the ICRC is entrusted the role of \"co-convener\" with the national Red Cross or Crescent society in situations of international andnon-international armed conflicts, internal strife and their direct results.=== Responsibilities ===The core tasks of the committee, which are derived from the Geneva Conventions and its own statutes, are the following:* to monitor compliance of warring parties with the Geneva Conventions* to organize nursing and care for those who are wounded on the battlefield* to supervise the treatment of prisoners of war* to help with the search for missing persons in an armed conflict (tracing service)* to organize protection and care for civil populations* to arbitrate between warring parties in an armed conflict=== Legal status and organization ===The ICRC is headquartered in the Swiss city of Geneva and has offices in over 100 countries.", "It has more than 22,000 staff members worldwide, about 1,400 of them working in its Geneva headquarters, 3,250 expatriate staff serving as general delegates and technical specialists, and about 17,000 locally recruited staff.According to Swiss law, the ICRC is defined as a private association.", "Contrary to popular belief, the ICRC is not a non-governmental organization in the most common sense of the term, nor is it an international organization.", "As it limits its members (a process called cooptation) to Swiss nationals only, it does not have a policy of open and unrestricted membership for individuals like other legally defined NGOs.", "The word \"international\" in its name does not refer to its membership but to the worldwide scope of its activities as defined by the Geneva Conventions.", "The ICRC has special privileges and legal immunities in many countries, based on national law in these countries or through agreements between the committee and respective national governments.According to its statutes, it consists of 15 to 25 Swiss-citizen members, which it coopts for a period of four years.", "There is no limit to the number of terms an individual member can have although a three-quarters majority of all members is required for re-election after the third term.The leading organs of the ICRC are the Directorate and the Assembly.", "The Directorate is the executive body of the committee.", "It consists of a general director and five directors in the areas of \"Operations\", \"Human Resources\", \"Resources and Operational Support\", \"Communication\", and \"International Law and Cooperation within the Movement\".", "The members of the Directorate are appointed by the Assembly to serve for four years.", "The Assembly, consisting of all of the members of the committee, convenes on a regular basis and is responsible for defining aims, guidelines, and strategies and for supervising the financial matters of the committee.", "The president of the Assembly is also the president of the committee as a whole.", "Furthermore, the Assembly elects a five-member Assembly Council which has the authority to decide on behalf of the full Assembly in some matters.", "The council is also responsible for organizing the Assembly meetings and for facilitating communication between the Assembly and the Directorate.Due to Geneva's location in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the ICRC usually acts under its French name ''Comité international de la Croix-Rouge'' (CICR).", "The official symbol of the ICRC is the Red Cross on white background with the words \"COMITE INTERNATIONAL GENEVE\" circling the cross.=== Funding and financial matters ===The 2023 budget of the ICRC amounts to 2.5 billion Swiss francs.", "Most of that money comes from states, including Switzerland in its capacity as the depositary state of the Geneva Conventions, from national Red Cross societies, the signatory states of the Geneva Conventions, and from international organizations like the European Union.", "All payments to the ICRC are voluntary and are received as donations based on two types of appeals issued by the committee: an annual ''Headquarters Appeal'' to cover its internal costs and ''Emergency Appeals'' for its individual missions.", "In 2023, Ukraine is the ICRC's biggest humanitarian operation (at 316.5 million Swiss francs), followed by Afghanistan (218 million francs) and Syria (171.7 million francs)." ], [ "International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)", "===Mission and responsibilities===Emblem of the IFRCThe International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies coordinates cooperation between national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies throughout the world and supports the foundation of new national societies in countries where no official society exists.", "On the international stage, the IFRC organizes and leads relief assistance missions after emergencies such as natural disasters, manmade disasters, epidemics, mass refugee flights, and other emergencies.", "As per the 1997 Seville Agreement, the IFRC is the Lead Agency of the Movement in any emergency situation which does not take place as part of an armed conflict.", "The IFRC cooperates with the national societies of those countries affected – each called the ''Operating National Society'' (ONS) – as well as the national societies of other countries willing to offer assistance – called ''Participating National Societies'' (PNS).", "Among the 187 national societies admitted to the General Assembly of the International Federation as full members or observers, about 25–30 regularly work as PNS in other countries.", "The most active of those are the American Red Cross, the British Red Cross, the German Red Cross, and the Red Cross societies of Sweden and Norway.", "Another major mission of the IFRC which has gained attention in recent years is its commitment to work towards a codified, worldwide ban on the use of land mines and to bring medical, psychological, and social support for people injured by land mines.The tasks of the IFRC can therefore be summarized as follows:* to promote humanitarian principles and values* to provide relief assistance in emergency situations of large magnitude, such as natural disasters* to support the national societies with disaster preparedness through the education of voluntary members and the provision of equipment and relief supplies* to support local health care projects* to support the national societies with youth-related activities===Legal status and organization===Van of the Italian Red CrossThe IFRC has its headquarters in Geneva.", "It also runs five zone offices (Africa, Americas, Asia Pacific, Europe, Middle East-North Africa), 14 permanent regional offices and has about 350 delegates in more than 60 delegations around the world.", "The legal basis for the work of the IFRC is its constitution.", "The executive body of the IFRC is a secretariat, led by a secretary general.", "The secretariat is supported by five divisions including \"Programme Services\", \"Humanitarian values and humanitarian diplomacy\", \"National Society and Knowledge Development\" and \"Governance and Management Services\".The highest decision-making body of the IFRC is its General Assembly, which convenes every two years with delegates from all of the national societies.", "Among other tasks, the General Assembly elects the secretary general.", "Between the convening of General Assemblies, the Governing Board is the leading body of the IFRC.", "It has the authority to make decisions for the IFRC in a number of areas.", "The Governing Board consists of the president and the vice presidents of the IFRC, the chairpersons of the Finance and Youth Commissions, and twenty elected representatives from national societies.The symbol of the IFRC is the combination of the Red Cross (left) and Red Crescent (right) on a white background surrounded by a red rectangular frame.===Funding and financial matters===The main parts of the budget of the IFRC are funded by contributions from the national societies which are members of the IFRC and through revenues from its investments.", "The exact amount of contributions from each member society is established by the Finance Commission and approved by the General Assembly.", "Any additional funding, especially for unforeseen expenses for relief assistance missions, is raised by \"appeals\" published by the IFRC and comes for voluntary donations by national societies, governments, other organizations, corporations, and individuals." ], [ "National Societies", "=== Official recognition ===An ambulance owned by the Mexican Red CrossAn Israeli stamp commemorating the 25th anniversary of Magen David Adom, issued 11 January 1955National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies exist in nearly every country in the world.", "Within their home country, they take on the duties and responsibilities of a national relief society as defined by International Humanitarian Law.", "Within the Movement, the ICRC is responsible for legally recognizing a relief society as an official national Red Cross or Red Crescent society.", "The exact rules for recognition are defined in the statutes of the Movement.", "Article 4 of these statutes contains the \"Conditions for recognition of National Societies\":: ''In order to be recognized in terms of Article 5, paragraph 2 b) as a National Society, the Society shall meet the following conditions:''# ''Be constituted on the territory of an independent State where the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field is in force.", "''# ''Be the only National Red Cross and-or Red Crescent Society of the said State and be directed by a central body which shall alone be competent to represent it in its dealings with other components of the Movement.", "''# ''Be duly recognized by the legal government of its country on the basis of the Geneva Conventions and of the national legislation as a voluntary aid society, auxiliary to the public authorities in the humanitarian field.", "''# ''Have an autonomous status which allows it to operate in conformity with the Fundamental Principles of the Movement.", "''# ''Use the name and emblem of the Red Cross or Red Crescent in conformity with the Geneva Conventions.", "''# ''Be so organized as to be able to fulfill the tasks defined in its own statutes, including the preparation in peace time for its statutory tasks in case of armed conflict.", "''# ''Extend its activities to the entire territory of the State.", "''# ''Recruit its voluntary members and its staff without consideration of race, sex, class, religion or political opinions.", "''# ''Adhere to the present Statutes, share in the fellowship which unites the components of the Movement and co-operate with them.", "''# ''Respect the Fundamental Principles of the Movement and be guided in its work by the principles of international humanitarian law.", "''Once a National Society has been recognized by the ICRC as a component of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (the Movement), it is in principle admitted to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in accordance with the terms defined in the Constitution and Rules of Procedure of the International Federation.Today, there are 192 National Societies recognized within the Movement and which are members of the International Federation.The most recent National Societies to have been recognized within the Movement are the Maldives Red Crescent Society (9 November 2011), the Cyprus Red Cross Society, the South Sudan Red Cross Society (12 November 2013) and, the last, the Tuvalu Red Cross Society (on 1 March 2016).=== Activities ===The Logistics Centre of the Finnish Red Cross in Tampere, FinlandDespite formal independence regarding its organizational structure and work, each national society is still bound by the laws of its home country.", "In many countries, national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies enjoy exceptional privileges due to agreements with their governments or specific \"Red Cross Laws\" granting full independence as required by the International Movement.", "The duties and responsibilities of a national society as defined by International Humanitarian Law and the statutes of the Movement include humanitarian aid in armed conflicts and emergency crises such as natural disasters through activities such as Restoring Family Links.Depending on their respective human, technical, financial, and organizational resources, many national societies take on additional humanitarian tasks within their home countries such as blood donation services or acting as civilian Emergency Medical Service (EMS) providers.", "The ICRC and the International Federation cooperate with the national societies in their international missions, especially with human, material, and financial resources and organizing on-site logistics.The Russian Red Cross supports the organisation Myvmeste, which supports the Russian Army with their 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine through their \"Everything for victory\" fund.During the Hamas-Israel war, the IFRC in particular called for humanitarian access across Gaza and West Bank, the release of hostages, the protection of civilians, hospitals and humanitarian workers from indiscriminate attack and compliance with international humanitarian law to ensure its continued activities in the occupied Palestinian territories." ], [ "History of the emblems", "The Red Cross, Red Crescent and Red Crystal emblems are officially recognized by the movement.", "De jure, the Red Lion and Sun emblem is also an official emblem, though it has fallen to disuse.", "Various other countries have also lobbied for alternative symbols, which have been rejected because of concerns of territorialism.=== Red Cross ===Red CrossThe Red Cross emblem was officially approved in Geneva in 1863.The Red Cross flag is not to be confused with the Saint George's Cross depicted on the flags of England, Barcelona, Georgia, Freiburg im Breisgau, and several other places.", "In order to avoid this confusion the protected symbol is sometimes referred to as the \"Greek Red Cross\"; that term is also used in United States law to describe the Red Cross.", "The red cross of the Saint George cross extends to the edge of the flag, whereas the red cross on the Red Cross flag does not.The Red Cross flag is the colour-switched version of the Flag of Switzerland, in recognition of \"the pioneering work of Swiss citizens in establishing internationally recognized standards for the protection of wounded combatants and military medical facilities\".", "In 1906, to put an end to the argument of the Ottoman Empire that the flag took its roots from Christianity, it was decided officially to promote the idea that the Red Cross flag had been formed by reversing the federal colours of Switzerland, although no written evidence of this origin had ever been found.The 1899 convention signed at the Hague extended the use of the Red Cross flag to naval ensigns, requiring that \"all hospital ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, together with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by the Geneva Convention\".=== Red Crescent ===Red CrescentThe Red Crescent emblem was first used by ICRC volunteers during the armed conflict of 1876–1878 between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire.", "The symbol was officially adopted in 1929, and so far 33 states in the Muslim world have recognized it.", "In common with the official promotion of the red cross symbol as a colour-reversal of the Swiss flag (rather than a religious symbol), the red crescent is similarly presented as being derived from a colour-reversal of the flag of the Ottoman Empire.=== Red Crystal ===Red CrystalThe International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) was concerned with the possibility that the two previous symbols (Red Cross and Red Crescent) were conveying religious meanings which would not be compatible with, for example, a majority Hindu or Buddhist country from the Asia-Pacific region, where the majority did not associate with these symbols.", "Therefore, in 1992, the then-president Cornelio Sommaruga decided that a third, more neutral symbol was required.On 8 December 2005, in response to growing pressure to accommodate Magen David Adom (MDA), Israel's national emergency medical, disaster, ambulance, and blood bank service, as a full member of the Red Cross and Red Crescent movement, a new emblem (officially the Third Protocol Emblem, but more commonly known as the Red Crystal) was adopted by an amendment of the Geneva Conventions known as Protocol III, fulfilling Sommaruga's suggestion.The Crystal can be found on official buildings and occasionally in the field.", "This symbolises equality and has no political, religious, or geographical connotations, thus allowing any country not comfortable with the symbolism of the original two flags to join the movement.=== Red Lion and Sun ===Red Lion and SunThe Red Lion and Sun Society of Iran was established in 1922 and admitted to the Red Cross and Red Crescent movement in 1923.The symbol was introduced at Geneva in 1864, as a counter example to the crescent and cross used by two of Iran's rivals, the Ottoman and the Russian empires.", "Although that claim is inconsistent with the Red Crescent's history, that history also suggests that the Red Lion and Sun, like the Red Crescent, may have been conceived during the 1877–1878 war between Russia and Turkey.Due to the emblem's association with the Iranian monarchy, the Islamic Republic of Iran replaced the Red Lion and Sun with the Red Crescent in 1980, consistent with two existing Red Cross and Red Crescent symbols.", "Although the Red Lion and Sun has now fallen into disuse, Iran has in the past reserved the right to take it up again at any time; the Geneva Conventions continue to recognize it as an official emblem, and that status was confirmed by Protocol III in 2005 even as it added the Red Crystal.===Unrecognized emblems; Red Star of David and Red Swastika===Magen David AdomFor over 50 years, Israel requested the addition of a red Star of David, arguing that since Christian and Muslim emblems were recognized, the corresponding Jewish emblem should be as well.", "This emblem has been used by Magen David Adom (MDA), or Red Star of David, but it is not recognized by the Geneva Conventions as a protected symbol.", "The Red Star of David is not recognized as a protected symbol outside Israel; instead the MDA uses the Red Crystal emblem during international operations in order to ensure protection.", "Depending on the circumstances, it may place the Red Star of David inside the Red Crystal, or use the Red Crystal alone.In her March 2000 letter to the ''International Herald Tribune'' and the ''New York Times'', Bernadine Healy, then president of the American Red Cross, wrote: \"The international committee's feared proliferation of symbols is a pitiful fig leaf, used for decades as the reason for excluding the Magen David Adom—the Shield (or Star) of David.\"", "In protest, the American Red Cross withheld millions in administrative funding to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies since May 2000.In 1922, a Red Swastika Society was formed in China during the Warlord era.", "The swastika is used in the Indian subcontinent, East, and Southeast Asia as a symbol to represent Dharma or Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism in general.", "While the organization has organized philanthropic relief projects (both domestic and international), as a sectarian religious body it is ineligible for recognition from the International Committee." ], [ "Hostage crisis allegations", "The Australian TV network ABC and the indigenous rights group Rettet die Naturvölker released a documentary called ''Blood on the Cross'' in 1999.It alleged the involvement of the Red Cross with the British and Indonesian military in a massacre in the Southern Highlands of Western New Guinea during the World Wildlife Fund's Mapenduma hostage crisis of May 1996, when Western and Indonesian activists were held hostage by separatists.Following the broadcast of the documentary, the Red Cross announced publicly that it would appoint an individual outside the organization to investigate the allegations made in the film and any responsibility on its part.", "Piotr Obuchowicz was appointed to investigate the matter.", "The report categorically states that the Red Cross personnel accused of involvement were proven not to have been present; that a white helicopter was probably used in a military operation, but the helicopter was not a Red Cross helicopter, and must have been painted by one of several military organizations operating in the region at the time.", "Perhaps the Red Cross logo itself was also used, although no hard evidence was found for this; that this was part of the military operation to free the hostages, but was clearly intended to achieve surprise by deceiving the local people into thinking that a Red Cross helicopter was landing; and that the Red Cross should have responded more quickly and thoroughly to investigate the allegations than it did." ], [ "See also", "* Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement* First Aid Convention Europe* List of National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies* World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day* UniRef" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * Boissier, Pierre.", "''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross.", "Volume I: From Solferino to Tsushima.''", "Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva, 1985.", "* Bugnion, François.", "''The emblem of the Red Cross: a brief history.''", "ICRC (ref.", "0316), Geneva, 1977.", "* Bugnion, François.", "''The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Protection of War Victims.''", "ICRC & Macmillan (ref.", "0503), Geneva, 2003.", "* Bugnion, François.", "''Towards a comprehensive Solution to the Question of the Emblem.''", "Revised 4th edition.", "ICRC (ref.", "0778), Geneva, 2006.", "* * * * * * Dunant, Henry.", "''A Memory of Solferino.''", "ICRC, Geneva 1986.", "* Durand, André.", "''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross.", "Volume II: From Sarajevo to Hiroshima.''", "Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva, 1984.", "* Farmborough, Florence.", "''With the Armies of the Tsar: A Nurse at the Russian Front 1914–1918.''", "Stein and Day, New York, 1975.", "* * Favez, Jean-Claude.", "''The Red Cross and the Holocaust'', Cambridge University Press, 1999.", "* Forsythe, David P. ''Humanitarian Politics: The International Committee of the Red Cross.''", "Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1978.", "* Forsythe, David P. ''The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross.''", "Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005.", "* Forsythe, David P. \"The International Committee of the Red Cross and International Humanitarian Law.\"", "In: ''Humanitäres Völkerrecht – Informationsschriften.", "The Journal of International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict.''", "2/2003, German Red Cross and Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict, p. 64–77.", "* Haug, Hans.", "''Humanity for All: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.''", "Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva in association with Paul Haupt Publishers, Bern, 1993.", "* ''Handbook of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement''.", "13th edition, International Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva, 1994.", "* Hutchinson, John F. ''Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross.''", "Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1997.", "* * Lavoyer, Jean-Philippe; Maresca, Louis.", "''The Role of the ICRC in the Development of International Humanitarian Law.''", "In: ''International Negotiation''.", "4(3)/1999.Brill Academic Publishers, pp. 503–527.", "* Moorehead, Caroline.", "''Dunant's Dream: War, Switzerland and the History of the Red Cross''.", "HarperCollins, London, 1998.", "(Hardcover edition); HarperCollins, London 1999, (Paperback edition)* Möller, Esther (2020), ''Red Cross and Red Crescent'', EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: 17 March 2021.", "* * * * * * * Willemin, Georges; Heacock, Roger.", "''International Organization and the Evolution of World Society.", "Volume 2: The International Committee of the Red Cross.''", "Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Boston, 1984.", "* Wylie, Neville.", "''The Sound of Silence: The History of the International Committee of the Red Cross as Past and Present.''", "In: ''Diplomacy and Statecraft''.", "13(4)/2002.Routledge/ Taylor & Francis, pp.", "186–204, * " ], [ "External links", " The International RCRC Movement – Who we are* International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)* International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)* Standing Commission of the Red Cross and Red Crescent* International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ira Gershwin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ira Gershwin''' (born '''Israel Gershovitz'''; December 6, 1896 – August 17, 1983) was an American lyricist who collaborated with his younger brother, composer George Gershwin, to create some of the most memorable songs in the English language of the 20th century.", "With George, he wrote more than a dozen Broadway shows, featuring songs such as \"I Got Rhythm\", \"Embraceable You\", \"The Man I Love\" and \"Someone to Watch Over Me\".", "He was also responsible, along with DuBose Heyward, for the libretto to George's opera ''Porgy and Bess''.The success the Gershwin brothers had with their collaborative works has often overshadowed the creative role that Ira played.", "His mastery of songwriting continued after George's early death in 1937.Ira wrote additional hit songs with composers Jerome Kern, Kurt Weill, Harry Warren and Harold Arlen.", "His critically acclaimed 1959 book ''Lyrics on Several Occasions'', an amalgam of autobiography and annotated anthology, is an important source for studying the art of the lyricist in the golden age of American popular song." ], [ "Life and career", "Gershwin was born at 60 Eldridge St in Manhattan, the oldest of four children of Morris (Moishe) and Rose Gershovitz (née Rosa Bruskin), who were Russian Jews from Saint Petersburg and who had emigrated to the United States in 1891.Ira's siblings were George (Jacob, b.", "1898), Arthur (b.", "1900), and Frances (b.", "1906).", "Morris changed the family name to \"Gershwine\" (or alternatively \"Gershvin\") well before their children rose to fame; it was not spelled \"Gershwin\" until later.", "Shy in his youth, Ira spent much of his time at home reading, but from grammar school through college, he played a prominent part in several school newspapers and magazines.He graduated in 1914 from Townsend Harris High School, a public school for intellectually gifted students, where he met Yip Harburg, with whom he enjoyed a lifelong friendship and a love of Gilbert and Sullivan.", "He attended the City College of New York but dropped out.The childhood home of Ira and George Gershwin was in the center of the Yiddish Theater District, on the second floor at 91 Second Avenue, between East 5th Street and East 6th Street.", "They frequented the local Yiddish theaters.While George began composing and \"plugging\" in Tin Pan Alley from the age of 18, Ira worked as a cashier in his father's Turkish baths.", "It was not until 1921 that Ira became involved in the music business.", "Alex Aarons signed Ira to write the songs for his next show, ''Two Little Girls in Blue'', ultimately produced by Abraham Erlanger, along with co-composers Vincent Youmans and Paul Lannin.", "So as not to appear to trade off George's growing reputation, Ira wrote under the pseudonym \"Arthur Francis\", after his youngest two siblings.", "His lyrics were well received, allowing him successfully to enter the show-business world with just one show.", "Later the same year, the Gershwins collaborated for the first time on a score; this was for ''A Dangerous Maid'', which played in Atlantic City and on tour.It was not until 1924 that Ira and George teamed up to write the music for what became their first Broadway hit ''Lady, Be Good''.", "Once the brothers joined forces, their combined talents became one of the most influential forces in the history of American Musical Theatre.", "\"When the Gershwins teamed up to write songs for ''Lady, Be Good'', the American musical found its native idiom.\"", "Together, they wrote the music for more than 12 shows and four films.", "Some of their more famous works include \"The Man I Love\", \"Fascinating Rhythm\", \"Someone to Watch Over Me\", \"I Got Rhythm\" and \"They Can't Take That Away from Me\".", "Their partnership continued until George's sudden death from a brain tumor in 1937.Following his brother's death, Ira waited nearly three years before writing again.After this temporary retirement, Ira teamed up with accomplished composers such as Jerome Kern (''Cover Girl''); Kurt Weill (''Where Do We Go from Here?", "''; ''Lady in the Dark''); Harry Warren (''The Barkleys of Broadway''); and Harold Arlen (''Life Begins at 8:40''; ''A Star Is Born'').", "Over the next 14 years, Gershwin continued to write the lyrics for many film scores and a few Broadway shows.", "But the failure of ''Park Avenue'' in 1946 (a \"smart\" show about divorce, co-written with composer Arthur Schwartz) was his farewell to Broadway.", "As he wrote at the time, \"Am reading a couple of stories for possible musicalization (if there is such a word) but I hope I don't like them as I think I deserve a long rest.", "\"In 1947, he took 11 songs George had written but never used, provided them with new lyrics, and incorporated them into the Betty Grable film ''The Shocking Miss Pilgrim''.", "He later wrote comic lyrics for Billy Wilder's 1964 movie ''Kiss Me, Stupid'', although most critics believe his final major work was for the 1954 Judy Garland film ''A Star Is Born''.American singer, pianist and musical historian Michael Feinstein worked for Gershwin in the lyricist's latter years, helping him with his archive.", "Several lost musical treasures were unearthed during this period, and Feinstein performed some of the material.", "Feinstein's book ''The Gershwins and Me: A Personal History in Twelve Songs'' about working for Ira, and George and Ira's music, was published in 2012.According to a 1999 story in Vanity Fair, Ira Gershwin's love for loud music was as great as his wife's loathing of it.", "When Debby Boone—daughter-in-law of his neighbor Rosemary Clooney—returned from Japan with one of the first Sony Walkmans (utilizing cassette tape), Clooney gave it to Michael Feinstein to give to Ira, \"so he could crank it in his ears, you know.", "And he said, 'This is absolutely wonderful!'", "And he called his broker and bought Sony stock!\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Gershwin married Leonore (née Strunsky) in 1926.He died of heart disease in Beverly Hills, California, on 17 August 1983 at the age of 86.He is interred at Westchester Hills Cemetery, Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.", "Leonore died in 1991." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Three of Ira Gershwin's songs (\"They Can't Take That Away From Me\" (1937), \"Long Ago (and Far Away)\" (1944) and \"The Man That Got Away\" (1954)) were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, though none won.Along with George S Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind, he was a recipient of the 1932 Pulitzer Prize for Drama for ''Of Thee I Sing''.In 1988 UCLA established The George and Ira Gershwin Lifetime Musical Achievement Award in recognition of the brothers' contribution to music, and for their gift to UCLA of the fight song \"Strike Up the Band for UCLA\".", "Recipients include Angela Lansbury (1988), Ray Charles (1991), Mel Tormé (1994), Bernadette Peters (1995), Frank Sinatra (2000), Stevie Wonder (2002), k.d.", "lang (2003), James Taylor (2004), Babyface (2005), Burt Bacharach (2006), Quincy Jones (2007), Lionel Richie (2008) and Julie Andrews (2009)." ], [ "Legacy", "Ira Gershwin was a joyous listener to the sounds of the modern world.", "\"He had a sharp eye and ear for the minutiae of living.\"", "He noted in a diary: \"Heard in a day: An elevator's purr, telephone's ring, telephone's buzz, a baby's moans, a shout of delight, a screech from a 'flat wheel', hoarse honks, a hoarse voice, a tinkle, a match scratch on sandpaper, a deep resounding boom of dynamiting in the impending subway, iron hooks on the gutter.", "\"In 1987, Ira's widow, Leonore, established the Ira Gershwin Literacy Center at University Settlement, a century-old institution at 185 Eldridge Street on the Lower East Side, New York City.", "The center is designed to give English-language programs to primarily Hispanic and Chinese Americans.", "Ira and his younger brother George spent many after-school hours at the Settlement.The George and Ira Gershwin Collection and the Ira Gershwin Files from the Law Office of Leonard Saxe are both at the Library of Congress Music Division.", "The Edward Jablonski and Lawrence D. Stewart Gershwin Collection at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin holds a number of Ira's manuscripts and other material.In 2007, the United States Library of Congress named its Prize for Popular Song after him and his brother George.", "Recognizing the profound and positive effect of American popular music on the world's culture, the prize will be given annually to a composer or performer whose lifetime contributions exemplify the standard of excellence associated with the Gershwins." ], [ "Notable songs", "* \"But Not for Me\"* \"Embraceable You\"* \"How Long Has This Been Going On?", "\"* \"I Can't Get Started\" (music by Vernon Duke)* \"I Got Rhythm\"* \"I've Got a Crush on You\"* \"Let's Call the Whole Thing Off\"* \"Long Ago (and Far Away)\" (music by Jerome Kern)* \"Love Is Here To Stay\"* \"My Ship\" (music by Kurt Weill)* \"Nice Work If You Can Get It\"* \"Oh, Lady Be Good\"* \"'S Wonderful\"* \"Someone to Watch Over Me\"* \"Strike Up the Band\"* \"The Man I Love\"* \"The Man That Got Away\" (music by Harold Arlen)* \"They All Laughed\"* \"They Can't Take That Away from Me\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * Pollack, Howard.", "''George Gershwin: his life and work''.", "University of California Press, 2006 " ], [ "External links", " * * * The Library of Congress George and Ira Gershwin Collection and The Gershwin LegacyThe Ira Gershwin files from the law office of Leonard Saxe at the Library of Congress Ira Gershwin Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin* Gershwin fan site* * Ira Gershwin recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indus River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Indus''' ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia.", "The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, bends sharply to the left after the Nanga Parbat massif, and flows south-by-southwest through Pakistan, before emptying into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi.The river has a total drainage area of circa .", "Its estimated annual flow is around , making it one of the 50 largest rivers in the world in terms of average annual flow.", "Its left-bank tributary in Ladakh is the Zanskar River, and its left-bank tributary in the plains is the Panjnad River which is formed by the successive confluences of the five Punjab rivers, namely the Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers.", "Its principal right-bank tributaries are the Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul, Kurram, and Gomal rivers.", "Beginning in a mountain spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayan, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush ranges, the river supports the ecosystems of temperate forests, plains, and arid countryside.The northern part of the Indus Valley, with its tributaries, forms the Punjab region of South Asia, while the lower course of the river ends in a large delta in the southern Sindh province of Pakistan.", "The river has historically been important to many cultures of the region.", "The 3rd millennium BCE saw the rise of Indus Valley Civilisation, a major urban civilization of the Bronze Age.", "During the 2nd millennium BCE, the Punjab region was mentioned in the Rigveda hymns as ''Sapta Sindhu'' and in the Avesta religious texts as ''Saptha Hindu'' (both terms meaning \"seven rivers\").", "Early historical kingdoms that arose in the Indus Valley include Gandhāra, and the Ror dynasty of Sauvīra.", "The Indus River came into the knowledge of the Western world early in the classical period, when King Darius of Persia sent his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river, ." ], [ "Etymology and names", "This river was known to the ancient Indians in Sanskrit as ''Sindhu'' and to the Persians as ''Hindu'' which was regarded by both of them as \"the border river\".", "The variation between the two names is explained by the Old Iranian sound change ''s'' > ''h'', which occurred between 850 and 600 BCE according to Asko Parpola.", "From the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the name passed to the Greeks as ''Indós'' (Ἰνδός).", "It was adopted by the Romans as ''Indus''.", "The name India is derived from Indus.", "The Ladakhis and Tibetans call the river ''Senge Tsangpo'' (སེང་གེ་གཙང་པོ།), Baltis call it ''Gemtsuh'' and ''Tsuh-Fo'', Pashtuns call it ''Nilab'', ''Sher Darya'' and ''Abbasin'', while Sindhis call it ''Sindhu'', ''Mehran'', ''Purali'' and ''Samundar''.The modern name in Urdu and Hindi is ''Sindh'' (, ), a semi-learned borrowing from Sanskrit." ], [ "Description", "The course of the Indus in the disputed Kashmir region; the river flows through Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan, administered respectively by India and PakistanThe Indus River provides key water resources for Pakistan's economy – especially the ''breadbasket'' of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh.", "The word Punjab means \"land of five rivers\" and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all of which finally flow into the Indus.", "The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan.The total length of the river varies in different sources.", "The length used in this article is , taken from the ''Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas'' (2015).", "Historically, the 1909 ''The Imperial Gazetteer of India'' gave it as \"just over 1,800 miles\".", "A shorter figure of has been widely used in modern sources, as has the one of .", "The modern ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' was originally published in 1999 with the shorter measurement, but was updated in 2015 to use the longer measurement.", "Both lengths are commonly found in modern publications; in some cases, both measurements can be found within the same work.", "An extended figure of circa was announced by a Chinese research group in 2011, based on a comprehensive remeasurement from satellite imagery, and a ground expedition to identify an alternative source point, but detailed analysis has not yet been published.The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet, but there is some debate about the exact source.", "The traditional source of the river is the ''Sênggê Kanbab'' (Sênggê Zangbo) or \"Lion's Mouth\", a perennial spring not far from the sacred Mount Kailash, marked by a long low line of Tibetan chortens.", "There are several other tributaries nearby, which may form a longer stream than Sênggê Kanbab, but unlike the Sênggê Kanbab, are all dependent on snowmelt.", "The Zanskar River, which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.", "An alternative reckoning begins the river around 300 km further upstream, at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers, which drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt.", "Kailash) mountain ranges.", "The 2011 remeasurement suggested the source was a small lake northeast of Mount Kailash, rather than either of the two points previously used.The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh (Indian-administered Kashmir) and Baltistan and Gilgit (Pakistan-administered Kashmir), just south of the Karakoram range.", "The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river.", "It gradually bends to the south and descends into the Punjab plains at Kalabagh, Pakistan.", "The Indus passes gigantic gorges deep near the Nanga Parbat massif.", "It flows swiftly across Hazara and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir.", "The Kabul River joins it near Attock.", "The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided.", "It is joined by the Panjnad at Mithankot.", "Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named the ''Satnad River'' (''sat'' = \"seven\", ''nadī'' = \"river\"), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers.", "Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the South of Thatta in the Sindh province of Pakistan.The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit a tidal bore.", "The Indus system is largely fed by the snow and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu Kush ranges.", "The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons – it diminishes greatly in the winter while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September.", "There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times – it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch and adjoining Banni grasslands after the 1816 earthquake.", ", Indus water flows in to the Rann of Kutch during its floods breaching flood banks." ], [ "History", "The major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization –1900 BCE in Pakistan, India and AfghanistanThe major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BCE, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world.", "The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from across northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach from east of the Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej.", "The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Pakistan-Iran border to Kutch in modern Gujarat, India.", "There is an Indus site on the Amu Darya at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only from Delhi.", "To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries.", "Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi.", "Only 40 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries.", "However, it is notable that majority of the Indus script seals and inscribed objects discovered were found at sites along the Indus river.Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo-Aryans flourished in Gandhara from 1700 BCE to 600 BCE, when Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had already been abandoned.The Rigveda describes several rivers, including one named \"Sindhu\".", "The Rigvedic \"Sindhu\" is thought to be the present-day Indus river.", "It is attested 176 times in its text, 94 times in the plural, and most often used in the generic sense of \"river\".", "In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, e.g.", "in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn of ''Nadistuti sukta''.", "The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, except for the Brahmaputra.The word \"India\" is derived from the Indus River.", "In ancient times, \"India\" initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, where are Punjab and Sindh now but by 300 BCE, Greek writers including Herodotus and Megasthenes were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward.The lower basin of the Indus forms a natural boundary between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian subcontinent; this region embraces all or parts of the Pakistani provinces Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh and the countries Afghanistan and India.", "The first West Eurasian empire to annex the Indus Valley was the Persian Empire, during the reign of Darius the Great.", "During his reign, the Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda was commissioned to explore the course of the Indus.", "It was crossed by the invading armies of Alexander.", "Still, after his Macedonians conquered the west bank—joining it to the Hellenic world, they elected to retreat along the southern course of the river, ending Alexander's Asian campaign.", "Alexander's admiral Nearchus set out from the Indus Delta to explore the Persian Gulf, until reaching the Tigris River.", "The Indus Valley was later dominated by the Mauryan and Kushan Empires, Indo-Greek Kingdoms, Indo-Scythians and Hepthalites.", "Over several centuries Muslim armies of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni, Muhammad of Ghor, Timur and Babur crossed the river to invade Sindh and Punjab, providing a gateway to the Indian subcontinent." ], [ "Geography", "===Tributaries===Gar RiverGilgit RiverGomal RiverHaro RiverHunza RiverKabul RiverKunar RiverKurram RiverPanjnad RiverChenab RiverJhelum RiverRavi RiverSatluj River**Beas RiverShyok RiverSoan RiverDras River (or Shingo River)Swat RiverZanskar RiverLuni riverZhob River" ], [ "Geology", "Indus River near Leh, Ladakh, IndiaConfluence of Indus and Zanskar rivers.", "The Indus is at the left of the picture, flowing left-to-right; the Zanskar, carrying more water, comes in from the top of the pictureIndus is an antecedent river, meaning that it existed before the Himalayas and entrenched itself while they were rising.The Indus river feeds the Indus submarine fan, which is the second largest sediment body on Earth.", "It consists of around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains.", "Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej).", "Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that before five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the Ganga and were captured after that time.", "Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time.", "The delta of this proto-Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan-Pakistan border.In the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area are thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface.In November 2011, satellite images showed that the Indus river had re-entered India and was feeding the Great Rann of Kutch, Little Rann of Kutch and a lake near Ahmedabad known as Nal Sarovar.", "Heavy rains had left the river basin along with the Lake Manchar, Lake Hemal and Kalri Lake (all in modern-day Pakistan) inundated.", "This happened two centuries after the Indus river shifted its course westwards following the 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake.The Induan Age at the start of the Triassic Period of geological time is named for the Indus region." ], [ "Wildlife", "Fishermen on the Indus River, c. 1905Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region.", "The Mughal Emperor Babur writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the Baburnama).", "Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions.", "The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation.", "Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works.The Indus river and its watershed have a rich biodiversity.", "It is home to around 25 amphibian species.===Mammals===The Indus river dolphin (''Platanista indicus minor'') is found only in the Indus River.", "It is a subspecies of the South Asian river dolphin.", "The Indus river dolphin formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river.", "According to the World Wildlife Fund it is one of the most threatened cetaceans with only about 1,816 still existing.", "It is threatened by habitat degradation from the construction of dams and canals, entanglement in fishing gear, and industrial water pollution.There are two otter species in the Indus River basin: the Eurasian otter in the northeastern highland sections and the smooth-coated otter elsewhere in the river basin.", "The smooth-coated otters in the Indus River represent a subspecies found nowhere else, the Sindh otter (''Lutrogale perspicillata sindica'').===Fish===The Indus River basin has high diversity, being the home of more than 180 freshwater fish species, including 22 which are found nowhere else.", "Fish also played a major role in earlier cultures of the region, including the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation where depictions of fish were frequent.", "The Indus script has a commonly used fish sign, which in its various forms may simply have meant \"fish\", or referred to stars or gods.In the uppermost, highest part of the Indus River basin there are relatively few genera and species: ''Diptychus'', ''Ptychobarbus'', ''Schizopyge'', ''Schizopygopsis'' and ''Schizothorax'' snowtrout, ''Triplophysa'' loaches, and the catfish ''Glyptosternon reticulatum''.", "Going downstream these are soon joined by the golden mahseer ''Tor putitora'' (alternatively ''T.", "macrolepis'', although it often is regarded as a synonym of ''T.", "putitora'') and ''Schistura'' loaches.", "Downriver from around Thakot, Tarbela, the Kabul–Indus river confluence, Attock Khurd and Peshawar the diversity rises strongly, including many cyprinids (''Amblypharyngodon'', ''Aspidoparia'', ''Barilius'', ''Chela'', ''Cirrhinus'', ''Crossocheilus'', ''Cyprinion'', ''Danio'', ''Devario'', ''Esomus'', ''Garra'', ''Labeo'', ''Naziritor'', ''Osteobrama'', ''Pethia'', ''Puntius'', ''Rasbora'', ''Salmophasia'', ''Securicula'' and ''Systomus''), true loaches (''Botia'' and ''Lepidocephalus''), stone loaches (''Acanthocobitis'' and ''Nemacheilus''), ailiid catfish (''Clupisoma''), bagridae catfish (''Batasio'', ''Mystus'', ''Rita'' and ''Sperata''), airsac catfish (''Heteropneustes''), schilbid catfish (''Eutropiichthys''), silurid catfish (''Ompok'' and ''Wallago''), sisorid catfish (''Bagarius'', ''Gagata'', ''Glyptothorax'' and ''Sisor''), gouramis (''Trichogaster''), nandid leaffish (''Nandus''), snakeheads (''Channa''), spiny eel (''Macrognathus'' and ''Mastacembelus''), knifefish (''Notopterus''), glassfish (''Chanda'' and ''Parambassis''), clupeids (''Gudusia''), needlefish (''Xenentodon'') and gobies (''Glossogobius''), as well as a few introduced species.", "As the altitude further declines the Indus basin becomes overall quite slow-flowing as it passes through the Punjab Plain.", "Major carp become common, and chameleonfish (''Badis''), mullet (''Sicamugil'') and swamp eel (''Monopterus'') appear.", "In some upland lakes and tributaries of the Punjab region snow trout and mahseer are still common, but once the Indus basin reaches its lower plain the former group is absent and the latter are rare.", "Many of the species of the middle sections of the Indus basin are also present in the lower.", "Notable examples of genera that are present in the lower plain but generally not elsewhere in the Indus River basin are the ''Aphanius'' pupfish, ''Aplocheilus'' killifish, palla fish (''Tenualosa ilisha''), catla (''Labeo catla''), rohu (''Labeo rohita'') and ''Cirrhinus mrigala''.", "The lowermost part of the river and its delta are home to freshwater fish, but also several brackish and marine species.", "This includes pomfret and prawns.", "The large delta has been recognized by conservationists as an important ecological region.", "Here, the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels.Palla fish (''Tenualosa ilisha'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river.", "The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta, and Kotri being the major fishing centres – all in the lower Sindh course.", "As a result, damming and irrigation have made fish farming an important economic activity." ], [ "Economy", "Skyline of Sukkur along the shores of the Indus RiverThe Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains – it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan.", "The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley.", "Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus Valley civilisation, and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire.", "Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 – the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals.", "The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world.", "The Guddu Barrage is long – irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat.", "The Sukkur Barrage serves over .After Pakistan came into existence, a water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its two tributaries the Jhelum River and the Chenab River independently of upstream control by India.The Indus Basin Project consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the Mangla Dam built on the Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams.", "The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal – linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers – extending water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan.", "Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi – standing long and high, with an long reservoir.", "It supports the Chashma Barrage near Dera Ismail Khan for irrigation use and flood control and the Taunsa Barrage near Dera Ghazi Khan which also produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity.", "The Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is long and provides additional water supplies for Karachi.", "The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.", "The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as cotton, sugarcane and wheat.", "The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres." ], [ "People", "Houseboat of a Mohana family near Kot Addu; people of the Mohana tribe live on the Indus river and related waterbodies in southern Punjab and SindhThe Indus river is sacred to Hindus.", "The Sindhu Darshan Festival is held on every Guru Purnima on the banks of the Indus.The ethnicities of the Indus Valley (Pakistan and Northwest India) have a greater amount of ANI (or West Eurasian) admixture than other South Asians, including inputs from Western Steppe Herders, with evidence of more sustained and multi-layered migrations from the west." ], [ "Modern issues", "===Indus delta===Originally, the delta used to receive almost all of the water from the Indus river, which has an annual flow of approximately , and is accompanied by of silt.", "Since the 1940s, dams, barrages and irrigation works have been constructed on the river.", "The Indus Basin Irrigation System is the \"largest contiguous irrigation system developed over the past 140 years\" anywhere in the world.", "This has reduced the flow of water and by 2018, the average annual flow of water below the Kotri barrage was , and annual amount of silt discharged was estimated at .", "As a result, the 2010 Pakistan floods were considered \"good news\" for the ecosystem and population of the river delta as they brought much-needed fresh water.", "Any further utilization of the river basin water is not economically feasible.Vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta are threatened by the reduced inflow of fresh water, along with extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming.", "Damming has also isolated the delta population of Indus river dolphins from those further upstream.Large-scale diversion of the river's water for irrigation has raised far-reaching issues.", "Sediment clogging from poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation on numerous occasions.", "Irrigation itself is increasing soil salinization, reducing crop yields and in some cases rendering farmland useless for cultivation.===Effects of climate change on the river===The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice.", "Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world...", "In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows...", "In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines of the Indus River.", "Once they vanish, water supplies in Pakistan will be in peril.", "\"There is insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus,\" says David Grey, the World Bank's senior water advisor in South Asia.", "\"But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence of climate change,\" and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 per cent.", "\"Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert where, without the river, there would be no life?", "I don't know the answer to that question,\" he says.", "\"But we need to be concerned about that.", "Deeply, deeply concerned.\"U.S.", "diplomat Richard Holbrooke said, shortly before he died in 2010, that he believed that falling water levels in the Indus River \"could very well precipitate World War III.", "\"===Pollution===Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River have increased levels of water pollution in the river and the atmosphere around it.", "High levels of pollutants in the river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus river dolphin.", "The Sindh Environmental Protection Agency has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997.Death of the Indus river dolphin has also been attributed to fishermen using poison to kill fish and scooping them up.", "As a result, the government banned fishing from Guddu Barrage to Sukkur.The Indus is second among a group of ten rivers responsible for about 90% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans.", "The Yangtze is the only river contributing more plastic.===2010 floods===Affected areas as of 26 August 2010Frequently, Indus river is prone to moderate to severe flooding.", "In July 2010, following abnormally heavy monsoon rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding.", "The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan.", "In Sindh, the Indus burst its banks near Sukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi.", "In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward western Punjab, where at least of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh.", ", over two thousand people had died and over a million homes had been destroyed since the flooding began.===2011 floods===The 2011 Sindh floods began during the Pakistani monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab.", "The floods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3 million people and 1,524,773 homes affected.", "Sindh is a fertile region and often called the \"breadbasket\" of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive.", "At least of arable land were inundated.", "The flooding followed the previous year's floods, which devastated a large part of the country.", "Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh." ], [ "Barrages, bridges, levees and dams", "In Pakistan currently there are six barrages on the Indus: Guddu Barrage, Sukkur Barrage, Kotri Barrage (also called Ghulam Muhammad barrage), Taunsa Barrage, Chashma Barrage and Jinnah Barrage.", "Another new barrage called \"Sindh Barrage\" is planned as a terminal barrage on the Indus River.", "There are some bridges on River Indus, such as Dadu Moro Bridge, Larkana Khairpur Indus River Bridge, Thatta-Sujawal bridge, Jhirk-Mula Katiar bridge and recently planned Kandhkot-Ghotki bridge.The entire left bank of Indus river in Sind province is protected from river flooding by constructing around 600 km long levees.", "The right bank side is also leveed from Guddu barrage to Lake Manchar.", "In response to the levees construction, the river has been aggrading rapidly over the last 20 years leading to breaches upstream of barrages and inundation of large areas.Tarbela Dam in Pakistan is constructed on the Indus River, while the controversial Kalabagh dam is also being constructed on Indus river.", "Pakistan is also building Munda Dam.===Gallery===File:River Indus at Kotri Barrage Jamshoro.webm\|Video of River Indus at Kotri Barrage, Sindh, Pakistan.File:Lansdowne, Sukkur.jpg\|Lansdowne Bridge and Ayub Bridge connecting the cities of Rohri and Sukkur in Sindh, Pakistan.File:Frozen Indus, Near Nyoma.jpg\|Frozen Indus, Near NyomaFile:Indus at Skardu (1).jpg\|Indus at SkarduFile:Indus River Dera Ismail Khan.jpg\|Indus near Dera Ismail Khan" ], [ "Tourism", "Many Buddhist monasteries in Ladakh, Indus-Sarasvati Valley Civilisation sites along the banks of Indus & Sarasvati River (Ghaggar-Hakra River) and in Indus Sagar Doab, Indus River Delta, various dams such as Baglihar Dam, Sindhu Darshan Festival held every year at Leh, Sindhu Pushkaram festival held every 12 years at confluence of Indus & Zanskar River at Nimoo once every 12 years for 12 days starting from when Jupiter enter into Kumbha rasi (Aquarius), etc are tourism opportunities." ], [ "See also", "*Geology of the HimalayasHMS IndusIndus Waters TreatyList of rivers of PakistanRigvedic riversRivers of Jammu and KashmirSindhologyHindush" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* Albinia, Alice.", "(2008) ''Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River''.", "First American Edition (20101) W. W. Norton & Company, New York.", ".", "* Alexander Burnes, ''A voyage on the Indus'', London, 1973* Philippe Fabry, ''Wandering with the Indus'', with Yusuf Shahid (text) Lahore, 1995* Jean Fairley, ''The Lion River: The Indus'', London, 1975* * D. Murphy, ''Where the Indus is Young'', London, 1977* * Samina Quraeshi, ''Legacy of the Indus'', New York, 1974* Schomberg, ''Between Oxus and Indus'', London, 1935* Francine Tissot, ''Les Arts anciens du Pakistan et de l'Afghanistan'', Paris, 1987* Sir M. Wheeler, ''Civilisations of the Indus Valley and Beyond'', London, 1966* World Atlas, Millennium Edition, p. 265." ], [ "External links", "* The origins of Indus: * Northern Areas Development Gateway* – covered parts of the Indus River* Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute) **" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Integer factorization" ], [ "Introduction", "In number theory, '''integer factorization''' is the decomposition of a positive integer into a product of integers.", "Every positive integer greater than 1 is either the product of two or more integer factors, in which case it is called a composite number, or it is not, in which case it is called a prime number.", "For example, is a composite number because , but is a prime number because it cannot be decomposed in this way.", "If one of the factors is composite, it can in turn be written as a product of smaller factors, for example .", "Continuing this process until every factor is prime is called '''prime factorization'''; the result is always unique up to the order of the factors by the prime factorization theorem.To factorize a small integer using mental or pen-and-paper arithmetic, the simplest method is trial division: checking if the number is divisible by prime numbers , , , and so on, up to the square root of .", "For larger numbers, especially when using a computer, various more sophisticated factorization algorithms are more efficient.", "A prime factorization algorithm typically involves testing whether each factor is prime each time a factor is found.When the numbers are sufficiently large, no efficient non-quantum integer factorization algorithm is known.", "However, it has not been proven that such an algorithm does not exist.", "The presumed difficulty of this problem is important for the algorithms used in cryptography such as RSA public-key encryption and the RSA digital signature.", "Many areas of mathematics and computer science have been brought to bear on the problem, including elliptic curves, algebraic number theory, and quantum computing.Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor.", "The hardest instances of these problems (for currently known techniques) are semiprimes, the product of two prime numbers.", "When they are both large, for instance more than two thousand bits long, randomly chosen, and about the same size (but not too close, for example, to avoid efficient factorization by Fermat's factorization method), even the fastest prime factorization algorithms on the fastest computers can take enough time to make the search impractical; that is, as the number of digits of the integer being factored increases, the number of operations required to perform the factorization on any computer increases drastically.Many cryptographic protocols are based on the difficulty of factoring large composite integers or a related problem—for example, the RSA problem.", "An algorithm that efficiently factors an arbitrary integer would render RSA-based public-key cryptography insecure." ], [ "Prime decomposition", "Prime decomposition of as By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every positive integer has a unique prime factorization.", "(By convention, 1 is the empty product.)", "Testing whether the integer is prime can be done in polynomial time, for example, by the AKS primality test.", "If composite, however, the polynomial time tests give no insight into how to obtain the factors.Given a general algorithm for integer factorization, any integer can be factored into its constituent prime factors by repeated application of this algorithm.", "The situation is more complicated with special-purpose factorization algorithms, whose benefits may not be realized as well or even at all with the factors produced during decomposition.", "For example, if where are very large primes, trial division will quickly produce the factors 3 and 19 but will take divisions to find the next factor.", "As a contrasting example, if is the product of the primes , , and , where , Fermat's factorization method will begin with which immediately yields and hence the factors and .", "While these are easily recognized as composite and prime respectively, Fermat's method will take much longer to factor the composite number because the starting value of for is a factor of 10 from ." ], [ "Current state of the art", "Among the -bit numbers, the most difficult to factor in practice using existing algorithms are those semiprimes whose factors are of similar size.", "For this reason, these are the integers used in cryptographic applications.In 2019, Fabrice Boudot, Pierrick Gaudry, Aurore Guillevic, Nadia Heninger, Emmanuel Thomé and Paul Zimmermann factored a 240-digit (795-bit) number (RSA-240) utilizing approximately 900 core-years of computing power.", "The researchers estimated that a 1024-bit RSA modulus would take about 500 times as long.The largest such semiprime yet factored was RSA-250, an 829-bit number with 250 decimal digits, in February 2020.The total computation time was roughly 2700 core-years of computing using Intel Xeon Gold 6130 at 2.1 GHz.", "Like all recent factorization records, this factorization was completed with a highly optimized implementation of the general number field sieve run on hundreds of machines.=== Difficulty and complexity ===No algorithm has been published that can factor all integers in polynomial time, that is, that can factor a -bit number in time for some constant .", "Neither the existence nor non-existence of such algorithms has been proved, but it is generally suspected that they do not exist and hence that the problem is not in class P. The problem is clearly in class NP, but it is generally suspected that it is not NP-complete, though this has not been proven.There are published algorithms that are faster than for all positive , that is, sub-exponential.", ", the algorithm with best theoretical asymptotic running time is the general number field sieve (GNFS), first published in 1993, running on a -bit number in time:: For current computers, GNFS is the best published algorithm for large (more than about 400 bits).", "For a quantum computer, however, Peter Shor discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in polynomial time.", "This will have significant implications for cryptography if quantum computation becomes scalable.", "Shor's algorithm takes only time and space on -bit number inputs.", "In 2001, Shor's algorithm was implemented for the first time, by using NMR techniques on molecules that provide seven qubits.It is not known exactly which complexity classes contain the decision version of the integer factorization problem (that is: does have a factor smaller than besides 1?).", "It is known to be in both NP and co-NP, meaning that both \"yes\" and \"no\" answers can be verified in polynomial time.", "An answer of \"yes\" can be certified by exhibiting a factorization with .", "An answer of \"no\" can be certified by exhibiting the factorization of into distinct primes, all larger than ; one can verify their primality using the AKS primality test, and then multiply them to obtain .", "The fundamental theorem of arithmetic guarantees that there is only one possible string of increasing primes that will be accepted, which shows that the problem is in both UP and co-UP.", "It is known to be in BQP because of Shor's algorithm.The problem is suspected to be outside all three of the complexity classes P, NP-complete, and co-NP-complete.", "It is therefore a candidate for the NP-intermediate complexity class.", "If it could be proved to be either NP-complete or co-NP-complete, this would imply NP = co-NP, a very surprising result, and therefore integer factorization is widely suspected to be outside both these classes.In contrast, the decision problem \"Is a composite number?\"", "(or equivalently: \"Is a prime number?\")", "appears to be much easier than the problem of specifying factors of .", "The composite/prime problem can be solved in polynomial time (in the number of digits of ) with the AKS primality test.", "In addition, there are several probabilistic algorithms that can test primality very quickly in practice if one is willing to accept a vanishingly small possibility of error.", "The ease of primality testing is a crucial part of the RSA algorithm, as it is necessary to find large prime numbers to start with." ], [ "Factoring algorithms <!-- This section is linked from [[Factorization]] -->", "=== Special-purpose ===A special-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends on the properties of the number to be factored or on one of its unknown factors: size, special form, etc.", "The parameters which determine the running time vary among algorithms.An important subclass of special-purpose factoring algorithms is the ''Category 1'' or ''First Category'' algorithms, whose running time depends on the size of smallest prime factor.", "Given an integer of unknown form, these methods are usually applied before general-purpose methods to remove small factors.", "For example, naive trial division is a Category 1 algorithm.", "* Trial division* Wheel factorization* Pollard's rho algorithm, which has two common flavors to identify group cycles: one by Floyd and one by Brent.", "* Algebraic-group factorization algorithms, among which are Pollard's algorithm, Williams' algorithm, and Lenstra elliptic curve factorization* Fermat's factorization method* Euler's factorization method* Special number field sieve* Difference of two squares=== General-purpose ===A general-purpose factoring algorithm, also known as a ''Category 2'', ''Second Category'', or ''Kraitchik'' ''family'' algorithm, has a running time which depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored.", "This is the type of algorithm used to factor RSA numbers.", "Most general-purpose factoring algorithms are based on the congruence of squares method.", "* Dixon's factorization method* Continued fraction factorization (CFRAC)* Quadratic sieve* Rational sieve* General number field sieve* Shanks's square forms factorization (SQUFOF)=== Other notable algorithms ===* Shor's algorithm, for quantum computers" ], [ "Heuristic running time", "In number theory, there are many integer factoring algorithms that heuristically have expected running time: in little-o and L-notation.Some examples of those algorithms are the elliptic curve method and the quadratic sieve.Another such algorithm is the '''class group relations method''' proposed by Schnorr, Seysen, and Lenstra, which they proved only assuming the unproved Generalized Riemann Hypothesis (GRH)." ], [ "Rigorous running time", "The Schnorr–Seysen–Lenstra probabilistic algorithm has been rigorously proven by Lenstra and Pomerance to have expected running time by replacing the GRH assumption with the use of multipliers.The algorithm uses the class group of positive binary quadratic forms of discriminant denoted by .", "is the set of triples of integers in which those integers are relative prime.=== Schnorr–Seysen–Lenstra algorithm ===Given an integer that will be factored, where is an odd positive integer greater than a certain constant.", "In this factoring algorithm the discriminant is chosen as a multiple of , , where is some positive multiplier.", "The algorithm expects that for one there exist enough smooth forms in .", "Lenstra and Pomerance show that the choice of can be restricted to a small set to guarantee the smoothness result.Denote by the set of all primes with Kronecker symbol .", "By constructing a set of generators of and prime forms of with in a sequence of relations between the set of generators and are produced.The size of can be bounded by for some constant .The relation that will be used is a relation between the product of powers that is equal to the neutral element of .", "These relations will be used to construct a so-called ambiguous form of , which is an element of of order dividing 2.By calculating the corresponding factorization of and by taking a gcd, this ambiguous form provides the complete prime factorization of .", "This algorithm has these main steps:Let be the number to be factored.To obtain an algorithm for factoring any positive integer, it is necessary to add a few steps to this algorithm such as trial division, and the Jacobi sum test.=== Expected running time ===The algorithm as stated is a probabilistic algorithm as it makes random choices.", "Its expected running time is at most ." ], [ "See also", "* Aurifeuillean factorization* Bach's algorithm for generating random numbers with their factorizations* Canonical representation of a positive integer* Factorization* Multiplicative partition* -adic valuation* Partition (number theory) – a way of writing a number as a sum of positive integers." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Chapter 5: Exponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.", "191–226.Chapter 6: Subexponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.", "227–284.Section 7.4: Elliptic curve method, pp. 301–313.", "* Donald Knuth.", "''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition.", "Addison-Wesley, 1997..", "Section 4.5.4: Factoring into Primes, pp. 379–417.", "* .", "" ], [ "External links", " msieve – SIQS and NFS – has helped complete some of the largest public factorizations known* Richard P. Brent, \"Recent Progress and Prospects for Integer Factorisation Algorithms\", ''Computing and Combinatorics\"'', 2000, pp.", "3–22.download* Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, Nitin Saxena, \"PRIMES is in P.\" Annals of Mathematics 160(2): 781–793 (2004).", "August 2005 version PDF* Eric W. Weisstein, “RSA-640 Factored” ''MathWorld Headline News'', November 8, 2005* Dario Alpern's Integer factorization calculator – A web app for factoring large integers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Imperial units" ], [ "Introduction", "The former Weights and Measures office in Seven Sisters, London (590 Seven Sisters Road)The '''imperial system of units''', '''imperial system''' or '''imperial units''' (also known as '''British Imperial''' or '''Exchequer Standards''' of 1826) is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act 1824 and continued to be developed through a series of Weights and Measures Acts and amendments.The imperial system developed from earlier English units as did the related but differing system of customary units of the United States.", "The imperial units replaced the Winchester Standards, which were in effect from 1588 to 1825.The system came into official use across the British Empire in 1826.By the late 20th century, most nations of the former empire had officially adopted the metric system as their main system of measurement, but imperial units are still used alongside metric units in the United Kingdom and in some other parts of the former empire, notably Canada.The modern UK legislation defining the imperial system of units is given in the Weights and Measures Act 1985 (as amended)." ], [ "Implementation", "The Weights and Measures Act 1824 was initially scheduled to go into effect on 1 May 1825.The Weights and Measures Act 1825 pushed back the date to 1 January 1826.The 1824 Act allowed the continued use of pre-imperial units provided that they were customary, widely known, and clearly marked with imperial equivalents.===Apothecaries' units===Imperial standards of length 1876 in Trafalgar Square, LondonApothecaries' units are not mentioned in the acts of 1824 and 1825.At the time, apothecaries' weights and measures were regulated \"in England, Wales, and Berwick-upon-Tweed\" by the London College of Physicians, and in Ireland by the Dublin College of Physicians.", "In Scotland, apothecaries' units were unofficially regulated by the Edinburgh College of Physicians.", "The three colleges published, at infrequent intervals, pharmacopoeias, the London and Dublin editions having the force of law.Imperial apothecaries' measures, based on the imperial pint of 20 fluid ounces, were introduced by the publication of the London Pharmacopoeia of 1836, the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia of 1839, and the Dublin Pharmacopoeia of 1850.The Medical Act 1858 transferred to The Crown the right to publish the official pharmacopoeia and to regulate apothecaries' weights and measures." ], [ "Units", "===Length===Metric equivalents in this article usually assume the latest official definition.", "Before this date, the most precise measurement of the imperial Standard Yard was metres.+ Table of length equivalent units Unit Abbr.", "or symbols Relative to previous Feet Metres Notestwip typographic measurethouth1.44 twip Abbreviation of \"thousandth of an inch\".", "Also known as ''mil''.barleycorn inch 1 metre ≈ handhh Still used in some English-speaking (i.e.", "US and Commonwealth) nations to measure heights of horses.foot 1 12 inyardyd 3 Defined as exactly by the international yard and pound agreement of 1959chainch 66 , , or of a furlong.", "The distance between the two wickets on a cricket pitch.furlongfur milemi or leaguelea No longer an official unit in any nation.", "'''Maritime units'''fathomftm The British Admiralty in practice used a fathom of .", "This was despite its being of a nautical mile (i.e. )", "until the adoption of the international nautical mile.cable One tenth of a nautical mile.", "Equal to under the strict definition.nautical milenmi Used for measuring distances at sea (and also in aviation) and approximately equal to one arc minute of a great circle.", "Until the adoption of the international definition of in 1970, the British nautical (Admiralty) mile was defined as .", "'''Gunter's survey units (17th century onwards)'''link of a chain and of a furlongrod The rod is also called ''pole'' or ''perch'' and equal to ===Area===+ Table of area units and equivalents UnitAbbr.", "or symbolRelative to previous Relation to units of length Square feet Square yards Acres Square metres Hectares perch* × rood × acre × square milesq mi × 640'''Note: '''The ''square rod'' has been called a ''pole'' or ''perch'' or, more properly, ''square pole'' or ''square perch'' for centuries.=== Volume ===Imperial volume units, illustrated as jugs of various sizes.The Weights and Measures Act 1824 invalidated the various different gallons in use in the British Empire, declaring them to be replaced by the statute gallon (which became known as the imperial gallon), a unit close in volume to the ale gallon.", "The 1824 Act defined as the volume of a gallon to be that of of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at at a temperature of .", "The 1824 Act went on to give this volume as .", "The Weights and Measures Act 1963 refined this definition to be the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water of density weighed in air of density against weights of density , which works out to .", "The Weights and Measures Act 1985 defined a gallon to be exactly (approximately ).+ Table of equivalences Unit Imperialounces Imperialpints Millilitres Cubic inches US ounces US pints ''fluid ounce'' (fl oz) 1 ''gill'' (gi) 5 ''pint'' (pt) 20 1 ''quart'' (qt) 40 2 ''gallon'' (gal) 160 8 '''Note:''' The millilitre equivalences are exact, but cubic-inch and US measures are correct to 5 significant figures.+ Unit measures defined by the Weights and Measures Act 1824, all measures determined by reference to the statute gallon of 277.274 cubic inches.", "Liquid Dry Capacity gill gill pint pint pint pint pint quart quart gallon peck or gallon gallon peck or gallon 2 gallons (peck)peck 4 gallons ( bushel) bushel 8 gallons bushel 64 gallons quarter '''Note:''' The 1824 Act removed the distinction between liquid and dry measure, specifying instead that the dry quantities shall be unheaped.", "The metric equivalences shown are approximate.====British apothecaries' volume measures====These measurements were in use from 1826, when the new imperial gallon was defined.", "For pharmaceutical purposes, they were replaced by the metric system in the United Kingdom on 1 January 1971.In the US, though no longer recommended, the apothecaries' system is still used occasionally in medicine, especially in prescriptions for older medications.+ Table of British apothecaries' volume units Unit Symbols andabbreviations Relative toprevious Exactmetric value minim ♏︎, 13px, m, m., min ( pint) fluid scruple fl ℈, fl s 20 minims ( pint) fluid drachm(fluid dram, fluidram) ʒ, fl ʒ, fʒ, ƒ 3, fl dr 3 fluid scruples ( pint) fluid ounce ℥, fl ℥, f℥, ƒ ℥, fl oz 8 fluid drachms pint O, pt 20 fluid ounces gallon C, gal 8 pints '''Note:''' === Mass and weight ===In the 19th and 20th centuries, the UK used three different systems for mass and weight.", " troy weight, used for precious metals;* avoirdupois weight, used for most other purposes; and* apothecaries' weight, now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.The distinction between mass and weight is not always clearly drawn.", "Strictly a pound is a unit of mass, but it is commonly referred to as a weight.", "When a distinction is necessary, the term ''pound-force'' may refer to a unit of force rather than mass.", "The troy pound () was made the primary unit of mass by the 1824 Act and its use was abolished in the UK on 1 January 1879, with only the troy ounce () and its decimal subdivisions retained.", "The Weights and Measures Act 1855 (18 & 19 Vict.", "c. 72) made the avoirdupois pound the primary unit of mass.", "In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the pound, and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it.+ Table of mass units Unit Pounds In SI units Notes grain (gr) Exactly milligrams.", "drachm (dr) A dram is of an ounce ounce (oz) An ounce is of a pound pound (lb) 1 Defined by The Units of Measurement Regulations 1994 stone (st) 14 The plural ''stone'' is often used when providing a weight (e.g.", "\"this sack weighs 8 stone\").", "A person's weight is usually quoted in stone and pounds in English-speaking countries that use the avoirdupois system, with the exception of the United States and Canada, where it is usually quoted in pounds.", "quarter (qr or qtr) 28 One quarter (literally a quarter of a hundredweight) is equal to two stone or 28 pounds.", "The term ''quarter'' is also used in retail contexts, where it refers to four ounces, i.e.", "a quarter of a pound.", "(The 1824 Act defined a quarter as a unit of volume, as above: thus a 'quarter of wheat', 64 gallons, would weigh about 494 lb.).", "hundredweight (cwt) 112 One imperial hundredweight is equal to eight stone.", "This is the ''long hundredweight'', 112 pounds, as opposed to the short hundredweight of 100 pounds used in the United States and Canada.", "ton (t) 2240 Twenty hundredweight equals a ton (as in the US and Canadian systems).", "The imperial hundredweight is 12% greater than the US and Canadian one.", "The imperial ton (or ''long ton'') is pounds, which is much closer to a tonne (about pounds), compared to the 10.7% smaller North American ''short ton'' of .", "'''Gravitational units''' slug (slug) The slug, a unit associated with imperial and US customary systems, is a mass that accelerates by 1 ft/s2 when a force of one pound (lbf) is exerted on it.", ":: ''F'' = ''ma'' (Newton's second law) 1 lbf = 1 slug × 1 ft/s2 (as defined above) 1 lbf = 1 lb × ''g''/gc (by definition of the pound force) ''g'' ≈ ft/s2 ''gc'' ≈ lbm⋅ft/lbf⋅s2∴ 1 slug ≈ pounds" ], [ "Natural equivalents", "The 1824 Act of Parliament defined the yard and pound by reference to the prototype standards, and it also defined the values of certain physical constants, to make provision for re-creation of the standards if they were to be damaged.", "For the yard, the length of a pendulum beating seconds at the latitude of Greenwich at Mean Sea Level ''in vacuo'' was defined as inches.", "For the pound, the mass of a cubic inch of distilled water at an atmospheric pressure of 30 inches of mercury and a temperature of 62° Fahrenheit was defined as 252.458 grains, with there being 7,000 grains per pound.Following the destruction of the original prototypes in the 1834 Houses of Parliament fire, it proved impossible to recreate the standards from these definitions, and a new Weights and Measures Act 1855 (18 & 19 Vict.", "c. 72) was passed which permitted the recreation of the prototypes from recognized secondary standards." ], [ "Current use", "=== United Kingdom ===metric (SI), imperial and US customary systems as of 2019Since the Weights and Measures Act 1985, British law defines base imperial units in terms of their metric equivalent.", "The metric system is routinely used in business and technology within the United Kingdom, with imperial units remaining in widespread use amongst the public.", "All UK roads use the imperial system except for weight limits, and newer height or width restriction signs give metric alongside imperial.A baby bottle that measures in three measurement systems—metric, imperial (UK), and US customaryTraders in the UK may accept requests from customers specified in imperial units, and scales which display in both unit systems are commonplace in the retail trade.", "Metric price signs may be accompanied by imperial price signs provided that the imperial signs are no larger and no more prominent than the metric ones.The United Kingdom completed its official partial transition to the metric system in 1995, with imperial units still legally mandated for certain applications such as draught beer and cider, and road-signs.", "Therefore, the speedometers on vehicles sold in the UK must be capable of displaying miles per hour.", "Even though the troy pound was outlawed in the UK in the Weights and Measures Act 1878, the ''troy ounce'' may still be used for the weights of precious stones and metals.", "The original railways (many built in the Victorian era) are a big user of imperial units, with distances officially measured in miles and yards or miles and chains, and also feet and inches, and speeds are in miles per hour.Some British people still use one or more imperial units in everyday life for distance (miles, yards, feet, and inches) and some types of volume measurement (especially milk and beer in pints; rarely for canned or bottled soft drinks, or petrol).", ", many British people also still use imperial units in everyday life for body weight (stones and pounds for adults, pounds and ounces for babies).", "Government documents aimed at the public may give body weight and height in imperial units as well as in metric.", "A survey in 2015 found that many people did not know their body weight or height in both systems.", "People under the age of 40 preferred the metric system but people aged 40 and over preferred the imperial system.", "As in other English-speaking countries, including Australia, Canada and the United States, the height of horses is usually measured in hands, standardised to .", "Fuel consumption for vehicles is commonly stated in miles per gallon (mpg), though official figures always include litres per equivalents and fuel is sold in litres.", "When sold draught in licensed premises, beer and cider must be sold in pints, half-pints or third-pints.", "Cow's milk is available in both litre- and pint-based containers in supermarkets and shops.", "Areas of land associated with farming, forestry and real estate are commonly advertised in acres and square feet but, for contracts and land registration purposes, the units are always hectares and square metres.Office space and industrial units are usually advertised in square feet.", "Steel pipe sizes are sold in increments of inches, while copper pipe is sold in increments of millimetres.", "Road bicycles have their frames measured in centimetres, while off-road bicycles have their frames measured in inches.", "Display sizes for screens on television sets and computer monitors are always diagonally measured in inches.", "Food sold by length or width, e.g.", "pizzas or sandwiches, is generally sold in inches.", "Clothing is usually sized in inches, with the metric equivalent often shown as a small supplementary indicator.", "Gas is usually measured by the cubic foot or cubic metre, but is billed like electricity by the kilowatt hour.Pre-packaged products can show both metric and imperial measures, and it is also common to see imperial pack sizes with metric only labels, e.g.", "a tin of Lyle's Golden Syrup is always labelled with no imperial indicator.", "Similarly most jars of jam and packs of sausages are labelled with no imperial indicator.===India===India began converting to the metric system from the imperial system between 1955 and 1962.The metric system in weights and measures was adopted by the Indian Parliament in December 1956 with the ''Standards of Weights and Measures Act'', which took effect beginning 1 October 1958.By 1962, metric units became \"mandatory and exclusive.", "\"Today all official measurements are made in the metric system.", "In common usage some older Indians may still refer to imperial units.", "Some measurements, such as the heights of mountains, are still recorded in feet.", "Tyre rim diameters are still measured in inches, as used worldwide.", "Industries like the construction and the real estate industry still use both the metric and the imperial system though it is more common for sizes of homes to be given in square feet and land in acres.In Standard Indian English, as in Australian, Canadian, New Zealand, Singaporean, and British English, metric units such as the litre, metre, and tonne utilise the traditional spellings brought over from French, which differ from those used in the United States and the Philippines.", "The imperial long ton is invariably spelt with one 'n'.===Hong Kong===Hong Kong has three main systems of units of measurement in current use:* The Chinese units of measurement of the Qing Empire (no longer in widespread use in China);* British imperial units; and* The metric system.In 1976 the Hong Kong Government started the conversion to the metric system, and as of 2012 measurements for government purposes, such as road signs, are almost always in metric units.", "All three systems are officially permitted for trade, and in the wider society a mixture of all three systems prevails.The Chinese system's most commonly used units for length are (''lei5''), (''zoeng6''), (''cek3''), (''cyun3''), (''fan1'') in descending scale order.", "These units are now rarely used in daily life, the imperial and metric systems being preferred.", "The imperial equivalents are written with the same basic Chinese characters as the Chinese system.", "In order to distinguish between the units of the two systems, the units can be prefixed with \"Ying\" (, ''jing1'') for the imperial system and \"Wa\" (, ''waa4'') for the Chinese system.", "In writing, derived characters are often used, with an additional (mouth) radical to the left of the original Chinese character, for writing imperial units.", "The most commonly used units are the mile or \"li\" (, ''li1''), the yard or \"ma\" (, ''maa5''), the foot or \"chek\" (, ''cek3''), and the inch or \"tsun\" (, ''cyun3'').The traditional measure of flat area is the square foot (, ''fong1 cek3, ping4 fong1 cek3'') of the imperial system, which is still in common use for real estate purposes.", "The measurement of agricultural plots and fields is traditionally conducted in (''mau5'') of the Chinese system.For the measurement of volume, Hong Kong officially uses the metric system, though the gallon (, ''gaa1 leon4-2'') is also occasionally used.=== Canada ===A one US gallon gas can purchased near the US-Canada border showing equivalences in imperial gallons and litresImperial and metric measurements on Canadian canned goods labels.", "The imperial measurements often take precedence over the metric ones on labels.During the 1970s, the metric system and SI units were introduced in Canada to replace the imperial system.", "Within the government, efforts to implement the metric system were extensive; almost any agency, institution, or function provided by the government uses SI units exclusively.", "Imperial units were eliminated from all public road signs and both systems of measurement will still be found on privately owned signs, such as the height warnings at the entrance of a parkade.", "In the 1980s, momentum to fully convert to the metric system stalled when the government of Brian Mulroney was elected.", "There was heavy opposition to metrication and as a compromise the government maintains legal definitions for and allows use of imperial units as long as metric units are shown as well.The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units and an imperial price can be shown if a metric price is present.", "There tends to be leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables being priced in imperial units only.Environment Canada still offers an imperial unit option beside metric units, even though weather is typically measured and reported in metric units in the Canadian media.", "Some radio stations near the United States border (such as CIMX and CIDR) primarily use imperial units to report the weather.", "Railways in Canada also continue to use imperial units.Imperial units are still used in ordinary conversation.", "Today, Canadians typically use a mix of metric and imperial measurements in their daily lives.", "The use of the metric and imperial systems varies by age.", "The older generation mostly uses the imperial system, while the younger generation more often uses the metric system.", "Quebec has implemented metrication more fully.", "Newborns are measured in SI at hospitals, but the birth weight and length is also announced to family and friends in imperial units.", "Drivers' licences use SI units, though many English-speaking Canadians give their height and weight in imperial.", "In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per hundredweight (short), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms.", "Imperial units still dominate in recipes, construction, house renovation and gardening.", "Land is now surveyed and registered in metric units whilst initial surveys used imperial units.", "For example, partitioning of farm land on the prairies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was done in imperial units; this accounts for imperial units of distance and area retaining wide use in the Prairie Provinces.", "In English-speaking Canada commercial and residential spaces are mostly (but not exclusively) constructed using square feet, while in French-speaking Quebec commercial and residential spaces are constructed in metres and advertised using both square metres and square feet as equivalents.", "Carpet or flooring tile is purchased by the square foot, but less frequently also in square metres.", "Motor-vehicle fuel consumption is reported in both litres per and statute miles per imperial gallon, leading to the erroneous impression that Canadian vehicles are 20% more fuel-efficient than their apparently identical American counterparts for which fuel economy is reported in statute miles per US gallon (neither country specifies which gallon is used).", "Canadian railways maintain exclusive use of imperial measurements to describe train length (feet), train height (feet), capacity (tons), speed (mph), and trackage (miles).Imperial units also retain common use in firearms and ammunition.", "Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even when the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g., .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the calibre is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch).", "Ammunition that is already classified in metric is still kept metric (e.g., 9×19mm).", "In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in terms of grains for both metric and imperial cartridges.In keeping with the international standard, air navigation is based on ''nautical'' units, e.g., the nautical mile, which is neither imperial nor metric, and altitude is measured in imperial feet.===Australia===While metrication in Australia has largely ended the official use of imperial units, for particular measurements, international use of imperial units is still followed.", "* In licensed venues, draught beer and cider is sold in glasses and jugs with sizes based on the imperial fluid ounce, though rounded to the nearest 5 mL.", "* Newborns are measured in metric at hospitals, but the birth weight and length is sometimes also announced to family and friends in imperial units.", "* Screen sizes, are frequently advertised in inches instead of or as well as centimetres.", "* Property size is frequently advertised in acres, but is mostly as square metres.", "* Navigation is done in nautical miles, and water-based speed limits are in nautical miles per hour.", "* Historical writing and presentations may include pre-metric units to reflect the context of the era represented.", "* The illicit drug trade in Australia still often uses imperial measurements, particularly when dealing with smaller amounts closer to end user levels e.g.", "\"8-ball\" an 8th of an ounce or ; cannabis is often traded in ounces (\"oz\") and pounds (\"p\")* Firearm barrel length are almost always referred by in inches, ammunition is also still measured in grains and ounces as well as grams.As a result of cultural transmission of British and American English in Australia, there has also been noted to be a cause for residual use of imperial units of measure.===New Zealand===New Zealand introduced the metric system on 15 December 1976.Aviation was exempt, with altitude and airport elevation continuing to be measured in feet whilst navigation is done in nautical miles; all other aspects (fuel quantity, aircraft weight, runway length, etc.)", "use metric units.Screen sizes for devices such as televisions, monitors and phones, and wheel rim sizes for vehicles, are stated in inches, as is the convention in the rest of the world - and a 1992 study found a continued use of imperial units for birth weight and human height alongside metric units.===Ireland===Ireland has officially changed over to the metric system since entering the European Union, with distances on new road signs being metric since 1997 and speed limits being metric since 2005.The imperial system remains in limited use – for sales of beer in pubs (traditionally sold by the pint).", "All other goods are required by law to be sold in metric units with traditional quantities being retained for goods like butter and sausages, which are sold in packaging.", "The majority of cars sold pre-2005 feature speedometers with miles per hour as the primary unit, but with a kilometres per hour display.", "Often signs such as those for bridge height can display both metric and imperial units.", "Imperial measurements continue to be used colloquially by the general population especially with height and distance measurements such as feet, inches, and acres as well as for weight with pounds and stones still in common use among people of all ages.", "Measurements such as yards have fallen out of favour with younger generations.", "Ireland's railways still use imperial measurements for distances and speed signage.", "Property is usually listed in square feet as well as metres also.Horse racing in Ireland still continues to use stones, pounds, miles and furlongs as measurements.===Bahamas===Imperial measurements remain in general use in the Bahamas.Legally, both the imperial and metric systems are recognised by the Weights and Measures Act 2006.===Belize===Both imperial units and metric units are used in Belize.", "Both systems are legally recognized by the National Metrology Act.===Myanmar===According to the CIA, in June 2009, Myanmar was one of three countries that had not adopted the SI metric system as their official system of weights and measures.", "Metrication efforts began in 2011.The Burmese government set a goal to metricate by 2019, which was not met, with the help of the German National Metrology Institute.===Other countries===Some imperial measurements remain in limited use in Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and South Africa.", "Measurements in feet and inches, especially for a person's height, are frequently encountered in conversation and non-governmental publications.Prior to metrication, it was a common practice in Malaysia for people to refer to unnamed locations and small settlements along major roads by referring to how many miles the said locations were from the nearest major town.", "In some cases, these eventually became the official names of the locations; in other cases, such names have been largely or completely superseded by new names.", "An example of the former is Batu 32 (literally \"Mile 32\" in Malay), which refers to the area surrounding the intersection between Federal Route 22 (the Tamparuli-Sandakan highway) and Federal Route 13 (the Sandakan-Tawau highway).", "The area is so named because it is 32 miles west of Sandakan, the nearest major town.Petrol is still sold by the imperial gallon in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Myanmar, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis and St. Vincent and the Grenadines.", "The United Arab Emirates Cabinet in 2009 issued the Decree No.", "(270 / 3) specifying that, from 1 January 2010, the new unit sale price for petrol will be the litre and not the gallon, which was in line with the UAE Cabinet Decision No.", "31 of 2006 on the national system of measurement, which mandates the use of International System of units as a basis for the legal units of measurement in the country.", "Sierra Leone switched to selling fuel by the litre in May 2011.In October 2011, the Antigua and Barbuda government announced the re-launch of the Metrication Programme in accordance with the Metrology Act 2007, which established the International System of Units as the legal system of units.", "The Antigua and Barbuda government has committed to a full conversion from the imperial system by the first quarter of 2015." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General sources", "* Appendices B and C of NIST Handbook 44* Also available as a PDF file.", "* 6 George IV chapter 12, 1825 (statute)" ], [ "External links", "* British Weights And Measures Association* Canada Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72* General table of units of measure – NIST – pdf* How Many?", "A Dictionary of Units of Measurement *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Incompatible-properties argument" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''incompatible-properties argument''' is the idea that no description of God is consistent with reality.", "For example, if one takes the definition of God to be described fully from the Bible, then the claims of what properties God has described therein might be argued to lead to a contradiction." ], [ "Evil vs. good and omnipotence", "The problem of evil is the argument that the existence of evil is incompatible with the concept of an omnipotent and perfectly good God.A variation does not depend on the existence of evil.", "A truly omnipotent God could create all possible worlds.", "A \"good\" God can create only \"good\" worlds.", "A God that created all possible worlds would have no moral qualities whatsoever, and could be replaced by a random generator.", "The standard response is to argue a distinction between \"could create\" and \"would create.\"", "In other words, God \"could\" create all possible worlds but that is simply not in God's nature.", "This has been argued by theologians for centuries.", "However, the result is that a \"good\" God is incompatible with some possible worlds, thus incapable of creating them without losing the property of being a totally different God.", "Yet, it is not necessary for God to be \"good\".", "He simply is good, but is capable of evil." ], [ "Purpose vs. timelessness", "One argument based on incompatible properties rests on a definition of God that includes a will, plan or purpose and an existence outside of time.", "To say that a being possesses a purpose implies an inclination or tendency to steer events toward some state that does not yet exist.", "This, in turn, implies a privileged direction, which we may call \"time\".", "It may be one direction of causality, the direction of increasing entropy, or some other emergent property of a world.", "These are not identical, but one must exist in order to progress toward a goal.In general, God's time would not be related to our time.", "God might be able to operate within our time without being constrained to do so.", "However, God could then step outside this game for any purpose.", "Thus God's time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God's purpose.", "(In a relativistic universe, presumably this means—at any point in spacetime—time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.", ")A God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing.", "Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created." ], [ "Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will", "Another pair of alleged incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or free will.", "Omniscience concerning the past and present (properly defined relative to Earth) is not a problem, but there is an argument that omniscience regarding the future implies it has been determined, what seems possible only in a deterministic world." ], [ "See also", "Existence of GodTheological noncognitivism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A description of 10 more incompatibilities* A response to William Craig — Technical paper on omniscience and time.", "* Omniscience and Omnipotence" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "International Society of Olympic Historians" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Society of Olympic Historians''' ('''ISOH''') is a non-profit organization founded in 1991 with the purpose of promoting and studying the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games.", "The majority of recent books on the Olympic Games have been written by ISOH members.", "The ISOH publishes the '''''Journal of Olympic History''''' (''JOH'', formerly ''Citius, Altius, Fortius'') three times a year." ], [ "History", "The International Society of Olympic Historians was formed as the result of a meeting in London, England, in December 1991.The idea of forming an Olympic historical society had been the subject of correspondence – mainly between Bill Mallon (United States) and Ture Widlund (Sweden) – for many years.", "On Thursday, 5 December 1991, a group of potential members met at the Duke of Clarence, a small pub in the Kensington section of London.", "Those present were Ian Buchanan (Great Britain), Stan Greenberg (Great Britain), Ove Karlsson (Sweden), Bill Mallon (United States), Peter Matthews (Great Britain), David Wallechinsky (United States), and Ture Widlund (Sweden).", "The invited guests who sent regrets were: Anthony Bijkerk (Netherlands), Peter Diamond (United States), Pim Huurman (Netherlands), Erich Kamper (Austria), Volker Kluge (Germany), John Lucas (United States), and Wolf Lyberg (Sweden).ISOH was formed with the purpose of promoting and studying the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games.", "This purpose is achieved primarily through research into their history, through the gathering of historical and statistical data concerning the Olympic Movement and Olympic Games, through the publication of the research via journals and other publications, and through the cooperation of the membership.From its inception to 2000, Ian Buchanan has been the president of the ISOH.", "In 2000, this function was taken over by Bill Mallon.", "From 2004 to 2012 Dr. Karl Lennartz (Germany) and from 2012 to 2020 David Wallechinsky (United States) served as presidents.", "Since 2020 the archaeologist and sports historian Dr. Christian Wacker (Germany) has been president." ], [ "''Journal of Olympic History''", "The ISOH publishes the ''Journal of Olympic History'' (formerly ''Citius, Altius, Fortius'')." ], [ "Membership", ", the ISOH has about 340 members from 48 nations.ISOH 2007, cited.", "The membership includes well-known Olympic historians and researchers on Olympic topics.", "The majority of recent books on the Olympic Games have been written by ISOH members.", "Over 20 ISOH members have received the Olympic Order for their contributions to the Olympic Movement, and several members of the IOC and several Olympians are members.ISOH 2007, cited.===Notable members===* Raleigh DeGeer Amyx, collector of Olympic memorabilia* Bob Barney, university professor and founder of the International Center for Olympic Studies" ], [ "See also", "* Sports history organizations" ], [ "References", "; Sources consulted * ; Endnotes" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Serie A" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Serie A''' (), officially known as '''Serie A TIM''' for sponsorship reasons, is a professional league competition for football clubs located at the top of the Italian football league system and the winners are awarded the ''scudetto'' and the Coppa Campioni d'Italia.", "It has been operating as a round-robin tournament for over ninety years since the 1929–30 season.", "It had been organized by the Direttorio Divisioni Superiori until 1943, the Lega Calcio until 2010, and the Lega Serie A ever since.", "Serie A is regarded as one of the best football leagues in the world and it is often depicted as the most tactical and defensively sound national league.", "Serie A was the world's strongest national league in 2020 according to IFFHS, and is ranked third among European leagues according to UEFA's league coefficient – behind La Liga and the Premier League, and ahead of Bundesliga and Ligue 1 – which is based on the performance of Italian clubs in the Champions League and the Europa League during the previous five years.", "Serie A led the UEFA ranking from 1986 to 1988 and from 1990 to 1999.In its current format, the Italian Football Championship was revised from having regional and interregional rounds, to a single-tier league from the 1929–30 season onwards.", "The championship titles won before 1929 are officially recognised by FIGC with the same weighting as titles that were subsequently awarded.", "Similarly, the 1945–46 season, when the round-robin was suspended and the league was played over two geographical groups due to the ravages of World War II, is not statistically considered, even if its title is fully official.The league hosts three of the world's most famous clubs as Juventus, AC Milan and Inter Milan, all founding members of the G-14, a group which represented the largest and most prestigious European football clubs from 2000 to 2008, with the first two also being founding members of its successive organisation, European Club Association (ECA).", "More players have won the Ballon d'Or award while playing at a Serie A club than any league in the world other than Spain's La Liga, although La Liga has the highest total number of Ballon d'Or winners.", "Juventus, Italy's most successful club of the 20th century and the most winning Italian team, is tied for sixth in Europe and twelfth in the world with the most official international titles with eleven.", "Prior the first Europa Conference League final in 2022, it was also the only one in the world to have won all the historical five official confederation competitions, an achievement reached after its triumph in the 1985 Intercontinental Cup and revalidated after winning a sixth tournament, the UEFA Intertoto Cup, fourteen years later.", "Milan is joint third club overall for official international titles won with eighteen.", "Inter, following their achievements in the 2009–10 season, became the first Italian team to have achieved a seasonal treble.", "It is also the team to have competed uninterruptedly for the most time in the top flight of Italian football, having seen its debut in 1909.All these clubs, along with Lazio, Fiorentina, Roma and Napoli, are known as the \"seven sisters\" () of Italian football.Serie A is one of the most storied football leagues in the world.", "Of the 100 greatest footballers in history chosen by ''FourFourTwo'' in 2017, 42 players have played in Serie A, more than any other league in the world.", "Juventus is the team that has produced the most World Cup champions (27), with Inter (20), Roma (16) and Milan (10), being respectively third, fourth and ninth in that ranking." ], [ "History", "Serie A, as it is structured today, began during the 1929–30 season.", "From 1898 to 1922, the competition was organised into regional groups.", "Because of ever growing teams attending regional championships, the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) split the CCI (Italian Football Confederation) in 1921, which founded in Milan the Lega Nord (Northern Football League), ancestor of present-day Lega Serie A.", "When CCI teams rejoined the FIGC created two interregional divisions renaming Categories into Divisions and splitting FIGC sections into two north–south leagues.", "In 1926, due to internal crises and fascist pressures, the FIGC changed internal settings, adding southern teams to the national division, ultimately leading to the 1929–30 final settlement.The Serie A Championship title is often referred to as the ''scudetto'' (\"small shield\") because since the 1923–24 season, the winning team will bear a small coat of arms with the Italian tricolour on their strip in the following season.", "The most successful club is Juventus with 36 championships, followed by AC Milan and Inter Milan with 19 championships.", "From the 2004–05 season onwards, an actual trophy was awarded to club on the pitch after the last turn of the championship.", "The trophy, called the Coppa Campioni d'Italia, has officially been used since the 1960–61 season, but between 1961 and 2004 was consigned to the winning clubs at the head office of the Lega Nazionale Professionisti.In April 2009, Serie A announced a split from Serie B. Nineteen of the twenty clubs voted in favour of the move in an argument over television rights; the relegation-threatened Lecce had voted against the decision.", "Maurizio Beretta, the former head of Italy's employers' association, became president of the new league.In April 2016, it was announced that Serie A was selected by the International Football Association Board to test video replays, which were initially private for the 2016–17 season, allowing them to become a live pilot phase, with replay assistance implemented in the 2017–18 season.", "On the decision, FIGC President Carlo Tavecchio said: \"We were among the first supporters of using technology on the pitch and we believe we have everything required to offer our contribution to this important experiment.", "\"Serie A will continue the 20 club format after sixteen clubs voted against reducing the division to 18 teams in February 2024." ], [ "Format", "For most of Serie A's history, there were 16 or 18 clubs competing at the top level.", "Since 2004–05, however, there have been 20 clubs in total.", "One season (1947–48) was played with 21 teams for political reasons, following post-war tensions with Yugoslavia.", "Below is a complete record of how many teams played in each season throughout the league's history;* 18 clubs: 1929–1934* 16 clubs: 1934–1943* 20 clubs: 1946–1947* 21 clubs: 1947–1948* 20 clubs: 1948–1952* 18 clubs: 1952–1967* 16 clubs: 1967–1988* 18 clubs: 1988–2004* 20 clubs: 2004–present''Scudetto'' patchDuring the season, which runs from August to May, each club plays each of the other teams twice; once at home and once away, totalling 38 games for each team by the end of the season.", "Thus, in Italian football a true round-robin format is used.", "In the first half of the season, called the ''andata'', each team plays once against each league opponent, for a total of 19 games.", "In the second half of the season, called the ''ritorno'', the teams play another 19 games, once more against each opponent, in which home and away matches are reversed.", "The two halves of the season had exactly the same order of fixtures until the 2021–22 season, when an asymmetrical calendar was introduced, following the format of the English, Spanish and French leagues.", "Since the 1994–95 season, teams are awarded three points for a win, one point for a draw, and no points for a loss.", "Prior to this, teams were awarded two points for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss.", "The three lowest-placed teams at the end of the season are relegated to Serie B, and three Serie B teams are promoted to replace them for the next season.=== European qualification ===As of 2022, Serie A is ranked as the fourth-best league by UEFA coefficient, therefore the top four teams in the Serie A qualify straight to the UEFA Champions League group stage.", "The team finishing fifth, along with the Coppa Italia winner (if the Coppa Italia winner finishes outside the top five) or the team finishing sixth (if the Coppa Italia winner finishes inside the top five), qualify for the UEFA Europa League group stage.", "The sixth or the seventh ranked club, depending on the Coppa Italia winner's league performance, joins the final qualification round of the UEFA Europa Conference League.=== Tiebreaking ===If after all 38 games, there are two teams tied on points for first place or for 17th, the last safety spot, the team that wins the scudetto or stays up at 17th is decided by a single-legged play-off game of 90 minutes and penalties (no extra time), to be held at a neutral venue, with the host team decided by the tiebreakers listed below.", "If at least three teams are tied for one of those spots, then the two teams to play in the match is decided by a mini table between the teams involved using the tiebreakers below.", "The deciding tie-breakers for any ties on all other positions are as follows:# Head-to-head points# Goal difference of head-to-head games# Goal difference overall# Higher number of goals scored# Play-off game at a neutral venue if relevant to decide European qualification or relegation; otherwise by coin flipBetween 2006–07 and 2021–22, the tiebreakers currently used for all places to decide the scudetto winner if necessary, though this was never needed.", "Before 2005–06, a play-off would immediately be used if teams were tied for first place, a European qualification spot, or a relegation spot.", "In some past years, the playoff was a single game at a neutral site while in others it was a two-legged tie decided by aggregate score.", "A playoff game has never been needed since the tiebreaking format changed.The only time a playoff was used to decide the champion occurred in the 1963–64 season when Bologna and Inter both finished on 54 points.", "Bologna won the playoff 2–0 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome to win the scudetto.", "Playoff games were used on multiple occasions to decide European competition qualifications (most recently in 1999–2000) and relegation (most recently in 2022–23)." ], [ "Clubs", "Before 1929, many clubs competed in the top level of Italian football as the earlier rounds were competed up to 1922 on a regional basis then interregional up to 1929.Below is a list of Serie A clubs who have competed in the competition since it has been a league format (68 in total).===2023–24 season=======Clubs====The following 20 clubs are competing in the Serie A during the 2023–24 season.", "Team Location 2022–23 season First season in Serie A (as round-robin) No.", "of Serie A seasons (as round r.) Current Stadium Stadium Capacity Serie A titles (as round r.) National titles Manager Atalanta Bergamo 5th in Serie A 1937–38 63 Gewiss Stadium 24,950 0 0 Gian Piero Gasperini Bologna Bologna 9th in Serie A 1929–30 77 Stadio Renato Dall'Ara 38,279 5 7 Thiago Motta Cagliari Cagliari Serie B play-off winners 1964–65 43 Sardegna Arena 16,416 1 1 Claudio Ranieri Empoli Empoli 14th in Serie A 1986–87 16 Stadio Carlo Castellani 16,284 0 0 Aurelio Andreazzoli Fiorentina Florence 8th in Serie A 1931–32 86 Stadio Artemio Franchi 43,147 2 2 Vincenzo Italiano Frosinone Frosinone Serie B winners 2015–16 3 Stadio Benito Stirpe 16,227 0 0 Eusebio Di Francesco Genoa Genoa 2nd in Serie B 1929–30 56 Stadio Luigi Ferraris 36,599 0 9 Alberto Gilardino Hellas Verona Verona 18th in Serie A 1957–58 33 Marcantonio Bentegodi 39,211 1 1 Marco Baroni Inter Milan Milan 3rd in Serie A 1929–30 92 Giuseppe Meazza 75,923 17 19 Simone Inzaghi Juventus Turin 7th in Serie A 1929–30 91 Allianz Stadium 41,507 34 36 Massimiliano Allegri Lazio Rome 2nd in Serie A 1929–30 81 Stadio Olimpico 70,634 2 2 Maurizio Sarri Lecce Lecce 16th in Serie A 1985–86 18Stadio Ettore Giardiniero - Via del Mare 31,533 0 0 Roberto D'Aversa AC Milan Milan 4th in Serie A 1929–30 90 San Siro 80,018 16 19 Stefano Pioli Monza Monza 11th in Serie A 2022–23 2 Stadio Brianteo 16,917 0 0 Raffaele Palladino Napoli Naples Champions of Italy 1929–30 78 Stadio Diego Armando Maradona 54,726 3 3 Rudi Garcia Roma Rome 6th in Serie A 1929–30 91 Stadio Olimpico 70,634 3 3 Daniele De Rossi Salernitana Salerno 15th in Serie A 1947–48 5 Stadio Arechi 37,800 0 0 Filippo Inzaghi Sassuolo Sassuolo 13th in Serie A 2013–14 11 Mappei Stadium - Città del Tricolore 21,584 0 0 Alessio Dionisi Torino Turin 10th in Serie A 1929–30 80 Stadio Olimpico Grande Torino 27,958 5 7 Ivan Jurić Udinese Udine 12th in Serie A 1950–51 51 Stadio Friuli 25,144 0 0 Gabriele Cioffi====Maps=======Seasons in Serie A===There are 68 teams that have taken part in 92 Serie A championships in a single round that was played from the 1929–30 season until the 2023–24 season.", "The teams in bold compete in Serie A currently.", "The year in parentheses represents the most recent year of participation at this level.", "Inter Milan is the only team that has played Serie A football in every season.", "* '''92''' seasons: '''Inter Milan''' (2024)* '''91''' seasons: '''Juventus''' (2024), '''Roma''' (2024)* '''90''' seasons: '''AC Milan''' (2024)* '''86''' seasons: '''Fiorentina''' (2024)* '''81''' seasons: '''Lazio''' (2024)* '''80''' seasons: '''Torino''' (2024)* '''78''' seasons: '''Napoli''' (2024)* '''77''' seasons: '''Bologna''' (2024)* '''66''' seasons: Sampdoria (2023)* '''63''' seasons: '''Atalanta''' (2024)* '''56''' seasons: '''Genoa''' (2024)* '''51''' seasons: '''Udinese''' (2024)* '''43''' seasons: '''Cagliari''' (2024)* '''33''' seasons: '''Hellas Verona''' (2024)* '''30''' seasons: Vicenza (2001), Bari (2011)* '''29''' seasons: Palermo (2017)* '''27''' seasons: Parma (2021)* '''26''' seasons: Triestina (1959)* '''23''' seasons: Brescia (2020)* '''19''' seasons: SPAL (2020)* '''18''' seasons: Livorno (2014), '''Lecce''' (2024)* '''17''' seasons: Catania (2014), Chievo (2019)* '''16''' seasons: Padova (1996), Ascoli (2007), '''Empoli''' (2024)* '''13''' seasons: Alessandria (1960), Como (2003), Modena (2004), Perugia (2004), Novara (2012), Cesena (2012), Venezia (2022)* '''12''' seasons: Pro Patria (1956)* '''11''' seasons: Foggia (1995), '''Sassuolo''' (2024)* '''10''' seasons: Avellino (1988)* '''9''' seasons: Reggina (2009), Siena (2013)* '''8''' seasons: Sampierdarenese (1946), Lucchese (1952), Piacenza (2003), Cremonese (2023)* '''7''' seasons: Mantova (1972), Varese (1975), Catanzaro (1983), Pisa (1991), Pescara (2017)* '''6''' seasons: Pro Vercelli (1935)* '''5''' seasons: Messina (2007), '''Salernitana''' (2024)* '''4''' seasons: Casale (1934)* '''3''' seasons: Legnano (1954), Lecco (1967), Reggiana (1997), Crotone (2021), Spezia (2023), '''Frosinone''' (2024)* '''2''' seasons: Ternana (1975), Ancona (2004), Benevento (2021), '''Monza''' (2024)* '''1''' season: Pistoiese (1981), Treviso (2006), Carpi (2016)" ], [ "Logos", "Serie A had logos that featured its sponsor Telecom Italia Mobile (TIM).", "The logo that was introduced in 2010 had a minor change in 2016 due to the change of the logo of TIM itself.", "In August 2018, a new logo was announced, and another one in August 2019." ], [ "Television rights", "In the past, individual clubs competing in the league had the rights to sell their broadcast rights to specific channels throughout Italy, unlike in most other European countries.", "Currently, the two broadcasters in Italy are the satellite broadcaster Sky Italia and streaming platform DAZN for its own pay television networks; RAI is allowed to broadcast only highlights (in exclusive from 13:30 to 22:30 CET).This is a list of television rights in Italy (since 2021–22):* Sky Italia (3 matches per week)* DAZN (all other matches)* OneFootball (highlights)Since the 2010–11 season, Serie A clubs have negotiated television rights collectively rather than on an individual club basis, having previously abandoned collective negotiation at the end of the 1998–99 season.In the 1990s, Serie A was at its most popular in the United Kingdom when it was shown on ''Football Italia'' on Channel 4, although it has actually appeared on more UK channels than any other league, rarely staying in one place for long since 2002.Serie A has appeared in the UK on BSB's The Sports Channel (1990–91), Sky Sports (1991–1992), Channel 4 (1992–2002), Eurosport (2002–2004), Setanta Sports and Bravo (2004–2007), Channel 5 (2007–2008), ESPN (2009–2013), Eleven Sports Network (2018), Premier, FreeSports (2019–2021) and currently BT Sport (2013–2018; 2021–present).In the United States, Serie A is currently shown on CBS Sports and its streaming network Paramount+.", "Prior to 2021–22 it was shown on the ESPN family of networks." ], [ "Champions", ":Although Serie A was not formed until 1929–30, the league recognizes clubs who were named Italian champions before the league's foundation.", "Club Championships Championship seasons '''Juventus''' 36 21 1905, 1925–26, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1957–58, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1966–67, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1994–95, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20 '''AC Milan''' 19 16 1901, 1906, 1907, 1950–51, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1958–59, 1961–62, 1967–68, 1978–79, 1987–88, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99, 2003–04, 2010–11, 2021–22 '''Inter Milan''' 19 16 1909–10, 1919–20, 1929–30, 1937–38, 1939–40, 1952–53, 1953–54, 1962–63, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1970–71, 1979–80, 1988–89, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2020–21 '''Genoa''' 9 4 1898, 1899, 1900, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1914–15, 1922–23, 1923–24 '''Torino''' 7 8 1927–28, 1942–43, 1945–46, 1946–47, 1947–48, 1948–49, 1975–76 '''Bologna''' 7 4 1924–25, 1928–29, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1938–39, 1940–41, 1963–64 Pro Vercelli 7 1 1908, 1909, 1910–11, 1911–12, 1912–13, 1920–21, 1921–22 (CCI) '''Roma''' 3 14 1941–42, 1982–83, 2000–01 '''Napoli''' 3 8 1986–87, 1989–90, 2022–23 '''Lazio''' 2 7 1973–74, 1999–2000 '''Fiorentina''' 2 5 1955–56, 1968–69 '''Cagliari''' 1 1 1969–70 Casale 1 — 1913–14 Novese 1 — 1921–22 (FIGC) '''Hellas Verona''' 1 — 1984–85 Sampdoria 1 — 1990–91'''Bold''' indicates clubs which play in the 2023–24 Serie A.", "* A decoration was awarded to Spezia in 2002 by the FIGC for the 1944 wartime championship.", "However, the FIGC has stated that it cannot be considered as a ''scudetto''.=== By city === City Championships Clubs Turin 43 Juventus (36), Torino (7) Milan 38 AC Milan (19), Inter Milan (19) Genoa 10 Genoa (9), Sampdoria (1) Bologna 7 Bologna (7) Vercelli 7 Pro Vercelli (7) Rome 5 Roma (3), Lazio (2) Naples 3 Napoli (3) Florence 2 Fiorentina (2) Cagliari 1 Cagliari (1) Casale Monferrato 1 Casale (1) Novi Ligure 1 Novese (1) Verona 1 Hellas Verona (1)=== By region === Region Championships Clubs Piedmont 52 Juventus (36), Torino (7), Pro Vercelli (7), Casale (1), Novese (1) Lombardy 38 AC Milan (19), Inter Milan (19) Liguria 10 Genoa (9), Sampdoria (1) Emilia-Romagna 7 Bologna (7) Lazio 5 Roma (3), Lazio (2) Campania 3 Napoli (3) Tuscany 2 Fiorentina (2) Sardinia 1 Cagliari (1) Veneto 1 Hellas Verona (1)" ], [ "Records", "'''Boldface''' indicates a player still active in Serie A.", "''Italics'' indicates a player active outside Serie A.===Most appearances===Gianluigi Buffon has made a record 657 appearances in Serie ARankPlayerClub(s)AppsGoals1 Gianluigi BuffonParma, Juventus1995–20062007–20182019–202165702 Paolo MaldiniAC Milan647293 Francesco TottiRoma1992–20176192504 Javier ZanettiInter Milan1995–2014615125 Gianluca PagliucaSampdoria, Inter Milan, Bologna, Ascoli1987–20052006–200759206 Dino ZoffUdinese, Mantova, Napoli, Juventus1961–198357007 Samir HandanovićTreviso, Lazio, Udinese, Inter Milan2004–20062007–202356608 Pietro VierchowodComo, Fiorentina, Roma, Sampdoria, Juventus, AC Milan, Piacenza1980–2000562389 Fabio QuagliarellaTorino, Ascoli, Sampdoria, Udinese, Napoli, Juventus1999–20002001–20022005–202355618210 Roberto ManciniBologna, Sampdoria, Lazio1981–2000541156===Most goals===Silvio Piola is the highest goalscorer in Serie A history with 274 goalsRankPlayerClub(s)GoalsAppsRatio1 Silvio PiolaPro Vercelli, Lazio, Juventus, Novara1946–19471948–19542745372 Francesco TottiRoma1992–20172506193 Gunnar NordahlAC Milan, Roma1949–19582252914 Giuseppe MeazzaInter Milan, AC Milan, Juventus1929–19431946–1947216367 José AltafiniAC Milan, Napoli, Juventus1958–19762164596 Antonio Di NataleEmpoli, Udinese2002–20162094457 Roberto BaggioFiorentina, Juventus, AC Milan, Bologna, Inter Milan, Brescia1985–20042054528 '''Ciro Immobile'''Juventus, Genoa, Torino, Lazio2009–20102012–20142015–present2003419 Kurt HamrinJuventus, Padova, Fiorentina, AC Milan, Napoli1956–197119040010 Giuseppe SignoriFoggia, Lazio, Sampdoria, Bologna1991–2004188344 Alessandro Del PieroJuventus1993–20062007–2012188478 Alberto GilardinoPiacenza, Hellas Verona, Parma, AC Milan, Fiorentina, Genoa, Bologna, Palermo1999–2017188514" ], [ "Players", "===Non-EU players===Unlike La Liga, for example, which has long imposed a quota on the number of players able to play for each club who hold passports from countries that are not in the European Union, Serie A has undergone many rule changes concerning the number of non-EU players clubs could sign.During the 1980s and 1990s, most Serie A clubs signed a large number of players from foreign nations (both EU and non-EU members).", "Notable foreign players to play in Serie A during this era included Irish international Liam Brady, England internationals Paul Gascoigne and David Platt, France's Michel Platini and Laurent Blanc, Lothar Matthäus and Jürgen Klinsmann from Germany, Dutchmen Ruud Gullit and Dennis Bergkamp, and Argentina's Diego Maradona.In the middle of the 2000–01 season, the old quota system, which limited each team to having no more than five non-EU players and using no more than three in each match, was abolished.", "Concurrent with the abolishment of the quota, the FIGC had investigated footballers that used fake passports.", "Alberto and Warley, Alejandro Da Silva and Jorginho Paulista of Udinese; Fábio Júnior and Gustavo Bartelt of Roma; Dida of Milan; Álvaro Recoba of Inter; Thomas Job, Francis Zé, Jean Ondoa of Sampdoria; and Jeda and Dede of Vicenza were all banned in July 2001 for lengths ranging from six months to one year.", "However, most of the bans were subsequently reduced.At the start of the 2003–04 season, a quota was imposed on each of the clubs limiting the number of non-EU, non-EFTA and non-Swiss players who may be signed from abroad each season, following provisional measures introduced in the 2002–03 season, which allowed Serie A and B clubs to sign only one non-EU player in the 2002 summer transfer window.The rule underwent minor changes in August 2004, June 2005, June 2006, and June 2007.The number of non-EU players was reduced from 265 in 2002–03 season to 166 in 2006–07 season.", "This reduction also included players who received EU status after their respective countries joined the EU (see 2004 and 2007 enlargement), which made players such as Adrian Mutu, Valeri Bojinov, Marek Jankulovski and Marius Stankevičius EU players.The quota system changed again at the beginning of the 2008–09 season: three quotas were awarded to clubs that do not have non-EU players in their squad (previously only newly promoted clubs could have three quotas); clubs that had one non-EU player had two quotas.", "Those clubs that had two non-EU players were awarded one quota and one conditional quota, which was awarded after: 1) Transferred 1 non-EU player abroad, or 2) Release 1 non-EU player as free agent, or 3) A non-EU player received EU nationality.", "Clubs with three or more non-EU players had two conditional quotas, but releasing two non-EU players as free agent only gave one quota instead of two.", "Serie B and Lega Pro clubs could not sign non-EU players from abroad, except those that followed a club promoted from Serie D.On 2 July 2010, the above conditional quota was reduced back to one, though if a team did not have any non-EU players, that team could still sign up to three non-EU players.", "In 2011 the signing quota reverted to two.Large clubs with many foreigners usually borrow quotas from other clubs that have few foreigners or no foreigners in order to sign more non-EU players.", "For example, Adrian Mutu joined Juventus via Livorno in 2005, as at the time Romania was not a member of the EU.", "Other examples include Júlio César, Victor Obinna and Maxwell, who joined Inter from Chievo (first two) and Empoli, respectively.===Homegrown players===Serie A also imposed Homegrown players rule, a modification of Homegrown Player Rule (UEFA).", "Unlike UEFA, Serie A at first did not cap the number of players in first team squad at 25, meaning the club could employ more foreigners by increasing the size of the squad.", "However, a cap of 25 (under-21 players were excluded) was introduced to 2015–16 season (in 2015–16 season, squad simply require 8 homegrown players but not require 4 of them from their own youth team).", "In the 2016–17 season, the FIGC sanctioned Sassuolo for fielding ineligible player, Antonino Ragusa.", "Although the club did not exceed the capacity of 21 players that were not from their own youth team (only Domenico Berardi was eligible as youth product of their own) as well as under 21 of age (born 1995 or after, of which four players were eligible) in their 24-men call-up, It was reported that on Lega Serie A side the squad list was not updated.In 2015–16 season, the following quota was announced.Size of first team squad Local + club youth product ← 25 min.", "8 (max.", "4 not from own youth team)===FIFA World Players of the Year===* Lothar Matthäus: 1991 (Inter Milan)* Marco van Basten: 1992 (AC Milan)* Roberto Baggio: 1993 (Juventus)* George Weah: 1995 (AC Milan)* Ronaldo: 1997, 2002 (Inter Milan)* Zinedine Zidane: 1998, 2000 (Juventus)* Fabio Cannavaro: 2006 (Juventus)* Kaká: 2007 (AC Milan)" ], [ "See also", "* Campionato Nazionale Primavera* Coppa Campioni d'Italia* Italian football clubs in international competitions* List of foreign Serie A players* List of Italian football club owners* Serie A Awards* UEFA coefficient" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website * FIGC – Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio (Italian Football Association)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Inhalant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Inhalants''' are a broad range of household and industrial chemicals whose volatile vapors or pressurized gases can be concentrated and breathed in via the nose or mouth to produce intoxication, in a manner not intended by the manufacturer.", "They are inhaled at room temperature through volatilization (in the case of gasoline or acetone) or from a pressurized container (e.g., nitrous oxide or butane), and do not include drugs that are sniffed after burning or heating.", "For example, amyl nitrite (poppers), nitrous oxide and toluene – a solvent widely used in contact cement, permanent markers, and certain types of glue – are considered inhalants, but smoking tobacco, cannabis, and crack cocaine are not, even though these drugs are inhaled as smoke or vapor.While a few inhalants are prescribed by medical professionals and used for medical purposes, as in the case of inhaled anesthetics and nitrous oxide (an anxiolytic and pain relief agent prescribed by dentists), this article focuses on inhalant use of household and industrial propellants, glues, fuels, and other products in a manner not intended by the manufacturer, to produce intoxication or other psychoactive effects.", "These products are used as recreational drugs for their intoxicating effect.", "According to a 1995 report by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the most serious inhalant use occurs among homeless children and teenagers who \"... live on the streets completely without family ties.\"", "Inhalants are the only substance used more by younger teenagers than by older teenagers.", "Inhalant users inhale vapor or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from a solvent-soaked rag or an open container.", "The practices are known colloquially as \"sniffing\", \"huffing\" or \"bagging\".The effects of inhalants range from an alcohol-like intoxication and intense euphoria to vivid hallucinations, depending on the substance and the dose.", "Some inhalant users are injured due to the harmful effects of the solvents or gases or due to other chemicals used in the products that they are inhaling.", "As with any recreational drug, users can be injured due to dangerous behavior while they are intoxicated, such as driving under the influence.", "In some cases, users have died from hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, heart failure, cardiac arrest, or aspiration of vomit.", "Brain damage is typically seen with chronic long-term use of solvents as opposed to short-term exposure.While legal when used as intended, in England, Scotland, and Wales it is illegal to sell inhalants to persons likely to use them as an intoxicant.", "As of 2017, thirty-seven US states impose criminal penalties on some combination of sale, possession or recreational use of various inhalants.", "In 15 of these states, such laws apply only to persons under the age of 18." ], [ "Classification", "Inhalants can be classified by their intended function.", "Most inhalant drugs that are used non-medically are ingredients in household or industrial chemical products that are not intended to be concentrated and inhaled.", "A small number of recreational inhalant drugs are pharmaceutical products that are used illicitly.===Product category===Another way to categorize inhalants is by their product category.", "There are three main product categories: solvents; gases; and medical drugs which are used illicitly.Permanent markers, as well as dry erase markers, have the potential to be inhalants====Solvents====A range of petroleum-based products that can be used as inhalants.A wide range of volatile solvents intended for household or industrial use are inhaled as recreational drugs.", "This includes petroleum products (gasoline and kerosene), toluene (used in paint thinner, permanent markers, contact cement and model glue), and acetone (used in nail polish remover).", "These solvents vaporize at room temperature.", "Ethanol (the alcohol which is normally drunk) is sometimes inhaled, but this cannot be done at room temperature.", "The ethanol must be converted from liquid into gaseous state (vapor) or aerosol (mist), in some cases using a nebulizer, a machine that agitates the liquid into an aerosol.", "The sale of nebulizers for inhaling ethanol was banned in some US states due to safety concerns.====Gases====Computer-cleaning dusters are dangerous to inhale because the gases expand and cool rapidly upon being sprayed.A number of gases intended for household or industrial use are inhaled as recreational drugs.", "This includes chlorofluorocarbons used in aerosols and propellants (e.g., aerosol hair spray, aerosol deodorant).", "A gas used as a propellant in whipped cream aerosol containers, nitrous oxide, is used as a recreational drug.", "Pressurized canisters of propane and butane gas, both of which are intended for use as fuels, are used as inhalants.====Medical anesthetics====Several medical anesthetics are used as recreational drugs, including diethyl ether (a drug that is no longer used medically, due to its high flammability and the development of safer alternatives) and nitrous oxide, which is widely used in the 2010s by dentists as an anti-anxiety drug during dental procedures.", "Diethyl ether has a long history of use as a recreational drug.", "The effects of ether intoxication are similar to those of alcohol intoxication, but more potent.", "Also, due to NMDA antagonism, the user may experience all the psychedelic effects present in classical dissociatives such as ketamine in the forms of thought loops and the feeling of the mind being disconnected from one's body.", "Nitrous oxide is a dental anesthetic that is used as a recreational drug, either by users who have access to medical-grade gas canisters (e.g., dental hygienists or dentists) or by using the gas contained in whipped cream aerosol containers.", "Nitrous oxide inhalation can cause pain relief, depersonalisation, derealisation, dizziness, euphoria, and some sound distortion.===Classification by effect===Common household products such as nail polish contain solvents that can be concentrated and inhaled, in a manner not intended by the manufacturer, to produce intoxication.", "Misuse of products in this fashion can be harmful or fatal.It is also possible to classify inhalants by the effect they have on the body.", "Some solvents act as depressants, causing users to feel relaxed or drowsy while others act as stimulants.", "All commonly abused inhalants act as asphyxiant gases, although a common myth is that their primary effects are only due to oxygen deprivation.", "In reality, the majority of abused inhalants still exhibit psychoactive effects, although oxygen deprivation does add to the notable effects.", "Nitrous oxide can be categorized as a dissociative drug, as it can cause visual and auditory hallucinations.", "Other agents may have more direct effects at receptors, as inhalants exhibit a variety of mechanisms of action.", "The mechanisms of action of many non-medical inhalants have not been well elucidated.", "Anesthetic gases used for surgery, such as nitrous oxide or enflurane, are believed to induce anesthesia primarily by acting as NMDA receptor antagonists, open-channel blockers that bind to the inside of the calcium channels on the outer surface of the neuron, and provide high levels of NMDA receptor blockade for a short period of time.This makes inhaled anesthetic gases different from other NMDA antagonists, such as ketamine, which bind to a regulatory site on the NMDA-sensitive calcium transporter complex and provide slightly lower levels of NMDA blockade, but for a longer and much more predictable duration.", "This makes a deeper level of anesthesia achievable more easily using anesthetic gases but can also make them more dangerous than other drugs used for this purpose.===Chemical structure===Tanks of medical-grade nitrous oxide.Inhalants can also be classified by chemical structure.", "Classes include: Category ICD-10 Examples Example image aliphatic hydrocarbons petroleum products (gasoline and kerosene), propane, butane 90x60px aromatic hydrocarbons toluene (used in paint thinner and model glue), xylene 60x50px ketones acetone (used in nail polish remover) 60x50px haloalkanes hydrofluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons (including many aerosols and propellants), 1,1,1-Trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, chloroform (the latter two being antiquated inhalational anaesthetics) 60x50px nitrites alkyl nitrites (poppers such as amyl nitrite) 90x50px nitrous oxide nitrous oxide (found in whipped cream canisters) 150x50px" ], [ "Administration and effects", "Inhalant users inhale vapors or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from an open container of solvents, such as gasoline or paint thinner.", "Nitrous oxide gases from whipped cream aerosol cans, aerosol hairspray or non-stick frying spray are sprayed into plastic bags.", "Some nitrous oxide users spray the gas into balloons.", "When inhaling non-stick cooking spray or other aerosol products, some users may filter the aerosolized particles out with a rag.", "Some gases, such as propane and butane gases, are inhaled directly from the canister.", "Once these solvents or gases are inhaled, the extensive capillary surface of the lungs rapidly absorbs the solvent or gas, and blood levels peak rapidly.", "The intoxication effects occur so quickly that the effects of inhalation can resemble the intensity of effects produced by intravenous injection of other psychoactive drugs.Ethanol is also inhaled, either by vaporizing it by pouring it over dry ice in a narrow container and inhaling with a straw or by pouring alcohol in a corked bottle with a pipe, and then using a bicycle pump to make a spray.", "Alcohol can be vaporized using a simple container and open-flame heater.", "Medical devices such as asthma nebulizers and inhalers were also reported as a means of application.", "The practice gained popularity in 2004, with the marketing of the device dubbed AWOL (Alcohol without liquid), a play on the military term AWOL (Absent Without Leave).", "AWOL, created by British businessman Dominic Simler, was first introduced in Asia and Europe, and then in the United States in August 2004.AWOL was used by nightclubs, at gatherings and parties, and it garnered attraction as a novelty, as people 'enjoyed passing it around in a group'.", "AWOL uses a nebulizer, a machine that agitates the liquid into an aerosol.", "AWOL's official website states that \"AWOL and AWOL 1 are powered by ''Electrical Air Compressors'' while AWOL 2 and AWOL 3 are powered by ''electrical oxygen generators''\", which refer to a couple of mechanisms used by the nebulizer drug delivery device for inhalation.", "Although the AWOL machine is marketed as having no downsides, such as the lack of calories or hangovers, Amanda Shaffer of ''Slate'' describes these claims as \"dubious at best\".", "Although inhaled alcohol does reduce the caloric content, the savings are minimal.", "After expressed safety and health concerns, sale or use of AWOL machines was banned in a number of American states.The effects of solvent intoxication can vary widely depending on the dose and what type of solvent or gas is inhaled.", "A person who has inhaled a small amount of rubber cement or paint thinner vapor may be impaired in a manner resembling alcohol inebriation.", "A person who has inhaled a larger quantity of solvents or gases, or a stronger chemical, may experience stronger effects such as distortion in perceptions of time and space, hallucinations, and emotional disturbances.", "The effects of inhalant use are also modified by the combined use of inhalants and alcohol or other drugs.In the short term, many users experience headaches, nausea and vomiting, slurred speech, loss of motor coordination, and wheezing.", "A characteristic \"glue sniffer's rash\" around the nose and mouth is sometimes seen after prolonged use.", "An odor of paint or solvents on clothes, skin, and breath is sometimes a sign of inhalant abuse, and paint or solvent residues can sometimes emerge in sweat.According to NIH, even a single session of inhalant use \"can disrupt heart rhythms and lower oxygen levels\", which can lead to death.", "\"Regular abuse can result in serious harm to the brain, heart, kidneys, and liver.\"" ], [ "Dangers and health problems", "Statistics on deaths caused by heavy inhalant use are difficult to determine.", "It may be severely under-reported because death is often attributed to a discrete event such as a stroke or a heart attack, even if the event happened because of inhalant use.", "Inhalant use was mentioned on 144 death certificates in Texas during the period 1988–1998 and was reported in 39 deaths in Virginia between 1987 and 1996 from acute voluntary exposure to used inhalants.===General risks===Regardless of which inhalant is used, inhaling vapors or gases can lead to injury or death.", "One major risk is hypoxia (lack of oxygen), which can occur due to inhaling fumes from a plastic bag, or from using proper inhalation mask equipment (e.g., a medical mask for nitrous oxide) but not adding oxygen or room air.", "Another danger is freezing the throat.", "When a gas that was stored under high pressure is released, it cools abruptly and can cause frostbite if it is inhaled directly from the container.", "This can occur, for example, with inhaling nitrous oxide.", "When nitrous oxide is used as an automotive power adder, its cooling effect is used to make the fuel-air charge denser.", "In a person, this effect is potentially lethal.", "Many inhalants are volatile organic chemicals and can catch fire or explode, especially when combined with smoking.", "As with many other drugs, users may also injure themselves due to loss of coordination or impaired judgment, especially if they attempt to operate machinery.Solvents have many potential risks in common, including pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest, and aspiration of vomit.", "The inhaling of some solvents can cause hearing loss, limb spasms, and damage to the central nervous system and brain.", "Serious but potentially reversible effects include liver and kidney damage and blood-oxygen depletion.", "Death from inhalants is generally caused by a very high concentration of fumes.", "Deliberately inhaling solvents from an attached paper or plastic bag or in a closed area greatly increases the chances of suffocation.", "Brain damage is typically seen with chronic long-term use as opposed to short-term exposure.", "Parkinsonism (see: Signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease) has been associated with huffing.The middle container is cooking spray, a household product, which is used as an inhalant.Female inhalant users who are pregnant may have adverse effects on the fetus, and the baby may be smaller when it is born and may need additional health care (similar to those seen with alcohol – fetal alcohol syndrome).", "There is some evidence of birth defects and disabilities in babies born to women who sniffed solvents such as gasoline.In the short term, death from solvent use occurs most commonly from aspiration of vomit while unconscious or from a combination of respiratory depression and hypoxia, the second cause being especially a risk with heavier-than-air vapors such as butane or gasoline vapor.", "Deaths typically occur from complications related to excessive sedation and vomiting.", "Actual overdose from the drug does occur, however, and inhaled solvent use is statistically more likely to result in life-threatening respiratory depression than intravenous use of opioids such as heroin.", "Most deaths from solvent use could be prevented if individuals were resuscitated quickly when they stopped breathing and their airways cleared if they vomited.", "However, most inhalant use takes place when people inhale solvents by themselves or in groups of people who are intoxicated.", "Certain solvents are more hazardous than others, such as gasoline.In contrast, a few inhalants like amyl nitrite and diethyl ether have medical applications and are not toxic in the same sense as solvents, though they can still be dangerous when used recreationally.", "Nitrous oxide is thought to be particularly non-toxic, though heavy long-term use can lead to a variety of serious health problems linked to the destruction of vitamin B12 and folic acid.===Risks of specific agents===The hypoxic effect of inhalants can cause damage to many organ systems (particularly the brain, which has a very low tolerance for oxygen deprivation), but there can also be additional toxicity resulting from either the physical properties of the compound itself or additional ingredients present in a product.", "Organochlorine solvents are particularly hazardous; many of these are now restricted in developed countries due to their environmental impact.", "* Methylene chloride, after being metabolized, can cause carbon monoxide poisoning.", "* Gasoline sniffing can cause lead poisoning, in locations where leaded gas is not banned.", "* Ingestion of alkyl nitrites can cause methemoglobinemia, and by inhalation it has not been ruled out.", "* Carbon tetrachloride can cause significant damage to multiple systems, but its association with liver damage is so strong that it is used in animal models to induce liver injury.", "* Use of butane, propane, nitrous oxide and other inhalants can create a risk of freezing burns from contact with the extremely cold liquid (See aerosol burn).", "The risk of such contact is greatly increased by the impaired judgement and motor coordination brought on by inhalant intoxication.", "* Benzene use can cause bone marrow depression.", "It is also a known carcinogen.", "* Toluene can damage myelin.Toxicity may also result from the pharmacological properties of the drug; excess NMDA antagonism can completely block calcium influx into neurons and provoke cell death through apoptosis, although this is more likely to be a long-term result of chronic solvent use than a consequence of short-term use.===Sudden sniffing death syndrome===Sudden sniffing death syndrome, first described by Millard Bass in 1970, is commonly known as SSDS.Inhaling butane gas can cause drowsiness, unconsciousness, asphyxia, and cardiac arrhythmia.", "Butane is the most commonly misused volatile solvent in the UK and caused 52% of solvent-related deaths in 2000.When butane is sprayed directly into the throat, the jet of fluid can cool rapidly to −20 °C by adiabatic expansion, causing prolonged laryngospasm.Some inhalants can also indirectly cause sudden death by cardiac arrest, in a syndrome known as \"sudden sniffing death\".", "The anaesthetic gases present in the inhalants appear to sensitize the user to adrenaline and, in this state, a sudden surge of adrenaline (e.g., from a frightening hallucination or run-in with aggressors), may cause fatal cardiac arrhythmia.Furthermore, the inhalation of any gas that is capable of displacing oxygen in the lungs (especially gases heavier than oxygen) carries the risk of hypoxia as a result of the very mechanism by which breathing is triggered.", "Since reflexive breathing is prompted by elevated carbon dioxide levels (rather than diminished blood oxygen levels), breathing a concentrated, relatively inert gas (such as computer-duster tetrafluoroethane or nitrous oxide) that removes carbon dioxide from the blood without replacing it with oxygen will produce no outward signs of suffocation even when the brain is experiencing hypoxia.", "Once full symptoms of hypoxia appear, it may be too late to breathe without assistance, especially if the gas is heavy enough to lodge in the lungs for extended periods.", "Even completely inert gases, such as argon, can have this effect if oxygen is largely excluded." ], [ "Legal aspects", "===Solvent glue===Contact cement, a fast-drying glue, is widely used as an inhalant, as it typically contains solvents such as toluene which vaporize at room temperature.Even though solvent glue is normally a legal product, there is a 1983 case where a court ruled that supplying glue to children is illegal.", "''Khaliq v HM Advocate'' was a Scottish criminal case decided by the High Court of Justiciary on appeal, in which it was decided that it was an offense at common law to supply glue-sniffing materials that were otherwise legal in the knowledge that they would be used recreationally by children.", "Two shopkeepers in Glasgow were arrested and charged for supplying children with \"glue-sniffing kits\" consisting of a quantity of petroleum-based glue in a plastic bag.", "They argued there was nothing illegal about the items that they had supplied.", "On appeal, the High Court took the view that, even though glue and plastic bags might be perfectly legal, everyday items, the two shopkeepers knew perfectly well that the children were going to use the articles as inhalants and the charge on the indictment should stand.", "When the case came to trial at Glasgow High Court the two were sentenced to three years' imprisonment.As of 2023, in England, Scotland, and Wales it is illegal to sell inhalants, including solvent glues, to persons of any age likely to use them as an intoxicant.", "As of 2017, thirty-seven US states impose criminal penalties on some combination of sale, possession or recreational use of various inhalants.", "In 15 of these states, such laws apply only to persons under the age of 18.===Propellant gases===\"New Jersey... prohibits selling or offering to sell minors products containing chlorofluorocarbon that is used in refrigerant.", "\"===Poppers===A selection of poppersThe sale of alkyl nitrite-based poppers was banned in Canada in 2013.Although not considered a narcotic and not illegal to possess or use, they are considered a drug.", "Sales that are not authorized can now be punished with fines and prison.", "Since 2007, reformulated poppers containing isopropyl nitrite are sold in Europe because only isobutyl nitrite is prohibited.", "In France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite, pentyl nitrite, or isomers thereof, has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers.", "In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs.", "After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the Council of State on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.In the United Kingdom, poppers are widely available and frequently (legally) sold in gay clubs/bars, sex shops, drug paraphernalia head shops, over the Internet and on markets.", "It is illegal under Medicines Act 1968 to sell them advertised for human consumption, and to bypass this, they are usually sold as odorizers.", "In the U.S., originally marketed as a prescription drug in 1937, amyl nitrite remained so until 1960, when the Food and Drug Administration removed the prescription requirement due to its safety record.", "This requirement was reinstated in 1969, after observation of an increase in recreational use.", "Other alkyl nitrites were outlawed in the U.S. by Congress through the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988.The law includes an exception for commercial purposes.", "The term ''commercial purpose'' is defined to mean any use other than for the production of consumer products containing volatile alkyl nitrites meant for inhaling or otherwise introducing volatile alkyl nitrites into the human body for euphoric or physical effects.", "The law came into effect in 1990.Visits to retail outlets selling these products reveal that some manufacturers have since reformulated their products to abide by the regulations, through the use of the legal cyclohexyl nitrite as the primary ingredient in their products, which are sold as video head cleaners, polish removers, or room odorants.===Nitrous oxide===Nitrous oxide \"whippets\" are small aerosol containers designed for charging whipped cream dispensers.A nitrous oxide \"cracker\" device, for releasing the gas from whipped cream aerosol chargers.In the United States, possession of nitrous oxide is legal under federal law and is not subject to DEA purview.", "It is, however, regulated by the Food and Drug Administration under the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act; prosecution is possible under its \"misbranding\" clauses, prohibiting the sale or distribution of nitrous oxide for the purpose of human consumption as a recreational drug.", "Many states have laws regulating the possession, sale, and distribution of nitrous oxide.", "Such laws usually ban distribution to minors or limit the amount of nitrous oxide that may be sold without a special license.", "For example, in the state of California, possession for recreational use is prohibited and qualifies as a misdemeanor.", "In New Zealand, the Ministry of Health has warned that nitrous oxide is a prescription medicine, and its sale or possession without a prescription is an offense under the Medicines Act.", "This statement would seemingly prohibit all non-medicinal uses of the chemical, though it is implied that only recreational use will be legally targeted.", "In India, for general anesthesia purposes, nitrous oxide is available as Nitrous Oxide IP.", "India's gas cylinder rules (1985) prohibit the transfer of gas from one cylinder to another for breathing purposes.", "Because India's Food & Drug Authority (FDA-India) rules state that transferring a drug from one container to another (refilling) is equivalent to manufacturing, anyone found doing so must possess a drug manufacturing license." ], [ "Patterns of non-medical use", "Inhalant drugs are often used by children, teenagers, incarcerated or institutionalized people, and impoverished people, because these solvents and gases are ingredients in hundreds of legally available, inexpensive products, such as deodorant sprays, hair spray, contact cement and aerosol air fresheners.", "However, most users tend to be \"... adolescents (between the ages of 12 and 17).\"", "In some countries, chronic, heavy inhalant use is concentrated in marginalized, impoverished communities.", "Young people who become used to heavy amounts of inhalants chronically are also more likely to be those who are isolated from their families and community.", "The article \"Epidemiology of Inhalant Abuse: An International Perspective\" notes that \"the most serious form of obsession with inhalant use probably occurs in countries other than the United States where young children live on the streets completely without family ties.", "These groups almost always use inhalants at very high levels (Leal et al.", "1978).", "This isolation can make it harder to keep in touch with the sniffer and encourage him or her to stop sniffing.", "\"The article also states that \"... high inhalant use rates among barrio Hispanics almost undoubtedly are related to the poverty, lack of opportunity, and social dysfunction that occur in barrios\" and states that the \"... same general tendency appears for Native-American youth\" because \"... Indian reservations are among the most disadvantaged environments in the United States; there are high rates of unemployment, little opportunity, and high rates of alcoholism and other health problems.\"", "There are a wide range of social problems associated with inhalant use, such as feelings of distress, anxiety and grief for the community; violence and damage to property; violent crime; stresses on the juvenile justice system; and stresses on youth agencies and support services.===Africa and Asia===The canister on the left is whipped cream, a product which is pressurized with nitrous oxide.", "The two canisters on the right contain 'flavoured' oxygen.Glue and gasoline (petrol) sniffing is also a problem in parts of Africa, especially with street children.", "In India and South Asia, three of the most widely used inhalants are the Dendrite brand and other forms of contact adhesives and rubber cement manufactured in Kolkata, and toluenes in paint thinners.", "Genkem is a brand of glue, which had become the generic name for all the glues used by glue-sniffing children in Africa before the manufacturer replaced n-hexane in its ingredients in 2000.The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime has reported that glue sniffing is at the core of \"street culture\" in Nairobi, Kenya, and that the majority of street children in the city are habitual solvent users.", "Research conducted by Cottrell-Boyce for the African Journal of Drug and Alcohol Studies found that glue sniffing amongst Kenyan street children was primarily functional – dulling the senses against the hardship of life on the street – but it also provided a link to the support structure of the \"street family\" as a potent symbol of shared experience.Similar incidents of glue sniffing among destitute youth in the Philippines have also been reported, most commonly from groups of street children and teenagers collectively known as \"Rugby\" boys, which were named after a brand of toluene-laden contact cement.", "Other toluene-containing substances have also been used, most notably the Vulca Seal brand of roof sealants.", "Bostik Philippines, which currently owns the Rugby and Vulca Seal brands, has since responded to the issue by adding bitterants such as mustard oil to their Rugby line, as well as reformulating it by replacing toluene with xylene.", "Several other manufacturers have also followed suit.Another very common inhalant is Erase-X, a correction fluid that contains toluene.", "It has become very common for school and college students to use it, because it is easily available in stationery shops in India.", "This fluid is also used by street and working children in Delhi.===Europe and North America===In the UK, marginalized youth use a number of inhalants, such as solvents and propellants.", "In Russia and Eastern Europe, gasoline sniffing became common on Russian ships following attempts to limit the supply of alcohol to ship crews in the 1980s.", "The documentary ''Children Underground'' depicts the huffing of a solvent called Aurolac (a product used in chroming) by Romanian homeless children.", "During the interwar period, the inhalation of ether (etheromania) was widespread in some regions of Poland, especially in Upper Silesia.", "Tens of thousands of people were affected by this problem.In Canada, Native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of Davis Inlet were the focus of national concern in 1993, when many were found to be sniffing gasoline.", "The Canadian and provincial Newfoundland and Labrador governments intervened on a number of occasions, sending many children away for treatment.", "Despite being moved to the new community of Natuashish in 2002, serious inhalant use problems have continued.", "Similar problems were reported in Sheshatshiu in 2000 and also in Pikangikum First Nation.", "In 2012, the issue once again made the news media in Canada.", "In Mexico, the inhaling of a mixture of gasoline and industrial solvents, known locally as \"Activo\" or \"Chemo\", has risen in popularity among the homeless and among the street children of Mexico City in recent years.", "The mixture is poured onto a handkerchief and inhaled while held in one's fist.In the US, ether was used as a recreational drug during the 1930s Prohibition era, when alcohol was made illegal.", "Ether was either sniffed or drunk and, in some towns, replaced alcohol entirely.", "However, the risk of death from excessive sedation or overdose is greater than that with alcohol, and ether drinking is associated with damage to the stomach and gastrointestinal tract.", "Use of glue, paint and gasoline became more common after the 1950s.", "Model airplane glue-sniffing as problematic behavior among youth was first reported in 1959 and increased in the 1960s.", "Use of aerosol sprays became more common in the 1980s, as older propellants such as CFCs were phased out and replaced by more environmentally friendly compounds such as propane and butane.", "Most inhalant solvents and gases are not regulated under drug laws such as the United States Controlled Substances Act.", "However, many US states and Canadian cities have placed restrictions on the sale of some solvent-containing products to minors, particularly for products widely associated with sniffing, such as model cement.", "The practice of inhaling such substances is sometimes colloquially referred to as huffing, sniffing (or glue sniffing), dusting, or chroming.===Australia===Gasoline (also known as petrol) is used as an inhalant in impoverished communities.Australia has long faced a petrol (gasoline) sniffing problem in isolated and impoverished aboriginal communities.", "Although some sources argue that sniffing was introduced by United States servicemen stationed in the nation's Top End during World War II or through experimentation by 1940s-era Cobourg Peninsula sawmill workers, other sources claim that inhalant abuse (such as glue inhalation) emerged in Australia in the late 1960s.", "Chronic, heavy petrol sniffing appears to occur among remote, impoverished indigenous communities, where the ready accessibility of petrol has helped to make it a common addictive substance.In Australia, petrol sniffing now occurs widely throughout remote Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory, Western Australia, northern parts of South Australia, and Queensland.", "The number of people sniffing petrol goes up and down over time as young people experiment or sniff occasionally.", "\"Boss\", or chronic, sniffers may move in and out of communities; they are often responsible for encouraging young people to take it up.A 1983 survey of 4,165 secondary students in New South Wales showed that solvents and aerosols ranked just after analgesics (e.g., codeine pills) and alcohol for drugs that were inappropriately used.", "This 1983 study did not find any common usage patterns or social class factors.", "The causes of death for inhalant users in Australia included pneumonia, cardiac failure/arrest, aspiration of vomit, and burns.", "In 1985, there were 14 communities in Central Australia reporting young people sniffing.", "In July 1997, it was estimated that there were around 200 young people sniffing petrol across 10 communities in Central Australia.", "Approximately 40 were classified as chronic sniffers.", "There have been reports of young Aboriginal people sniffing petrol in the urban areas around Darwin and Alice Springs.In 2005, the Government of Australia and BP Australia began the usage of opal fuel in remote areas prone to petrol sniffing.", "Opal is a non-sniffable fuel (which is much less likely to cause a high) and has made a difference in some indigenous communities." ], [ "In popular culture", "===Music and musical culture===One of the early musical references to inhalant use occurs in the 1974 Elton John song \"The Bitch Is Back\", in the line \"I get high in the evening sniffing pots of glue.\"", "Inhalant use, especially glue-sniffing, is widely associated with the late-1970s punk youth subculture in the UK and North America.", "Raymond Cochrane and Douglas Carroll claim that when glue sniffing became widespread in the late 1970s, it was \"adopted by punks because public negative perceptions of sniffing fitted in with their self-image\" as rebels against societal values.", "While punks at first used inhalants \"experimentally and as a cheap high, adult disgust and hostility to the practice encouraged punks to use glue sniffing as a way of shocking society.\"", "As well, using inhalants was a way of expressing their anti-corporatist DIY (do it yourself) credo; by using inexpensive household products as inhalants, punks did not have to purchase industrially manufactured liquor or beer.The punk subculture, in which members may live in squats or on the street, has been associated with \"glue sniffing\" since its inception.One history of the punk subculture argues that \"substance abuse was often referred to in the music and did become synonymous with the genre, glue-sniffing especially\" because the youths' \"faith in the future had died and that the youth just didn't care anymore\" due to the \"awareness of the threat of nuclear war and a pervasive sense of doom.\"", "In a BBC interview with a person who was a punk in the late 1970s, they said that \"there was a real fear of imminent nuclear war—people were sniffing glue knowing that it could kill them, but they didn't care because they believed that very soon everybody would be dead anyway.", "\"A number of 1970s punk rock and 1980s hardcore punk songs refer to inhalant use.", "The Ramones, an influential early US punk band, referred to inhalant use in several of their songs.", "The song \"Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue\" describes adolescent boredom, and the song \"Carbona not Glue\" states, \"My brain is stuck from shooting glue.\"", "An influential punk fanzine about the subculture and music took its name (''Sniffin' Glue'') from the Ramones song.", "The 1980s punk band The Dead Milkmen wrote a song, \"Life is Shit\" from their album ''Beelzebubba'', about two friends hallucinating after sniffing glue.", "Punk-band-turned-hip-hop group the Beastie Boys penned a song \"Hold it Now – Hit It\", which includes the line \"cause I'm beer drinkin, breath stinkin, sniffing glue.\"", "Their song \"Shake Your Rump\" includes the lines, \"Should I have another sip no skip it/In the back of the ride and bust with the whippits\".", "Pop punk band Sum 41 wrote a song, \"Fat Lip\", which refers to a character who does not \"make sense from all the gas you be huffing...\" The song \"Lança-Perfume\", written and performed by Brazilian pop star Rita Lee, became a national hit in 1980.The song is about chloroethane and its widespread recreational sale and use during the rise of Brazil's carnivals.Inhalants are referred to by bands from other genres, including several grunge bands—an early 1990s genre that was influenced by punk rock.", "The 1990s grunge band Nirvana, which was influenced by punk music, penned a song, \"Dumb\", in which Kurt Cobain sings \"my heart is broke / But I have some glue / help me inhale / And mend it with you\".", "L7, an all-female grunge band, penned a song titled \"Scrap\" about a skinhead who inhales spray-paint fumes until his mind \"starts to gel\".", "Also in the 1990s, the Britpop band Suede had a UK hit with their song \"Animal Nitrate\" whose title is a thinly veiled reference to amyl nitrite.", "The Beck song \"Fume\" from his \"Fresh Meat and Old Slabs\" release is about inhaling nitrous oxide.", "Another Beck song, \"Cold Ass Fashion\", contains the line \"O.G.", "– Original Gluesniffer!\"", "Primus's 1999 song \"Lacquer Head\" is about adolescents who use inhalants to get high.", "Hip hop performer Eminem wrote a song, \"Bad Meets Evil\", which refers to breathing \"... ether in three lethal amounts.\"", "The Brian Jonestown Massacre, a retro-rock band from the 1990s, has a song, \"Hyperventilation\", which is about sniffing model-airplane cement.", "Frank Zappa's song \"Teenage Wind\" from 1981 has a reference to glue sniffing: \"Nothing left to do but get out the 'ol glue; Parents, parents; Sniff it good now...\"===Films===A number of films have depicted or referred to the use of solvent inhalants.", "In the 1980 comedy film ''Airplane!", "'', the character of McCroskey (Lloyd Bridges) refers to his inhalant use when he states, \"I picked the wrong week to quit sniffing glue.\"", "In the 1996 film ''Citizen Ruth'', the character Ruth (Laura Dern), a homeless drifter, is depicted inhaling patio sealant from a paper bag in an alleyway.", "In the tragicomedy ''Love Liza'', the main character, played by Philip Seymour Hoffman, plays a man who takes up building remote-controlled airplanes as a hobby to give him an excuse to sniff the fuel in the wake of his wife's suicide.Harmony Korine's 1997 ''Gummo'' depicts adolescent boys inhaling contact cement for a high.", "Edet Belzberg's 2001 documentary ''Children Underground'' chronicles the lives of Romanian street children addicted to inhaling paint.", "In ''The Basketball Diaries'', a group of boys is huffing Carbona cleaning liquid at 3 minutes and 27 seconds into the movie; further on, a boy is reading a diary describing the experience of sniffing the cleaning liquid.In the David Lynch film ''Blue Velvet'', the bizarre and manipulative character played by Dennis Hopper uses a mask to inhale amyl nitrite.", "In ''Little Shop of Horrors'', Steve Martin's character dies from nitrous oxide inhalation.", "The 1999 independent film ''Boys Don't Cry'' depicts two young low-income women inhaling aerosol computer cleaner (compressed gas) for a buzz.", "In ''The Cider House Rules'', Michael Caine's character is addicted to inhaling ether vapors.In ''Thirteen'', the main character, a teen, uses a can of aerosol computer cleaner to get high.", "In the action movie ''Shooter'', an ex-serviceman on the run from the law (Mark Wahlberg) inhales nitrous oxide gas from a number of Whip-It!", "whipped cream canisters until he becomes unconscious.", "The South African film ''The Wooden Camera'' also depicts the use of inhalants by one of the main characters, a homeless teen, and their use in terms of socio-economic stratification.", "The title characters in ''Samson and Delilah'' sniff petrol; in Samson's case, possibly causing brain damage.In the 2004 film ''Taxi'', Queen Latifah and Jimmy Fallon are trapped in a room with a burst tank containing nitrous oxide.", "Queen Latifah's character curses at Fallon while they both laugh hysterically.", "Fallon's character asks if it is possible to die from nitrous oxide, to which Queen Latifah's character responds with \"It's laughing gas, stupid!\"", "Neither of them had any side effects other than their voices becoming much deeper while in the room.In the French horror film ''Them'' (2006), a French couple living in Romania are pursued by a gang of street children who break into their home at night.", "Olivia Bonamy's character is later tortured and forced to inhale aurolac from a silver-colored bag.", "During a flashback scene in the 2001 film ''Hannibal'', Hannibal Lecter gets Mason Verger high on amyl nitrite poppers, then convinces Verger to cut off his own face and feed it to his dogs.===Books===The science fiction story \"Waterspider\" by Philip K. Dick (first published in January 1964 in ''If'' magazine) contains a scene in which characters from the future are discussing the culture of the early 1950s.", "One character says: \"You mean he sniffed what they called 'airplane dope'?", "He was a 'glue-sniffer'?", "\", to which another character replies: \"Hardly.", "That was a mania among adolescents and did not become widespread in fact until a decade later.", "No, I am speaking about imbibing alcohol.", "\"The book ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' describes how the two main characters inhale diethyl ether and amyl nitrite.===Television===In the comedy series ''Newman and Baddiel in Pieces'', Rob Newman's inhaling gas from a foghorn was a running joke in the series.", "One episode of the ''Jeremy Kyle Show'' featured a woman with a 20-year butane gas addiction.", "In the series ''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia'', Charlie Kelly has an addiction to huffing glue.", "Additionally, season nine episode 8 shows Dennis, Mac, and Dee getting a can of gasoline to use as a solvent, but instead end up taking turns huffing from the canister.A 2008 episode of the reality show ''Intervention'' (season 5, episode 9) featured Allison, who was addicted to huffing computer duster for the short-lived, psychoactive effects.", "Allison has since achieved a small but significant cult following among bloggers and YouTube users.", "Several remixes of scenes from Allison's episode can be found online.", "Since 2009, Allison has worked with drug and alcohol treatment centers in Los Angeles County.", "In the seventh episode of the fourteenth season of ''South Park'', Towelie, an anthropomorphic towel, develops an addiction to inhaling computer duster.", "In the show ''Squidbillies'', the main character Early Cuyler is often seen inhaling gas or other substances." ], [ "See also", "* Building materials* Construction waste* Inhaler or puffer, a medical device used for delivering medication into the body via the lungs (often used in the treatment of asthma)* ''Khaliq v HM Advocate'', a Scottish criminal case in which the court ruled that it is an offense to supply materials that were used for sniffing* Mt Theo Program, a successful petrol-sniffing prevention program run by the indigenous Warlpiri community in Central Australia* Jenkem, a purported inhalant and hallucinogen supposedly created from fermented human waste* List of medical inhalants* Paint* Renovation* Refurbishment* Sawdust (wood dust)* Substance-induced psychosis* Surgery* Volatile organic compound* Wood glue* Wood preservative* Wood working" ], [ "References", ";Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", " Inhalants at National Institute on Drug Abuse* \" NIDA for Teens: Inhalants\" at National Institute on Drug Abuse* Alt URL" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Iceman (Marvel Comics)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Iceman''' ('''Robert Louis''' \"'''Bobby'''\" '''Drake''') is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics and is a founding member of the X-Men.", "Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in ''The X-Men'' #1 (Sept. 1963).", "Iceman is a mutant born with superhuman abilities.", "He has the ability to manipulate ice and cold by freezing water vapor around him.", "This allows him to freeze objects, as well as cover his body with ice.Iceman has a relatively high profile among ''X-Men'' characters due to being frequently adapted into X-Men and Spider-Man-related media, including video games, animated series, and films.", "The character later received widespread media attention when a storyline retconned the character as a closeted gay man in ''All-New X-Men'' #40 (April 2015), leading to his coming out.Iceman has been described as one of the most notable and powerful gay characters in comic books.From 2000 to 2014, Shawn Ashmore portrayed Iceman in the 20th Century Fox ''X-Men'' films and voiced the character in ''The Super Hero Squad Show''." ], [ "Publication history", "Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in ''X-Men'' #1 (September 1963).", "Lee later admitted that Iceman was created essentially as a copy of the Human Torch, only using the opposite element for his power.Iceman was featured in two self-titled limited comic book miniseries, one in 1984–85 written by J. M. DeMatteis and another in the 2000s by Andy Lanning and Dan Abnett, with art by Karl Kerschl.", "DeMatteis said of the first series, \"It was my idea, so there was no one to blame but myself.", "I'll just say that it was a mistake and if the series made any sense whatsoever it was due to editor Bob Budiansky.", "That was a case where the editor's input was really needed—and Bob was a big help.", "\"A mainstay in most X-Men titles, Iceman has been a main character in both ''Uncanny X-Men'' and the second volume of ''X-Men'' and was also featured in ''The Champions'' from 1975 to 1978 and ''The New Defenders'' from 1983 to 1986 as a member.", "He was a main character in the first volume of ''X-Factor'', and a star in flashback stories when he was a teenager in ''X-Men: The Hidden Years'' and ''X-Men: First Class''.In April 2015, in issue 40 of ''All-New X-Men'', a time-displaced version of the teenaged Iceman was revealed as gay by his teammate, Jean Grey, who discerned this with her telepathic ability.", "This raised questions, because the character's adult, present-day counterpart had previously been portrayed dating women.", "In ''Uncanny X-Men'' #600, which was published in November that year, the young Iceman confronts his older self, who confirms that he is gay as well but repressed his true self, not wanting to be both gay and a mutant.", "In 2017, Iceman received his first ongoing solo series, which focused on the adult Bobby Drake coming to terms with life as an out gay man, his Omega-level superpowers, his legacy as a hero and fighting some of the biggest villains in the Marvel Universe.", "The book had been cancelled, with its last issue being in early 2018.However, Marvel later reversed the decision and announced that a new book written by original writer Sina Grace as a part of their Fresh Start initiative and was released in 2019." ], [ "Fictional character biography", "===Early life===Robert Louis \"Bobby\" Drake was born in Floral Park, Long Island, New York, to William Robert Drake and Madeline Beatrice Bass-Drake.", "His father is Irish-American Catholic, and his mother is Jewish.", "Bobby's powers first manifested when he was on a date with Judy Harmon, and a local bully by the name of Rocky Beasely tried to take Judy away for himself.", "Knowing Judy could not put up a good fight, Bobby pointed his hand at Beasely and encased him in a block of ice.", "Later, the local townspeople, having heard of the incident, came looking for him in the form of an angry mob.", "The local sheriff had no choice but to put Bobby in jail for his own \"protection\".", "While Bobby sat in his cell at the sheriff station, the outer wall was blown open, and a young man named Scott Summers walked in and offered to take Bobby with him.", "After Bobby turned him down, the two mutants got into a short battle, which was soon ended by the arrival of Professor Charles Xavier.=== Original X-Men ===After Xavier spoke with Bobby and his parents, Bobby's parents suggested that he go with Professor Xavier to his \"school for gifted youngsters\".", "Bobby took the suggestion and left with Professor Xavier and Cyclops to become the second member of the X-Men.", "He is later joined by Henry \"Hank\" McCoy, Jean Grey, and Warren Worthington III as the founding members of the X-Men.", "Drake remains self-conscious regarding the fact that he is the youngest member of the group.", "Appearing in his original snow covered form, he first battles Magneto along with the rest of the team, and later the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants.", "Bobby Drake's first girlfriend is Zelda.", "Not long after, he takes on a new ice-covered form.", "He then teams up with the Human Torch for the first time.", "The two would become close friends as time went on.", "With the X-Men, he visits the Savage Land and meets Ka-Zar for the first time.", "He then battles the Juggernaut, and is badly injured in his first battle against the Sentinels.", "He next battles Magneto by himself.", "Later, he visits Subterranea for the first time.", "Then, he and Beast battle the Maha Yogi.", "During his original stint with the X-Men, Drake pursues a relationship with Lorna Dane, although the relationship does not last.", "Iceman is among the original X-Men captured by Krakoa, leading to a new incarnation of X-Men of which he is not a member.", "With most of the original team, he quits the X-Men.===Champions and Defenders===Iceman moves to the American west coast to attend UCLA and becomes a founding member of The Champions of Los Angeles.", "However, the Champions soon dissolve.Iceman is then abducted by Master Mold, and alongside Angel, he encounters the Hulk.", "Iceman next aids the Thing in battling the Circus of Crime.", "Drake retires from life as a superhero to earn a college degree in accounting – but apparently at a college on the east coast, not UCLA.", "While in college, he briefly rejoins the X-Men to rescue the captives of Arcade's henchman, Miss Locke.Iceman is reunited with Beast, encounters Cloud, and then returns as a full-time superhero in an incarnation of the Defenders alongside his former teammates, Angel and Beast.", "He also battles Professor Power's Secret Empire while with the Defenders.", "After the Defenders disband, Drake embarks on his career as an accountant.Some time later, Iceman encounters Mirage, the \"daughter\" of Oblivion.", "Iceman journeys back in time and meets his parents before he was born, and battles Oblivion and Mirage.", "He then reconciles with his parents.===X-Factor===The original X-Men, including Iceman, reunite to form the superhero team X-Factor.", "With this new team, he encounters Apocalypse for the first time.During his time with the team, Loki captures Bobby, hoping to use him to gain control over the Frost Giants.", "Loki enhances Bobby's powers and then extracts them to restore the size of the Frost Giants.", "Iceman is rescued by Thor.", "Loki's tampering increases Bobby's powers to such an extent that he begins to lose control of his abilities.", "During a later battle with the Right, he is fitted with a power-dampening belt which actually helps him control his abilities.", "Once able only to sheathe his own body in a protective coating of ice, Bobby finds he can encase the entirety of the Empire State Building.", "With time, Bobby gains sufficient control over his augmented powers and is able to stop using the inhibitor belt.", "Believing he has achieved his full potential, Bobby does not attempt to develop his abilities further.With X-Factor, Bobby then defeats Apocalypse's Horsemen.", "Iceman helps watch over many of the younger superheroes, something he once was.", "Most notably, he and Beast help Boom Boom gain a more normal life.", "For a brief while, he also helps supervise the New Mutants and their sister team, the X-Terminators.", "They, in turn, save him from the deadly kiss of Infectia.Bobby also develops a romantic relationship with Opal Tanaka.", "After a session of ice sledding, she discovers threatening mail in her mailbox, a precursor to harassment by her cybernetically enhanced relatives of the Tatsu Clan of the Yakuza, which Bobby helps her out with.After the \"Muir Island Saga\", Iceman rejoins the X-Men along with the rest of X-Factor.===Back with the X-Men===When he rejoined the X-Men it seemed that he learned to control his powers and no longer needed the inhibitor belt, this made him believe he reached the limit of his powers.", "The X-Men were separated into two groups, Iceman was placed in the gold team, led by Storm, along with fellow original X-Men Jean Grey (now without a code name) and Archangel.One day he took Opal to eat with his parents, however his dad began humiliating her because of her Japanese heritage.", "The four are attacked by the Cyber-Samurai, which added to William Drake's prejudices about the girl.", "When Bobby came across Mikhail Rasputin he used his mutant abilities on him.", "Bobby discovered that his potential was still far from being reached as he converted his body into ice, not just covered by it.", "By turning his entire body to ice, instead of just wearing an icy exterior, Bobby now was capable of using his power in new, aggressive ways, adding spikes and padding to his ice structure.Too busy with the many threats that the X-Men faced every day, Bobby let his relationship with Opal deteriorate and, when they finally saw each other again after weeks, it was only to save her from an attack by mutant haters.", "Annoyed that she could only gain his attention by nearly getting killed, Opal broke off their relationship.Later, as he was checking on Emma Frost who was in a comatose state after the mutant Trevor Fitzroy unleashed the mutant-hunting Sentinels on Emma Frost and her students known as the Hellions, the mansion was hit by an electricity breakdown.", "Emma woke up disoriented, possessed Bobby's mind, and used his powers in ways Bobby never had; she froze an entire river and traveled through water.", "She was looking for her pupils but after finding out they were dead, she left Bobby's body.Bobby invites Rogue to tag along on a visit to his parents.", "Wrongly assuming a romantic relation, his father disapproves of Rogue, verbally attacking them with the same prejudices he expressed with Opal.", "This time, Bobby had enough and left after telling his father that he should just accept the fact that he is a mutant and he would never fit the definition he has of normal.", "He was upset that Emma exhibited greater control of his powers than he had.", "Since Rogue was having problems with Gambit, the two of them go on a road trip to ease their minds.During the Legion Quest, Iceman was one of the X-Men who went back in time to stop Legion from killing Magneto.", "They succeed, but only partially.", "Legion does not kill Magneto, but instead accidentally murdered Xavier, his own father, years before Legion had been conceived much less born.", "This paradox caused the events of the Age of Apocalypse.", "At the last moment before the original reality ended, Iceman's fellow X-Men, Rogue and Gambit shared a kiss.", "When reality resumed, Rogue's mind-absorbing touch renders Gambit comatose.", "Having absorbed some secret haunting memories, she needs to get away from the X-Men and Iceman volunteers to join her on a road trip, though at the same time he was starting to see visions of Emma Frost.", "When Gambit awoke from his coma, he tracked them down and confronted Rogue about what she saw in his mind.", "She broke off their relationship, Iceman and Gambit returned to the X-Men.When the entity known as Onslaught first appeared, Iceman was chosen as one of his test subjects, along with Storm, Cyclops and Wolverine.", "They were pitted against a servant of Onslaught named Post, in a specific battle area of harsh environment to test the extent of their abilities.", "They won and were returned to the mansion.", "However, Iceman's chest had been shattered in his ice form during battle, making it impossible to change back to human form.", "He confronted Emma Frost and demanded to know what she did to his powers in his body and how to save himself.", "She refused to help since she knew that Bobby would have to do it himself.", "When he captured her with his ice powers, she telepathically showed him his insecurities.", "By confronting Opal and his father in her simulation, Iceman realized that Emma was right and managed to transform back to his human body with his chest fully intact.When Graydon Creed was running for President (with a heavy anti mutant campaign), Bobby was chosen to infiltrate in the campaign.", "His father stood out in a crowd and spoke in favor of the mutants, which came as a surprise to Bobby.", "His father's connection with Bobby was discovered, so the people that worked for Graydon captured him and almost beat him to death.", "Bobby decided to stay away from the X-Men for a while to be with his dad.Zero Tolerance came across and Bobby found and helped Cecilia Reyes who was trying to keep a secret that she was a mutant.", "They also joined with Charlotte Jones and the Morlock Marrow.", "After Bastion was defeated, he took Cecilia and Marrow to the mansion, and soon left the X-Men again for a while to be with his parents.Much later, the X-Men found evidence in one of Destiny's journals of a group known as the Twelve, including Xavier, Magneto, Cyclops, Phoenix, Iceman, Polaris, Storm, Cable, Bishop, Sunfire, Mikhail Rasputin and the Living Monolith.", "They also learned that the Apocalypse's Horsemen had been kidnapping these mutants from around the globe.", "Iceman was captured in the woods near his home by Deathbird, who had become the Horseman War.", "Gathering the remaining Twelve, the X-Men traveled to Egypt and confronted Apocalypse and the Skrulls.", "Apocalypse and his forces captured all of the Twelve during the battle, using them in a ritual to give the Chaos-Bringer a new body and incredible power.", "Magneto and Polaris created opposite magnetic polarities, Iceman, Storm, and Sunfire provided elemental extremes, Cyclops, Phoenix, and Cable gave the sheer power of family, Xavier represented the power of mind and Bishop and Mikhail stood for time and space, while the Monolith linked all their energies together.", "Nate Grey was to be Apocalypse's new host, a powerhouse to store his massive lifeforce.", "The Twelve managed to free themselves and Cyclops sacrificed his own body and life force to keep Apocalypse from getting Nate.", "Though the new Apocalypse was defeated, Cyclops seemed lost forever.After that incident, Iceman helped the Beast to secretly enter Genosha, as he wanted to study the legacy-infected mutates.", "When the High Evolutionary released his anti-mutation wave, they were trapped in the war-ravaged country.", "With the aid of Magneto, they escaped and joined forces with the rest of the scattered X-Men.", "They raided the Evolutionary's satellite, disabled the mutation field and defeated Sinister, who had been manipulating the Evolutionary.Iceman was recruited by the living ship Prosh, along with other mutants, like Jean Grey, Mystique, Toad and Juggernaut, to preserve evolution and save it.", "In this journey Iceman developed his powers even further, which led him to no longer be afraid of the natural course of his powers and he returned to the X-Men.", "He joined a new team of X-Men, consisting of Angel, Nightcrawler, Wolverine and Chamber.", "He was using his abilities in a whole new way now, just channelling the power and not turning his body into ice.===Second mutation===During a heated battle with a recently evolved Black Tom Cassidy, he received a chest wound.", "After returning to normal his chest did not fully recover and some parts of it remained icy, and he was unable to return them to normal.", "At first he became afraid of it but in time it made him gain a new attitude in life, even rude at some times.Nobody seemed to realize it at the time, but evidently this was an early sign of Iceman undergoing a secondary mutation of his own.", "When he repeatedly tried to evade his regular medical check-ups, school nurse Annie Ghazikhanian recognized that something odd was going on with him and pressured him to show her the wound.", "Bobby made her promise not to tell anyone and showed her that parts of his chest are now made of ice and he is unable to change them back to flesh and blood.", "Iceman wonders if he will entirely turn into ice on a permanent basis.He developed an attitude that, to some of the newer addition to the X-Men, like Stacy X, Juggernaut and Northstar, he comes across as rather arrogant, denouncing their status as team members, as they have not been around as long as he.", "Iceman even went as far as offending Nightcrawler by claiming that only the original five, and no one else, has the right to call themselves an X-Man.Bobby was further frustrated when Havok and Polaris announced their imminent wedding, him having carried a torch for Lorna for quite some time.", "In his frustration he turned to Annie, who had problems with the wedding too, as she was secretly in love with Havok.", "The nurse surprised him with the accusation of him being a racist – feeling comfortable as a mutant who could pass like a human when needed, opposed to being a fully obvious mutant or a \"mere\" human.", "With his secondary mutation manifesting, though, Iceman was in danger of losing this status.", "Shocked by the truth of her words, Bobby fully opened up about his fears, that as a man fully made of ice he could never feel the warmth of a physical relationship again.", "Touched, Annie allowed him to kiss her, but when Havok called off the wedding, wanting to be with Annie instead, she quickly dumped Bobby.Upon encountering Azazel and his followers, Iceman's body is shattered from the neck down.", "Afterward, he regains his entire ice form, but cannot change back to his human appearance.", "As a result, Bobby becomes both bitter and despondent because of this drastic change.===Rogue's Team===Iceman joins Rogue's team after she tells him that she wants him as a member.", "Their first mission as a team is to fight a new threat, a powerful group known as the Children of the Vault.", "The team is successful and during this time, Bobby learns that he can be completely destroyed but then pull himself back together again.", "It was shown several times during the arc.The next mission for the team was to locate a man called Pandemic and defeat him.", "The team was again successful, but Rogue was infected with a virus called Strain 88.Cable took the team, including Bobby, to his island so Rogue could get treatment.While on Cable's island, the team and Iceman began working to defeat the Shi'ar weapon known as the Hecatomb.", "During the chaos, he shared a passionate kiss with Mystique.", "Even as he did so, he saved many lives by containing the explosion of the Conquistador, and, later, the Hecatomb itself.===Blinded by the Light===As the team recovers from Hecatomb attack in Rogue's childhood home, it appears that Mystique and Iceman begin a romantic relationship.", "This was a front, as Mystique was using Iceman and the X-Men as a Marauder spy for Mister Sinister.", "Marauders soon infiltrated the house; they attempt to gain access to Destiny's Diaries on the order of Mr. Sinister (who has been gathering information about the future from anybody and anything that could foretell the future).", "Bobby and Cannonball escape from the Marauders in the X-Jet, with help from Emma Frost.", "They are pursued by Sunfire; they manage to get the better of him and take him prisoner, but not before he manages to cripple the jet.", "While Sunfire is unconscious, Iceman and Sam discuss the Mauraders' plan to eliminate all precognitive mutants and anyone with knowledge of the future as well as retrieving Destiny's Diaries before the Marauders can.", "During this time, Bobby displayed sub-atomic control of energy transfers when he prevented Sunfire from using his fire-based powers.Cannonball and Bobby, telepathically prompted by Emma Frost, attempt to recover the diaries which are hidden in a dilapidated brewery.", "Mr. Sinister uses the reverse-engineered version of Xavier's Cerebro to track the pair of X-Men to the brewery.", "The Marauders attack Cannonball and Iceman and overtake them.", "Bobby, while in his ice form, suffers a gunshot wound from Mystique, which severs one of his arms above the elbow.", "Mister Sinister, who takes Cannonball prisoner, attempts to telepathically erase his mind so that the X-Men will find him as an empty shell.", "Iceman attacks Sinister, distracting him, which allows both of the X-Men to escape.===Messiah Complex===The New X-Men team decided to raid the headquarters of the Purifiers in Washington, D.C., but were forced to retreat.", "Pixie teleported them back to the mansion in a rush, but the entire team was scattered between D.C. and Westchester.", "Iceman, after recovering from his injuries, volunteered to go look for them and was given telepathic directions by Emma Frost.Iceman was successful in finding the New X-Men, most of them injured.", "On the way back, they found that the ONE* Sentinels guarding the Xavier Institute had become infected by nano-Sentinels and attacked the school.", "Iceman and New X-Man X-23 helped out in the battle with the ONE* Sentinels.", "With the help of Dust and X-23, the X-Men were able to survive this battle but the nano-Sentinel infected human escaped.Soon, Iceman participated in the final battle against the Marauders, the Acolytes, and Predator X.", "He was one of the X-Men who came running in to fight Predator X after it swallowed Wolverine whole.", "However, he also witnesses his mentor, Professor Xavier, \"killed\" by Bishop's bullet, which was not meant for him.===Divided We Stand===Iceman arrives in San Francisco, where he was set to meet Hepzibah, Warpath, and Angel.", "All four are caught in the effects of a citywide illusion created by Martinique Jason, who used her powers to transform the city into a hippie paradise.", "Now calling himself \"Frosty\", he and the others are sent by Martinique to confront Scott Summers and Emma Frost.", "Emma Frost is able to break up the illusion and free everyone.", "They eventually set up their base of operations in San Francisco as X-Men.===Secret Invasion and Utopia===Iceman is one of the X-Men that assists in fighting the Skrull invasion in San Francisco.Iceman rescues Colossus from Venom and is later made a part of a team to battle Emma Frost's Dark X-Men.", "During the final battle on Utopia, Iceman teams up with the X-Students to take on Mimic.", "Iceman had the labor of providing water to the population.", "He attempted to use humor to keep everyone's spirits up even though he believed that the situation was helpless and that the X-Men were living in the last days of mutantkind.", "Bobby then helped defeat Predator X and also helped stop Selene's resurrected army's invasion of Utopia.===Second Coming===During the battle with Bastion's Nimrod Sentinels, Iceman is severely injured following an attack from one of them that reversed his ice form and left him with burns on his body.", "He is only there for a short time because his mutant powers help him minimize the injuries he suffered and he is seen back in battle alongside Psylocke and the other X-Men.===Post Schism===Early solicitations show that after Wolverine and Cyclops have a major falling out, Wolverine decides to branch off and open ''The Jean Grey School for Higher Learning'' back in New York.", "Iceman is the first person Wolverine approaches and recruits to his new X-Men squad as both a professor and teammate.", "Iceman is chosen because Wolverine feels he has the kind of spirit the new school needs.", "He also has an off-and-on romantic relationship with Kitty Pryde.===Extraordinary X-Men===When the Terrigen became toxic for mutants, Iceman was one of the recruits in Storm's new team dedicated to protecting mutants from the Terrigen by leading them to X-haven.", "Iceman mostly works alongside Nightcrawler, helping him search for Colossus after he is transformed into one of Apocalypse's new horsemen.", "Iceman and Nightcrawler manage to track Colossus to Egypt, where he ambushes them and almost kills them until another squad of X-Men comes in to help.", "After that Iceman joins the X-Men when they declare war against the Inhumans after discovering that in a matter of weeks the Terrigen will render earth as completely uninhabitable for mutants.===Fantastic Four Returns===Iceman is among the heroes summoned by Mr.", "Fantastic - a group consisting of former substitute members of the Fantastic Four - to help the Future Foundation against the cosmic entity known as the Griever.", "However, the Human Torch objects to Iceman's presence during the battle, emphatically asserting that Iceman was ''never'' a member of the FF.", "Iceman states that he ''was'' made a member during an adventure involving Namor.", "The Torch simply counters with \"''That didn't COUNT!", "''\"As recounted in ''Fantastic Four'' vol.", "6 #24, Iceman's induction into the FF did not feature Namor, but occurred during the early days of the FF and the original X-Men.", "One morning years ago, the youthful Torch 'quit' the FF in an immature fit of pique.", "That same day, the sensitive teen-aged Iceman left the X-Men after being laughed at by his peers for his poor showing in a Danger Room exercise.", "Iceman encountered the remaining FF members and assisted them with a day-long series of crises, being casually admitted to the team as a result.", "When the Torch discovered that he had been replaced, he attacked Iceman during the FF's current battle and forcefully declared that Iceman was ''not'' an FF member.", "The Invisible Girl forced the pair to work together to help defeat the FF's final opponent of the day.", "Iceman was then telepathically summoned back to the X-Men by Professor X, who praised his student's performance.", "Mr.", "Fantastic told the departing Iceman that he could return to the FF whenever he wanted.", "The Torch was also 'readmitted', with a penance of a week's laundry detail.In the present time, Iceman returns the teen-aged Franklin Richards to the FF's Yancy Street home/headquarters from Krakoa and is recognized by the building's security system as an FF member.", "This angers the Torch once again, and he declares that Iceman had ''never'' been a member of the team.", "The two men bicker over the issue until Iceman realizes that the Torch was never upset about Iceman replacing him on the ''team'', but believes that he was trying to take his place in the FF ''family''.", "The Torch finally admits that what bothered him most was that other substitute members—who were also considered family by the FF—were always brought in due to major events, and that if Iceman was the actual first substitute member, that meant the Torch had given up his place \"over nothing.\"", "The Torch ultimately drops the matter of Iceman's legitimacy and says that he was an official substitute FF member, and is also a part of the FF 'family'.===Solo series===After being outed as gay by the time-displaced Jean Grey, the younger time-displaced Iceman confronts his older self, asking him why he has been presenting as straight for most of his adult life.", "The older Bobby breaks down and admits that he has known he was gay for a long time but forcibly repressed that part of himself, fearful of how others would react.", "He further acknowledges that he was scared to reveal his true self to the world due to already facing prejudice for being a mutant and not wanting to receive hatred for another part of himself.", "Following all of this, Bobby decides to take a break from the limelight and focus on himself, declining to join the new X-team formed by Kitty Pryde, instead acting as a reserve member and teaching classes at the Xavier School.", "After a training session with his younger self, Bobby sees the time-displaced Iceman head out for a date with his boyfriend Romeo while he tries to set up an online dating profile to meet guys.", "He receives a text from his mother stating that his father has had a heart attack so Bobby rushes to the hospital only to be chastises by his father for missing family events due to his commitments as a superhero.", "Following a brief battle in the hospital, Bobby's parents ask him to leave, angry that their mutant son is bringing yet more trouble into their lives.", "On a mission with Kitty to rescue a new mutant, she confronts Bobby about being gay, asking why he could not tell her himself, meaning she had to find out from a secondary source.", "She reassures him that she only wants to help him and lets him know she is there if he ever wants to talk but suggests he should come out to his parents.", "Bobby arranges dinner with his family but he is constantly subjected anti-mutant rhetoric from his parents.", "The dinner is interrupted by a gang of Purifiers but, although Iceman takes them down quickly and the lives of his parents, they are angry that their house has been destroyed because of him and send him away (although his mother promises to try and convince his father to visit him at the X-Mansion).", "When the mutant that he and Kitty rescues goes missing, Iceman tracks him to a nearby nightclub where he discovers that Daken is responsible for luring him away.", "Daken tries to flirt with Bobby to distract him but Iceman freezes him and attempts to convince the mutant to return to the Xavier School, though he refuses.", "Daken mocks Bobby, saying that he can smell his fear and insecurity.", "Upon returning, Kitty surprises Bobby by revealing that his parents have arrived for a visit.", "He tells them he is gay and they both react negatively, angry that their son is both a mutant and a gay man.", "They chastise him for letting everyone else find out before them and try to convince him that he is straight, due to having been with women in the past.", "The family argument is interrupted by Juggernaut, who attacks the school looking for the young X-Men.", "Iceman defeats him by pushing his powers and returns to the mansion to find his father is still there.", "He had obtained Bobby's draft of a coming out letter from Kitty and the two men begin to reconcile.Bobby reconnects with his former Champions teammates, Angel, Hercules, Ghost Rider and Darkstar, so they reminisce about their time with Black Widow.", "Bobby runs into a guy, Judah, while out shopping and he agrees to meet him that night at a local gay bar, with the rest of the Champions acting as his wingmen.", "The date appears to be going well but is interrupted by an attack by some Sentinels.", "Bobby's relationship with Judah continues to develop and he decides to move to L.A. to be closer to him.", "While fighting Pyro with his younger self, Bobby explains that his mother has finally made contact with him for the first time since he came out and that she wants to invite both of them to dinner.", "Time-displaced Iceman agrees on the condition that Bobby tries to talk sense into Romeo, who hasn't called him in weeks.", "Meanwhile, Daken begins training his new mutant protégée for a secret mission.", "When both the younger Bobby and the older Bobby arrive at the restaurant, their parents see the younger Bobby as a chance to raise a new son in a way that suits them but the time-displaced Iceman refuses, saying that he is still gay and wants to live life on his own terms before they both storm out.", "During Bobby's moving away party at the X-Mansion, Daken uses the Purifiers to distract the other X-Men while he and his apprentice infiltrate the school and ambush Bobby.", "The young mutant uses his levelled-up powers to increase Daken's strength by turning him into Apocalypse's horseman Death and he mortally wounds Judah with his claws before engaging Iceman in combat.", "Bobby manages to defeat Daken with a kiss which freezes Death's powers but Daken escapes and Judah breaks up with Bobby because his life is too much for him to deal with.After teaming with Bishop to help the Morlocks who came under threat by Mister Sinister, Bobby finds himself approached by Emma Frost who asks him for his help.", "Ignoring Kitty's protests, he agrees and Emma explains that her Father, who subjected her brother Christian to conversion therapy before having him institutionalized, has recently let him out and reinstalled him as the new heir to the Frost business empire.", "When they arrive, they discover that Christian has murdered their Father and is exhibiting his own powers.", "Bobby and Emma help to free Christian from his mental breakdown and Emma decides to stay with him.", "Joining with his friends Spider-Man and Firestar, Bobby discovers that Sinister was behind the attack on the Morlocks and confronts him in his safehouse.", "Sinister, intent on trying to unlock the secrets of Iceman's DNA by dissecting him, sends forth an army of experimental ice creatures but Bobby's Omega Level powers absorb them all into him and he fires Mister Sinister into space.", "Celebrating his birthday, Bobby is confronted by Ice Wizard, a future version of himself from an alternate timeline.", "Ice Wizard warns Bobby that he must quit the X-Men and stop using his powers to avoid a world-destroying series of events happening.", "He explains that Daken seduces him and manipulates him into sacrificing the other X-Men before betraying him and gaining Thanos-level powers.", "Bobby is adamant that this won't happen and the two engage in battle.", "Jean Grey arrives and Bobby finally confronts her for the actions of her younger self when she outed him.", "Bobby explains to Ice Wizard that he is going to live life on his terms and that nobody, not even his future self, is going to decide for him.", "Bobby returns to his birthday celebration where Christian arrives and hands him a large sum of money which Bobby gives to the Morlocks.", "A content Bobby messages Judah, asking if he would like to meet up as friends.===Hellfire Gala and The Astonishing Iceman===Bobby was one of the first casualties of the third annual Hellfire Gala, in which he did battle with Nimrod.", "He had gained the upper hand in the fight at first, only to be injected with cellular napalm that literally melted him into nothing before the horrified eyes of Kitty Pryde and Romeo.", "But sometime later, it was shown that Romeo had used his Inhuman powers and his emotional connection to Bobby to re-integrate him and restore him to life.", "However, his physical and mental cohesion is reliant on his proximity to Romeo." ], [ "Powers and abilities", "Iceman possesses the power to instantly decrease the temperature of ambient water vapor in his immediate environment to below zero degrees Celsius, thereby freezing it into ice.", "He is able to make ice that will not break unless he wills it to.", "In this manner he is able to quickly form a great variety of ice structures, including projectiles, shields, ladders, baseball bats, etc.", "Iceman often makes ice slides which form rapidly beneath and behind his feet, moving him along the slick surface at high speeds.", "He is also able to form exceedingly complicated structures within relative short time, such as miniature cities.", "Originally, Iceman's own body temperature would lower dramatically when his powers were active, reaching within a few tenths of a second (now his body usually converts to organic ice; see below).", "Iceman is immune to sub-zero temperatures; he is also able to perceive the thermal energy level of objects around him.", "Because cold is the absence of heat, Iceman does not actually 'emanate' cold; rather, he decreases thermal energy.", "As mentioned by writer Mike Carey, Iceman is \"an Omega-level mutant ... and has powers that can influence the ecosystem of the entire world.\"", "Iceman has yet to tap into his full mutant potential, but over the years he has taken more interest in developing his abilities.In his early appearances, Iceman generally covered his body in a thick layer of what appeared to be snow; hence he looked more like a traditional snowman than an ice-man.", "Upon further training in the use of his powers, he was able to fashion an armor of solid ice around his body when using his powers, which afforded him some degree of protection against concussive force and projectiles.", "Later on, he manifested the ability to convert the tissue of his body into organic ice.", "He sometimes augments his organic ice form with razor sharp adornments to his shoulders, elbows, knees, and fists.", "Iceman has also been able to move rapidly to another distant location while in his organic ice form, being able to deposit his bodily mass into a river and reconstitute his entire mass a great distance away in a matter of minutes (by temporarily merging his molecules with those of the river).", "On one occasion, Iceman suffered a severe chest injury while in his ice form and was able to heal himself by converting back into his normal human form.Iceman is also able to reconstitute his organic ice form if any part of it is damaged, or even if it is completely shattered, without permanently harming himself.", "He can temporarily add the mass of a body of water to his own, increasing his mass, size, and strength.", "He can survive not only as ice, but as liquid water and water vapor.", "He can also transform his body from a gaseous state back to a solid, although it is physically and mentally taxing.", "Iceman can also freeze sea water, as seen during the \"Operation: Zero Tolerance\" story arc.", "While he usually does not use his powers in lethal ways, his powers are so vast that they extend to the molecular level, to the point that he can freeze all of the molecules of an object/being with a thought; he once froze every single molecule of water within the body of David Haller.", "Iceman is also able to dissolve his own icy constructs.Iceman's powers were pushed to their limit while possessed by Emma Frost, who used Iceman to discover the fate of her Hellions.", "During this time Iceman was able to control all forms of moisture, freeze fluids inside people's bodies, travel as a liquid, solid or gas.", "Not even the combined might of the X-Men Gold team was able to stop Emma Frost in Iceman's body.", "Following this, Bobby confronted Emma about how she was able to use his powers so effectively.", "While together they made some initial progress, she refused to train him further.", "Instead he turned to Storm because they share similar elemental powers and she agreed to tutor him.When Iceman was injected with Mister Sinister's neuro-inhibiter by Mystique, he was able to save himself by drawing in all of the ambient moisture around him, rapidly replacing his poisoned cells with healthy material before the injection could kill him.During the 2013–2014 \"Battle of the Atom\" storyline, Iceman's future self revealed that he has the ability to create semi-independent ice structures that can act on their own, although one of these structures—demonstrating a Hulk-like physique and intellect—has gone on to join the future version of the Brotherhood.Aside from his superhuman powers, Iceman is also a fair hand-to-hand combatant, and received combat training at Xavier's School as well as coaching from the Black Widow and Hercules while serving with the Champions of Los Angeles.", "Iceman has taken as much combat training as Cyclops or Beast." ], [ "Characterization", "===Personality===According to writer Mike Carey \"one of Iceman's best personality traits is that emotionally Bobby Drake is like the ice he manipulates—not cold but transparent.", "'He's devastatingly honest.", "He is very up-front with his emotions and his thoughts all the time.'\"", "\"Also, he's obviously incredibly brave both in terms of facing external, physical danger as well as facing up to unpleasant situations and admitting his own mistakes.", "\"===Friendships and relationships===Iceman had a brief relationship with a Japanese-American New Yorker named Opal Tanaka.", "He subsequently exhibited strong feelings for his fellow X-Man Polaris, but she did not return those feelings, due to her feelings towards Havok.", "Northstar developed an unrequited crush for Iceman during their time on the same team, though Iceman never did find out about this.", "Iceman later had a brief relationship with the Xavier School's nurse, Annie, but she eventually left him for Havok, who had just left Polaris at the altar.", "When Iceman attempted to rekindle his relationship with Polaris, that too ended abruptly, and Polaris returned to Havok.", "Iceman then had a relationship with the X-Men's enemy Mystique, who later betrayed him, despite her continued fixation on him, in as much as she stated that she would either kill him or cure him of his personal uncertainty.Iceman has long-lasting friendships with Spider-Man, Firestar and the Human Torch.===Sexuality===In ''All-New X-Men'' #40, the time-displaced Iceman is revealed to be gay, which eventually forces the youth to confront the adult version of himself about the matter.", "As both speak, the adult Iceman confirms the fact and that he had put all his energy into just being an X-Man as he couldn't cope with being a mutant and gay simultaneously.", "With the help of his younger self and Jean Grey, however, he finally comes to terms with his own sexuality, and comes out to fellow gay X-Man Anole in ''Extraordinary X-Men'' #6.The end of the Extermination X-Men event saw the redirecting of the time displaced version of Bobby back into the \"closet\" when he returned to his original timeline alongside the other X-Men, due to a mind lock by Jean Grey.", "In the present day, the current version retains both sets of memories and remains an out gay man." ], [ "Cultural impact and legacy", "=== Critical reception ===Peter Eckhardt of ''CBR.com'' referred to Iceman as \"the biggest name amongst queer X-Men,\" writing, \"Iceman is an Omega-Level mutant and a longtime fan-favorite character.", "Iceman was only recently revealed as gay in a story handled somewhat clumsily in 2014's ''All-New X-Men #40'' (written by Brian Michael Bendis and drawn by Mahmud Asrar).", "Nevertheless, writers as far back as the 1980s hinted that Bobby was gay, particularly in the 1990s when Iceman struggled with his sense of identity.", "Today, Iceman's story inspires and excites those looking for anything from understanding their own identity to epic, ice-based colossi.\"", "Mey Rude of ''Out'' stated, \"While Northstar was the first out gay superhero in a Marvel comic, Iceman is his more famous gay X-Men teammate.", "Bobby Drake didn't come out until just recently in the comics, following some time travel shenanigans, but he’s already become a gay favorite.\"", "Alyssa Gawaran of ''MovieWeb'' said, \"Iceman, also a big part of the X-Men in the Marvel Comics, is one of the more groundbreaking LGBTQ+ characters in Marvel.", "Iceman broke boundaries in the franchise as he became the first-ever gay leading superhero to headline a comic, the \"coming out moment\" reported in a 2015 ''Vox'' article.", "Marvel has recently released ''Marauders Annual #1'' that features a very heartwarming prom segment between Bobby Drake (Iceman) and his boyfriend, a new face to the comics, Christian Frost.\"", "Joshua Yehl of ''IGN'' described Iceman as \"the perfect gay boyfriend,\" saying, \"Bobby isn’t out to be the biggest, baddest guy around.", "He’s a more grounded and relatable guy, and while he often broadcasts his cocky attitude and wisecracking humor during battle, he’s proven time and time again that his heart is in the right place when it comes to being there for his teammates.", "There’s something incredibly charming about a guy who could become the Indomitable Iceman, laying waste to enemies with his icy wrath, yet he chooses to stay boy-next-door Bobby Drake, a funny, self-sacrificing guy who values being a friend and hero over becoming the most powerful guy in the room.", "Being gay has a lot in common with being a mutant, as excellently displayed during Iceman’s “coming out” scene in X2: X-Men United.", "You’re born that way, you will face bullying and discrimination for it, and those who claim to be your friends and family may turn their backs on you because of it.", "Bobby’s experiences as both a mutant and an out gay man would make him an incredibly empathetic and understanding partner, one who would share his feelings and be there to help with yours.", "So even though he may not be the strongest mutant around, he’d be a hero to you in every way that counts.", "\"=== Accolades ===* In 2014, ''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked Iceman 27th in their \"Let's rank every X-Man ever\" list.", "* In 2014, ''BuzzFeed'' ranked Iceman 17th in their \"95 X-Men Members Ranked From Worst To Best\" list.", "* In 2016, ''SBS'' included Iceman in their \"10 queer superheroes who changed the face of comics\" list.", "* In 2018, ''CBR.com'' ranked Iceman 25th in their \"X-Men's Greatest Leaders\" list.", "* In 2018, ''The Daily Dot'' ranked Iceman 7th in their \"Top 12 LGBTQ superheroes in DC and Marvel comics\" list.", "* In 2018, ''CBR.com'' ranked Iceman 11th in their \"Age Of Apocalypse: The 30 Strongest Characters In Marvel's Coolest Alternate World\" list.", "* In 2019, ''CBR.com'' ranked Iceman 3rd in their \"10 Most Powerful LGBT Characters In Comics\" list and 9th in their \"X-Men: All Of Marvel's Omega-Level Mutants, Ranked By Power\" list.", "* In 2019, ''BBC'' included Iceman in their \"Five LGBTQ+ superheroes you need to know about\" list.", "* In 2019, ''Screen Rant'' ranked Iceman 1st in their \"10 LGBTQA Characters Who Should Be Introduced To The MCU\" list.", "* In 2020, ''Gay Times'' included Iceman in their \"13 queer superheroes we need to see in the Marvel Cinematic Universe\" list.", "* In 2021, ''BuzzFeed'' ranked Iceman 3rd in their \"11 Of The Most Important Marvel And DC LGBTQ+ Superheroes\" list.", "* In 2021, ''CBR.com'' ranked Iceman in their \"Marvel: The 10 Strongest Male X-Men\" list.", "* In 2022, ''The Mary Sue'' ranked Iceman 9th in their \"10 Most Powerful X-Men of All Time\" list.", "* In 2022, ''MovieWeb'' ranked Iceman 4th in their \"8 LGBTQ+ Marvel Comics Characters That Need to Be in the MCU\" list.", "* In 2022, ''Digital Trends'' ranked Iceman 10th in their \"Marvel’s most powerful mutants\" list.", "* In 2022, ''CBR.com'' ranked Iceman 7th in their \"10 Most Terrifying X-Men\" list, 8th in their \"10 X-Men Characters Fans Want In the MCU\" list, 9th in their \"15 Strongest Omega-Level X-Men\" list, 10th in their \"10 Greatest X-Men\" list, and 10th in their \"X-Men: 10 Queer and Awesome Mutants\" list.", "* In 2022, ''Screen Rant'' included Iceman in their \"10 Most Powerful X-Men\" list." ], [ "Literary reception", "=== Volumes ======= ''Iceman and Angel'' - 2011 ====According to Diamond Comic Distributors, ''Iceman and Angel'' #1 was the 161st best selling comic book in March 2011.Ryan K. Lindsay of ''CBR.com'' called ''Iceman and Angel'' #1 \"as much fun as you want, but as pithy as you expect too,\" asserting, \"A one-shot should be a comic that stands on its own, and this issue certainly does that.", "It needs to give you enough narrative meat to feel like the money was well invested, and this issue mostly does that.", "It should elicit some form of strong reaction from you in the few pages it has, and this issue works hard to make you laugh and is more successful than not.", "See Namor score some bagels and Googam become a broheim.", "It's not earth shattering but it is solid fun and sometimes that's just what you need.", "Pick up this comic and feel the freedom of old funny done-in-one comics just like they did when you were a kid where the parts add up to greater than the actual whole.\"", "David Brothers of ''ComicsAlliance'' ranked ''Iceman and Angel'' #1 10th in their \"10 Top Marvel Comics Coming in March 2011,\" saying, \"One of the best things we don't see much of any more is the relationship between the original X-Men.", "The modern series is all about hard decisions, hard edges, and hard core self protection, but back in the day, they were just a bunch of kids who hung out together.", "Iceman and Angel in particular were pretty fun together, because one was a goofball and the other was a self-styled ladies man.", "Brian Clevinger has proven that he can do stories like this, where he takes a slice of time and expands on it in a meaningful way, and Juan Doe is a pretty great artist.", "Add in GOOM, a classic Marvel villain, and you've got a story that I think is going to be a pretty good read.", "''X-Men First Class'' may be dead in name, but these one-shots are doing a pretty good job of keeping the feeling alive.", "\"==== ''Iceman'' - 2017 ====According to Diamond Comic Distributors, ''Iceman'' #1 was the 62nd best selling comic book in June 2017.", "''Iceman'' #1 was the 655-656th best selling comic book in 2017.Matthew Aguilar of ''ComicBook.com'' gave ''Iceman'' #1 a grade of 4 out of 5 stars, writing, \"On the art side of things, the book is a mixed bag.", "Alessandro Vitti's pencils and Rachelle Rosenberg's colors shine when ice is involved in some form or fashion, as referenced early and later in the book.", "In the middle, though things get a bit muddy, and the facial expressions suffer.", "Not enough to detract in a huge way, but the book definitely improves when Drake is in his ice form.", "Overall writer Sina Grace is off to an excellent start here, providing a refreshing look into a fan favorite character that has always been more than his powers but needed someone to bring that out of him.", "It looks like this time is up for the task.\"", "Jesse Schedeen of ''IGN'' gave ''Iceman'' #1 a grade of 7.8 out of 10, stating, \"''Iceman'' #1 doesn't make the strongest case for this series as an ongoing story, as it could just as easily be a standalone one-shot starring the frozen X-Man.", "But it's a very well-executed story regardless, one that showcases Bobby Drake's crazy personal life while still making the most of his incredible powers.", "Iceman is shaping up to be a worthy addition to the ResurrXion lineup.", "\"==== ''Iceman'' - 2018 ====According to Diamond Comic Distributors, ''Iceman'' #1 was the 43rd best selling comic book in September 2018.", "''Iceman'' #1 was the 508th best selling comic book in 2018.Jamie Lovett of ''Comicook.com'' called ''Iceman'' #1 a \"well-crafted book,\" saying,\"''Iceman'' #1 is a stellar return.", "Most impressive is how the issue is completely capable of standing alone, but also seeds an exciting story to come.", "Even a casual X-Men fan will recognize the deadliness of the threat behind this issue's attempts to recreate the \"Mutant Massacre.\"", "Longtime X-Men fans, and fans of Iceman, in particular, will get something extra out of the last page reveal of who's waiting for Bobby at home.", "''Iceman'' #1 is a triumphant return for an underappreciated series.", "The longer Sina Grace writes Bobby Drake, the more Iceman develops into a truly compelling, relatable leading man.", "Grace found the perfect artistic partners in Nathan Stockman and Frederico Blee.", "Here's hoping Iceman gets more of the attention it deserves the second time around.\"", "Maite Molina of ''ComicsVerse'' gave ''Iceman'' #1 a score of 80%, asserting, \"''Iceman'' #1 is a resolute start to a new run.", "Thanks to some palpable character development and an intriguing plot, the issue succeeds in gripping a reader’s attention.", "The stage has been set for some intriguing new story arcs, ones that will feature some familiar, sinister villains.", "Hopefully, Bobby Drake is ready for these impending challenges, ones that he may not even see coming.\"" ], [ "Other versions", "===Time-displaced Iceman=======All-New X-Men====The young time-displaced Iceman by Stuart ImmonenFollowing the war with the Phoenix Five, as Cyclops begins to lash out against government oppression of mutants, a chance comment by Bobby about how the old Cyclops wouldn't tolerate what he is currently doing inspires Beast to travel back in time and recruit the original five X-Men to stop Cyclops.", "The team decides to stay in the present instead of returning into the past.", "They are now called the All-New X-Men and led by Kitty Pryde.", "The past and present Bobby are particularly shocked when they see each other.", "The younger Bobby is especially shocked by the older Bobby's Omega level powers, like creating ice golems, and especially his future \"Ice Wizard\" self in the Battle of the Atom.", "Eventually he and the All-New X-Men and the Guardians of the Galaxy travel to the Shiar Empire to rescue Jean Grey from a trial for the genocide that her future Dark Phoenix self committed.", "The team is then teleported into the Ultimate Marvel universe, where he stumbles into Mole Man's lair.", "He proudly creates his first ice golem in order to escape.Returning to their universe, the team are reunited with Cyclops when they are called upon to aid the Guardians of the Galaxy again in retrieving the fabled Black Vortex.", "Cyclops, Iceman and Groot become superpowered by the Vortex before returning it to Captain Marvel.Later, the younger, time-displaced Bobby is forced to confront being gay by his teammate, Jean, who privately asks him why he calls women \"hot\", when she knows via her psychic abilities that he is gay.", "This causes the younger Bobby to speculate as to the complicated identity issues faced by his older self and the decisions his older self may have made in the time between them.", "Together with the young Jean, the young Bobby confronts his older self, who admits to being gay, having 'concealed' that part of himself so that he could have avoid being prejudiced against for another part of himself.Bobby joins the time-displaced Cyclops, Angel and Beast, as well as Kid Apocalypse, All-New Wolverine and Oya as they road-trip around America trying to make their own mark on the world.", "Bobby is initially reluctant to talk about his sexuality with his teammates until Oya and Kid Apocalypse take him to a gay club in an attempt to make him more comfortable.", "He embarrasses himself and runs into Romeo, an Inhuman with the ability to manipulate and feel others' emotions.", "Romeo makes Bobby more comfortable and the two begin a relationship.", "The two are later caught in the middle when the X-Men declare war on the Inhumans.", "Bobby joins the X-Men when they attack New Attilan but quickly breaks off from the battle to find Romeo, with the two escaping together.====X-Men Blue====After the X-Men's war against the Inhumans for the Terrigen ends, Iceman joins the rest of the young X-Men on an attempted return to their original timeline but they quickly realize that theirs isn't part of the Earth 616 timeline, leaving them stuck in that present time with no knowledge where they were originally from.", "Upon learning this, Iceman joins the rest of the young X-Men and leaves the rest of the X-Men to find their place in the world.", "Iceman then joins Magneto in Madripoor along with the rest of the time-displaced X-Men; however, due to a lack of trust in their new leader, the X-Men make plans and train in case Magneto returns to his former villainous ways to kill them.", "Instead of training with his teammates, Iceman spends most of his time trying to reach out Romeo unsuccessfully, placing him into a stupor.The time-displaced X-Men continue fighting crime in the present day although following a battle with the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants from an alternate timeline, they are disheartened to realize that they must eventually return to their original time.", "This particularly upsets Bobby who is sad that all of their growth as people will be undone once they go back.", "While the team are in space working alongside Venom to defeat the Poisons, a race of mind-controlling symbiotes, Magneto attacks several Hellfire Club parties searching for Emma Frost.", "The X-Men find her first and offer to protect her from Magneto although they quickly discover that he had taken mutant growth hormones to enhance his powers and, rather than kill the team he has mentored, Magneto leaves.", "Young Jean senses that they must return to their own time period soon and the X-Men have heart-to-hearts with their adult selves.", "During a game of pool with older Iceman, Bobby breaks down, knowing that his memory of the present must be erased and he will be forced back into the closet and, despite Iceman's best efforts to convince his younger self that he will grow up to be someone awesome, Bobby admits that he likes the person he has already become but that remaining that person is no longer an option.", "As the team prepare to leave, a news report announces that Magneto has formed a new brotherhood, leading the X-Men to decide to stay in the present for a little while longer.====Extermination====While en route to help young Cyclops, Bobby is attacked by a mysterious assailant but is rescued by Cable, who urges him to flee.", "Iceman refuses but is incapacitated and captured while Cable is killed.", "Young Jean attempts to use Cerebro to locate Bobby but states that she is unable to find him.", "In a secret lab, the man who attacked Bobby is revealed to be a time-displaced version of Cable who has him locked up in a tube.", "Kitty gathers all of the X-Men, who split into four teams tasked with protecting one of the remaining time-displaced X-Men.", "Young Jean uses her telepathy to guide her team to young Cable's base, where he admits to murdering his older self because he had failed in his mission to maintain the timeline by allowing the young X-Men to stay in the present for so long.", "They discover that Cable has been genetically modifying young Iceman so that he looks the way he looked when he left his original time period.", "He releases Bobby and teleports them all to Atlantis, where Ahab is attempting to kill young Cyclops so that the timeline can never be restored.", "The X-Men find themselves overwhelmed by Ahab's forces and Cable convinces the young X-Men that they must return home immediately in order to save the others.", "Young Iceman breaks down to his older self, admitting he doesn't want to be forced back into the closet but the present day Bobby tells him that his younger self finally allowed him to accept that he was gay and promises that he will be finally be able to truly be himself when he grows up.", "Cable then sends the X-Men back to their original time, informing them that everything will return to normal once they officially close the time loop.", "In 1964, the young X-Men change into their original clothes and young Jean performs a mind wipe so that they won't remember their time in the present day although she informs them that she is able to lock their memories away so that, once the loop is closed, their older selves will regain those memories.", "Back in modern day, the founding X-Men inherit the memories of their younger selves allowing them to defeat Ahab.", "Returned to their original time, the young X-Men forget about their adventures in the present and are greeted by Professor Xavier.===1602===Iceman is Roberto Trefusis in the miniseries ''Marvel 1602'', a member of the group of \"witchbreeds\" founded by Carlos Javier and led by Scotius Summerisle.", "He is the nephew of naval commander Sir Francis Drake.", "As in the Marvel Universe, he generates ice and can assume a physical ice form.===\"Age of Apocalypse\"===In the \"Age of Apocalypse\" storyline, Bobby, along with the rest of the X-Men, is trained by Magneto.", "Because Magneto is harder on his students than Professor X, Bobby lacks his 616-counterpart's sense of humor.", "Instead, Bobby becomes very cold and inhuman, making his teammates feel uncomfortable.", "In addition to his normal abilities, Bobby is capable of breaking down his body and merging it with another body of water to travel great distances in a matter of seconds.", "He can bring others along through a process that he calls \"moisture molecular inversion\", though it is a painful process for the passengers.", "Bobby is also able to reconstitute his body from broken pieces.", "Just before Apocalypse's defeat, Colossus stormed right through Iceman, causing him to fall into pieces in an attempt to reach his sister.", "A couple of months later, Iceman, Exodus, Wild Child, and Morph were sent on a secret mission by Magneto; for a time, only Wild Child's fate was revealed.Iceman returned in the ''Uncanny X-Force'' arc \"The Dark Angel Saga\", when the title team was forced to travel to the AoA reality.", "He abandoned the X-Men during a battle with the minions of Weapon X, who had by this time been transformed into that world's new Apocalypse, a defection later revealed to be the result of Iceman's having lost faith in his X-Men's ability to save their world.", "He was soon brought to Earth-616 by the Dark Beast, where he joined forces with Archangel on his quest to eradicate all life on Earth so he could create a new evolution process.", "Tired of seeing the people he cared about being killed fighting what he thought to be an unwinnable war, Drake agreed to help Archangel – despite the latter's now being the mainstream Marvel Universe's version of Drake's X-Men's arch-enemy, Apocalypse – in exchange for transport to the relative paradise that was Earth-616.After X-Force defeated Archangel, Bobby managed to escape with McCoy and most of Archangel's other minions, but eventually broke away from them and went into hiding, living a life of hedonistic bliss in Madripoor.", "The \"Age of Apocalypse\" version of Nightcrawler – who, after being brought to Earth-616 along with the rest of his world's X-Men to help take down Archangel, decided to stay behind there in order to track down and kill the various villains who also came to the mainstream Marvel Universe – eventually tracked Bobby down to execute him for his treason.", "Nightcrawler is quickly overwhelmed by Drake's avatars, but eventually forces Iceman into a factory boiler room, where there's not enough moisture in the air for him to effectively use his powers.", "Nightcrawler quickly disables his former friend, and shoves him into an incinerator, killing the once noble hero.===''Earth X''===During the miniseries ''Earth X'', Bobby had become trapped in his ice form, making him vulnerable to melting.", "He moves to the Arctic regions of Earth, and made an ice city for himself and the Inuit.", "Due to a series of events where Earth's orbital path moves, Bobby is able to return to the United States to aid in the battle against the demon Mephisto.===\"House of M\"===In the alternate timeline of the \"House of M\" storyline, Iceman was seen in Magneto's army during his rise to power.", "Bobby later appears as one of the Horsemen of Apocalypse because Apocalypse rescued Bobby from a mutant internment camp that his parents had sent him to.", "Magneto sends Apocalypse to dispose of his rival Black Panther; when Apocalypse is attacked en route by Black Panther's allies, Iceman aids him by freezing Namor solid and attempting to attack Storm, but he is severely injured by Sunfire.===''Marvel Zombies''===A zombified Iceman appears in ''Marvel Zombies: Dead Days'' alongside zombies Wolverine and Cyclops.", "Ultimately, he is seen attacking Magneto.", "But Iceman perished at the hands of the Master Of Magnetism himself when Iceman is cut apart.===''Mutant X''===In the Mutant X universe, the Asgardian god Loki amplified Bobby's powers to a dangerous level, leaving him unable to touch any living thing without killing it.", "Despite this, he retains a jovial and optimistic personality.", "When Havok has a disagreement with Magneto and decides to leave the X-Men, Ice-Man is one of those who follow him, becoming a founding member of the Six, who eventually come to be considered the world's premiere mutant team.===''New Exiles''===After the New Exiles land on the world of warring empires, they encounter Dame Emma Frost, head of Britain's Department X and founder of Force-X.", "This team includes Roberta \"Bobby\" Drake, a female version of Bobby who is code named Aurion and displays ice-based abilities.===\"Battle of the Atom\"===In the alternate future witnessed in the \"Battle of the Atom\" storyline, Iceman's had truly evolved to become Sir Robert, the wizard-like Icemaster.", "As one of the most respected X-Men, he had incredible control over his powers and could even grow a beard!", "Though never outright mentioned, he may had a relationship with Kitty Pryde and even fathered a son with her, denoting the existence of Carmen Drake, a boy with the powers of both Iceman and Shadowcat.", "He has also developed the ability to create semi-independent ice structures that can act on their own, although one of these structures, possessing a Hulk-like physique and intellect, has gone on to join the future version of the Brotherhood, resulting in the Brotherhood using the duplicate to reinforce the illusion of themselves as the future X-Men.", "The duplicate Iceman was defeated by the O5 Iceman, the present Iceman, and the future Iceman during the battle in the past (Prompting the youngest Iceman to note that they only needed one more Iceman for a five-a-side basketball team).Icemaster later returned to the mainstream marvel universe and confronts Iceman about trusts and decisions.", "He does it in order to prevent him from doing the same mistakes Icemaster did in the future.", "Knowing he had little time left, Icemaster eventually revealed to Iceman that after beginning a relationship with Daken, they both led the X-Men to space in order to prevent the Shi'ar from overwhelm the Earth and lay waste to it.", "However Icemaster would discover that Daken's plan was actually to obtain the M'Kraan Crystal in the first place, killing in the process the other X-Men and later Deathbird herself.", "Icemaster attempts to stop Daken, but he is seconds too late as having the Nexus of all Realities made Daken a Thanos-level player in the cosmos, and he acted as such.", "Icemaster eventually became convinced, after seeing Bobby's character growth, that his present self had matured beyond what he remembered, leaving the future open for new decisions to be made.", "With his mission apparently completed, Icemaster turns into thin air soon afterwards.===Ronin===In the alternate reality of ''X-Men: Ronin'' Iceman is a murderous ninja in the employ of the Hellfire Club.", "He works with Pyro and Avalanche as part of the 'Shadowcat Clan' and battles the X-Men.===Shadow-X===New Excalibur battles an evil counterpart of Iceman, who is a member of the Shadow-X, the X-Men of an alternate reality in which Professor X was possessed by the Shadow King.", "They are brought to Earth-616 as a result of M-Day.", "He appeared to be mute and died during the final battle against Albion.===Spider-Verse===In ''Edge of Spider-verse: Web of Fear'', a Spider-Man who is a member of the Captain Britain Corps witnesses Morlun about to kill Spider-Man.", "Later, a larger picture is shown of Firestar and Iceman lying dead, with Ms.", "Lion being left out, mourning her comrades.===Marvel Noir===Iceman appears in ''X-Men Noir'' as one of the X Men, a crew of talented criminals.", "He is depicted as being very short-tempered and paranoid.", "He is dubbed \"Iceman\", and angrily insists others refer to him that way, due to his custom of using an icepick as a weapon.===Ultimate Marvel===In the Ultimate Marvel continuity, Bobby Drake is the youngest founding member of the X-Men.", "He ran away from his family at the peak of government-supported Sentinel attacks, fearing his family would be killed in such an attack.Ultimate Iceman never had the snowman look of his counterpart, instead generating a flexible ice armor from the beginning.", "Bobby establishes himself as a valuable asset, single-handedly taking out the Ultimates once with a gigantic ice wall (''see Ultimate War''), as well as single-handedly halting an invasion by Colonel Wraith and Weapon X.", "He was only able to be stopped by Rogue, who was in temporary possession of Marvel Girl's telepathy.", "Professor X has stated that Bobby is one of the three most powerful X-Men.", "During the ''World Tour'' arc, after enlarging his armor to form a gigantic ice troll, Bobby is greatly injured by Proteus, which resulted in a lawsuit issued by his parents against Xavier.", "Bobby eventually rebels against his parents, and later returns to the X-Men.While Bobby was away from the X-Men on a vacation, he had a girlfriend, but Professor Xavier erased all memories of her from Bobby's mind when he told her too much about the X-Men (he presumably also erased the girl's memories).", "Upon her acceptance into the X-Men, Bobby begins to date Rogue.", "The pair date for a considerable amount of time, but eventually break up due to Bobby's growing feelings for Shadowcat and Rogue's feelings for Gambit.", "Eventually Rogue leaves, and Bobby starts to date Kitty.", "After this, the two rekindle their relationship, but problems erupted.In ''Ultimate X-Men'' #80, Bishop and Hammer, time-travelers from the future, comment on how powerful Bobby will one day become.", "Cyclops disbanded the X-Men in ''Ultimate X-Men'' #81 and Bishop and Storm created a new team.", "Iceman stayed at the Institute as a student only until Xavier returned and reformed his X-Men.Professor X is later revealed to be alive and the X-Men return to the Xavier Institute, which is also when Iceman rejoins the X-Men line up.", "Jean Grey soon discovers that fellow X-Man, Colossus, is using a drug called Banshee to enhance his mutant abilities.", "The X-Men are highly against this, but Colossus manages to convince Rogue, Dazzler, Angel, Nightcrawler, and Cyclops to join him on his own X-Men team.", "Iceman remains on Professor X's drug-free X-Men and fights the Banshee enhanced X-Men.", "Xavier's X-Men win and the two teams combine again with nobody using drugs.The Ultimatum Wave hits the X-Men next killing several of the X-Men (Beast, Dazzler, and Nightcrawler).", "Magneto and the Brotherhood attack the world and Iceman helps the world's heroes fight them off.", "Most of the X-Men die, but Iceman (alongside Rogue, Storm, Colossus, and Jean Grey) is able to survive Magneto's attack.", "He is last seen demolishing the X-Mansion alongside Rogue and Jean Grey and burying the deceased X-Men in its place.", "He finds it hard to destroy their home, but he feels it to be the right thing to do now that Professor Xavier is dead.Later, Bobby Drake is kicked out of his home for being a mutant.", "With nowhere else to go, Kitty suggests to Peter Parkers' Aunt May that he move in with her, Peter, Gwen Stacy, and Johnny Storm (who also recently moved in their household).", "Aunt May agrees and enrolls Bobby at Midtown High under the guise of Bobby Parker, one of Peters' cousins and shaves his hair off to help keep his, Peter's and Johnny's secret identities safe.Without knowing where to go after Peter's death, Bobby Drake asked Kitty Pride if Johnny could come with them searching for a place where to live and hide from authorities.", "They found the Morlock Tunnels where they live now and help mutants in danger.", "Firstly they rescued Rogue, who joined them, and later Jimmy Hudson (the son of Wolverine), came to them for help after escaping Stryker's imprisonment along with other mutants he freed.===''X-Men Fairy Tales''===In ''X-Men Fairy Tales'' #1, Iceman appears as a white wolf with icy breath named Kori (Japanese for ice).", "Before he is reached by Cyclops, he appears to have lost faith in friendship.===''X-Men: The End''===In ''X-Men: The End'', Iceman appears as one of the instrumental characters in the defeat of Cassandra Nova and Khan and one of the few surviving X-Men.===Old Man Logan===In the \"Old Man Logan\" storyline, Iceman is among the X-Men who perish at the hands of Wolverine when he is tricked by Mysterio into believing his friends are super-villains attacking the mansion." ], [ "In other media", "===Television===Iceman as he appeared in ''Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends''.", "* Iceman appears in the \"Sub-Mariner\" segment of ''The Marvel Super Heroes'', voiced by Tom Harvey.", "* Iceman appears in ''Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends'', voiced by Frank Welker.", "This version is a government agent codenamed \"Windchill Factor Zero\", founding member of the Spider-Friends, and former member of the X-Men.", "* Iceman appears in ''X-Men: The Animated Series'', voiced by Denis Akiyama.", "This version is a former member of the X-Men who quit due to disagreements with Charles Xavier and was previously in a relationship with Polaris.", "* Iceman appears in ''X-Men: Evolution'', voiced by Andrew Francis.", "This version is the unofficial leader of the X-Men's junior team, the New Mutants.", "* Iceman appears in ''Wolverine and the X-Men'', voiced by Yuri Lowenthal.", "This version is a member of the X-Men.", "* Iceman appears in ''The Super Hero Squad Show'', voiced by Shawn Ashmore.", "This version is the Xavier Academy's class clown.", "* Iceman appears in ''Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers'', voiced by Yuki Tai in the Japanese version and again by Yuri Lowenthal in the English version.", "This version is a member of the X-Men.===Film===Bobby Drake/Iceman as portrayed by Shawn Ashmore in ''X-Men: The Last Stand''Iceman appears in 20th Century Fox's ''X-Men'' film series, portrayed by Shawn Ashmore.", "This version is a student at the Xavier Institute.", "* First appearing in ''X-Men'', he is one of the first students to befriend Rogue, with whom he enters a relationship.", "* In ''X2'', he displays an uneasy friendship with classmate Pyro, who goes on to join Magneto's Brotherhood, and a strained relationship with his family, with his brother turning him in to the police for being a mutant.", "* In ''X-Men: The Last Stand'', Iceman's relationship with Rogue deteriorates due in part to involvement from their classmate Kitty Pryde.", "He later battles and defeats Pyro in combat while helping the X-Men protect a facility in Alcatraz that had created a \"mutant cure\".", "* In a dystopian future depicted in ''X-Men: Days of Future Past'', Iceman's powers have grown stronger, though he is killed by a Sentinel.", "In the \"Rogue Cut\" of this scene, he is killed while helping Rogue and Magneto escape.", "After Kitty Pryde and Wolverine change the timeline and avert the dystopian future in both versions of the film, Iceman's relationship with Rogue is restored.===Video games===* Iceman appears as a bonus level boss in ''Fantastic Four''.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''X-Men: Children of the Atom'', voiced by Cathal Dodd.", "* Iceman appears in ''Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes''.", "* Iceman appears in ''Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes''.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''X-Men Legends'', voiced by Darren Scott.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse'', voiced by James Arnold Taylor.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance'', voiced again by James Arnold Taylor.", "Additionally, his ''Age of Apocalypse'', classic suit, original comics suit, and ''New X-Men'' design appear as alternate skins.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''X-Men: The Official Game'', voiced again by Shawn Ashmore.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2'', voiced by Adam Bobrow.", "* Iceman appears in Magneto's ending in ''Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds''.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel Super Hero Squad Online'', voiced by Antony Del Rio.", "* Iceman appears in ''X-Men: Destiny'', voiced by Jason Marsden.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel Avengers: Battle for Earth''.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel: Avengers Alliance''.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Lego Marvel Super Heroes''.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel Contest of Champions''.", "* Two incarnations of Iceman appear as playable characters in ''Marvel Puzzle Quest''.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel Heroes'', voiced by James Arnold Taylor.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel Powers United VR'', voiced by James Arnold Taylor.", "* Iceman appears as a downloadable playable character in ''Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 3'', voiced again by James Arnold Taylor.", "* Iceman appears as a playable character in ''Marvel Super War''.===Miscellaneous===* Iceman appears in the 1987 live adaptation of Spider-Man's wedding to Mary Jane.", "* Iceman appears in the novelization for ''X-Men: The Last Stand'', in which he saves Pyro from Phoenix's destruction." ], [ "Collected editions", "+TitleMaterial collectedPublished dateISBN''X-Men: Iceman''''Iceman'' (vol.1) #1–4, ''Bizarre Adventures'' #27August 15, 2012''X-Men Icons - Iceman''''Iceman'' (vol.", "2) #1–4December 1, 2001''X-Men: First Class - Class Portraits''''Ice Man and Angel'' #1 and ''Cyclops'' #1, ''Magneto'' #1, ''Marvel Girl'' #1; and material from ''Spider-Man Family'' #8-9, ''Marvel Comics Presents'' (vol.", "2) #3April 20, 2011''X-Men Origins: The Complete Collection''''X-Men Origins: Iceman'' and ''X-Men Origins: Colossus, Jean Grey, Beast, Wolverine, Sabretooth, Gambit, Cyclops, Nightcrawler, Emma Frost,'' ''Deadpool''August 7, 2018''Iceman Vol.", "1: Thawing Out''''Iceman'' (vol.", "3) #1–5January 9, 2018''Iceman Vol.", "2: Absolute Zero''''Iceman'' (vol.", "3) #6-11May 8, 2018''Iceman Vol.", "3: Amazing Friends''''Iceman'' (vol.", "4) #1–5April 9, 2019''Astonishing Iceman: Out Cold''''Astonishing Iceman'' #1–5May 14, 2024" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Iceman at Marvel.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Isidore of Seville" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Isidore of Seville''' (; – 4 April 636) was a Spanish scholar, theologian, and archbishop of Seville.", "He is widely regarded, in the words of 19th-century historian Montalembert, as \"the last scholar of the ancient world\".At a time of disintegration of classical culture, aristocratic violence, and widespread illiteracy, Isidore was involved in the conversion of the Arian Visigothic kings to Chalcedonian Christianity, both assisting his brother Leander of Seville and continuing after his brother's death.", "He was influential in the inner circle of Sisebut, Visigothic king of Hispania.", "Like Leander, he played a prominent role in the Councils of Toledo and Seville.His fame after his death was based on his ''Etymologiae'', an etymological encyclopedia that assembled extracts of many books from classical antiquity that would have otherwise been lost.", "This work also helped standardize the use of the period (full stop), comma, and colon.Since the early Middle Ages, Isidore has sometimes been called '''Isidore the Younger''' or '''Isidore Junior''' (), because of the earlier history purportedly written by Isidore of Córdoba." ], [ "Life", "===Childhood and education===Isidore was born in Cartagena, Spain, a former Carthaginian colony, to Severianus and Theodora.", "Both Severian and Theodora belonged to notable Hispano-Roman families of high social rank.", "His parents were members of an influential family who were instrumental in the political-religious manoeuvring that converted the Visigothic kings from Arianism to Chalcedonian Christianity.", "The Catholic and Orthodox Churches celebrate him and all his siblings as known saints:* An elder brother, Leander of Seville, immediately preceded Isidore as Archbishop of Seville and, while in office, opposed King Liuvigild.", "* A younger brother, Fulgentius of Cartagena, served as the Bishop of Astigi at the start of the new reign of the Christian King Reccared.", "* His sister, Florentina of Cartagena, was a nun who allegedly ruled over forty convents and one thousand consecrated religious.", "This claim seems unlikely, however, given the few functioning monastic institutions in Spania during her lifetime.Isidore received his elementary education in the Cathedral school of Seville.", "In this institution, the first of its kind in Spania, a body of learned men including Archbishop Leander of Seville taught the trivium and quadrivium, the classic liberal arts.", "Isidore applied himself to study diligently enough that he quickly mastered classical Latin, and acquired some Greek and Hebrew.Two centuries of Gothic control of Iberia incrementally suppressed the ancient institutions, classical learning, and manners of the Roman Empire.", "The associated culture entered a period of long-term decline.", "The ruling Visigoths nevertheless showed some respect for the outward trappings of Roman culture.", "Arianism meanwhile took deep root among the Visigoths as the form of Christianity that they received.Scholars may debate whether Isidore ever personally embraced monastic life or affiliated with any religious order, but he undoubtedly esteemed the monks highly.===Bishop of Seville===A statue of Isidore of Seville by José Alcoverro, 1892, outside the , in MadridSeville Cathedral.", "Sculpture by Lorenzo Mercadante de BretañaAfter the death of Leander of Seville on 13 March 600 or 601, Isidore succeeded to the See of Seville.", "On his elevation to the episcopate, he immediately constituted himself as the protector of monks.Recognizing that the spiritual and material welfare of the people of his see depended on the assimilation of remnant Roman and ruling barbarian cultures, Isidore attempted to weld the peoples and subcultures of the Visigothic kingdom into a united nation.", "He used all available religious resources toward this end and succeeded.", "Isidore practically eradicated the heresy of Arianism and completely stifled the new heresy of Acephali at its outset.", "Archbishop Isidore strengthened religious discipline throughout his see.Archbishop Isidore also used resources of education to counteract increasingly influential Gothic barbarism throughout his episcopal jurisdiction.", "His quickening spirit animated the educational movement centered on Seville.", "Isidore introduced his countrymen to Aristotle long before the Arabs studied Greek philosophy extensively.In 619, Isidore of Seville pronounced anathema against any ecclesiastic who in any way should molest the monasteries.===Second Synod of Seville (November 619)===Isidore presided over the Second Council of Seville, begun on 13 November 619 in the reign of King Sisebut, a provincial council attended by eight other bishops, all from the ecclesiastical province of Baetica in southern Spain.", "The Acts of the Council fully set forth the nature of Christ, countering the conceptions of Gregory, a Syrian representing the heretical Acephali.===Third Synod of Seville (624)===Based on a few surviving canons found in the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, Isidore is known to have presided over an additional provincial council around 624.The council dealt with a conflict over the See of Écija and wrongfully stripped bishop Martianus of his see, a situation that was rectified by the Fourth Council of Toledo.", "It also addressed a concern over Jews who had been forced to convert to Christianity.The records of the council, unlike the First and Second Councils of Seville, were not preserved in the Hispana, a collection of canons and decretals likely edited by Isidore himself.===Fourth National Council of Toledo===All bishops of Hispania attended the Fourth National Council of Toledo, begun on 5 December 633.The aged Archbishop Isidore presided over its deliberations and originated most enactments of the council.Through Isidore's influence, this Council of Toledo promulgated a decree commanding all bishops to establish seminaries in their cathedral cities along the lines of the cathedral school at Seville, which had educated Isidore decades earlier.", "The decree prescribed the study of Greek, Hebrew, and the liberal arts and encouraged interest in law and medicine.", "The authority of the council made this education policy obligatory upon all bishops of the Kingdom of the Visigoths.", "The council granted remarkable position and deference to the king of the Visigoths.", "The independent Church bound itself in allegiance to the acknowledged king; it said nothing of allegiance to the Bishop of Rome.===Death===Isidore of Seville died on 4 April 636 after serving more than 32 years as archbishop of Seville." ], [ "Works", "Isidore's Latin style in the ''Etymologiae'' and elsewhere, though simple and lucid, reveals increasing local Visigothic traditions.===''Etymologiae''===Carolingian manuscript (8th century), Brussels, Royal Library of Belgium''Isidori Hispalensis Opera Omnia'' (1797)Isidore was the first Christian writer to try to compile a ''summa'' of universal knowledge, in his most important work, the ''Etymologiae'' (taking its title from the method he uncritically used in the transcription of his era's knowledge).", "It is also known by classicists as the ''Origines'' (the standard abbreviation being ''Orig''.).", "This encyclopedia—the first such Christian epitome—formed a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 volumes.In it, Isidore entered his own terse digest of Roman handbooks, miscellanies and compendia, he continued the trend towards abridgements and summaries that had characterised Roman learning in Late Antiquity.", "In the process, many fragments of classical learning are preserved that otherwise would have been hopelessly lost; \"in fact, in the majority of his works, including the ''Origines'', he contributes little more than the mortar which connects excerpts from other authors, as if he was aware of his deficiencies and had more confidence in the ''stilus maiorum'' than his own,\" his translator Katherine Nell MacFarlane remarks.Some of these fragments were lost in the first place because Isidore's work was so highly regarded—Braulio called it ''quaecunque fere sciri debentur'', \"practically everything that it is necessary to know\"—that it superseded the use of many individual works of the classics themselves, which were not recopied and have therefore been lost: \"all secular knowledge that was of use to the Christian scholar had been winnowed out and contained in one handy volume; the scholar need search no further\".The fame of this work imparted a new impetus to encyclopedic writing, which bore abundant fruit in the subsequent centuries of the Middle Ages.", "It was the most popular compendium in medieval libraries.", "It was printed in at least ten editions between 1470 and 1530, showing Isidore's continued popularity in the Renaissance.", "Until the 12th century brought translations from Arabic sources, Isidore transmitted what western Europeans remembered of the works of Aristotle and other Greeks, although he understood only a limited amount of Greek.", "The ''Etymologiae'' was much copied, particularly into medieval bestiaries.===''On the Catholic Faith against the Jews''===The medieval T-O map represents the inhabited world as described by Isidore in his ''Etymologiae''Isidore's ''De fide catholica contra Iudaeos'' furthers Augustine of Hippo's ideas on the Jewish presence in the Christian society of the ancient world.", "Like Augustine, Isidore held an acceptance of the Jewish presence as necessary to society because of their expected role in the anticipated Second Coming of Christ.But Isidore had access to Augustine's works, out of which one finds more than forced acceptance ''of'' but rather broader reasons than just an endtime role ''for'' Jews in society::Diversities in the manners, laws, and institutions whereby earthly peace is secured and maintained are not scrupled in the heavenly city for which we strive, while its citizens sojourn on earth, but recognizing that, however various they are, they all tend to one and the same end of earthly peace.", ":The heavenly city is therefore so far from rescinding and abolishing these diversities, that it even preserves and adopts them, so long only as no hindrance to the worship of the one supreme and true God is thus introduced...and makes this earthly peace bear upon the peace of heaven; for this alone can be truly called and esteemed the peace of the reasonable creatures, consisting as it does in the perfectly ordered and harmonious enjoyment of God and of one another in God.", "(''City of God'', Book 19, Chapter 17)According to Jeremy Cohen's account in a Berkeley, California publication, ''De fide catholica contra Iudaeos'', Isidore exceeds the anti-rabbinic polemics of earlier theologians by criticizing Jewish practice as deliberately disingenuous.But once again Isidore's same predecessor, Augustine, seems to have written of at least the possibility of Jewish rabbinical practice along that subject's content's purportedly deceptive lines in the same work cited above::They say that it is not credible that the seventy translators of the Septuagint who simultaneously and unanimously produced one rendering, could have erred, or, in a case in which no interest of theirs was involved, could have falsified their translation, but that the Jews, envying us our translation of their Law and Prophets, have made alterations in their texts to undermine the authority of ours.", "(''City of God'', Book 15, Chapter 11)He contributed two decisions to the Fourth Council of Toledo: Canon 60 calling for the forced removal of children from parents practising Crypto-Judaism and their education by Christians on the basis that while their parents were concealing themselves under the guise of Christians, they had presumably allowed their children to be baptised with intent to deceive.", "This removal was an exception to the general rule of the treatment of Jewish children according to the 13th century ''Summa Theologica'', \"It was never the custom of the Church to baptize the children of Jews against the will of their parents....\"He also contributed Canon 65 thought to forbid Jews and Christians of Jewish origin from holding public office.===Other works===Isidore's authored more than a dozen major works on various topics including mathematics, holy scripture, and monastic life, all in Latin:* ''Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum'', a history of the Gothic, Vandal and Suebi kings.", "The longer edition, issued in 624, includes the ''Laus Spaniae'' and the ''Laus Gothorum''.", "* ''Chronica Majora'', a universal history* ''De differentiis verborum'', a brief theological treatise on the doctrine of the Trinity, the nature of Christ, of Paradise, angels, and men* ''De natura rerum'' (''On the Nature of Things''), a book of astronomy and natural history dedicated to the Visigothic king Sisebut* ''Questions on the Old Testament''* ''Liber numerorum qui in sanctis Scripturis occurrunt'', a mystical treatise on the allegorical meanings of numbers* a number of brief letters* ''Sententiae libri tres'' Codex Sang.", "228; 9th century* ''De viris illustribus''* ''De ecclesiasticis officiis''* ''De summo bono''* ''De ortu et obitu patrum''* ''Regula Monachorum''" ], [ "Veneration", "Braulio (left) in an Ottonian illuminated manuscript from the 2nd half of the 10th centuryIsidore was one of the last of the ancient Christian philosophers and was contemporary with Maximus the Confessor.", "He has been called the most learned man of his age by some scholars, and he exercised a far-reaching and immeasurable influence on the educational life of the Middle Ages.", "His contemporary and friend, Braulio of Zaragoza, regarded him as a man raised up by God to save the Spanish peoples from the tidal wave of barbarism that threatened to inundate the ancient civilization of Hispania.The Eighth Council of Toledo (653) recorded its admiration of his character in these glowing terms: \"The extraordinary doctor, the latest ornament of the Catholic Church, the most learned man of the latter ages, always to be named with reverence, Isidore\".", "This tribute was endorsed by the Fifteenth Council of Toledo, held in 688.Isidore was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1722 by Pope Innocent XIII.Isidore was interred in Seville.", "His tomb represented an important place of veneration for the Mozarabs during the centuries after the Arab conquest of Visigothic Hispania.", "In the middle of the 11th century, with the division of Al Andalus into taifas and the strengthening of the Christian holdings in the Iberian peninsula, Ferdinand I of León and Castile found himself in a position to extract tribute from the fractured Arab states.", "In addition to money, Abbad II al-Mu'tadid, the Abbadid ruler of Seville (1042–1069), agreed to turn over St. Isidore's remains to Ferdinand I.", "A Catholic poet described al-Mutatid placing a brocaded cover over Isidore's sarcophagus, and remarked, \"Now you are leaving here, revered Isidore.", "You know well how much your fame was mine!\"", "Ferdinand had Isidore's remains reinterred in the then-recently constructed Basilica of San Isidoro in León.", "Today, many of his bones are buried in the cathedral of Murcia, Spain." ], [ "Legacy", "The St. Isidore of Seville Catholic Virtual School in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma is set to open in August 2024.On 5 June 2023, the school was approved as the first religious public charter school in the United States.", "The lawsuit OKPLAC, Inc. v. Statewide Virtual Charter School Board was filed on July 31 of the same year by \"Americans United..., the American Civil Liberties Union, Education Law Center and Freedom From Religion Foundation, plus Oklahoma-based attorneys Odom & Sparks PLLC and J. Douglas Mann, ... on behalf of nine Oklahoma residents and a nonprofit organization dedicated to supporting public education in Oklahoma.\"", "The plaintiffs allege that providing this school with public funding is \"in violation of Oklahoma law, as well as the country's promises of church-state separation and public schools that are open to all.", "\"In Dante's ''Paradiso'' (X.130), Isidore is mentioned among theologians and Doctors of the Church alongside the Scot Richard of St. Victor and the Englishman Bede the Venerable.The University of Dayton has named their implementation of the Sakai Project in honour of Saint Isidore.His supposed likeness and crosier, along with that of Leander of Seville and Ferdinand III of Castile, is depicted on the crest badge of Sevilla FC.The Order of St. Isidore of Seville is a chivalric order formed on 1 January 2000.An international organisation, the order aims to honour Saint Isidore as patron saint of the Internet, alongside promoting Christian chivalry online.", "(This honour is unofficial: the Holy See considered naming Isidore as patron saint of the Internet but has not done so.)" ], [ "Criticisms and contemporary appraisal", "Contemporary researchers have criticized Isidore.", "Specifically, the point of contention is his work in the ''Etymologies.''", "Historian Sandro D'Onofrio has argued that \"job consisted here and there of restating, recapitulating, and sometimes simply transliterating both data and theories that lacked research and originality.", "\"In this view, Isidore—considering the large popularity his works enjoyed during the Middle Ages and the founding role he had in Scholasticism—would be less a brilliant thinker than a Christian gatekeeper making etymologies fit into the Christian worldview.", "\"He prescribed what they should mean,\" asserts D'Onofrio.Researcher Victor Bruno has countered this argument.", "According to him, it was not the meaning of the ''Etymologies'', or of Isidore's work as a whole, to give a scientific or philological account of the words, as a modern researcher would do.", "\"It is obvious that, from a material point of view,\" argues Bruno, \"Isidore's practical knowledge on etymology, geography, and history are considered outdated; his methods, from the current academic and scientific standpoint, are questionable, and some of his conclusions are indeed incorrect.", "But Isidore is less concerned about being etymologically or philologically right than being ''ontologically'' right.", "\"Therefore, Isidore, despite living in the early Middle Ages, is an archaic or \"traditional\" thinker.", "Being religiously inclined, Isidore would be concerned with the redeeming meaning of words and history, the ultimate quest of religions.", "The same researcher also found parallels between Isidore's interpretation of the word \"year\" (''annus'') and the meaning of the same words in the ''Jāiminīya-Upaniṣad-Brāmaṇa''." ], [ "Honours", "St. Isidore Island in Antarctica is named after the saint." ], [ "See also", "* Saint Isidore of Seville, patron saint archive" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===''Chronica minora'', 1482* The ''Etymologiae'' (complete Latin text)* Barney, Stephen A., Lewis, W.J., Beach, J.A.", "and Berghof, Oliver (translators).", "''The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville.''", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006..* Ziolkowski, Vernon P., ''The De Fide Catholica contra Iudaeos of Saint Isidorus, Bishop, Book 1'', Saint Louis University, PhD diss.", "(1982).", "* Castro Caridad, Eva and Peña Fernández, Francisco (translators).", "\"Isidoro de Sevilla.", "Sobre la fe católica contra los judíos\".", "Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla, 2012..* Throop, Priscilla, (translator).", "''Isidore of Seville's Etymologies.''", "Charlotte, VT: MedievalMS, 2005, 2 vols.", "* Throop, Priscilla, (translator).", "''Isidore's Synonyms and Differences.''", "(a translation of ''Synonyms'' or ''Lamentations of a Sinful Soul'', ''Book of Differences I'', and ''Book of Differences II'') Charlotte, VT: MedievalMS, 2012 (EPub )* Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Isidore of Seville in .jpg and .tiff format.", "* De natura rerum (Msc.Nat.1) (On the Nature of Things) digitized by the Staatsbibliothek Bamberg.", "* Lewis E 136 Carta pisana; Sententiae (Sentences) at OPenn* Lewis E 137 Sententiae (Sentences) at OPenn* MS 484/18 Quaestiones in josue, judicum, regum, machabeis at OPenn===Secondary sources===Barrett, Graham.", "\"God's Librarian: Isadore of Seville and His Literary Agenda,\" pp.", "42-100 in Fear, A. T., and Jamie Wood eds.", "''Isidore of Seville and His Reception in the Early Middle Ages'': Transmitting and Transforming Knowledge.", "Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2016.", " Henderson, John.", "''The Medieval World of Isidore of Seville: Truth from Words.''", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007..* Herren, Michael.", "\"On the Earliest Irish Acquaintance with Isidore of Seville.\"", "''Visigothic Spain: New Approaches''.", "James, Edward (ed).", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980..* Englisch, Brigitte.", "\"Die Artes liberales im frühen Mittelalter.\"", "Stuttgart, 1994.", "* ===Other material===* The Order of Saint Isidore of Seville, st-isidore.org* Jones, Peter.", "\"Patron saint of the internet\", telegraph.co.uk, 27 August 2006 (Review of ''The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville'', Cambridge University Press, 2006)* Shachtman, Noah.", "\"Searchin' for the Surfer's Saint\", wired.com, 25 January 2002" ], [ "External links", "* Carolyn Embach, ResearchGate: English translation of Isidore of Seville, De Natura Rerum, ca.", "560–636 AD .", "(Carolyn S. E. Wares aka Carolyn Embach, translator, 1969)* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Carbon compounds" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carbon compounds''' are defined as chemical substances containing carbon.", "More compounds of carbon exist than any other chemical element except for hydrogen.", "Organic carbon compounds are far more numerous than inorganic carbon compounds.", "In general bonds of carbon with other elements are covalent bonds.", "Carbon is tetravalent but carbon free radicals and carbenes occur as short-lived intermediates.", "Ions of carbon are carbocations and carbanions are also short-lived.", "An important carbon property is catenation as the ability to form long carbon chains and rings." ], [ "Allotropes of carbon", "The known inorganic chemistry of the allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite, and the fullerenes) blossomed with the discovery of buckminsterfullerene in 1985, as additional fullerenes and their various derivatives were discovered.", "One such class of derivatives is inclusion compounds, in which an ion is enclosed by the all-carbon shell of the fullerene.", "This inclusion is denoted by the \"@\"symbol in endohedral fullerenes.", "For example, an ion consisting of a lithium ion trapped within buckminsterfullerene would be denoted [email protected] with any other ionic compound, this complex ion could in principle pair with a counterion to form a salt.", "Other elements are also incorporated in so-called graphite intercalation compounds." ], [ "Carbides", "Carbides are binary compounds of carbon with an element that is less electronegative than it.", "The most important areAl4C3,B4C,CaC2,Fe3C,HfC,SiC,TaC,TiC, andWC.", "Metal Structure of pure metal Metallic radius (pm) MC metal atom packing MC structure M2C metal atom packing M2C structure Other carbides titanium hcp 147 ccp rock salt zirconium hcp 160 ccp rock salt hafnium hcp 159 ccp rock salt vanadium bcc 134 ccp rock salt hcp h/2 V4C3 niobium bcc 146 ccp rock salt hcp h/2 Nb4C3 tantalum bcc 146 ccp rock salt hcp h/2 Ta4C3 chromium bcc 128 Cr23C6, Cr3C, Cr7C3, Cr3C2 molybdenum bcc 139 hexagonal hcp h/2 Mo3C2 tungsten bcc 139 hexagonal hcp h/2" ], [ "Organic compounds", "It was once thought that organic compounds could only be created by living organisms.", "Over time, however, scientists learned how to synthesize organic compounds in the lab.", "The number of organic compounds is immense and the known number of defined compounds is close to 10 million.", "However, an indefinitely large number of such compounds is theoretically possible.", "By definition, an organic compound must contain at least one atom of carbon, but this criterion is not generally regarded as sufficient.", "Indeed, the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds is ultimately a matter of convention, and there are several compounds that have been classified either way, such as:COCl2,CSCl2,CS(NH2)2,CO(NH2)2.With carbon bonded to metals the field of organic chemistry crosses over into organometallic chemistry.===Carbon-oxygen compounds===There are many oxides of carbon (oxocarbons), of which the most common are carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO).", "Other less known oxides include carbon suboxide (C3O2) and mellitic anhydride (C12O9).", "There are also numerous unstable or elusive oxides, such as dicarbon monoxide (C2O), oxalic anhydride (C2O4), and carbon trioxide (CO3).There are several oxocarbon anions, negative ions that consist solely of oxygen and carbon.", "The most common are the carbonate (CO32−) and oxalate (C2O42−).", "The corresponding acids are the highly unstable carbonic acid (H2CO3) and the quite stable oxalic acid (H2C2O4), respectively.", "These anions can be partially deprotonated to give the bicarbonate (HCO3−) and hydrogenoxalate (HC2O4−).", "Other more exotic carbon–oxygen anions exist, such as acetylenedicarboxylate (O2C–C≡C–CO22−), mellitate (C12O96−), squarate (C4O42−), and rhodizonate (C6O62−).", "The anhydrides of some of these acids are oxides of carbon; carbon dioxide, for instance, can be seen as the anhydride of carbonic acid.Some important carbonates areAg2CO3,BaCO3,CaCO3,CdCO3,Ce2(CO3)3,CoCO3,Cs2CO3,CuCO3,FeCO3,K2CO3,La2(CO3)3,Li2CO3,MgCO3,MnCO3,(NH4)2CO3,Na2CO3,NiCO3,PbCO3,SrCO3, andZnCO3.The most important bicarbonates include NH4HCO3,Ca(HCO3)2,KHCO3, andNaHCO3.The most important oxalates includeAg2C2O4,BaC2O4,CaC2O4, Ce2(C2O4)3,K2C2O4, andNa2C2O4.Carbonyls are coordination complexes between transition metals and carbonyl ligands.", "Metal carbonyls are complexes that are formed with the neutral ligand CO.", "These complexes are covalent.", "Here is a list of some carbonyls:Cr(CO)6,Co2(CO)8,Fe(CO)5,Mn2(CO)10,Mo(CO)6,Ni(CO)4,W(CO)6.===Carbon-sulfur compounds===Important inorganic carbon-sulfur compounds are the carbon sulfides carbon disulfide (CS2) and carbonyl sulfide (OCS).", "Carbon monosulfide (CS) unlike carbon monoxide is very unstable.", "Important compound classes are thiocarbonates, thiocarbamates, dithiocarbamates and trithiocarbonates.", "80px100px100px carbon monosulfide carbon disulfide carbonyl sulfide'''Inorganic carbon-sulfur compounds'''===Carbon-nitrogen compounds===Small inorganic carbon – nitrogen compounds are cyanogen, hydrogen cyanide, cyanamide, isocyanic acid and cyanogen chloride.Molar mass (g/mole)Boiling point °CMelting point °Ccyanogen(CN)2Cyanogen52.03−21−28hydrogen cyanideHCNHydrogen-cyanide27.0325–26 −12 – -14cyanamide CN2H2Cyanamide42.04260 (decomp.", ")44isocyanic acidHNCOisocyanic acid43.0323.5−86cyanogen chlorideCNClcyanogen chloride61.4713−6chlorosulfonyl isocyanateCNClO3SChlorosulfonyl isocyanate141.53107−44cyanuric chloride(NCCl)3cyanuric chloride184.41192 154 '''Inorganic carbon-nitrogen compounds'''Paracyanogen is the polymerization product of cyanogen.", "Cyanuric chloride is the trimer of cyanogen chloride and 2-cyanoguanidine is the dimer of cyanamide.Other types of inorganic compounds include the inorganic salts and complexes of the carbon-containing cyanide, cyanate, fulminate, thiocyanate and cyanamide ions.", "Examples of cyanides are copper cyanide (CuCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN), examples of cyanates are potassium cyanate (KNCO) and silver cyanate (AgNCO), examples of fulminates are silver fulminate (AgOCN) and mercury fulminate (HgOCN) and an example of a thiocyanate is potassium thiocyanate (KSCN)." ], [ "Carbon halides", "The common carbon halides are carbon tetrafluoride (CF4), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), carbon tetrabromide (CBr4), carbon tetraiodide (CI4), and a large number of other carbon-halogen compounds." ], [ "Carboranes", "A carborane is a cluster composed of boron and carbon atoms such as H2C2B10H10." ], [ "Alloys", "There are hundreds of alloys that contain carbon.", "The most common of these alloys is steel, sometimes called \"carbon steel\" (see :Category:Steels).", "All kinds of steel contain some amount of carbon, by definition, and all ferrous alloys contain some carbon.Some other common alloys that are based on iron and carbon include anthracite iron, cast iron, pig iron, and wrought iron.In more technical uses, there are also spiegeleisen, an alloy of iron, manganese, and carbon; and stellite, an alloy of cobalt, chromium, tungsten, and carbon.Whether it was placed there deliberately or not, some traces of carbon is also found in these common metals and their alloys: aluminum, chromium, magnesium, molybdenum, niobium, thorium, titanium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, zinc, and zirconium.", "For example, many of these metals are smelted with coke, a form of carbon; and aluminum and magnesium are made in electrolytic cells with carbon electrodes.", "Some distribution of carbon into all of these metals is inevitable." ], [ "References", "C" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Industrial espionage" ], [ "Introduction", "Teapot with Actresses, Vezzi porcelain factory, Venice, .", "The Vezzi brothers were involved in a series of incidents of industrial espionage.", "It was these actions that led to the secret of manufacturing Meissen porcelain becoming widely known.", "'''Industrial espionage''', '''economic espionage''', '''corporate spying''', or '''corporate espionage''' is a form of espionage conducted for commercial purposes instead of purely national security.While political espionage is conducted or orchestrated by governments and is international in scope, industrial or corporate espionage is more often national and occurs between companies or corporations." ], [ "Forms of economic and industrial espionage", "Economic or industrial espionage takes place in two main forms.", "In short, the purpose of espionage is to gather knowledge about one or more organizations.", "It may include the acquisition of intellectual property, such as information on industrial manufacture, ideas, techniques and processes, recipes and formulas.", "Or it could include sequestration of proprietary or operational information, such as that on customer datasets, pricing, sales, marketing, research and development, policies, prospective bids, planning or marketing strategies or the changing compositions and locations of production.", "It may describe activities such as theft of trade secrets, bribery, blackmail and technological surveillance.", "As well as orchestrating espionage on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets – for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract." ], [ "Target industries", "During testing, automakers commonly disguise upcoming car models with camouflage paint patterns designed to obfuscate the vehicle's lines.", "Padded covers or deceptive decals are also often used.", "This is also to prevent motoring media outlets from spoiling the model before its planned reveal.", "Economic and industrial espionage is most commonly associated with technology-heavy industries, including computer software and hardware, biotechnology, aerospace, telecommunications, transportation and engine technology, automobiles, machine tools, energy, materials and coatings and so on.", "Silicon Valley is known to be one of the world's most targeted areas for espionage, though any industry with information of use to competitors may be a target." ], [ "Information theft and sabotage", "Information can make the difference between success and failure; if a trade secret is stolen, the competitive playing field is leveled or even tipped in favor of a competitor.", "Although a lot of information-gathering is accomplished legally through competitive intelligence, at times corporations feel the best way to get information is to take it.", "Economic or industrial espionage is a threat to any business whose livelihood depends on information.In recent years, economic or industrial espionage has taken on an expanded definition.", "For instance, attempts to sabotage a corporation may be considered industrial espionage; in this sense, the term takes on the wider connotations of its parent word.", "That espionage and sabotage (corporate or otherwise) have become more clearly associated with each other is also demonstrated by a number of profiling studies, some government, some corporate.", "The United States government currently has a polygraph examination entitled the \"Test of Espionage and Sabotage\" (TES), contributing to the notion of the interrelationship between espionage and sabotage countermeasures.", "In practice, particularly by \"trusted insiders\", they are generally considered functionally identical for the purpose of informing countermeasures." ], [ "Agents and the process of collection", "Economic or industrial espionage commonly occurs in one of two ways.", "Firstly, a dissatisfied employee appropriates information to advance interests or to damage the company.", "Secondly, a competitor or foreign government seeks information to advance its own technological or financial interest.", "\"Moles\", or trusted insiders, are generally considered the best sources for economic or industrial espionage.", "Historically known as a \"patsy\", an insider can be induced, willingly or under duress, to provide information.", "A patsy may be initially asked to hand over inconsequential information and, once compromised by committing a crime, blackmailed into handing over more sensitive material.", "Individuals may leave one company to take up employment with another and take sensitive information with them.", "Such apparent behavior has been the focus of numerous industrial espionage cases that have resulted in legal battles.", "Some countries hire individuals to do spying rather than the use of their own intelligence agencies.", "Academics, business delegates, and students are often thought to be used by governments in gathering information.", "Some countries, such as Japan, have been reported to expect students to be debriefed on returning home.", "A spy may follow a guided tour of a factory and then get \"lost\".", "A spy could be an engineer, a maintenance man, a cleaner, an insurance salesman, or an inspector: anyone who has legitimate access to the premises.A spy may break into the premises to steal data and may search through waste paper and refuse, known as \"dumpster diving\".", "Information may be compromised via unsolicited requests for information, marketing surveys, or use of technical support or research or software facilities.", "Outsourced industrial producers may ask for information outside the agreed-upon contract.Computers have facilitated the process of collecting information because of the ease of access to large amounts of information through physical contact or the Internet." ], [ "History", "===Origins===The work of a European priest, Father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles to reveal to Europe the manufacturing methods of Chinese porcelain in 1712, is sometimes considered an early case of industrial espionage.Economic and industrial espionage has a long history.", "Father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles, who visited Jingdezhen, China in 1712 and later used this visit to reveal the manufacturing methods of Chinese porcelain to Europe, is sometimes considered to have conducted an early case of industrial espionage.Historical accounts have been written of industrial espionage between Britain and France.", "Attributed to Britain's emergence as an \"industrial creditor\", the second decade of the 18th century saw the emergence of a large-scale state-sponsored effort to surreptitiously take British industrial technology to France.", "Witnesses confirmed both the inveigling of tradespersons abroad and the placing of apprentices in England.", "Protests by those such as ironworkers in Sheffield and steelworkers in Newcastle, about skilled industrial workers being enticed abroad, led to the first English legislation aimed at preventing this method of economic and industrial espionage.", "This did not prevent Samuel Slater from bringing British textile technology to the United States in 1789.In order to catch up with technological advances of European powers, the US government in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries actively encouraged intellectual piracy.American founding father and first U.S. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton advocated rewarding those bringing \"improvements and secrets of extraordinary value\" into the United States.", "This was instrumental in making the United States a haven for industrial spies.===20th century===East-West commercial development opportunities after World War I saw a rise in Soviet interest in American and European manufacturing know-how, exploited by Amtorg Corporation.", "Later, with Western restrictions on the export of items thought likely to increase military capabilities to the USSR, Soviet industrial espionage was a well known adjunct to other spying activities up until the 1980s.", "''BYTE'' reported in April 1984, for example, that although the Soviets sought to develop their own microelectronics, their technology appeared to be several years behind the West's.", "Soviet CPUs required multiple chips and appeared to be close or exact copies of American products such as the Intel 3000 and DEC LSI-11/2.====\"Operation Brunnhilde\"====Some of these activities were directed via the East German Stasi (Ministry for State Security).", "One such operation, \"Operation Brunnhilde,\" operated from the mid-1950s until early 1966 and made use of spies from many Communist Bloc countries.", "Through at least 20 forays, many western European industrial secrets were compromised.", "One member of the \"Brunnhilde\" ring was a Swiss chemical engineer, Dr. Jean Paul Soupert (also known as \"Air Bubble\"), living in Brussels.", "He was described by Peter Wright in Spycatcher as having been \"doubled\" by the Belgian Sûreté de l'État.", "He revealed information about industrial espionage conducted by the ring, including the fact that Russian agents had obtained details of Concorde's advanced electronics system.", "He testified against two Kodak employees, living and working in Britain, during a trial in which they were accused of passing information on industrial processes to him, though they were eventually acquitted.According to a 2020 ''American Economic Review'' study, East German industrial espionage in West Germany significantly reduced the gap in total factor productivity between the two countries.====Soviet system====A secret report from the Military-Industrial Commission of the USSR (VPK), from 1979–80, detailed how (, \"special records\") could be utilised in twelve different military industrial areas.", "Writing in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Philip Hanson detailed a system in which 12 industrial branch ministries formulated requests for information to aid technological development in their military programs.", "Acquisition plans were described as operating on 2-year and 5-year cycles with about 3000 tasks underway each year.", "Efforts were aimed at civilian and military industrial targets, such as in the petrochemical industries.", "Some information was gathered to compare Soviet technological advancement with that of their competitors.", "Much unclassified information was also gathered, blurring the boundary with \"competitive intelligence\".The Soviet military was recognised as making much better use of acquired information than civilian industries, where their record in replicating and developing industrial technology was poor.===Legacy of Cold War espionage===Following the demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, commentators, including the US Congressional Intelligence Committee, noted a redirection amongst the espionage community from military to industrial targets, with Western and former communist countries making use of \"underemployed\" spies and expanding programs directed at stealing such information.The legacy of Cold War spying included not just the redirection of personnel but the use of spying apparatus such as computer databases, scanners for eavesdropping, spy satellites, bugs and wires.===Industrial espionage as part of US foreign policy===According to an article from news website theintercept.com, \"potentially sabotaging another country's hi-tech industries and their top companies has long been a sanctioned American strategy.\"", "The article was based on a leaked report issued from former U.S. Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper's office that evaluated a theoretical scenario on how intelligence could be used to overcome a loss of the United States' technological and innovative edge.", "The report did not show any actual occurrence of U.S. conducted industrial espionage, and when contacted the Director of National Intelligence office responded with, \"the United States—unlike our adversaries—does not steal proprietary corporate information to further private American companies' bottom lines\", and that \"the Intelligence Community regularly engages in analytic exercises to identify potential future global environments, and how the IC could help the United States Government respond\".", "The report, he said, \"is not intended to be, and is not, a reflection of current policy or operations\".Former CIA Director Stansfield Turner stated in 1991 \"Nevertheless, as we increase emphasis on securing economic intelligence, we will have to spy on the more developed countries-our allies and friends with whom we compete economically-but to whom we turn first for political and military assistance in a crisis.", "This means that rather than instinctively reaching for human, on-site spying, the United States will want to look to those impersonal technical systems, primarily satellite photography and intercepts\".Former CIA Director James Woolsey acknowledged in 2000 that the United States steals economic secrets from foreign firms and their governments \"with espionage, with communications, with reconnaissance satellites\".", "He also stated it is \"not to provide secrets, technological secrets to American industry.\"", "He listed the three reasons as understanding whether sanctions are functioning for countries under sanction, monitoring dual-use technology that could be used to produce or develop weapons of mass destruction, and to spy on bribery to uphold the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.In 2013 The United States was accused of spying on Brazilian oil company Petrobras.", "Brazil's President Dilma Rousseff stated that it was tantamount to industrial espionage and had no security justification.In 2014 former US intelligence officer Edward Snowden stated that America's National Security Agency was engaged in industrial espionage and that they spied on German companies that compete with US firms.", "He also highlighted the fact the NSA uses mobile phone apps such as Angry Birds to gather personal data.In September 2019, security firm Qi An Xin published report linking the CIA to a series of attacks targeting Chinese aviation agencies between 2012 and 2017.===Israel's economic espionage in the United States===Israel has an active program to gather proprietary information within the United States.", "These collection activities are primarily directed at obtaining information on military systems and advanced computing applications that can be used in Israel's sizable armaments industry.Israel was accused by the US government of selling US military technology and secrets to China.In 2014 American counter-intelligence officials told members of the House Judiciary and Foreign Affairs committees that Israel's current espionage activities in America are \"unrivaled\"." ], [ "Use of computers and the Internet", "===Personal computers===Computers have become key in exercising industrial espionage due to the enormous amount of information they contain and the ease at which it can be copied and transmitted.", "The use of computers for espionage increased rapidly in the 1990s.", "Information has commonly been stolen by individuals posing as subsidiary workers, such as cleaners or repairmen, gaining access to unattended computers and copying information from them.", "Laptops were, and still are, a prime target, with those traveling abroad on business being warned not to leave them for any period of time.", "Perpetrators of espionage have been known to find many ways of conning unsuspecting individuals into parting, often only temporarily, from their possessions, enabling others to access and steal information.", "A \"bag-op\" refers to the use of hotel staff to access data, such as through laptops, in hotel rooms.", "Information may be stolen in transit, in taxis, at airport baggage counters, baggage carousels, on trains and so on.===The Internet===The rise of the Internet and computer networks has expanded the range and detail of information available and the ease of access for the purpose of industrial espionage.", "This type of operation is generally identified as state backed or sponsored, because the \"access to personal, financial or analytic resources\" identified exceed that which could be accessed by cybercriminals or individual hackers.", "Sensitive military or defense engineering or other industrial information may not have immediate monetary value to criminals, compared with, say, bank details.", "Analysis of cyberattacks suggests deep knowledge of networks, with targeted attacks, obtained by numerous individuals operating in a sustained organized way.===Opportunities for sabotage===The rising use of the internet has also extended opportunities for industrial espionage with the aim of sabotage.", "In the early 2000s, it was noticed that energy companies were increasingly coming under attack from hackers.", "Energy power systems, doing jobs like monitoring power grids or water flow, once isolated from the other computer networks, were now being connected to the internet, leaving them more vulnerable, having historically few built-in security features.", "The use of these methods of industrial espionage have increasingly become a concern for governments, due to potential attacks by terrorist groups or hostile foreign governments.===Malware===One of the means of perpetrators conducting industrial espionage is by exploiting vulnerabilities in computer software.", "Malware and spyware are \"tools for industrial espionage\", in \"transmitting digital copies of trade secrets, customer plans, future plans and contacts\".", "Newer forms of malware include devices which surreptitiously switch on mobile phones camera and recording devices.", "In attempts to tackle such attacks on their intellectual property, companies are increasingly keeping important information off network, leaving an \"air gap\", with some companies building Faraday cages to shield from electromagnetic or cellphone transmissions.===Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack===The distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack uses compromised computer systems to orchestrate a flood of requests on the target system, causing it to shut down and deny service to other users.", "It could potentially be used for economic or industrial espionage with the purpose of sabotage.", "This method was allegedly utilized by Russian secret services, over a period of two weeks on a cyberattack on Estonia in May 2007, in response to the removal of a Soviet era war memorial." ], [ "Notable cases", "===British East India Company===In 1848, the British East India Company broke Qing China's global near-monopoly on tea production by smuggling Chinese tea out of the nation and copying Chinese tea-making processes.", "The British Empire had previously run a considerable trade deficit with China by importing the nation's tea and other goods.", "The British attempted to rectify the deficit by trading opium to the Chinese, but encountered difficulties after the Daoguang Emperor banned the opium trade and the First Opium War broke out.", "To avoid further issues in trading tea with China, the East India Company hired Scottish botanist Robert Fortune to travel to China under the guise of a Chinese nobleman and obtain Chinese trade secrets and tea plants for replanting.", "Infiltrating Chinese tea-making facilities, Fortune recorded the Chinese process for creating tea and smuggled tea leaves and seeds back to the East India Company.", "These tea plants were later introduced into India, helping it surpass China as the world's largest tea producer.===France and the United States===Between 1987 and 1989, IBM and Texas Instruments were thought to have been targeted by French DGSE with the intention of helping France's Groupe Bull.", "In 1993, U.S. aerospace companies were also thought to have been targeted by French interests.", "During the early 1990s, France was described as one of the most aggressive pursuers of espionage to garner foreign industrial and technological secrets.", "France accused the U.S. of attempting to sabotage its high tech industrial base.", "The government of France has been alleged to have conducted ongoing industrial espionage against American aerodynamics and satellite companies.===Volkswagen===In 1993, car manufacturer Opel, the German division of General Motors, accused Volkswagen of industrial espionage after Opel's chief of production, Jose Ignacio Lopez, and seven other executives moved to Volkswagen.", "Volkswagen subsequently threatened to sue for defamation, resulting in a four-year legal battle.", "The case, which was finally settled in 1997, resulted in one of the largest settlements in the history of industrial espionage, with Volkswagen agreeing to pay General Motors $100 million and to buy at least $1 billion of car parts from the company over 7 years, although it did not explicitly apologize for Lopez's behavior.===Hilton and Starwood===In April 2009, Starwood accused its rival Hilton Worldwide of a \"massive\" case of industrial espionage.", "After being acquired by The Blackstone Group, Hilton employed 10 managers and executives from Starwood.", "Starwood accused Hilton of stealing corporate information relating to its luxury brand concepts, used in setting up its Denizen hotels.", "Specifically, former head of its luxury brands group, Ron Klein, was accused of downloading \"truckloads of documents\" from a laptop to his personal email account.===Google and Operation Aurora===On 13 January 2010, Google announced that operators, from within China, had hacked into their Google China operation, stealing intellectual property and, in particular, accessing the email accounts of human rights activists.", "The attack was thought to have been part of a more widespread cyber attack on companies within China which has become known as Operation Aurora.", "Intruders were thought to have launched a zero-day attack, exploiting a weakness in the Microsoft Internet Explorer browser, the malware used being a modification of the trojan \"Hydraq\".", "Concerned about the possibility of hackers taking advantage of this previously unknown weakness in Internet Explorer, the governments of Germany and, subsequently France, issued warnings not to use the browser.There was speculation that \"insiders\" had been involved in the attack, with some Google China employees being denied access to the company's internal networks after the company's announcement.", "In February 2010, computer experts from the U.S. National Security Agency claimed that the attacks on Google probably originated from two Chinese universities associated with expertise in computer science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University and the Shandong Lanxiang Vocational School, the latter having close links to the Chinese military.Google claimed at least 20 other companies had also been targeted in the cyber attack, said by the ''London Times'', to have been part of an \"ambitious and sophisticated attempt to steal secrets from unwitting corporate victims\" including \"defence contractors, finance and technology companies\".", "Rather than being the work of individuals or organised criminals, the level of sophistication of the attack was thought to have been \"more typical of a nation state\".", "Some commentators speculated as to whether the attack was part of what is thought to be a concerted Chinese industrial espionage operation aimed at getting \"high-tech information to jump-start China's economy\".", "Critics pointed to what was alleged to be a lax attitude to the intellectual property of foreign businesses in China, letting them operate but then seeking to copy or reverse engineer their technology for the benefit of Chinese \"national champions\".", "In Google's case, they may have (also) been concerned about the possible misappropriation of source code or other technology for the benefit of Chinese rival Baidu.", "In March 2010 Google subsequently decided to cease offering censored results in China, leading to the closing of its Chinese operation.===''USA v. Lan Lee, et al.", "''===The United States charged two former NetLogic Inc. engineers, Lan Lee and Yuefei Ge, of committing economic espionage against TSMC and NetLogic, Inc. A jury acquitted the defendants of the charges with regard to TSMC and deadlocked on the charges with regard to NetLogic.", "In May 2010, a federal judge dismissed all the espionage charges against the two defendants.", "The judge ruled that the U.S. government presented no evidence of espionage.===Dongxiao Yue and Chordiant Software, Inc.===In May 2010, the federal jury convicted Chordiant Software, Inc., a U.S. corporation, of stealing Dongxiao Yue's JRPC technologies and used them in a product called Chordiant Marketing Director.", "Yue previously filed lawsuits against Symantec Corporation for a similar theft." ], [ "Concerns of national governments", "===Brazil===Revelations from the Snowden documents have provided information to the effect that the United States, notably vis-à-vis the NSA, has been conducting aggressive economic espionage against Brazil.", "Canadian intelligence has apparently supported U.S. economic espionage efforts.===China===The Chinese cybersecurity company Qihoo 360 accused the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of an 11-year-long hacking campaign that targeted several industries including aviation organizations, scientific research institutions, petroleum firms, internet companies, and government agencies.===United States===A 2009 report to the US government, by aerospace and defense company Northrop Grumman, describes Chinese economic espionage as comprising \"the single greatest threat to U.S. technology\".", "Blogging on the 2009 cyber attack on Google, Joe Stewart of SecureWorks referred to a \"persistent campaign of 'espionage-by-malware' emanating from the People's Republic of China (PRC)\" with both corporate and state secrets being \"Shanghaied\" over the past 5 or 6 years.", "The Northrop Grumman report states that the collection of US defense engineering data stolen through cyberattacks is regarded as having \"saved the recipient of the information years of R&D and significant amounts of funding\".", "Concerns about the extent of cyberattacks on the US emanating from China has led to the situation being described as the dawn of a \"new cold cyberwar\".According to Edward Snowden, the National Security Agency spies on foreign companies.", "In June 2015 Wikileaks published documents about the National Security Agency spying on French companies.===United Kingdom===During December 2007, this was suddenly revealed that Jonathan Evans, head of the United Kingdom's MI5, had sent out confidential letters to 300 chief executives and security chiefs at the country's banks, accountants and legal firms warning of attacks from Chinese 'state organisations'.", "A summary was also posted on the secure website of the Centre for the Protection of the National Infrastructure, accessed by some of the nation's 'critical infrastructure' companies, including 'telecoms firms, banks and water and electricity companies'.", "One security expert warned about the use of 'custom trojans,' software specifically designed to hack into a particular firm and feed back data.", "Whilst China was identified as the country most active in the use of internet spying, up to 120 other countries were said to be using similar techniques.", "The Chinese government responded to UK accusations of economic espionage by saying that the report of such activities was 'slanderous' and that the government opposed hacking which is prohibited by law.===Germany===German counter-intelligence experts have maintained the German economy is losing around €53 billion or the equivalent of 30,000 jobs to economic espionage yearly.In Operation Eikonal, German BND agents received \"selector lists\" from the NSA – search terms for their dragnet surveillance.", "They contain IP addresses, mobile phone numbers and email accounts with the BND surveillance system containing hundreds of thousands and possibly more than a million such targets.", "These lists have been subject of controversy as in 2008 it was revealed that they contained some terms targeting the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS), the Eurocopter project as well as French administration, which were first noticed by BND employees in 2005.After the revelations made by whistleblower Edward Snowden, the BND decided to investigate the issue whose October 2013 conclusion was that at least 2,000 of these selectors were aimed at Western European or even German interests which has been a violation of the Memorandum of Agreement that the US and Germany signed in 2002 in the wake of the 9/11 terror attacks.", "After reports emerged in 2014 that EADS and Eurocopter had been surveillance targets the Left Party and the Greens filed an official request to obtain evidence of the violations.The BND's project group charged with supporting the NSA investigative committee in German parliament set up in spring 2014, reviewed the selectors and discovered 40,000 suspicious search parameters, including espionage targets in Western European governments and numerous companies.", "The group also confirmed suspicions that the NSA had systematically violated German interests and concluded that the Americans could have perpetrated economic espionage directly under the Germans' noses.", "The investigative parliamentary committee was not granted access to the NSA's selectors list as an appeal led by opposition politicians failed at Germany's top court.", "Instead the ruling coalition appointed an administrative judge, , as a \"person of trust\" who was granted access to the list and briefed the investigative commission on its contents after analyzing the 40,000 parameters.", "In his almost 300-paged report Graulich concluded that European government agencies were targeted massively and that Americans hence broke contractual agreements.", "He also found that German targets which received special protection from surveillance of domestic intelligence agencies by Germany's Basic Law (Grundgesetz) − including numerous enterprises based in Germany – were featured in the NSA's wishlist in a surprising plenitude." ], [ "Competitive intelligence and economic or industrial espionage", "\"Competitive intelligence\" involves the legal and ethical activity of systematically gathering, analyzing and managing information on industrial competitors.", "It may include activities such as examining newspaper articles, corporate publications, websites, patent filings, specialised databases, information at trade shows and the like to determine information on a corporation.", "The compilation of these crucial elements is sometimes termed CIS or CRS, a ''Competitive Intelligence Solution'' or ''Competitive Response Solution'', with its roots in market research.", "Douglas Bernhardt has characterised \"competitive intelligence\" as involving \"the application of principles and practices from military and national intelligence to the domain of global business\"; it is the commercial equivalent of open-source intelligence.The difference between competitive intelligence and economic or industrial espionage is not clear; one needs to understand the legal basics to recognize how to draw the line between the two." ], [ "See also", "* American Economic Espionage Act of 1996* Business intelligence* Corporate warfare* Cyber spying* FBI* * History of tea in India* Labor spying in the United States* Reverse engineering" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===* * * * * * ===Newspapers and journals===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Web===* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Isaac Bashevis Singer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Isaac Bashevis Singer''' (; 1904 – July 24, 1991) was a Polish-born Jewish-American novelist, short-story writer, memoirist, essayist, and translator.", "Some of his works were adapted for the theater.", "He wrote and published first in Yiddish and later translated his own works into English with the help of editors and collaborators.", "He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1978.A leading figure in the Yiddish literary movement, he was awarded two U.S. National Book Awards, one in Children's Literature for his memoir ''A Day of Pleasure: Stories of a Boy Growing Up in Warsaw'' (1970) and one in Fiction for his collection ''A Crown of Feathers and Other Stories'' (1974)." ], [ "Life", "Isaac (right) with his brother Israel Joshua Singer (1930s)Krochmalna Street in Warsaw near the place where the Singers lived (1940 or 1941)Singer's bench in BiłgorajCommemorative plaque at 1 Krochmalna Street in WarsawIsaac Bashevis Singer was born in 1903 to a Jewish family in Leoncin village near Warsaw, Poland.", "The Polish form of his birth name was '''Icek Hersz Zynger'''.", "The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but most sources say it was probably November 11, a date similar to the one that Singer gave to his official biographer Paul Kresh, his secretary Dvorah Telushkin, and Rabbi William Berkowitz.", "The year 1903 is consistent with the historical events that his brother refers to in their childhood memoirs, including the death of Theodor Herzl.", "The often-quoted birth date, July 14, 1904, was made up by the author in his youth, possibly to make himself younger to avoid the draft.His father was a Hasidic rabbi and his mother, Bathsheba, was the daughter of the rabbi of Biłgoraj.", "Singer later used her first name in an initial literary pseudonym, ''Izaak Baszewis'', which he later expanded.", "Both his older siblings, sister Esther Kreitman (1891–1954) and brother Israel Joshua Singer (1893–1944), became writers as well.", "Esther was the first of the family to write stories.The family moved to the court of the Rabbi of Radzymin in 1907, where his father became head of the Yeshiva.", "After the Yeshiva building burned down in 1908, the family moved to Warsaw, a flat at Krochmalna Street 10.In the spring of 1914, the Singers moved to No.", "12.The street where Singer grew up was located in the impoverished, Yiddish-speaking Jewish quarter of Warsaw.", "There his father served as a rabbi, and was called on to be a judge, arbitrator, religious authority and spiritual leader in the Jewish community.", "The unique atmosphere of pre-war Krochmalna Street can be found both in the collection of ''Varshavsky-stories'', which tell stories from Singer's childhood, as well as in those novels and stories which take place in pre-war Warsaw.===World War I===In 1917, because of the hardships of World War I, the family split up.", "Singer moved with his mother and younger brother Moshe to his mother's hometown of Biłgoraj, a traditional ''shtetl,'' where his mother's brothers had followed his grandfather as rabbis.", "When his father became a village rabbi again in 1921, Singer returned to Warsaw.", "He entered the Tachkemoni Rabbinical Seminary and soon decided that neither the school nor the profession suited him.", "He returned to Biłgoraj, where he tried to support himself by giving Hebrew lessons, but soon gave up and joined his parents, considering himself a failure.", "In 1923, his older brother Israel Joshua arranged for him to move to Warsaw to work as a proofreader for the Jewish magazine '''', of which the brother was an editor.===United States===In 1935, four years before the Nazi invasion, Singer emigrated from Poland to the United States.", "He was fearful of the growing threat in neighboring Germany.", "The move separated the author from his common-law first wife Runia Pontsch and son Israel Zamir (1929–2014); they emigrated to Moscow and then Palestine.", "The three met again in 1955.Singer settled in New York City, where he took up work as a journalist and columnist for ''The Jewish Daily Forward'' (), a Yiddish-language newspaper.", "After a promising start, he became despondent and for some years felt \"''Lost in America''\" (title of his 1974 memoir published in Yiddish; published in English in 1981).In 1938, he met Alma Wassermann née Haimann (1907–1996), a German-Jewish refugee from Munich.", "They married in 1940, and their union seemed to release energy in him; he returned to prolific writing and to contributing to the ''Forward''.", "In addition to his pen name of \"Bashevis\", he published under the pen names of \"Warszawski\" (pron.", "Varshavsky) during World War II, and \"D. Segal\".", "They lived for many years in the Belnord apartment building on Manhattan's Upper West Side.In 1981, Singer delivered a commencement address at the University at Albany and was presented with an honorary doctorate.Singer died on July 24, 1991, in Surfside, Florida, after suffering a series of strokes.", "He was buried in Cedar Park Cemetery, Paramus, New Jersey.", "A street in Surfside, Florida is named Isaac Singer Boulevard in his honor, as is a city square in Lublin, Poland, and a street in Tel-Aviv.", "The full academic scholarship for undergraduate students at the University of Miami is also named in his honor." ], [ "Literary career", "Singer's first published story \"Oyf der elter\" (\"In Old Age\", 1925) won the literary competition of the ''Literarishe Bletter'', where he worked as a proofreader.", "A reflection of his formative years in \"the kitchen of literature\" can be found in many of his later works.", "Singer published his first novel, ''Satan in Goray'', in installments in the literary magazine ''Globus'', which he had co-founded with his lifelong friend, the Yiddish poet Aaron Zeitlin in 1935.It is set in the years following 1648, when the Chmielnicki massacres, considered one of the greatest Jewish catastrophes, occurred.", "The story describes the Jewish messianic cult that arose in the village of Goraj.", "It explores the effects of the faraway false messiah, Shabbatai Zvi, on the local population.", "Its last chapter imitates the style of a medieval Yiddish chronicle.", "With a stark depiction of innocence crushed by circumstance, the novel appears to foreshadow coming danger.", "In his later work ''The Slave'' (1962), Singer returns to the aftermath of 1648 in a love story between a Jewish man and a gentile woman.", "He portrays the traumatized and desperate survivors of the historic catastrophe with even deeper understanding.===''The Family Moskat''===Singer became a literary contributor to ''The Jewish Daily Forward'' only after his older brother Israel died in 1944.That year, Singer published ''The Family Moskat'' in his brother's honor.", "His own style showed in the daring turns of his action and characters, with double adultery during the holiest of nights of Judaism, the evening of Yom Kippur (despite being printed in a Jewish family newspaper in 1945).", "He was nearly forced to stop writing the novel by his editor-in-chief, Abraham Cahan, but was saved by readers who wanted the story to continue.", "After this, his stories—which he had published in Yiddish literary newspapers before—were printed in the ''Forward'' as well.", "Throughout the 1940s, Singer's reputation grew.Singer believed in the power of his native language and thought that there was still a large audience, including in New York, who longed to read in Yiddish.", "In an interview in ''Encounter'' (February 1979), he said that although the Jews of Poland had died, \"something—call it spirit or whatever—is still somewhere in the universe.", "This is a mystical kind of feeling, but I feel there is truth in it.", "\"Some of his colleagues and readers were shocked by his all-encompassing view of human nature.", "He wrote about female homosexuality (\"Zeitl and Rickel\", \"Tseytl un Rikl\"), published in ''The Seance and Other Stories'', transvestism (\"Yentl the Yeshiva Boy\" in ''Short Friday''), and of rabbis corrupted by demons (\"Zeidlus the Pope\" in ''Short Friday'').", "In those novels and stories which refer to events in his own life, he portrays himself unflatteringly (with some degree of accuracy) as an artist who is self-centered yet has a keen eye for the sufferings and tribulations of others.===Literary influences===Singer had many literary influences.", "Besides the religious texts he studied, he grew up with a rich array of Jewish folktales and worldly Yiddish detective-stories about \"Max Spitzkopf\" and his assistant \"Fuchs\".", "He read Russian, including Dostoyevsky's ''Crime and Punishment'' at the age of fourteen.", "He wrote in memoirs about the importance of the Yiddish translations donated in book-crates from America, which he studied as a teenager in Bilgoraj: \"I read everything: Stories, novels, plays, essays...", "I read Rajsen, Strindberg, Don Kaplanowitsch, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Maupassant and Chekhov.\"", "He studied the philosophers Spinoza, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Otto Weininger.", "Among his Yiddish contemporaries, Singer considered his elder brother to be his greatest artistic example.", "He was also a life-long friend and admirer of the author and poet Aaron Zeitlin.His short stories, which some critics feel contain his most lasting contributions, were influenced by Anton Chekhov and Guy de Maupassant.", "From Maupassant, Singer developed a finely grained sense of drama.", "Like those of the French master, Singer's stories can pack enormous visceral excitement in the space of a few pages.", "From Chekhov, Singer developed his ability to draw characters of enormous complexity and dignity in the briefest of spaces.", "In the foreword to his personally selected volume of his finest short stories he describes the two aforementioned writers as the greatest masters of the short story form.Of his non-Yiddish-contemporaries, he was strongly influenced by the writings of Knut Hamsun, many of whose works he later translated, while he had a more critical attitude towards Thomas Mann, whose approach to writing he considered opposed to his own.", "Contrary to Hamsun's approach, Singer shaped his world not only with the egos of his characters, but also from Jewish moral tradition embodied by his father in the stories about Singer's youth.", "There was a dichotomy between the life his heroes lead and the life they feel they should lead—which gives his art a modernity his predecessors did not express.", "His themes of witchcraft, mystery and legend draw on traditional sources, but they are contrasted with a modern and ironic consciousness.", "They are also concerned with the bizarre and the grotesque.An important strand of his art is intra-familial strife, which he experienced when taking refuge with his mother and younger brother at his uncle's home in Biłgoraj.", "This is the central theme in Singer's family chronicles such as ''The Family Moskat'' (1950), ''The Manor'' (1967), and ''The Estate'' (1969).", "Some critics believe these show the influence of Thomas Mann's novel ''Buddenbrooks''; Singer had translated Mann's ''Der Zauberberg'' (''The Magic Mountain'') into Yiddish as a young writer.===Language===Singer always wrote and published in Yiddish.", "His novels were serialized in newspapers, which also published his short stories.", "He edited his novels and stories for publication in English, which was used as the basis for translation into other languages.", "He referred to his English versions as his \"second original\".", "This has led to an ongoing controversy whether the \"real Singer\" is the Yiddish original, with its finely tuned language and sometimes rambling construction, or in the more tightly edited American versions, where the language is usually simpler and more direct.", "Some of Singer's stories and novels have not been translated.===Illustrators===The artists who have illustrated Singer's novels, short stories, and children's books, include Raphael Soyer, Maurice Sendak, Larry Rivers, and Irene Lieblich.", "Singer personally selected Lieblich to illustrate two of his books for children, ''A Tale of Three Wishes'' and ''The Power of Light: Eight Stories for Hanukkah,'' after seeing her paintings at an Artists Equity exhibition in New York City.", "A Holocaust survivor, Lieblich was from Zamosc, Poland, a town adjacent to the area where Singer was raised.", "As their memories of ''shtetl'' life were so similar, Singer found Lieblich's images ideally suited to illustrate his texts.", "Of her style, Singer wrote that \"her works are rooted in Jewish folklore and are faithful to Jewish life and the Jewish spirit.", "\"===Summary===Singer published at least 18 novels, 14 children's books, a number of memoirs, essays and articles.", "He is best known as a writer of short stories, which have been published in more than a dozen collections.", "The first collection of Singer's short stories in English, ''Gimpel the Fool'', was published in 1957.The title story was translated by Saul Bellow and published in May 1953 in the ''Partisan Review''.", "Selections from Singer's \"Varshavsky-stories\" in the ''Daily Forward'' were later published in anthologies such as ''My Father's Court'' (1966).", "Later collections include ''A Crown of Feathers'' (1973), with notable masterpieces in between, such as ''The Spinoza of Market Street'' (1961) and ''A Friend of Kafka'' (1970).", "His stories and novels reflect the world of the East European Jewry in which he grew up.", "After his many years in America, his stories also portrayed the world of the immigrants and their pursuit of an elusive American dream, which seems always beyond reach.Prior to Singer's winning the Nobel Prize, English translations of dozens of his stories were published in popular magazines such as ''Playboy'' and ''Esquire'' that published literary works.Throughout the 1960s, Singer continued to write about questions of personal morality.", "Because of the controversial aspects of his plots, he was a target of scathing criticism from many quarters, some of it for not being \"moral\" enough, some for writing stories that no one wanted to hear.", "To his critics, he replied, \"Literature must spring from the past, from the love of the uniform force that wrote it, and not from the uncertainty of the future.\"", "Singer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.Between 1981 and 1989, Singer contributed articles to ''Moment'', an independent magazine which focuses on the life of the American Jewish community.===Film adaptations===His novel ''Enemies, a Love Story'' was adapted as a film by the same name (1989) and was quite popular, bringing new readers to his work.", "It features a Holocaust survivor who deals with varying desires, complex family relationships, and a loss of faith.Singer's story, \"Yentl, the Yeshiva Boy\" was adapted into a stage version by Leah Napolin (with Singer), which was the basis for the film ''Yentl'' (1983) starring and directed by Barbra Streisand.Alan Arkin starred as Yasha, the principal character in the film version of ''The Magician of Lublin'' (1979), which also featured Shelley Winters, Louise Fletcher, Valerie Perrine and Lou Jacobi.", "In the final scene, Yasha achieves his lifelong ambition of being able to fly, though not as the magic trick he had originally planned.Perhaps the most fascinating Singer-inspired film is ''Mr.", "Singer's Nightmare and Mrs. Pupkos Beard'' (1974) directed by Bruce Davidson, a renowned photographer who became Singer's neighbor.", "This unique film is a half-hour mixture of documentary and fantasy for which Singer wrote the script and played the leading role.The 2007 film ''Love Comes Lately'', starring Otto Tausig, was adapted from several of Singer's stories." ], [ "Views and opinions", "===Judaism===Singer's relationship to Judaism was complex and unconventional.", "He identified as a skeptic and a loner, though he felt a connection to his Orthodox roots.", "Ultimately, he developed a view of religion and philosophy which he called \"private mysticism\".", "As he put it, \"Since God was completely unknown and eternally silent, He could be endowed with whatever traits one elected to hang upon Him.", "\"Singer was raised Orthodox and learned all the Jewish prayers, studied Hebrew and learned Torah and Talmud.", "As he recounted in the autobiographical short story \"In My Father's Court\", he broke away from his parents in his early twenties.", "Influenced by his older brother, who had done the same, he began spending time with non-religious Bohemian artists in Warsaw.", "Although Singer believed in a God, as in traditional Judaism, he stopped attending Jewish religious services of any kind, even on the High Holy Days.", "He struggled throughout his life with the feeling that a kind and compassionate God would never support the great suffering he saw around him, especially the Holocaust deaths of so many of the Polish Jews from his childhood.", "In one interview with the photographer Richard Kaplan, he said, \"I am angry at God because of what happened to my brothers\": Singer's older brother died suddenly in February 1944, in New York, of a thrombosis; his younger brother perished in Soviet Russia around 1945, after being deported with his mother and wife to Southern Kazakhstan in Stalin's purges.Despite the complexities of his religious outlook, Singer lived in the midst of the Jewish community throughout his life.", "He did not seem to be comfortable unless he was surrounded by Jews; particularly Jews born in Europe.", "Although he spoke English, Hebrew, and Polish fluently, he always considered Yiddish his natural tongue.", "He always wrote in Yiddish and he was the last notable American author to be writing in this language.", "After he had achieved success as a writer in New York, Singer and his wife began spending time during the winters in Miami with its Jewish community, many of them New Yorkers.Eventually, as senior citizens, they moved to Miami.", "They identified closely with the Ashkenazi Jewish community.", "After his death, Singer was buried in a traditional Jewish ceremony in a Jewish cemetery in Paramus, New Jersey.===Vegetarianism===Singer was a prominent Jewish vegetarian for the last 35 years of his life and often included vegetarian themes in his works.", "In his short story ''The Slaughterer'', he described the anguish of an appointed slaughterer trying to reconcile his compassion for animals with his job of killing them.", "He felt that the ingestion of meat was a denial of all ideals and all religions: \"How can we speak of right and justice if we take an innocent creature and shed its blood?\"", "When asked if he had become a vegetarian for health reasons, he replied: \"I did it for the health of the chickens.", "\"Vegetarianism is a recurrent theme in Singer's novel ''Enemies, a Love Story.''", "One character, a Holocaust survivor, declares that \"God himself eats meat—human flesh.", "There are no vegetarians—none.", "If you had seen what I have seen, you would know that God approves of slaughter,\" and another character points out \"that what the Nazis had done to the Jews, man was doing to animals.\"", "In ''The Letter Writer'', Singer wrote \"In relation to animals, all people are Nazis; for the animals, it is an eternal Treblinka,\" which became a classic reference in the comparison of animal exploitation with the Holocaust.In the preface to Steven Rosen's ''Food for Spirit: Vegetarianism and the World Religions'' (1986), Singer wrote, \"When a human kills an animal for food, he is neglecting his own hunger for justice.", "Man prays for mercy, but is unwilling to extend it to others.", "Why should man then expect mercy from God?", "It's unfair to expect something that you are not willing to give.", "It is inconsistent.", "I can never accept inconsistency or injustice.", "Even if it comes from God.", "If there would come a voice from God saying, 'I'm against vegetarianism!'", "I would say, 'Well, I am for it!'", "This is how strongly I feel in this regard.", "\"===Politics===Singer described himself as \"conservative,\" adding that \"I don't believe by flattering the masses all the time we really achieve much.\"", "His conservative side was most apparent in his Yiddish writing and journalism, where he was openly hostile to Marxist sociopolitical agendas.", "In ''Forverts'' he once wrote, \"It may seem like terrible ''apikorses'' heresy, but conservative governments in America, England, France, have handled Jews no worse than liberal governments....", "The Jew's worst enemies were always those elements that the modern Jew convinced himself (really hypnotized himself) were his friends.", "\"===Zionism===The typewriter that Singer used during his visits to Israel in the 1970sIssac Bashevis was ambivalent on the question of Zionism, and he viewed the immigration of Jews to Palestine critically.", "As a Polish Jew from Warsaw, he was historically confronted with the question of the Jewish fate during Nazi persecution.", "He exercised social responsibility towards the immigration of European and American Jewish groups to Israel after World War II.", "Strictly based on Jewish family doctrine rather than politics and socialism, his former partner Runya Pontsch and his son Israel Zamir emigrated to Palestine in 1938, in order to live a typical kibbutz life there.", "In his story ''The Certificate'' (1967), which has autobiographical character, he fictionalizes this question from a time in the mid-1920s when he was himself considering moving to the British Mandate Palestine.", "The protagonist of the story decides to leave Palestine, however, to move back into his shtetl.", "For Singer then, Zionism becomes the \"road not taken\".", "However, through his journalistic assignments in late 1955, Singer made his first trip to Israel, accompanied by his wife Alma.", "Describing the trip to his Yiddish readers, he introduces the world for the first time to the young state of Israel.", "In a change of mind, he then describes the Land of Israel as a \"reality, and part of everyday life.\"", "Interestingly enough, he notes the cultural tensions between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jewish people during the boat trip from Naples to Haifa and during his stay in the new nation.", "With the description of Jewish immigration camps in the new land, he foresaw the difficulties and socio-economic tensions in Israel, and hence turned back to his critical views of Zionism.", "He scrutinized the ideology further, as he was advancing his thought of critical Zionism." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "* Jewish Book Council for ''The Slave, 1963''* Itzik Manger Prize, 1973National Book Award (United States), 1974 Nobel Prize for Literature, 1978* A street in Surfside, Florida named in his honor* A street in New York City named in his honor (W. 86th St.)* A street in Leoncin named in his honor (ul.", "Isaaca Bashevisa Singera)* A commemorative plaque attached to a front wall of a building resided by Isaac Singer and his family during their dwelling in Radzymin (ul.", "Stary Rynek 7, 05-250 Radzymin)* A park square in Radzymin named in his honor (skwer im.", "Isaaca Bashevisa Singera)* A city square in Lublin, a hometown of the protagonist of ''The Magician of Lublin'' novel, named in writer's honor (pl.", "Isaaka Singera)* A street in Biłgoraj named in his honor (ul.", "Isaaca Bashevisa Singera)* Induction into the Jewish-American Hall of FameSinger is the only American Nobel Laureate in Literature not to receive a Pulitzer Prize award or citation." ], [ "Published works", "'''Note:''' Publication dates refer to English editions, not the Yiddish originals, which often predate the versions in translation by 10 to 20 years.===Novels ===* ''Satan in Goray'' (serialized: 1933, book: 1935)—Yiddish original: * ''Eulogy to a Shoelace''—Yiddish original: * ''The Family Moskat'' (1950)—Yiddish original: * ''The Magician of Lublin'' (1960)—Yiddish original: * ''The Slave'' (1962)—Yiddish original: * ''The Manor'' (1967)* ''The Estate'' (1969)* ''Enemies, a Love Story'' (1972)—Yiddish original: * ''The Wicked City'' (1972)* ''The Fools of Chelm and Their History'' (Yiddish: 1967, English: 1973)* ''Shosha'' (1978)* ''Old Love'' (1979)* ''Reaches of Heaven: A Story of the Baal Shem Tov'' (1980)* ''The Penitent'' (1983)—Yiddish original: * ''Teibele and Her Demon'' (1983) (play)* ''The King of the Fields'' (1988)* ''Scum'' (1991)* ''The Certificate'' (1992)* ''Meshugah'' (1994)* ''Shadows on the Hudson'' (1997)===Short story collections===* ''Gimpel the Fool and Other Stories'' (1957)—Yiddish original: * ''The Spinoza of Market Street'' (1961)* ''Short Friday and Other Stories'' (1963)* * ''A Friend of Kafka and Other Stories'' (1970)* ''A Crown of Feathers and Other Stories'' (1974)—shared the National Book Award, fiction, with ''Gravity's Rainbow'' by Thomas PynchonWith essay by Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 60-year anniversary blog.", "* ''Passions and Other Stories'' (1975)* ''Old Love'' (1979)* * ''The Image and Other Stories'' (1985)* ''The Death of Methuselah and Other Stories'' (1988)===Juvenile literature===* ''Zlateh the Goat and Other Stories'', illustrated by Maurice Sendak (1966) – runner up for the Newbery Medal (Newbery Honor Book)* ''Mazel and Shlimazel'', illus.", "Margot Zemach (1967)* ''The Fearsome Inn'', illus.", "Nonny Hogrogian (1967) – Newbery Honor Book* ''When Shlemiel Went to Warsaw and Other Stories'', illus.", "Margot Zemach (1968) – Newbery Honor Book—Yiddish original: * ''The Golem'', illus.", "Uri Shulevitz (1969)* ''Elijah the Slave: A Hebrew Legend Retold'', illus.", "Antonio Frasconi (1970)* ''Joseph and Koza: or the Sacrifice to the Vistula'', illus.", "Symeon Shimin (1970)* ''Alone in the Wild Forest'', illus.", "Margot Zemach (1971)* ''The Topsy-Turvy Emperor of China'', illus.", "William Pène du Bois (1971)* ''The Wicked City'', illus.", "Leonard Everett Fisher (1972)* ''The Fools of Chelm and Their History'', illus.", "Uri Shulevitz (1973)* ''Why Noah Chose the Dove'', illus.", "Eric Carle (1974)* ''A Tale of Three Wishes'', illus.", "Irene Lieblich (1975)* ''Naftali the Storyteller and His Horse, Sus'', illus.", "Margot Zemach (1976)* ''The Power of Light – Eight Stories for Hanukkah'', illus.", "Irene Lieblich (1980)* ''Yentl the Yeshiva Boy'', illus.", "Uri Shulevitz (1983)* ''Stories for Children'' (1984) – collection* ''Shrew Todie and Lyzer the Miser and Other Children's Stories'' (1994)* ''The Parakeet Named Dreidel'' (2015)===Nonfiction===* ''The Hasidim'' (1973)===Autobiographical writings===* —Yiddish original: * .", "National Book Award, Children's Literature* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ===Short stories===* .", "* .===Collected works===* .", "* .", "* .===Films and stage productions based on Singer's work===* ''Enemies, A Love Story'' (1989)* ''Love Comes Lately'' (2007)* ''The Magician of Lublin'' (1979)* ''Yentl'' (1983)* ''Mr.", "Singer's Nightmare or Mrs. Pupkos Beard''* ''Fool's Paradise''" ], [ "See also", "* Jewish vegetarianism* List of animal rights advocates* List of Jewish Nobel laureates* List of Poles" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* .", "* Richard Burgin.", "''Conversations with Isaac Bashevis Singer''.", "NY: Doubleday, 1985.", "* .", "* Lester Goran.", "''The Bright Streets of Surfside: The Memoir of a Friendship with Isaac Bashevis Singer''.", "Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1994.", "* .", "* .", "* Roberta Saltzman.", "''Isaac Bashevis Singer: a bibliography of his works in Yiddish and English, 1960–1991''.", "Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2002.", "* Dorothea Straus.", "''Under the Canopy''.", "New York: George Braziller, 1982.", "* Florence Noiville.", "''Isaac B.", "Singer, A Life'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006* Olidort, Shoshana.", "\"Proverbial Language and Literary Truth in the Work of Isaac Bashevis Singer.\"", "''Prooftexts'' 38, no.", "3 (2021): 510-531.", "* * .", "* Agata Tuszyńska. ''", "Lost Landscapes: In Search of Isaac Bashevis Singer and the Jews of Poland.''", "New York: Morrow, 1998.Hardcover.", "via Google Books, preview.", "* .", "* Israel Zamir.", "''Journey to My Father, Isaac Bashevis Singer''.", "New York: Arcade 1995.", "* Aleksandra Ziolkowska-Boehm ''The Roots Are Polish''.", "Toronto: Canadian-Polish Research Institute, 2004." ], [ "External links", "** * * American Masters* Singer page at Library of America* ''The Paris Review'' Interview with Isaac Bashevis Singer * Isaac Bashevis Singer Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin* Snger's Biography by Florence Noiville at Google Books* ''Zlateh the Goat and Other Stories''* Video Lecture on Isaac Bashevis Singer: Singer in the Shtetl, the Shtetl in Singer by Dr. Henry Abramson of Touro College South* Finding aid to Isaac Bashevis Singer manuscripts at Columbia University.", "Rare Book & Manuscript Library." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Islamic eschatology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Islamic eschatology''' (, ) is a field of study in Islam concerning future events that would happen in the end times.", "It is primarily based on sources from the Quran and Sunnah.", "Aspects from this field of study include the signs of the final age, the destruction of the universe and Judgement Day.The primary characters in apocalyptic Islamic narratives are: the Mahdi (\"Guided One\"), Isa aka Jesus who descends from heaven in a Second Coming, the Dajjal (\"Deceiving Messiah\" aka False Messiah, viewed as similar to the Antichrist figure in Christianity), the Beast, and the \"Spy\".", "Of these, Jesus and the Dajjal are mentioned in the Quran; while the other figures are solely found in later writings.The general consensus of the Muslim religious establishment is that the end times will be preceded by a series of signs.", "However, Islamic texts from the Classical era, Middle Ages, and modern times have differed enormously as what those signs might include.", "Suggestions have included an era of trials and tribulations, immorality, mighty wars, unnatural phenomena, an invasion by Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and Magog) into Arab lands, and/or the return of justice to the world.", "Once all the events are completed, the universe shall be destroyed and every human being would be resurrected to be held accountable for their deeds." ], [ "Sources for Islamic eschatology", "Alike with other tenets of Islamic faith, sources of Islamic eschatology are taken from two primary sources: the Quran which was written in the early 7th century CE, and Sunnah literature (stories about the Islamic prophet Muhammad's life and sayings) which was written some 250 years later, in the late 9th century CE.", "However, while the Quran repeatedly exhorts its readers/listeners to prepare for the final \"Hour\", it contains almost no information about the end times.", "Almost all content of Islamic eschatalogical narratives comes from the hadith (notably Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim), and from later extrapolation and speculation by major Islamic authors (notably Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, al-Ghazali, Ibn Arabi, Al-Qurtubi, Ibn Kathir, and as-Suyuti))." ], [ "Signs of the End Times", "Events in Islamic eschatology based on Sunan Abu Dawood, \"Battles\" (Kitab Al-Malahim)Day of JudgementThe arrival of Judgement Day is prophesied to be preceded by apocalyptic signs of its arrival in various hadith collections.", "Senseless immorality would prevail.", "The prevalence of tyrants, alcohol, usury, satanic music, fornication, homosexuality, and disobedience by wives, murders, lying and cheating, lack of interest in and ignorance of religion.", "Unnatural phenomenons would occur.", "The rise of frequent sudden deaths, excessive lightning, destructive rainfall, terrible drought, a huge cloud of smoke, the opening up of huge cracks in the earth, the sun rising in the west, the breeze that take the souls of the faithful.", "The appearance of dark, satanic evils such as the Antichrist, Gog and Magog.", "The arrival of messianic saviors such as the Mahdi and Jesus, who along with divine intervention, will restore justice.The signs are divided into two categories.", "Minor signs are uneventful signs that happen in the timeframe of centuries.", "Major signs are seismic events that happen very rapidly and is the immediate precursor to the end.Savior and evil-doing figures that appear in the major signs include:''Al-Masih ad-Dajjal'' (), is blind in one eye, and will deceive starving masses – especially the Jews – by performing miracles.", "He will raise an army that will kill and conquer, and corner his nemesis, the Mahdi, along with a small army of Muslim fighters in Jerusalem.", "Jesus will descend from heaven just in time to kill him and defeat his army.dīvs (demons).", "Persian miniature from a ''Falnama'', 16th century.", " The Mahdi (), i.e.", "the \"Rightly Guided One\", is a messianic figure descended from Muhammad through Ali, who (with the help of Jesus) will defeat the Dajjal, reestablish Islamic law, rid the world of ''bid'a'' (religious innovation), and fill it with justice; (Sunni and Shia disagree on details such as whether he is currently alive, will kill the Dajjal himself, what he looks like, his exact ancestry, etc.)", "* Jesus () will make a second coming, descending to earth, but unlike in Christianity it will be to assist the Mahdi by killing the dajjal, \"breaking the cross, killing the pigs, and abolishing the Jizya tax\", i.e.", "put an end to Christians misconceptions about his being the Son of God and there being no need to follow dietary laws.", "Jesus and the Mahdi will then rule the earth in perfect justice for a time before Judgement Day.", "(Shia believe it is the Mahdi who will kill the dajjal; others believe \"the Mahdi\" is not a distinct person but just the title given to Jesus.", ")* Gog and Magog () are mentioned in the Quran as doing \"great mischief on earth\", and being suppressed by a figure called Dhul-Qarnayn (\"the two-horned one\") who builds a wall to contain their mischief, warning their local victims that when the time comes (believed to mean the end times), Allah will remove the barrier.", "Non-Quranic Islamic apocalyptic literature describes Gog and Magog as a subhuman pestilence who are released from thousands of years of imprisonment to do much killing, pillaging and devouring of vast resources until being wiped out after \"God commands an insect or worm to burrow into their necks and kill them\".Timeline of Islamic Eschatology of Jesus from Islamic Sources" ], [ "Small Resurrection", "Small Resurrection (''al-qiyamah al-sughra'') happens, when the soul is separated from the body.", "The soul then turns to the afterlife (''akhira'' or ''malakut''), where it is interrogated by two angels, Munkar and Nakir." ], [ "Resurrection and final judgement", "Day of Judgement, from an autograph manuscript of ''Futuhat al-Makkiyya'' written by the Sufi mystic and Muslim philosopherIbn Arabi, ca.", "1238.Shown are the ''ʿArsh'' (Throne of God), ''al-Aminun'' (pulpits for the righteous), seven rows of angels, ''al-Ruh'' (Gabriel), ''A'raf'' (the Barrier), ''Ḥawḍ al-Kawthar'' (the Pond of Abundance), ''al-Maqam al-Mahmud'' (the Praiseworthy Station, where the Prophet Muhammad will stand to intercede for the faithful), ''Mizan'' (the Scale), ''As-Sirāt'' (the Bridge), ''Jahannam'' (Hell), and ''Marj al-Jannat'' (Meadow of Paradise).In Islam, \"the promise and threat\" (''waʿd wa-waʿīd'') of Judgement Day ( or ), has been called \"the dominant message\" of the Quran,and is considered a fundamental tenet of faith by all Muslims, and one of the six articles of Islamic faith.", "The two themes \"central to the understanding of Islamic eschatology\" are:# the resurrection of bodies joined with spirits in a \"reunion of whole, cognizant, and responsible persons\", and # a final judgement of the quality of each persons life \"lived on earth and a subsequent recompense carried out with absolute justice through the prerogative of God's merciful will\".The trials, tribulations and details associated with it are detailed in the Quran and the hadith (sayings of Muhammad); these have been elaborated on in creeds, Quranic commentaries (tafsịrs), theological writing, eschatological manuals to provide more details and a sequence of events on the Day.", "Islamic expositors and scholarly authorities who have explained the subject in detail include al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Majah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, and Ibn Khuzaymah.=== Resurrection of the dead ===After the final signs of The Hour – the defeat of the Sufyani; the end of the just reign of the Mahdi and/or Jesus; the rising of the sun from the west; the peaceful death of all believers from inhalation of a lethal breeze – a trumpet will blast, signaling the destruction of earth (Q.).", "A second blast will signal the death of any being still living.The dead will then be resurrected and Afterlife commence with yet another trumpet blast, (different sources give different numbers of trumpet blasts) The first to arise will be Muhammad, followed by the other members of the Muslim community, with all gathering at the place of assembly ''al-maḥshar''.", "In between resurrection and the actual judgement will be an agonizing time of waiting (Q., Q.)", "for unbelievers.=== Separation of the righteous and the damned ===At divine judgement, the resurrected will stand in a grand assembly, each person's ''Book of Deeds'' – where \"every small and great thing is recorded\" – will be read, and ultimate judgement made.", "The resurrected will then walk over the bridge of As-Sirāt, those judged worthy for the Garden continuing to their heavenly abode, those damned to The Fire, falling off the bridge into the pit of Jahannam.", "There will also be a punishment of the grave (for those who disbelieved) between death and the resurrection.Not everyone consigned to hell will remain there, as it is believed by both scholars and lay Muslims that \"all but the ''mushrikun'', those who have committed the worst sin of impugning the ''tawḥīd'' of God, have the possibility of being saved;\" and God's intercession to save sinners from hellfire is a \"major theme\" in popular Islamic stories about Judgement Day." ], [ "Eschatological theological questions", "Scholars did not always agree on questions of who might go to hell; whether the creation of heaven and hell would wait until Judgement Day; whether there was a state between heaven and hell; whether those consigned to hell would be there for eternity.===Basis of belief===\"Fear, hope, and finally ... faith\", have been given (by Jane I. Smith, Yvonne Y. Haddad) as motivations offered by the Quran for the belief of Muslims in an Afterlife, although some (Abū Aʿla al-Mawdūdī) have asserted it is simply a matter of reason:The fact is that whatever Muhammad (peace be upon him) has told us about life after death is clearly borne out by reason.", "Although our belief in that Day is based upon our implicit trust in the Messenger of God, rational reflection not only confirms this belief but it also reveals that Muhammad's (peace be upon him) teachings in this respect are much more reasonable and understandable than all other view-points about life after death.=== Early Muslim thought on damnation===Muhammad's journey to hellOne of the primary beliefs pertaining to Islamic eschatology during the Early Muslim Period was that all humans could receive God's mercy and were worthy of salvation.", "These early depictions even show how small, insignificant deeds were enough to warrant mercy.", "Most early depictions of the end of days depict only those who reject ''Tawhid'', (the concept of monotheism), are subject to eternal punishment.", "However, everybody is held responsible for their actions.", "Concepts of reward and punishment were seen as beyond this world, a view that is also held today.=== Resurrection theories ===Although Islamic philosophers and scholars were in general agreement on a bodily resurrection after death, interpretations differ in regard to the specifications of bodily resurrection.", "Some of the theories are the following:* The return to the same material body, someone had during lifetime, that will be restored.", "* Conjunction of the soul with a Mithali body, which is congenial to the worlds of Barzakh and the Akhirah.", "* Resurrection with a Hurqaliyati body, accordingly a second invisible body, that survives death.===Literal or allegorical===According to scholars Jane I. Smith, Yvonne Y. Haddad, \"the vast majority of believers\", understand verses of the Quran on Jannah (and hellfire) \"to be real and specific, anticipating them\" with joy or terror.Besides the material notion of the paradise, descriptions of it are also interpreted as allegories, whose meaning is the state of joy believers will experience in the afterlife.", "For some theologians, seeing God is not a question of sight, but of awareness of God's presence.", "Although early Sufis, such as Hallaj, took the descriptions of paradise literal, later Sufi traditions usually stressed out the allegorical meaning.", "On the issue of Judgement Day, early Muslims debated whether scripture should be interpreted literally or figuratively, and the school of thought that prevailed (Ashʿarī) \"affirmed that such things as\" connected with Judgement day as \"the individual records of deeds (including the paper, pen, and ink with which they are inscribed), the bridge, the balance, and the pond\" are \"realities\", and \"to be understood in a concrete and literal sense.", "\"===Modernist, postmodernist thought===According to Smith and Haddad, \"The great majority of contemporary Muslim writers, ... choose not to discuss the afterlife at all\".", "Islamic Modernists, according to Smith and Haddad, express a \"kind of embarrassment with the elaborate traditional detail concerning life in the grave and in the abodes of recompense, called into question by modern rationalists\".", "Consequently, most of \"modern Muslim Theologians\" either \"silence the issue\" or reaffirm \"the traditional position that the reality of the afterlife must not be denied but that its exact nature remains unfathomable\".The beliefs of Pakistani modernist Muhammad Iqbal (died 1938), were similar to the Sufi \"spiritual and internalized interpretations of hell\" of ibn ʿArabī, and Rumi, seeing paradise and hell \"primarily as metaphors for inner psychic\" developments.", "Thus hellfire is actually a state of realization of one's failures as a human being\", and not a supernatural subterranean realm.", "Egyptian modernist Muhammad ʿAbduh, thought it was sufficient to believe in the existence of an afterlife with rewards and punishment to be a true believer, even if you ignored \"clear\" (''ẓāhir'') hadith about hell.====Gender equity====Some postmodernists have found at least one ''sahih'' (authentic) hadith on hell unacceptable—the tradition of Muhammad stating, \"most people in hell are women\" has been explained as an attempt to \"legitimate social control over women\" (Smith and Haddad), or perpetuate \"the moral, social, political, sectarian hierarchies\" of medieval Islam (Lange).", "Amina Wadud notes that the Qur'an does not mention any specific gender when talking about hell, Q., for example, states that \"the guilty are immortal in hell's torment\"; and when discussing paradise, includes women, Q., for example, states that \"Beautiful of mankind is love of the joys (that come) from women and offspring...\"=== \"Limbo\" or ''al-aʿrāf'' in Islam ===In terms of classical Islam, \"the only options\" afforded by the Qur'an for the resurrected are an eternity of horrible punishments of The Fire or the delightful rewards of The Garden.", "Islamic tradition has raised the question of whether or not consignment to the Fire is eternal, or eternal for all, but \"has found no reason to amend\" the limit of two options in the afterlife.", "But one verse in the Quran has \"led to a great deal of speculation concerning the possibility of a third place\".", "There will be a barrier ''ḥijāb'' between paradise and hell.", "And on the heights ''al-aʿrāf'' of that barrier˺ will be people who will recognize ˹the residents of˺ both by their appearance.", "They will call out to the residents of paradise, \"Peace be upon you!\"", "They will have not yet entered paradise, but eagerly hope to (Q.).", "\"What some have called\" the \"Limbo\" Theory of Islam, as described by Jane Smith and Yvonne Haddad, implies that some individuals are not immediately sent to The Fire or The Garden, but are held in a state of limbo.", "Smith and Haddad believe it is \"very doubtful\" that the Qur'anic meant for ''al-aʿrāf'' to be understood as \"an abode for those ... in an intermediate category, but this has come to be the most commonlyheld interpretation\".As for who the inhabitants of the inhabits ''al-aʿrāf'' are, the \"majority of exegetes\" support the theory that they are persons whose actions balance in terms of merit and demerit – whose good deeds keep them from the Fire and whose evil deeds keep them from the Garden.", "They will be the last to enter the Garden, at the mercy of their Lord.=== The Current existence of the Afterlife ===Pomegranate flower and fruit, considered a fruit from paradise in Muslim tradition.", "Therefore, it is used as an ingredient in a dessert (Ashure) used to commemorate prophetic events.There was considerable debate regarding whether heaven and hell exists at the current moment.", "The Mu'tazila argued that since the Quran states that once the trumpet sounds, all except God will be destroyed, this would include the destruction of heaven and hell.", "However, the Ash'ariya argued that although the trumpet's sounding will precede all being destroyed, creation was a \"constant process\".", "Māturīdism also defends the idea that paradise and hell are coexisting with the temporal world.", "The attributes of paradise and hell would already take effect on this world (''dunya'').", "Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi (944–983) states that the purpose of simultaneous existence of both worlds is that they inspire hope and fear among humans.Evidence that Jannah and the Fire already exists is supported by a number of verses in the Quran.", "It is implied someone has gone to the Garden or the hell (3:169, 36:13-26, 66:10, 3:10-11, 6:93).", "In the Story of Adam and Eve, they once resided in Garden of Eden, which is often considered to be Jannah.", "This identification, however, is not universal.", "Al-Balluti (887 – 966) reasoned that the Garden of Eden lacked the perfection and eternal character of a final paradise: Adam and Eve lost the primordial paradise, while the paradisiacal afterlife lasts forever; if Adam and Eve were in the otherworldly paradise, the devil (''Shaiṭān'') could not have entered and deceive them, since there is no evil or idle talk in paradise; Adam slept in his garden, but there is no sleep in paradise.", "Besides the Quranic allusions, ''hadiths'' are taken into consideration to evaluate the afterlife's coexistence with the temporary world.", "Reports pertaining to the Night Journey (''Mi'raj'') state that Muhammad saw visions of both destinations and creatures inhabiting it.", "Thus, heaven and hell are usually regarded as coexisting with the current world.", "According to another common tradition, Muhammad is supposed to have taken a pomegranate from jannah, and shared it with Ali, as recorded by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi.", "However, some scholars, like Ghazali, reject that Muhammad grabbed the fruit, argued he had only a vision instead.=== The Concept of Eternity ===In Classical Islam, there was a consensus among the theological community regarding the finality of Jannah (also called Heaven, paradise, the Gardens); after Judgement Day, faithful servants of God would find themselves here for eternity.", "However, some practitioners in the early Muslim community held that the other abode of the hereafter (hell/Jahannam), or at least part of that abode, might not be eternal.", "This belief was based upon an interpretations of scripture that since the upper, less tortuous levels of hell were reserved for Muslims who were only in hell for as long as God deemed necessary.", "Once Muslims had their sins purged and were allowed into heaven, these levels would be empty and the need for their existence gone.", "These interpretations are centered on verses 11:106–107 in the Quran, stating, :\"As for those who are wretched, they shall be in the Fire, wherein there shall be for them groaning and wailing, abiding therein for so long as the heavens and the earth endure, save as thy Lord wills.", "Surely thy Lord does whatsoever He wills\".", "This possibility that God may yet commute a sentence to hell, interprets (parts of) hell as being similar in function to purgatory in Christianity, with the exception to this comparison being that hell in this context is for the punishment of the sinner's complete body, as opposed to only the soul being punished in purgatory.", "Arguments questioning the permanence of hell take the view that hell is not necessarily solely there to punish the evil, but to purify their souls, whereas the purpose of the Garden is simply to reward the righteous.Evidence against the concept of hell being in part temporary, is the Quran verse stating that hell will endure as long as Heaven will, which has been established as eternal.===Predestination===Orthodox Islam teaches the doctrine of ''Qadar'' (, aka Predestination, or divine destiny in Islam), whereby everything that has happened and will happen in the universe—including sinful human behavior—is commanded by God.", "At the same time, we human beings are responsible for our actions and rewarded or punished for them in the Afterlife.", "''Qadar''/predestination/divine destiny, is one of Sunni Islam's six articles of faith and is mentioned in the Quran.", "\"Nothing will ever befall us except what Allah has destined for us\" (Q.).", "\"Allah leaves whoever He wills to stray and guides whoever He wills.\"", "(Q.", ").Of course, the fate of human beings in the Afterlife is especially crucial.", "It is reflected in Quranic verses such as Had We willed, We could have easily imposed guidance on every soul.", "But My Word will come to pass: I will surely fill up Hell with jinn and humans all together.", "(Q.", ").Muhammad also talked about the doctrine of predestination multiple times during his mission.", "Thus the consensus of the Sunni Muslim community has been that scripture indicates predestination.", "Nonetheless, some Muslim theologians have argued against predestination, (including at least some Shia Muslims, whose article of faith includes ''Adalah'' (justice), but not ''Qadar''.", "At least some Shia – such as Naser Makarem Shirazi – denounce predestination).Opponents of predestination in early Islam, (''al-Qadariyah'', ''Muʿtazila'') argued that if God has already determined everything that will happen, God's human creation cannot really have free will over decisions to do good or evil, or control of whether they suffer eternal torment in Jahannam—which is something that (the opponents believe) a just God would never allow to happen.", "While ''Qadar'' is the consensus of Muslims, it is also an issue scholars discourage debate and discussion about.", "Hadith narrate Muhammad warning his followers to “refrain from speaking about ''qadar''”; and according to the creed of Al-Tahawi, \"the principle of providence\" is such a secret that God did not let even angels, prophets and messengers in on the mystery.=== Who will enter heaven or hell=== Scholars do not all agree on who will end up in Jannah and who in Jahannam, and the criteria for deciding.", "Issues include whether all Muslims, even those who've committed major sins, will end up in Jannah; whether any non-Muslims will be saved or all will go to Jahannam.", "According to the Quran, the basic criterion for salvation in the afterlife is the belief in the oneness of God (), angels, revealed books, messengers, as well as repentance to God, and doing good deeds (''amal salih'').", "This is qualified by the doctrine that ultimately salvation can only be attained through God's judgement.", "Muslim scholars mostly agree that ultimately all Muslims will be saved (though many may need to be purified by a spell in hellfire but disagree about the possibility for salvation of non-Muslims.The idea that jinn as well as humans could find salvation was widely accepted, Like humans, their destiny in the hereafter depends on whether they accept God's guidance.", "The surah Al-Jinn says::And among us are those who have submitted ˹to Allah˺ and those who are deviant.", "So ˹as for˺ those who submitted, it is they who have attained Right Guidance.", "And as for the deviant, they will be fuel for Hell.’” (Q.", ")Angels, who are not subject to desire and do not commit sin, are found in both paradise and the Fire – punishing sinners in hell, and praising and serving humans (and jinn) in paradise.====Scholars====Muslim scholars arguing in favor of non-Muslims' being able to enter paradise cite the verse: \"Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabians—those who believed in Allah and the Last Day and did righteousness—will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve,\" (Q.).", "Those arguing against non-Muslim salvation regard this verse to have applied only until the arrival of Muhammad, after which it was abrogated by another verse: \"And whoever desires other than Islam as religion—never will it be accepted from him, and he, in the Hereafter, will be among the losers.", "(Q.).", "Although the Quran acknowledges the Bible as gospel, rejecting Muhammad and his message is seen as a rejection of salvation by them.According to Mohammad Hassan Khalil, on the subject of whether self-proclaimed non-Muslims might be allowed into Jannah, Islamic theologians can be classified as 'Exclusivists' – who maintain that only Muslims will be saved and that adherents of all other beliefs will burn in hell.", "'Inclusivists' – who also affirm that Islam is the path to heaven, but that some others are actually on the same path (and will go to Jannah) though they call themselves non-Muslims and call their path by a different name.", "* 'Pluralists' – assert that there are several religious traditions or interpretations that are equally effective saving their adherents from damnation, regardless of the circumstances.", "* 'Universalists' – 'believe that all of hell's inhabitants will be admitted into heaven following a significant period of time' suffering in hell.", "(In addition there are those who could be described as 'interim inclusivists' or 'ultimate universalists'.", ")Based on these categories, four \"well-known and particularly influential Muslim thinkers\" can be sorted as: * al-Ghazālī – \"optimistic\" or \"liberal inclusivist\",* Ibn al-ʿArabī – \"liberal inclusivist\" to \"quasi-universalist\", * Ibn Taymiyya and * Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya – both universalists, (despite their status as \"darlings\" of \"many who call themselves Salafīs\"),* Rashīd Riḍā – was a lenient inclusivist to cautious universalist.", "* Ibn Hazm – \"proclaimed that even the most upright and flawless moral-ethical monotheist is damned to hell if he knows anything about a person named Muḥammad or a religion called Islam and does not join, while even the most brutal and immoral person who converts sincerely to Islam the moment before he dies, is saved\".", "Furthermore, \"any Muslim who does not agree is not a Muslim himself.", "\"==== Ash'arism ====Ashʿarism (/æʃəˈriː/; Arabic: أشعرية: al-ʾAshʿarīyah), one of the main Sunni schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Islamic scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in the 10th century, is known for an optimistic perspective on salvation for Muslims, repeatedly addressing God's mercy over God's wrath.", "However, according to Ash'arism, God is neither obligated to punish disobedience nor to reward obedience.Ash'aris hold revelation necessary to understand good and evil, as well as religious truths.", "Accordingly, revelation is necessary to reach moral and religious truths and thus, people who hear from a prophet or messenger are obligated to follow the revealed religion.", "However, those who have not received revelation are not obligated, and can hope for salvation.", ";Al-GhazaliAsh'arite scholar al-Ghazali divided non-Muslims into three categories for purposes of the Afterlife according to Mohammad Hassan Khalil:#Those who never heard the message of Islam, who live in far away lands, such as the Byzantines (\"Romans\").", "These will be forgiven.#Those who were only exposed to a distorted understanding of Islam and had no opportunity to hear the correct version.", "These too will be forgiven.#People who heard of Islam because they lived in neighboring lands and/or mixed with Muslims.", "These have no hope of salvation.Of these three, only the last group would be punished.Ghazali distinguished between the \"saved\" and \"those who will attain success\".", "Therefore, righteous non-Muslims will neither enter hell nor Jannah, but will stay in al-Araf (a realm between Jannah and Jahannam inhabited by those who are neither entirely evil nor entirely good).==== Maturidism ====Māturīdism (: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is also one of the main Sunni schools of Islamic theology developed and formalized by the Islamic scholar, Ḥanafī jurist Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī in the 10th century.", "Māturīdi scholars are thought to have been less optimistic about the chances of sinners entering paradise than Ash'aris, but more optimistic than Muʿtazila.", "They agree that Muslims who have committed grave sins will be punished but generally acknowledge that even these people will eventually enter paradise.", "Regarding the fate of non-Muslims, scholars have different opinions.", "Māturīdism holds people responsible for believing in a creator due to their intellectual capacities, even if they haven't heard about any prophetic mission.", "While some (like Rifat Atay) regard Māturīdism to be exclusivistic, only allowing people who are Muslims to enter paradise, others argue that Māturīdi understood that \"to believe in Islam\" meant having a subjective conceptualization of God and his laws by reason alone.", "This fits the doctrine, upheld by Māturīdism, that human reason suffices to grasp good and evil, and arrive at religious truths.", "Accordingly, people are judged by their degree of understanding God's universal law, not by their adherence to a particular belief system.", "In modern times, Yohei Matsuyama largely agrees with this interpretation.", "According to Abu'l-Qasim Ishaq, children cannot be considered unbelievers, thus all of them go to paradise.==== Muʿtazila ====Muʿtazila ( '''') emphasized God's justice, free will, and the responsibility of each human being for their actions.", "They have been called the \"best known exponents\" of ''Qadariyah'', the idea that human free will was necessary \"as a guarantee of divine justice\".", "Compared to Maturidi and Ashʿarī, Muʿtazila had the least amount of \"salvific optimism\".The \"divine threat\" (''al-wa'id'') and \"divine promise\" (''al wa'd'') became key tenets of the Mu'tazilites, who stressed that they applied to both Muslims and non-Muslims.", "This meant that those who committed grave or heinous sins (Kabirah), even Muslims, might denied entry to paradise forever.", "The only way for a grave sinner to be forgiven, many theologians believed, is by repentance (''tawba'').", "Mu'tazilites believed God's justice obligated Him to forgive those who had repented (other schools believed He was not so constrained).", "The Mu'tazilites stress on individual accountability meant a rejection of intercession (''Shafa'a'') on behalf of Muhammad.", "Another controversial belief of many (but not all) Mu'tazilites was that paradise and hell would be created only after Judgement Day.", "This meant rejection of the commonly accepted idea that paradise and hell coexist with the contemporary world.", "Their reasoning was that since God does everything for a purpose, and since paradise and hell are created to reward or punish people, they will only be created after judegement has been passed on people and they are assigned to these abodes.====Twelver Shia====Like most Sunni, Shia Islam hold that all Muslims will eventually go to Jannah.On the fate of non-Muslims in the hereafter, Shia Islam (or at least cleric Ayatullah Mahdi Hadavi Tehrani of Al-Islam.org), takes a view similar to Ash'arism.", "Tehrani divides non-Muslims into two groups: the heedless and stubborn who will go to hell and the ignorant who will not \"if they are truthful to their own religion\": #Those who are termed 'Jahil-e-Muqassir' (lit.", "'culpable ignorant' – ''jahil'' suggesting unbelief rather than literal ignorance).", "These are non-believers to whom the message of Islam has reached and who have understood its truthfulness.", "However, they are not prepared to accept the truth due to their obstinacy and stubbornness.", "This group deserves to be punished in hell.#Those who are termed 'Jahil-e-Qasir' (lit.", "'inculpable ignorant').", "These are non-believers to whom the message of Islam has not reached, or it has been presented to them in a very incomplete and untruthful manner.", "Such people will attain salvation if they are truthful to their own religion.", "(At least one Twelver Shia scholar 'Allama al-Hilli, insists that not only will non-Muslims be damned but suggests Sunni Muslim will be as well, as it is not possible for any Muslim to be ignorant of \"the imamate and of the Return\", and thus \"whoever is ignorant of any of them is outside the circle of believers and worthy of eternal punishment.\"", "This statement is not indicative of all Shia eschatological thought.", ")Also like mainstream schools, and unlike Muʿtazila, Twelver Shia hold that Jannah and hellfire \"exist at present ... according to the Qur`an and ahadith\".", "However, they will not \"become fully apparent and represented\" until Judgement Day.", "As for three other issues in Islamic eschatology: the differences between Adam and Eve's Garden of Eden, \"the heaven or hell of one's actions which envelopes a person\"; and the ''Barzakh'' state of \"purgatory\" in Islam after death and before Resurrection; in Shia Islam, these three \"types\" of jannah (or Jahannam) are \"all simply manifestations of the ultimate, eternal heaven and hell\".==== Contemporary debate of non-Muslim fate ====Modernist scholars Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida rejected the notion that the People of the Book would be excluded from Jannah, based on Q.", "(see above).", "The Fate of the unlearned is also a matter of dispute within Islamic theology.Turkish theologian Süleyman Ateş cites the Quran to argue that there are good and bad people in any religion, and that some Muslims may not enter paradise, but those who believe without doubt in the hereafter and a God without partners, and who do good and useful deeds may enter paradise, whatever their religions.On the other hand, those who argue that only Islam is the \"completed\" and \"perfected\", and that it is necessary to believe in the ''all'' teaching of God – the prophets, the angels etc.", "– insist that only Muslims can enter paradise.==== The fate of Jews ====While \"some traditional and contemporary commentators\" have interpreted the Quran as condemning all Jews, Farid Esack argues this condemnation is neither \"universal\" nor \"eternal\", and asks, 'if the Qur'an is to consign the Jews to eternal damnation, then what becomes of the sacred text as a means of guidance for all humankind?", "Would that vision too be damned?", "'An example of a line criticizing the Jews can be found in Surah 5: \"The Jews say, 'God's Hand is shackled.'", "Shackled are their hands, and they are cursed for what they say.", "Nay, but His two Hands are outstretched, He bestows as He wills.", "Surely that which has been sent down unto thee from thy Lord will increase many of them in rebellion and disbelief.", "And we cast enmity and hatred among them till the Day of Resurrection.", "As often they ignite a flame for war, God extinguishes it.", "They endeavor to work corruption upon the earth.", "And God loves not thee workers of corruption.\"", "(Q.", ")A Sahih hadith concerning Jews and one of the signs of the coming of Judgement Day has been quoted many times, (it became a part of the charter of Hamas).", "* The Day of Judgement will not come about until Muslims fight the Jews, when the Jew will hide behind stones and trees.", "The stones and trees will say O Muslims, O Abdullah, there is a Jew behind me, come and kill him.", "Only the Gharkad tree, (the Boxthorn tree) would not do that because it is one of the trees of the Jews.", "However, some scripture praises the dedication of Jews to monotheism, and this verse of the Qur'an in surah 3, can be interpreted as taking a more reconciliatory tone: \"They are not all alike.", "Among the People of the Book is an upright community who recite God's signs in the watches of the night, while they prostrate.", "They believe in God and the Last Day, enjoin right and forbid wrong, and hasten unto good deeds.", "And they are among the righteous.", "Whatsoever good they do, they will not be denied it.", "And God knows the reverent\".", "(Q.)", "After reconciling the different descriptions, one can conclude that the transgressions of the \"apes and pigs\" are not indicative of the entire community, and that while some Jews are on their way to damnation, others are not." ], [ "Islamic eschatology among Muslims in 20th and 21st centuries", "Prior to the 20th century, Islam had \"strongly emphasized the hereafter\" (''ākhira'').", "Desire to counter colonialism and \"achieve material and technological parity with the West\" turned modern thinkers to stress this world (''dunyā''), without suggesting ''ākhira'' was less important.", "The focus on end times/Eschatology in Islam has tended to occur among those less exposed to scholarly learning.", "In the 1980s however, it again became much more popular generally.", "Islamic leaders and scholars have always urged Muslim to be prepared for Judgement Day, but \"the particulars of the end of the world are not a mainstream concern in Islam,\" according to Graeme Wood.However, in 2012 poll conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 50% or more respondents in several Muslim-majority countries (Lebanon, Turkey, Malaysia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) expected the Mahdi (the final redeemer according to Islam) to return during their lifetime.", "The expectation is most common in Afghanistan (83%), followed by Iraq (72%), Turkey (68%), Tunisia (67%), Malaysia (62%), Pakistan (60%), Lebanon (56%), and Muslims in southern Thailand (57%).Stories of end times and doomsday tend to be passed on as bedtime stories or informal talk among the lay Muslims, rather than in the Imam's Friday ''khutbah''.", "\"Even Muslims with low levels of knowledge have heard parts of parts of it\", according to scholar Jean Pierre Filiu.", "In Islamic bookstores, their \"dramatic and sensational stories of final battles between good and evil, supernatural powers, the ultimate rise of a Muslim elite,\" are naturally more attention getting than more orthodox/studious works on prayer, purity or the lives of exemplary Muslims.", "More official Muslim sources have often either kept quiet about apocalyptic hadith or outright denied their existence—an example being Nihad Awad of the Council on American-Islamic Relations who stated \"There is no apocalyptic bloodbath in Islam.", "\"Popular Islamic pamphlets and tracts on the End Times have always been in circulation, but until around 2010 their \"impact on political and theological thinking was practically nil\" among Sunnis.", "Interest in the End Times is particularly strong among jihadis and \"since the mid-2000s, the apocalyptic currents in jihadism have surged.\"", "As of 2011, the belief that the end of the world is at hand and will be precipitated by an apocalyptic Great Battle has been noted as a \"fast-growing belief in Muslim countries\" though still a minority belief.", ";Shiʿi IslamAccording to J.-P. Filiu, the uprising of the (Shiʿi) Mahdi Army in Iraq and July 2006 war between Israel and (Shiʿi) Hizbullah are \"at least in part\" a consequence of \"mounting eschatological expectations\" coming from copious literature preaching that the return of the Hidden Imam was imminent; literature emanating from the Shiʿi seminaries and scholars of holy city of Najaf, Iraq, from Lebanon, and from Iran during the administration of its president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "One Shiʿi Ayatollah, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, revered as \"the fifth martyr\" of Shiʿi Islam (killed by Saddam Hussein), went to the trouble of trying to explain how the Hidden Imam could be over 1000 years old, and why the present is a propitious time for the reappearance of him.", "Muqtada al-Sadr's Mahdi army waged a violent struggle against the American military through 2004, and its ranks swelled with thousands of recruits.", "Muqtada's political faction won seats in parliament.", "During Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's presidency (2005-2013), he shared with Iranians his \"avowed conviction\" that believers must actively work for the Mahdi's reappearance, despite this bringing him \"into conflict with the highest authorities of Shiism\".", "===Popular apocalyptic literature===\"Dramatic and sensational stories\" of the apocalypse first made an impact in the mid-1980s when Said Ayyub's ''Al-Masīh al-Dajjāl'' (The AntiChrist) started a whole new genre of Islamic \"apocalyptic fiction\" or \"millenarian speculation\" throughout the Arab world.", "The book was so successful Ayyub went on to write a half-dozen other spinoff books, inspired imitators who enjoyed even greater success (Muhammad Izzat Arif, Muhammad Isa Dawud, and Mansur AbdelHakim).The book (and the genre) was noteworthy for rupturing the \"organic link between Islamic tradition and the last days of the world\", using Western sources (such as Gustave Le Bon and William Guy Carr) that previously would have been ignored; and lack of Sahih Bukhari (i.e.", "top quality) hadith (he does quote Ibn Kathir and some hadith \"repeated at second hand\"); and for an obsessively anti-Jewish point of view (\"in all great transformations of thought, there is a Jewish factor, avowed and plain, or else hidden and secret\", \"the Jews are planning the Third World War in order to eliminate the Islamic world and all opposition to Israel\", and cover art featuring a grotesque cartoon figure with a Star of David and large hooked nose).Unlike traditional popular works of Islamic eschatology that kept close to scripture and classical manuals of eschatology in describing ''al-Dajjāl'', Said Ayyub portrayed the Dajjāl as 1) the true Jewish messiah, that Jews had been waiting for, 2) a figure who will appear or reappear not only in end times, but one who has been working throughout the history of humanity to create havoc with such diabolical success that human history is really \"only a succession of nefarious maneuvers\" by him.", "Intermediaries of al-dajjal (according to Ayyub) include St. Paul the Apostle, who (Ayyub maintains) created Christianity by distorting the true story of Jesus, the Emperor Constantine who made possible \"the Crusader state in service to the Jews\", the Freemasons, Napoleon, the United States of America, Communists, Israel, etc.", "He concludes that the dajjal is hiding in Palestine (but will also \"appear in Khurasan as the head of an expansionist state\") and the Great Battle between Muslims and his forces will be World War III fought in the Middle East.Later books, ''The Hidden Link between the AntiChrist, the Secrets of the Bermuda Triangle, and Flying Saucers'' (1994), by Muhammad Isa Dawud, for example, move even farther away from traditional themes, disclosing that the Anti-Christ journeyed from the Middle East to the archipelago of Bermuda in the 8th century CE to make it his home base and from whence he fomented the French Revolution and other mischief, and now sends flying saucers to patrol Egypt and prepare for his eventual triumphal return to Jerusalem.The success of the genre provoked a \"counteroffensive\" by pious conservatives (Abdellatif Ashur, Muhammad Bayyumi Magdi, and Muhammad Shahawi) disturbed by the liberties Said Ayyub and others had taken with Islamic doctrine.===Jihadist references===In the early 1980s, when Abdullah Azzam, called on Muslims around the world to join the jihad in Afghanistan, he considered the fight \"to be a sign that the end times were imminent\".", "Also around that time, popular Islamic writers, such as Said Ayyub, started blaming Islamic decline in the face of the Western world, not on lack of technology and development, but on the forces of the Dajjal.Al-Qaeda used \"apocalyptic predictions in both its internal and external messaging\" according to Jessica Stern, and its use of \"the name Khorasan, a region that includes part of Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan, and from which, it is prophesied, the Mahdi will emerge alongside an army bearing black flags\", was thought to be a symbol of end times.", "But these claims were \"mostly symbolic\", and according to Wood, Bin Laden \"rarely mentioned\" the Apocalypse and when he did, \"he implied he would be long dead when it arrived\" (a reflection of his more \"elite\" background according to Will McCants).", "According to J.-P. Filiu, out of the mass of Al-Qaeda documents seized after the fall of the Taliban, only one letter made any reference to the apocalypse.A prominent jihadist, Abu Musʿab al-Sūri, (called a \"sophisticated strategist\" and \"articulate exponent of the modern jihad\"), somewhat independent and critical of Al-Qaeda, was also much more interested in end times.", "He wrote, \"I have no doubt that we have entered into the age of battles and tribulations ''zāman al-malāhim wal-fitan''\" He devoted the last 100 pages of his magnum opus on jihad (''A Call to Global Islamic Resistance'', made available online around 2005) to matters such as the proper chronology and location of related battles and other activities of the Mahdi, the Antichrist, the mountain of gold to be found in the Euphrates river, the Sufyani, Gog and Magog, etc.Abu Musʿab al Zarqawi, the founder of what would become the Islamic State \"injected\" the apocalyptic message into jihad.", "ISIS has evoked \"the apocalyptic tradition much more explicitly\" than earlier jihadis.", "Dabiq, Syria – a town understood \"in some versions\" of the eschatological \"narrative to be a possible location for the final apocalyptic battle\" – was captured by ISIS and made its capital.", "ISIS also declared its \"intent to conquer Constantinople\" – Muslims conquering Constantinople being another end times prophesy.", "Interviews by the ''New York Times'', and Jurgen Todenhöfer with many dozens of Muslims who had traveled to fight with Islamic State, and by Graeme Wood with Islamic State supporters elsewhere, found \"messianic expectation\" a strong motivator to join Islamic State.", ";Shiʿi IslamWhile Al-Qaeda and Islamic State are Sunni, Shia insurgents/militants have also been \"drawn to the battlefield\" by \"apocalyptic belief\", according to William McCants, who quotes a Shia fighter in Iraq saying, “'I was waiting for the day when I will fight in Syria.", "Thank God he chose me to be one of the Imam's soldiers.", "'” Some dissident Shiʿa in Iraq, oppose not only Sunni, US and Iraqi government forces, but the Shiʿi religious hierarchy as well.", "In Najaf, in late January 2007, at least 200 were killed in the Battle of Najaf, when several hundred members of an armed Iraqi Shi'a messianic sect known as the Soldiers of Heaven or ''Jund As-Samāʾ''(), allegedly attempted to start a \"messianic insurrection\" during the holy day of Ashura in the holy city of Najaf; planning to disguise themselves as pilgrims and kill leading Shi'a clerics.", "The group allegedly believed that spreading chaos would hasten the return of the 12th Imam/Mahdi, or alternately, that their leader, Dia Abdul Zahra Kadim, was the awaited Mahdi.", "The next year during Ashura a reported 18 officers and 53 militia members were killed in clashes between \"millenarian rebels\" and police, the violence blamed on followers of one Ahmad al-Hassan, a man claiming the Hidden Iman had designated him as his (the Hidden Imam's) representative (''wassi''), and who accused Ayatollahs/Shia clerics of being guilty of \"aberration and treason, of occupation and tyranny\".===Islamic State claims of prophecy fulfilment===Jihadis of the Islamic State see the fulfillment of many of the \"lesser signs\" of the coming of Judgement Day in current events.", "Its generally agreed that Israel Arab wars have been wars between Muslims and Jews (which were prophesied), and that moral standards have declined leading to rampant fornication, alcohol consumption, and music listening.", "\"A slave giving birth to her master\" can happen when the child of a slave woman and the slave's owner inherits the slave after the owner's death—slavery being practiced in the Islamic State (until its defeat).", "An embargo of Iraq is alleged to be foretold in the hadith \"Iraq would withhold its dirhams and qafiz\".", "That Muslim states are being led by those who do not deserve to lead them, is an article of faith among jihadis and many other Muslims.", "ISIS alleges that worship of the pre-Islamic deity ''al-Lat'' is being practiced by its Shia enemy Hezbollah.", "The naked shepherds who will build tall buildings is interpreted to refer to Gulf State builders of skyscrapers are \"only a generation or two out of desert poverty\".But the Islamic State is also attempting to fulfill prophecies itself to hasten end times.Zarqawi published \"communiqués detailing the fulfillment of specific predictions\" found in a famous book on jihad and end times called, ''A Call to a Global Islamic Resistance'' by Abu Musab al Suri.", "His successor, Al-Baghdadi, took \"the fulfillment of apocalyptic portents even more seriously\".", "According to Hassan Abbas, at least part of ISIS's motivation in killing and otherwise provoking Shia is to \"deliberately ... instigate a war between Sunnis and Shi'a, in the belief that a sectarian war would be a sign that the final times has arrived\"; and also explains the ISIS Siege of Kobanî: \"In the eschatological literature, there is reference to crisis in Syria and massacre of Kurds—this is why Kobane is important.", "\"(The town of 45,000 was under siege by ISIS from September 2014 to January 2015.", ")Thus, \"ISIS's obsession with the end of the world\" helps explain its lack of interest in the \"ordinary moral rules\" of the temporal world, according to Jessica Stern.If you are \"participating in a cosmic war between good and evil\", (and if everyone will be dead and then resurrected relatively soon anyway), pedestrian concerns about saving the lives of the innocent are of little concern." ], [ "Questions and criticism", "Among the problems critics see with some of the concepts of, and attention given to, the eschatology of Islam, are its effect on the socio-economic health of the Muslim world, the basis of the scripture (particularly the hadith) dealing with end times, and the rational implausibility of some of the theological concepts such as resurrection of the dead.Mustafa Akyol criticizes the current focus of the Muslim community on apocalypticism and the use of the forces of the Dajjal to explain stagnation in the Muslim world in the past two centuries vis-à-vis the West (and now East Asia).", "He argues that if supernatural evil is believed to be the cause of the problems of Muslims, then practical solutions such as \"science, economic development and liberal democracy\" will be ignored in favor of divine intervention.", "(On the other hand, a sahih hadith reports Muhammad saying that \"If the Final Hour comes while you have a shoot of a plant in your hands and it is possible to plant it before the Hour comes, you should plant it.\")", "Western scholars (William McCants, Jane Smith, Yvonne Haddad, Jean-Pierre Filiu) agree that the apocalyptic narratives are strongly connected to the early jihad wars against the Byzantine Empire and civil wars against other Muslims.", "McCants, writes that the ''fitan'' (\"tribulations\") of the minor and lesser signs come from the ''fitan'' of the early Islamic civil wars (First Fitna (656–661 CE), Second Fitna (c. 680/683–c.", "685/692 CE), Third Fitna (744–750/752 CE)), where Muhammad's companions (Sahabah) and successor generations (Tabi'un and Taba Tabi'in) fought each other for political supremacy.", "\"Before and after each tribulation, partisans on both sides circulated prophecies in the name of the Prophet to support their champion.", "With time, the context was forgotten but the prophecies remained.\"", "Smith and Haddad also write that \"the political implications of the whole millennial idea in Islam, especially as related to the understanding of the ''mahdi'' and the rise of the 'Abbasids in the second Islamic century, are very difficult to separate from the eschatological ones.\"", "They also argue that it's \"difficult to determine whether\" Muḥammad \"actually anticipated the arrival\" the ''Mahdi'' as \"an eschatological figure\" – despite the fact that \"most of the traditions about the ''Mahdi'' are credited to Muḥammad.\"", "Filiu has also stated that \"the apocalyptic narrative was decisively influenced by the conflicts that filled Islam's early years, campaigns and jihad against the Byzantine Empire and recurrent civil wars among Muslims.\"", "Consequently, the reliability of hadith on end times has been questioned.Skepticism of the concept of the resurrection of the dead has been part of both \"the compatriots\" of Muhammad and the \"rational and scientifically-infused\" inhabitants of the contemporary world.The fact of the resurrection of the body has been of continuing importance to Muslims and has raised very particular questions in certain circles of Islamic thought, such as those reflected in the later disputations between philosophy and theology.", "It was not really a point of issue for early Islam, however, and bodily resurrection has never been seriously denied by orthodoxy.", "It is, as many have observed, basic to the message of God as proclaimed by the Prophet and articulated clearly by the Qur'an, especially in those passages in which the contemporaries of the Prophet are presented as having scoffed or raised doubts.", "It continues to be, ... a point of conviction for many of the contemporary interpreters of Islam to a world in which a rational and scientifically-infused populace continues to raise the same eyebrows of skepticism as did the compatriots of the Prophet.Early skeptics being quoted in the Quran as saying: \"Are we to be returned to our former state when we have become decayed bones?", "They say, that would be a detrimental return!\"", "(Q79: 10–12)." ], [ "Visitation of tombs", "Death is also seen as a homecoming.", "When people visit tombs, they are having a specific spiritual routine.", "The correct way to visit someone's tomb is to recite parts of the Quran and pray for the deceased." ], [ "Literature on Islamic eschatology", "The writings of five medieval Sunni scholars on Islamic eschatology stand out for their \"depth and originality\", according to Jean-Pierre Filiu.", "Taking a work by each of them on the subject of the signs of end times, (or that includes the subject of the signs of end times), Filiu points out their characteristics, differences, and influences (where the Mahdi will first appear, where Jesus will descend to, how many human and angel warriors will fight with the Mahdi, etc.).", " Ibn Arabi (1165–1240 CE), ''Al-futūhāt al-makkiyya'' (Meccan Illuminations); Among other things, Ibn Arabi wrote that \"70,000 Muslim, all descended from Isaac\" would follow the Mahdi and chanting \"Allahu Akbar!", "\", and crumble the ramparts of Constantinople; The Great Battle would take place on the plain of Acre.", "* Al-Qurtubi (1214-1273 CE), ''Al-tadhkira fī ahwāl al-mawtā wa umūr al-ahkīra'' (Remembrance of the Affairs of the Dead and Matters of the Hereafter); Known for his opposition to both partisanship in Islam and the Umayyad dynasty, Al-Qurtubi prophesied the Mahdi would emerge in Morocco and preach there for ten years before rescuing the Muslims of Spain and moving on to conquer the Byzantines.", "* Ibn Kathir (c. 1300–1373 CE), ''Ashrāt al-sāʿat'' (Signs of the Hour); Popular among the ulama and common people of Syria for his preaching of strictness, Ibn Kathir had a highly developed vision of the signs of the Last Hour.", "The Mahdi was distinct from the Shia Hidden Imam; there would be great battles between Muslims and Byzantines, and then with the forces of the Dajjal.", "* Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), ''Kitāb al-ʿibar'' (Book of Examples); Despite his association with modernism, Ibn Khaldun thought none of what was mentioned in the Quran of \"the hour\" and its signs was \"subject to the least ambiguity\"; he endorsed apocalyptic hadith in the collections of Bukhari and Muslim (but not other collections), as well as the \"classical scenario\" of end times.", "* Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (1446-1505), fatwa on \"the descent of Jesus, son of Mary at the end times\" from ''Al-hāwī lil-fatāwī''.", "Al-Suyuti preached against the millenarian claim that the earth would end in 1000 A.H. (1591 C.E.", "), believing Judgement Day would come in 1500 A.H. (2076 C.E.).", "Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288 CE), ''Theologus Autodidactus'' (circa CE 1270).", "In the form of a theological fiction novel, he wrote on Islamic eschatology where he used reason, science, and early Islamic philosophy to explain how he believed al-Qiyamah would unfold.===Contemporary literature===Imran Nazar Hosein (b.1942 CE) wrote numerous books that deal with Islamic eschatology (''Ilmu Ākhir al-Zamān'' – Knowledge of the later days), among which the most famous is ''Jerusalem in the Qur'an''.", "Said Ayyub's ''Al-Masīh al-Dajjāl'' (often translated as The AntiChrist) came out in August 1986, (see above) was enormously popular and started a new genre of Islamic \"apocalyptic fiction\" that added western themes such as flying saucers, the Bermuda Triangle and European Antisemitism to traditional Islamic eschatology.", "AbuBilaal Yakub published his ''The One-Eyed Impostor:Messiah and False Messiah,'' in addition to an earlier publication ''The Three Questions.''", "His Islamic High Fantasy works beginning with ''The Amulets of Sihr'' incorporates apocalyptic themes." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " \"''Fath al-Bari''\" (from ''Sahih al-Bukhari'' by ibn Hajar al-Asqalani).", "* Esposito, John, ''The Oxford Dictionary of Islam'', Oxford University Press, 2003, .", "* Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'', MacMillan Reference Books, 2003, .", "* Lawson, Todd (1999). ''", "Duality, Opposition and Typology in the Qur'an: The Apocalyptic Substrate''.", "Journal of Quranic Studies.", "10: 23–49." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Iblis" ], [ "Introduction", "The Angels meet Adam, the prototypical human being.", "They share, albeit to a lesser degree, the defiant reaction of Iblis, who haughtily turns his head away.", "Painting from a manuscript of the Manṭiq al-ṭayr (The Conference of the Birds) of Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār.", "Iran, Shiraz, 899/1494.", "'''Iblis''' (), alternatively known as '''Eblīs''', is the leader of the devils () in Islam.", "According to the Quran, Iblis was thrown out of heaven, after he refused to prostrate himself before Adam.", "Regarding the origin and nature of Iblis, there are two different viewpoints.In the first version, before Iblis was cast down from heaven, he used to be a leading angel called ''ʿAzāzīl'', appointed by God to obliterate the preceding inhabitants of the Earth (usually jinn), who became disobedient and destructive, to replace them with humans.", "After Iblis objected to God's decision to create Adam as a successor to the previous generation of sentient life, he was punished by being relegated and cast down to Earth as a (devil).", "In the alternative account, Iblis has not been an angel but the ancestor of the jinn.", "Created from the fires beneath the seventh earth, he worshipped God for thousands of years, until he was elevated to the company of angels in the seventh heaven.", "In this account, Iblis, being a jinn, refused to obey when Adam was created, leading to his downfall.In the Islamic tradition, Iblis is often identified with (\"the Devil\"), often known by the epithet ().", "is usually applied to Iblis in order to denote his role as the tempter, while is his proper name.", "Some Muslim scholars uphold a more ambivalent role for Iblis, considering him not simply the Devil but \"the truest monotheist\" (''Tawḥīd-i Iblīs''), because he would worship only the Creator, and not his creations, while preserving the term exclusively for evil forces." ], [ "Naming and etymology", "In Islamic traditions, ''Iblīs'' is known by many alternative names or titles, such as ''Abū Murrah'' (Arabic: أَبُو مُرَّة, \"Father of Bitterness\") as the name stems from the word \"''murr\"'' – meaning \"bitter\", ‘''aduww Allāh'' or ‘''aduwallah'' (Arabic: عُدُوّ الله, \"enemy or foe\" of God) and ''Abū Al-Harith'' (Arabic: أَبُو الْحَارِث, \"the father of the plowmen\").", "He is also known by the nickname \"''Abū Kardūs''\" (Arabic: أَبُو كَرْدُوس), which may mean \"Father who piles up, crams or crowds together\".The designation ''Iblīs'' () may be an epithet referencing an attribute, deriving from the Arabic verbal root (with the broad meaning of \"remain in grief\") or ''('', \"he despaired\").", "This is the major opinion among Arab scholars, who maintain the tradition that the personal name of this being was ''ʿAzāzīl''.Some Muslim teachers, such as al-Jili, relate this name to ''talbis'' meaning confusion, because God's command confused him.", "Another possibility is that it is derived from Ancient Greek ''()'' (which is also the source of the English word 'devil') via a Syriac intermediary.", "The name itself could not be found before the Quran in Arab literature, suggesting it is not of pre-Islamic Arabian origin.", "The name could be found in the ''Kitab al Magall'', a Christian apocryphal work written in Arabic." ], [ "''Kalām''", "=== Quran ===Iblis is mentioned 11 times in the Quran by name, nine times related to his refusal against God's Command to prostrate himself before Adam.", "The term ''šayṭān'' is more prevalent, although Iblis is sometimes referred to as ''šayṭān''; the terms are not interchangeable.", "The different fragments of Iblis's story are scattered across the Quran.", "In the aggregate, the story can be summarised as follows:When God created Adam, He ordered the angels to bow before the new creation.", "All of the angels bowed down, but Iblis refused to do so.", "He argued that since he was created from fire, he is superior to humans, who were made from clay-mud, and that he should not prostrate himself before Adam.", "As punishment for his haughtiness, God banished Iblis from heaven and condemned him to hell.", "Later, Iblis requested the ability to try to mislead Adam and his descendants.", "God granted his request but also warned him that he would have no power over God's servants.Surah al-Kahf states in reference to Iblis: (...) except Iblis, he was one of the ''jinni'' (...) (Arabic: إِلَّاۤ إِبۡلِیسَ كَانَ مِنَ ٱلۡجِنِّ \"illā iblīsa kāna mina l-jinni\") (18:50)This led to a dispute among the ''mufassirūn'' (exegetes), who disagree on whether Iblis belongs to a group of angels called ''jinni'' due to their origin from ''paradise'', or if he was distinct from the angels, the progenitor of the jinn.", "This dispute goes back to the formative stage of Islam.", "These two conflicting opinions are based on the interpretations of ibn Abbas and Hasan al-Basri respectively.", "Muslim scholars then followed one of these two interpretations.Those scholars who agree on an angelic nature of Iblis, regard further verses of the Quran as allusions to Iblis.", "Surah 21:29 (''al-’anbiyā)'' states: Whoever of them were to say, “I am a god besides Him,” they would be rewarded with Hell by Us (...)According to multiple scholars (Tabari, Suyuti, al-Nasafi, al-Māturīdī, al-Samarqandī, etc.", "), this verse was meant to be a revelation about Iblis since only he was claiming divine authority for himself, and does so by inviting to follow egoistic desires (''nafs'').", "The term ''sijjin'', mentioned in Surah 83:7, is regarded by several scholars (Tabari, Tha'labi, Nasafi etc.)", "as a prison in hell for Iblis.", "From this place, he would send his demons to the surface.=== Affiliation ===Annals of al-Tabari'' showing Iblis refusing to prostrate before the newly created Adam.", "\|250x250px\|Painting from a Herat manuscript of the Persian rendition by Bal'ami of the Annals/Tarikh (universal chronicle) of al-Tabari, depicting angels honoring Adam, except Iblis, who refuses.", "Held at the Topkapi Palace Museum Library.There are different opinions regarding the origin of Iblis.", "This dispute is closely related to doctrinal differences regarding free-will.", "Like humans, jinn are created on earth to \"worship\" ('''abada'') God (51:56), and are capable of righteous and evil acts (11:119).", "If angels can sin or not is disputed in Islam.", "Those who say that Iblis was not an angel, but a jinni, argue that only jinn (and humans), but not angels are capable of disobedience.", "This is the generally opinion among the Qadariyah and most Mu'tazilites.", "This view is also found to be prominent among many Salafis.On the other hand, the term for celestial beings is usually ''malāk'' (angel) in early Islam.", "Tabarsi notes that if Iblis were a jinni, he couldn't have been one of the custodians of paradise.", "Many among those who say that Iblis was an angel read Surah 18:50 as a ''nisba'' for the term ''jannāt'', thus referring to Iblis' heavenly origin (this reading is preferred by – among others – Ash'ari, Suyuti, and Al-Tha`labi).", "Most ''mutakallimūn'' (theologians) do not consider angels to be infallable, al-Razi being an exception.Nontheless, if faith (''ʾīmān'') in God is proportional to obedience and knowledge of God, theologians still need to explain the cause for Iblis' fall.", "The Hanābila and Ash'arites would argue that Iblis was ignorant (''jahl'') and didn't understand God's will (''irāda'').", "However, Iblis' unbelief (''kufr'') would be ultimately caused by God.", "Al-Maghrībī states that, when the angels questioned the creation of Adam, God opened the angels' eyes for the characteristics of Adam, but closed the eyes' of Iblis, so he would remain in resistance (''iḥtijāj'').", "Therefore, Iblis would have been created as a disobedient angel and function as God's tempter.The eponymous founder of Māturīdī theology al-Māturīdī, considers some sort of middle ground, arguing that angels have been put to a test in the heavens, just as humans and jinn are tested on earth.", "If they were not tested, the Quran wouldn't compliment angels for obedience.=== Function ===Depiction of Iblis in the epic poem ''Shahnameh''Within Muslim thought, Iblis is generally not considered to be the originator of evil.", "However, there are a few exceptions among Muslim scholars.", "The ''Qadariyya'' asserted that evil was introduced by disobedience to God, and Iblis was the first who disobeyed.", "This view is sometimes attributed to Hasan al-Basri.", "An extreme position among the ''Qadariyya'' asserts that Iblis was not even created by God, but this view is generally rejected as beliefs of the Manichaeans (''majūs'').", "Al-Māturīdī argued that such dualistic worldviews are irreconcilable with the Islamic doctrine of ''tawḥīd''.", "Likewise, the jinn would have sinned prior to Iblis.Iblis' disobedience is seen as an example and warning for the ''thaqalān'' (those who are accountable for their deeds).", "Those who say that Iblis was predestined to fall, say that he was created in such a way that God can demonstrate his entire spectrum of attributes (for example; ''jalal'' (majesty)) in his eternal speech (i.e.", "the Quran), and teaching the consequences of sin.", "Three things to avoid are marked by the fall of Iblis: Transgression (''ma'siyah''), arrogance (''istikbār''), and comparison (''qiyās'') to another creature of God.", "Disobedience alone is not considered to be the cause of Iblis' damnation, but the reason behind his action and the implied underlying unbelief.", "Although not the cause of evil, Iblis is known as the progenitor of tempters, known as the \"father of the devils\" (''Abū ash-Shayāṭīn'').", "''Ḥādīth'' literature emphasizes their evil influences over humans rather than treating them as proper personalities.", "Muslims are advised to \"seek refuge\" from such influences and are recommanded to recite ''duʿāʾ'' (prayers) for protection." ], [ "''Tawḥīd-i Iblīs''", "Adam honoured by Angels – Persian miniature.", "Iblis, black-faced and without hair (top-right of the picture).", "He refuses to prostrate himself with the other Angels.The predestinarians approach was attractive for many Muslim thinkers to avoid dualistic tendencies.", "Some extreme positions went as far as to consider the belief that evil derives from an individual's own responsibility without God's interference, as a form of attributing a second power to God, thus falling into ''širk'' (polytheism).", "From this idea of absolute predeterminism, some scholars and ṣūfis developed sympathy for Iblis.", "They began to consider Iblis to be a \"true monotheist\" only bested by Muhammed, who would accept punishment and suffering over bowing before something else but God, an idea later known as \"Satan's monotheism\" (''tawḥīd-i Iblīs'').This idea is reflected in a transmission by Wahb ibn Munabbih, an eminent teller of ''Israʼiliyyat'', stating that Iblis met Moses on the slopes of Sinai.", "When Moses asks Iblis why he refused God's order, he replies that the command was actually a test.", "This story inspired people, such as Mansur al-Hallaj and Ahmad Ghazali.", "The latter depicted Iblis as a paragon of self-sacrifice and stated at some point: \"Whoever doesn't learn monotheism from Satan is a heretic (''zindīq '').\"", "His student, Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir, asserted that Iblis' disobedience was wanted by God, or God would be powerless and a powerless being can't be attributed to God.Such positive depictions are, however, by no means universal among the predestinarians.", "Ibn Ghanim refers to the report of the meeting between Iblis and Moses, and argues that Iblis is just using predeterminism as an excuse to cover his unbelief and use a subtle deception by evoking sympathies.", "Ruzbihan Baqli calls Iblis' apology a form of deception.", "Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (1207–1273) argues that it is pointless to use predeterminism as an excuse for one's own demise.", "He invokes the analogy between Adam and Iblis: While both were destined to fall, Iblis and his offspring blamed God, while Adam pleaded for forgiveness nontheless.", "He advises humans to do the same.", "In this context, Rumi declares that love is more important than intelligence and states: \"(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam.", "\"In his ''Masnavi'' (Book 2), he refers to several attempts to excuse Iblis, when he wakens Mu'awiya for the morning prayer (''ṣalāt al-fajr'').", "Mu'awiya is sceptical towards Iblis' alleged good intentions, so he begins to question him.", "Iblis argues that an original angel, who was predestined to fall, could never be truly evil.", "Mu'awiya realizes he cannot outsmart Iblis and seeks refuge in God instead.", "When Iblis sees that he can't win Mu'awiya over, he confesses that he never had good intentions in the first place and used these arguements just to trick people.", "Instead, he woke him up because missing a prayer and consequent repentance (''tawbah''), would bring him closer to God than performing the prayer.", "Rumi makes clear that there is no reason to have sympathies for the fallen angel, as he is still the enemy of humans." ], [ "''Haggāḏic'' exegesis", "The term ''haggadic'' is used for Quranic exegesis (''tafsīr'') by Muslims focusing on establishing a coherent story from material of Islamic scripture (Quran, ''ḥadīṯ'', etc.", "), often by ''qussās'' (narrators).", "In Islamic terminology, they are called ''qiṣaṣ''.", "In reference to the interpretation of the events in Surah 2:30-34, when the angels complain over mankinds' potential to shed blood and cause injustice, Islamic haggadic traditions elaborate a legendary battle between the angels and jinn.", "Tabari and al-Thaʿlabi explain that the angels feared that humanity will become as corrupt as the jinn.", "Before Adam was created, the jinn, offspring of ''al-Jānn'' (الجان), lived on earth.", "When they became infidels, God sent an army of angels called \"al-Jinn\" (named after paradise, not the genus) to defeat them.", "They explain that most angels were created from light, but Iblis and his angels from ''nār as-samūm'', and the genus of jinn from ''mārijin min nār'' (smokeless fire).", "Some later traditions place Iblis among the genus of the jinn instead.", "In one narration of the ''Tarikh Khamis'', among the masses of infidel jinn only Iblis dedicated his life to worship of God, withdrawing to a high mountain.", "The angels soon notice him and elavate him to the heavens, where he becomes one like them in worship.With reference to Surah 76:1, Islamic haggadic tradition considers Adam to be created step by step, beginning as an inanimate body.", "The story is mentioned by various scholars of the Sunni tradition, including Muqatil, Tabari, Mas'udi, Kisa'i, and Tha'labi.", "The angels passing by him were scared.", "Most afraid was Iblis.", "To overcome his anxiety, he enters Adam and moves through the body.", "He concludes that \"this is hollow clay\", whereas he is \"fire\".", "Since fire overcomes clay, he owes to destroy Adam like fire destroys clay: \"You are nothing - because of his ringing - and you were made for nothing!", "If I am to rule over you, I will kill you, and if you are to rule over me, I will rebel against you.", "\"Some scholars (among them Thala'bi, Tabarsi, Diyarbakri) explain, with slightly variations, Iblis' entry to the Garden of Eden by the aid of a serpent and a peacock.", "Some traditions have the Garden of Eden being warded by an angelic guardian.", "Thus, Iblis persuades a peacock to get help, by promising him that, if he enters the Garden, the beauty of the peacock will never decay thanks to the fruit of immortality.", "The peacock, unable to carry Iblis, persuades the serpent, who decides to slip Iblis by carrying him in his mouth.", "From the mouth of the serpent, Iblis speaks to Adam and Ḥawwāʾ." ], [ "In culture", "=== In arts ===Another painting of angels prostrating before Adam with Iblis refusing, here depicted with a headcoverPortrayal of Islamic devils in the form of wild monsters.", "Siyah Qalem - Hazine 2153, s.31bIblis is perhaps one of the most well-known individual supernatural entities in Islamic tradition and was depicted in multiple visual representations like the Quran and Manuscripts of Bal‘ami’s ‘Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari.", "Iblis was a unique individual, described as both a pious jinni and an angel before he fell from God's grace when he refused to bow before the prophet Adam.", "After this incident, Iblis turned into a ''shaytan''.", "In visual appearance, Iblis' depiction was described in ''On the Monstrous in the Islamic Visual Tradition'' by Francesca Leoni as a being with a human-like body with flaming eyes, a tail, claws, and large horns on a grossly disproportionate large head.Illustrations of Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced, a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature.", "Another common depiction of Iblis shows him in human form wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban and long sleeves, signifying long lasting devotion to God.", "Only in one, he wears traditional Islamic head covering.Most pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam.", "In the manuscripts of Bal‘ami’s ‘Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil.", "In his demonic form, Iblis is portrayed similar to his cohorts (''shayatin'') in Turko-Persian art as Asian demons (''div'').", "They are bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by a short skirt.", "Similar to European arts depicting devils by traits of pagan deities, Islamic arts portray the devils with features often similar to that of Hindu deities.=== In literature ===The complexity of Iblis' character from the Quranic story had long lasting influences on Islamic cultural literature.", "It elaborates on the necessity of evil and Iblis' disobedience in creative retelling of the exegetical tradition.Iblis and the angels feature in Hafez's poetry (1325–1390), collected in ''The Divān of Hafez''.", "Hafez iterates that angels are incapable of love.", "They can merely praise the creator but without the passion of a human-being.", "When Iblis protests, either because he considers Adam's offspring unworthy or himself devoted to God alone, he is described as an imposter (''mudda'ī'').", "He claims to act for the sake of God's love, but is actually envious of mankinds' exalted position.", "Hafez advises his audience not to reveal the secrets of love towards God to the imposter.", "''Vathek'', first composed in French (1782) by the English novelist William Beckford, in which the protagonists travel through, what he conceives as the supernatural world of the Orient.", "In their travels, they meet jinn, angels, peri, and prophets.", "The underworld is the domain of Iblis, however, they meet him only in person at the end of the journey.", "Although there are similarities to Dante's Satan in the ''Halls of Iblis'', Beckford's Satan, clearly inspired by the figure of Iblis, is that of a young man with mixed traits of pride and despair, and not that of a monstrous being.In Muhammad Iqbal's poetry, Iblis is critical about overstressed obedience, which caused his downfall.", "But Iblis is not happy about humanity's obedience towards himself either; rather he longs for humans who resist him.", "Before a human who resisted him, he would be willing to prostrate himself, and he could finally achieve salvation.Egyptian novelist Tawfiq al-Hakim's ''ash-Shahid'' (1953) describes the necessity of Iblis' evil for the world.", "As a reference to Iblis' predetermined fall, his protagonist Iblis consulsts religious authorities to embrace salvation, but is rejected each time, because the world would require him to be sinful.", "He consults the Pope, the Rabbi, and the Al-Azhar Mosque, each of them explain the necessity of Iblis' unbelief.", "Without Iblis' evil deeds, a large portion of revelation would become obsolete.", "Afterwards, Iblis visits the angel Gabriel, but is rejected again.", "Realizing that Iblis is both doomed as well as appointed by God, he descends from heaven shouting out: \"I am a martyr!\".", "The novel received negative reception in Salafi circles.", "The Salafi scholar Abu Ishaq al-Heweny stated: \"I swear by God it would never cross the mind, at all, that this absolute ''kufr'' reaches this level, and that it gets published as a novel\"." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Intelsat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Intelsat S.A.''' (formerly INTEL-SAT, INTELSAT, Intelsat) is a multinational satellite services provider with corporate headquarters in Luxembourg and administrative headquarters in Tysons Corner, Virginia, United States.", "Originally formed as International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (''ITSO'', or '''INTELSAT'''), from 1964 to 2001, it was an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of communications satellites providing international telecommunications and broadcast services.In March 2023, rival satellite operator SES confirmed that it was in talks about a merger with Intelsat but in June 2023, it was announced that these discussions had ended.As of June 2022, Intelsat operated a fleet of 52 communications satellites which was then one of the world's largest fleets.", "In 2020, the company announced plans to procure, build and launch seven C-band satellites over the next several years.", "These C-band satellites will contribute to the acceleration of America's 5G buildout.", "In early 2022, the company announced contracts for four GEO software defined satellites (SDS), two in partnership with Airbus and two in partnership with Thales Alenia Space, that are scheduled to launch in 2023.These contracts point to the pursuit of a multi-year network transformation plan with investments designed to deliver higher speeds, more flexibility, redundancy, and backwards compatibility.", "As of 2022, the company served approximately 1,800 customers and employed a staff of approximately 1,790 people." ], [ "History", "INTELSAT I ''Early Bird''An Intelsat-IVA satelliteJohn F. Kennedy instigated the creation of INTELSAT with his speech to the United Nations on 25 September 1961.Less than a year later, John F. Kennedy signed the Communications Satellite Act of 1962.INTELSAT was originally formed as International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO) and operated from 1964 to 2001 as an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of communications satellites providing international broadcast services.", "In 2001, the international satellite market was fully commercialized, and INTELSAT was privatized after 2001 as Intelsat was formed up as a private Luxembourg corporation.=== International Governmental Organization (1964–2001) ===The International Governmental Organization (IGO) began on (), with 7 participating countries.", "The 1964 agreement was an interim arrangement on a path to a more permanent agreement.", "The permanent international organization was established in 1973, following inter-nation negotiations from 1969 to 1971.The most difficult issue to \"resolve concerned the shift from management of the system by a national entity to management by the international organization itself\".On 6 April 1965, INTELSAT's first satellite, the Intelsat I (nicknamed ''Early Bird''), was placed in geostationary orbit above the Atlantic Ocean by a Delta D rocket.In 1973, the name was changed and there were 81 signatories.", "INTELSAT was \"governed initially by two international agreements: The Agreement setting forth the basic provisions and principles and structure of the organization, signed by the governments through their foreign ministries, and an Operating Agreement setting forth more detailed financial and technical provisions and signed by the governments or their designated telecommunications entities\", — in most cases, the latter are the ministries of communications of the party countries, but in the case of the United States, was the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT), a private corporation established by federal legislation to represent the U.S. in international governance for the global communication satellite system.", "INTELSAT at that time directly owned and managed a global communications satellite system, and structurally consisted of three parts:* the Assembly of Parties – meeting every two years and concerned with aspects \"primarily of interest to the Parties as sovereign States\"—with each country having one vote.", "* the Meeting of Signatories – meeting annually and composed of all the signatories to the Operating Agreement—primarily working on financial, technical and program matters, with each countries' signatory having one vote.", "* a Board of Governors, meeting at least four times each year, making decisions on design, development, establishment, operation and maintenance of the in-space assets, appointed by signatories, but weighted to each signatory's \"investment share\" in the space assets.The 1973 Agreement called for a seven-year transition from national to international management, but continued until 1976 to carve out \"technical and operational management of the system to the U.S. signatory the Communications Satellite Corporation which had also served as the Manager of the global system under the interim arrangements in force from 1964 to 1973\".", "Later phases of the transition resulted in full international governance by 1980.Financial contribution to the organization, its so-called \"investment share\", was strictly proportional to each member's use of the system, determined annually; and this corresponded to the weighted vote each would have on the Board of Governors.", "Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies.", "By 2001, INTELSAT had over 100 members.", "It was also this year that INTELSAT privatized and changed its name to Intelsat.Since its inception, Intelsat has used several versions (blocks) of its dedicated Intelsat satellites.", "Intelsat completes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of satellite manufacturing contractors over the years.", "Intelsat's largest spacecraft supplier by 2012 was Space Systems/Loral, having built 47 spacecraft (Intelsat 20) by that time.The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now.", "A failure of the Atlantic satellite in the spring of 1969 threatened to stop the ''Apollo 11'' mission; a replacement satellite went into a bad orbit and could not be recovered in time; NASA used undersea cable telephone circuits as an alternative to route Apollo's communications to NASA during the mission.", "During the Apollo 11 moonwalk, the Moon was over the Pacific Ocean, and so other antennas were used, as well as INTELSAT III, which was in geostationary orbit over the Pacific.=== Commercialization ===By the 1990s, building and launching satellites was no longer exclusively a government domain and as country-specific telecommunications systems were privatized, several private satellite operators arose to meet the growing demand.", "In the U.S., satellite operators such as PanAmSat, Orion Communications, Columbia Communications, Iridium, Globalstar, TRW and others formed under the umbrella of the '''Alliance for Competitive International Satellite Services''' (ACISS) to press for an end to the exclusively-intergovernmental organizations operating communication satellites and the monopoly position of COMSAT the U.S. signatory to Intelsat and Inmarsat.", "In March 2001, the U.S. Congress passed the Open-market Reorganization for the Betterment of International Telecommunications (ORBIT) Act to privatize COMSAT.", "In April 1998, to address U.S. government concerns about market power, Intelsat's senior management spun off five of its older satellites to a private Dutch entity, New Skies Satellites, which became a direct competitor to Intelsat.=== Privatization ===On 18 July 2001, Intelsat became a private company, 37 years after formation.", "Prior to Intelsat's privatization in 2001, ownership and investment in INTELSAT (measured in shares) was distributed among INTELSAT members according to their use of services.", "Investment shares determined each member's percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures.", "The organization's primary source of revenue was satellite usage fees which, after deduction of operating costs, was redistributed to INTELSAT members in proportion to their shares as repayment of capital and compensation for use of capital.", "Satellite services were available to any organization (both INTELSAT members and non-members), and all users paid the same rates.Intelsat Americas-7 (known formerly as Telstar 7 and known as Galaxy 27 since on 1 February 2007) experienced a several-day power failure on 29 November 2004.The satellite returned to service with reduced capacity.Intelsat administrative headquarters in Washington, D.C.Intelsat was sold for US$3.1 billion in January 2005 to four private equity firms: Madison Dearborn Partners, Apax Partners, Permira and Apollo Global Management.", "The company acquired PanAmSat on 3 July 2006, and was then the world's largest provider of fixed satellite services, operating a fleet of 52 satellites in prime orbital locations.In June 2007, BC Partners announced they had acquired 76% of Intelsat for about 3.75 billion euros.=== Intelsat S.A. (Luxembourg) ===In April 2013, the renamed Intelsat S.A. undertook an initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange, raising a net US$550 million, of which US$492 million was paid immediately to reduce outstanding company debts of US$15.9 billion.", "In May 2013, the company announced it would be purchasing four new high-performance Boeing EpicNG 702 MP satellites.In 2015, Intelsat reincorporated in Delaware and became Intelsat Corporation.There were negotiations in 2017 that Intelsat could potentially merge with Softbank-backed OneWeb.", "However, on 1 June 2017, it was announced that the bondholders would not accept the offer and that the potential merger would be terminated as of 2 June 2017.=== Operations ===After 2014, Intelsat maintained its corporate administrative headquarters in Tysons Corner, Virginia, where a majority of its employees worked at the time.", "Intelsat maintains constantly staffed global network operations centers in its Tysons Corner location and in Ellenwood, Georgia.", "A highly international business, Intelsat sources the majority of its revenue from non-U.S. located customers.", "In addition to its satellite fleet, Intelsat owns and operates eight teleports around the world.=== Bankruptcy ===Intelsat filed for a Chapter 11 bankruptcy in U.S. courts on 13 May 2020, just before the new 5G spectrum auctions, with over US$15 billion in total debt.Public reporting showed that the company had been considering bankruptcy protection as early as February 2020,as Intelsat formally withdrew from the C-Band Alliance.", "The C-Band Alliance was an industry consortium of the major satellite operators.", "The consortium had been formed to lobby U.S. regulator, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regarding the reassignment and payment for the legacy 5G spectrum of its members.According to company statements, the company was hoping to restructure so that it could raise requisite capital to launch new satellite technology in 2022/2023, at a cost of some US$1.6 billion.", "The technology could compress existing licensed C-band spectrum customers into just forty per cent of the spectrum used in 2019.The release of spectrum would enable the company to receive up to US$4.86 billion in \"spectrum clearing payments\" from the FCC for clearing the spectrum by December 2023, two years ahead of the FCC baseline plan.=== Emergence from bankruptcy as a private company ===On February 24, 2022, Intelsat emerged from Chapter 11 as a private company with a strengthened capital structure which reduced debt by more than half, from approximately $16 billion to $7 billion.", "The company’s plan of reorganization was supported by all creditors and confirmed by the Bankruptcy Court on December 16, 2021.In connection with the emergence from bankruptcy, Intelsat also obtained $6.7 billion in new financing including a revolving credit facility, term loan, and secured notes.According to then company CEO, Stephen Spengler, post bankruptcy, the company plans to pursue aggressive network innovation plans, and strategic growth initiatives, including building a software-defined 5G network.", "The company also announced a new board of directors, led by Lisa Hammitt, executive vice president and chief technology officer at Davidson Technologies.=== Acquisition of Gogo Commercial Aviation ===In December 2020, Intelsat completed its acquisition of Gogo’s Commercial Aviation (CA) business.", "The vertical integration combined Intelsat’s next-generation global telecommunications network with Gogo CA’s customer-facing capabilities offering airlines and passengers an enhanced inflight entertainment and connectivity (IFEC) experience." ], [ "In-space refueling demonstration project", " Intelsat has agreed to purchase one-half of the propellant payload that an MDA Corporation spacecraft satellite-servicing demonstration project would take to geostationary orbit.", "Catching up in orbit with four or five Intelsat communication satellites, a load of of fuel delivered to each satellite would add somewhere between two and four years of additional service life.", "A near-end-of-life Intelsat satellite will be moved to a graveyard orbit above the geostationary belt where the refueling will be done, \"without consequence\" to the Intelsat business.", "the business model was still evolving.", "MDA \"could ask customers to pay per kilogram of fuel successfully added to each satellite, with the per-kilogram price being a function of the additional revenue the operator can expect to generate from the spacecraft's extended operational life\".The plan is that the fuel-depot vehicle would maneuver to several satellites, dock at the target satellite's apogee kick motor, remove a small part of the target spacecraft's thermal protection blanket, connect to a fuel-pressure line and deliver the propellant.", "\"MDA officials estimate the docking maneuver would take the communications satellite out of service for about 20 minutes\".On 25 February 2020, a Northrop Grumman robotic servicing spacecraft, Mission Extension Vehicle 1 (MEV 1) docked with the Intelsat 901 satellite.", "The MEV 1 spacecraft will provide propulsion capabilities to Intelsat 901 to extend its usable life for five years." ], [ "Satellites", "=== Renaming ===On 1 February 2007, Intelsat changed the names of 16 of its satellites formerly known under the Intelsat Americas and PanAmSat brands to Galaxy and Intelsat, respectively.=== Launch vehicles ===Over time, Intelsat has worked with most of the commercial launch services providers worldwide.", "Their satellites are often among the most massive of their generation, requiring the most powerful and reliable rockets on the market at a given time.", "In the 21st century, most Intelsat missions were conducted by Arianespace with the European Ariane 4 and Ariane 5 launchers, and by International Launch Services (ILS) with Proton-K and Proton-M rockets manufactured by Khrunichev in Russia.", "Intelsat also took advantage of the equatorial Sea Launch offering with Zenit-3SL rockets launched from the Ocean Odyssey floating platform in Pacific Ocean, until they suspended operations in 2014.On 30 May 2012, Intelsat signed a contract with SpaceX for one of the first Falcon Heavy launch vehicles, marking the return of Intelsat to American launchers after many flights on Atlas II in the 1990s and a single Atlas V launch in 2009." ], [ "See also", "* COMSAT* Eutelsat* Inmarsat* Intelsat 708* Intelsat Americas* Intersputnik* SES S.A." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Satellite Coverage Map* Yahoo!", "– Intelsat, Ltd. Company Profile" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Devanagari numerals" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Devanagari numerals''' are the symbols used to write numbers in the Devanagari script, the predominant for northern Indian languages.", "They are used to write decimal numbers, instead of the Western Arabic numerals." ], [ "Table", "ModernDevanagariWesternArabic Words for the cardinal number Sanskrit(wordstem) Hindi Marathi Nepali० 0 (शून्य) शून्य () शून्य () शून्य ()१ 1 (एकः) एक () एक () एक ()२ 2 (द्वि) दो () दोन () दुइ ()३ 3 (त्रिणि) तीन () तीन () तिन ()४ 4 (चत्वारी) चार () चार () चारि ()५ 5 (पञ्च) पाँच () पाच () पाँच ()६ 6 (षट्) छह () सहा () छअ ()७ 7 (सप्त) सात () सात () सात ()८ 8 (अष्ट) आठ () आठ () आठ ()९ 9 (नव) नौ () नऊ () नअ ()The word for zero was calqued into Arabic as , meaning 'nothing', which became the term \"zero\" in many European languages via Medieval Latin ." ], [ "Variants", "A comparison of Sanskrit and Eastern Arabic numeralsDevanagari digits shapes may vary depending on geographical area or epoch.", "Some of the variants are also seen in older Sanskrit literature.", "१ x27px Common x26px Nepali 1 ५ x26px \"Bombay\" Variant x24px \"Calcutta\" Variant 5 ८ x22px \"Bombay\" Variant x18px \"Calcutta\" Variant 8 ९ x26px Common x24px Nepali Variant 9" ], [ "See also", "'''(PDF):'''- ''' Hindi Number Names-(PDF) 1 to 1000 Numbers Name in Hindi- 1 to 1000 की गिनती'''Indian numbering system" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Sources* Sanskrit Siddham (Bonji) Numbers * Devanagari Numbers in Nepali language" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ian Botham" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ian Terence Botham, Baron Botham''', (born 24 November 1955) is an English cricket commentator, member of the House of Lords, a former cricketer who has been chairman of Durham County Cricket Club since 2017 and charity fundraiser.", "Hailed as one of the greatest all-rounders in the history of the game, Botham represented England in both Test and One-Day International cricket.He played most of his first-class cricket for Somerset, at other times competing for Worcestershire, Durham and Queensland.", "He was an aggressive right-handed batsman and, as a right-arm fast-medium bowler, was noted for his swing bowling.", "He generally fielded close to the wicket, predominantly in the slips.", "In Test cricket, Botham scored 14 centuries with a highest score of 208, and from 1986 to 1988 held the world record for the most Test wickets until overtaken by fellow all-rounder Sir Richard Hadlee.", "He took five wickets in an innings 27 times, and 10 wickets in a match four times.", "In 1980, he became the second player in Test history to complete the \"match double\" of scoring 100 runs and taking 10 wickets in the same match.", "On the occasion of England's 1000th Test in August 2018, he was named in the country's greatest Test XI by the ECB.Botham has at times been involved in controversies, including a highly publicised court case involving rival all-rounder Imran Khan and an ongoing dispute with the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB).", "These incidents, allied to his on-field success, have attracted media attention, especially from the tabloid press.", "Botham has used his fame to raise money for research into childhood leukaemia.", "These efforts have realised millions of pounds for Bloodwise, of which he became president.", "On 8 August 2009, he was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame.", "In July 2020, it was announced that Botham would be elevated to the House of Lords and that he would sit as a crossbench peer.Botham has a wide range of sporting interests outside cricket.", "He was a talented footballer at school and had to choose between cricket and football as a career.", "He chose cricket but, even so, he played professional football for a few seasons and made eleven appearances in the Football League for Scunthorpe United, becoming the club's president in 2017.He is a keen golfer, and his other pastimes include angling and shooting.", "He has been awarded both a knighthood and a life peerage." ], [ "Early life and development as a cricketer (1955–1973)", "Ian Botham was born in Heswall, Cheshire, to Herbert Leslie (\"Les\") Botham and Violet Marie, née Collett.", "His father had been in the Fleet Air Arm for twenty years spanning the Second World War; his mother was a nurse.", "The family moved to Yeovil before Botham's third birthday after his father got a job as a test engineer at Westland Helicopters.", "Both his parents played cricket: his father for Westland Sports Club while his mother captained a nursing services team at Sherborne.", "Botham developed an eagerness for the game before he had started school: he would climb through the fence of the Yeovil Boys' Grammar School to watch the pupils play cricket.", "At the age of around four, he came home with a cricket ball and asked his mother \"Do you know how to hold a ball when you're going to bowl a daisy-cutter?\"", "He subsequently demonstrated the grip and went away to practise bowling it.Botham attended Milford Junior School in the town, and his \"love affair\" with sport began there.", "He played both cricket and football for the school's teams at the age of nine, two years earlier than most of his contemporaries.", "Playing against the older boys forced Botham to learn to hit the ball hard, and improve to their standard.", "At the same age he went to matches with his father, who played for Westland Sports Club, and if one of the teams was short, he would try to get a match.", "His father recalled that though he never got to bowl, and rarely got to bat, he received praise for the standard of his fielding.", "He joined the Boys' Brigade where more sporting opportunities were available.", "By the time he was nine, he had begun to \"haunt\" local recreation grounds with his kit always ready, looking to play for any team that was short of players.", "By the age of twelve he was playing occasional matches for Yeovil Cricket Club's second team.Botham went on to Bucklers Mead Comprehensive School in Yeovil, where he continued to do well in sport and played for the school's cricket and football teams.", "He became captain of their under-16 cricket team when he was thirteen.", "His performances for the school drew the attention of Somerset County Cricket Club's youth coach Bill Andrews.", "Still thirteen, he scored 80 runs on debut for Somerset's under-15s side against Wiltshire, but the team captain Phil Slocombe did not call on him to bowl as he considered him to be a specialist batsman.", "Two years later, Botham had the opportunity to choose between football and cricket: Bert Head, manager of Crystal Palace offered him apprentice forms with the First Division club.", "He already had a contract with Somerset and, after discussing the offer with his father, decided to continue to pursue a cricket career, as he believed he was a better cricketer.", "When informed that he wanted to be a sportsman, Botham's careers teacher said to him: \"Fine, everyone wants to play sport, but what are you really going to do?", "\"The pavilion at Lord's Cricket Ground, where Botham served as a ground boy in 1972 and 1973In 1972, at the age of 16, Botham left school intent on playing cricket for Somerset, who retained his contract but felt he was too young to justify a full professional deal.", "So, Botham joined the ground staff at Lord's.", "As a ground boy, he had numerous tasks such as \"cleaning the pavilion windows, pushing the roller on matchdays, selling scorecards, pressing electronic buttons on the scoreboards and rushing bowling analyses to the dressing-room\".", "He also received coaching and plenty of time in the practice nets, and was often the first to arrive and the last to leave practice.", "Despite his time in the nets, Botham was only considered by Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) coach Harry Sharp to have the potential to become a \"good, average county cricketer.\"", "Botham travelled to play for Somerset under-25s a number of times during the season, but failed to excel in any of the matches.", "His appearances for the MCC were of a similar vein: he rarely scored more than 50 runs, and was used sparingly as a bowler.", "In one such match against \"Scotland A\", the MCC Young Cricketers used eight bowlers in their second innings, but Botham was not among them.The following year, still a ground boy at Lord's, Botham was asked to return to play for Somerset's under-25s more often.", "Against Glamorgan U-25, he scored 91 runs and took three tail-end wickets, while just under a month later he claimed a further three wickets against Hampshire.", "He advanced to play for the county's second team in the Minor Counties Championship, and although he was still used sparingly as a bowler, he made some good scores with the bat, most significantly against Cornwall, against whom he aggregated 194 runs in four innings.", "During winter nets prior to the season, Botham had caught the eye of the former England Test cricketer Tom Cartwright, who coached at Millfield School in addition to playing for Somerset.", "Cartwright was impressed with Botham's foot-work and physical co-ordination, and helped him learn the basics of swing bowling, something Botham picked up \"astonishly quickly\" according to Cartwright." ], [ "Cricket career (1973–1993)", "===Somerset (1973–1975)===Botham had done well for the Second XI and he later acknowledged the help and advice he received from Somerset players Peter Robinson, Graham Burgess and Ken Palmer.", "Botham made his senior debut, aged 17, for Somerset on Sunday, 2 September 1973 when he played in a List A John Player League (JPL) match (38 overs each) against Sussex at the County Ground, Hove.", "The match was in the same week that his time on the Lord's ground staff was completed.", "Somerset batted first, and Botham, number seven in the batting order, scored two runs before he was dismissed leg before wicket (lbw) by Mike Buss.", "Somerset totalled 139 for 9.Sussex won comfortably by six wickets, reaching 141 for four with fifteen deliveries remaining.", "Botham bowled three overs without success, conceding 22 runs.", "He did impress, however, by taking a diving catch to dismiss his future England colleague Tony Greig off the bowling of his captain Brian Close.A week later, Botham made a second appearance in the JPL against Surrey at The Oval in the final match of the season.", "Somerset were well beaten by 68 runs.", "Botham had his first bowling success when he dismissed Geoff Howarth lbw.", "He bowled four overs and took one for 14.As in his first match, he scored two batting at number seven, this time being caught and bowled by Intikhab Alam.", "These were his only two senior appearances in 1973, Somerset finishing 11th in the JPL.", "In summary, Botham scored four runs, took one wicket for 14 and held one catch.Aged 18, Botham was a regular in the Somerset team from the beginning of the 1974 season and made his first-class début 8–10 May in a County Championship match against Lancashire at the County Ground, Taunton.", "Viv Richards, from Antigua and Barbuda, made his County Championship début for Somerset in the same match and Lancashire's team included Clive Lloyd, two players who would loom large in Botham's future Test career.", "Brian Close won the toss and decided to bat first.", "On day one, Somerset were all out for 285 and Lancashire reached 41 for none.", "Botham batted at number seven and scored 13 before being caught.", "Day two was rain-affected and Lancashire advanced to 200 for none.", "Their innings closed on the final day at 381 for eight.", "Botham bowled only three overs and his figures were none for 15; he held one catch to dismiss Jack Simmons.", "Somerset played for the draw and were 104 for two at the end.", "Botham did not bat again.On 12 June 1974, he played against Hampshire at Taunton in a Benson & Hedges Cup (B&H Cup) quarter-final.", "Hampshire won the toss and decided to bat.", "They scored 182 all out with Botham taking two for 33 including the prize wicket of Barry Richards, bowled for 13.Botham was number nine in Somerset's batting order and came in with his team struggling at 113 for 7.Almost immediately, that became 113 for 8 and he had only the tailenders Hallam Moseley and Bob Clapp to support him.", "He was facing the West Indian fast bowler Andy Roberts who delivered a bouncer which hit him in the mouth.", "Despite heavy bleeding and the eventual loss of four teeth, Botham refused to leave the field and carried on batting.", "He hit two sixes and made 45, enabling Somerset to win by one wicket.", "He won the Gold Award.", "Later, he said he should have left the field but was full of praise for Moseley and Clapp.In a County Championship match on 13 July 1974, Botham scored his first half-century in first-class cricket.", "He made 59 in Somerset's first innings against Middlesex at Taunton, the highest individual score in a low-scoring match which Somerset won by 73 runs.", "Middlesex's captain was Mike Brearley, who would become a very influential figure in Botham's career.", "A month later, in a match against Leicestershire at Clarence Park, Weston-super-Mare, Botham achieved his first-ever five wickets in an innings (5wI) with five for 59.He took seven in the match which Somerset won by 179 runs, largely thanks to Close who scored 59 and 114.Botham showed great promise in 1974, his first full season in which Somerset finished fifth in the County Championship and a close second to Leicestershire in the JPL.", "They also reached the semi-finals in both the Gillette Cup and the B&H Cup.", "In 18 first-class appearances, Botham scored 441 runs with a highest of 59, took 30 first-class wickets with a best of five for 59 and held 15 catches.", "He played in 18 List A matches too, scoring 222 runs with a highest of 45* (his Gold Award innings against Hampshire), took 12 wickets with a best of two for 16 and held four catches.Botham continued to make progress in 1975.Somerset struggled in the County Championship, winning only four of their twenty matches and finished joint 12th.", "In the JPL, they slumped badly from second to 14th.", "They reached the quarter-final of the B&H Cup but only the second round of the Gillette Cup.", "Botham played in 22 first-class and 23 List A matches so it was a busy season for him.", "In first-class, he scored 584 runs with a highest of 65, one of two half-centuries, and held 18 catches.", "He took 62 wickets, doubling his 1974 tally, with a best of five for 69, his only 5wI that season.", "In List A, he scored 232 runs with a highest of 38* and held seven catches.", "He took 32 wickets with a best of three for 34.===Somerset and England (1976)===1976 was a significant season for Botham as he scored over 1,000 runs for the first time, completed his first century and earned international selection by England in two Limited Overs Internationals.", "Somerset improved in the County Championship to finish seventh, winning seven matches.", "They were one of five teams tied for first place in the JPL but their run rate was less than that of Kent, who were declared the champions.", "Somerset lost their opening match in the Gillette Cup and were eliminated at the group stage of the B&H Cup.", "Botham, though, came on in leaps and bounds.", "He totalled 1,022 first-class runs in 20 matches with a highest of 167, his first-ever century and he also scored six half-centuries.", "With the ball, he took 66 wickets with a best of six for 16.He had four 5wI and, for the first time, ten wickets in a match (10wM).", "He played in a total of 22 List A matches, including the two for England, scoring 395 runs with a highest of 46.He took 33 wickets with a best of four for 41.In the County Championship match against Sussex at Hove in May, Botham came very close to his maiden century but was dismissed for 97, his highest score to date.", "The match was drawn.", "At the end of the month, Somerset played Gloucestershire in a remarkable match at Taunton.", "Batting first, Somerset scored 333 for seven (innings closed) and then, thanks to six for 25 by Botham, bowled out Gloucestershire for only 79.The follow-on was enforced but Gloucestershire proved a much tougher nut to crack second time around.", "With Zaheer Abbas scoring 141, they made 372 and left Somerset needing 118 to win.", "Botham took five for 125 in the second innings for a match analysis of 11 for 150, his maiden 10wM.", "This match ended the same way as the famous Test at Headingley in 1981 but the boot was on the other foot for Botham here because he was on the team that enforced the follow-on – and lost.", "Mike Procter and Tony Brown did the damage and bowled Somerset out for 110 in 42 overs, Gloucestershire winning by just eight runs.Botham scored his maiden first-class century at Trent Bridge on Tuesday 3 August 1976 in the County Championship game against Nottinghamshire (Notts) who won the toss and decided to bat first.", "Derek Randall scored 204 and the Notts innings closed at 364 for 4 (Botham one for 59).", "Somerset were 52 for one at close of play.", "On day two, Somerset scored 304 for 8 (innings closed) and Botham, batting at number six, scored 80.At close of play, Notts in their second innings were 107 for four, thus extending their lead to 167 with six wickets standing.", "On day three, Notts advanced to 240 for nine declared (Botham one for 16), leaving Somerset with a difficult target of 301.At 40 for two and with both their openers gone, Brian Close changed his batting order and summoned Botham to come in at number four.", "Close himself had gone in at three but he was out soon afterwards for 35.With support from Graham Burgess (78), Botham laid into the Notts bowling and scored an impressive 167 not out.", "Somerset reached 302 for four in only 65 overs and won by six wickets.Botham's international début for England was on 26 August 1976 in a Limited Overs International (LOI) against the West Indies at the North Marine Road Ground, Scarborough.", "The series was called the Prudential Trophy and the teams had 55 overs each per innings.", "Botham, still only 20, was the youngest player.", "At Scarborough, England captain Alan Knott lost the toss and Clive Lloyd, captaining the West Indies, elected to field first.", "Botham was number seven in the batting order and came in at 136 for five to join Graham Barlow.", "He scored only one before he was caught by Roy Fredericks off the bowling of his future ''Sky Sports'' colleague Michael Holding.", "England's innings closed at 202 for eight with Barlow 80 not out.", "West Indies lost Fredericks almost immediately but that brought Viv Richards to the crease and he hit 119 not out, winning the man of the match award, and leading West Indies to victory in only 41 overs by six wickets.", "Botham had the consolation of taking his first international wicket when he had Lawrence Rowe caught by Mike Hendrick for 10.He bowled only three overs and took some punishment from Richards, his return being one for 26.In the second match at Lord's, Botham was replaced by returning England captain Tony Greig.", "England lost by 36 runs as Richards, this time with 97, was again the difference between the teams.", "Having lost the series, England recalled Botham for the final match at Edgbaston on 30–31 August.", "The match was extended to two days and overs reduced to 32 per side.", "Tony Greig won the toss and decided to field.", "England began well and dismissed Fredericks and Richards, for a duck, in only the second over.", "West Indies were then seven for one but a powerful innings by Clive Lloyd pulled them out of trouble and they reached 223 for nine, innings closed.", "Botham bowled three very expensive overs, conceding 31 runs, but he did manage to bowl out Michael Holding for his second international wicket.", "England were never in the hunt and were bowled out for 173, West Indies winning by 50 runs and claiming the series 3–0.Botham again batted at number seven and made a good start, scoring 20 at a run a ball, but he was then caught by Bernard Julien off Fredericks and England were 151 for seven with only Knott and the tailenders left.===District cricket in Australia (1976–77)===In the winter of 1976–77, after he had made his first two international appearances, Botham played District Cricket in Melbourne, Australia for the University of Melbourne Cricket Club.", "He was joined by Yorkshire's Graham Stevenson.", "They were signed for the second half of the season on a sponsorship arranged through the Test and County Cricket Board (TCCB) by Whitbread's Brewery.", "Five of the competition's 15 rounds were abandoned because of adverse weather.", "It was apparently on this trip that Botham originally fell out with the former Australian captain Ian Chappell.", "The cause seems to have been a cricket-related argument in a bar, which may have resulted in Chappell being pushed off his stool (the story is widely sourced but accounts differ).", "This became a long-running feud and, as late as the 2010–11 Ashes series, there was an altercation between Botham and Chappell in a car park at the Adelaide Oval.===Somerset and England (1977)===Botham produced a number of good batting and bowling performances for Somerset in 1977 and these impressed the Test selectors who included him in the team for the third Test against Australia at Trent Bridge, starting on 28 July.", "Having captured 36 first-class wickets through May and June, Botham had something of a purple patch in July which earned him his Test call-up.", "In the match against Sussex at Hove, which Somerset won by an innings and 37 runs, he took four for 111 and six for 50 for his second 10wM.", "In Somerset's innings of 448 for eight, he shared a 4th wicket partnership of 174 with Viv Richards.", "Botham scored 62, Richards 204.He took 22 more wickets, including two 5wI, in the next three County Championship games before his Test debut.", "In the whole season, playing 17 first-class matches, he took 88 wickets with six 5wI and one 10wM, his second innings return at Hove being his best.", "His batting was not quite as good as in 1976 as his average was down but he scored 738 runs with a highest of 114, which was his sole century, and five half-centuries.", "He scored the century in July against Hampshire at Taunton, 114 in Somerset's first innings of 284, and followed it with bowling returns of four for 69 and four for 43, another impressive all-round effort which earned Somerset a win by 152 runs.", "Somerset had a good season in the County Championship, finishing fourth.", "They reached the semi-final of the Gillette Cup but, without the injured Botham, were well beaten by eventual winners Middlesex.", "They were a poor tenth in the JPL and were eliminated from the B&H Cup at the group stage.Botham made his Test début at Trent Bridge on 28 July 1977 in the third Test against Australia.", "His début was somewhat overshadowed by the return from self-imposed Test exile of Geoffrey Boycott.", "England went into the match with a 1–0 series lead having won the second Test after the first had been drawn.", "The series was played against the background of the so-called \"Packer Affair\" which resulted in the establishment of World Series Cricket in the next Australian season.", "Because of Tony Greig's involvement, he had been stripped of the England captaincy but remained in the team under new captain Mike Brearley.", "England had three all-rounders at Trent Bridge with Greig, Geoff Miller and Botham all playing.", "Australian captain Greg Chappell won the toss and decided to bat first.", "Australia scored 243 and were all out shortly before the close on day one.", "Botham, aged 21, made an immediate impact and took five for 74, the highlight being the wicket of Chappell, bowled for just 19.England batted all through day two and into day three as Boycott, in his first Test innings since 1974, and Knott both made centuries.", "Botham came in at number eight on day three and scored 25 before he was bowled by Max Walker.", "England were all out not long afterwards for 364, a first innings lead of 121.Botham had no joy in Australia's second innings with none for 60.A century by Rick McCosker enabled Australia to score 309 before they were all out in the evening session on day four.", "Bob Willis took five for 88.England needed 189 to win and completed the job, by seven wickets, well into the final day with Brearley scoring 81 and Boycott, who batted on all five days, 80 not out.", "Botham didn't get a second innings.Botham's impressive bowling at Trent Bridge meant he was an automatic choice for the fourth Test at Headingley two weeks later.", "England won the toss, decided to bat first and went on to win by an innings and 85 runs to secure a winning 3–0 lead in the series and regain The Ashes, which they had lost in 1974–75.The match is famous for Boycott's one hundredth career century, scored on his home county ground and in his second Test since his return to the England fold.", "Botham was bowled third ball by Ray Bright without scoring.", "He made amends with the ball by taking five for 21 in only eleven overs, Australia being bowled out for only 103.The follow-on was enforced and Australia this time made 248, but Botham (none for 47) did not take a wicket.", "He was injured during the second innings when he accidentally trod on the ball and broke a bone in his foot.", "He was unable to play again in the 1977 season.His promising start as Test player resulted in two awards.", "He was named Young Cricketer of the Year for 1977 by the Cricket Writers' Club; and was selected as one of the ''Wisden Cricketers of the Year'' (i.e., for 1977 but announced in the 1978 edition).", "''Wisden'' commented that his 1977 season \"was marred only by a week's cricket idleness carrying the drinks at the Prudential matches, and a foot injury which ruined for him the end of the season and probably robbed him of a rare double.", "He finished with 88 wickets and 738 runs\".", "Importantly, the foot injury was a broken toe sustained when he trod on the ball at Headingley and Botham subsequently needed treatment for it at his local hospital in Taunton.", "It was while going to one of his appointments that he took a wrong turn and ended up on a children's ward where he learned that some of the children were dying of leukaemia.", "This incident sparked his charitable crusade on behalf of leukaemia research.===Somerset and England (1977–78 to 1979–80)===Ian Botham vs NZ, Basin Reserve February 1978England were in Pakistan from November 1977 to January 1978, playing three Tests and three LOIs.", "Botham was almost fully recovered from his foot injury but did not play in any of the Tests.", "He took part in all three LOIs and in some of the first-class matches against club teams.", "From January to March, England were in New Zealand for a three-match Test series under the captaincy of Geoff Boycott.", "Botham impressed in a first-class match against Canterbury at Lancaster Park, scoring 126 not out in the second innings against an attack including Richard Hadlee and was selected for the first Test at Basin Reserve.", "Botham had an indifferent game there and England, twice bowled out by Hadlee, lost by 72 runs.", "In the next match at Carisbrook against Otago, Botham achieved a 10wM with seven for 58 (his career best return to date) in the second innings, enabling the England XI to win by six wickets.", "England won the second Test at Lancaster Park by 174 runs after an outstanding all-round performance by Botham who scored 103 and 30 not out and took five for 73 and three for 38.He also held three catches.", "In the second innings, promoted up the order to get quick runs before an overnight declaration, he was responsible for calling for a risky run that led to the run-out dismissal of acting-captain Geoff Boycott: Botham's own published autobiography alleges that this was deliberately done, on the orders of acting vice-captain Bob Willis, because Boycott was scoring too slowly.", "The final Test was played at Eden Park and was drawn, the series ending 1–1.New Zealand batted first and totalled 315 with Geoff Howarth scoring 122.Botham took five for 109 in 34 overs.", "England replied with 429 all out (Clive Radley 158, Botham 53).", "New Zealand then chose to bat out time and Howarth scored his second century of the match (Botham none for 51).", "Botham's form in New Zealand cemented his place in the England team.Ian Botham vs NZ, Basin Reserve February 1978In the 1978 English season, Pakistan and New Zealand both visited to play three Tests each and Botham featured in all six matches.", "Having scored exactly 100 in the first Test against Pakistan at Edgbaston, England winning by an innings and 57 runs, Botham in the second at Lord's scored 108 and then, after none for 17 in the first innings, achieved his Test and first-class career best return of eight for 34 in the second, England winning by an innings and 120 runs.", "The third Test was ruined by the weather and England won the series 2–0.Against New Zealand, Botham did little with the bat but his bowling was outstanding.", "In the second Test he took nine wickets in the match as England won by an innings and then a 10wM in the final match at Lord's with six for 101 and five for 39.England won the series 3–0.Due to his England commitments, Botham appeared infrequently for Somerset in 1978.His best performances for them were a return of seven for 61 against Glamorgan and an innings of 80 against Sussex in the Gillette Cup final at Lord's.", "This was Somerset's first limited overs final and they lost by five wickets despite Botham's effort.", "They were involved in a tight contest for the JPL title and were placed second on run rate after tying with Hampshire and Leicestershire on 48 points each.", "Somerset did quite well in the County Championship, finishing fifth after winning nine matches, and reached the semi-final of the B&H Cup.Botham's first tour of Australia was in 1978–79.England, defending the Ashes they had regained in 1977, played six Tests under Mike Brearley's leadership.", "Australia had what was effectively \"a reserve team\" because their leading players were contracted to World Series Cricket for the season.", "The difference in standard was evident on the first day of the first Test at the Gabba as Botham, Chris Old and Bob Willis bowled them out for only 116 in just 38 overs, England going on to win easily enough by seven wickets.", "Apart from a surprise defeat in the third Test, England were never troubled and won the series 5–1.Botham's performance in the series was satisfactory but there were no headlines and only modest averages.", "He took 23 wickets at 24.65 with a best return of four for 42.He scored 291 runs with a highest of 74 at 29.10.He held 11 catches.Botham played for England in the 1979 Cricket World Cup and was a member of their losing team in the final.", "He was again an infrequent member of the Somerset team because of the World Cup and the Test series against India.", "It became a memorable season for Somerset as they built on their form in 1978 to win both the Gillette Cup and the JPL, their first-ever senior trophies.", "Botham played in the Gillette Cup final at Lord's, in which they defeated Northamptonshire by 45 runs, thanks to a century by Viv Richards.", "They slipped to eighth in the County Championship.", "In the B&H Cup, however, they were expelled from the competition for bringing the game into disrepute after an unsporting declaration, designed to protect the team's run rate, by team captain Brian Rose.The England v India series in 1979 took place after the World Cup ended and four Tests were played.", "England won the first at Edgbaston by an innings and 83 runs after opening with a massive total of 633 for five declared.", "Botham scored 33 and then took two for 86 and five for 70.On the first day of the second Test at Lord's, Botham swept through the Indian batting with five for 35 and a catch off Mike Hendrick to dismiss them for only 96 in 56 overs.", "Surprisingly, however, India recovered to salvage a draw.", "In the third Test at Headingley, it was Botham the batsman who did the business, scoring 137 from 152 balls in England's first innings total of 270 (the next highest innings was 31 by Geoff Boycott).", "The match was ruined by the weather and was drawn.", "In the final Test at The Oval, England opened with 305 (Botham 38); India replied with 202 (Botham four for 65); and England with 334 for eight declared (Botham run out for a duck) extended their lead to 437 with four sessions remaining.", "Thanks to a brilliant 221 by Sunil Gavaskar, India came agonisingly close to pulling off a remarkable last day victory but ran out of time on 429 for eight (Botham three for 97), just nine runs short, and so England won the series 1–0 with three draws.The shambolic state of international cricket at the end of the 1970s was illustrated by the panic resulting from a hastily convened settlement between World Series Cricket and the Australian Board of Control.", "Although they had visited Australia only twelve months earlier to play for the Ashes, England were persuaded to go there again and play another three Tests, but with the Ashes not at stake.", "As ''Wisden'' put it, the programme did not have the best interests of cricket at heart, particularly Australian cricket below Test level, which had been \"swamped by the accent on Test and one-day internationals, neatly parcelled to present a cricketing package suitable for maximum exploitation on television\".", "The matches were widely perceived to be semi-official only and received \"a definite thumbs down\".", "Botham was a member of the England team and played in all three matches which nevertheless count towards his Test statistics.", "England were largely faithful to the players who had toured Australia the previous winter and Derek Underwood was the only World Series player they recalled; they did not recall Alan Knott, for example, while Tony Greig was beyond the pale.", "Australia recalled Greg Chappell, Dennis Lillee, Rod Marsh and Jeff Thomson, fielding a team that was a mixture of old and new.", "In the first match, played at the WACA Ground, Botham had match figures of eleven for 176 but to no avail as Australia won by 138 runs.", "Having excelled with the ball in that match, Botham did so with his bat in the third one, scoring an unbeaten 119 in the second innings of the third.", "Australia won all three matches of a series best forgotten for all its attendant politics, but Botham had enhanced his reputation as a world-class all-rounder.===Jubilee Test, India, February 1980===Botham's third overseas tour was to India in February 1980.It was the fiftieth anniversary of India's entry into Test cricket and so England played a single commemorative Test at the Wankhede Stadium in Bombay.", "It turned into a personal triumph for Botham who became the first player in Test history to score a century and take ten wickets in the same match.", "England's wicketkeeper Bob Taylor held ten catches in the match, eight of them off Botham's bowling.India won the toss and decided to bat first but, with Botham taking six for 58, they were all out on day one for 242.England replied with 296, the highlight being Botham's 114 from just 144 balls; he began his innings with England in trouble at 57 for four.", "This quickly became 58 for five and Botham was joined by England's other match hero Taylor.", "England's first five batsmen had contributed just 51 to the total.", "Botham was often unfairly labelled a \"big hitter\" but in fact his style was very orthodox (i.e., he \"played straight\") and in this innings he scored 17 fours but, significantly, no sixes.", "Taylor provided dogged support and their sixth wicket partnership realised 171 runs.", "When Botham was out near the end of day two, the score was 229 for six and England reached 232 for six at close of play, still ten runs behind.", "On the third morning, Taylor led England past India's total and, with useful batting performances by the specialist bowlers, England totalled 296 to gain a first innings lead of 54.India's second innings was a disaster, and they lost eight wickets by the close of play on the third day with only Kapil Dev offering any resistance.", "They were all out early on the fourth day for 149.Botham was the outstanding performer again, taking seven for 48 which gave him match figures of thirteen for 106.Geoffrey Boycott and Graham Gooch scored the necessary runs for England to win by ten wickets with a day to spare.===Somerset and England (1980 to 1980–81)===Mike Brearley announced his retirement from Test cricket after the Jubilee Test in Bombay and, somewhat surprisingly given his lack of captaincy experience, Botham was appointed to replace him as England's captain for the forthcoming home series against West Indies, who were at the time the world's outstanding team.", "Botham led England in twelve Tests in 1980 and 1981 but he was unsuccessful, the team achieving no wins, eight draws and four defeats under his leadership.", "In addition, his form suffered and was eventually dismissed from the post, although he did actually resign just before the selectors were about to fire him.", "In Botham's defence, nine of his matches as captain were against West Indies, who afterwards won twelve of their next thirteen Tests against England.", "The other three were all against Australia.In 1980, which was a wet summer, West Indies arguably had the better of all five Test matches, although, with the rain constantly intervening, they were able to win only one of them.", "West Indies won the first Test by only two wickets, and being at one stage 180/7 chasing a tricky 208.Rain saved England from a probable heavy defeat in the 2nd and 5th Tests: they fared better in between.", "In the 3rd, England conceded a first-innings lead of 110, but replied strongly in the second innings with a painstakingly slow and defensive 391/7, which would have resulted in a difficult target for the Windies had there been another day to chase it – but the third day had been rained off, and time ran out.", "In the Fourth Test, England picked up their only first-innings lead of the series – of 105 runs – but collapsed catastrophically in the second, before being saved by a century partnership for the last wicket between Willey (100) and Willis (24) to reach a total 201/9, and again the loss of a day and a half to rain left no time for the Windies to chase a potentially tough target above 300.Botham had a poor season as a bowler and, in all first-class cricket, took just 40 wickets at the high average of 34.67 with a best return of only four for 38.He did better as a batsman, scoring 1,149 runs (the second time, after 1976, that he topped a thousand in a season) at 42.55: but this did not translate to form in the Tests.", "He completed two centuries and six other half-centuries for his county.", "His highest score in the season was ultimately the highest of his career: 228 for Somerset against Gloucestershire at Taunton in May.", "He batted for just over three hours, hitting 27 fours and ten sixes.", "With Gloucestershire batting out time for a draw on the final day, Somerset used all eleven players as bowlers.", "Apart from an innings of 57 in the first Test, Botham contributed little to England in the series and that innings was the only time he reached 50 in all his twelve Tests as England captain.", "Somerset came close to retaining their JPL title in 1980 but had to be content with second place, only two points behind Warwickshire.", "They finished a credible fifth in the County Championship but were eliminated from both the Gillette and B&H Cups in the opening phase.Botham led England on the controversial tour of the West Indies from January to April 1981.The second Test, scheduled to be played at Bourda, was cancelled after the Guyanese government revoking the visa of Robin Jackman because of his playing and coaching links with South Africa.", "The other four Tests were played and West Indies won the series 2–0 but England were helped by rain in the two drawn matches.", "Botham took the most wickets for England, but ''Wisden'' said \"his bowling never recovered the full rhythm of a year before\".", "His batting, however, apart from one good LOI performance in the first one-day international \"was found wanting in technique, concentration and eventually in confidence\".", "In ''Wisden's'' view, Botham's loss of form \"could be cited as eloquent evidence of the undesirability of saddling a fast bowler and vital all-rounder with the extra burden of captaincy\".", "The closest England came to a victory was in the first ODI, in which England bowled the West Indies out for 127 but, thanks to six wickets from Colin Croft, failed by two runs in the chase which was anchored by Botham's 60: this was, at the time, the lowest ODI total batting first to be successfully defended.===Somerset and England (1981)===The England captaincy had affected Botham's form as a player and in his last Test as captain, against Australia at Lord's in 1981, he was dismissed for a pair.", "According to ''Wisden'' editor Matthew Engel, writing in ''ESPNcricinfo'', Botham \"resigned (a minute before being sacked), his form shot to pieces\" after that match.", "Australia were then leading the series 1–0 after two Tests with four more to be played.", "Botham was replaced by the returning Mike Brearley, who had been his predecessor until retiring from Test cricket in 1980.Botham continued to play for England under Brearley and achieved the highpoint of his career in the next three Tests as England recovered to win The Ashes.", "In the third Test at Headingley, Australia opened with 401 for 9 declared, despite good bowling by Botham who took 6 for 95.England responded poorly and were dismissed for 174.Botham was the only batsman to perform at all well and scored 50, which was his first Test half-century since he had been awarded the captaincy thirteen Tests earlier.", "Having been forced to follow-on, England collapsed again and at 135 for 7 on the afternoon of the fourth day, an innings defeat looked certain.", "Bookmakers had reportedly been offering odds of 500/1 against an England win after the follow-on was enforced.", "Botham, himself not long at the wicket, was the sole remaining recognised batsman as he was joined by the fast bowler Graham Dilley, number nine in the batting order, with only Chris Old and Bob Willis to come.", "With able support from Dilley (56) and Old (29), Botham hit out and by the close of play was 145 not out with Willis hanging on at the other end on 1 not out.", "England's lead was just 124 but there remained a glimmer of hope.", "On the final day's play, Botham reached 149 not out before Willis's wicket fell.", "Australia, with plenty of time remaining, needed 130 to win and were generally expected to get them; but after Botham took the first wicket, Willis took 8 for 43 to dismiss Australia for only 111.England had won by 18 runs; it was only the second time in history that a team following on had won a Test match.Botham's outstanding form continued through the next two Tests.", "In the fourth at Edgbaston, a low-scoring match left Australia batting last and needing 151 to win.", "They reached 105 for 5 and were still favourites at that point but, in an inspired spell of bowling, Botham then took five wickets for only one run in 28 balls to give England victory by 29 runs.", "In the fifth Test at Old Trafford, Botham scored 118 in a partnership of 149 with Chris Tavaré before he was dismissed.", "He hit six sixes in that innings.", "England won that match to take a winning 3–1 series lead.", "The last Test at The Oval was drawn, Botham achieving a 10wM by taking six for 125 and four for 128.He was named Man of the Series after scoring 399 runs, taking 34 wickets and holding 12 catches.Somerset won the Benson & Hedges Cup for the first time in 1981 and did well in the County Championship too, finishing third.", "They were again runners-up in the JPL, but a long way behind the winners Essex.", "In the renamed NatWest Trophy (formerly Gillette Cup), Somerset were knocked out in the second round.", "Botham played in the B&H final at Lord's, in which Somerset defeated Surrey by seven wickets.", "He took no wickets but provided Viv Richards (132 not out) with good support in the run chase.", "Botham ended the season with 67 wickets at 25.55, a best return of six for 90 (for Somerset v Sussex) and one 10wM (sixth Test).", "He scored 925 runs with a highest of 149* (third Test) at 42.04; and held 19 catches.===Somerset and England (1981–82 to 1983–84)===During this period, Botham played in 25 Tests.", "There were home series against both India and Pakistan in 1982; and New Zealand in 1983.His overseas tours were to India and Sri Lanka in 1981–82 (he took part in the inaugural Test played by Sri Lanka); to Australia in 1982–83; and to New Zealand and Pakistan in 1983–84.He played for England in the 1983 Cricket World Cup and was a member of their losing team in the semi-final.Botham's return to India was less than triumphant and ''Wisden'' took him to task for his \"ineffectiveness with the ball\".", "Having achieved a match analysis of nine for 133 at Bombay, where England were beaten on a poor pitch, Botham took only eight more wickets, at 65 each, in the last five Tests and ''Wisden'' said this \"was a telling blow to England's chance of levelling the series\".1982 was a good all-round season for Botham, especially as Somerset retained the Benson & Hedges Cup.", "In 17 first-class matches, he scored 1,241 runs with a highest of 208 against India (this was ultimately his career highest in Test cricket) at a good average of 44.32.He took 66 wickets at the low average of 22.98 with a best return of five for 46.England won their Test series against Pakistan by 2–1 and the one against India 1–0.Botham scored two centuries against India: 128 at Old Trafford and his career high 208 at The Oval.", "Somerset finished sixth and ninth in the County Championship and the JPL respectively.", "They reached the quarter-final of the NatWest Trophy and their season highlight was retaining the B&H Cup they won in 1981.In the final at Lord's, Somerset dismissed Nottinghamshire for only 130 (Botham two for 19)and won easily by nine wickets.Botham toured Australia again in 1982–83 with England seeking to retain the Ashes, but Australia won the series 2–1 despite England winning, at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), a Test described by ''Wisden'' as \"one of the most exciting Test matches ever played\".", "Botham had a poor series and tour.", "He played in nine first-class matches and scored only 434 runs at the low average of 24.11 with a highest of 65.He was no better with the ball, taking just 29 wickets for a too-high 35.62 with a best return of four for 43.He did, however, field well and held 17 catches, nearly two a match.Botham batting at Trent Bridge, 1983In the 1983 English season, Somerset won the NatWest Trophy for the first time, defeating Kent in the Lord's final by 24 runs with Botham as their captain.", "They were very close to taking the JPL title too but, having tied with Yorkshire on 46 points, they were placed second on run rate.", "In the County Championship, they won only three matches and finished tenth.", "They were knocked out of the B&H Cup early.", "Botham had a good season with the bat, scoring 852 runs in his 14 first-class matches at 40.57 with a highest score of 152 among three centuries.", "He did less well with the ball: only 22 wickets at the high average of 33.09.New Zealand played a four-match Test series against England after the World Cup and, at the 29th attempt, finally defeated England for the first time in a Test match in England.", "England won the other three matches convincingly, however, to take the series 3–1.Botham did little with the ball, the same story as in his whole season, but he did score a century (103) in the final Test at Trent Bridge (see photo).In the winter of 1983–84, England toured New Zealand from January to February and Pakistan in March.", "Apart from one innings at Basin Reserve in the first Test against New Zealand, Botham was a disappointment on this tour, especially as a bowler.", "He scored 138 in the first Test, sharing in a sixth wicket partnership of 232 with Derek Randall (164), but the match was drawn.", "It was a poor tour for England, all told, and described by ''Wisden'' as \"ranking among the unhappiest they have ever undertaken\".", "England lost both series 1–0.Botham left Pakistan after the first Test there, the one England lost, to have a knee problem investigated at home.===Somerset and England (1984 to 1986–87)===After ten seasons as a first-team regular, Botham was appointed Somerset club captain in 1984 and 1985.In the County Championship, they finished seventh in 1984 and then dropped to 17th (bottom of the table) in 1985.In the JPL, they were 15th in 1984 and eleventh in 1985.They made little impression in either of the B&H Cup or the NatWest Trophy so, all in all, Botham's captaincy period was a lean time for the club who had enjoyed its most successful period ever in the preceding seasons.Botham played in 18 Tests from 1984 to 1986, ten of them (five home, five away) against West Indies.", "Throughout Botham's Test career, the highest international standards were set by West Indies and Botham was generally unsuccessful against them.", "In both of these series, 1984 and 1985–86, West Indies beat England 5–0 in whitewashes that were dubbed \"blackwash\".His highest score and both his best and worst bowling performances against West Indies occurred in the same match at Lord's in 1984.Clive Lloyd won the toss and, perhaps mistakenly, elected to field.", "The first day was rain-affected and England, 167 for two overnight, scored 286 thanks to a century by Graeme Fowler; Botham scored a useful 30.West Indies lost three quick wickets, all of them to Botham who was a \"reminder of his old self\" in the words of ''Wisden'', but recovered to reach 119 for three at the close of play on day two.", "In the third morning, Viv Richards was dismissed by Botham under dubious circumstances but Botham was inspired by the capture of his great friend's wicket and went on to take eight for 103, dismissing West Indies for 245 and for once giving England a chance of victory against the world's best team, with a first innings lead of 41.This was Botham's best-ever bowling performance against West Indies by some distance.", "England began their second innings and had been reduced to 88 for four when Botham joined Allan Lamb.", "They reached 114 for four at day three close.", "There was no Sunday play and England resumed on the Monday 155 runs ahead with six wickets standing.", "Botham and Lamb added 128 for the fifth wicket before Botham was out for 81, including nine fours and one six, easily his highest score and best innings against West Indies.", "Lamb made a century and England were all out on the Tuesday morning (final day) for exactly 300.West Indies needed 342 to win in five and a half hours.", "They lost Desmond Haynes to a run out at 57 for 0, whereupon Larry Gomes (92 not out) joined Gordon Greenidge (214 not out) and West Indies went on to win by nine wickets with 11.5 of the last twenty overs to spare.", "Although ''Wisden'' does not name Botham except as an \"inattentive\" fielder who dropped a catch, it describes the England bowlers \"looking second-rate and nobody but Willis bowling the right line or setting the right field to the powerful and phlegmatic Greenidge\".", "Botham bowled the most overs, 20, and with nought for 117 he conceded almost a run a ball (Willis had nought for 48 from 15 overs).", "In mitigation, ''Wisden'' conceded that Greenidge played \"the innings of his life, and his ruthless batting probably made the bowling look worse that it was\".Botham also played in the one-off Test against Sri Lanka: not bowling particularly well in the first innings although he took the first wicket (1/114 out of 491), and being dismissed for 6 as England batted (370).", "Toward the end of Sri Lanka's second innings as the match meandered to a draw, in absolutely ferocious heat Botham dispensed with his usual fast bowler's long run-up and switched to bowling off-spin off a few paces, surprising everybody (himself included) by taking several wickets with it, out of an analysis of 6/90.He decided to take a rest over the winter, and sit out of the 1984–85 tour of India.In 1985, Botham played in all six Tests against a poor Australian team as England, themselves a second-rate team based on their recent performances, comfortably regained the Ashes and he was the leading wicket-taker, but the series was dominated by England's specialist batsmen, especially Mike Gatting and David Gower.", "Botham, who by this time had adopted a dyed blonde mullet haircut as a trademark, contributed relatively little with the bat, compared with the massive totals amassed by Gower, Gatting, Graham Gooch and Tim Robinson.", "He scored 250 runs at 31.25 with a highest of 85.He did take the most wickets (31 at 27.58 with a best of five for 109) but he was rarely impressive and he was bowling to a weak batting side, Allan Border apart.", "England's best bowler was Richard Ellison who played only twice and took 17 wickets at only 10.88 with a best of six for 77 and one 10wM.Botham was suspended for 63 days by the Test and County Cricket Board in 1986 after he admitted in an interview that he had smoked cannabis.", "Due to the ban, Botham played in only one Test which was the final one of the series against New Zealand.", "He made his mark on that Test though: beginning it by taking the wicket of Bruce Edgar with his very first delivery, to go level with Dennis Lillee on 355 as holder of the world record for Test wickets.", "The next delivery was edged through the slip cordon by Jeff Crowe.", "Botham went past the mark in his second over to hold the record outright, by trapping Crowe leg-before.", "Then on the fourth day of the match, coming in after centuries from Gatting and Gower, he bashed a quickfire half-century in just 32 balls, including 24 off one over from Derek Stirling – equalling the record at the time, for most runs off an over in Tests... a record which he was responsible for, but from the other side, having conceded 24 runs to Andy Roberts back in the 1980/81 tour of the West Indies.", "England declared with a massive first-innings lead, but rain came after lunch on the fourth day and only one further over was bowled.Botham was succeeded by Peter Roebuck as Somerset captain for 1986 but, during the season, tensions arose in the Somerset dressing room which eventually exploded into a full-scale row and resulted in the sacking by the club of Botham's friends Viv Richards and Joel Garner.", "Botham, who supported Richards and Garner, decided to resign at the end of the season.", "1986 was not a season for Botham to remember except for one brilliant List A innings when he made his career highest score in the limited overs form of 175 not out for Somerset against Northamptonshire in a 39-over JPL match at the Wellingborough School ground.", "It was to no avail, however, as the weather intervened and the game ended in no result.", "His innings remains a ground record.Botham's final tour of Australia was in 1986/87 under Mike Gatting's captaincy.", "He played in four Tests and England won the Ashes for the last time until 2005.In many ways, the series was also Botham's last hurrah because he scored his final Test century (138 in the first Test at Brisbane which England won by seven wickets) and took his final Test 5wI (five for 41 in the fourth Test at the MCG which England won by an innings and 14 runs).", "''Wisden'' pointed out that although Botham had a modest series statistically, \"he was an asset to the side\" because of his enthusiasm and \"going out of his way to encourage younger players, especially Phil DeFreitas\".", "Botham suffered a severe rib injury in the Second Test in Perth, which kept him out of the 3rd Test entirely and reduced the pace of his bowling for the remainder of the tour as he tried to manage it: as a result, with reasonable success, he changed his bowling style to a defensive, miserly military-medium pace.", "England also won the two one-day tournaments, the one-off Benson & Hedges Perth Challenge (against Australia, West Indies and Pakistan) and the World Series (against Australia and Windies): Botham produced several match-winning performances with both bat and ball despite being not fully fit, and was Man of the Match in both matches of the best-of-three final of the World Series – with the bat in the first, opening the batting for 71 (scored out of 91 while he was at the crease), and with the ball in the second, for a particularly miserly spell which also took three wickets as England defended a low total by nine runs, to win the finals 2–0.It was also in this tournament that England tried the experiment of having Botham open the batting in ODIs, with the idea of hitting the ball over the top to counter the fielding restrictions which forced most of the fielders to be close to the bat inside the early overs.===Worcestershire and England (1987 to 1991)===After his resignation from Somerset, Botham joined Worcestershire for the 1987 season and spent five seasons with them.", "In 1987, he scored 126* against his old county but otherwise he was more successful as a limited overs batsman, scoring two centuries and averaging 40.94.His bowling too was much better in the shorter form, wherein he averaged 21.29 against 42.04 in first-class.", "His limited overs efforts helped Worcestershire to win the Sunday League.", "They finished ninth in the County Championship and were unsuccessful in the two knockout trophies.", "Worcestershire, taking a leaf from England's winter tactic, sometimes used Botham to open the batting in one-day matches, in partnership with regular opener Tim Curtis.Botham played in the five 1987 Tests against Pakistan, the last time he represented England in a full series.", "He scored 232 runs in the series with one half-century (51) at 33.14; and took only seven wickets which were enormously expensive.", "Pakistan won by an innings at Headingley with the other four Tests drawn, although England were in superior positions in the First and Fourth tests which lost much time to rain, and only narrowly failed to level the series in the Fourth, running out of overs chasing a small target.", "When Pakistan totalled 708 at The Oval, the 217 runs conceded by Botham, from 52 overs, were the most by an England bowler, passing the 204 by Ian Peebles, from 71 overs, against Australia at The Oval in 1930, although he took three wickets and also ran out Imran Khan.", "The half-century, his final and by far his slowest Test fifty, was a dogged, defensive effort occupying most of the last day in a drawn match, in an unbroken partnership with Gatting (150) to save the 5th test and keep England's margin of defeat at 1–0.He declined to go on tour with England the following winter, either for the 1987 World Cup in India and Pakistan (in which England reached the final) or for the subsequent tours of Pakistan (lost 1–0) and New Zealand (a rain-ruined 0–0 drawn series).Botham spent the 1987–88 Australian season with Queensland, playing for them in the Sheffield Shield.", "Queensland were one of the better state teams in the 1980s and were always in the Shield's top three from the 1983–84 season through to the 1990–91 season, but didn't win it.", "In Botham's season there, his teammates including Allan Border (captain), wicketkeeper Ian Healy and pace bowler Craig McDermott, they finished second to Western Australia.", "Botham scored several half-centuries and took a reasonable number of wickets and helped Queensland make the Sheffield Shield final.", "Botham and Dennis Lillee were fined for damaging the Queensland dressing room in Launceston, Tasmania during a one-day match.", "When the Queensland team flew to Perth for the Shield final, Botham was involved in an altercation where he allegedly assaulted a fellow airline passenger who had intervened in an argument between the Queensland players.", "Queensland lost the final.", "Botham was fined $800 by a magistrate and $5,000 by the Australian Cricket Board.", "He was consequently sacked by Queensland.Botham was unfit for most of the 1988 season and played in only four first-class and seven limited overs matches during April and May.", "He did not play for England.", "Nevertheless, Worcestershire won both the County Championship and the Sunday League.", "Botham was out of action for eleven months, having had an operation to fuse vertebrae in his spine in response to a long-standing back problem.He returned in May 1989 and, bowling well in the County Championship, helped Worcestershire to a second successive title.", "With England struggling against Allan Border's rebuilt Australian team which featured the likes of Healy, McDermott, Steve Waugh, Merv Hughes and Mark Taylor, Botham was recalled for the third, fourth and fifth Tests of the pivotal Ashes 1989 series.", "He could do little to stem a tide which had now turned completely in Australia's favour and looked completely out of his depth.", "He scored only 62 runs at the very low average of 15.50 – two-thirds of them in one innings – and took just three wickets at an enormously expensive 80.33.The summer of 1989 saw more controversy for England with the organisation of a rebel tour to South Africa, all participants being banned for three years: Botham declined the rebel tour, hoping to be selected for the winter tour of the West Indies, only to be dropped for his poor form.Another two-year absence from international cricket ensued until he was recalled again to play against West Indies in 1991, on the strength of belting 161* for Worcestershire against them in their early-season tour match against the county – it was to be his only century ever against the West Indies.", "He was selected for the early-season ODI series at first: he took a wicket in his first over, and four in his ten-over spell, but later tore a hamstring, going for a quick single while batting.", "He could have retired hurt, but opted to continue with a runner, only to be dismissed by the next delivery.", "The injury put him out of the remaining ODIs (both won by England) and the first couple of Tests (which England won and drew to lead 1–0): then, on his comeback in a county match, another injury caused him to be unavailable for the 3rd and 4th Tests (both lost by England).", "He was recalled for the 5th Test with England needing a victory to tie the series: batting in the first innings, he scored a respectable 31 before attempting to hook Curtly Ambrose and being dismissed \"hit wicket\", in circumstances which caused an infamous giggling fit in the BBC ''Test Match Special'' radio commentary box.", "Used sparingly with the ball, he took 1/27 and 2/40 as West Indies were bowled out, forced to follow on and bowled out again, by Tufnell (6/25) and Lawrence (5/106) in the first and second innings respectively.", "His only Test victory against the Windies was completed when he himself hit the winning runs – a boundary off his first delivery – as England chased a target of 143 with five wickets to spare, and tied the series.", "Two weeks later, he played against Sri Lanka at Lord's, achieving little of note.", "He helped Worcestershire to win the B&H Cup for the only time in 1991.===Durham and England (1991–92 to 1993)===Botham's final tour was to Australia and New Zealand in 1991–92.In the tour of NZ, he played in only the last Test, and the one-day series: his most notable contribution was his highest ODI score of 79, opening the batting, in which he seemed to be set fair to finally reach a century in an ODI, but NZ managed to keep him away from the strike for several overs, he ran out of patience, slogged a delivery straight up in the air and was caught.", "After this came the World Cup in Australia.", "Botham had not previously won any man of the match awards in the World Cup, but in this competition he won two.", "Against India at the WACA Ground, he bowled tightly and restricted India, needing 237, to only 27 runs from his ten overs, an economy rate of 2.70 which was significantly lower than anyone else's.", "He captured two wickets and one of them was Sachin Tendulkar.", "England won by nine runs.", "Against Australia at Sydney Cricket Ground later in the competition, Botham won the award for the sort of all-round performance which had made his reputation.", "Australia won the toss and decided to bat first.", "They scored 171 all out in 49 overs and Botham took four for 31 in his ten.", "He then opened the England innings with Graham Gooch – the tactic England had trialled in Australia five years before, and again in the ODIs against NZ at the end of the tour before the World Cup – and scored 53 from only 77 balls in a partnership with Gooch of 107.England went on to win by eight wickets with nine overs to spare.", "He was less successful in the final, where previously economical bowling figures were ruined by a late assault from the Pakistani batting line-up, and then he was given out caught-behind for a duck (perhaps unfortunately, since he appeared not to have touched the ball according to the camera replays) in Wasim Akram's first over, England losing the match.In 1992, Botham joined County Championship newcomers Durham, scoring a century in the second innings in their inaugural first-class match against Leicestershire: and he played in the first two Tests against Pakistan, the second one at Lord's being his final Test appearance.", "Botham scored 2 and 6, cheaply dismissed each time by the pace of Waqar Younis.", "As a bowler, he was used for only five overs in the first innings, his final Test return being none for nine: he did not bowl in Pakistan's second innings, due to a foot injury sustained while batting, although he fielded at slip.", "England lost the match by two wickets and Pakistan went on to win the series 2–1.Botham did however play in the ODI series, in all five matches, which England won 4–1: these were his last international matches.", "England's batting was so dominant in all but one of the matches, that Botham only came in right at the end of the innings, or not at all, reverting to his old place in the middle order, and he had little to do: except in the 4th match, where he opened the batting again (in Gooch's absence) and scored a respectable and workmanlike 40, but saw England lose their last four wickets for ten runs and the match by three runs.", "His bowling was similarly unremarkable, usually capturing one or two wickets at about four an over: he neither scored a run (did not bat) nor took a wicket (0–43) in his final match.It was in 1992 that Botham was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to cricket and for his charity work in the Queen's Birthday Honours.Botham retired from cricket midway through the 1993 season, his last match being for Durham against the visiting Australians at The Racecourse 17–19 July 1993.Durham batted first and scored 385 for eight declared (Wayne Larkins 151).", "In his final first-class innings, Botham scored 32.In reply, Australia could only make 221, due to Simon Brown who took seven for 70 (Botham none for 21).", "Being 164 behind, Australia had to follow on and a victory for Durham was possible but centuries by Matthew Hayden and David Boon saved Australia and the match was drawn.", "Botham's final bowling return was none for 45 from eleven overs.", "In the final over of the game, Botham also kept wicket, without wearing gloves or pads." ], [ "Records in international cricket", "A graph showing Botham's Test career bowling statistics and how they have varied over timeBotham's Test career spanned 16 seasons and he played in 102 matches.", "He scored 5,200 runs at an average of 33.54 with a highest score of 208 in his 14 centuries.", "He took 383 wickets at an average of 28.40 with a best return of eight for 34 and achieved ten wickets in a match four times.", "He held 120 catches.In 116 LOIs from 1976 to 1992, he scored 2,113 runs with a highest score of 79; took 145 wickets with a best return of four for 31; and held 36 catches.", "A straight comparison of these totals with those of his Test career reveal that he was less effective in the limited overs form of the game.", "He did have some outstanding LOI matches, however, winning six man of the match awards.", "Botham took part in three editions of the Cricket World Cup: 1979, 1983 and 1992.He played in 22 World Cup matches including the finals in 1979 and 1992, both of which England lost, and he was in England's losing team in the 1983 semi-final.Botham was the 21st player to achieve the \"double\" of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets in Test cricket and he went on to score 5,200 runs and take 383 wickets, as well as holding 120 catches.He held the world record for the greatest number of Test wickets from 21 August 1986 to 12 November 1988.His predecessor was Dennis Lillee who had retired with 355 wickets in 70 matches.", "Botham extended the record to 373 in 94 matches before he was overtaken by Richard Hadlee.", "Botham ended with 383 wickets in 102 matches while Hadlee extended the record to 431 in 86 matches.", "See List of Test cricket records#Career.As described above, Botham in 1980 became the second player to achieve the \"match double\" of 100 runs and ten wickets in Test cricket, following Alan Davidson in 1960–61.Botham was, however, the first to score a century and take ten wickets in a Test match (Davidson scored 44 and 80).", "The century and ten double has since been achieved by Imran Khan who scored 117 and took six for 98 and five for 82 against India at the Iqbal Stadium in Faisalabad in January 1983., and again by Shakib Al Hasan for Bangladesh against Zimbabwe at Khulna in 2014." ], [ "List of Test centuries and five-wicket innings", "Botham's Test career performance graphCompared with many of cricket's greatest players, most of whom were specialists, Botham's averages seem fairly ordinary but this overlooks the fact that he was a genuine all-rounder and it is rare for this type of player to achieve world-class status.", "Since the Second World War, Botham is one of perhaps a dozen or so world-class all-rounders whereas there have been numerous world-class specialists.", "Some of the great all-rounders, such as Garfield Sobers and Jacques Kallis as batsmen or Alan Davidson and Richard Hadlee as bowlers, could justifiably be described as world-class specialists in their main discipline who were effective practitioners of the other.", "The genuine all-rounders to achieve world-class status during the era, besides Botham himself, have included Keith Miller, Richie Benaud, Mike Procter, Clive Rice, Imran Khan, Kapil Dev and Andrew Flintoff.Of note, Botham's first 202 wickets came at 21.20 per wicket, while his final 181 cost on average 36.43 apiece; the first average is one that would make Botham one of the greatest bowlers of the modern era, ranking alongside the West Indian greats Curtly Ambrose (career average 20.99), Malcolm Marshall (career average 20.94), and Joel Garner (career average 20.97), but the second average depicts a player who, as a specialist bowler, would be unable to sustain a place in many Test teams.", "This difference can be largely attributed to the longer term effects of a back injury he sustained in 1980; this limited his bowling pace and his ability to swing the ball.Botham's batting – although never the equal of his bowling abilities – declined as well, with a batting average of 38.80 for his first 51 Tests substantially higher than the 28.87 he managed in his last 51 Tests, again a number that would be considered unsatisfactory for a specialist batsman in most Test sides.", "In the first 5 years of Botham's Test career, when not playing as captain, he scored 2,557 runs at an average of 49.17 including 11 centuries and a highest score of 208, took 196 wickets at an average of 21.28 including nineteen 5 wicket hauls and held 50 catches.", "Such figures denote a player who would easily maintain a place in any Test side as a specialist batsman or bowler alone.", "During this period his reputation as one of the leading Test all-rounders was firmly established." ], [ "Style and technique", "Botham had an affinity with Brian Close, his first county captain who became a mentor to him, as they shared a determination to do well and win matches.", "''Wisden'' has commented on another shared characteristic: \"outstanding courage\", mainly because Botham would readily field anywhere, generally in the slips but also in dangerous positions near the batsman and he was a brilliant fielder.", "As a batsman, Botham was often wrongly labelled by the tabloid press as a \"big hitter\" (effectively implying that he was a \"slogger\") but, while it is true that his strength enabled him to drive a ball for six and his courage to hook one for six, Botham actually had a very correct batting style as he stood side-on and played straight: ''Wisden'' praised his \"straight hitting and square cutting\".", "Botham might not have been good enough to retain a regular England place as a specialist batsman (his Test career batting average was a fairly modest 33.54) but as a bowler who was capable of taking 383 Test wickets, he certainly would.", "''Wisden'' praised Tom Cartwright for helping to develop Botham's technique as a swing bowler and, by the time he made his Test debut in 1977, Botham had mastered change of pace, the outswinger and the fast inswinging yorker, all formidable parts of his repertoire which eventually enabled him to break the world Test wicket record.Writing in ''Barclays World of Cricket'' (1986), former England captain Tony Lewis commented on Botham's strength, enthusiasm and aggression \"which he took into every game\".", "Lewis, however, pointed out that Botham's exuberance often reduced the efficiency of his play, in that he would take too many risks or refuse to give up on a bowling tactic despite ongoing heavy cost.", "He summarised Botham as an exciting cricketer who lacked self-discipline.", "Botham was in the middle of his career when the book was published, but Lewis emphasised the speed at which Botham had achieved certain milestones such as 1,000 runs and 100 wickets in Test cricket.", "At that time there seemed no reason why Botham should not go on reaching milestones, but he had already peaked and, in retrospect, his career had a meteoric aspect.", "His rival Imran Khan said: \"Botham was someone who I don't think ever did justice to his talent.", "When he started he could have done anything, but he declined very quickly.", "In a way our careers were the opposite of each other.", "I started quite slowly but got better, maximised my talent.", "He went the other way, I think\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Botham's career and ability level has been oft-debated.", "For example, when naming him as a Cricketer of the Year in its 1978 edition, ''Wisden'' described Botham as \"a determined character who knows where he is aiming, and who will, quite naturally and fiercely, address himself to the interesting view that he is overrated\".", "Denis Compton would dismiss Botham as \"overrated\" and said he \"only did well because all the best players had joined Packer\": i.e., for World Series Cricket (WSC).Botham would readily give praise to his colleagues, for instance, his batting partners Hallam Moseley and Bob Clapp after the 1974 Benson and Hedges quarter-final against Hampshire; and to Bob Willis, the man whose bowling spell won the test match at Headingley in 1981.The Richards–Botham Trophy, set to replace the Wisden Trophy for winners of West Indies–England Test series, is named in honour of Botham and Viv Richards." ], [ "Libel cases brought against Imran Khan (1994–1996)", "In 1994, the year after he retired, Botham became embroiled in a legal dispute with Imran Khan who, in an article for ''India Today'', had accused Botham and Allan Lamb of bringing cricket into disrepute.", "Botham and Lamb instigated a libel action in response.", "The case was heard at the High Court in 1996 with the court choosing to hear on the second day a separate action brought solely by Botham against Khan, who had suggested in a newspaper article that Botham had been involved in ball-tampering.", "This would become the subject of a court case later on, one that Khan would go on to win.", "Botham was liable for all expenses in the court case in the ruling, including those incurred by Khan." ], [ "Football career", "Botham was a talented footballer but, believing he was better at cricket, he chose the latter for his full-time career.", "Even so, he played football as a centre-half from 1978 to 1985 for Yeovil Town and Scunthorpe United.", "He made eleven appearances in the Football League for Scunthorpe.", "While with Yeovil, Botham made an appearance for the Football Association XI (a representative side for non-League footballers) against the Northern Football League at Croft Park during the 1984–85 season." ], [ "Charity fundraising", "Botham's Paddington Bear statue—themed \"Sticky Wicket\"—in Regent's Park, London, auctioned to raise funds for the NSPCCBotham has been a prodigious fundraiser for charitable causes, undertaking a total of 12 long-distance charity walks.", "His first, in 1985, was a 900-mile trek from John o' Groats to Land's End.", "His efforts were inspired after a visit to Taunton's Musgrove Park Hospital in 1977 whilst receiving treatment for a broken toe.", "When he took a wrong turn into a children's ward, he was devastated to learn that some of the children had only weeks to live, and why.", "At the time he was an expectant father.", "Since then his efforts have raised more than £12 million for charity, with leukaemia research the main cause to benefit.", "In recognition of this work, Botham in 2003 became the first-ever President of Bloodwise, the UK's leading blood cancer charity.", "In November 2014, Botham designed a Paddington Bear statue, one of fifty created by various celebrities which were located around London prior to the release of the film ''Paddington'', with the statues auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC).On 10 October 2007, Botham was invested a Knight Bachelor by Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace, having been appointed in the Queen's Birthday Honours \"for services to Charity and to Cricket\"." ], [ "Media career", "After retiring from cricket, Botham became involved in the media and has worked as an analyst and commentator for Sky Sports for many years.", "Unlike Fred Trueman and others, he does not hark back to \"in my day\".", "''Wisden'' editor Matthew Engel remarked on Botham's calmness, wit and sagacity as a TV commentator, though admitting he was surprised by it.On 9 August 2009, while commentating on the fourth Ashes Test at Headingley that season, Botham was invited to take part in an on-field ceremony to induct him into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame along with former Yorkshire players Geoffrey Boycott, Wilfred Rhodes and Fred Trueman.", "Boycott was also in attendance, along with Fred Trueman's widow Veronica and Colin Graves who, as Yorkshire County Cricket Club chairman, accepted the honour on behalf of Wilfred Rhodes.", "Botham said: \"To be named amongst 55 of the most prolific players in cricketing history is a great honour for me.", "To have my cricketing career recognised in the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame is not something I would have thought when I began playing cricket but to be receiving this award today is something I'm extremely grateful for\".", "Colin Graves included Botham in his tribute to Rhodes when he said: \"It is a great honour to accept the cap on behalf of a Yorkshire legend.", "Wilfred Rhodes was an exceedingly gifted player and is rightly regarded as one of England's greatest all-rounders.", "I am also delighted to see two other great Yorkshiremen and another great all-rounder inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame today\".He was the subject of ''This Is Your Life'' in 1981 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews during a meeting at Lord's.On 12 August 1995, Botham was interviewed at length by Andrew Neil on his one-on-one interview show ''Is This Your Life?''", "for Channel 4." ], [ "Peerage", "He was nominated by Boris Johnson for a life peerage in the 2020 Political Honours, it being widely reported that the honour was a reward for his support for Brexit.", "He was created '''''Baron Botham''', of Ravensworth in the County of North Yorkshire'' on 10 September and took the oath and his seat on 5 October 2020.He made his maiden speech on 3 November the same year and since then has made one further spoken contribution on 25 November 2020.His last vote in the House of Lords was in July 2021.On 23 August 2021, Boris Johnson appointed him the UK's Trade Envoy to Australia." ], [ "Personal life", "Botham is colour blind.", "In 1976, in Doncaster, Botham married Kathryn (\"Kathy\") Waller (now Lady Botham) whom he first met in June 1974.After their marriage, they lived until the late 1980s in Epworth, near Scunthorpe.", "They have one son, Liam (born August 1977), and two daughters, Sarah and Becky.", "The family now live in Ravensworth in North Yorkshire, and also own property in Almería, where Botham frequently plays golf.Botham is an avid trout and salmon fisherman.", "As a result, he was invited to present a TV series called ''Botham on the Fly''.", "He has also been a team captain on the BBC series ''A Question of Sport''.Besides angling and golf, Botham enjoys game shooting and owns a grouse moor.", "This has resulted in a high-profile dispute with the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB).", "In August 2016, he called for Chris Packham to be sacked by the BBC as part of a campaign funded by the grouse shooting industry, after Packham had highlighted the industry's involvement in the illegal killing of endangered species of birds of prey.According to the ''New Statesman'' in 2015, \"Botham is an old-fashioned Englishman ... he is conservative with a small and upper-case C\" and \"a robust monarchist\".", "Botham was a staunch supporter of the UK's withdrawal from the European Union.", "He was quoted: \"Personally, I think that England is an island.", "I think that England should be England.", "And I think that we should keep that.\"", "He appeared at a number of pro-Leave campaign events in the run-up to the UK's EU membership referendum in 2016.Botham's private life has also made occasional dramatic appearances in Britain's tabloid newspapers, with at least one extra-marital affair prompting a public apology to his wife Kathy.", "He also fell out publicly with other players, including fellow England player Geoff Boycott, Somerset captain Peter Roebuck, and Australian batsman Ian Chappell, with whom he had an altercation in an Adelaide Oval car park during the 2010–11 Ashes series.", "Although Botham hoped to resolve his long-running feud with Chappell during a Channel 9 documentary on 27 June 2023, Chappell refused." ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Sir Ian Botham, OBE's Biography, Debrett's People of Today (archived in 2013)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Id Software" ], [ "Introduction", "'''id Software LLC''' () is an American video game developer based in Richardson, Texas.", "It was founded on February 1, 1991, by four members of the computer company Softdisk: programmers John Carmack and John Romero, game designer Tom Hall, and artist Adrian Carmack.id Software made important technological developments in video game technologies for the PC (running MS-DOS and Windows), including work done for the ''Wolfenstein'', ''Doom'', and ''Quake'' franchises at the time.", "id's work was particularly important in 3D computer graphics technology and in game engines that are used throughout the video game industry.", "The company was involved in the creation of the first-person shooter (FPS) genre: ''Wolfenstein 3D'' is often considered to be the first true FPS; ''Doom'' is a game that popularized the genre and PC gaming in general; and ''Quake'' was id's first true 3D FPS.On June 24, 2009, ZeniMax Media acquired the company.", "In 2015, they opened a second studio in Frankfurt, Germany." ], [ "History", "===Formation===The founders of id Software – John Carmack, John Romero, and Tom Hall – met in the offices of Softdisk developing multiple games for Softdisk's monthly publishing, including ''Dangerous Dave''.", "Along with another Softdisk employee, Lane Roathe, they had formed a small group they called Ideas from the Deep (IFD), a name that Romero and Roathe had come up with.", "In September 1990, Carmack developed an efficient way to rapidly side-scroll graphics on the PC.", "Upon making this breakthrough, Carmack and Hall stayed up late into the night making a replica of the first level of the popular 1988 NES game ''Super Mario Bros. 3'', inserting stock graphics of Romero's Dangerous Dave character in lieu of Mario.", "When Romero saw the demo, entitled ''Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement'', he realized that Carmack's breakthrough could have potential.", "The IFD team moonlighted over a week and over two weekends to create a larger demo of their PC version of ''Super Mario Bros. 3''.", "They sent their work to Nintendo.", "According to Romero, Nintendo had told them that the demo was impressive, but \"they didn't want their intellectual property on anything but their own hardware, so they told us Good Job and You Can't Do This\".", "While the pair had not readily shared the demo though acknowledged its existence in the years since, a working copy of the demo was discovered in July 2021 and preserved at the Museum of Play.Around the same time in 1990, Scott Miller of Apogee Software learned of the group and their exceptional talent, having played one of Romero's Softdisk games, ''Dangerous Dave'', and contacted Romero under the guise of multiple fan letters that Romero came to realize all originated from the same address.", "When he confronted Miller, Miller explained that the deception was necessary since Softdisk screened letters it received.", "Although disappointed by not actually having received mail from multiple fans, Romero and other Softdisk developers began proposing ideas to Miller.", "One of these was ''Commander Keen'', a side-scrolling game that incorporated the previous work they had done on the ''Super Mario Bros. 3'' demonstration.", "The first ''Commander Keen'' game, ''Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons'', was released through Apogee in December 1990, which became a very successful shareware game.", "After their first royalty check, Romero, Carmack, and Adrian Carmack (no relation) decided to start their own company.", "After hiring Hall, the group finished the ''Commander Keen'' series, then hired Jay Wilbur and Kevin Cloud and began working on ''Wolfenstein 3D''.", "id Software was officially founded by Romero, John and Adrian Carmack and Hall on February 1, 1991.The name \"id\" came out of their previous IFD; Roathe had left the group, and they opted to drop the \"F\" to leave \"id\".", "They initially used \"id\" as an initialism for \"In Demand\", but by the time of the fourth ''Commander Keen'' game, they opted to let \"id\" stand out \"as a cool word\", according to Romero.The shareware distribution method was initially employed by id Software through Apogee Software to sell their products, such as the ''Commander Keen'', ''Wolfenstein'' and ''Doom'' games.", "They would release the first part of their trilogy as shareware, then sell the other two installments by mail order.", "Only later (about the time of the release of ''Doom II'') did id Software release their games via more traditional shrink-wrapped boxes in stores (through other game publishers).After ''Wolfenstein 3D''s great success, id began working on ''Doom''.", "After Hall left the company, Sandy Petersen and Dave Taylor were hired before the release of ''Doom'' in December 1993.===The end of the classic lineup===''Quake'' was released on June 22, 1996 and was considered a difficult game to develop due to creative differences.", "Animosity grew within the company and it caused a conflict between Carmack and Romero, which led the latter to leave id after the game's release.", "Soon after, other staff left the company as well such as Michael Abrash, Shawn Green, Jay Wilbur, Petersen and Mike Wilson.", "Petersen claimed in July 2021 that the lack of a team leader was the cause of it all.", "In fact, he volunteered to take lead as he had five years of experience as project manager in MicroProse but he was turned down by Carmack.===ZeniMax Media and Microsoft===On June 24, 2009, it was announced that id Software had been acquired by ZeniMax Media (owner of Bethesda Softworks).", "The deal would eventually affect publishing deals id Software had before the acquisition, namely ''Rage'', which was being published through Electronic Arts.", "ZeniMax received in July a $105 million investment from StrongMail Systems for the id acquisition, it's unknown if that was the exact price of the deal.", "id Software moved from the \"cube-shaped\" Mesquite office to a location in Richardson, Texas during the spring of 2011.On June 26, 2013, id Software president Todd Hollenshead quit after 17 years of service.On November 22, 2013, it was announced id Software co-founder and Technical Director John Carmack had fully resigned from the company to work full-time at Oculus VR which he joined as CTO in August 2013.He was the last of the original founders to leave the company.Tim Willits left the company in 2019.ZeniMax Media was acquired by Microsoft for in March 2021 and became part of Xbox Game Studios.=== Company name ===The company writes its name with a lowercase ''id'', which is pronounced as in \"did\" or \"kid\", and, according to the book ''Masters of Doom'', the group identified itself as \"Ideas from the Deep\" in the early days of Softdisk but that, in the end, the name 'id' came from the phrase \"in demand\".", "Disliking \"in demand\" as \"lame\", someone suggested a connection with Sigmund Freud's psychological concept of id, which the others accepted.", "Evidence of the reference can be found as early as ''Wolfenstein 3D'' with the statement \"that's id, as in the id, ego, and superego in the psyche\" appearing in the game's documentation.", "Prior to an update to the website, id's History page made a direct reference to Freud.=== Key employees ===* Kevin Cloud – Artist (1992-2006), Executive producer (2007–present)* Donna Jackson – Office manager / ''\"id mom\"'' (1994–present)* Marty Stratton – Director of Business Development (1997-2006), Executive Producer (2006–present) Studio Director (2019–present)* Robert Duffy – Chief Technology Officer (1998–present)* Hugo Martin – Creative Director (2013–present)=== Former key employees ===Arranged in chronological order:* Tom Hall – Co-founder, game designer, level designer, writer, creative director (1991–1993).", "After a dispute with John Carmack over the designs of ''Doom'', Hall was forced to resign from id Software in August 1993.He joined 3D Realms soon afterwards.", "* Bobby Prince – Music composer (1991–1994).", "A freelance musician who went on to pursue other projects after ''Doom II''.", "* Dave Taylor – Programmer (1993–1996).", "Taylor left id Software and co-founded Crack dot Com.", "* John Romero – Co-founder, game designer, programmer (1991–1996).", "Romero resigned on August 6, 1996.He established Ion Storm along with Hall on November 15, 1996.", "* Michael Abrash – Programmer (1995–1996).", "Returned to Microsoft after the release of ''Quake'', but eventually worked with Carmack again at Reality Labs.", "* Shawn Green – Software support (1991–1996).", "Left id Software to join Romero at Ion Storm.", "* Jay Wilbur – Business manager (1991–1997).", "Left id Software after Romero's departure and joined Epic Games in 1997.", "* Sandy Petersen – Level designer (1993–1997).", "Left id Software for Ensemble Studios in 1997.", "* Mike Wilson – PR and marketing (1994–1997).", "Left id Software to become CEO of Ion Storm with Romero.", "Left a year later to found Gathering of Developers and later Devolver Digital.", "* American McGee – Level designer (1993–1998).", "McGee was fired after the release of ''Quake II''.", "He joined Electronic Arts and created ''American McGee's Alice''.", "* Adrian Carmack – Co-founder, artist (1991–2005).", "Carmack was forced out of id Software after the release of ''Doom 3'' because he would not sell his stock at a low price to the other owners.", "Adrian sued id Software and the lawsuit was settled during the Zenimax acquisition in 2009.", "* Todd Hollenshead – President (1996–2013) Left id Software on good terms to work at Nerve Software.", "* John Carmack – Co-founder, technical director (1991–2013).", "He joined Oculus VR on August 7, 2013, as a side project, but unable to handle two companies at the same time, Carmack resigned from id Software on November 22, 2013, to pursue Oculus full-time, making him the last founding member to leave the company.", "* Tim Willits – Level designer (1995– 2001), creative director (2002–2011), studio director (2012–2019) He is now the chief creative officer at Saber Interactive.===Timeline===ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:20PlotArea = left:100 bottom:60 top:0 right:15Alignbars = justifyDateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:1991 till:2022TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyyLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottomScaleMajor = increment:2 start:1991Colors = id:code value:blue legend:Programming id:design value:green legend:Design id:art value:purple legend:Art id:management value:red legend:ManagementBarData = bar:JCarmack text:\"John Carmack\" bar:ACarmack text:\"Adrian Carmack\" bar:Romero text:\"John Romero\" bar:Hall text:\"Tom Hall\" bar:Wilbur text:\"Jay Wilbur\" bar:Green text:\"Shawn Green\" bar:Cloud text:\"Kevin Cloud\" bar:Prince text:\"Bobby Prince\" bar:Taylor text:\"Dave Taylor\" bar:Petersen text:\"Sandy Petersen\" bar:McGee text:\"American McGee\" bar:Wilson text:\"Mike Wilson\" bar:Jackson text:\"Donna Jackson\" bar:Abrash text:\"Michael Abrash\" bar:Willits text:\"Tim Willits\" bar:Hollenshead text:\"Todd Hollenshead\" bar:Stratton text:\"Marty Stratton\" bar:Duffy text:\"Robert Duffy\" bar:Martin text:\"Hugo Martin\"PlotData= width:11 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:JCarmack from:1991 till:2013 color:code bar:ACarmack from:1991 till:2005 color:art bar:Romero from:1991 till:1996 color:code bar:Romero from:1991 till:1996 color:design width:3 bar:Hall from:1991 till:1993 color:design bar:Wilbur from:1991 till:1997 color:management bar:Green from:1993 till:1996 color:code bar:Cloud from:1992 till:end color:art bar:Cloud from:2007 till:end color:management bar:Prince from:1992 till:1994 color:art bar:Taylor from:1993 till:1994 color:code bar:Petersen from:1993 till:1997 color:design bar:McGee from:1994 till:1998 color:design bar:Wilson from:1994 till:1997 color:management bar:Jackson from:1994 till:end color:management bar:Abrash from:1995 till:1996 color:code bar:Willits from:1995 till:2011 color:design bar:Willits from:2002 till:2011 color:management width:3 bar:Willits from:2011 till:2019 color:management bar:Hollenshead from:1996 till:2013 color:management bar:Stratton from:1997 till:end color:management bar:Duffy from:1998 till:end color:code bar:Martin from:2013 till:end color:art bar:Martin from:2013 till:end color:design width:3" ], [ "Game development", "=== Technology ===GDCStarting with their first shareware game series, ''Commander Keen'', id Software has licensed the core source code for the game, or what is more commonly known as the engine.", "Brainstormed by John Romero, id Software held a weekend session titled \"The id Summer Seminar\" in the summer of 1991 with prospective buyers including Scott Miller, George Broussard, Ken Rogoway, Jim Norwood and Todd Replogle.", "One of the nights, id Software put together an impromptu game known as \"Wac-Man\" to demonstrate not only the technical prowess of the ''Keen'' engine, but also how it worked internally.id Software has developed their own game engine for each of their titles when moving to the next technological milestone, including ''Commander Keen'', ''Wolfenstein 3D'', ''ShadowCaster'', ''Doom'', ''Quake'', ''Quake II'', and ''Quake III'', as well as the technology used in making ''Doom 3''.", "After being used first for id Software's in-house game, the engines are licensed out to other developers.", "According to ''Eurogamer.net'', \"id Software has been synonymous with PC game engines since the concept of a detached game engine was first popularized\".", "During the mid to late 1990s, \"the launch of each successive round of technology it's been expected to occupy a headlining position\", with the ''Quake III'' engine being most widely adopted of their engines.", "However id Tech 4 had far fewer licensees than the Unreal Engine from Epic Games, due to the long development time that went into ''Doom 3'' which id Software had to release before licensing out that engine to others.Despite his enthusiasm for open source code, Carmack revealed in 2011 that he had no interest in licensing the technology to the mass market.", "Beginning with ''Wolfenstein 3D'', he felt bothered when third-party companies started \"pestering\" him to license the id tech engine, adding that he wanted to focus on new technology instead of providing support to existing ones.", "He felt very strongly that this was not why he signed up to be a game programmer for; to be \"holding the hands\" of other game developers.", "Carmack commended Epic Games for pursuing the licensing to the market beginning with Unreal Engine 3.Even though the said company has gained more success with its game engine than id Software over the years, Carmack had no regrets by his decision and continued to focus on open source until his departure from the company in 2013.In conjunction with his self-professed affinity for sharing source code, John Carmack has open-sourced most of the major id Software engines under the GNU General Public License.", "Historically, the source code for each engine has been released once the code base is 5 years old.", "Consequently, many home grown projects have sprung up porting the code to different platforms, cleaning up the source code, or providing major modifications to the core engine.", "''Wolfenstein 3D'', ''Doom'' and ''Quake'' engine ports are ubiquitous to nearly all platforms capable of running games, such as hand-held PCs, iPods, the PSP, the Nintendo DS and more.", "Impressive core modifications include DarkPlaces which adds stencil shadow volumes into the original ''Quake'' engine along with a more efficient network protocol.", "Another such project is ioquake3, which maintains a goal of cleaning up the source code, adding features and fixing bugs.", "Even earlier id Software code, namely for ''Hovertank 3D'' and ''Catacomb 3D'', was released in June 2014 by Flat Rock Software.The GPL release of the ''Quake III'' engine's source code was moved from the end of 2004 to August 2005 as the engine was still being licensed to commercial customers who would otherwise be concerned over the sudden loss in value of their recent investment.On August 4, 2011, John Carmack revealed during his QuakeCon 2011 keynote that they will be releasing the source code of the ''Doom 3'' engine (id Tech 4) during the year.id Software publicly stated they would not support the Wii console (possibly due to technical limitations), although they have since indicated that they may release titles on that platform (although it would be limited to their games released during the 1990s).", "They continued this policy with the Wii U but for Nintendo Switch, they collaborated with Panic Button starting with 2016's ''Doom'' and ''Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus''.Since id Software revealed their engine id Tech 5, they call their engines \"id Tech\", followed by a version number.", "Older engines have retroactively been renamed to fit this scheme, with the ''Doom'' engine as id Tech 1.==== IMF Music File Format ====IMF (\"id music file\" or \"id's music format\") is an audio file format created by id Software for the AdLib sound card for use in their video games.", "The format is similar to MIDI, in that it defines musical notes, and does not support sampled digital audio for sound effects.", "IMF files store the actual bytes sent to the AdLib's OPL2 chip, which uses FM synthesis to produce audio output.", "The format is based on the AdLib command syntax, with a few modifications.", "Due to the limited features and relatively low sound quality, modern games no longer use IMF music.A large number of songs in id Software's early games (such as ''Commander Keen'' and ''Wolfenstein 3D'') were composed by Bobby Prince in IMF format.", "Other game developers like Apogee Software also used this format in their games (such as ''Cosmo's Cosmic Adventure'', ''Duke Nukem II'', and ''Monster Bash'').=== Linux gaming ===Timothee Besset was responsible for many Linux ports of id Software's games.id Software was an early pioneer in the Linux gaming market, and id Software's Linux games have been some of the most popular of the platform.", "Many id Software games won the Readers' and Editors' Choice awards of Linux Journal.", "Some id Software titles ported to Linux are ''Doom'' (the first id Software game to be ported), ''Quake'', ''Quake II'', ''Quake III Arena'', ''Return to Castle Wolfenstein'', ''Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory'', ''Doom 3'', ''Quake 4'', and ''Enemy Territory: Quake Wars''.", "Since id Software and some of its licensees released the source code for some of their previous games, several games which were not ported (such as ''Catacomb 3D'', ''Wolfenstein 3D'', ''Spear of Destiny'', ''Heretic'', ''Hexen'', ''Hexen II'', ''Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast'', ''Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy'' and ''Strife'') can run on Linux and other operating systems natively through the use of source ports.", "''Quake Live'' also launched with Linux support, although this, alongside OS X support, was later removed when changed to a standalone title.The tradition of porting to Linux was first started by Dave D. Taylor, with David Kirsch doing some later porting.", "Since ''Quake III Arena'', Linux porting had been handled by Timothee Besset.", "The majority of all id Tech 4 games, including those made by other developers, have a Linux client available, the only current exceptions being ''Wolfenstein'' and ''Brink''.", "Similarly, almost all of the games utilizing the ''Quake II'' engine have Linux ports, the only exceptions being those created by Ion Storm (''Daikatana'' later received a community port).", "Despite fears by the Linux gaming community that id Tech 5 would not be ported to that platform, Timothee Besset in his blog stated \"I'll be damned if we don't find the time to get Linux builds done\".", "Besset explained that id Software's primary justification for releasing Linux builds was better code quality, along with a technical interest in the platform.", "However, on January 26, 2012, Besset announced that he had left id.John Carmack has expressed his stance with regard to Linux builds in the past.", "In December 2000 Todd Hollenshead expressed support for Linux: \"All said, we will continue to be a leading supporter of the Linux platform because we believe it is a technically sound OS and is the OS of choice for many server ops.\"", "However, on April 25, 2012, Carmack revealed that \"there are no plans for a native Linux client\" of id's most recent game, ''Rage''.", "In February 2013, Carmack argued for improving emulation as the \"proper technical direction for gaming on Linux\", though this was also due to ZeniMax's refusal to support \"unofficial binaries\", given all prior ports (except for ''Quake III Arena'', via Loki Software, and earlier versions of ''Quake Live'') having only ever been unofficial.", "Carmack didn't mention official games ''Quake: The Offering'' and ''Quake II: Colossus'' ported by id Software to Linux and published by Macmillan Computer Publishing USA.Despite no longer releasing native binaries, id was an early adopter of Stadia, a cloud gaming service powered by Debian Linux servers, and the cross-platform Vulkan API.", "A Linux version of ''Doom'' from 2016 was tested internally, while it and its sequel ''Doom Eternal'' can be run using Wine and Proton." ], [ "Games", "=== ''Commander Keen'' ===''Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons'', a platform game in the style of those for the Nintendo Entertainment System, was one of the first MS-DOS games with smooth horizontal-scrolling.", "Published by Apogee Software, the title and follow-ups brought id Software success as a shareware developer.", "It is the series of id Software that designer Tom Hall is most affiliated with.", "The first ''Commander Keen'' trilogy was released on December 14, 1990.=== ''Wolfenstein'' ===The company's breakout product was released on May 5, 1992: ''Wolfenstein 3D'', a first-person shooter (FPS) with smooth 3D graphics that were unprecedented in computer games, and with violent gameplay that many gamers found engaging.", "After essentially founding an entire genre with this game, id Software created ''Doom'', ''Doom II: Hell on Earth'', ''Quake'', ''Quake II'', ''Quake III Arena'', ''Quake 4'', and ''Doom 3''.", "Each of these first-person shooters featured progressively higher levels of graphical technology.", "''Wolfenstein 3D'' spawned a prequel and a sequel: the prequel called ''Spear of Destiny'', and the second, ''Return to Castle Wolfenstein'', using the id Tech 3 engine.", "A third ''Wolfenstein'' sequel, simply titled ''Wolfenstein'', was released by Raven Software, using the id Tech 4 engine.", "Another sequel, named ''Wolfenstein: The New Order''; was developed by MachineGames using the id Tech 5 engine and released in 2014, with it getting a prequel by the name of ''Wolfenstein: The Old Blood'' a year later; followed by a direct sequel titled ''Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus'' in 2017.=== ''Doom'' ===Eighteen months after their release of ''Wolfenstein 3D'', on December 10, 1993, id Software released ''Doom'' which would again set new standards for graphic quality and graphic violence in computer gaming.", "''Doom'' featured a sci-fi/horror setting with graphic quality that had never been seen on personal computers or even video game consoles.", "''Doom'' became a cultural phenomenon and its violent theme would eventually launch a new wave of criticism decrying the dangers of violence in video games.", "''Doom'' was ported to numerous platforms, inspired many knock-offs, and was eventually followed by the technically similar ''Doom II: Hell on Earth''.", "id Software made its mark in video game history with the shareware release of ''Doom'', and eventually revisited the theme of this game in 2004 with their release of ''Doom 3''.", "John Carmack said in an interview at QuakeCon 2007 that there would be a ''Doom 4''.", "It began development on May 7, 2008.", "''Doom 2016'', the fourth installation of the ''Doom'' series, was released on Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on May 13, 2016, and was later released on Nintendo Switch on November 10, 2017.In June 2018, the sequel to the 2016 ''Doom'', ''Doom Eternal'' was officially announced at E3 2018 with a teaser trailer, followed by a gameplay reveal at QuakeCon in August 2018.=== ''Quake'' ===On June 22, 1996, the release of ''Quake'' marked the third milestone in id Software history.", "''Quake'' combined a cutting edge fully 3D engine, the ''Quake'' engine, with a distinctive art style to create critically acclaimed graphics for its time.", "Audio was not neglected either, having recruited Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor to facilitate unique sound effects and ambient music for the game.", "(A small homage was paid to Nine Inch Nails in the form of the band's logo appearing on the ammunition boxes for the nailgun weapon.)", "It also included the work of Michael Abrash.", "Furthermore, ''Quake'''s main innovation, the capability to play a deathmatch (competitive gameplay between living opponents instead of against computer-controlled characters) over the Internet (especially through the add-on ''QuakeWorld''), seared the title into the minds of gamers as another smash hit.In 2008, id Software was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for the pioneering work ''Quake'' represented in user modifiable games.", "id Software is the only game development company ever honored twice by the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, having been given an Emmy Award in 2007 for creation of the 3D technology that underlies modern shooter video games.The ''Quake'' series continued with ''Quake II'' in 1997.Activision purchased a 49% stake in id Software, making it a second party which took publishing duties until 2009.However, the game is not a storyline sequel, and instead focuses on an assault on an alien planet, Stroggos, in retaliation for Strogg attacks on Earth.", "Most of the subsequent entries in the ''Quake'' franchise follow this storyline.", "''Quake III Arena'' (1999), the next title in the series, has minimal plot, but centers around the \"Arena Eternal\", a gladiatorial setting created by an alien race known as the Vadrigar and populated by combatants plucked from various points in time and space.", "Among these combatants are some characters either drawn from or based on those in ''Doom'' (\"Doomguy\"), ''Quake'' (Ranger, Wrack), and ''Quake II'' (Bitterman, Tank Jr., Grunt, Stripe).", "''Quake IV'' (2005) picks up where ''Quake II'' left off – finishing the war between the humans and Strogg.", "The spin-off ''Enemy Territory: Quake Wars'' acts as a prequel to ''Quake II'', when the Strogg first invade Earth.", "''Quake IV'' and ''Enemy Territory: Quake Wars'' were made by outside developers and not id.There have also been other spin-offs such as Quake Mobile in 2005 and ''Quake Live'', an internet browser based modification of ''Quake III''.", "A game called ''Quake Arena DS'' was planned and canceled for the Nintendo DS.", "John Carmack stated, at QuakeCon 2007, that the ''id Tech 5'' engine would be used for a new ''Quake'' game.=== ''Rage'' ===Todd Hollenshead announced in May 2007 that id Software had begun working on an all new series that would be using a new engine.", "Hollenshead also mentioned that the title would be completely developed in-house, marking the first game since 2004's ''Doom 3'' to be done so.", "At 2007's WWDC, John Carmack showed the new engine called id Tech 5.Later that year, at QuakeCon 2007, the title of the new game was revealed as ''Rage''.On July 14, 2008, id Software announced at the 2008 E3 event that they would be publishing ''Rage'' through Electronic Arts, and not id's longtime publisher Activision.", "However, since then ZeniMax has also announced that they are publishing ''Rage'' through Bethesda Softworks.On August 12, 2010, during Quakecon 2010, id Software announced ''Rage'' US ship date of September 13, 2011, and a European ship date of September 15, 2011.During the keynote, id Software also demonstrated a ''Rage'' spin-off title running on the iPhone.", "This technology demo later became ''Rage HD''.", "The game was ultimately released in October 2011.On May 14, 2018, Bethesda Softworks announced ''Rage 2'', a co-development between id Software and Avalanche Studios.=== Other games ===Screenshot of a ''Commander Keen'' game, ''Keen Must Die!", "''Doom''During its early days, id Software produced much more varied games; these include the early 3D first-person shooter experiments that led to ''Wolfenstein 3D'' and ''Doom'' – ''Hovertank 3D'' and ''Catacomb 3D''.", "There was also the ''Rescue Rover'' series, which had two games – ''Rescue Rover'' and ''Rescue Rover 2''.", "Also there was John Romero's ''Dangerous Dave'' series, which included such notables as the tech demo (''In Copyright Infringement'') which led to the ''Commander Keen'' engine, and the decently popular ''Dangerous Dave in the Haunted Mansion''.", "''In the Haunted Mansion'' was powered by the same engine as the earlier id Software game ''Shadow Knights'', which was one of the several games written by id Software to fulfill their contractual obligation to produce games for Softdisk, where the id Software founders had been employed.", "id Software has also overseen several games using its technology that were not made in one of their IPs such as ''ShadowCaster'', (early-id Tech 1), ''Heretic'', ''Hexen: Beyond Heretic'' (id Tech 1), ''Hexen II'' (''Quake'' engine), and ''Orcs and Elves'' (''Doom RPG'' engine)." ], [ "Other media", "id Software has also published novels based on the ''Doom'' series ''Doom'' novels.", "After a brief hiatus from publishing, id resumed and re-launched the novel series in 2008 with Matthew J. Costello's (a story consultant for ''Doom 3'' and now ''Rage'') new ''Doom 3'' novels: ''Worlds on Fire'' and ''Maelstrom''.id Software became involved in film development when they oversaw the film adaption of their ''Doom'' franchise in 2005.In August 2007, Todd Hollenshead stated at QuakeCon 2007 that a ''Return to Castle Wolfenstein'' movie is in development which re-teams the ''Silent Hill'' writer/producer team, Roger Avary as writer and director and Samuel Hadida as producer.", "A new ''Doom'' film, titled ''Doom: Annihilation'', was released in 2019, although id itself stressed its lack of involvement." ], [ "Controversy", "id Software was the target of controversy over two of their most popular games, ''Doom'' and the earlier ''Wolfenstein 3D''.", "More recently in 2022, id Software found themselves mired in a controversy concerning libel against Doom Eternal's composer.=== ''Doom'' ===''Doom'' was notorious for its high levels of gore and occultism along with satanic imagery, which generated controversy from a broad range of groups.", "Yahoo!", "Games listed it as one of the top ten most controversial games of all time.The game again sparked controversy throughout a period of school shootings in the United States when it was found that Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, who committed the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, were avid players of the game.", "While planning for the massacre, Harris said that the killing would be \"like playing ''Doom''\", and \"it'll be like the LA riots, the Oklahoma bombing, World War II, Vietnam, ''Duke Nukem'' and ''Doom'' all mixed together\", and that his shotgun was \"straight out of the game\".", "A rumor spread afterwards that Harris had designed a ''Doom'' level that looked like the high school, populated with representations of Harris's classmates and teachers, and that Harris practiced for his role in the shootings by playing the level over and over.", "Although Harris did design ''Doom'' levels, none of them were based on Columbine High School.While ''Doom'' and other violent video games have been blamed for nationally covered school shootings, 2008 research featured by Greater Good Science Center shows that the two are not closely related.", "Harvard Medical School researchers Cheryl Olson and Lawrence Kutner found that violent video games did not correlate to school shootings.", "The United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education analyzed 37 incidents of school violence and sought to develop a profile of school shooters; they discovered that the most common traits among shooters were that they were male and had histories of depression and attempted suicide.", "While many of the killers—like the vast majority of young teenage boys—did play video games, this study did not find a relationship between gameplay and school shootings.", "In fact, only one-eighth of the shooters showed any special interest in violent video games, far less than the number of shooters who seemed attracted to books and movies with violent content.=== ''Wolfenstein 3D'' ===As for ''Wolfenstein 3D'', due to its use of Nazi symbols such as the swastika and the anthem of the Nazi Party, ''Horst-Wessel-Lied'', as theme music, the PC version of the game was withdrawn from circulation in Germany in 1994, following a verdict by the Amtsgericht München on January 25, 1994.Despite the fact that Nazis are portrayed as the enemy in ''Wolfenstein'', the use of those symbols is a federal offense in Germany unless certain circumstances apply.", "Similarly, the Atari Jaguar version was confiscated following a verdict by the Amtsgericht Berlin Tiergarten on December 7, 1994.The Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle lifted the outright ban in 2018 in favor of analysing depictions on a case-by-case basis, and the international version of the game was removed from the list of banned titles in 2019.Due to concerns from Nintendo of America, the Super NES version was modified to not include any swastikas or Nazi references; furthermore, blood was replaced with sweat to make the game seem less violent, and the attack dogs in the game were replaced by giant mutant rats.", "Employees of id Software are quoted in ''The Official DOOM Player Guide'' about the reaction to ''Wolfenstein'', claiming it to be ironic that it was morally acceptable to shoot people and rats, but not dogs.", "Two new weapons were added as well.", "The Super NES version was not as successful as the PC version.", "=== Soundtrack dispute ===In May 2020, after the Doom Eternal Original Soundtrack was released, there was a serious backlash to the Doom Eternal OST and accusations of low quality work that did not match composer Mick Gordon's usual standards.", "On April 19, Gordon confirmed on Twitter that it was not his work, and Marty Stratton subsequently posted on May 20 a 2,500-word open letter on Reddit blaming Gordon for everything that went wrong with the process of creating music for the soundtrack.", "Following this, public outcry against Gordon reached a level where he received explicit death threats and graphic messages of intent to harm him and his family.", "Gordon's message accounts, servers, and phones were allegedly inundated with abuse to extreme levels, seriously impacting his mental health.On November 9, 2022, Mick published a 14,000-word article on Medium explaining his side of the story as a defensive rebuttal of the nine outlined accusations in Stratton's post (described as \"an extensive series of lies\"), substantiated with various forms of evidence including photographs of emails, receipts, and file metadata to verify his claims.", "It included claims that Gordon had yet to receive over half of his payment for his work and awards from the soundtrack's nominations at The Game Awards 2020 Stratton had reportedly claimed to deliver on Gordon's behalf; that his name had been listed on the OST's pre-order for weeks before Bethesda had contracted him to work on it just 48 hours before the game's release; Mossholder had been composing an alternate version of the OST as early as August 2019, and in response to request from Gordon's lawyers for Stratton's Reddit post to be removed, he was offered six figures in exchange for a lifetime gag order, but never the possibility of Stratton's defamatory post being removed.On November 16, 2022 Bethesda released a statement backing Marty Stratton, Chad Mossholder, and everyone in the id software team.", "Their statement further claimed that they had evidence to rebut Gordon's claims, without releasing mentioned evidence, and expressed concern that his statement enticed harassment and violence towards the team." ], [ "People", "In 2003, the book ''Masters of Doom'' chronicled the development of id Software, concentrating on the personalities and interaction of John Carmack and John Romero.", "Below are the key people involved with id's success.=== John Carmack ===Carmack's skill at 3D programming is widely recognized in the software industry and from its inception, he was id's lead programmer.", "On August 7, 2013, he joined Oculus VR, a company developing virtual reality headsets, and left id Software on November 22, 2013.=== John Romero ===John Romero saw the horizontal scrolling demo ''Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement'' and immediately had the idea to form id Software on September 20, 1990.Romero pioneered the game engine licensing business with his \"id Summer Seminar\" in 1991 where the Keen4 engine was licensed to Apogee for Biomenace.", "John also worked closely with the DOOM community and was the face of id to its fans.", "One success of this engagement was the fan-made game ''Final DOOM'', published in 1996.John also created the control scheme for the FPS, and the abstract level design style of DOOM that influenced many 3D games that came after it.", "John added par times to Wolfenstein 3D, and then DOOM, which started the phenomenon of Speedrunning.", "Romero wrote almost all the tools that enabled id Software and many others to develop games with id Software's technology.", "Romero was forced to resign in 1996 after the release of ''Quake'', then later formed the company Ion Storm.", "There, he became infamous through the development of ''Daikatana'', which was received negatively from reviewers and gamers alike upon release.", "Afterward, Romero co-founded The Guildhall in Dallas, Texas, served as chairman of the CPL eSports league, created an MMORPG publisher and developer named Gazillion Entertainment, created a hit Facebook game named Ravenwood Fair that garnered 25 million monthly players in 2011, and started Romero Games in Galway, Ireland in 2015.Both Tom Hall and John Romero have reputations as designers and idea men who have helped shape some of the key PC gaming titles of the 1990s.=== Tom Hall ===Tom Hall was forced to resign by id Software during the early days of ''Doom'' development, but not before he had some impact; for example, he was responsible for the inclusion of teleporters in the game.", "He was let go before the shareware release of ''Doom'' and then went to work for Apogee, developing ''Rise of the Triad'' with the \"Developers of Incredible Power\".", "When he finished work on that game, he found he was not compatible with the ''Prey'' development team at Apogee, and therefore left to join his ex-id Software compatriot John Romero at Ion Storm.", "Hall has frequently commented that if he could obtain the rights to ''Commander Keen'', he would immediately develop another Keen title.=== Sandy Petersen ===Sandy Petersen was a level designer for 19 of the 27 levels in the original ''Doom'' title as well as 17 of the 32 levels of ''Doom II''.", "As a fan of H.P.", "Lovecraft, his influence is apparent in the Lovecraftian feel of the monsters for ''Quake'', and he created ''Inferno'', the third \"episode\" of the first ''Doom''.", "He was forced to resign from id Software during the production of ''Quake II'' and most of his work was scrapped before the title was released.=== American McGee ===American McGee was a level designer for ''Doom II'', ''The Ultimate Doom'', ''Quake'', and ''Quake II''.", "He was asked to resign after the release of ''Quake II'', and he then moved to Electronic Arts where he gained industry notoriety with the development of his own game ''American McGee's Alice''.", "After leaving Electronic Arts, he became an independent entrepreneur and game developer.", "McGee headed the independent game development studio Spicy Horse in Shanghai, China from 2007 to 2016." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Kushner, David (2003).", "''Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture'', New York: Random House.", "." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Isaac Stern" ], [ "Introduction", "Stern at his 60th birthday concert at Lincoln Center, 1980'''Isaac Stern''' (July 21, 1920 – September 22, 2001) was an American violinist.Born in Poland, Stern moved to the US when he was 14 months old.", "Stern performed both nationally and internationally, notably touring the Soviet Union and China, and performing extensively in Israel, a country to which he had close ties since shortly after its founding.Stern received extensive recognition for his work, including winning the Presidential Medal of Freedom and six Grammy Awards, and being named to the French Legion of Honour.", "The Isaac Stern Auditorium at Carnegie Hall bears his name, due to his role in saving the venue from demolition in the 1960s." ], [ "Biography", "Isaac Stern in 1975The son of Solomon and Clara Stern, Isaac Stern was born in Kremenets, Poland (now Ukraine), into a Jewish family.", "He was 14 months old when his family moved to San Francisco in 1921.Both his parents were musical, and his mother, who had studied at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, began teaching him the piano when he was six, before switching to the violin when he was eight.", "In 1928, Stern’s parents enrolled him at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music, where he studied until 1931 before going on to study briefly in New York with Louis Persinger.", "He returned to the San Francisco Conservatory to study for five years with Naoum Blinder, the concertmaster of the San Francisco Symphony, to whom he said he owed the most.", "At his public début on February 18, 1936, aged 15, he played Saint-Saëns' Violin Concerto No.", "3 in B minor with the San Francisco Symphony under the direction of Pierre Monteux.", "Reflecting on his background, Stern once memorably quipped that cultural exchanges between the U.S. and Soviet Russia drew from the same city::: \"They send us their Jews from Odessa, and we send them our Jews from Odessa.", "\"During World War II, Stern was rejected from military service due to flat feet.", "He then joined the United Service Organizations and performed for US troops.", "During one such performance on Guadalcanal, a Japanese soldier, mesmerized by his playing, sneaked into the audience of US personnel listening to his performance before sneaking back out.Stern toured the Soviet Union in 1951, the first American violinist to do so.", "In 1967, Stern stated his refusal to return to the USSR until the Soviet regime allowed artists to enter and leave the country freely.", "His only visit to Germany was in 1999, for a series of master classes, but he never performed publicly in Germany.Stern was married three times.", "His first marriage, in 1948 to ballerina Nora Kaye, ended in divorce after 18 months, but the two of them remained friends.", "On August 17, 1951, he married Vera Lindenblit (1927–2015).", "They had three children together, including conductors Michael and David Stern and also Rabbi Shira Stern, one of the first female rabbis in the USA.", "Their marriage ended in divorce in 1994 after 43 years.", "In 1996, Stern married his third wife, Linda Reynolds.", "His third wife, his three children, and his five grandchildren survived him.Stern died September 22, 2001, of heart failure in a Manhattan, New York, hospital after an extended stay." ], [ "Music career", "In 1940, Stern began performing with Russian-born pianist Alexander Zakin, collaborating until 1977.Within musical circles, Stern became renowned both for his recordings and for championing certain younger players.", "Among his discoveries were cellists Yo-Yo Ma and Jian Wang, and violinists Itzhak Perlman and Pinchas Zukerman.In the 1960s, he played a major role in saving New York City's Carnegie Hall from demolition, by organising the Citizens' Committee to Save Carnegie Hall.", "Following the purchase of Carnegie Hall by New York City, the Carnegie Hall Corporation was formed, and Stern was chosen as its first president, a title he held until his death.", "Carnegie Hall later named its main auditorium in his honor.Among Stern's many recordings are concertos by Brahms, Bach, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Sibelius, Tchaikovsky, and Vivaldi and modern works by Barber, Bartók, Stravinsky, Bernstein, Rochberg, and Dutilleux.", "The Dutilleux concerto, entitled ''L'arbre des songes'' \"The Tree of Dreams\" was a 1985 commission by Stern himself.", "He also dubbed actors' violin-playing in several films, such as ''Fiddler on the Roof''.Stern served as musical advisor for the 1946 film, ''Humoresque'', about a rising violin star and his patron, played respectively by John Garfield and Joan Crawford.", "He was also the featured violin soloist on the soundtrack for the 1971 film of Fiddler on the Roof.", "In 1999, he appeared in the film ''Music of the Heart'', along with Itzhak Perlman and several other famed violinists, with a youth orchestra led by Meryl Streep (the film was based on the true story of a gifted violin teacher in Harlem who eventually took her musicians to play a concert in Carnegie Hall).In his autobiography, co-authored with Chaim Potok, ''My First 79 Years'', Stern cited Nathan Milstein and Arthur Grumiaux as major influences on his style of playing.He won Grammys for his work with Eugene Istomin and Leonard Rose in their famous chamber music trio in the 1960s and '70s, while also continuing his duo work with Alexander Zakin during this time.", "Stern recorded a series of piano quartets in the 1980s and 1990s with Emanuel Ax, Jaime Laredo and Yo-Yo Ma, including those of Mozart, Beethoven, Schumann and Fauré, winning another Grammy in 1992 for the Brahms quartets Opp.", "25 and 26.In 1979, seven years after Richard Nixon made the first official visit by a US president to the country, the People's Republic of China offered Stern and pianist David Golub an unprecedented invitation to tour the country.", "While there, he collaborated with the China Central Symphony Society (now China National Symphony) under the direction of conductor Li Delun.", "Their visit was filmed and resulted in the Oscar-winning documentary, ''From Mao to Mozart: Isaac Stern in China''." ], [ "Ties to Israel", "Stern maintained close ties with Israel.", "Stern began performing in the country in 1949.In 1973, he performed for wounded Israeli soldiers during the Yom Kippur War.", "During the 1991 Gulf War and Iraq's Scud missile attacks on Israel, he had been playing in the Jerusalem Theater.", "During his performance, an air raid siren sounded, causing the audience to panic.", "Stern then stepped onto the stage and began playing a movement of Bach.", "The audience then calmed down, donned gas masks, and sat throughout the rest of his performance.", "Stern was a supporter of several educational projects in Israel, among them the America-Israel Foundation and the Jerusalem Music Center." ], [ "Instruments", "Isaac Stern playing with one hand in 1979Stern's favorite instrument was the Ysaÿe Guarnerius, one of the violins produced by the Cremonese luthier Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesù.", "It had previously been played by the violin virtuoso and composer Eugène Ysaÿe.Among other instruments, Stern played the \"Kruse-Vormbaum\" Stradivarius (1728), the \"ex-Stern\" Bergonzi (1733), the \"Panette\" Guarneri del Gesù (1737), a Michele Angelo Bergonzi (1739–1757), the \"Arma Senkrah\" Guadagnini (1750), a Giovanni Guadagnini (1754), a J.", "B. Vuillaume copy of the \"Panette\" Guarneri del Gesu of 1737 (c.1850), and the \"ex-Nicolas I\" J.B. Vuillaume (1840).", "He also owned two contemporary instruments by Samuel Zygmuntowicz and modern Italian Jago Peternella Violins.In May 2003, Stern's collection of instruments, bows and musical ephemera was sold through Tarisio Auctions.", "The auction set a number of world records and was at the time the second highest grossing violin auction of all time, with total sales of over $3.3M." ], [ "Awards and commemoration", "Isaac Stern with the Edison in 1971* Sonning Award (1982; Denmark)* Wolf Prize* Kennedy Center Honors (1984)* Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with orchestra) (1962, 1963, 1965, 1982)* Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance (1971, 1992)* National Medal of Arts (1991)* Presidential Medal of Freedom (1992)Elected to the American Philosophical Society (1995) Polar Music Prize (2000; Sweden)* Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur (1990)* Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1991)* Carnegie Hall Midtown Manhattan, New York: main auditorium was named for Isaac Stern in 1997.In 2012, a street in Tel Aviv was named for Stern." ], [ "Discography", "Bezalel Schatz painting a portrait of Isaac Stern:: 1944::Brahms: String Sextet No.", "1 (with Alexander Schneider, Milton Katims, Milton Thomas, Pablo Casals and Madeleine Foley)1944:: Brahms: Trio for Piano, Violin and Cello No.", "1 in B Major, op.", "8 (with Myra Hess and Pablo Casals)1946::Violin selections from the movie Humoresque (1946 film) with Oscar Levant on the piano, Columbia Masterworks Records set MM-6571951::Brahms: Violin Concerto in D Major (with Sir Thomas Beecham and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra), Columbia Records1952::Bach: Partita in E Minor & G Minor for Violin and Piano, Sonata No.3 in E Major for Violin and Piano (with Alexander Zakin)1953::Prokofiev: Violin Sonatas (with Alexander Zakin)1957:: Wieniawski: Violin Concerto No.", "2 in D Minor, op.", "22 (with Philadelphia Orchestra; conductor: Eugene Ormandy)1958:: Tchaikovsky: Violin Concerto in D Major op.", "35 (with Philadelphia Orchestra; conductor: Eugene Ormandy):: Mendelssohn: Violin Concerto in e minor op.", "64 (with Philadelphia Orchestra; conductor: Eugene Ormandy)1959:: Saint-Saens: Introduction & Rondo Capriccioso op.", "28 (with Philadelphia Orchestra; conductor: Eugene Ormandy)::Beethoven Violin Concerto in D, Op.", "61 (with NewYork Philharmonic; conductor: Leonard Bernstein) Fontana 699 049 CL CFL 1051.", "1964::Hindemith: Violin Concerto (1939) (with New York Philharmonic; conductor: Leonard Bernstein)1978::Penderecki: Violin Concerto No.", "1 (1976)(with Minnesota Orchestra; conductor: Stanislaw Skrowaczewski)1983::Bach, Vivaldi: Concertos for 2 Violins::Isaac Stern: 60th Anniversary Celebration::Mendelssohn: Violin Concerto; Beethoven: Romances in G & F Major::Haydn: London Trios1984::Barber Violin Concerto 1985::An Isaac Stern Vivaldi Gala 1986::Tchaikovsky, Mendelssohn: Violin Concertos 1987::Dutilleux: L'Arbre des Songes (Concerto pour Violin et Orchestre) ::Maxwell Davies: Concerto for Violin and Orchestra::Celebration::Bach: Double Concerto; Violin Concertos Nos.1 & 2::Beethoven: Violin Concerto::Mozart: The Flute Quartets::Bach: Concertos for Violin, BWV 1041–43 & 1060 1988::Shostakovich: Piano Trio No.2; Cello Sonata::Brahms: Concerto for Violin, Cello and Orchestra in A Minor, Op.", "102 & Piano Quartet No.", "3 in C Minor, Op.", "60::Prokofiev: Violin Concertos No.", "1 & 2::Brahms: Violin Concerto 1989::The Japanese Album::Music, My Love::Prokofiev: Concertos No.", "1 & 2 for Violin and Orchestra::Mozart: Violin Concertos Nos.4 & 5 1990::Brahms, Mendelssohn, Schubert: Trios::Brahms: The Piano Quartets::Rameau: Pieces de clavecin en concerts::Lalo, Bruch, Wenianski, others: Violin Concertos::Bach, Mozart, Brahms, others: Violin Concertos::Mozart, Telemann, J.C. Bach, Reicha: Trios, Quartets::Schubert: Violin Sonatas::Humoresque: Favorite Violin Encores 1991::Beethoven: Piano Concerto No.5 \"Emperor\"; Triple Concerto::Beethoven: Complete Trios::Concert of the Century: Celebrating the 85th Anniversary of Carnegie Hall::Dvorák: Cello Concerto; Violin Concerto::Webern: Complete Works, Op.", "1 – Op.", "31 1992::Brahms: Sextets; more::Beethoven & Schumann Piano Quartets (with Emanuel Ax, Jaime Loredo, & Yo-Yo Ma) 1993::Tchaikovsky: Concerto for Violin and Orchestra & Serenade for Strings::Fauré: Piano Quartets 1994::Greatest Hits: Violin::The House of Magical Sounds::Greatest Hits: Schubert::Greatest Hits: Brahms::Beethoven, Schumann: Piano Quartets::Mozart: Sonatas for Violin and Piano, K. 454, 296 & 526::Beethoven: Piano Trios \"Ghost\" & \"Archduke\"::Bach: Violin Concerto, BWV 1041; Piano Concerto, BWV 1056; Brandenburg Concerto No.5; more::Mozart: Sinfonia Concertante; Violin Concerto No.5::Brahms: Sextet in B-flat major, Op.", "18 & Piano Trio No.", "1 in B major, Op.", "8::Schubert: Quintet in C major, D956 & Symphony No.", "5 in B-flat major, D485 1995::Isaac Stern Presents Encores with Orchestra::Telemann, Bach Family: Trio Sonatas::Mendelssohn: Piano Trios 1 & 2::Brahms: Piano Trios, Piano Quartets::A Life in Music, Vol.3: Bach, Beethoven, Brahms, Mozart, more::Beethoven: Piano Trios \"Ghost\" & \"Archduke\"; Variations::Schubert, Haydn: Piano Trios; Mozart: Piano Quartet::Bartók: Violin Concertos::Bernstein/Dutilleux: Violin Concertos::Berg: Violin Concerto; Kammerkonzert::Prokofiev/Bartók: Violin Concertos; Rhapsody No.1::Stravinsky/Rochberg: Violin Concertos::Barber/Maxwell Davies: Violin Concertos::Hindemith/Penderecki: Violin Concertos::Berg: Piano Sonata; Krenek: Piano Sonata No.3; Webern: Piano Variations; Debussy, Ravel: works::A Life in Music, Vol.1: Beethoven, Brahms, Mendelssohn, Sibelius, more::Mozart: Haffner Serenade::Mozart: Sonatas for Violin and Piano, Vol.", "II::Beethoven, Brahms: Violin Concertos::Tchaikovsky/Sibelius: Violin Concertos::Bach: Violin Concertos; Double Concerto; more::Vivaldi: The Four Seasons; Concertos::Mozart: Violin Concertos Nos.1–5; Sinfonia concertante; more::Wieniawski/Bruch/Tchaikovsky: Violin Concertos::Mendelssohn/Dvorák: Violin Concertos::Saint-Saëns: Violin concerto n°3, Lalo: Symphonie Espagnole, Chausson: Poème, Fauré: Berceuse, Ravel: Tzigane 1996::More Mozart's Greatest Hits::Mozart: Violin Sonatas, Vol.", "III::Schubert and Boccherini String Quintets::A Life in Music, Vol.4: Bach, Bartók, Beethoven, Copland, Schubert, more::Prokofiev: Violin Sonatas::Bartók: Violin Sonatas; Webern: Four Pieces for Violin and Piano::Beethoven: Violin Sonatas::J.S.", "& C.P.E.", "Bach, Handel, Tartini: Violin Sonatas::Hindemith/Bloch/Copland: Violin Sonatas::Schubert: Sonatinas Nos.1–3; Rondeau Brillant; Grand Duo Sonata::Franck/Debussy/Enesco: Violin Sonatas::Brahms: Violin Sonatas No.", "1-3::Isaac Stern Presents Encores with Violin & Piano 1997::Barber: Adagio for Strings / Schuman – In Praise of Shahn etc.", "::Bartók Sonatas for Violin and Piano::Mozart: The Piano Quartets 1998::Isaac Stern Plays Mozart, Beethoven, Haydn::Beethoven: Violin Concerto in D::Bernstein: The Age of Anxiety; Foss: Serenade::Bach, Vivaldi: Concertos::Caprice Viennois: Music of Kreisler 1999::My First 79 Years::Tchaikovsky, Mendelssohn: Violin Concertos 2000::Dvorák: Piano Quartet No.2, Sonatina in G, Romantic Pieces::Vivaldi: The Four Seasons; Concertos for Two Violins" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* * * Free recordings at International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)* Isaac Stern biography at Sony Classical* Interview with Isaac Stern, 27 May 1991**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Integral" ], [ "Introduction", "A definite integral of a function can be represented as the alt=Definite integral exampleIn mathematics, an '''integral''' is the continuous analog of a sum, which is used to calculate areas, volumes, and their generalizations.", "Integration, the process of computing an integral, is one of the two fundamental operations of calculus, the other being differentiation.", "Integration was initially used to solve problems in mathematics and physics, such as finding the area under a curve, or determining displacement from velocity.", "Usage of integration expanded to a wide variety of scientific fields thereafter.A '''definite integral''' computes the signed area of the region in the plane that is bounded by the graph of a given function between two points in the real line.", "Conventionally, areas above the horizontal axis of the plane are positive while areas below are negative.", "Integrals also refer to the concept of an ''antiderivative'', a function whose derivative is the given function; in this case, they are also called ''indefinite integrals''.", "The fundamental theorem of calculus relates definite integration to differentiation and provides a method to compute the definite integral of a function when its antiderivative is known; differentiation and integration are inverse operations.Although methods of calculating areas and volumes dated from ancient Greek mathematics, the principles of integration were formulated independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th century, who thought of the area under a curve as an infinite sum of rectangles of infinitesimal width.", "Bernhard Riemann later gave a rigorous definition of integrals, which is based on a limiting procedure that approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking the region into infinitesimally thin vertical slabs.", "In the early 20th century, Henri Lebesgue generalized Riemann's formulation by introducing what is now referred to as the Lebesgue integral; it is more general than Riemann's in the sense that a wider class of functions are Lebesgue-integrable.Integrals may be generalized depending on the type of the function as well as the domain over which the integration is performed.", "For example, a line integral is defined for functions of two or more variables, and the interval of integration is replaced by a curve connecting two points in space.", "In a surface integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in three-dimensional space." ], [ "History", "=== Pre-calculus integration ===The first documented systematic technique capable of determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of the ancient Greek astronomer Eudoxus (''ca.''", "370 BC), which sought to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite number of divisions for which the area or volume was known.", "This method was further developed and employed by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and used to calculate the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, area of an ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral.A similar method was independently developed in China around the 3rd century AD by Liu Hui, who used it to find the area of the circle.", "This method was later used in the 5th century by Chinese father-and-son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi and Zu Geng to find the volume of a sphere.In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen ( AD) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers.", "He used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the 17th century.", "At this time, the work of Cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work by Fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus, with Cavalieri computing the integrals of up to degree in Cavalieri's quadrature formula.", "The case ''n'' = −1 required the invention of a function, the hyperbolic logarithm, achieved by quadrature of the hyperbola in 1647.Further steps were made in the early 17th century by Barrow and Torricelli, who provided the first hints of a connection between integration and differentiation.", "Barrow provided the first proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus.", "Wallis generalized Cavalieri's method, computing integrals of to a general power, including negative powers and fractional powers.=== Leibniz and Newton ===The major advance in integration came in the 17th century with the independent discovery of the fundamental theorem of calculus by Leibniz and Newton.", "The theorem demonstrates a connection between integration and differentiation.", "This connection, combined with the comparative ease of differentiation, can be exploited to calculate integrals.", "In particular, the fundamental theorem of calculus allows one to solve a much broader class of problems.", "Equal in importance is the comprehensive mathematical framework that both Leibniz and Newton developed.", "Given the name infinitesimal calculus, it allowed for precise analysis of functions with continuous domains.", "This framework eventually became modern calculus, whose notation for integrals is drawn directly from the work of Leibniz.=== Formalization ===While Newton and Leibniz provided a systematic approach to integration, their work lacked a degree of rigour.", "Bishop Berkeley memorably attacked the vanishing increments used by Newton, calling them \"ghosts of departed quantities\".", "Calculus acquired a firmer footing with the development of limits.", "Integration was first rigorously formalized, using limits, by Riemann.", "Although all bounded piecewise continuous functions are Riemann-integrable on a bounded interval, subsequently more general functions were considered—particularly in the context of Fourier analysis—to which Riemann's definition does not apply, and Lebesgue formulated a different definition of integral, founded in measure theory (a subfield of real analysis).", "Other definitions of integral, extending Riemann's and Lebesgue's approaches, were proposed.", "These approaches based on the real number system are the ones most common today, but alternative approaches exist, such as a definition of integral as the standard part of an infinite Riemann sum, based on the hyperreal number system.=== Historical notation ===The notation for the indefinite integral was introduced by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675.He adapted the integral symbol, '''∫''', from the letter ''ſ'' (long s), standing for ''summa'' (written as ''ſumma''; Latin for \"sum\" or \"total\").", "The modern notation for the definite integral, with limits above and below the integral sign, was first used by Joseph Fourier in ''Mémoires'' of the French Academy around 1819–1820, reprinted in his book of 1822.Isaac Newton used a small vertical bar above a variable to indicate integration, or placed the variable inside a box.", "The vertical bar was easily confused with or , which are used to indicate differentiation, and the box notation was difficult for printers to reproduce, so these notations were not widely adopted.=== First use of the term ===The term was first printed in Latin by Jacob Bernoulli in 1690: \"Ergo et horum Integralia aequantur\"." ], [ "Terminology and notation", "In general, the integral of a real-valued function with respect to a real variable on an interval is written as:The integral sign represents integration.", "The symbol , called the differential of the variable , indicates that the variable of integration is .", "The function is called the integrand, the points and are called the limits (or bounds) of integration, and the integral is said to be over the interval , called the interval of integration.", "A function is said to be if its integral over its domain is finite.", "If limits are specified, the integral is called a definite integral.When the limits are omitted, as in: the integral is called an indefinite integral, which represents a class of functions (the antiderivative) whose derivative is the integrand.", "The fundamental theorem of calculus relates the evaluation of definite integrals to indefinite integrals.", "There are several extensions of the notation for integrals to encompass integration on unbounded domains and/or in multiple dimensions (see later sections of this article).In advanced settings, it is not uncommon to leave out when only the simple Riemann integral is being used, or the exact type of integral is immaterial.", "For instance, one might write to express the linearity of the integral, a property shared by the Riemann integral and all generalizations thereof." ], [ "Interpretations", "Approximations to integral of from 0 to 1, with 5 yellow right endpoint partitions and 10 green left endpoint partitionsIntegrals appear in many practical situations.", "For instance, from the length, width and depth of a swimming pool which is rectangular with a flat bottom, one can determine the volume of water it can contain, the area of its surface, and the length of its edge.", "But if it is oval with a rounded bottom, integrals are required to find exact and rigorous values for these quantities.", "In each case, one may divide the sought quantity into infinitely many infinitesimal pieces, then sum the pieces to achieve an accurate approximation.As another example, to find the area of the region bounded by the graph of the function between and , one can divide the interval into five pieces (), then construct rectangle2 using the right end height of each piece (thus ) and sum their areas to get the approximation:which is larger than the exact value.", "Alternatively, when replacing these subintervals by ones with the left end height of each piece, the approximation one gets is too low: with twelve such subintervals the approximated area is only 0.6203.However, when the number of pieces increases to infinity, it will reach a limit which is the exact value of the area sought (in this case, ).", "One writes:which means is the result of a weighted sum of function values, , multiplied by the infinitesimal step widths, denoted by , on the interval ." ], [ "Formal definitions", "There are many ways of formally defining an integral, not all of which are equivalent.", "The differences exist mostly to deal with differing special cases which may not be integrable under other definitions, but are also occasionally for pedagogical reasons.", "The most commonly used definitions are Riemann integrals and Lebesgue integrals.=== Riemann integral ===The Riemann integral is defined in terms of Riemann sums of functions with respect to ''tagged partitions'' of an interval.", "A tagged partition of a closed interval on the real line is a finite sequence: This partitions the interval into sub-intervals indexed by , each of which is \"tagged\" with a specific point .", "A ''Riemann sum'' of a function with respect to such a tagged partition is defined as: thus each term of the sum is the area of a rectangle with height equal to the function value at the chosen point of the given sub-interval, and width the same as the width of sub-interval, .", "The ''mesh'' of such a tagged partition is the width of the largest sub-interval formed by the partition, .", "The ''Riemann integral'' of a function over the interval is equal to if:: For all there exists such that, for any tagged partition with mesh less than ,: When the chosen tags are the maximum (respectively, minimum) value of the function in each interval, the Riemann sum becomes an upper (respectively, lower) Darboux sum, suggesting the close connection between the Riemann integral and the Darboux integral.=== Lebesgue integral ===Lebesgue integrationIt is often of interest, both in theory and applications, to be able to pass to the limit under the integral.", "For instance, a sequence of functions can frequently be constructed that approximate, in a suitable sense, the solution to a problem.", "Then the integral of the solution function should be the limit of the integrals of the approximations.", "However, many functions that can be obtained as limits are not Riemann-integrable, and so such limit theorems do not hold with the Riemann integral.", "Therefore, it is of great importance to have a definition of the integral that allows a wider class of functions to be integrated.Such an integral is the Lebesgue integral, that exploits the following fact to enlarge the class of integrable functions: if the values of a function are rearranged over the domain, the integral of a function should remain the same.", "Thus Henri Lebesgue introduced the integral bearing his name, explaining this integral thus in a letter to Paul Montel:As Folland puts it, \"To compute the Riemann integral of , one partitions the domain into subintervals\", while in the Lebesgue integral, \"one is in effect partitioning the range of \".", "The definition of the Lebesgue integral thus begins with a measure, μ.", "In the simplest case, the Lebesgue measure of an interval is its width, , so that the Lebesgue integral agrees with the (proper) Riemann integral when both exist.", "In more complicated cases, the sets being measured can be highly fragmented, with no continuity and no resemblance to intervals.Using the \"partitioning the range of \" philosophy, the integral of a non-negative function should be the sum over of the areas between a thin horizontal strip between and .", "This area is just .", "Let .", "The Lebesgue integral of is then defined by: where the integral on the right is an ordinary improper Riemann integral ( is a strictly decreasing positive function, and therefore has a well-defined improper Riemann integral).", "For a suitable class of functions (the measurable functions) this defines the Lebesgue integral.A general measurable function is Lebesgue-integrable if the sum of the absolute values of the areas of the regions between the graph of and the -axis is finite:: In that case, the integral is, as in the Riemannian case, the difference between the area above the -axis and the area below the -axis:: where: === Other integrals ===Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most widely used definitions of the integral, a number of others exist, including:* The Darboux integral, which is defined by Darboux sums (restricted Riemann sums) yet is equivalent to the Riemann integral.", "A function is Darboux-integrable if and only if it is Riemann-integrable.", "Darboux integrals have the advantage of being easier to define than Riemann integrals.", "* The Riemann–Stieltjes integral, an extension of the Riemann integral which integrates with respect to a function as opposed to a variable.", "* The Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral, further developed by Johann Radon, which generalizes both the Riemann–Stieltjes and Lebesgue integrals.", "* The Daniell integral, which subsumes the Lebesgue integral and Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral without depending on measures.", "* The Haar integral, used for integration on locally compact topological groups, introduced by Alfréd Haar in 1933.", "* The Henstock–Kurzweil integral, variously defined by Arnaud Denjoy, Oskar Perron, and (most elegantly, as the gauge integral) Jaroslav Kurzweil, and developed by Ralph Henstock.", "* The Itô integral and Stratonovich integral, which define integration with respect to semimartingales such as Brownian motion.", "* The Young integral, which is a kind of Riemann–Stieltjes integral with respect to certain functions of unbounded variation.", "* The rough path integral, which is defined for functions equipped with some additional \"rough path\" structure and generalizes stochastic integration against both semimartingales and processes such as the fractional Brownian motion.", "* The Choquet integral, a subadditive or superadditive integral created by the French mathematician Gustave Choquet in 1953.", "* The Bochner integral, an extension of the Lebesgue integral to a more general class of functions, namely, those with a domain that is a Banach space." ], [ "Properties", "===Linearity===The collection of Riemann-integrable functions on a closed interval forms a vector space under the operations of pointwise addition and multiplication by a scalar, and the operation of integration: is a linear functional on this vector space.", "Thus, the collection of integrable functions is closed under taking linear combinations, and the integral of a linear combination is the linear combination of the integrals:: Similarly, the set of real-valued Lebesgue-integrable functions on a given measure space with measure is closed under taking linear combinations and hence form a vector space, and the Lebesgue integral: is a linear functional on this vector space, so that:: More generally, consider the vector space of all measurable functions on a measure space , taking values in a locally compact complete topological vector space over a locally compact topological field .", "Then one may define an abstract integration map assigning to each function an element of or the symbol ,: that is compatible with linear combinations.", "In this situation, the linearity holds for the subspace of functions whose integral is an element of (i.e.", "\"finite\").", "The most important special cases arise when is , , or a finite extension of the field of p-adic numbers, and is a finite-dimensional vector space over , and when and is a complex Hilbert space.Linearity, together with some natural continuity properties and normalization for a certain class of \"simple\" functions, may be used to give an alternative definition of the integral.", "This is the approach of Daniell for the case of real-valued functions on a set , generalized by Nicolas Bourbaki to functions with values in a locally compact topological vector space.", "See for an axiomatic characterization of the integral.=== Inequalities ===A number of general inequalities hold for Riemann-integrable functions defined on a closed and bounded interval and can be generalized to other notions of integral (Lebesgue and Daniell).", "* ''Upper and lower bounds.''", "An integrable function on , is necessarily bounded on that interval.", "Thus there are real numbers and so that for all in .", "Since the lower and upper sums of over are therefore bounded by, respectively, and , it follows that * ''Inequalities between functions.''", "If for each in then each of the upper and lower sums of is bounded above by the upper and lower sums, respectively, of .", "Thus This is a generalization of the above inequalities, as is the integral of the constant function with value over .", "In addition, if the inequality between functions is strict, then the inequality between integrals is also strict.", "That is, if for each in , then * ''Subintervals.''", "If is a subinterval of and is non-negative for all , then * ''Products and absolute values of functions.''", "If and are two functions, then we may consider their pointwise products and powers, and absolute values: If is Riemann-integrable on then the same is true for , and Moreover, if and are both Riemann-integrable then is also Riemann-integrable, and This inequality, known as the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, plays a prominent role in Hilbert space theory, where the left hand side is interpreted as the inner product of two square-integrable functions and on the interval .", "* ''Hölder's inequality''.", "Suppose that and are two real numbers, with , and and are two Riemann-integrable functions.", "Then the functions and are also integrable and the following Hölder's inequality holds: For , Hölder's inequality becomes the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality.", "* ''Minkowski inequality''.", "Suppose that is a real number and and are Riemann-integrable functions.", "Then and are also Riemann-integrable and the following Minkowski inequality holds: An analogue of this inequality for Lebesgue integral is used in construction of Lp spaces.=== Conventions ===In this section, is a real-valued Riemann-integrable function.", "The integral: over an interval is defined if .", "This means that the upper and lower sums of the function are evaluated on a partition whose values are increasing.", "Geometrically, this signifies that integration takes place \"left to right\", evaluating within intervals where an interval with a higher index lies to the right of one with a lower index.", "The values and , the end-points of the interval, are called the limits of integration of .", "Integrals can also be defined if :'''':With , this implies::The first convention is necessary in consideration of taking integrals over subintervals of ; the second says that an integral taken over a degenerate interval, or a point, should be zero.", "One reason for the first convention is that the integrability of on an interval implies that is integrable on any subinterval , but in particular integrals have the property that if is any element of , then:'''':With the first convention, the resulting relation: is then well-defined for any cyclic permutation of , , and ." ], [ "Fundamental theorem of calculus", "The ''fundamental theorem of calculus'' is the statement that differentiation and integration are inverse operations: if a continuous function is first integrated and then differentiated, the original function is retrieved.", "An important consequence, sometimes called the ''second fundamental theorem of calculus'', allows one to compute integrals by using an antiderivative of the function to be integrated.=== First theorem ===Let be a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval .", "Let be the function defined, for all in , by: Then, is continuous on , differentiable on the open interval , and: for all in .=== Second theorem ===Let be a real-valued function defined on a closed interval that admits an antiderivative on .", "That is, and are functions such that for all in ,: If is integrable on then:" ], [ "Extensions", "=== Improper integrals ===The improper integralhas unbounded intervals for both domain and range.A \"proper\" Riemann integral assumes the integrand is defined and finite on a closed and bounded interval, bracketed by the limits of integration.", "An improper integral occurs when one or more of these conditions is not satisfied.", "In some cases such integrals may be defined by considering the limit of a sequence of proper Riemann integrals on progressively larger intervals.If the interval is unbounded, for instance at its upper end, then the improper integral is the limit as that endpoint goes to infinity:: If the integrand is only defined or finite on a half-open interval, for instance , then again a limit may provide a finite result:: That is, the improper integral is the limit of proper integrals as one endpoint of the interval of integration approaches either a specified real number, or , or .", "In more complicated cases, limits are required at both endpoints, or at interior points.=== Multiple integration ===Double integral computes volume under a surface Just as the definite integral of a positive function of one variable represents the area of the region between the graph of the function and the ''x''-axis, the ''double integral'' of a positive function of two variables represents the volume of the region between the surface defined by the function and the plane that contains its domain.", "For example, a function in two dimensions depends on two real variables, ''x'' and ''y'', and the integral of a function ''f'' over the rectangle ''R'' given as the Cartesian product of two intervals can be written: where the differential indicates that integration is taken with respect to area.", "This double integral can be defined using Riemann sums, and represents the (signed) volume under the graph of over the domain ''R''.", "Under suitable conditions (e.g., if ''f'' is continuous), Fubini's theorem states that this integral can be expressed as an equivalent iterated integral: This reduces the problem of computing a double integral to computing one-dimensional integrals.", "Because of this, another notation for the integral over ''R'' uses a double integral sign:: Integration over more general domains is possible.", "The integral of a function ''f'', with respect to volume, over an ''n-''dimensional region ''D'' of is denoted by symbols such as:: === Line integrals and surface integrals ===A line integral sums together elements along a curve.The concept of an integral can be extended to more general domains of integration, such as curved lines and surfaces inside higher-dimensional spaces.", "Such integrals are known as line integrals and surface integrals respectively.", "These have important applications in physics, as when dealing with vector fields.A ''line integral'' (sometimes called a ''path integral'') is an integral where the function to be integrated is evaluated along a curve.", "Various different line integrals are in use.", "In the case of a closed curve it is also called a ''contour integral''.The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field.", "The value of the line integral is the sum of values of the field at all points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the curve (commonly arc length or, for a vector field, the scalar product of the vector field with a differential vector in the curve).", "This weighting distinguishes the line integral from simpler integrals defined on intervals.", "Many simple formulas in physics have natural continuous analogs in terms of line integrals; for example, the fact that work is equal to force, , multiplied by displacement, , may be expressed (in terms of vector quantities) as:: For an object moving along a path in a vector field such as an electric field or gravitational field, the total work done by the field on the object is obtained by summing up the differential work done in moving from to .", "This gives the line integral: The definition of surface integral relies on splitting the surface into small surface elements.A ''surface integral'' generalizes double integrals to integration over a surface (which may be a curved set in space); it can be thought of as the double integral analog of the line integral.", "The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field.", "The value of the surface integral is the sum of the field at all points on the surface.", "This can be achieved by splitting the surface into surface elements, which provide the partitioning for Riemann sums.For an example of applications of surface integrals, consider a vector field on a surface ; that is, for each point in , is a vector.", "Imagine that a fluid flows through , such that determines the velocity of the fluid at .", "The flux is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing through in unit amount of time.", "To find the flux, one need to take the dot product of with the unit surface normal to at each point, which will give a scalar field, which is integrated over the surface:: The fluid flux in this example may be from a physical fluid such as water or air, or from electrical or magnetic flux.", "Thus surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the classical theory of electromagnetism.=== Contour integrals ===In complex analysis, the integrand is a complex-valued function of a complex variable instead of a real function of a real variable .", "When a complex function is integrated along a curve in the complex plane, the integral is denoted as follows: This is known as a contour integral.=== Integrals of differential forms ===A differential form is a mathematical concept in the fields of multivariable calculus, differential topology, and tensors.", "Differential forms are organized by degree.", "For example, a one-form is a weighted sum of the differentials of the coordinates, such as:: where ''E'', ''F'', ''G'' are functions in three dimensions.", "A differential one-form can be integrated over an oriented path, and the resulting integral is just another way of writing a line integral.", "Here the basic differentials ''dx'', ''dy'', ''dz'' measure infinitesimal oriented lengths parallel to the three coordinate axes.A differential two-form is a sum of the form: Here the basic two-forms measure oriented areas parallel to the coordinate two-planes.", "The symbol denotes the wedge product, which is similar to the cross product in the sense that the wedge product of two forms representing oriented lengths represents an oriented area.", "A two-form can be integrated over an oriented surface, and the resulting integral is equivalent to the surface integral giving the flux of .Unlike the cross product, and the three-dimensional vector calculus, the wedge product and the calculus of differential forms makes sense in arbitrary dimension and on more general manifolds (curves, surfaces, and their higher-dimensional analogs).", "The exterior derivative plays the role of the gradient and curl of vector calculus, and Stokes' theorem simultaneously generalizes the three theorems of vector calculus: the divergence theorem, Green's theorem, and the Kelvin-Stokes theorem.=== Summations ===The discrete equivalent of integration is summation.", "Summations and integrals can be put on the same foundations using the theory of Lebesgue integrals or time-scale calculus.=== Functional integrals ===An integration that is performed not over a variable (or, in physics, over a space or time dimension), but over a space of functions, is referred to as a functional integral." ], [ "Applications", "Integrals are used extensively in many areas.", "For example, in probability theory, integrals are used to determine the probability of some random variable falling within a certain range.", "Moreover, the integral under an entire probability density function must equal 1, which provides a test of whether a function with no negative values could be a density function or not.Integrals can be used for computing the area of a two-dimensional region that has a curved boundary, as well as computing the volume of a three-dimensional object that has a curved boundary.", "The area of a two-dimensional region can be calculated using the aforementioned definite integral.", "The volume of a three-dimensional object such as a disc or washer can be computed by disc integration using the equation for the volume of a cylinder, , where is the radius.", "In the case of a simple disc created by rotating a curve about the -axis, the radius is given by , and its height is the differential .", "Using an integral with bounds and , the volume of the disc is equal to:Integrals are also used in physics, in areas like kinematics to find quantities like displacement, time, and velocity.", "For example, in rectilinear motion, the displacement of an object over the time interval is given by:: where is the velocity expressed as a function of time.", "The work done by a force (given as a function of position) from an initial position to a final position is:: Integrals are also used in thermodynamics, where thermodynamic integration is used to calculate the difference in free energy between two given states." ], [ "Computation", "===Analytical===The most basic technique for computing definite integrals of one real variable is based on the fundamental theorem of calculus.", "Let be the function of to be integrated over a given interval .", "Then, find an antiderivative of ; that is, a function such that on the interval.", "Provided the integrand and integral have no singularities on the path of integration, by the fundamental theorem of calculus,:Sometimes it is necessary to use one of the many techniques that have been developed to evaluate integrals.", "Most of these techniques rewrite one integral as a different one which is hopefully more tractable.", "Techniques include integration by substitution, integration by parts, integration by trigonometric substitution, and integration by partial fractions.Alternative methods exist to compute more complex integrals.", "Many nonelementary integrals can be expanded in a Taylor series and integrated term by term.", "Occasionally, the resulting infinite series can be summed analytically.", "The method of convolution using Meijer G-functions can also be used, assuming that the integrand can be written as a product of Meijer G-functions.", "There are also many less common ways of calculating definite integrals; for instance, Parseval's identity can be used to transform an integral over a rectangular region into an infinite sum.", "Occasionally, an integral can be evaluated by a trick; for an example of this, see Gaussian integral.Computations of volumes of solids of revolution can usually be done with disk integration or shell integration.Specific results which have been worked out by various techniques are collected in the list of integrals.===Symbolic===Many problems in mathematics, physics, and engineering involve integration where an explicit formula for the integral is desired.", "Extensive tables of integrals have been compiled and published over the years for this purpose.", "With the spread of computers, many professionals, educators, and students have turned to computer algebra systems that are specifically designed to perform difficult or tedious tasks, including integration.", "Symbolic integration has been one of the motivations for the development of the first such systems, like Macsyma and Maple.A major mathematical difficulty in symbolic integration is that in many cases, a relatively simple function does not have integrals that can be expressed in closed form involving only elementary functions, include rational and exponential functions, logarithm, trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions, and the operations of multiplication and composition.", "The Risch algorithm provides a general criterion to determine whether the antiderivative of an elementary function is elementary and to compute the integral if is elementary.", "However, functions with closed expressions of antiderivatives are the exception, and consequently, computerized algebra systems have no hope of being able to find an antiderivative for a randomly constructed elementary function.", "On the positive side, if the 'building blocks' for antiderivatives are fixed in advance, it may still be possible to decide whether the antiderivative of a given function can be expressed using these blocks and operations of multiplication and composition and to find the symbolic answer whenever it exists.", "The Risch algorithm, implemented in Mathematica, Maple and other computer algebra systems, does just that for functions and antiderivatives built from rational functions, radicals, logarithm, and exponential functions.Some special integrands occur often enough to warrant special study.", "In particular, it may be useful to have, in the set of antiderivatives, the special functions (like the Legendre functions, the hypergeometric function, the gamma function, the incomplete gamma function and so on).", "Extending Risch's algorithm to include such functions is possible but challenging and has been an active research subject.More recently a new approach has emerged, using D-finite functions, which are the solutions of linear differential equations with polynomial coefficients.", "Most of the elementary and special functions are D-finite, and the integral of a D-finite function is also a ''D''-finite function.", "This provides an algorithm to express the antiderivative of a D-finite function as the solution of a differential equation.", "This theory also allows one to compute the definite integral of a D-function as the sum of a series given by the first coefficients and provides an algorithm to compute any coefficient.Rule-based integration systems facilitate integration.", "Rubi, a computer algebra system rule-based integrator, pattern matches an extensive system of symbolic integration rules to integrate a wide variety of integrands.", "This system uses over 6600 integration rules to compute integrals.", "The method of brackets is a generalization of Ramanujan's master theorem that can be applied to a wide range of univariate and multivariate integrals.", "A set of rules are applied to the coefficients and exponential terms of the integrand's power series expansion to determine the integral.", "The method is closely related to the Mellin transform.===Numerical===Numerical quadrature methods: rectangle method, trapezoidal rule, Romberg's method, Gaussian quadratureDefinite integrals may be approximated using several methods of numerical integration.", "The rectangle method relies on dividing the region under the function into a series of rectangles corresponding to function values and multiplies by the step width to find the sum.", "A better approach, the trapezoidal rule, replaces the rectangles used in a Riemann sum with trapezoids.", "The trapezoidal rule weights the first and last values by one half, then multiplies by the step width to obtain a better approximation.", "The idea behind the trapezoidal rule, that more accurate approximations to the function yield better approximations to the integral, can be carried further: Simpson's rule approximates the integrand by a piecewise quadratic function.Riemann sums, the trapezoidal rule, and Simpson's rule are examples of a family of quadrature rules called the Newton–Cotes formulas.", "The degree Newton–Cotes quadrature rule approximates the polynomial on each subinterval by a degree '''' polynomial.", "This polynomial is chosen to interpolate the values of the function on the interval.", "Higher degree Newton–Cotes approximations can be more accurate, but they require more function evaluations, and they can suffer from numerical inaccuracy due to Runge's phenomenon.", "One solution to this problem is Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature, in which the integrand is approximated by expanding it in terms of Chebyshev polynomials.Romberg's method halves the step widths incrementally, giving trapezoid approximations denoted by , , and so on, where is half of .", "For each new step size, only half the new function values need to be computed; the others carry over from the previous size.", "It then interpolate a polynomial through the approximations, and extrapolate to .", "Gaussian quadrature evaluates the function at the roots of a set of orthogonal polynomials.", "An -point Gaussian method is exact for polynomials of degree up to .The computation of higher-dimensional integrals (for example, volume calculations) makes important use of such alternatives as Monte Carlo integration.===Mechanical===The area of an arbitrary two-dimensional shape can be determined using a measuring instrument called planimeter.", "The volume of irregular objects can be measured with precision by the fluid displaced as the object is submerged.===Geometrical===Area can sometimes be found via geometrical compass-and-straightedge constructions of an equivalent square.===Integration by differentiation===Kempf, Jackson and Morales demonstrated mathematical relations that allow an integral to be calculated by means of differentiation.", "Their calculus involves the Dirac delta function and the partial derivative operator .", "This can also be applied to functional integrals, allowing them to be computed by functional differentiation." ], [ "Examples", "=== Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus ===The fundamental theorem of calculus allows for straightforward calculations of basic functions." ], [ "See also", "* * * Lists of integrals" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * .", "In particular chapters III and IV.", "* * * * * * Available in translation as ** (Originally published by Cambridge University Press, 1897, based on J. L. Heiberg's Greek version.", ")* * **** * * * ** * * .", "* * .", "* " ], [ "External links", " * Online Integral Calculator, Wolfram Alpha.===Online books===* Keisler, H. Jerome, Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals, University of Wisconsin* Stroyan, K. D., A Brief Introduction to Infinitesimal Calculus, University of Iowa* Mauch, Sean, ''Sean's Applied Math Book'', CIT, an online textbook that includes a complete introduction to calculus* Crowell, Benjamin, ''Calculus'', Fullerton College, an online textbook* Garrett, Paul, Notes on First-Year Calculus* Hussain, Faraz, Understanding Calculus, an online textbook* Johnson, William Woolsey (1909) Elementary Treatise on Integral Calculus, link from HathiTrust.", "* Kowalk, W. P., ''Integration Theory'', University of Oldenburg.", "A new concept to an old problem.", "Online textbook* Sloughter, Dan, Difference Equations to Differential Equations, an introduction to calculus* Numerical Methods of Integration at ''Holistic Numerical Methods Institute''* P. S. Wang, Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Symbolic Manipulation (1972) — a cookbook of definite integral techniques" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Zionist political violence" ], [ "Introduction", "Aftermath of the King David Hotel bombing, 1946'''Zionist political violence''' refers to politically motivated violence or terrorism perpetrated by Zionists.", "The term is used to describe violence committed by those who support the political movement of Zionism, and violence committed against opponents of Zionism.", "The violence often takes the form of terrorist attacks and has been directed against both Jewish and Arab targets.", "The most active period of most notable Zionist political violence began on June 30, 1924, through the 1940s, and continues to the present day, usually for the purpose of expanding Zionist settlements in Palestine.", "Notable examples of Zionist political violence include the King David Hotel bombing and the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin." ], [ "Impact", "Actions were carried out by individuals and Jewish paramilitary groups such as the Irgun, the Lehi, the Haganah and the Palmach as part of a conflict between Jews, British authorities, and Palestinian Arabs, regarding land, immigration, and control over Palestine.British soldiers and officials, United Nations personnel, Palestinian Arab fighters and civilians, and Jewish fighters and civilians were targets or victims of these actions.", "Domestic, commercial, and government property, infrastructure, and material have also been attacked." ], [ "Main occurrences", "During the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, the 1921 Jaffa riots and the 1929 Palestine riots, Palestinian Arabs manifested hostility against Zionist immigration, which provoked the reaction of Jewish militias.", "In 1935, the Irgun, a Zionist underground military organization, split off from the Haganah.", "The Irgun were the armed expression of the nascent ideology of Revisionist Zionism founded by Ze'ev Jabotinsky.", "He expressed this ideology as ''\"every Jew had the right to enter Palestine; only active retaliation would deter the Arab and the British; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state\"''.During the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine, Palestinian Arabs fought for the end of the Mandate and the creation of an Arab state based on the whole of Palestine.", "They attacked both British and Jews as well as some Palestinian Arabs who supported a Pan-Arabism.", "Mainstream Zionists, represented by the Vaad Leumi and the Haganah, practiced the policy of Havlagah (restraint); Irgun militants did not follow this policy and called themselves \"Havlagah breakers.\"", "The Irgun began bombing Palestinian Arab civilian targets in 1938.While the Palestinian Arabs were \"carefully disarmed\" by the British Mandatory authorities by 1939, the Zionists were not.", "As a conciliation to the Arabs, the White Paper of 1939 was passed, imposing significant limits in Jewish immigration in the shadow of World War II.After the British Declaration of War in September 1939, the head of the Jewish Agency for Palestine David Ben-Gurion declared: 'We will fight the White Paper as if there is no war, and fight the war as if there is no White Paper.", "'; the Haganah and Irgun subsequently suspended their activity against the British in support of their war against Nazi Germany.", "However, the smaller Lehi continued anti-British attacks and direct action throughout the war.", "At that time, the British also supported the creation and the training of Palmach, as a unit that could withstand a German offensive in the area, with the consent of the Yishuv which saw an opportunity to get trained units and soldiers for the planned Jewish state and during 1944–1945, the most mainstream Jewish paramilitary organization, Haganah, cooperated with the British authorities against the Lehi and Etzel.After World War II, between 1945 and the 29 November 1947 Partition vote, British soldiers and policemen were targeted by Irgun and Lehi.", "The Haganah and Palmach at first collaborated with the British against them, particularly during the Hunting Season, before actively joining them in the Jewish Resistance Movement, then finally choosing an official neutral position after 1946 while the Irgun and the Lehi continued their attacks against the British.The Haganah, Irgun and Lehi also executed dozens of Jews for alleged treason or collaboration with Britain or Arabs, often after irregular drumhead court martials.", "The Haganah also carried out violent attacks in Palestine, such as the liberation of interned immigrants from the Atlit detainee camp, the bombing of the country's railroad network, sabotage raids on radar installations and bases of the British Palestine police.", "It continued to organize illegal immigration throughout the entire war.In February 1947, the British announced that they would end the mandate and withdraw from Palestine and they asked for the arbitration of the United Nations.", "After the vote of the Partition Plan for Palestine on 30 November 1947, civil war broke out in Palestine.", "Jewish and Arab communities fought each other violently in campaigns of attacks, retaliations, and counter-retaliations which provoked around 800 deaths after two months.", "Arab volunteers entered Palestine to fight alongside the Palestinian Arabs.", "In April, 6 weeks before the termination of the Mandate, the Jewish militias launched wide operations to control the territory dedicated to them by the Partition Plan.", "Many atrocities occurred during this time.", "The Arab population in the mixed cities of Tiberias, Safed, Haifa and Jaffa, as well as Beisan and Acre and in the neighbouring villages, fled or were expelled during this period.", "During the Battle for Jerusalem (1948) where the Jewish community of 100,000 people was besieged, most Arab villages of the Tel Aviv – Jerusalem corridor were captured by Jewish militias and leveled.At the beginning of the civil war, the Jewish militias organized several bombing attacks against civilians and military Arab targets.", "On 12 December, Irgun placed a car bomb opposite the Damascus Gate, killing 20 people.", "On 4 January 1948, the Lehi detonated a lorry bomb against the headquarters of the paramilitary Najjada located in Jaffa's Town Hall, killing 15 Arabs and injuring 80.During the night between 5 and 6 January, the Haganah bombed the Semiramis Hotel in Jerusalem that had been reported to hide Arab militiamen, killing 24 people.", "The next day, Irgun members in a stolen police van rolled a barrel bomb into a large group of civilians who were waiting for a bus by the Jaffa Gate, killing around 16.Another Irgun bomb went off in the Ramla market on February 18, killing 7 residents and injuring 45.On 28 February, the Palmah organised a bombing attack against a garage in Haifa, killing 30 people.In 1995, Yitzhak Rabin was the Prime Minister of Israel who was assassinated by Yigal Amir after a peace rally.", "Amir had been opposed to Rabin's peace initiative, which included signing the Oslo Accords and withdrawing from the West Bank.", "He believed that Rabin was a rodef, meaning a \"pursuer\" who endangered Jewish lives, and that he was justified in removing Rabin as a threat to Jews in the territories according to the concept of din rodef (\"law of the pursuer\"), which is a part of traditional Jewish law." ], [ "Condemnation as terrorism", "Hannah Arendt, Jessurun Cardozo, Albert Einstein and others letterIrgun was described as a terrorist organization by the United Nations, British, and United States governments, and in media such as ''The New York Times'' newspaper, and by the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry.", "In 1946, The World Zionist Congress strongly condemned terrorist activities in Palestine and \"the shedding of innocent blood as a means of political warfare\".", "Irgun was specifically condemned.Menachem Begin was called a terrorist and a fascist by Albert Einstein and 27 other prominent Jewish intellectuals in a letter to the New York Times which was published on December 4, 1948.Specifically condemned was the participation of the Irgun in the Deir Yassin massacre:\"terrorist bands attacked this peaceful village, which was not a military objective in the fighting, killed most of its inhabitants – 240 men, women and children – and kept a few of them alive to parade as captives through the streets of Jerusalem.", "\"The letter warns American Jews against supporting Begin's request for funding of his political party Herut, and ends with the warning:\"The discrepancies between the bold claims now being made by Begin and his party and their record of past performance in Palestine bear the imprint of no ordinary political party.", "This is the unmistakable stamp of a Fascist party for whom terrorism (against Jews, Arabs, and British alike), and misrepresentation are means, and a \"Leader State\" is the goal.", "\"Lehi was described as a terrorist organization by the British authorities and United Nations mediator Ralph Bunche." ], [ "Jewish public opinion", "During the conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine before the war, the criterion of \"Purity of arms\" was used to distinguish between the respective attitudes of the Irgun and Haganah towards Arabs, with the latter priding itself on its adherence to principle.", "The Jewish society in the British Mandate Palestine generally disapproved and denounced violent attacks both on grounds of moral rejection and political disagreement, stressing that terrorism is counter-productive in the Zionist quest for Jewish self-determination.", "Generally speaking, this precept requires that \"weapons remain pure and that they are employed only in self-defence and never against innocent civilians and defenceless people\".", "But if it \"remained a central value in education\" it was \"rather vague and intentionally blurred\" at the practical level.In 1946, at a meeting held between the heads of the Haganah, David Ben-Gurion predicted a confrontation between the Arabs of Palestine and the Arab states.", "Concerning the \"principle of purity of arms\", he stressed that: \"The end does not justify all means.", "Our war is based on moral grounds\" and during the 1948 War, the Mapam, the political party affiliated to Palmach, asked \"a strict observance of the Jewish Purity of arms to secure the moral character of the war\".", "When he was later criticized by Mapam members for his attitude concerning the Arab refugee problem, Ben-Gurion reminded them of the Palestinian expulsion from Lydda and Ramle and the fact Palmah officers had been responsible for the \"outrage that had encouraged the Arabs' flight made the party uncomfortable.", "\"According to Avi Shlaim, this condemnation of the use of violence is one of the key features of 'the conventional Zionist account or old history' whose 'popular-heroic-moralistic version' is 'taught in Israeli schools and used extensively in the quest for legitimacy abroad'.", "Benny Morris adds that 'the Israelis' collective memory of fighters characterized by \"purity of arms\" is also undermined by the evidence of the dozen cases of rapes committed in conquered towns and villages.'", "According to him, 'after the 1948 war, the Israelis tended to hail the \"purity of arms\" of its militiamen and soldiers to contrast this with Arab barbarism, which on occasion expressed itself in the mutilation of captured Jewish corpses.'", "According to him, 'this reinforced the Israelis' positive self-image and helped them \"sell\" the new state abroad and (...) demonized the enemy'.Some Israelis justify acts of political violence.", "Sixty years after participating in the assassination of Swedish diplomat Folke Bernadotte, Geulah Cohen had no regrets.", "As a broadcaster on Lehi's radio, she recalled the threats against Bernadotte in advance of the assassination.", "\"I told him if you are not going to leave Jerusalem and go to your Stockholm, you won't be any more.\"", "Asked if it was right to assassinate Bernadotte, she replied, \"There is no question about it.", "We would not have Jerusalem any more.\"", "In July 2006, the Menachem Begin Heritage Center organized a conference to mark the 60th anniversary of the King David Hotel bombing.", "The conference was attended by past and future Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and former members of Irgun.", "The British Ambassador in Tel Aviv and the Consul-General in Jerusalem protested that a plaque commemorating the bombing stated \"For reasons known only to the British, the hotel was not evacuated.\"", "Netanyahu, then chairman of Likud and Leader of the Opposition in the Knesset, opined that the bombing was a legitimate act with a military target, distinguishing it from an act of terror intended to harm civilians since Irgun sent warnings to evacuate the building.", "He said \"Imagine that Hamas or Hizbullah would call the military headquarters in Tel Aviv and say, 'We have placed a bomb and we are asking you to evacuate the area.'", "They don't do that.", "That is the difference.\"", "The British Ambassador in Tel Aviv and the Consul-General in Jerusalem protested, saying \"We do not think that it is right for an act of terrorism, which led to the loss of many lives, to be commemorated\", and wrote to the Mayor of Jerusalem that such an \"act of terror\" could not be honored.", "The British government also demanded the removal of the plaque, pointing out that the statement on it accusing the British of failing to evacuate the hotel was untrue and \"did not absolve those who planted the bomb.\"", "To prevent a diplomatic incident, changes were made in the plaque's text.", "The final English version says \"Warning phone calls have been made to the hotel, The Palestine Post and the French Consulate, urging the hotel's occupants to leave immediately.", "The hotel was not evacuated and after 25 minutes the bombs exploded.", "To the Irgun's regret, 92 persons were killed.\"" ], [ "Irgun, Haganah and Lehi attacks", "'''June 30, 1924''' Dutch Jew Jacob Israël de Haan was assassinated by Avraham Tehomi on the orders of Haganah leader Yitzhak Ben-Zvi for his anti-Zionist political activities and contacts with Arab leaders.", "'''1937–1939''' During the later stages of the 1936-1939 Arab Revolt in Mandatory Palestine The Irgun conducted a campaign of violence against Palestinian Arab civilians resulting in the deaths of at least 250.The group also killed a number of Jews it deemed guilty of \"treason.", "\"'''July 15, 1938''' A bomb left in the vegetable market in Jerusalem by the Irgun injured 28.", "'''July 25, 1938''' The Irgun threw a bomb into the melon market in Haifa resulting in 49 deaths.", "'''November 6, 1944''' Lehi assassinated British minister Lord Moyne in Cairo, Kingdom of Egypt.", "The action was condemned by the Yishuv at the time, but the bodies of the assassins were brought home from Egypt in 1975 to a state funeral and burial on Mount Herzl.", "'''1944–1945''' The killings of several suspected collaborators with the Haganah and the British mandate government during the Hunting Season.", "'''1946''' Letter bombs sent to British officials, including foreign minister Ernst Bevin, by Lehi.", "'''July 26, 1946''' The bombing of British administrative headquarters at the King David Hotel, killing 91 people — 28 British, 41 Arab, 17 Jewish, and 5 others.", "Around 45 people were injured.", "In the literature about the practice and history of terrorism, it has been called one of the most lethal terrorist attacks of the 20th century.", "'''1946''' Railways and British military airfields were attacked several times.", "'''October 31, 1946''' The bombing by the Irgun of the British Embassy in Rome.", "Nearly half the building was destroyed and 3 people were injured.", "'''April 16, 1947''' An Irgun bomb placed at the Colonial Office in London failed to detonate.", "The woman arrested for planting the bomb, alias \"Esther,\" was identified as a Jewess claiming French nationality by the Scotland Yard unit investigating Jewish terrorist activities.", "The attack was linked to the 1946 Rome embassy bombing.", " '''14 June 1947''' The Reuters office in Tel Aviv was raided by \"Jewish terrorists.", "\"'''July 25, 1947''' The Sergeants affair: When death sentences were passed on two Irgun members, the Irgun kidnapped Sgt.", "Clifford Martin and Sgt.", "Mervyn Paice and threatened to kill them in retaliation if the sentences were carried out.", "When the threat was ignored, the hostages were killed.", "Afterwards, their bodies were taken to an orange grove and left hanging by the neck from trees.", "An improvised explosive device was set.", "This went off when one of the bodies was cut down, seriously wounding a British officer.", "'''December 1947 – March 1948''' Numerous attacks on Palestinian Arabs in the context of civil war after the vote of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.", "'''1947''' Letter bombs sent to the Truman White House by Lehi.", "'''January 5–6, 1948''' The Semiramis Hotel bombing, carried out by the Haganah (or, according to some sources, Irgun) resulted in the deaths of 24 to 26 people.", "'''April 1948''' The Deir Yassin massacre carried out by the Irgun and Lehi, killed between 107 and 120 Palestinian villagers, the estimate generally accepted by scholars.", "'''September 17, 1948''' Lehi assassination of the United Nations mediator Folke Bernadotte, whom Lehi accused of a pro-Arab stance during the cease-fire negotiations." ], [ "See also", "Israeli settler violenceKahanismJewish Defense LeagueLehavaJewish religious terrorismNationalismNationalist terrorismNeo-ZionismPalestinian political violenceViolence in the Israeli-Palestinian conflictJewish fundamentalism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* online version at Internet Archive*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lists of airports" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''airport''' is an aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land.", "Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower.", "An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals.An airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called a heliport.", "An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base.", "Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings, and seaplane docks for tying-up.An international airport has additional facilities for customs and immigration.", "* By country: see :Category:Lists of airports by country* By metropolitan area: see :Category:Airports by city* List of eponyms of airports (airports named after people)* Lists of military installations* Lists of the World's busiest airports: by aircraft movements by cargo traffic by passenger traffic by international passenger traffic* Lists by elevation: List of highest airports List of lowest airports* With triple takeoff/landing capability* Worldwide list of airports with scheduled commercial service, see: Airline destinations" ], [ "See also", "* List of airports in Australia* List of airports in the United States* List of cities with more than one commercial airport* List of IATA-indexed railway stations* Lists of ports* Seaport=== Airports by continent ===* List of airports in Africa* List of airports in Antarctica* List of airports in Asia* List of airports in Europe* List of airports in North America* List of airports in Oceania* List of airports in South America" ], [ "External links", "* KML (Google Earth geolocations) file of Airports" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Inclusion body myositis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Inclusion body myositis''' ('''IBM''') () (sometimes called '''sporadic inclusion body myositis''', '''sIBM''') is the most common inflammatory muscle disease in older adults.", "The disease is characterized by slowly progressive weakness and wasting of both proximal muscles (located on or close to the torso) and distal muscles (close to hands or feet), most apparent in the finger flexors and knee extensors.", "IBM is often confused with an entirely different class of diseases, called hereditary inclusion body myopathies (hIBM).", "The \"M\" in hIBM is an abbreviation for \"myopathy\" while the \"M\" in IBM is for \"myositis\".", "In IBM, two processes appear to occur in the muscles in parallel, one autoimmune and the other degenerative.", "Inflammation is evident from the invasion of muscle fibers by immune cells.", "Degeneration is characterized by the appearance of holes, deposits of abnormal proteins, and filamentous inclusions in the muscle fibers.", "sIBM is a rare disease, with a prevalence ranging from 1 to 71 individuals per million.Weakness comes on slowly (over months to years) in an asymmetric manner and progresses steadily, leading to severe weakness and wasting of arm and leg muscles.", "IBM is more common in men than women.", "Patients may become unable to perform activities of daily living and most require assistive devices within 5 to 10 years of symptom onset.", "sIBM does not significantly affect life expectancy, although death related to malnutrition and respiratory failure can occur.", "The risk of serious injury due to falls is increased.", "There is no effective treatment for the disease as of 2019." ], [ "Classification and terminology", "IBM stands for \"inclusion body ''myositis:'' not \"inclusion body ''myopathy.''\"", "The 'inclusion body' refers to a histological finding of rimmed vacuoles in muscle tissue.", "However, IBM does not refer to the collection of diseases that feature these inclusion bodies.", "It refers to a specific disease entity.Multiple genetic diseases that feature inclusion bodies have been grouped into \"''hereditary'' inclusion body ''myopathies'' (hIBM).\"", "''Myopathy'' is used because inflammation is not a prominent finding.", "There is inconsistency in what individual disease entities fall under the category of hIBM.", "The term \"''sporadic'' inclusion body ''myositis''\" (sIBM) was introduced as a way to refer to IBM to avoid confusion with hIBM.", "However, one author discourages use of sIBM, as it implies that IBM and hIBM differ only in inheritance; they actually have unrelated mechanisms and manifestations of disease." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Affected quadriceps (rectus femoris) in IBMsIBM causes progressive muscle weakness.", "How sIBM affects individuals is variable, including the age of onset (which generally varies from the forties upwards) and rate of progression.", "Because of this variability, there is no \"textbook case\".Common early symptoms include frequent tripping and falling and difficulty going up stairs.", "Foot drop in one or both feet can occur.", "Part of the cause for this dysfunction is the early involvement of the quadriceps muscles.", "Weakness of the tibialis anterior muscle is responsible for foot drop.", "Another common early symptom is trouble manipulating the fingers, such as difficulty with tasks such as turning doorknobs or gripping keys.", "Weakness of finger flexion and ankle dorsiflexion occurs early.", "sIBM also preferentially affects the wrist flexors, biceps, and triceps.During the course of the illness, the patient's mobility is progressively restricted as it becomes difficult to bend down, reach for things, and walk quickly.", "Many patients say they have balance problems and fall easily, as the muscles cannot compensate for an off-balanced posture.", "Because sIBM makes the leg muscles weak and unstable, patients are very vulnerable to serious injury from tripping or falling down.", "Although pain has not been traditionally part of the \"textbook\" description, many patients report severe muscle pain, especially in the thighs.Affected arms and fingers in IBMProgressive difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) is present in 40 to 85% of IBM cases and often leads to death from aspiration pneumonia.IBM can also result in diminished capacity for aerobic exercise.", "This decline is most likely a consequence of the sedentary lifestyle leading to disuse muscle atrophy that is often associated with the symptoms of IBM (i.e.", "progressive muscle weakness, decreased mobility, and increased level of fatigue).", "Therefore, one focus of treatment should be the improvement of aerobic capacity.Patients with sIBM usually eventually need to resort to a cane or a walker and in most cases, a wheelchair eventually becomes a necessity.", "\"The progressive course of s-IBM leads slowly to severe disability.", "Finger functions can become very impaired, such as manipulating pens, keys, buttons, and zippers, pulling handles, and firmly grasping handshakes.", "Arising from a chair becomes difficult.", "Walking becomes more precarious.", "Sudden falls, sometimes resulting in major injury to the skull or other bones, can occur, even from walking on minimally irregular ground or from other minor imbalances outside or in the home, due to weakness of quadriceps and gluteus muscles depriving the patient of automatic posture maintenance.", "A foot-drop can increase the likelihood of tripping.", "Dysphagia can occur, usually caused by upper esophageal constriction that often can be symptomatically improved, for several months to years, by bougie dilation per a GI or ENT physician.", "Respiratory muscle weakness can sometimes eventuate.\"" ], [ "Causes", "The cause of IBM is unknown.", "IBM likely results from the interaction of a number of genetic and environmental factors.There are two major theories about how sIBM is caused.", "One hypothesis suggests that the inflammation-immune reaction, caused by an unknown trigger – likely an undiscovered virus or an autoimmune disorder – is the primary cause of sIBM and that the degeneration of muscle fibers and protein abnormalities are secondary features.", "Despite the arguments \"in favor of an adaptive immune response in sIBM, a purely autoimmune hypothesis for sIBM is untenable because of the disease's resistance to most immunotherapy.", "\"The second school of thought advocates the theory that sIBM is a degenerative disorder related to aging of the muscle fibers and that abnormal, potentially pathogenic protein accumulations in myofibrils play a key causative role in sIBM (apparently before the immune system comes into play).", "This hypothesis emphasizes the abnormal intracellular accumulation of many proteins, protein aggregation and misfolding, proteosome inhibition, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress.One review discusses the \"limitations in the beta-amyloid-mediated theory of IBM myofiber injury.", "\"Dalakas (2006) suggested that a chain of events causes IBM – some sort of virus, likely a retrovirus, triggers the cloning of T cells.", "These T cells appear to be driven by specific antigens to invade muscle fibers.", "In people with sIBM, the muscle cells display \"flags\" telling the immune system that they are infected or damaged (the muscles ubiquitously express MHC class I antigens) and this immune process leads to the death of muscle cells.", "The chronic stimulation of these antigens also causes stress inside the muscle cell in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and this ER stress may be enough to cause a self-sustaining T cell response (even after a virus has dissipated).", "In addition, this ER stress may cause the misfolding of protein.", "The ER is in charge of processing and folding molecules carrying antigens.", "In IBM, muscle fibers are overloaded with these major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules that carry the antigen protein pieces, leading to more ER stress and more protein misfolding.A self-sustaining T cell response would make sIBM a type of autoimmune disorder.", "When studied carefully, it has not been possible to detect an ongoing viral infection in the muscles.", "One theory is that a chronic viral infection might be the initial triggering factor setting IBM in motion.", "There have been a handful of IBM cases – approximately 15 – that have shown clear evidence of a virus called HTLV-1.The HTLV-1 virus can cause leukemia, but in most cases lies dormant and most people end up being lifelong carriers of the virus.", "One review says that the best evidence points towards a connection with some type of retrovirus and that a retroviral infection combined with immune recognition of the retrovirus is enough to trigger the inflammation process.", "* amyloid protein* The hypothesis that beta amyloid protein is key to IBM has been supported in a mouse model using an Aβ vaccine that was found to be effective against inclusion body myositis in mouse models.", "Although this vaccine is likely, not safe for human use, it still shows that attacking Aβ has efficacy in mice against IBM.", "* Following up on earlier leads, the Greenberg group report finding that the protein TDP-43 is a very prominent and highly sensitive and specific feature of IBM.", "This protein is normally found within the nucleus but in IBM is found in the cytoplasm of the cell.", "This important advance should help develop a new screening technique for IBM and may provide clues in terms of a therapeutic approach===Genetics===sIBM is not inherited and is not passed on to the children of IBM patients.", "There are genetic features that do not directly cause IBM but that appear to predispose a person to getting IBM – having this particular combination of genes increases one's susceptibility to getting IBM.", "Some 67% of IBM patients have a particular combination of human leukocyte antigen genes in a section of the 8.1 ancestral haplotype in the center of the MHC class II region.", "sIBM is not passed on from generation to generation, although the susceptibility region of genes may be.There are also several rare forms of hereditary inclusion body myopathy that are linked to specific genetic defects and that are passed on from generation to generation.", "Since these forms do not show features of muscle inflammation, they are classified as myopathies rather than forms of myositis.", "Because they do not display inflammation as a primary symptom, they may in fact be similar, but different diseases to sporadic inclusion body myositis.", "There are several different types, each inherited in different ways.", "See hereditary inclusion body myopathy.A 2007 review concluded there is no indication that the genes responsible for the familial or hereditary conditions are involved in sIBM." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Inclusion body myositis histologyElevated creatine kinase (CK) levels in the blood (at most ~10 times normal) are typical in sIBM but affected individuals can also present with normal CK levels.", "Electromyography (EMG) studies display variable abnormalities such as increased insertional activity, increased spontaneous activity (fibrillation potentials and sharp waves), and large/broad or short/narrow motor unit potentials.", "On EMG, recruitment patterns can be reduced or increased.", "Findings can vary even within the same muscle of an affected individual.", "Muscle biopsy may display several common findings including inflammatory cells invading muscle cells, vacuolar degeneration, and inclusion bodies of aggregations of multiple proteins.", "sIBM is a challenge to the pathologist and even with a biopsy, diagnosis can be ambiguous.A diagnosis of inclusion body myositis was historically dependent on muscle biopsy results.", "Antibodies to cytoplasmic 5'-nucleotidase (cN1A; NT5C1A) have been strongly associated with the condition.", "However, other inflammatory conditions, such as lupus, can have a positive anti-NT5C1A.", "As of 2019, it remains to be established whether a positive anti-NT5C1A antibody test can make muscle biopsy unneeded.Inclusion body myositis MRIMuscle imaging can help establish the pattern of muscle involvement and selection of a biopsy site.===Differential diagnosis===IBM is often initially misdiagnosed as polymyositis.", "A course of prednisone is typically completed with no improvement and eventually, sIBM is confirmed.", "sIBM weakness comes on over months or years and progresses steadily, whereas polymyositis has an onset of weeks or months.", "Muscular dystrophy (e.g., limb girdle muscular dystrophy) must be considered as well.", "sIBM can be mistaken for physical deconditioning.Hereditary myopathies can mimic sIBM, both in signs and symptoms and in the appearance of muscle biopsies.", "A small percentage of those initially diagnosed with sIBM are later found to have pathogenic mutations in the genes ''VCP'' and ''SQSTM1'', which are known to cause hIBM.IBM has a distinctive pattern of muscle involvement that distinguishes it among inflammatory myopathies.", "Characteristic of IBM is weakness of finger flexion, knee extension, and ankle dorsiflexion.", "Other inflammatory myopathies cause a proximal muscle weakness pattern, such as weakness of hip flexion, abduction, and extension, as well as shoulder abduction.", "IBM and other inflammatory myopathies both cause bicep/tricep weakness.===Classification===* The common type is sIBM; it strikes individuals apparently at random.", "* There is a type that has been observed in multiple siblings in the same generation in several families, termed ''familial inflammatory sIBM'', but it is not passed on from generation to generation.", "* There are also several very rare forms of ''hereditary inclusion body myopathy'' (hIBM) that are linked to specific genetic defects and that are passed on from generation to generation, each inherited in different ways." ], [ "Management", "There is no standard course of treatment to slow or stop the progression of the disease as of 2019.sIBM patients do not reliably respond to anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant, or immunomodulatory medications.", "Most of disease management is supportive care.", "Prevention of falls is an important consideration.", "There is no consensus on exercise guidelines; however, physical therapy is recommended to teach the patient a home exercise program, to teach how to compensate during mobility-gait training with an assistive device, transfers and bed mobility.", "An exercise regimen preferentially minimizes a patient's risk of injury and corresponds to the patient's goals." ], [ "Other related disorders", "When sIBM was originally described, the major feature noted was muscle inflammation.", "Two other disorders were also known to display muscle inflammation, and sIBM was classified along with them.", "They are dermatomyositis (DM) and polymyositis (PM) and all three illnesses were called idiopathic (of unknown origin) myositis or inflammatory myopathies.It appears that sIBM and polymyositis share some features, especially the initial sequence of immune system activation, however, polymyositis comes on over weeks or months, does not display the subsequent muscle degeneration and protein abnormalities as seen in IBM, and as well, polymyositis tends to respond well to treatments, IBM does not.", "IBM is often confused with (misdiagnosed as) polymyositis.", "Polymyositis that does not respond to treatment is likely IBM.Dermatomyositis shares a number of similar physical symptoms and histopathological traits as polymyositis, but exhibits a skin rash not seen in polymyositis or sIBM.", "It may have different root causes unrelated to either polymyositis or sIBM.Mutations in valosin-containing protein (VCP) cause multisystem proteinopathy (MSP), which can present (among others) as a rare form of inclusion body myopathy." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Prevalence of disease in a rigorous meta-analysis in 2017 was 46 patients per million.", "The earliest published prevalence was in 2000 and put at 5 per million.", "A 2017 study in Ireland reported 112 per million.", "It is not believed that the disease prevalence is increasing with time, but rather diagnostics and reporting are improving.Estimates of the mean age of onset range from 61 to 68 years old." ], [ "Society and culture", "In the biographical drama film Father Stu, the protagonist, a boxer-turned-Catholic priest, has sIBM." ], [ "See also", "* Inflammatory myopathies" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* GeneReview/NIH/UW entry on Inclusion Body Myopathy 2" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ion implantation" ], [ "Introduction", "LAAS technological facility in Toulouse, France.", "'''Ion implantation''' is a low-temperature process by which ions of one element are accelerated into a solid target, thereby changing the physical, chemical, or electrical properties of the target.", "Ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fabrication and in metal finishing, as well as in materials science research.", "The ions can alter the elemental composition of the target (if the ions differ in composition from the target) if they stop and remain in the target.", "Ion implantation also causes chemical and physical changes when the ions impinge on the target at high energy.", "The crystal structure of the target can be damaged or even destroyed by the energetic collision cascades, and ions of sufficiently high energy (tens of MeV) can cause nuclear transmutation." ], [ "General principle", "Ion implantation setup with mass separatorIon implantation equipment typically consists of an ion source, where ions of the desired element are produced, an accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy or using radiofrequency, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted.", "Thus ion implantation is a special case of particle radiation.", "Each ion is typically a single atom or molecule, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current.", "This amount is called the dose.", "The currents supplied by implants are typically small (micro-amperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small.", "Therefore, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small.Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 keV (1,600 to 80,000 aJ).", "Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less.", "Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation ion beam deposition.", "Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common.", "However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad (Bragg peak), the net composition change at any point in the target will be small.The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution.", "The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions.", "Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer.", "Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target.", "Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process.", "The loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping and can be simulated with the binary collision approximation method.Accelerator systems for ion implantation are generally classified into medium current (ion beam currents between 10 μA and ~2 mA), high current (ion beam currents up to ~30 mA), high energy (ion energies above 200 keV and up to 10 MeV), and very high dose (efficient implant of dose greater than 1016 ions/cm2).=== Ion source ===All varieties of ion implantation beamline designs contain general groups of functional components (see image).", "The first major segment of an ion beamline includes an ion source used to generate the ion species.", "The source is closely coupled to biased electrodes for extraction of the ions into the beamline and most often to some means of selecting a particular ion species for transport into the main accelerator section.The ion source is often made of materials with a high melting point such as tungsten, tungsten doped with lanthanum oxide, molybdenum and tantalum.", "Often, inside the ion source a plasma is created between two tungsten electrodes, called reflectors, using a gas often based on fluorine containing the ion to be implanted whether it is germanium, boron, or silicon.", "The ion source also has an indirectly heated cathode.", "Alternatively the heated cathode can be used as one of the reflectors, eliminating the need for a dedicated one, or a directly heated cathode is used.", "Oxygen based gases can also be used for ions such as carbon.", "Hydrogen may be added to the plasma to delay the degradation of tungsten components.", "The hydrogen can come from a high pressure cylinder or from a hydrogen generator that uses electrolysis.", "Repellers at each end of the ion source continually move the atoms from one end of the ion source to the other, resembling two mirrors pointed at each other constantly reflecting light.", "The ions are extracted from the source by an extraction electrode outside the ion source through a slit shaped aperture in the source, then the ion beam then passes through an analysis magnet to select the ions that will be implanted and then passes through one or two linear accelerators (linacs) that accelerate the ions before they reach the wafer in a process chamber.", "In medium current ion implanters there is also a neutral ion trap before the process chamber to remove neutral ions from the ion beam.", "Some dopants such as aluminum, are often not provided to the ion source as a gas but as a solid compound based on Chlorine or Iodine such as Aluminium iodide or Aluminium chloride or as a solid sputtering target made of Aluminium oxide or Aluminium nitride.The \"mass\" selection (just like in mass spectrometer) is often accompanied by passage of the extracted ion beam through a magnetic field region with an exit path restricted by blocking apertures, or \"slits\", that allow only ions with a specific value of the product of mass and velocity/charge to continue down the beamline.", "If the target surface is larger than the ion beam diameter and a uniform distribution of implanted dose is desired over the target surface, then some combination of beam scanning and wafer motion is used.", "Finally, the implanted surface is coupled with some method for collecting the accumulated charge of the implanted ions so that the delivered dose can be measured in a continuous fashion and the implant process stopped at the desired dose level." ], [ "Application in semiconductor device fabrication", "===Doping===Semiconductor doping with boron, phosphorus, or arsenic is a common application of ion implantation.", "When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom can create a charge carrier in the semiconductor after annealing.", "A hole can be created for a p-type dopant, and an electron for an n-type dopant.", "This modifies the conductivity of the semiconductor in its vicinity.", "The technique is used, for example, for adjusting the threshold voltage of a MOSFET.", "Ion implantation is practical due to the high sensitivity of semiconductor devices to foreign atoms, as ion implantation does not deposit large numbers of atoms.", "Sometimes such as during the manufacturing of SiC devices, ion implantation is carried out while heating the SiC wafer to 500°C.", "This is known as a hot implant and it is used to control damage to the surface of the semiconductor.", "Cryogenic implants (Cryo-implants) can have the same effect.The energies used in doping often vary from 1 keV to 3 meV and it is not possible to build an ion implanter capable of providing ions at any energy due to physical limitations.", "To increase the throughput of ion implanters, efforts have been made to incresase the current of the beam created by the implanter.", "The beam can be scanned across the wafer magnetically, electrostatically, mechanically or with a combination of these techniques.", "A mass analyzer magnet is used to select the ions that will be implanted on the wafer.", "Ion implantation is also used in displays containing LTPS transistors.Ion implantation was developed as a method of producing the p-n junction of photovoltaic devices in the late 1970s and early 1980s, along with the use of pulsed-electron beam for rapid annealing, although pulsed-electron beam for rapid annealing has not to date been used for commercial production.", "Ion implantation is not used in most photovoltaic silicon cells, instead, thermal diffusion doping is used.===Silicon on insulator===One prominent method for preparing silicon on insulator (SOI) substrates from conventional silicon substrates is the ''SIMOX'' (separation by implantation of oxygen) process, wherein a buried high dose oxygen implant is converted to silicon oxide by a high temperature annealing process.===Mesotaxy===Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to epitaxy, which is the growth of the matching phase on the surface of a substrate).", "In this process, ions are implanted at a high enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed.", "The crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different.", "For example, after the implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of nickel silicide can be grown in which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon." ], [ "Application in metal finishing", "===Tool steel toughening===Nitrogen or other ions can be implanted into a tool steel target (drill bits, for example).", "The structural change caused by the implantation produces a surface compression in the steel, which prevents crack propagation and thus makes the material more resistant to fracture.", "The chemical change can also make the tool more resistant to corrosion.===Surface finishing===In some applications, for example prosthetic devices such as artificial joints, it is desired to have surfaces very resistant to both chemical corrosion and wear due to friction.", "Ion implantation is used in such cases to engineer the surfaces of such devices for more reliable performance.", "As in the case of tool steels, the surface modification caused by ion implantation includes both a surface compression which prevents crack propagation and an alloying of the surface to make it more chemically resistant to corrosion." ], [ "Other applications", "===Ion beam mixing===Ion implantation can be used to achieve ion beam mixing, i.e.", "mixing up atoms of different elements at an interface.", "This may be useful for achieving graded interfaces or strengthening adhesion between layers of immiscible materials.===Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation===Ion implantation may be used to induce nano-dimensional particles in oxides such as sapphire and silica.", "The particles may be formed as a result of precipitation of the ion implanted species, they may be formed as a result of the production of a mixed oxide species that contains both the ion-implanted element and the oxide substrate, and they may be formed as a result of a reduction of the substrate, first reported by Hunt and Hampikian.", "Typical ion beam energies used to produce nanoparticles range from 50 to 150 keV, with ion fluences that range from 1016 to 1018 ions/cm2.The table below summarizes some of the work that has been done in this field for a sapphire substrate.", "A wide variety of nanoparticles can be formed, with size ranges from 1 nm on up to 20 nm and with compositions that can contain the implanted species, combinations of the implanted ion and substrate, or that are comprised solely from the cation associated with the substrate.Composite materials based on dielectrics such as sapphire that contain dispersed metal nanoparticles are promising materials for optoelectronics and nonlinear optics.", "Implanted Species Substrate Ion Beam Energy (keV) Fluence (ions/cm2) Post Implantation Heat Treatment Result Source Produces Oxides that Contain the Implanted Ion Co Al2O3 65 51017 Annealing at 1400 °C Forms Al2CoO4 spinel Co α-Al2O3 150 21017 Annealing at 1000 °C in oxidizing ambient Forms Al2CoO4 spinel Mg Al2O3 150 51016 --- Forms MgAl2O4 platelets Sn α-Al2O3 60 11017 Annealing in O2 atmosphere at 1000 °C for 1 hr 30 nm SnO2 nanoparticles form Zn α-Al2O3 48 11017 Annealing in O2 atmosphere at 600 °C ZnO nanoparticles form Zr Al2O3 65 51017 Annealing at 1400 °C ZrO2 precipitates form Produces Metallic Nanoparticles from Implanted Species Ag α-Al2O3 1500, 2000 21016, 81016 Annealing from 600 °C to 1100 °C in oxidizing, reducing, Ar or N2 atmospheres Ag nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix Au α-Al2O3 160 0.61017, 11016 1 hr at 800 °C in air Au nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix Au α-Al2O3 1500, 2000 21016, 81016 Annealing from 600 °C to 1100 °C in oxidizing, reducing, Ar or N2 atmospheres Au nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix Co α-Al2O3 150 16 Annealing at 1000 °C Co nanoparticles in Al2O3 matrix Co α-Al2O3 150 21017 Annealing at 1000 °C in reducing ambient Precipitation of metallic Co Fe α-Al2O3 160 11016 to 21017 Annealing for 1 hr from 700 °C to 1500 °C in reducing ambient Fe nanocomposites Ni α-Al2O3 64 11017 --- 1-5 nm Ni nanoparticles Si α-Al2O3 50 21016, 81016 Annealing at 500 °C or 1000 °C for 30 min Si nanoparticles in Al2O3 Sn α-Al2O3 60 11017 --- 15 nm tetragonal Sn nanoparticles Ti α-Al2O3 100 16 Annealing at 1000 °C Ti nanoparticles in Al2O3 Produces Metallic Nanoparticles from Substrate Ca Al2O3 150 51016 --- Al nanoparticles in amorphous matrix containing Al2O3 and CaO Y Al2O3 150 51016 --- 10.7± 1.8 nm Al particles in amorphous matrix containing Al2O3 and Y2O3 Y Al2O3 150 2.51016 --- 9.0± 1.2 nm Al particles in amorphous matrix containing Al2O3 and Y2O3" ], [ "Problems with ion implantation", "===Crystallographic damage===Each individual ion produces many point defects in the target crystal on impact such as vacancies and interstitials.", "Vacancies are crystal lattice points unoccupied by an atom: in this case the ion collides with a target atom, resulting in transfer of a significant amount of energy to the target atom such that it leaves its crystal site.", "This target atom then itself becomes a projectile in the solid, and can cause successive collision events.Interstitials result when such atoms (or the original ion itself) come to rest in the solid, but find no vacant space in the lattice to reside.", "These point defects can migrate and cluster with each other, resulting in dislocation loops and other defects.===Damage recovery===Because ion implantation causes damage to the crystal structure of the target which is often unwanted, ion implantation processing is often followed by a thermal annealing.", "This can be referred to as damage recovery.===Amorphization===The amount of crystallographic damage can be enough to completely amorphize the surface of the target: i.e.", "it can become an amorphous solid (such a solid produced from a melt is called a glass).", "In some cases, complete amorphization of a target is preferable to a highly defective crystal: An amorphized film can be regrown at a lower temperature than required to anneal a highly damaged crystal.", "Amorphisation of the substrate can occur as a result of the beam damage.", "For example, yttrium ion implantation into sapphire at an ion beam energy of 150 keV to a fluence of 51016 Y+/cm2 produces an amorphous glassy layer approximately 110 nm in thickness, measured from the outer surface.", "Hunt, 1999===Sputtering===Some of the collision events result in atoms being ejected (sputtered) from the surface, and thus ion implantation will slowly etch away a surface.", "The effect is only appreciable for very large doses.===Ion channelling=== direction, showing hexagonal ion channels.If there is a crystallographic structure to the target, and especially in semiconductor substrates where the crystal structure is more open, particular crystallographic directions offer much lower stopping than other directions.", "The result is that the range of an ion can be much longer if the ion travels exactly along a particular direction, for example the direction in silicon and other diamond cubic materials.", "This effect is called ''ion channelling'', and, like all the channelling effects, is highly nonlinear, with small variations from perfect orientation resulting in extreme differences in implantation depth.", "For this reason, most implantation is carried out a few degrees off-axis, where tiny alignment errors will have more predictable effects.Ion channelling can be used directly in Rutherford backscattering and related techniques as an analytical method to determine the amount and depth profile of damage in crystalline thin film materials." ], [ "Safety", "=== Hazardous materials ===In fabricating wafers, toxic materials such as arsine and phosphine are often used in the ion implanter process.", "Other common carcinogenic, corrosive, flammable, or toxic elements include antimony, arsenic, phosphorus, and boron.", "Semiconductor fabrication facilities are highly automated, but residue of hazardous elements in machines can be encountered during servicing and in vacuum pump hardware.=== High voltages and particle accelerators ===High voltage power supplies used in ion accelerators necessary for ion implantation can pose a risk of electrical injury.", "In addition, high-energy atomic collisions can generate X-rays and, in some cases, other ionizing radiation and radionuclides.", "In addition to high voltage, particle accelerators such as radio frequency linear particle accelerators and laser wakefield plasma accelerators present other hazards." ], [ "See also", " Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter* Plasma-immersion ion implantation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Ford (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Ford''' (1894–1973) was an American film director who won four Academy Awards.", "'''John''' or '''Johnny Ford''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Clergymen", "John of Ford (c. 1140 – 1244), abbot of the Dorset Cistercian monastery Forde AbbeyJohn Ford (minister) (1767–1826), politician and Methodist leader in South Carolina and Mississippi TerritoryJohn Ford (bishop) (born 1952), Bishop of Plymouth, 2005 to 2013" ], [ "Public officials", "John Ford (died 1407), MP for TavistockJohn Ford (fl.", "1410–1426), MP for Dorset, Shaftesbury and Melcombe RegisJohn Ford (before 1395–after 1416), MP for Colchester in 1416John Salmon Ford (1815–1897), Texas politician known as \"Rip\" FordJohn Anson Ford (1883–1983), California politicianJohn Joseph Ford (1907–1982), California juristJohn Meredith Ford (1923–1995), Guyanese politicianSir John Ford (diplomat) (1922–2018), British diplomatJohn Ford (Tennessee politician) (born 1942), American legislatorJohnny Ford (born 1942), Alabama's first African-American mayorJohn Ford (New York politician) (1862–1941), New York judge and politicianJohn Ford (Oklahoma politician), Oklahoma politician" ], [ "Literary figures", "John Ford (dramatist) (1586 – ), English playwright and poetJohn M. Ford (1957–2006), American science fiction writer and poetJohn-James Ford (born 1972), Canadian foreign service officer, poet, short story writer, and novelist" ], [ "Entrepreneurs", "John Baptiste Ford (1811–1903), U.S. businessman, founder of Pittsburgh Plate Glass CompanyJohn Gardner Ford (born 1951), business executive, son of U.S. President Gerald FordJohn T. Ford (1829–1894), owner and manager of the theater where Lincoln was assassinated" ], [ "Sports", "John Ford (American football coach) (before 1880 – after 1906), Marquette University football coach John Ford (baseball) (1894–1947), American Negro league baseball playerJohn Ford (cyclist) (born 1957), Bermudian Olympic cyclistJohn Ford (footballer, born 1893) (1893–1917), Scottish footballerJohn Ford (footballer, born 1931), Australian rules footballer for FitzroyJohn Ford (footballer, born 1932), Australian rules footballer for North MelbourneJohn Ford (wide receiver) (born 1966), American football player" ], [ "Others", "John Ford (musician) (born 1948), English singer, songwriter and guitaristJohn Ford (Royal Navy officer) (died 1796), British admiralJohn Alexander Ford, Scottish landscape artistJohn D. Ford (1840–1918), American naval officerJohn J. Ford (CIA) (1923–1993), American CIA official and cyberneticistJohn J. Ford Jr. (1924–2005), American numismatistJohn M. T. Ford, English general practitioner and medical historianJohn Simpson Ford (1866–1944), Scottish industrial chemist and microbiologist" ], [ "See also", "*Jon Ford (disambiguation)Jack Ford (disambiguation)*Ford (surname)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Woo" ], [ "Introduction", " use both this parameter and \|birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> death_place = death_cause = body_discovered = resting_place = resting_place_coordinates = burial_place = burial_coordinates = nationality = Hong Konger occupation = years_active = 1968–present spouse = children = 3 signature = John Woo Signature.svg module = }}'''John Woo Yu-Sen''' (; born September 22, 1946) is a Hong Kong filmmaker, known as a highly influential figure in the action film genre.", "He is a pioneer of heroic bloodshed films (a crime action film genre involving Chinese triads) and the gun fu genre in Hong Kong action cinema, before working in Hollywood films.", "He is known for his highly chaotic \"bullet ballet\" action sequences, stylized imagery, Mexican standoffs, frequent use of slow motion and allusions to ''wuxia'', film noir and Western cinema.Considered one of the major figures of Hong Kong cinema, Woo has directed several notable action films including ''A Better Tomorrow'' (1986), ''The Killer'' (1989), ''Hard Boiled'' (1992) and ''Red Cliff'' (2008/2009).", "His Hollywood films include ''Hard Target'' (1993), ''Broken Arrow'' (1996), ''Face/Off'' (1997) and ''Mission: Impossible 2'' (2000).", "He also created the comic series ''Seven Brothers'', published by Virgin Comics.", "He is the founder and chairman of the production company Lion Rock Productions.Woo is a winner of the Hong Kong Film Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Editing, as well as a Golden Horse Award, an Asia Pacific Screen Award and a Saturn Award." ], [ "Early life", "Woo was born as Wu Yu-seng (Ng Yu-sum in Cantonese) on September 22, 1946, in Guangzhou, China, amidst the chaotic Chinese Civil War.", "Due to school age restrictions, his mother changed his birth date to 22 September 1948, which is what remains on his passport.", "The Woo family, who were Protestant Christians, faced persecution during Mao Zedong's early anti-bourgeois purges after the communist revolution in China, and fled to Hong Kong when he was five.Impoverished, the Woo family lived in the slums at Shek Kip Mei.", "His father was a teacher, though rendered unable to work by tuberculosis, and his mother was a manual laborer on construction sites.", "The family was rendered homeless by the Shek Kip Mei Fire of 1953.Charitable donations from disaster relief efforts enabled the family to relocate; however, violent crime had by then become commonplace in Hong Kong housing projects.", "At age three he was diagnosed with a serious medical condition.", "Following surgery on his spine, he was unable to walk correctly until eight years old, and as a result his right leg is shorter than his left leg.His Christian upbringing shows influences in his films.", "As a young boy, Woo had wanted to be a Christian minister.", "He later found a passion for movies influenced by the French New Wave especially Jean-Pierre Melville.", "Woo has said he was shy and had difficulty speaking, but found making movies a way to explore his feelings and thinking and would \"use movies as a language\".Woo found respite in Bob Dylan and in American Westerns.", "He has stated the final scene of ''Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid'' made a particular impression on him in his youth: the device of two comrades, each of whom fire pistols from each hand, is a recurrent spectacle later found in his own work." ], [ "Career", "===1969–1985: Career beginnings in Hong Kong===In 1969, Woo was hired as a script supervisor at Cathay Studios.", "In 1971, he became an assistant director at Shaw Studios.", "The same year, he watched Bruce Lee's ''The Big Boss'', which left a strong impression on him due to how different it was from earlier martial arts films.", "Lee's films inspired to direct his own action films.", "His directorial debut in 1974 was the feature film ''The Young Dragons'' (鐵漢柔情, ''Tiě hàn róu qíng'').", "In the kung fu film genre, it was choreographed by Jackie Chan, and featured dynamic camera-work and elaborate action scenes.", "The film was picked up by Golden Harvest Studio where he went on to direct more martial arts films.", "He later had success as a comedy director with ''Money Crazy'' (發錢寒, ''Fā qián hàn'') (1977), starring Hong Kong comedian Ricky Hui and Richard Ng.===1986–1992: 'Heroic Bloodshed', breakthrough and international recognition===By the mid-1980s, Woo was experiencing occupational burnout.", "Several of his films were commercial disappointments, and he felt a distinct lack of creative control.", "It was during this period of self-imposed exile that director/producer Tsui Hark provided the funding for Woo to film a longtime pet project, ''A Better Tomorrow'' (1986).", "The story of two brothers—one a law enforcement officer, the other a criminal—was a financial blockbuster.", "''A Better Tomorrow'' became a defining achievement in Hong Kong action cinema for its combination of emotional drama, slow-motion gunplay, and gritty atmospherics.", "Its signature visual device of two-handed, two-gunned shootouts within confined quarters—often referred to as \"gun fu\"—was novel, and its diametrical inversion of the \"good-guys-bad guys\" formula in its characterization would influence later American films.Woo would make several more Heroic Bloodshed films in the late 1980s and early 1990s, nearly all starring Chow Yun-Fat.", "These violent gangster thrillers typically focus on men bound by honor and loyalty, at odds with contemporary values of impermanence and expediency.", "The protagonists of these films, therefore, may be said to present a common lineage with the Chinese literary tradition of loyalty among generals depicted in classics such as \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\" (三國演義).Woo gained international recognition with the release of ''The Killer'', which became the most successful Hong Kong film in America since Bruce Lee's ''Enter the Dragon'' (1973) and garnered Woo an American cult following.", "''Bullet in the Head'' followed a year later, but failed to find an audience that accepted its political undertones, and failed to recoup its massive budget.", "Woo rebounded the following year with 1991's caper comedy ''Once a Thief'', which was a financial success.", "His last Hong Kong film before emigrating to the United States was ''Hard Boiled'' (1992), a police thriller that served as the antithesis of his previous glorification of gangsters.", "Most notable of its numerous action scenes is a 30-minute climax set within a hospital.", "One particular long take follows two characters for exactly 2 minutes and 42 seconds as they fight their way between hospital floors.", "On the Criterion DVD and laserdisc, this chapter is referenced as \"2 minutes, 42 seconds.\"", "The film was considerably darker than most of Woo's previous films, depicting a police force nearly helpless to stop the influx of gangsters in the city, and the senseless slaughter of innocents.", "As a result, it did not match the success of his other films, but nonetheless garnered positive critical reception and became one of his most popular films in later years.", "''John Woo: Interviews'' includes a 36-page interview with Woo by editor Robert K. Elder, which documents the years 1968 to 1990.It includes Woo's early career in working on comedies, his work on kung fu films (during which time he gave Jackie Chan one of his first major film roles), and more recently, his gunpowder morality plays in Hong Kong.===1993–2000: Move to the United States and international success===An émigré in 1993, the director experienced difficulty in cultural adjustment while contracted with Universal Studios to direct Jean-Claude Van Damme in ''Hard Target''.", "Like other foreign national film directors confronted with the Hollywood environment, Woo was unaccustomed to pervasive management concerns over matters such as limitations on violence and completion schedules.", "When initial cuts failed to yield an \"R\" rated film, the studio assumed control of the project and edited footage to produce a cut \"suitable for American audiences\".", "A \"rough cut\" of the film, supposedly the original unrated version, is still circulated among his admirers.A three-year hiatus saw Woo next direct John Travolta and Christian Slater in ''Broken Arrow.''", "A frenetic chase-themed film, the director once again found himself hampered by studio management and editorial concerns.", "Despite a larger budget than his previous ''Hard Target,'' the final feature lacked the trademark Woo style.", "Public reception saw modest financial success.Reluctant to pursue projects which would necessarily entail front-office controls, the director cautiously rejected the script for ''Face/Off'' several times until it was rewritten to suit him.", "(The futuristic setting was changed to a contemporary one.)", "Paramount Pictures also offered the director significantly more freedom to exercise his speciality: emotional characterisation and elaborate action.", "A complex story of adversaries—each of whom surgically alters their identity—law enforcement agent John Travolta and terrorist Nicolas Cage play a cat-and-mouse game, trapped in each other's outward appearance.", "''Face/Off'' opened in 1997 to critical acclaim and strong attendance.", "Grosses in the United States exceeded $100 million.", "''Face/Off'' was also nominated for an Academy Award in the category Sound Effects Editing (Mark Stoeckinger) at the 70th Academy Awards.Around this period, Woo would also produce and direct several film and TV projects.", "In 1996, Woo produced and directed ''Once a Thief'', a Canadian made-for-television remake of Woo's 1991 caper film.", "The teleplay subsequently spawned a television series of the same name, which Woo executive produced.", "In 1998, Woo directed ''Blackjack'', which featured Dolph Lundgren as a leukophobic bodyguard who hunts down an assassin.", "The film was intended as a backdoor pilot for a television series, but was not picked up.", "That same year, Woo served as executive producer and action choreographer on Antoine Fuqua's directorial debut ''The Replacement Killers'', which featured Chow Yun-Fat's first international starring role.Later, Woo directed ''Mission: Impossible 2'', the second entry in the Tom Cruise-led action film series.", "Despite receiving mixed reviews, ''Mission: Impossible 2'' grossed over $549 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2000, as well as of Woo's career.", "===2001-2007: Decline in Hollywood and other ventures===Woo made two additional films in Hollywood: ''Windtalkers'' (2002) and ''Paycheck'' (2003), both of which fared poorly at the box office and were summarily dismissed by critics.", "Also in 2003, Woo directed a television pilot entitled ''The Robinsons: Lost in Space'' for The WB Television Network, based on the 1960s television series ''Lost in Space''.", "The pilot was not purchased, although bootleg copies have been made available by fans.Woo also directed and produced the 2007 video game ''Stranglehold'', which is a sequel to his 1992 film, ''Hard Boiled''.", "The game features Woo as a multiplayer playable character.", "That same year he produced the anime movie, ''Appleseed: Ex Machina'', the sequel to Shinji Aramaki's 2004 film ''Appleseed''.===2008-2017: ''Red Cliff'' and return to Asian cinema===In 2008, Woo returned to Asian cinema with the completion of the two-part epic war film ''Red Cliff'', based on a historical battle from ''Records of the Three Kingdoms''.", "Produced on a grand scale, it is his first film in China since he emigrated from Hong Kong to the United States in 1993.Part 1 of the film was released throughout Asia in July 2008, to generally favourable reviews and strong attendance.", "Part 2 was released in China in January 2009.John Woo was presented with a Golden Lion award for lifetime achievement at the Venice Film Festival in 2010.He followed ''Red Cliff'' with another two-part film, ''The Crossing'', in 2014 and 2015.Featuring an all-star cast, the four-hour epic tells the parallel stories of several characters who all ultimately find themselves passengers on the doomed Taiping steamer, which sank in 1949 en route from mainland China to Taiwan and has been described as \"China's ''Titanic''\".Following the box-office disappointment of ''The Crossing'', Woo and producer Terence Chang disbanded Lion Rock Productions.Woo followed up ''The Crossing'' with ''Manhunt'', a remake of the 1976 Japanese crime thriller of the same name.", "Production started on ''Manhunt'' in June 2016 in Osaka and later reported to be finished filming by the end of November.", "The film, co-led by Chinese actor Zhang Hanyu and Japanese actor Masaharu Fukuyama, features a large Japanese cast including Yasuaki Kurata, Jun Kunimura, Hiroyuki Ikeuchi, Nanami Sakuraba, Naoto Takenaka and Tao Okamoto.", "In addition, Chinese actress Qi Wei, Korean actress Ha Ji-won and Woo's daughter Angeles were cast in key roles in the film.", "The film was released in China on 24 November 2017.===2021-present: ''Silent Night'' and return to Hollywood===Following another hiatus, Woo returned to Hollywood to direct the action thriller ''Silent Night'', where a normal father heads into the underworld to avenge his young son's death.", "Produced by Basil Iwanyk, the film starred Joel Kinnaman and was told entirely without dialogue.", "It was Woo's first American feature film since ''Paycheck'' (2003).Woo commented in 2015 that he will remake ''The Killer'' for American audiences.", "Initially, actress Lupita Nyong'o had been cast for the lead role, however by March 2023, Nathalie Emmanuel was cast instead, with Omar Sy joining the film as the cop character.", "The film will be directed by Woo, produced by Universal Studios and released exclusively on Peacock.===Unrealized film projects===In May 2008, Woo announced in Cannes that his next movie would be ''1949'', an epic love story set between the end of World War II and Chinese Civil War to the founding of the People's Republic of China, the shooting of which would take place in China and Taiwan.", "Its production was due to begin by the end of 2008, with a theatrical release planned in December 2009.However, in early April 2009, the film was cancelled due to script right issues.", "Reports indicated that Woo might be working on another World War II film, this time about the American Volunteer Group, or the Flying Tigers.", "The movie was tentatively titled \"Flying Tiger Heroes\" and Woo is reported as saying it will feature \"The most spectacular aerial battle scenes ever seen in Chinese cinema.\"", "It was not clear whether Woo would not be directing the earlier war film, or whether it was put on the back burner.", "Woo has stated that Flying Tiger Heroes would be an \"extremely important production\" and will \"emphasise US-Chinese friendship and the contributions of the Flying Tigers and the Yunnan people during the war of resistance.\"", "Woo has announced he will be using IMAX cameras to film the ''Flying Tigers'' project.", "\"It has always been a dream of mine to explore shooting with IMAX cameras and to work in the IMAX format, and the strong visual element of this film is incredibly well-suited to the tastes of cinemagoers today ...", "Using IMAX for Flying Tigers would create a new experience for the audience, and I think it would be another breakthrough for Chinese movies\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Woo has been married to Annie Woo Ngau Chun-lung since 1976.They have two daughters, Kimberley Woo, Angeles Woo, and a son Frank Woo.", "He is a Christian and told BBC in an interview that he believes in God and has utmost admiration for Jesus, whom he calls a \"great philosopher\".His three favorite films are David Lean's ''Lawrence of Arabia'', Akira Kurosawa's ''Seven Samurai'' and Jean-Pierre Melville's ''Le Samouraï''." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Director Writer Producer Notes1968 ''Dead Knot'' ''Ouran'' 1974 ''The Young Dragons'' 1975 ''The Dragon Tamers'' 1976 ''Princess Chang Ping'' ''Hand of Death'' Also actor (as Scholar Cheng) 1977 ''Money Crazy'' 1978 ''Hello, Late Homecomers'' ''Follow the Star'' Also actor (as Mr. Chen) 1979 ''Last Hurrah for Chivalry'' 1980 ''From Riches to Rags'' 1981 ''To Hell with the Devil'' ''Laughing Times'' 1982 ''Plain Jane to the Rescue'' 1984 ''The Time You Need a Friend'' 1985 ''Run, Tiger, Run'' 1986 ''A Better Tomorrow'' Also actor (as Inspector Wu) ''Heroes Shed No Tears'' 1987 ''A Better Tomorrow II'' 1989 ''The Killer'' ''Just Heroes'' 1990 ''Bullet in the Head'' Also actor (as Police Inspector) 1991 ''Once a Thief'' 1992 ''Hard Boiled'' Also actor (as Bartender) 1993 ''Hard Target'' 1996 ''Broken Arrow'' 1997 ''Face/Off'' 2000 ''Mission: Impossible 2'' 2002 ''Windtalkers'' 2003 ''Paycheck'' 2008 ''Red Cliff: Part I'' 2009 ''Red Cliff: Part II'' 2010 ''Reign of Assassins'' Co-directed with Su Chao-pin 2014 ''The Crossing'' 2015 ''The Crossing 2'' 2017 ''Manhunt'' 2023 ''Silent Night'' ===Television=== Year Title Director Executive Producer Notes 1996 ''Once a Thief'' TV movie 1997–98 ''Once a Thief'' 1998 ''Blackjack'' TV movie'''Producer only''' Year TitleDirector Notes1989''A Better Tomorrow III: Love & Death in Saigon''Tsui Hark1995 ''Peace Hotel''Wai Ka-fai1996''Somebody Up There Likes Me''Patrick Leung1998''The Replacement Killers''Antoine FuquaWoo also choreographed the action sequences''The Big Hit''Kirk Wong2003''Bulletproof Monk''Paul Hunter2005''The Glass Beads''Angeles WooShort film2007''Blood Brothers''Alexi Tan''Appleseed Saga: Ex Machina''Shinji Aramaki2009''My Fair Gentleman''Li Ju-Yuan2010''A Better Tomorrow''Song Hae-sung2011''Seediq Bale''Wei Te-sheng===Other works===''Airport '98'' (Nike commercial) (1998)''Hostage'' (branded content short film for BMW) (2002)''7 Brothers'' (graphic novel) (2006–2007)''Stranglehold'' (video game) (2007)''Bloodstroke'' (iOS and Android videogame) (2014)'''' (Asahi Breweries commercial) (2013)''The Men of Atalissa'' (New York Times short documentary) (2014)" ], [ "Accolades", "2022 — Career Achievement Award at 26th Fantasia International Film Festival.", "Year Title Award/Nomination 1986 ''A Better Tomorrow'' Hong Kong Film Award for Best FilmNominated–Hong Kong Film Award for Best DirectorNominated–Hong Kong Film Award for Best Screenplay 1989 ''The Killer'' Hong Kong Film Award for Best DirectorNominated–Hong Kong Film Award for Best Screenplay 1990 ''Bullet in the Head'' Nominated–Hong Kong Film Award for Best Director 1991 ''Once a Thief'' Nominated–Hong Kong Film Award for Best Director 1993 ''Hard Target'' Nominated–Saturn Award for Best Director 1997 ''Face/Off'' Saturn Award for Best Director 2008 ''Red Cliff: Part I'' Nominated–Asian Film Award for Best Director 2009 ''Red Cliff: Part II'' Nominated–Hong Kong Film Award for Best FilmNominated–Hong Kong Film Award for Best Director" ], [ "See also", "Cinema of ChinaCinema of Hong Kong" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===In English===* Bliss, Michael.", "''Between the Bullets: The Spiritual Cinema of John Woo''.", "Filmmakers series, no.", "92.Lanham, Md.", ": Scarecrow Press, 2002..* Brown, Andrew M. J.", "''Directing Hong Kong: The Political Cinema of John Woo and Wong Kar-Wai''.", "Political Communications in Greater China: the Construction and Reflection of Identity.", "London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2001..* Crawford, Kevin R. \"Mixing violence and religion in 'The Reckoning' : The Scripting of a Postmodern Action Thriller inside the John Woo-film noir Paradigm\".", "Digital Dissertation/Theses, 2007..* Fang, Karen Y.", "''John Woo's A Better Tomorrow''.", "The New Hong Kong Cinema.", "Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004..* Hall, Kenneth E. ''John Woo: The Films''.", "Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1999..* Heard, Christopher.", "''Ten Thousand Bullets: The Cinematic Journey of John Woo''.", "Los Angeles: Lone Eagle Publishing Co., 2000..* ===Other languages===* Berruezo, Pedro J.", "''John Woo y el cine de acción de Hong Kong''.", "Biblioteca Dr. Vértigo, 23.Barcelona: Ediciones Glénat, 2000.. * Bertolino, Marco, and Ettore Ridola.", "''John Woo: la violenza come redenzione''.", "Recco, Genova: Le mani, 1998.. * Gaschler, Thomas, and Ralph Umard.", "''Woo Leben und Werk''.", "München: Belleville, 2005.. * Nazzaro, Giona A., and Andrea Tagliacozzo.", "''John Woo: la nuova leggenda del cinema d'azione''.", "Contatti, 199.Roma: Castelvecchi, 2000.. * Spanu, Massimiliano.", "''John Woo''.", "Il castoro cinema, 203.Milano: Castoro, 2001.. * Vié-Toussaint, Caroline.", "''John Woo''.", "Paris: Dark star, 2001.." ], [ "External links", "** A John Woo Retrospective * Ten HARD BOILED Moments – The Best of John Woo * Allegory and symbolism in John Woo's cinematic arts : themes and aesthetics** Interview by Aynne Kokas Asia Pacific Arts, 19 November 2009" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Japan''' (, , or , and formally , '' or '') is an island country in East Asia.", "It is in the northwest Pacific Ocean and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north toward the East China Sea, Philippine Sea, and Taiwan in the south.", "Japan is a part of the Ring of Fire, and spans an archipelago of 14,125 islands, with the five main islands being Hokkaido, Honshu (the \"mainland\"), Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa.", "Tokyo is the country's capital and largest city, followed by Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Kobe, and Kyoto.Japan has over 125 million inhabitants and is the 11th most populous country in the world, as well as one of the most densely populated.", "About three-fourths of the country's terrain is mountainous, concentrating its highly urbanized population on narrow coastal plains.", "Japan is divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions.", "The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous metropolitan area in the world.", "Japan has the world's highest life expectancy, although it is experiencing a population decline due to its very low birth rate.Japan has been inhabited since the Upper Paleolithic period (30,000 BC).", "Between the fourth and ninth centuries AD, the kingdoms of Japan became unified under an emperor and the imperial court based in Heian-kyō.", "Beginning in the 12th century, political power was held by a series of military dictators () and feudal lords (), and enforced by a class of warrior nobility (''samurai'').", "After a century-long period of civil war, the country was reunified in 1603 under the Tokugawa shogunate, which enacted an isolationist foreign policy.", "In 1854, a United States fleet forced Japan to open trade to the West, which led to the end of the shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in 1868.In the Meiji period, the Empire of Japan adopted a Western-modeled constitution, and pursued a program of industrialization and modernization.", "Amidst a rise in militarism and overseas colonization, Japan invaded China in 1937 and entered World War II as an Axis power in 1941.After suffering defeat in the Pacific War and two atomic bombings, Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under a seven-year Allied occupation, during which it adopted a new constitution.Under the 1947 constitution, Japan has maintained a unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature, the National Diet.", "Japan is a developed country and a great power, with one of the largest economies by nominal GDP.", "Japan has renounced its right to declare war, though it maintains a Self-Defense Force that ranks as one of the world's strongest militaries.", "A global leader in the automotive, robotics, and electronics industries, the country has made significant contributions to science and technology, and is one of the world's largest exporters and importers.", "It is part of multiple major international and intergovernmental institutions.Japan is a cultural superpower as the culture of Japan is well known around the world, including its art, cuisine, film, music, and popular culture, which encompasses prominent manga, anime, and video game industries." ], [ "Etymology", "The name for Japan in Japanese is written using the kanji and is pronounced or .", "Before was adopted in the early 8th century, the country was known in China as (, changed in Japan around 757 to ) and in Japan by the endonym .", ", the original Sino-Japanese reading of the characters, is favored for official uses, including on Japanese banknotes and postage stamps.", "is typically used in everyday speech and reflects shifts in Japanese phonology during the Edo period.", "The characters mean \"sun origin\", which is the source of the popular Western epithet \"Land of the Rising Sun\".The name \"Japan\" is based on Wu Chinese pronunciations of and was introduced to European languages through early trade.", "This still reflects in modern Wu languages, for example Shanghainese ''Zeppen'' () or Wenzhounese ''Zaipan''.", "In the 13th century, Marco Polo recorded the Early Mandarin Chinese pronunciation of the characters as .", "The old Malay name for Japan, or , was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect and encountered by Portuguese traders in Southeast Asia, who brought the word to Europe in the early 16th century.", "The first version of the name in English appears in a book published in 1577, which spelled the name as ''Giapan'' in a translation of a 1565 Portuguese letter." ], [ "History", "===Prehistoric to classical history===Legendary A Paleolithic culture from around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of the islands of Japan.", "This was followed from around 14,500 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.", "Clay vessels from the period are among the oldest surviving examples of pottery.", "From around 700 BC, the Japonic-speaking Yayoi people began to enter the archipelago from the Korean Peninsula, intermingling with the Jōmon; the Yayoi period saw the introduction of practices including wet-rice farming, a new style of pottery, and metallurgy from China and Korea.", "According to legend, Emperor Jimmu (grandson of Amaterasu) founded a kingdom in central Japan in 660 BC, beginning a continuous imperial line.Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese ''Book of Han'', completed in 111 AD.", "Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Baekje (a Korean kingdom) in 552, but the development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China.", "Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figures like Prince Shōtoku, and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592–710).In 645, the government led by Prince Naka no Ōe and Fujiwara no Kamatari devised and implemented the far-reaching Taika Reforms.", "The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas and philosophies from China.", "It nationalized all land in Japan, to be distributed equally among cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation.", "The true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China.", "Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn about Chinese writing, politics, art, and religion.", "The Jinshin War of 672, a bloody conflict between Prince Ōama and his nephew Prince Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms.", "These reforms culminated with the promulgation of the Taihō Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the central and subordinate local governments.", "These legal reforms created the state, a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium.The Nara period (710–784) marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara).", "The period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture with the completion of the (712) and (720), as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture.", "A smallpox epidemic in 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.", "In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the capital, settling on Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyoto) in 794.This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged.", "Murasaki Shikibu's ''The Tale of Genji'' and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem were written during this time.===Feudal era===Japanese samurai boarding a Mongol vessel during the Mongol invasions of Japan, depicted in the , 1293Three unifiers of Japan.", "Left to right: Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu.Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai.", "In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan by the Minamoto clan in the Genpei War, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo established a military government at Kamakura.", "After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the .", "The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.", "The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo.", "Go-Daigo was defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336, beginning the Muromachi period (1336–1573).", "The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords () and a civil war began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period (\"Warring States\").During the 16th century, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West.", "Oda Nobunaga used European technology and firearms to conquer many other ; his consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period.", "After the death of Nobunaga in 1582, his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, unified the nation in the early 1590s and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori and used his position to gain political and military support.", "When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.He was appointed by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).", "The shogunate enacted measures including , as a code of conduct to control the autonomous , and in 1639 the isolationist (\"closed country\") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868).", "Modern Japan's economic growth began in this period, resulting in roads and water transportation routes, as well as financial instruments such as futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers.", "The study of Western sciences () continued through contact with the Dutch enclave in Nagasaki.", "The Edo period gave rise to (\"national studies\"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.===Modern era===The United States Navy sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry to force the opening of Japan to the outside world.", "Arriving at Uraga with four \"Black Ships\" in July 1853, the Perry Expedition resulted in the March 1854 Convention of Kanagawa.", "Subsequent similar treaties with other Western countries brought economic and political crises.", "The resignation of the led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the emperor (the Meiji Restoration).", "Adopting Western political, judicial, and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution (November 29, 1890), and assembled the Imperial Diet.", "During the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Empire of Japan emerged as the most developed states in Asia and as an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence.", "After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the southern half of Sakhalin.", "The Japanese population doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, with a significant shift to urbanization.The early 20th century saw a period of Taishō democracy (1912–1926) overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization.", "World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and in China.", "The 1920s saw a political shift towards statism, a period of lawlessness following the 1923 Great Tokyo Earthquake, the passing of laws against political dissent, and a series of attempted coups.", "This process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning several radical nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication to expansion in Asia.", "In 1931, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria; following international condemnation of the occupation, it resigned from the League of Nations two years later.", "In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany; the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.Japan's imperial ambitions ended on September 2, 1945, with the country's surrender to the Allies.The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945).", "In 1940, the Empire invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.", "On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, as well as on British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong, among others, beginning World War II in the Pacific.", "Throughout areas occupied by Japan during the war, numerous abuses were committed against local inhabitants, with many forced into sexual slavery.", "After Allied victories during the next four years, which culminated in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender.", "The war cost Japan its colonies and millions of lives.", "The Allies (led by the United States) repatriated millions of Japanese settlers from their former colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese Empire and its influence over the territories it conquered.", "The Allies convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to prosecute Japanese leaders for war crimes.In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices.", "The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952, and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956.A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world; this ended in the mid-1990s after the popping of an asset price bubble, beginning the \"Lost Decade\".", "In 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.", "On May 1, 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became Emperor, beginning the era." ], [ "Geography", "A topographic map of JapanJapan comprises 14,125 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia.", "It stretches over northeast–southwest from the Sea of Okhotsk to the East China Sea.", "The country's five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa.", "The Ryukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu.", "The Nanpō Islands are south and east of the main islands of Japan.", "Together they are often known as the Japanese archipelago.", ", Japan's territory is .", "Japan has the sixth-longest coastline in the world at .", "Because of its far-flung outlying islands, Japan has the eighth-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering .The Japanese archipelago is 67% forests and 14% agricultural.", "The primarily rugged and mountainous terrain is restricted for habitation.", "Thus the habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas, have very high population densities: Japan is the 40th most densely populated country even without considering that local concentration.", "Honshu has the highest population density at 450 persons/km2 (1200/sq mi) , while Hokkaido has the lowest density of 64.5 persons/km2 .", ", approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area is reclaimed land ().", "Lake Biwa is an ancient lake and the country's largest freshwater lake.Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunami and volcanic eruptions because of its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.", "It has the 17th highest natural disaster risk as measured in the 2016 World Risk Index.", "Japan has 111 active volcanoes.", "Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century; the 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.", "More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, which triggered a large tsunami.===Climate===Mount Fuji in Spring, view from Arakurayama Sengen ParkThe climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south.", "The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers.", "Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter.In the Sea of Japan region on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall during winter.", "In the summer, the region sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the Foehn.", "The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter.", "The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round.The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind.", "The Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers.", "Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.", "The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north.", "In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.", "According to the Environment Ministry, heavy rainfall and increasing temperatures have caused problems in the agricultural industry and elsewhere.", "The highest temperature ever measured in Japan, , was recorded on July 23, 2018, and repeated on August 17, 2020.===Biodiversity===Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands.", "They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.", "Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife , including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, the small Japanese field mouse, and the Japanese giant salamander.A large network of national parks has been established to protect important areas of flora and fauna as well as 52 Ramsar wetland sites.", "Four sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value.===Environment===maple leaves () at Kongōbu-ji on Mount Kōya, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteIn the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s.", "Responding to rising concerns, the government introduced environmental protection laws in 1970.The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources.Japan ranks 20th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, which measures a country's commitment to environmental sustainability.", "Japan is the world's fifth-largest emitter of carbon dioxide.", "As the host and signatory of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.", "In 2020 the government of Japan announced a target of carbon-neutrality by 2050.Environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation." ], [ "Government and politics", "Emperor Naruhito, current head of state, and Empress Masako participated in the Imperial Procession by motorcar after the Ceremony of the Enthronement in Tokyo on November 10, 2019.Japan is a unitary state and constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited to a ceremonial role.", "Executive power is instead wielded by the Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet, whose sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.", "Naruhito is the Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his father Akihito upon his accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne in 2019.The National Diet BuildingJapan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament.", "It consists of a lower House of Representatives with 465 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and an upper House of Councillors with 245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms.", "There is universal suffrage for adults over 18 years of age, with a secret ballot for all elected offices.", "The prime minister as the head of government has the power to appoint and dismiss Ministers of State, and is appointed by the emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet.", "Fumio Kishida is Japan's prime minister; he took office after winning the 2021 Liberal Democratic Party leadership election.", "The right-wing big tent Liberal Democratic Party has been the dominant party in the country since the 1950s, often called the 1955 System.Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as .", "Since the late 19th century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany.", "In 1896, Japan established a civil code based on the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications.", "The Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world.", "Statutory law originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that the emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the power to oppose legislation.", "The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes.", "Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.According to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the majority of members of the Japanese parliament are male and range in age from 50 to 70.In April 2023, according to Japanese public broadcaster NHK, Ryosuke Takashima, 26, is Japan's youngest-ever mayor.===Administrative divisions===Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor and legislature.", "In the following table, the prefectures are grouped by region:Prefectures of Japan with colored regions '''Hokkaido'''----1.Hokkaido''' Tōhoku'''----2.Aomori3.Iwate4.Miyagi5.Akita6.Yamagata7.Fukushima''' Kantō'''----8.Ibaraki9.Tochigi10.Gunma11.Saitama12.Chiba13.Tokyo14.Kanagawa''' Chūbu'''----15.Niigata16.Toyama17.Ishikawa18.Fukui19.Yamanashi20.Nagano21.Gifu22.Shizuoka23.Aichi''' Kansai'''----24.Mie25.Shiga26.Kyoto27.Osaka28.Hyōgo29.Nara30.Wakayama''' Chūgoku'''----31.Tottori32.Shimane33.Okayama34.Hiroshima35.Yamaguchi''' Shikoku'''----36.Tokushima37.Kagawa38.Ehime39.Kōchi''' Kyūshū'''----40.Fukuoka41.Saga42.Nagasaki43.Kumamoto44.Ōita45.Miyazaki46.Kagoshima47.Okinawa===Foreign relations===Japan is a member of both the G7 and the G20.A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan is one of the G4 countries seeking reform of the Security Council.", "Japan is a member of the G7, APEC, and \"ASEAN Plus Three\", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit.", "It is the world's fifth-largest donor of official development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion in 2014.In 2021, Japan had the fourth-largest diplomatic network in the world.Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States, with which it maintains a security alliance.", "The United States is a major market for Japanese exports and a major source of Japanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, with military bases in Japan.", "Japan is also a member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (more commonly \"the Quad\"), a multilateral security dialogue reformed in 2017 aiming to limit Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific region, along with the United States, Australia, and India, reflecting existing relations and patterns of cooperation.Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors.", "Japan contests Russia's control of the Southern Kuril Islands, which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.South Korea's control of the Liancourt Rocks is acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed by Japan.", "Japan has strained relations with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands and the status of Okinotorishima.===Military===JMSDF class destroyerJapan is the second-highest-ranked Asian country in the 2022 Global Peace Index, after Singapore.", "It spent 1.1% of its total GDP on its defence budget in 2022, and maintained the tenth-largest military budget in the world in 2022.The country's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes.", "The military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force.", "The deployment of troops to Iraq and Afghanistan marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.The Government of Japan has been making changes to its security policy which include the establishment of the National Security Council, the adoption of the National Security Strategy, and the development of the National Defense Program Guidelines.", "In May 2014, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe said Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security.", "In December 2022, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida further confirmed this trend, instructing the government to increase spending by 65% until 2027.Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea and China, have reignited the debate over the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society.===Domestic law enforcement===The headquarters of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police DepartmentDomestic security in Japan is provided mainly by the prefectural police departments, under the oversight of the National Police Agency.", "As the central coordinating body for the Prefectural Police Departments, the National Police Agency is administered by the National Public Safety Commission.", "The Special Assault Team comprises national-level counter-terrorism tactical units that cooperate with territorial-level Anti-Firearms Squads and Counter-NBC Terrorism Squads.", "The Japan Coast Guard guards territorial waters surrounding Japan and uses surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marine environmental crime, poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized foreign fishing vessels, and illegal immigration.The Firearm and Sword Possession Control Law strictly regulates the civilian ownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry.", "According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that report statistics , the incidence rates of violent crimes such as murder, abduction, sexual violence, and robbery are very low in Japan.=== Human rights ===Japan has faced criticism for not allowing same-sex marriages, despite a majority of Japanese people supporting marriage equality.", "It is the least developed out of the G7 countries in terms of LGBT equality.", "Japan legally prohibits racial and religious discrimination under its constitution.", "Japan is also a signatory to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination." ], [ "Economy", "Skyscrapers in Nakanoshima, Osaka; a major financial center in JapanJapan has the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, after that of the United States, China and Germany; and the fourth-largest economy by PPP.", ", Japan's labor force is the world's eighth-largest, consisting of over 68.6 million workers.", ", Japan has a low unemployment rate of around 2.6%.", "Its poverty rate is the second highest among the G7 countries, and exceeds 15.7% of the population.", "Japan has the highest ratio of public debt to GDP among advanced economies, with national debt estimated at 248% relative to GDP .", "The Japanese yen is the world's third-largest reserve currency after the US dollar and the euro.Japan was the world's fifth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer in 2022.Its exports amounted to 18.2% of its total GDP in 2021., Japan's main export markets were China (23.9 percent, including Hong Kong) and the United States (18.5 percent).", "Its main exports are motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors, and auto parts.", "Japan's main import markets were China (21.1 percent), the United States (9.9 percent), and Australia (9.8 percent).", "Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, and raw materials for its industries.The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are common in the Japanese work environment.", "Japan has a large cooperative sector, with three of the world's ten largest cooperatives, including the largest consumer cooperative and the largest agricultural cooperative .", "It ranks highly for competitiveness and economic freedom.", "Japan ranked sixth in the Global Competitiveness Report in 2019.It attracted 31.9 million international tourists in 2019, and was ranked eleventh in the world in 2019 for inbound tourism.", "The 2021 ''Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report'' ranked Japan first in the world out of 117 countries.", "Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $46.1 billion.===Agriculture and fishery===A rice paddy in Aizu, Fukushima PrefectureThe Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.2% of the country's total GDP .", "Only 11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation.", "Because of this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas.", "This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% .", "Japan's small agricultural sector is highly subsidized and protected.", "There has been a growing concern about farming as farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors.Japan ranked seventh in the world in tonnage of fish caught and captured 3,167,610 metric tons of fish in 2016, down from an annual average of 4,000,000 tons over the previous decade.", "Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting critiques that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna.", "Japan has sparked controversy by supporting commercial whaling.===Industry and services ===RAV4\" manufactured by Toyota.", "Japan is the third-largest maker of motor vehicles in the world.Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the \"largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods\".", "Japan's industrial sector makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP.", "The country's manufacturing output is the third highest in the world .Japan is the third-largest automobile producer in the world and is home to Toyota, the world's largest automobile company by vehicle production.", "Quantitatively, Japan was the world's largest exporter of cars in 2021, though it was overtaken by China in early 2023.The Japanese shipbuilding industry faces increasing competition from its East Asian neighbors, South Korea and China; as a 2020 government initiative identified this sector as a target for increasing exports.Japan's service sector accounts for about 69.5% of its total economic output .", "Banking, retail, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries, with companies such as Toyota, Mitsubishi UFJ, -NTT, Aeon, SoftBank, Hitachi, and Itochu listed as among the largest in the world.===Science and technology===The Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) at the International Space StationJapan is a leading country in scientific research, particularly in the natural sciences and engineering.", "The country ranked 13th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.Relative to gross domestic product, Japan's research and development budget is the second highest in the world, with 867,000 researchers sharing a 19-trillion-yen research and development budget .", "The country has produced twenty-two Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine, and three Fields medalists.Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, supplying 45% of the world's 2020 total; down from 55% in 2017.Japan has the second highest number of researchers in science and technology per capita in the world with 14 per 1000 employees.Once considered the strongest in the world, the Japanese consumer electronics industry is in a state of decline as regional competition arises in neighboring East Asian countries such as South Korea and China.", "However, Japan's video game sector remains a major industry.", "In 2014, Japan's consumer video game market grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming.", "By 2015, Japan had become the world's fourth-largest PC game market, behind only China, the United States, and South Korea.The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is Japan's national space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites.", "It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.The space probe ''Akatsuki'' was launched in 2010 and achieved orbit around Venus in 2015.Japan's plans in space exploration include building a Moon base and landing astronauts by 2030.In 2007, it launched lunar explorer SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) from Tanegashima Space Center.", "The largest lunar mission since the Apollo program, its purpose was to gather data on the Moon's origin and evolution.", "The explorer entered a lunar orbit on October 4, 2007, and was deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===Japan Airlines, the flag carrier of JapanJapan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructure.", "The country has approximately of roads made up of of city, town and village roads, of prefectural roads, of general national highways and of national expressways .Since privatization in 1987, dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation.", "The high-speed Shinkansen (bullet trains) that connect major cities are known for their safety and punctuality.There are 175 airports in Japan .", "The largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport in Tokyo, was Asia's second-busiest airport in 2019.The Keihin and Hanshin superport hubs are among the largest in the world, at 7.98 and 5.22 million TEU respectively .===Energy===Seto Hill Windfarm, 37.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 25.1% from coal, 22.4% from natural gas, 3.5% from hydropower and 2.8% from nuclear power, among other sources.", "Nuclear power was down from 11.2 percent in 2010.By May 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants had been taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some to service.", "The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant restarted in 2015, and since then several other nuclear power plants have been restarted.", "Japan lacks significant domestic reserves and has a heavy dependence on imported energy.", "The country has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.===Water supply and sanitation===Responsibility for the water and sanitation sector is shared between the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, in charge of water supply for domestic use; the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, in charge of water resources development as well as sanitation; the Ministry of the Environment, in charge of ambient water quality and environmental preservation; and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, in charge of performance benchmarking of utilities.", "Access to an improved water source is universal in Japan.", "About 98% of the population receives piped water supply from public utilities." ], [ "Demographics", "View of Tokyo from the top of the Tokyo Skytree.", "The Greater Tokyo Area is ranked as the most populous metropolitan area in the world.Japan has a population of almost 125 million, of whom nearly 122 million are Japanese nationals (2022 estimates).", "A small population of foreign residents makes up the remainder.", "Japan is the world's fastest aging country and has the highest proportion of elderly citizens of any country, comprising one-third of its total population; this is the result of a post–World War II baby boom, which was followed by an increase in life expectancy and a decrease in birth rates.", "Japan has a total fertility rate of 1.4, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is among the world's lowest; it has a median age of 48.4, the highest in the world.", ", over 28.7 percent of the population is over 65, or more than one in four out of the Japanese population.", "As a growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remaining childless, Japan's population is expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065.The changes in demographic structure have created several social issues, particularly a decline in the workforce population and an increase in the cost of social security benefits.", "The Government of Japan projects that there will be almost one elderly person for each person of working age by 2060.Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.", "On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted, protecting the rights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors.In 2022, 92% of the total Japanese population lived in cities.", "The capital city, Tokyo, has a population of 13.9 million (2022).", "It is part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the biggest metropolitan area in the world with 38,140,000 people (2016).", "Japan is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society, with the Japanese people forming 98.1% of the country's population.", "Minority ethnic groups in the country include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan people.", "Zainichi Koreans, Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent, and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are also among Japan's small minority groups.", "''Burakumin'' make up a social minority group.===Religion===The torii of Itsukushima Shinto Shrine near HiroshimaJapan's constitution guarantees full religious freedom.", "Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Shinto as its indigenous religion.", "However, these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers.", "Many Japanese people practice both Shinto and Buddhism; they can either identify with both religions or describe themselves as non-religious or spiritual.", "The level of participation in religious ceremonies as a cultural tradition remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year.", "Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.Christianity was first introduced into Japan by Jesuit missions starting in 1549.Today, 1% to 1.5% of the population are Christians.", "Throughout the latest century, Western customs originally related to Christianity (including Western style weddings, Valentine's Day and Christmas) have become popular as secular customs among many Japanese.About 90% of those practicing Islam in Japan are foreign-born migrants .", "there were an estimated 105 mosques and 200,000 Muslims in Japan, 43,000 of which were Japanese nationals.", "Other minority religions include Hinduism, Judaism, and Baháʼí Faith, as well as the animist beliefs of the Ainu.===Languages===''Kanji'' and ''hiragana'' signsThe Japanese language is Japan's ''de facto'' national language and the primary written and spoken language of most people in the country.", "Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on cursive script and radicals used by kanji), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.", "English has taken a major role in Japan as a business and international link language.", "As a result, the prevalence of English in the educational system has increased, with English classes becoming mandatory at all levels of the Japanese school system by 2020.Japanese Sign Language is the primary sign language used in Japan and has gained some official recognition, but its usage has been historically hindered by discriminatory policies and a lack of educational support.Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami, Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni), part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain.", "Few children learn these languages, but local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages.", "The Ainu language, which is a language isolate, is moribund, with only a few native speakers remaining .", "Additionally, a number of other languages are taught and used by ethnic minorities, immigrant communities, and a growing number of foreign-language students, such as Korean (including a distinct Zainichi Korean dialect), Chinese and Portuguese.===Education===entrance examinations to the University of TokyoSince the 1947 Fundamental Law of Education, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and junior high school, which together last for nine years.", "Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school.", "The top-ranking university in the country is the University of Tokyo.", "Starting in April 2016, various schools began the academic year with elementary school and junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory schooling program; MEXT plans for this approach to be adopted nationwide.The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) coordinated by the OECD ranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best in the world.", "Japan is one of the top-performing OECD countries in reading literacy, math, and sciences with the average student scoring 520 and has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.", "It spent roughly 3.1% of its total GDP on education , below the OECD average of 4.9%.", "In 2021, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 55.6%.", "Approximately 65% of Japanese aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary education qualification, with bachelor's degrees being held by 34.2% of Japanese aged 25 to 64, the second most in the OECD after South Korea.", "Japanese women are more highly educated than the men: 59 percent of women possess a university degree, compared to 52 percent of men.===Health===Fujita University Hospital is the largest multi-speciality teaching hospital in Japan.Health care in Japan is provided by national and local governments.", "Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee.", "People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments.", "Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.Japan spent 10.9% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2020.In 2020, the overall life expectancy in Japan at birth was 84.62 years (81.64 years for males and 87.74 years for females), the highest in the world; while it had a very low infant mortality rate (2 per 1,000 live births).", "Since 1981, the principal cause of death in Japan is cancer, which accounted for 27% of the total deaths in 2018—followed by cardiovascular diseases, which led to 15% of the deaths.", "Japan has one of the world's highest suicide rates, which is considered a major social issue.", "Another significant public health issue is smoking among Japanese men.", "However, Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the lowest level of dementia among developed countries." ], [ "Culture", "Contemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America.", "Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games.", "Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.", "Twenty-two sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance.", "Japan is considered a cultural superpower.===Art and architecture===The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas.", "The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism.Japanese architecture is a combination of local and other influences.", "It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plaster structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs.", "The Shrines of Ise have been celebrated as the prototype of Japanese architecture.", "Traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.", "Since the 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Western modern architecture into construction and design.", "It was not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects like Kenzō Tange and then with movements like Metabolism.===Literature and philosophy===illustrated handscroll of ''The Tale of Genji'', a National TreasureThe earliest works of Japanese literature include the and chronicles and the poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.", "In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as ''kana'' (hiragana and katakana) was developed.", "''The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter'' is considered the oldest extant Japanese narrative.", "An account of court life is given in ''The Pillow Book'' by Sei Shōnagon, while ''The Tale of Genji'' by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel.During the Edo period, the chōnin (\"townspeople\") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature.", "The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogue ''Oku no Hosomichi''.", "The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences.", "Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were significant novelists in the early 20th century, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Kafū Nagai and, more recently, Haruki Murakami and Kenji Nakagami.", "Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors – Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994).Japanese philosophy has historically been a fusion of both foreign, particularly Chinese and Western, and uniquely Japanese elements.", "In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago.", "Confucian ideals remain evident in the Japanese concept of society and the self, and in the organization of the government and the structure of society.", "Buddhism has profoundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics.===Performing arts===''Noh'' performance at a Shinto shrineJapanese music is eclectic and diverse.", "Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries.", "The popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, dates from the 16th century.", "Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, forms an integral part of Japanese culture.", "Kumi-daiko (ensemble drumming) was developed in postwar Japan and became very popular in North America.", "Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop.", "Karaoke is a significant cultural activity.The four traditional theaters from Japan are ''noh'', ''kyōgen'', ''kabuki'', and ''bunraku''.", "Noh is one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world.===Holidays===Young women celebrate in Harajuku, Tokyo.Officially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays.", "Public holidays in Japan are regulated by the of 1948.Beginning in 2000, Japan implemented the Happy Monday System, which moved a number of national holidays to Monday in order to obtain a long weekend.", "The national holidays in Japan are New Year's Day on January 1, Coming of Age Day on the second Monday of January, National Foundation Day on February 11, The Emperor's Birthday on February 23, Vernal Equinox Day on March 20 or 21, Shōwa Day on April 29, Constitution Memorial Day on May 3, Greenery Day on May 4, Children's Day on May 5, Marine Day on the third Monday of July, Mountain Day on August 11, Respect for the Aged Day on the third Monday of September, Autumnal Equinox on September 23 or 24, Health and Sports Day on the second Monday of October, Culture Day on November 3, and Labor Thanksgiving Day on November 23.===Cuisine===nigiri-zushi''Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients.", "Seafood and Japanese rice or noodles are traditional staples.", "Japanese curry, since its introduction to Japan from British India, is so widely consumed that it can be termed a national dish, alongside ramen and sushi.", "Traditional Japanese sweets are known as ''wagashi''.", "Ingredients such as red bean paste and mochi are used.", "More modern-day tastes include green tea ice cream.Popular Japanese beverages include sake, which is a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 14–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice.", "Beer has been brewed in Japan since the late 17th century.", "Green tea is produced in Japan and prepared in forms such as matcha, used in the Japanese tea ceremony.===Media===According to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan, 79 percent of Japanese watch television daily.", "Japanese television dramas are viewed both within Japan and internationally; other popular shows are in the genres of variety shows, comedy, and news programs.", "Many Japanese media franchises have gained considerable global popularity and are among the world's highest-grossing media franchises.", "Japanese newspapers are among the most circulated in the world .Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries globally.", "Ishirō Honda's ''Godzilla'' became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre of ''kaiju'' films, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history.", "Japanese comics, known as manga, developed in the mid-20th century and have become popular worldwide.", "A large number of manga series have become some of the best-selling comics series of all time, rivalling the American comics industry.", "Japanese animated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influenced by Japanese manga and have become highly popular globally.===Sports===Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-entering ceremony.Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.", "Japanese martial arts such as judo and kendo are taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum.", "Baseball is the most popular sport in the country.", "Japan's top professional league, Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), was established in 1936.Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League (J.League) in 1992, association football gained a wide following.", "The country co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.", "Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times, and the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011.Golf is also popular in Japan.In motorsport, Japanese automotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different categories, with titles and victories in series such as Formula One, MotoGP, and the World Rally Championship.", "Drivers from Japan have victories at the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans as well as podium finishes in Formula One, in addition to success in domestic championships.", "Super GT is the most popular national racing series in Japan, while Super Formula is the top-level domestic open-wheel series.", "The country hosts major races such as the Japanese Grand Prix.Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964 and the Winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998.The country hosted the official 2006 Basketball World Championship and co-hosted the 2023 Basketball World Championship.", "Tokyo hosted the 2020 Summer Olympics in 2021, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice.", "The country gained the hosting rights for the official Women's Volleyball World Championship on five occasions, more than any other country.", "Japan is the most successful Asian Rugby Union country and hosted the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup." ], [ "See also", "Index of Japan-related articlesOutline of Japan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "'''Government'''* JapanGov – The Government of Japan * Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet Official website * The Imperial Household Agency – official site of the Imperial House of Japan (archived November 20, 2016)* National Diet Library'''General information'''* Japan from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived April 21, 2009)* Japan from BBC News* Japan from the OECD*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Japan" ], [ "Introduction", " Japan is an archipelagic country comprising a stratovolcanic archipelago over along the Pacific coast of East Asia.", "It consists of 14,125 islands.", "The five main islands are Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Okinawa.", "The other 14,120 islands are classified as \"remote islands\" by the Japanese government.", "The Ryukyu Islands and Nanpō Islands are south and east of the main islands.The territory covers .", "It is the fourth-largest island country in the world and the largest island country in East Asia.", "The country has the 6th longest coastline at and the 8th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of in the world.The terrain is mostly rugged and mountainous, with 66% forest.", "The population is clustered in urban areas along the coast, plains, and valleys.", "Japan is located in the northwestern Ring of Fire on multiple tectonic plates.", "East of the Japanese archipelago are three oceanic trenches.", "The Japan Trench is created as the oceanic Pacific Plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate.", "The continuous subduction process causes frequent earthquakes, tsunamis, and stratovolcanoes.", "The islands are also affected by typhoons.", "The subduction plates have pulled the Japanese archipelago eastward, created the Sea of Japan, and separated it from the Asian continent by back-arc spreading 15 million years ago.The climate varies from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical and tropical rainforests in the south.", "These differences in climate and landscape have allowed the development of a diverse flora and fauna, with some rare endemic species, especially in the Ogasawara Islands.Japan extends from 20° to 45° north latitude (Okinotorishima to Benten-jima) and from 122° to 153° east longitude (Yonaguni to Minami Torishima).", "Japan is surrounded by seas.", "To the north, the Sea of Okhotsk separates it from the Russian Far East; to the west, the Sea of Japan separates it from the Korean Peninsula; to the southwest, the East China Sea separates the Ryukyu Islands from China and Taiwan; and to the east is the Pacific Ocean.A map of JapanJapanese archipelago with outlined islandsThe Japanese archipelago is over long in a north-to-southwardly direction from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Philippine Sea in the Pacific Ocean.", "It is narrow, and no point in Japan is more than from the sea.", "In 2023, a government recount of the islands with digital maps increased the total from 6,852 to 14,125 islands.", "The five main islands are (from north to south) Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa.", "Three of the four major islands (Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku) are separated by narrow straits of the Seto Inland Sea and form a natural entity.", "The 6,847 smaller islands are called remote islands.", "This includes the Bonin Islands, Daitō Islands, Minami-Tori-shima, Okinotorishima, the Ryukyu Islands, the Volcano Islands, Nansei Islands, and the Nanpō Islands, as well as numerous islets, of which 430 are inhabited.", "The Senkaku Islands are administered by Japan but disputed by China.", "This excludes the disputed Northern Territories (Kuril Islands) and Liancourt Rocks.", "In total, as of 2021, Japan's territory is , of which is land and is water.", "Japan has the sixth longest coastline in the world ().", "It is the largest island country in East Asia and the fourth largest island country in the world.Because of Japan's many far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine life and mineral resources in the ocean.", "The Exclusive Economic Zone of Japan covers and is the 8th largest in the world.", "It is more than 11 times the land area of the country.", "The Exclusive Economic Zone stretches from the baseline out to from its coast.", "Its territorial sea is , but between in the international straits—La Pérouse (or Sōya Strait), Tsugaru Strait, Ōsumi, and Tsushima Strait.Japan has a population of 126 million in 2019.It is the 11th most populous country in the world and the second most populous island country.", "81% of the population lives on Honshu, 10% on Kyushu, 4.2% on Hokkaido, 3% on Shikoku, 1.1% in Okinawa Prefecture, and 0.7% on other Japanese islands such as the Nanpō Islands." ], [ "Map of Japan", "Regions and prefectures of JapanJapan is informally divided into eight regions, from northeast (Hokkaidō) to southwest (Ryukyu Islands):* Hokkaidō* Tōhoku region* Kantō region* Chūbu region* Kansai (or Kinki) region* Chūgoku region* Shikoku* KyūshūEach region contains several prefectures, except the Hokkaido region, which comprises only Hokkaido Prefecture.The regions are not official administrative units but have been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts.", "For example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions; weather reports usually give the weather by region; and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name (Kinki Nippon Railway, Chūgoku Bank, Tohoku University, etc.).", "While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond with the eight regions." ], [ "Composition, topography and geography", "A topographic map of JapanAbout 73% of Japan is mountainous, with a mountain range running through each of the main islands.", "Japan's highest mountain is Mount Fuji, with an elevation of .", "Japan's forest cover rate is 68.55% since the mountains are heavily forested.", "The only other developed nations with such a high forest cover percentage are Finland and Sweden.Since there is little level ground, many hills and mountainsides at lower elevations around towns and cities are often cultivated.", "As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the Pacific deeps, frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands.", "Destructive earthquakes occur several times a century.", "Hot springs are numerous and have been exploited by the leisure industry.The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan measures Japan's territory annually in order to continuously grasp the state of the national land.", "As of July 1, 2021, Japan's territory is .", "It increases in area due to volcanic eruptions such as Nishinoshima (西之島), the natural expansion of the islands, and land reclamation.This table shows land use in 2002.Forest Agricultural land Residential area Water surface, rivers, waterways Roads Wilderness Other 66.4% 12.8% 4.8% 3.6% 3.4% 0.7% 8.3% ===Location===The Japanese archipelago is relatively far away from the Asian continent.", "Kyushu is closest to the southernmost point of the Korean peninsula, with a distance of , which is almost six times farther away than from England to France across the English Channel.", "Thus, historically, Kyushu was the gateway between Asia and Japan.", "China is separated by of sea from Japan's big main islands.", "Hokkaido is near Sakhalin, which was occupied by Japan from 1905 to 1945.Most of the population lives on the Pacific coast of Honshū.", "The west coast facing the Sea of Japan is less densely populated.The Japanese archipelago has been difficult to reach since ancient history.", "During the Paleolithic period around 20,000 BCE, at the height of the Last Glacial Maximum, there was a land bridge between Hokkaido and Sakhalin that linked Japan with the Asian continent.", "The land bridge disappeared when sea levels rose in the Jōmon period around 10,000 BCE.Japan's remote location, surrounded by vast seas, rugged, mountainous terrain, and steep rivers, makes it secure against invaders and uncontrolled migration from the Asian continent.", "The Japanese can close their civilization with an isolationist foreign policy.", "During the Edo period, the Tokugawa Shogunate enforced the Sakoku policy, which prohibited most foreign contact and trade from 1641 to 1853.In modern times, the inflow of people is managed via seaports and airports.", "Thus, Japan is fairly insulated from continental issues.Throughout history, Japan has never been fully invaded or colonized by other countries.", "The Mongols tried to invade Japan twice and failed in 1274 and 1281.Japan capitulated only once after nuclear attacks in World War II.", "At the time, Japan did not have nuclear technology.", "The insular geography is a major factor in the isolationist, semi-open, and expansionist periods of Japanese history.===Mountains and volcanoes===The mountainous islands of the Japanese archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia.", "They are separated from the continent by the Sea of Japan, which serves as a protective barrier.", "Japan has 108 active volcanoes (10% of the world's active volcanoes) because of active plate tectonics in the Ring of Fire.Around 15 million years ago, the volcanic shoreline of the Asian continent was pushed out into a series of volcanic island arcs.", "This created the \"back-arc basins\" known as the Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk with the formal shaping of the Japanese archipelago.", "The archipelago also has summits on mountain ridges that were uplifted near the outer edge of the continental shelf.", "About 73 percent of Japan's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 27 percent.", "A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves: the \"face\", facing the Pacific Ocean, and the \"back\", toward the Sea of Japan.", "On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges.Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains—the Hida, Kiso, and Akaishi mountains—that form the Japanese Alps (''Nihon Arupusu''), several of whose peaks are higher than .", "The highest point in the Japanese Alps is Mount Kita at .", "The highest point in the country is Mount Fuji (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since 1707 that rises to above sea level in Shizuoka Prefecture.", "On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters.===Plains===Map of the Kantō PlainThere are three major plains in central Honshū.", "The largest is the Kantō Plain, which covers in the Kantō region.", "The capital Tokyo and the largest metropolitan population are located there.", "The second largest plain in Honshū is the Nōbi Plain (), with the third-most-populous urban area being Nagoya.", "The third-largest plain in Honshū is the Osaka Plain, which covers in the Kinki region.", "It features the second-largest urban area of Osaka (part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area).", "Osaka and Nagoya extend inland from their bays until they reach steep mountains.", "The Osaka Plain is connected with Kyoto and Nara.", "Kyoto is located in the Yamashiro Basin () and Nara is in the Nara Basin ().The Kantō Plain, Osaka Plain, and Nōbi Plain are the most important economic, political, and cultural areas of Japan.", "These plains had the largest agricultural production and large bays with ports for fishing and trade.", "This made them the largest population centers.", "Kyoto and Nara are the ancient capitals and cultural heart of Japan.", "The Kantō Plain became Japan's center of power because it is the largest plain with a central location, and historically, it had the most agricultural production that could be taxed.", "The Tokugawa Shogunate established a ''bakufu'' in Edo in 1603.This evolved into the capital of Tokyo by 1868.Hokkaido has multiple plains, such as the Ishikari Plain (), Tokachi Plain (), the Kushiro Plain, the largest wetland in Japan (), and the Sarobetsu Plain ().", "There are many farms that produce a plethora of agricultural products.", "The average farm size in Hokkaido was 26 hectares per farmer in 2013.That is nearly 11 times larger than the national average of 2.4 hectares.", "This made Hokkaido the most agriculturally rich prefecture in Japan.", "Nearly one-fourth of Japan's arable land and 22% of Japan's forests are in Hokkaido.Another important plain is the Sendai Plain around the city of Sendai in northeastern Honshū.", "Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by land reclamation throughout recorded history.===Rivers===Shinano River in Niigata CityRivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches.", "Although most rivers are less than in length, their rapid flow from the mountains is what provides hydroelectric power.", "Seasonal variations in flow have led to the extensive development of flood control measures.", "The longest, the Shinano River, which winds through Nagano Prefecture to Niigata Prefecture and flows into the Sea of Japan, is long.These are the 10 longest rivers of Japan.RankNameRegionPrefectureLength(km)1ShinanoHokurikuNagano, Niigata3672ToneKantōSaitama, Chiba, Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma3223IshikariHokkaidōHokkaidō2684TeshioHokkaidōHokkaidō2565KitakamiTōhokuIwate, Miyagi2496AbukumaTōhokuFukushima, Miyagi2397MogamiTōhokuYamagata2298TenryuChūbuNagano, Aichi, Shizuoka2129AganoHokurikuNiigata21010ShimantoShikokuKōchi196===Lakes and coasts===Aerial view of Lake BiwaThe largest freshwater lake is Lake Biwa (), northeast of Kyoto in Shiga Prefecture.", "Lake Biwa is an ancient lake and is estimated to be the 13th oldest lake in the world, dating to at least 4 million years ago.", "It has consistently carried water for millions of years.", "Lake Biwa was created by plate tectonics in an active rift zone.", "This created a very deep lake with a maximum depth of .", "Thus, it is not naturally filled with sediment.", "Over the course of millions of years, a diverse ecosystem evolved in the lake.", "It has more than 1,000 species and subspecies.", "There are 46 native fish species and subspecies, including 11 species and 5 subspecies that are endemic or near-endemic.", "Approximately 5,000 water birds visit the lake each year.The following are the 10 largest lakes of Japan.Rank Name Region Prefecture¹MunicipalitiesTypeWater Area(km2) Max Depth(m) Altitude(m) Volume(km³) 1 Biwa Kansai Shiga Ōtsu, Kusatsu, Higashi-Ōmi, HikoneNagahama, Moriyama, Ōmi-HachimanTakashima, Yasu, MaibaraAncient lake, tectonic, freshwater Fresh 670.3 103.8 85 27.5 2 Kasumigaura Kantō Ibaraki Tsuchiura, Ishioka, Omitama, InashikiAmi, Kasumigaura, Namegata, Itako, MihoWarm monomictic lake Fresh 167.6 7.10 0 0.85 3 Saroma Hokkaidō Abashiri Kitami, Saroma, YūbetsuMesotrophic Brackish 151.9 19.6 0 1.3 4 Inawashiro Tōhoku Fukushima Kōriyama, Aizu-Wakamatsu, InawashiroTectonic lake Fresh 103.3 94.6 514 5.40 5 Nakaumi San'in ShimaneTottori Matsue, Yonago, YasugiSakaiminato, Higashi-IzumoBrackish Brackish 86.2 17.1 0 0.47 6 Kussharo Hokkaidō Kushiro TeshikagaAcidotrophic crater lake Fresh 79.3 117.5 121 2.25 7 Shinji San'in Shimane Matsue, Izumo, HikawaBrackish Brackish 79.1 6.0 0 0.34 8 Shikotsu Hokkaidō Ishikari ChitoseCrater lake Fresh 78.4 360.1 247 20.9 9 Tōya Hokkaidō Iburi Tōyako, SōbetsuOligotrophic crater lake Fresh 70.7 179.9 84 8.19 10 Hamana Tōkai Shizuoka Hamamatsu, Kosai, AraiBrackish lagoon Brackish 65.0 13.1 0 0.35Seto Inland SeaExtensive coastal shipping, especially around the Seto Inland Sea, compensates for the lack of navigable rivers.", "The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors.", "The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaidō, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors.A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 765 km2 of tidal flats in Japan, making it the 35th-ranked country in terms of tidal flat extent.===Land reclamation===Kobe Airport in Osaka BayThe Japanese archipelago has been transformed by humans into a sort of continuous land, in which the four main islands are entirely reachable and passable by rail and road transportation thanks to the construction of huge bridges and tunnels that connect each other and various islands.Approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area is reclaimed land (''umetatechi'').", "It began in the 12th century.", "Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building dikes, drainage, and rice paddies on terraces carved into mountainsides.", "The majority of land reclamation projects occurred after World War II, during the Japanese economic miracle.", "Reclamation of 80% to 90% of all the tidal flatland was done.", "Large land reclamation projects with landfills were done in coastal areas for maritime and industrial factories, such as Higashi Ogishima in Kawasaki, Osaka Bay, and Nagasaki Airport.", "Port Island, Rokkō Island, and Kobe Airport were built in Kobe.", "Late 20th and early 21st century projects include artificial islands such as Chubu Centrair International Airport in Ise Bay, Kansai International Airport in the middle of Osaka Bay, Yokohama Hakkeijima Sea Paradise, and Wakayama Marina City.", "The village of Ōgata in Akita was established on land reclaimed from Lake Hachirōgata (Japan's second largest lake at the time) starting in 1957.By 1977, the amount of land reclaimed totaled .Examples of land reclamation in Japan include:* Kyogashima, Kobe – the first human-made island built by Taira no Kiyomori in 1173* The Hibiya Inlet, Tokyo – the first large-scale reclamation project started in 1592* Dejima, Nagasaki – built during Japan's national isolation period in 1634.It was the sole trading post in Japan during the Sakoku period and was originally inhabited by Portuguese and then Dutch traders.", "* Tokyo Bay, Japan – artificial island (2007)** This includes the entirety of Odaiba, a series of island forts constructed to protect Tokyo from sea attacks (1853).", "* Kobe, Japan – (1995).", "* Isahaya Bay in the Ariake Sea – approximately is reclaimed with tide embankment and sluice gates (2018).", "* Yumeshima, Osaka – artificial island (2025)* Central Breakwater – Much reclaimed land is made up of landfill waste materials, dredged earth, sand, sediment, sludge, and soil removed from construction sites.", "It is used to build human-made islands in harbors and embankments in inland areas.", "On November 8, 2011, Tokyo City began accepting rubble and waste from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami region.", "This rubble was processed, and when it had the appropriate radiation levels, it was used as a landfill to build new artificial islands in Tokyo Bay.", "Yamashita Park in Yokohama City was made with rubble from the great Kantō earthquake in 1923.There is a risk of contamination on artificial islands with landfills and reclaimed land if there was industry that spilled toxic chemicals into the ground.", "For example, the artificial island of Toyosu was once occupied by a Tokyo gas factory.", "Toxic substances were discovered in the soil and groundwater at Toyosu.", "The Tokyo Metropolitan Government spent an additional 3.8 billion yen ($33.5 million) to pump out groundwater by digging hundreds of wells.", "In June 2017, plans to move the Tsukiji fish market were restarted but delayed from July to the autumn of 2018.After the new site was declared safe following a cleanup operation, Toyosu Market was opened." ], [ "Oceanography and seabed of Japan", " Relief map of the land and the seabed of Japan.", "It shows the surface and underwater terrain of the Japanese archipelago.Japan's sea territory is .", "Japan ranks fourth with its exclusive economic zone ocean water volume from 0 to depth.", "Japan ranks fifth with a sea volume of 2,000–3,000 meters, fourth with 3,000–4,000 meters, third with 4,000–5,000 meters, and first with a volume of 5,000 to over 6,000 meters.", "The relief map of the Japanese archipelago shows that 50% of Japan's sea territory has an ocean volume between 0 and deep.", "The other 50% has a depth of to over .", "19% has a depth of 0 to .", "Thus, Japan possesses one of the largest ocean territories with a combination of all depths, from shallow to very deep.", "Multiple long undersea mountain ranges stretch from Japan's main islands to the south.", "They occasionally reach above the sea surface as islands.", "East of the undersea mountain ranges are three oceanic trenches: the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench (max depth ), Japan Trench (max depth ), and Izu–Ogasawara Trench (max depth ).There are large quantities of marine life and mineral resources in the ocean and seabed of Japan.", "At a depth of over , there are minerals such as manganese nodules, cobalt in the crust, and hydrothermal deposits." ], [ "Geology", "The islands comprising the Japanese Archipelago were separated from the Asian continent by back-arc spreading.Tectonic map of Japan (French)===Tectonic plates===The Japanese archipelago is the result of subducting tectonic plates over several 100 million years, from the mid-Silurian (443.8 Mya) to the Pleistocene (11,700 years ago).", "Approximately of oceanic floor has passed under the Japanese archipelago in the last 450 million years, with most being fully subducted.", "It is considered a mature island arc.The islands of Japan were created by tectonic plate movements:* Tohoku (upper half of Honshu), Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin are located on the Okhotsk Plate.", "This is a minor tectonic plate bounded to the north by the North American Plate.", "The Okhotsk Plate is bounded on the east by the Pacific Plate at the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench and the Japan Trench.", "It is bounded on the south by the Philippine Sea Plate at the Nankai Trough.", "On the west, it is bound by the Eurasian Plate, and possibly on the southwest, by the Amurian Plate.", "The northeastern boundary is the Ulakhan Fault.", "* The southern half of Honshu, Shikoku, and most of Kyushu are located on the Amurian Plate.", "* The southern tip of Kyushu and the Ryukyu islands are located on the Okinawa Plate.", "* The Nanpō Islands are on the Philippine Sea Plate.The Pacific Plate and Philippine Sea Plate are subduction plates.", "They are deeper than the Eurasian plate.", "The Philippine Sea Plate moves beneath the continental Amurian Plate and the Okinawa Plate to the south.", "The Pacific Plate moves under the Okhotsk Plate to the north.", "These subduction plates pulled Japan eastward and opened the Sea of Japan by back-arc spreading around 15 million years ago.", "The Strait of Tartary and the Korea Strait opened much later.", "La Pérouse Strait formed about 60,000 to 11,000 years ago, closing the path used by mammoths, which had earlier moved to northern Hokkaido.", "The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan is an incipient subduction zone consisting of thrust faults that formed from the compression and reactivation of old faults involved in earlier rifting.The subduction zone is where the oceanic crust slides beneath the continental crust or other oceanic plates.", "This is because the oceanic plate's litosphere has a higher density.", "Subduction zones are sites that usually have a high rate of volcanism and earthquakes.", "Additionally, subduction zones develop belts of deformation.", "The subduction zones on the east side of the Japanese archipelago cause frequent low-intensity earth tremors.", "Major earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis occur several times per century.", "It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.", "Northeastern Japan, north of the Tanakura fault, had high volcanic activity 14–17 million years before the present.=== Median Tectonic Line ===The red line represents the Median Tectonic Line.", "The orange-shaded region is Fossa Magna, bounded by the Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line (western blue line).The Japan Median Tectonic Line (MTL) is Japan's longest fault system.", "The MTL begins near Ibaraki Prefecture, where it connects with the Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line (ISTL) and the Fossa Magna.", "It runs parallel to Japan's volcanic arc, passing through central Honshū to near Nagoya, through Mikawa Bay, then through the Seto Inland Sea from the Kii Channel and Naruto Strait to Shikoku along the Sadamisaki Peninsula and the Bungo Channel and Hōyo Strait to Kyūshū.The MTL moves right-lateral strike-slip at about 5–10 millimeters per year.", "The sense of motion is consistent with the direction of the Nankai Trough's oblique convergence.", "The rate of motion on the MTL is much less than the rate of convergence at the plate boundary.", "This makes it difficult to distinguish the motion on the MTL from interseismic elastic straining in GPS data.===Oceanic trenches===The map depicts the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, Japan Trench, Izu–Ogasawara Trench, and Mariana Trench.East of the Japanese archipelago are three oceanic trenches.", "* The Kuril–Kamchatka Trench is in the northwest Pacific Ocean.", "It lies off the southeast coast of Kamchatka and parallels the Kuril Island chain to meet the Japan Trench east of Hokkaido.", "* The Japan Trench extends from the Kuril Islands to the northern end of the Izu Islands.", "Its deepest part is .", "The Japan Trench is created as the oceanic Pacific Plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate.", "The subduction process causes bending of the down-going plate, creating a deep trench.", "Continuous movement on the subduction zone associated with the Japan Trench is one of the main causes of tsunamis and earthquakes in northern Japan, including the megathrust 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.", "The rate of subduction associated with the Japan Trench has been recorded at about /year.", "* The Izu–Ogasawara Trench is south of the Japan Trench in the western Pacific Ocean.", "It consists of the Izu Trench (at the north) and the Bonin Trench (at the south, west of the Ogasawara Plateau).", "It stretches to the northernmost section of the Mariana Trench.", "The Izu–Ogasawara Trench is an extension of the Japan Trench.", "There, the Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath the Philippine Sea Plate, creating the Izu Islands and Bonin Islands on the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc system.===Composition===The Japanese islands are formed of the mentioned geological units parallel to the subduction front.", "The parts of islands facing the Pacific Plate are typically younger and display a larger proportion of volcanic products, while island parts facing the Sea of Japan are mostly heavily faulted and folded sedimentary deposits.", "In northwest Japan, there are thick quaternary deposits.", "This makes the determination of the geological history and composition difficult, and it is not yet fully understood.The Japanese island arc system has distributed volcanic series where the volcanic rocks change from tholeiite—calc-alkaline—alkaline with increasing distance from the trench.", "The geologic province of Japan is mostly basin and has a bit of extended crust." ], [ "Growing archipelago", "The Japanese archipelago grows gradually because of perpetual tectonic plate movements, earthquakes, stratovolcanoes, and land reclamation in the Ring of Fire.For example, during the 20th century, several new volcanoes emerged, including Shōwa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myōjin-shō off the Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacific.", "The 1914 Sakurajima eruption produced lava flows that connected the former island with the Ōsumi Peninsula in Kyushu.", "It is the most active volcano in Japan.During the 2013 eruption southeast of Nishinoshima, a new, unnamed volcanic island emerged from the sea.", "Erosion and shifting sands caused the new island to merge with Nishinoshima.", "A 1911 survey determined the caldera was at its deepest.The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caused portions of northeastern Japan to shift by closer to North America.", "This made some sections of Japan's landmass wider than before.", "The areas of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts.", "A stretch of coastline dropped vertically by , allowing the tsunami to travel farther and faster onto land.", "On 6 April, the Japanese coast guard said that the earthquake shifted the seabed near the epicenter and elevated the seabed off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture by .", "A report by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, published in ''Science'' on 2 December 2011, concluded that the seabed in the area between the epicenter and the Japan Trench moved east-southeast and rose about as a result of the quake.", "The report also stated that the quake caused several major landslides on the seabed in the affected area." ], [ "Sea of Japan", "Sea of Japan===History===During the Pleistocene (2.58 million years BCE) glacial cycles, the Japanese islands may have occasionally been connected to the Eurasian Continent via the Korea Strait and the Korean Peninsula or Sakhalin.", "The Sea of Japan was considered to be a frozen inner lake because of the lack of the warm Tsushima Current.", "Various plants and large animals, such as ''Palaeoloxodon naumanni,'' migrated into the Japanese archipelago.The Sea of Japan was a landlocked sea when the land bridge of East Asia existed circa 18,000 BCE.", "During the glacial maximum, the marine elevation was 200 meters lower than present.", "Thus, Tsushima island in the Korea Strait was a land bridge that connected Kyushu and the southern tip of Honshu with the Korean peninsula.", "There were still several kilometers of sea to the west of the Ryukyu islands, and most of the Sea of Japan was open sea with a mean depth of .", "Comparatively, most of the Yellow Sea (Yellow Plane) had a semi-arid climate (dry steppe) because it was relatively shallow, with a mean depth of .", "The Korean Peninsula was landlocked on the entire west and south sides of the Yellow Plane.", "The onset of the formation of the Japan Arc was in the Early Miocene (23 million years ago).", "The Early Miocene period was when the Sea of Japan started to open and the northern and southern parts of the Japanese archipelago separated from each other.", "The Sea of Japan expanded during the Miocene.The northern part of the Japanese archipelago was further fragmented until the orogenesis of the northeastern Japanese archipelago began in the Late Miocene.", "The orogenesis of the high mountain ranges in northeastern Japan started in the Late Miocene and lasted into the Pliocene.", "The southern part of the Japanese archipelago remained a relatively large landmass.", "The land area expanded northward during the Miocene.Vegetation during the Last Glacial Maximum (16,000 BCE)During the advance of the last Ice Age, the world sea level dropped.", "This dried up and closed the exit straits of the Sea of Japan one by one.", "The deepest, and thus the last to close, was the western channel of the Korea Strait.", "There is controversy as to whether the Sea of Japan became a huge, cold inland lake.", "The Japanese archipelago had a taiga biome (open boreal woodlands).", "It was characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches.", "Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and the Kuril islands had mammoth steppe biome (steppe-tundra).", "The vegetation was dominated by palatable high-productivity grasses, herbs, and willow shrubs.===Present===The Sea of Japan has a surface area of , a mean depth of , and a maximum depth of .", "It has a carrot-like shape, with the major axis extending from southwest to northeast and a wide southern part narrowing toward the north.", "The coastal length is about , with the largest part () belonging to Russia.", "The sea extends from north to south for more than and has a maximum width of about .There are three major basins: the Yamato Basin in the southeast, the Japan Basin in the north, and the Tsushima Basin in the southwest.", "The Japan Basin has an oceanic crust and is the deepest part of the sea, whereas the Tsushima Basin is the shallowest, with depths below .", "The Yamato Basin and Tsushima Basin have thick oceanic crusts.", "The continental shelves of the sea are wide on the eastern shores of Japan.", "On the western shores, they are narrow, particularly along the Korean and Russian coasts, averaging about .The geographical location of the Japanese archipelago has defined the Sea of Japan for millions of years.", "Without the Japanese archipelago, it would just be the Pacific Ocean.", "The term has been the international standard since at least the early 19th century.", "In 2012, the International Hydrographic Organization, the international governing body for naming bodies of water around the world, recognized the term \"Sea of Japan\" as the only title for the sea." ], [ "Ocean currents", "Kuroshio 2.Kuroshio extension 3.Kuroshio countercurrent 4.Tsushima Current 5.Tsugaru Current 6.Sōya Current 7.Oyashio 8.Liman CurrentThe Japanese archipelago is surrounded by eight ocean currents.", "* The is a warm, north-flowing ocean current on the west side of the Ryukyu Islands and along the east coast of Kyushu, Shikoku, and Honshu.", "It is a strong western boundary current and part of the North Pacific ocean gyre.", "* The '''Kuroshio Current''' starts on the east coast of Luzon, Philippines, past Taiwan, and flows northeastward past Japan, where it merges with the easterly drift of the North Pacific Current.", "It transports warm, tropical water northward toward the polar region.", "The Kuroshio extension is a northward continuation of the Kuroshio Current in the northwestern Pacific Ocean.", "The Kuroshio countercurrent flows southward to the east of the Kuroshio current in the Pacific Ocean and Philippine Sea.", "** The winter-spawning Japanese Flying Squid are associated with the Kuroshio Current.", "The eggs and larvae develop during winter in the East China Sea, and the adults travel with minimum energy via the Kuroshio Current to the rich northern feeding grounds near northwestern Honshu and Hokkaido.", "* The is a branch of the Kuroshio Current.", "It flows along the west coast of Kyushu and Honshu into the Sea of Japan.", "* The current is a cold subarctic ocean current that flows southward and circulates counterclockwise along the east coast of Hokkaido and northeastern Honshu in the western North Pacific Ocean.", "The waters of the Oyashio Current originate in the Arctic Ocean and flow southward via the Bering Sea, passing through the Bering Strait and transporting cold water from the Arctic Sea into the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Okhotsk.", "It collides with the Kuroshio Current off the eastern shore of Japan to form the North Pacific Current.", "The nutrient-rich Oyashio is named for its metaphorical role as the that provides for and nurtures marine organisms.", "* The '''Liman Current''' is a southward-flowing cold ocean current that flows from the Strait of Tartary along the Asian continent in the Sea of Japan.", "* The originates when the Tsushima Current is divided in two as it flows through the west entrance of the Tsugaru Strait, and along the La Perouse Strait at the north coast of Hokkaido it becomes the .", "The flow rate is 1 to 3 knots.", "There is a relatively stronger flow in the summer than in the winter." ], [ "Natural resources", "===Land resources===There are small deposits of coal, oil, iron, and minerals in the Japanese archipelago.", "Japan is scarce in critical natural resources and has long been heavily dependent on imported energy and raw materials.", "The oil crisis in 1973 encouraged the efficient use of energy.", "Japan has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.", "In regards to agricultural products, the self-sufficiency rate of most items is less than 100%, except for rice.", "Rice has 100% food self-sufficiency.", "This makes it difficult to meet Japan's food demand without imports.===Marine resources===Japan's exclusive economic zones:The exclusive economic zone of Japan has an estimated large quantity of mineral resources such as methane clathrate, natural gas, metallic minerals, and rare-earth mineral reserves.", "Seabed mineral resources such as manganese nodules, cobalt-rich crust, and submarine hydrothermal deposits are located at depths over .", "Most of these deep-sea resources are unexplored at the seabed.", "Japan's mining law restricts offshore oil and gas production.", "There are technological hurdles to mine at such extreme depths and to limit the ecological impact.", "There are no successful commercial ventures that mine the deep sea yet.", "So currently, there are few deep sea mining projects to retrieve minerals or deepwater drilling on the ocean floor.It is estimated that there are approximately 40 trillion cubic feet of methane clathrate in the eastern Nankai Trough of Japan.", "As of 2019, the methane clathrate in the deep sea remains unexploited because the necessary technology has not been established yet.", "This is why, currently, Japan has very limited proven reserves like crude oil.The Kantō region alone is estimated to have over 400 billion cubic meters of natural gas reserves.", "It forms a Minami Kantō gas field in the area spanning Saitama, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Ibaraki, and Chiba prefectures.", "However, mining is strictly regulated in many areas because it is directly below Tokyo and is only slightly mined on the Bōsō Peninsula.", "In Tokyo and Chiba Prefecture, there have been frequent accidents with natural gas that was released naturally from the Minami Kantō gas field.In 2018, south of Minami-Tori-shima at deep, approximately 16 million tons of rare-earth minerals were discovered by JAMSTEC in collaboration with Waseda University and the University of Tokyo.====Marine life====Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch (2014).", "In 2005, Japan ranked sixth in the world in the tonnage of fish caught.", "Japan captured 4,074,580 metric tons of fish in 2005, down from 4,987,703 tons in 2000 and 9,864,422 tons in 1980.In 2003, the total aquaculture production was predicted at 1,301,437 tonnes.", "In 2010, Japan's total fishery production was 4,762,469 fish.", "Offshore fisheries accounted for an average of 50% of the nation's total fish catches in the late 1980s, although they experienced repeated ups and downs during that period.===Energy===, 46.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 21.3% from coal, 21.4% from natural gas, 4.0% from nuclear power, and 3.3% from hydropower.", "Nuclear power is a major domestic source of energy and produced 9.2 percent of Japan's electricity , down from 24.9 percent the previous year.", "Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disaster, the nuclear reactors were shut down.", "Thus, Japan's industrial sector became even more dependent than before on imported fossil fuels.", "By May 2012, all of the country's nuclear power plants were taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some of Japan's 50 nuclear reactors to service.", "Shinzo Abe's government seeks to restart the nuclear power plants that meet strict new safety standards and is emphasizing nuclear energy's importance as a base-load electricity source.", "In 2015, Japan successfully restarted one nuclear reactor at the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in Kagoshima prefecture, and several other reactors around the country have since resumed operations.", "Opposition from local governments has delayed several restarts that remain pending.Reforms of the electricity and gas sectors, including the full liberalization of Japan's energy market in April 2016 and the gas market in April 2017, constitute an important part of Prime Minister Abe's economic program.Japan has the third-largest geothermal reserves in the world.", "Geothermal energy is being heavily focused on as a source of power following the Fukushima disaster.", "The Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry is exploring over 40 locations for potential geothermal energy plants.On 3 July 2018, Japan's government pledged to increase renewable energy sources from 15% to 22–24%, including wind and solar, by 2030.Nuclear energy will provide 20% of the country's energy needs as an emissions-free energy source.", "This will help Japan meet climate change commitments." ], [ "National Parks and Scenic Beauty", "===National Parks===Lake Tōya and Shōwa-shinzan in Shikotsu-Tōya National ParkJapan has 34 and 56 in 2019.These are designated and managed for protection and sustainable usage by the Ministry of the Environment under the of 1957.The Quasi-National Parks have slightly less beauty, size, diversity, or preservation.", "They are recommended for ministerial designation and managed by the prefectures under the supervision of the Ministry of the Environment.The Japanese archipelago has diverse landscapes.", "For example, the northern part of Hokkaido has a taiga biome.", "Hokkaido has 22% of Japan's forestland with coniferous trees (Sakhalin fir and Sakhalin spruce) and broad-leaved trees (Japanese oak, birch, and painted maple).", "The seasonal views change throughout the year.", "In the south, the Yaeyama Islands are in the subtropics, with numerous species of subtropical and tropical plants and mangrove forests.", "Most natural islands have mountain ranges in the center and coastal plains.", "* List of National Parks of Japan* List of National Geoparks in Japan* Wildlife Protection Areas in Japan* List of Ramsar sites in Japan* Cultural Landscapes===Places of Scenic Beauty===Ritsurin Garden, Takamatsu, JapanThe Places of Scenic Beauty and Natural Monuments are selected by the government via the Agency for Cultural Affairs in order to protect Japan's cultural heritage.", "As of 2017, there are 1,027 and 410 .", "The highest classifications are 75 and 36 .===Three Views of Japan===The is the canonical list of Japan's three most celebrated scenic sights, attributed to 1643 scholar Hayashi Gahō.", "These are traditionally the pine-clad islands of Matsushima in Miyagi Prefecture, the pine-clad sandbar of Amanohashidate in Kyoto Prefecture, and Itsukushima Shrine in Hiroshima Prefecture.", "In 1915, the New Three Views of Japan were selected in a national election by the Jitsugyo no Nihon Sha (株式会社実業之日本社).", "In 2003, the Three Major Night Views of Japan were selected by the ''New Three Major Night Views of Japan and the 100 Night Views of Japan Club'' (新日本三大夜景・夜景100選事務局).Matsushima miyagi z.JPG\|Pine-clad islands of MatsushimaAmanohashidate view from Mt Moju02s3s4592.jpg\|Sandbar of Amanohashidate20131012_07_Miyajima_-_Torii_(10491662566).jpg\|Torii at Itsukushima Shrine" ], [ "Climate", "A Köppen climate classification map of JapanMost regions of Japan, such as much of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, belong to the temperate zone with a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfa'') characterized by four distinct seasons.", "However, its climate varies from a cool, humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification ''Dfa''/''Dfb'') in the north, such as northern Hokkaido, to a warm tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification ''Af'') in the south, such as the Yaeyama Islands and Minami-Tori-shima.===Climate zones===Kabira Bay on Ishigaki Island, Okinawa Prefecture in MarchSakura blossoms with Himeji Castle in Hyōgo Prefecture in AprilMount Yari, Nagano Prefecture in AugustJapan's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones.", "* Hokkaido belongs to the humid continental climate, with long, cold winters and cool summers.", "Precipitation is sparse; however, winter brings large snowfalls of hundreds of inches in areas such as Sapporo and Asahikawa.", "* In the Sea of Japan, the northwest seasonal wind in winter gives heavy snowfall, which south of Tōhoku mostly melts before the beginning of spring.", "In summer, it is a little less rainy than in the Pacific area, but it sometimes experiences extreme high temperatures because of the foehn wind phenomenon.", "* Central Highland: a typical inland climate gives large temperature variations between summers and winters and between days and nights.", "Precipitation is lower than on the coast because of rain shadow effects.", "* Seto Inland Sea: the mountains in the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds and bring a mild climate and many fine days throughout the year.", "* Pacific Ocean: the climate varies greatly between the north and the south, but generally winters are significantly milder and sunnier than those of the side that faces the Sea of Japan.", "Summers are hot because of the southeast seasonal wind.", "Precipitation is very heavy in the south and heavy in the summer in the north.", "The climate of the Ogasawara Island chain ranges from a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfa'') to a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification ''Aw''), with temperatures being warm to hot all year round.", "* The climate of the Ryukyu Islands ranges from a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfa'') in the north to a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification ''Af'') in the south, with warm winters and hot summers.", "Precipitation is very high and is especially affected by the rainy season and typhoons.===Rainfall===Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity.", "Because of its wide range of latitude, seasonal winds, and different types of ocean currents, Japan has a variety of climates, with the latitude range of the inhabited islands ranging from 24°N to 46°N, which is comparable to the range between Nova Scotia and The Bahamas on the east coast of North America.", "Tokyo is between 35°N and 36°N, which is comparable to that of Tehran, Athens, or Las Vegas.As Mount Fuji and the coastal Japanese Alps provide a rain shadow, Nagano and Yamanashi Prefectures receive the least precipitation in Honshu, though it still exceeds annually.", "A similar effect is found in Hokkaido, where Okhotsk Subprefecture receives as little as per year.", "All other prefectures have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, or Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them.", "Two prefectures—Hokkaido and Okinawa—are composed entirely of islands.===Summer===The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia.", "These air flows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land.", "There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month.", "It is followed by hot, sticky weather.", "Five or six typhoons pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early October, sometimes resulting in significant damage.", "Annual precipitation averages between except for areas such as Kii Peninsula and Yakushima Island, which is Japan's wettest place, with the annual precipitation being one of the world's highest at 4,000 to 10,000 mm.Maximum precipitation, like the rest of East Asia, occurs in the summer months except on the Sea of Japan coast, where strong northerly winds produce a maximum in late autumn and early winter.", "Except for a few sheltered inland valleys during December and January, precipitation in Japan is above of rainfall equivalent in all months of the year, and in the wettest coastal areas it is above per month throughout the year.Mid-June to mid-July is generally the rainy season in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, excluding Hokkaidō since the seasonal rain front, or , dissipates in northern Honshu before reaching Hokkaido.", "In Okinawa, the rainy season starts early in May and continues until mid-June.", "Unlike the rainy season in mainland Japan, it rains neither everyday nor all day long during the rainy season in Okinawa.", "Between July and October, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, can attack Japan with furious rainstorms.===Winter===Winter with frozen coniferous trees near Mt.", "Kumano in the Mount Zaō range in Miyagi PrefectureIn winter, the Siberian High develops over the Eurasian land mass and the Aleutian Low develops over the northern Pacific Ocean.", "The result is a flow of cold air southeastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan but clear skies to areas fronting the Pacific.The warmest winter temperatures are found in the Nanpō and Bonin Islands, which enjoy a tropical climate due to the combination of latitude, distance from the Asian continent, and warming effect of winds from the Kuroshio, as well as the Volcano Islands (at the latitude of the southernmost of the Ryukyu Islands, 24° N).", "The coolest summer temperatures are found on the northeastern coast of Hokkaidō in Kushiro and Nemuro Subprefectures.===Sunshine===Sunshine, in accordance with Japan's uniformly heavy rainfall, is generally modest in quantity, though no part of Japan receives the consistently gloomy fogs that envelope the Sichuan Basin or Taipei.", "Amounts range from about six hours per day on the Inland Sea coast and sheltered parts of the Pacific Coast and Kantō Plain to four hours per day on the Sea of Japan coast of Hokkaidō.", "In December, there is a very pronounced sunshine gradient between the Sea of Japan and Pacific coasts, as the former side can receive less than 30 hours and the Pacific side as much as 180 hours.", "In summer, however, sunshine hours are lowest on exposed parts of the Pacific coast, where fogs from the Oyashio current create persistent cloud cover similar to that found on the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin.===Extreme temperature records===The highest recorded temperature in Japan was 41.1 °C (106.0 °F) on 23 July 2018.An unverified record of 42.7 °C was taken in Adachi, Tokyo, on 20 July 2004.The high humidity and the maritime influence make temperatures in the 40s rare, with summers dominated by a more stable subtropical monsoon pattern through most of Japan.", "The lowest was −41.0 °C (−41.8 °F) in Asahikawa on 25 January 1902.However, an unofficial −41.5 °C was taken in Bifuka on 27 January 1931.Mount Fuji broke the Japanese record lows for each month except January, February, March, and December.", "Record lows for any month were taken as recently as 1984.Minami-Tori-shima has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification ''Aw'') and the highest average temperature in Japan of 25 °C.+Monthly temperature rangesRecord high temperaturesRecord low temperaturesMonth°C°FLocationDate°C°FLocationDateJanuary 29.7 85.5 Minami-Tori-shima 7 January 19549 January 2021 '''−41.0''' '''−41.8''' '''Asahikawa, Hokkaido''' '''25 January 1902'''February 29.1 84.4 Ishigaki 16 February 1898 −38.3 −36.9 Asahikawa, Hokkaido 11 February 1902March 30.4 86.7 Naze 26 March 1999 −35.2 −31.4 Obihiro, Hokkaido 3 March 1895April 33.7 92.7 Yonago 28 April 2005 −27.8 −18.0 Mount Fuji 3 April 1965May 39.5 103.1 Saroma 26 May 2019 −18.9 −2.0 Mount Fuji 3 May 1934June 40.2 104.4 Isesaki 25 June 2022 −13.1 8.4 Mount Fuji 2 June 1981July '''41.1''' '''106.0''' '''Kumagaya, Saitama''' '''23 July 2018''' −6.9 19.6 Mount Fuji 4 July 1966August '''41.1''' '''106.0''' '''Hamamatsu, Shizuoka''' '''17 August 2020''' −4.3 24.3 Mount Fuji 25 August 1972September 40.4 104.7 Sanjō, Niigata 3 September 2020 −10.8 12.6 Mount Fuji 23 September 1976October 36.0 96.8 Sanjō, Niigata 6 October 2018 −19.5 −3.2 Mount Fuji 30 October 1984November 34.2 94.4 Minami-Tori-shima 4 November 1953 −28.1 −18.6 Mount Fuji 30 November 1970December 31.6 88.9 Minami-Tori-shima 5 December 1952 −34.2 −29.6 Obihiro, Hokkaido 30 December 1907+Seasonal temperature rangesRecord high temperaturesRecord low temperaturesSeason°C°FLocationDate°C°FLocationDateWinter 31.6 88.9 Minami-Tori-shima 5 December 1952 '''−41.0''' '''−41.8''' '''Asahikawa, Hokkaido''' '''25 January 1902'''Spring 39.5 103.1 Saroma, Hokkaido 26 May 2019 −35.2 −31.4 Obihiro, Hokkaido 3 March 1895Summer '''41.1''' '''106.0''' '''Kumagaya, Saitama''''''Hamamatsu, Shizuoka''' '''23 July 2018''''''17 August 2020''' −13.1 8.4 Mount Fuji 2 June 1981Autumn 40.4 104.7 Sanjō, Niigata 3 September 2020 −28.1 −18.6 Mount Fuji 30 November 1970" ], [ "Population distribution", "A map of Japan's major cities, main towns and selected smaller centersJapan has a population of 126.3 million in 2019.It is the eleventh-most populous country and the second-most populous island country in the world.", "The population is clustered in urban areas along the coast, plains, and valleys.", "In 2010, 90.7% of the total Japanese population lived in cities.", "Japan is an urban society, with about 5% of the labor force working in agriculture.", "About 80 million of the urban population is heavily concentrated on the Pacific coast of Honshu.81% of the population lives on Honshu, 10% on Kyushu, 4.2% on Hokkaido, 3% on Shikoku, 1.1% in Okinawa Prefecture, and 0.7% on other Japanese islands such as the Nanpō Islands.", "Nearly 1 in 3 Japanese people live in the Greater Tokyo Area, and over half live in the Kanto, Kinki, and Chukyo metropolitan areas.===Honshu=== is the largest island of Japan and the second most populous island in the world.", "It has a population of 104,000,000 with a population density of (2010).", "Honshu is roughly long and ranges from wide, and the total area is .", "It is the 7th largest island in the world.", "This makes it slightly larger than the island of Great Britain ().The Greater Tokyo Area on Honshu is the largest metropolitan area (megacity) in the world, with people (2016).", "The area is and has a population density of 2,642 persons/km2.===Kyushu=== is the third-largest island of Japan of the five main islands.", ", Kyushu has a population of 12,970,479 and covers .", "It has the second-highest population density of 307.13 persons/km2 (2016).===Shikoku=== is the second-smallest of the five main islands (after Okinawa Island), with .", "It is located south of Honshu and northeast of Kyushu.", "It has the second-smallest population of 3,845,534 million (2015) and the third-highest population density of 204.55 persons/km2.===Hokkaido=== is the second-largest island of Japan and the largest and northernmost prefecture.", "The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaido from Honshu.", "It has the third largest population of the five main islands, with 5,383,579 (2015), and the lowest population density, with just 64.5 persons/km2 (2016).", "The island area ranks 21st in the world by area.", "It is 3.6% smaller than the island of Ireland.===Okinawa Prefecture=== is the southernmost prefecture of Japan.", "It encompasses two-thirds of the Ryukyu Islands, over long.", "It has a population of 1,445,812 (2017) and a density of 662 persons/km2.is the smallest and most southwestern of the five main islands, at .", "It has the smallest population of 1,301,462 (2014) and the highest population density of 1083.6 persons/km2.===Nanpō Islands=== are the groups of islands that are located to the south and east of the main islands of the Japanese archipelago.", "They extend from the Izu Peninsula west of Tokyo Bay southward for about to within of the Mariana Islands.", "The Nanpō Islands are all administered by Tokyo Metropolis.===Taiheiyō Belt===Taiheiyō BeltThe Taiheiyō Belt is a megalopolis that includes the Greater Tokyo Area and Keihanshin megapoles.", "It is almost long, from Ibaraki Prefecture in the northeast to Fukuoka Prefecture in the southwest.", "Satellite images at night show a dense and continuous strip of light (demarcating urban zones) that delineates the region with overlapping metropolitan areas in Japan.", "It has a total population of approximately 81,859,345 (2016).", "* Taiheiyō Belt – includes Ibaraki, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, Aichi, Gifu, Mie, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyōgo, Wakayama, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Fukuoka, and Ōita.", "(81,859,345 people) Greater Tokyo Area – Part of the larger Kantō region, broadly includes Tokyo and Yokohama.", "(38,000,000 people) Keihanshin – Part of the larger Kansai region, includes Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe.", "(19,341,976 people)===Underwater habitats===There are plans to build underwater habitats in Japan's Exclusive Economic Zone.", "Currently no underwater city is constructed yet.", "For example, the Ocean Spiral by Shimizu Corporation would have a floating dome 500 meters in diameter with hotels, residential and commercial complexes.", "It could be 15 km long.", "This allows mining of the seabed, research and production of methane from carbon dioxide with micro-organisms.", "The Ocean Spiral was co-developed with JAMSTEC and Tokyo University." ], [ "Extreme points", "Extreme points of JapanThe summit of Mount Fuji is the highest point in Japan.Japan extends from 20° to 45° north latitude (Okinotorishima to Benten-jima) and from 122° to 153° east longitude (Yonaguni to Minami Torishima).", "These are the points that are farther north, south, east, or west than any other location in Japan.", "Heading Location Prefecture Bordering entity Coordinates Ref North (disputed) Cape Kamoiwakka on Etorofu Hokkaido Sea of Okhotsk North (undisputed) Benten-jima Hokkaidō La Pérouse Strait South Okinotorishima Tokyo Philippine Sea East Minami Torishima Tokyo Pacific Ocean West Yonaguni Okinawa East China Sea The westernmost Monument of Japan===Japan's main islands===The five main islands of Japan are Hokkaidō, Honshū, Kyūshū, Shikoku, and Okinawa.", "These are also called the mainland.", "All of these points are accessible to the public.", "Heading Location Prefecture Bordering entity Coordinates Ref North Cape Sōya Hokkaidō La Pérouse Strait South Cape ArasakiOkinawa East China Sea East Cape Nosappu Hokkaidō Pacific Ocean West Cape OominezakiOkinawa East China Sea ===Extreme altitudes=== Extremity Name Altitude Prefecture Coordinates Ref Highest Mount Fuji Yamanashi Lowest(human-made) Hachinohe mine −170 m (−558 ft) Aomori Lowest(natural) Hachirōgata −4 m (−13 ft) Akita" ], [ "Largest islands of Japan", "The Nanpō Islands of the Japanese archipelagoIzu Islands south of TokyoThe Ryukyu Islands administered by Kagoshima Prefecture and Okinawa PrefectureThese are the 50 largest islands of Japan.", "It excludes the disputed Kuril Islands, known as the northern territories.", "Rank Island name Area(km2) Area(sq mi) Island group 1 Honshu 2 Hokkaido 83,424.31 3 Kyushu 36,782 4 Shikoku 18,800 5 Okinawa Island 1,207 Ryukyu Islands 6 Sado Island 855.26 7 Amami Ōshima 712.35 Amami Islands 8 Tsushima Island 708.7 9 Awaji Island 592.17 10 Shimoshima Island, Amakusa 574.01 11 Yakushima 504.88 Ōsumi Islands 12 Tanegashima 444.99 Ōsumi Islands 13 Fukue Island 326.43 Gotō Islands 14 Iriomote Island 289.27 15 Tokunoshima 247.8 16 Dōgojima 241.58 Oki Islands 17 Kamishima Island, Amakusa 225.32 Amakusa islands 18 Ishigaki Island 222.5 19 Rishiri Island 183 20 Nakadōri Island 168.34 Gotō Islands 21 Hirado Island 163.42 22 Miyako-jima 158.87 23 Shōdoshima 153.30 24 Okushiri Island 142.97 25 Iki Island 138.46 26 Suō-Ōshima 128.31 27 Okinoerabujima 93.63 28 Etajima 91.32 29 Izu Ōshima 91.06 Izu Islands 30 Nagashima Island, Kagoshima 90.62 31 Rebun Island 80 32 Kakeromajima 77.39 33 Kurahashi-jima 69.46 34 Shimokoshiki-jima 66.12 35 Ōmishima Island, Ehime 66.12 36 Hachijō-jima 62.52 37 Kume Island 59.11 Okinawa Islands 38 Kikaijima 56.93 Amami Islands 39 Nishinoshima 55.98 40 Miyake-jima 55.44 41 Notojima 46.78 42 Kamikoshiki-jima 45.08 43 Ōshima (Ehime) 41.87 44 Ōsakikamijima 38.27 45 Kuchinoerabu-jima 38.04 46 Hisaka 37.23 47 Innoshima 35.03 48 Nakanoshima (in Kagoshima) 34.47 Tokara Islands 49 Hario Island 33.16 50 Nakanoshima (in Shimane) 32.21 Oki Islands===Northern Territories===The Kuril Islands, with their Russian names.", "The borders of the Treaty of Shimoda (1855) and the Treaty of St. Petersburg (1875) are shown in red.", "Currently, all islands northeast of Hokkaido are administered by Russia.Japan has a longstanding claim to the Southern Kuril Islands (Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai Islands).", "These islands were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.The Kuril Islands historically belonged to Japan.", "The Kuril Islands were first inhabited by the Ainu people and then controlled by the Japanese Matsumae clan in the Edo Period.", "The Soviet Union did not sign the San Francisco Treaty in 1951.The U.S. Senate Resolution of April 28, 1952, ratifying the San Francisco Treaty, explicitly stated that the USSR had no title to the Kurils.", "This dispute has prevented the signing of a peace treaty between Japan and Russia.Geographically, the Kuril Islands are a northeastern extension of Hokkaido.", "Kunashiri and the Habomai Islands are visible from the northeastern coast of Hokkaido.", "Japan considers the northern territories (aka Southern Chishima) part of the Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaido Prefecture." ], [ "Time zone", "There is one time zone in the whole Japanese archipelago.", "It is 9 hours ahead of UTC.", "There is no daylight saving time.", "The easternmost Japanese island, Minami-Tori-shima, also uses Japan Standard Time, while it is geographically southeast of Tokyo and in the UTC+10:00 time zone.Sakhalin uses UTC+11:00, even though it is located directly north of Hokkaido.", "The Northern Territories and the Kuril Islands use UTC+11:00, although they are geographically in UTC+10:00." ], [ "Natural hazards", "===Earthquakes and tsunami===The aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunamiJapan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes because of its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.", "It has the 15th highest natural disaster risk as measured in the 2013 World Risk Index.As many as 1,500 earthquakes are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of 4 to 6 are common.", "Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings.", "Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from .Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century.", "The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.", "More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, a 9.1-magnitude quake that hit Japan on March 11, 2011.It triggered a large tsunami and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, one of the worst disasters in the history of nuclear power.The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake was the largest ever recorded in Japan and is the world's fourth largest earthquake to strike since 1900, according to the U.S. Geological Service.", "It struck offshore about northeast of Tokyo and east of the city of Sendai and created a massive tsunami that devastated Japan's northeastern coastal areas.", "At least 100 aftershocks registering a magnitude of 6.0 or higher have followed the main shock.", "At least 15,000 people died as a result.Researchers found the source of great thrust earthquakes and associated tsunamis in the Greater Tokyo Area at the Izu-Ogasawara Trench.", "There is a 'trench-trench triple junction' of the oceanic Philippine Sea Plate that underthrusts a continental plate and is being subducted by the Pacific Plate.Reclaimed land and human-made islands are particularly susceptible to liquefaction during an earthquake.", "As a result, there are specific earthquake resistance standards and ground reform work that apply to all construction in these areas.", "In an area that was possibly reclaimed in the past, old maps and land condition drawings are checked, and drilling is carried out to determine the strength of the ground.", "However, this can be very costly, so for a private residential block of land, a Swedish weight sounding test is more common.Japan has become a world leader in research on the causes and prediction of earthquakes.", "The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of skyscrapers even in earthquake-prone areas.", "Extensive civil defense efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger.===Volcanic eruptions===Sakurajima eruption on October 3, 2009Japan has 111 active volcanoes.", "That is 10% of all active volcanoes in the world.", "Japan has stratovolcanoes near the subduction zones of the tectonic plates.", "During the 20th century, several new volcanoes emerged, including Shōwa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myōjin-shō off the Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacific.", "In 1991, Japan's Unzen Volcano on Kyushu, about east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new lava dome at its summit.", "Beginning in June, repeated collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as .", "Unzen erupted in 1792 and killed more than 15,000 people.", "It is the worst volcanic disaster in the country's recorded history.Mount Fuji is a dormant stratovolcano that last erupted on 16 December 1707 till about 1 January 1708.The Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji did not have a lava flow, but it did release some of volcanic ash.", "It spread over vast areas around the volcano and reached Edo almost away.", "Cinders and ash fell like rain in Izu, Kai, Sagami, and Musashi provinces.", "In Edo, the volcanic ash was several centimeters thick.", "The eruption is rated a 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index.Mount Aso 4 pyroclastic flow and the spread of Aso 4 tephra (90,000 to 85,000 years ago).", "The pyroclastic flow reached almost the whole area of Kyushu, and volcanic ash was deposited of 15 cm in a wide area from Kyushu to southern Hokkaido.There are three VEI-7 volcanoes in Japan.", "These are the Aira Caldera, the Kikai Caldera, and the Aso Caldera.", "These giant calderas are remnants of past eruptions.", "Mount Aso is the largest active volcano in Japan.", "300,000 to 90,000 years ago, there were four eruptions of Mount Aso that emitted huge amounts of volcanic ash that covered all of Kyushu and up to Yamaguchi Prefecture.", "* The Aira Caldera is 17 kilometers long and 23 kilometers wide, located in south Kyushu.", "The city of Kagoshima and the Sakurajima volcano are within the Aira Caldera.", "Sakurajima is the most active volcano in Japan.", "* The Aso Caldera stretches 25 kilometers north to south and 18 kilometers east to west in Kumamoto Prefecture, Kyushu.", "It has erupted four times: 266,000 and 141,000 years ago with 32 DRE km3 (dense-rock equivalent) each; 130,000 years ago with 96 DRE km3; and 90,000 years ago with 384 DRE km3.", "* The Kikai Caldera is a massive, mostly submerged caldera up to 19 kilometres (12 mi) in diameter in the Ōsumi Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan.", "It is the remains of the ancient eruption of a colossal volcano.", "Kikai Caldera was the source of the Akahoya eruption, one of the largest eruptions during the Holocene (10,000 years ago to present).", "About 4,300 BC, pyroclastic flows from that eruption reached the coast of southern Kyūshū up to away, and ash fell as far as Hokkaidō.", "The eruption produced about 150 km³ of tephra, giving it a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7.The Jōmon culture of at least southern Kyushu was destroyed, and it took nearly 1,000 years to recover.Surveys by KOBEC (Kobe Ocean-Bottom Exploration Center) confirm that a giant lava dome of 23 cubic kilometers formed after the Kikai Caldera erupted in 4,300 BC.", "There is a 1% chance of a giant caldera eruption in the Japanese archipelago within the next 100 years.", "Approximately 40 cubic kilometers of magma would be released in one burst and cause enormous damage.According to a 2014 study by KOBEC of Kobe University, in a worst-case scenario, if there is a VEI-7 eruption of the Aso Caldera and if the volcanic ash is carried by westerly winds, then pyroclastic flows would cover the 7 million population near the Aso Caldera within two hours.", "The pyroclastic flows could reach much of Kyushu.", "Beyond the pyroclastic area is volcanic ash that falls from the sky.", "If the volcanic ash continuously flows northward, then the ash fall would make it impossible to live normally in large parts of the main islands of Japan due to the paralysis of traffic and lifelines for a limited period (a few days to 2 weeks) until the eruption subsides.", "In this scenario, the exception would be eastern and northern Hokkaido (the Ryukyu Islands and southern Nanpo Islands would also be excluded).", "Professor Yoshiyuki Tatsumi, head of KOBEC, told the Mainichi Shimbun that \"the probability of a gigantic caldera eruption hitting the Japanese archipelago is 1 percent in the next 100 years\" with a death toll of many tens of millions of people and wildlife.", "The potential exists for tens of millions of humans and other living beings to die during a VEI-7 volcanic eruption with significant short-term effects on the global climate.", "Most casualties would occur in Kyushu from the pyroclastic flows.", "The potential damage from the volcanic ash depends on the wind direction.", "If, in another scenario, the wind blows in a western or southern direction, then the volcanic ash could affect the East Asian continent or South-East Asia.", "If the ash flows eastward, then it will spread over the Pacific Ocean.", "Since the Kikai Caldera is submerged, it is unclear how much damage the hot ash clouds would cause if large quantities of volcanic ash stayed beneath the ocean surface.", "The underwater ash would be swept away by ocean currents.Paektu Mountain on the Chinese–North Korean border had a VEI-7 eruption in 946.Paektu Mountain is mainly a threat to the surrounding area in North Korea and Manchuria.", "The west coast of Hokkaido is about away.", "However, a temple in Japan reported \"white ash falling like snow\" on 3 November 946 AD.", "So strong winds carried the volcanic ash eastward across the Sea of Japan.", "An average of of ashfall covered about of the Sea of Japan and northern Japan (Hokkaido and Aomori Prefecture).", "It took the ash clouds a day or so to reach Hokkaido.", "The total eruption duration was 4 and a half to 14 days (111–333 hours).In October 2021, large quantities of pumice pebbles from the submarine volcano Fukutoku-Okanoba damaged fisheries, tourism, the environment, 11 ports in Okinawa, and 19 ports in Kagoshima prefecture.", "Clean-up operations took 2–3 weeks.+VEI 7 eruptions happened in the following locations of Japan.NameZoneLocationEvent / notesYears ago before 1950 (Approx.", ")Ejecta volume (Approx.)", "'''Kikai Caldera''' Japan, Ryukyu Islands Akahoya eruption 5,300 BC 7,300 170 km3 '''Aira Caldera''' Japan, Kyūshū Aira-Tanzawa ash 30,000 450 km3 '''Aso Caldera''' Japan, Kyūshū Aso-4 pyroclastic flow 90,000 600 km3 '''Mount Aso''' Japan, Kyūshū Four large eruptions between 300,000 and 90,000 years ago.", "300,000 600 km3Improving technology and methods to predict volcano and giant caldera eruptions would help to prepare and evacuate people earlier.", "Technology is needed to accurately capture the state of the magma chamber, which spreads thinly with a thickness of less than several kilometers around the middle of the crust.", "The underground area of Kyushu must be monitored because it is a dangerous area with the potential for a caldera eruption.", "The most protective measure is to stop the hot ash clouds from spreading and devastating areas near the eruption so that people don't need to evacuate.", "There are currently no protective measures to minimize the spread of millions of tons of deadly hot ash during a VEI-7 eruption.In 2018, NASA published a theoretical plan to prevent a volcanic eruption by pumping large quantities of cold water down a borehole into the hydrothermal system of a supervolcano.", "The water would cool the huge body of magma in the chambers below the volcano so that the liquid magma would become semi-solid.", "Thus, enough heat could be extracted to prevent an eruption.", "The heat could be used by a geothermal plant to generate geothermal energy and electricity.===Typhoons===Since recording started in 1951, an average of 2.6 typhoons reached the main islands of Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu, and Hokkaido per year.", "Approximately 10.3 typhoons approach within the 300-kilometer range near the coast of Japan.", "Okinawa is, due to its geographic location, most vulnerable to typhoons, with an average of 7 storms per year.", "The most destructive was the Isewan Typhoon, with 5,000 casualties in the Tokai region in September 1959.In October 2004, Typhoon Tokage caused heavy rain in Kyushu and central Japan, resulting in 98 casualties.", "Until the 1960s, the death toll was hundreds of people per typhoon.", "Since the 1960s, improvements in construction, flood prevention, high tide detection, and early warnings have substantially reduced the death toll, which rarely exceeds a dozen people per typhoon.", "Japan also has special search and rescue units to save people in distress.Heavy snowfall during the winter in the snow country regions causes landslides, flooding, and avalanches." ], [ "Environmental issues", "In the 2006 environment annual report, the Ministry of Environment reported that the current major issues are: global warming and preservation of the ozone layer; conservation of the atmospheric environment, water, and soil; waste management and recycling; measures for chemical substances; conservation of the natural environment; and participation in international cooperation." ], [ "See also", "* List of peninsulas of Japan* Japanese addressing system" ], [ "References", "* Japan.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.." ], [ "External links", "* \"Colton's Japan: Nippon, Kiusiu, Sikok, Yesso and the Japanese Kuriles\" a map from 1855* Terrain of Japan – GJI Maps (Geospatial Information Authority of Japan)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "hinoe uma\" year which is viewed as a bad omen by the Japanese Zodiac.Historical population of JapanThe demographics of Japan include Japanese population, birth and death rates, age distribution, population density, ethnicity, education level, healthcare system of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects regarding the population.", "As of July 2011, according to the United Nations estimated reports, Japan's total memorial population was 128,007,256 people, making it the 3rd-most populous country in Asia-Pacific region (Behind Greater China and Indonesia), and with the 10th-most populous country in the world.In 2022, the median age of Japanese was projected 48.6 years, highest level since 1950, compared to 28.7 for India, 38.4 for China, and 38.9 for the United States.", "Japan is the second highest median age in the world (behind Monaco).", "An improved quality of life and regular health checks are just two reasons why Japan has one of the highest life expectancies in the world.The life expectancy from birth in Japan improved significantly after World War II, rising 20 years in the decade between 1945 and 1955.As life expectancy rising, Japan expects difficulties caring for the older generation in the future.", "Shortages in the service sector are already a major concern, with demand for nurses and care workers increasing.The fertility rate among Japanese population has been around 1.4 children per woman since 2010.Apart from a small baby boom in the early 1970s, the crude birth rate in Japan has been declining since 1950, and is expected to be as low as 7.5 births per thousand people in 2020.With a falling birth rates and such a large share of its inhabitants reaching their later years, Japan's total population is expected to continue declining since mid-2010.Japanese is a principal language of the Japonic language family spoken by Japanese people, which is separated into several dialects with the Tokyo dialect considered Standard Japanese.", "It has around 128 million speakers in total memorial population, primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language, and within the Japanese diaspora across the globe.The sex ratio in Japan in 2021 was 95.38 males per 100 females.", "There are 61.53 million males and 64.52 million females in Japan.", "The percentage of female population is 51.18%, compared to 48.82% male population.", "Japan has 2.98 million more females than males." ], [ "Historical overview", "As of 2017, Japan was the world's eleventh-most populous country.", "The total population had declined by 0.8 percent from the time of the census five years previously, the first time it had declined since the 1945 census.Since 2010, Japan has experienced net population loss due to falling birth rates and minimal immigration, despite having one of the highest life expectancies in the world, at 85.00 years (it stood at 81.25 as of 2006).", "Using the annual estimate for October of each year, the population peaked in 2008 at 128,083,960 and had fallen by 2,983,352 by October 2021.Based on 2012 data from the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, Japan's population will keep declining by about one million people every year in the coming decades, which would leave it with a population of around 70 million by 2060 and 42 million by early 22nd century if the current projections do not change.", "More than 40% of the population is expected to be over the age of 65 in 2060.In 2021 the population had for fifteen consecutive years declined by 644,000 on this year, the largest drop on record since 1945 and also reflecting a record low of 831,000 births.", "more than 20 percent of the population of Japan were aged 65 and over.The population consisted of 47,062,743 households, with 78.7% in urban areas (July 2000).", "High population density; 329.5 people per square kilometer for total area; 1,523 persons per square kilometer for habitable land.", "More than 50% of the population lives on 2% of the land.", "(July 1993).", "According to research in 2009, the population to land density ratio has gradually increased, now at 127 million per 337 km2.Compared to the findings of July 1993 as well as in July 2000, the population density has greatly increased, from 50% of the population living on 2% of the land to 77%.", "However, as the years have progressed since the last recordings of the population, Japan's population has decreased, raising concern about the future of Japan.", "There are many causes, such as the declining birthrates, as well as the ratio of men to women since the last measurements from the years of 2006 and 2010.According to the Japanese Health Ministry, the population is estimated to drop from its current state of 125.58 million to 86.74 million by the year 2060.Japan dropped from the 7th most populous country in the world to 8th in 1990, to 9th in 1998, to 10th in the early 21st century, and to 11th in 2020.Over the period of 2010 to 2015, the population shrank by almost a million, and Japan lost a half-million in 2022 alone.", "The number of Japanese citizens decreased by 801,000 to 122,423,038 in 2022 from a year earlier, which was the most severe decrease and the first time all 47 prefectures have suffered a decline since the launch of the poll in 1968.The nation's population reached 128,057,352 Japanese people by early 2010.However, the long-lasting effects of Japanese economic crisis during the Great Recession strongly slowed down immigration rates in Japan in 2010s.In March 2011, Japan suffered from a massive earthquake and tsunami and the subsequent Fukushima nuclear disaster, resulting 16,146 deaths, a reduction of about 1.39 years in the average life expectancy, an ultimate decrease in birth rates, and a marked decrease in immigration rates following the natural disasters, worst since the end of World War II.According to studies from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, from January 2020 to the end of September 2021 as a direct effect of COVID-19 pandemic, Japan has registered 112,000 excess deaths, a loss of about 2.6 years in the average life expectancy, a noticeable decrease in birth rates and a marked decrease in immigration rates, the overall effect being a record natural population decline of 798,214 units in that year, although excess mortality rates for all causes has been estimated at between 100,000 and 130,000 deaths.", "It is the largest ever recorded since 1914 (at the time of World War I, Spanish flu pandemic, and the Great Kanto earthquake).According to a demographic study conducted by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, the Japanese population (including foreign residents) has declined from 128 million people in 2010 to 124.3 million people in 2023, with a decrease of almost 511,000 people in one year.Japanese population density map per prefecture as of 2022 per square kilometer" ], [ "Population", "===Population Projection===Population Pyramids of Japan (Projections 2065,IPSS).svg\|alt=Population Pyramids of Japan 2065.", "(Middle-birth, Middle-death scenario case)\|Population pyramids of Japan 2065 (middle-birth, middle-death scenario case)File:Japan_animated_population_pyramid.gif\|Japan demographic transition 1888–2019===Census===Japan collects census information every five years, with censuses conducted by the Statistics Bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.", "The latest population census reflects the situation as of 2020.===Population density===Japan's population density was 336 people per square kilometer as of 2014 (874 people per square mile) according to World Development Indicators.", "It ranks 35th in a list of countries by population density.", "Between 1955 and 1989, land prices in the six largest cities increased by 15,000% (+12% per year compound).", "Urban land prices generally increased 40% from 1980 to 1987; in the six largest cities, the price of land doubled over that period.", "For many families, this trend put housing in central cities out of reach.The result was lengthy commutes for many workers in the big cities, especially in the Tokyo area where daily commutes of two hours each way are common.", "In 1991, as the bubble economy started to collapse, land prices began a steep decline, and within a few years fell 60% below their peak.", "After a decade of declining land prices, residents began moving back into central city areas (especially Tokyo's 23 wards), as evidenced by 2005 census figures.", "Despite nearly 70% of Japan being covered by forests, parks in many major cities—especially Tokyo and Osaka—are smaller and scarcer than in major West European or North American cities.", "As of 2014, parkland per inhabitant in Tokyo is 5.78 square meters, which is roughly half of the 11.5 square meters of Madrid.National and regional governments devote resources to making regional cities and rural areas more attractive by developing transportation networks, social services, industry, and educational institutions to try to decentralize settlement and improve the quality of life.", "Nevertheless, major cities, especially Tokyo, Yokohama and Fukuoka, and to a lesser extent Kyoto, Osaka and Nagoya, remain attractive to young people seeking education and jobs.===Urban distribution===File:Population of Japan by area, 2015.png\|thumb\|Distribution of population by regions (blue shades) and prefectures (red: most populous; green: less).KANTO, KEIHANSHIN and TOKAI are three largest metropolitan areas which have about 2/3 of total population of Japan.", "Out of 47 prefectures, 13 are red and 34 are green.The population of Japan has been decreasing since 2011.Only 8 prefectures had increased its population compared to 2010, due to internal migration to large cities.", "Japan has a high population concentration in urban areas on the plains since 75% of Japan's land area is made up of mountains, and also Japan has a forest cover rate of 68.5% (the only other developed countries with such a high forest cover percentage are Finland and Sweden).The 2010 census shows 90.7% of the total Japanese population live in cities.Japan is an urban society with about only 5% of the labor force working in agriculture.", "Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities.", "About 80 million of the urban population is heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of Honshu.Metropolitan Tokyo-Yokohama, with its population of 35 million residents, is the world's most populous city.", "Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: overcrowded cities and congested highways.===Age structure===Japan's population is aging faster than that of any other nation.", "The population of those 65 years or older roughly doubled in 24 years, from 7.1% of the population in 1970 to 14.1% in 1994.The same increase took 61 years in Italy, 85 years in Sweden, and 115 years in France.", "In 2014, 26% of Japan's population was estimated to be 65 years or older, and the Health and Welfare Ministry has estimated that over-65s will account for 40% of the population by 2060.The demographic shift in Japan's age profile has triggered concerns about the nation's economic future and the viability of its welfare state.Japan sex by age 1888.png\|1888Japan sex by age 1920.png\|1920 (1st national census of population)Japan sex by age 1925.png\|1925 (2nd national census of population)Japan sex by age 1930.png\|1930 (3rd national census of population)Japan sex by age 1935.png\|1935 (4th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1940.png\|1940 (5th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1947.png\|1947 (6th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1950.png\|1950 (7th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1955.png\|1955 (8th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1960.png\|1960 (9th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1965.png\|1965 (10th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1970.png\|1970 (11th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1975.png\|1975 (12th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1980.png\|1980 (13th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1985.png\|1985 (14th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1990.png\|1990 (15th national census of population)Japan sex by age 1995.png\|1995 (16th national census of population)Japan sex by age 2000.png\|2000 (17th national census of population)Japan sex by age 2005.png\|2005 (18th national census of population)Japan sex by age 2010.png\|2010 (19th national census of population)Japan sex by age 2015.png\|2015 (20th national census of population)Japan population pyramid 10.01.2019.png\|2019 estimateLive births and deaths of Japan (1946-2019).png\|Live births and deaths of Japan (1946–2019)File:Tokyo prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|TokyoFile:Nagasaki population pyramid in 2020.svg\|NagasakiFile:Hiroshima population pyramid in 2020.svg\|HiroshimaFile:Hokkaido prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|HokkaidoFile:Kyoto prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|KyotoFile:Aichi prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|AichiFile:Fukushima prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|FukushimaFile:Osaka prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|OsakaFile:Okinawa prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|OkinawaFile:Aomori prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|AomoriFile:Akita prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|AkitaFile:Chiba prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|ChibaFile:Ibraki prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|IbarakiFile:Miyagi prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|MiyagiFile:Yamagata prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|YamagataFile:Iwate prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|IwateFile:Fukuoka prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|FukuokaFile:Yamaguchi prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|YamaguchiFile:Saga prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|SagaFile:Okayama prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|OkayamaFile:Toyama prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|ToyamaFile:Hyogo prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|HyogoFile:Ishikawa prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|IshikawaFile:Niigata prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|NiigataFile:Fukui prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|FukuiFile:Ehime prefecture population pyramid 2020.svg\|EhimeFile:Tokushima prefecture population pyramid 2020.svg\|TokushimaFile:Kagawa prefecture population pyramid 2020.svg\|KagawaFile:Miyazaki prefecture population pyramid 2020.svg\|MiyazakiFile:Kumamoto prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|KumamotoFile:Kagoshima prefecture population pyramid 2020.svg\|KagoshimaFile:Kochi prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|KochiFile:Yamanashi prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|YamanashiFile:Oita prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|OitaFile:Kanagawa prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|Kanagawa File:Shizuoka prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|ShizuokaFile:Mie prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|Mie File:Wakayama prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|WakayamaFile:Saitama prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|SaitamaFile:Nara prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|NaraFile:Tochigi prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|TochigiFile:Nagano prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|NaganoFile:Gunma prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|GunmaFile:Shiga prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|ShigaFile:Gifu prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|GifuFile:Tottori prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|TottoriFile:Shimane prefecture population pyramid in 2020.svg\|Shimane + Overview of the changing age distribution 1935–2020YearTotal population(census; in thousands)Population by age (%)0–1415–6465+ 193569,25436.958.54.7 194073,11436.159.25.7 194571,99836.858.15.1 195083,19935.459.64.9 195589,27533.461.25.3 196093,41830.264.15.7 196598,27425.768.06.3 1970103,72024.068.97.1 1975111,93924.367.77.9 1980117,06023.567.39.1 1985121,04821.568.210.3 1990123,61118.269.512.0 1995125,57015.969.414.5 2000126,92514.667.917.3 2005127,76713.765.820.1 2010128,05713.263.723.1 2015127,09412.660.726.6 2020126,22612.059.328.8Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 61 226 000 64 610 000 125 836 000 100 0–4 2 406 000 2 288 000 4 694 000 3.73 5–9 2 580 000 2 462 000 5 042 000 4.01 10–14 2 736 000 2 605 000 5 341 000 4.24 15–19 2 932 000 2 792 000 5 724 000 4.55 20–24 3 298 000 3 089 000 6 386 000 5.07 25–29 3 240 000 3 036 000 6 275 000 4.99 30–34 3 391 000 3 244 000 6 635 000 5.27 35–39 3 767 000 3 665 000 7 432 000 5.91 40–44 4 289 000 4 183 000 8 472 000 6.73 45–49 4 954 000 4 847 000 9 801 000 7.79 50–54 4 353 000 4 305 000 8 658 000 6.88 55–59 3 905 000 3 913 000 7 818 000 6.21 60–64 3 674 000 3 770 000 7 443 000 5.91 65–69 4 047 000 4 305 000 8 351 000 6.64 70–74 4 288 000 4 798 000 9 086 000 7.22 75–79 3 193 000 3 953 000 7 145 000 5.68 80–84 2 239 000 3 159 000 5 398 000 4.29 85–89 1 323 000 2 394 000 3 717 000 2.95 90–94 506 000 1 316 000 1 822 000 1.45 95–99 97 000 421 000 519 000 0.41 100+ 10 000 66 000 76 000 0.06Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 7 722 000 7 355 000 15 077 000 11.98 15–64 37 801 000 36 843 000 74 644 000 59.32 65+ 15 703 000 20 412 000 36 115 000 28.70=== Life expectancy ===Sources: Our World In Data and the United Nations.", "'''1865–1949'''Years18651870187518801885189018951900190519101915192019221927193519451947194819491950Life expectancy in Japan36.436.636.837.037.337.738.138.639.240.040.942.042.645.748.230.551.756.857.759.2'''1950–2015'''Life expectancy in Japan since 1865Life expectancy in Japan since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inyearsPeriodLife expectancy inyears1950–195562.81985–199078.51955–196066.41990–199579.41960–196569.21995–200080.51965–197071.42000–200581.81970–197573.32005–201082.71975–198075.42010–201583.31980–198577.02015–202084.4Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''=== Fertility ===As of 2022, Japan's total fertility rate was 1.26, among the lowest in the world and far below the replacement rate of 2.1.Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida has pledged to take urgent steps to tackle the country's declining birth rate, calling it \"now or never\" for Japan's aging society, and plans to double the budget for child-related policies by June and set up a new government agency in April.File:Number of births by age groups in Japan.svg\|Number of births by age groups in JapanFile:Map of East Asia by TFR in 2021.png\|Map of East Asia by total fertility rate (TFR) in 2021.Japan's TFR in 2012 was estimated at 1.41 children per woman, increasing slightly from 1.32 in the 2001–05 period.", "In 2012, the highest TFR was 1.90, in Okinawa, and the lowest was 1.09, in Tokyo.", "TFR by prefecture for 2000–05, as well as future estimates, have been released.File:Total fertility rate of Japan overtime to 2016.svg\|TFR of Japan over time to 2016File:Percentage of birth to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007.png\|The percentage of births to unmarried women in selected countries, 1980 and 2007.As can be seen in the figure, Japan has not followed the trend of other industrialized countries of children born outside of marriage to the same degree.=== Sex ratio ===Agegroup20062020At birth1.051.060–151.051.0615–641.011.0165+0.730.78Total0.950.94" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Live births, birth and death rates, overall fertility rate, and net change in Japan from 1899 to present.", "The statistics below do not include foreign nationalities.YearAveragepopulation (October 1)Live birthsDeathsNaturalchangeCrude rates (per 1000)TotalfertilityrateNet changeInfantmortalityrate(per 1000births)Life expectancy Births Deaths Naturalchange Migration Males Females 189943,400,0001,386,981932,087454,89432.021.510.54.73153.8 190043,847,0001,420,534910,744509,79032.420.811.6 -1.34.69447,000155.0 190144,359,0001,501,591925,810575,78133.920.913.0 -1.35.01512,000149.9 190244,964,0001,510,853959,126551,70933.621.312.3 1.34.97605,000154.0 190345,546,0001,489,816931,008558,80832.020.013.5 -0.64.83582,000152.4 190446,135,0001,440,371955,400484,97130.621.210.7 2.24.61589,000151.9 190546,620,0001,452,7701,004,661448,10930.621.910.1 0.44.52485,000151.7 190647,038,0001,394,295955,256439,03929.020.010.6 -1.64.38418,000153.6 190747,416,0001,614,4721,016,798597,67433.221.013.9 -5.95.03378,000151.3 190847,965,0001,662,8151,029,447633,36833.720.914.5 -2.95.13549,000158.0 190948,554,0001,693,8501,091,264602,58633.921.913.8 -1.55.16589,000167.3 191049,184,0001,712,8571,064,234648,62333.921.114.5 -1.55.01630,000161.2 191149,852,0001,747,8031,043,906703,89734.120.415.5 -1.95.19668,000158.4 191250,577,0001,737,6741,037,016700,65833.420.015.3 -0.85.08725,000154.2 191351,305,0001,757,4411,027,257730,18433.319.515.6 -1.25.07728,000152.1 191452,039,0001,808,4021,101,815706,58733.820.614.9 -0.65.14734,000158.5 191552,752,0001,799,3261,093,793705,53333.220.214.4 -0.74.91713,000160.4 191653,496,0001,804,8221,187,832616,99032.921.612.7 1.44.98744,000170.3 191754,134,0001,812,4131,199,669612,74432.721.612.5 -0.64.95738,000173.2 191854,739,0001,791,9921,493,162298,83032.226.76.4 4.84.83605,000188.6 191955,033,0001,778,6851,281,965496,72031.622.810.2 -4.8 4.77294,000170.5 192055,963,0532,025,5641,422,096603,46836.225.412.0 4.9 5.35930,053165.7 192156,666,0001,990,8761,288,570702,30635.122.712.4 0.2 5.22702,947168.3 192257,390,0001,969,3141,286,941682,37334.322.411.9 0.95.12724,000166.4 192358,119,0002,043,2971,332,485710,81235.222.912.2 0.55.26729,000163.4 192458,876,0001,998,5201,254,946743,57433.921.312.6 0.45.07757,000156.2 192559,736,8222,086,0911,210,706875,39534.920.314.5 0.15.10860,822142.4 192660,741,0002,104,4051,160,734943,67134.619.115.5 1.35.191,004,178137.5 192761,659,3002,060,7371,214,323846,41433.419.713.7 1.45.00918,000141.6 192862,595,3002,135,8521,236,711899,14134.119.814.4 0.85.09936,000136.7 192963,461,0002,077,0261,261,228815,79832.719.912.9 0.94.87866,000142.1 193064,450,0052,085,1011,170,867914,23432.418.214.2 1.44.70989,005124.1 193165,457,5002,102,7841,240,891861,89332.119.013.2 2.44.761,006,995131.5 193266,433,8002,182,7421,175,3441,007,39832.917.715.2 -0.34.86343,000117.5 193367,431,6002,121,2531,193,987927,26631.517.713.8 1.24.63990,000121.3 193468,308,9002,043,7831,234,684809,09929.918.111.9 1.14.39890,000124.8 193569,254,1482,190,7041,161,9361,028,76831.616.814.9 -1.14.59574,148106.7 193670,113,6002,101,9691,230,278871,69130.017.512.4 04.34345,852116.746.9249.63 193770,630,4002,180,7341,207,899972,83530.917.113.7 -6.34.45770,000105.8 193871,012,6001,928,3211,259,805668,51627.217.79.4 -4.03.88230,000114.4 193971,379,7001,901,5731,268,760632,81326.617.88.8 -3.63.80340,000106.2 194071,993,0002,115,8671,186,595929,27229.416.412.9 -4.34.112,184,30890.0 194171,678,0002,277,2831,149,5591,127,72431.115.715.4 -19.84.36-364,30884.1 194272,386,0002,233,6601,166,6301,067,03030.315.814.4 -4.54.18700,00085.5 194372,887,7002,253,5351,213,8111,039,72430.316.313.9 -7.04.11530,00086.6 194473,064,0002,149,8431,279,639870,20429.217.411.8 -9.43.95-115,000 194571,998,1041,685,5832,113,798 -428,21523.229.2-5.9 -8.73.11-1,866,896 194673,114,0001,905,8091,326,592579,21725.317.67.7 7.83.373,301,896 194778,101,0002,678,7921,138,2381,540,55434.314.619.7 48.54.5412,725,00076.750.0653.96 194880,002,5002,681,624950,6101,731,01433.712.021.8 2.54.4001,475,00061.755.659.4 194981,772,6002,696,638945,4441,751,19433.211.621.5 0.64.3161,800,00062.556.259.8 195083,199,6372,337,507904,8761,432,63128.210.917.3 0.23.6501,899,63760.158.061.5 195184,541,0002,137,689838,9981,298,69125.410.015.4 0.73.2621,035,36357.559.5762.97 195285,808,0002,005,162765,0681,240,09423.58.914.5 0.52.9761,268,00049.461.965.5 195386,981,0001,868,040772,5471,095,49321.58.912.6 1.12.6951,192,00048.961.965.7 195488,239,0001,769,580721,4911,048,08920.18.211.9 2.62.4811,281,00044.663.4167.69 195589,275,5291,730,692693,5231,037,16919.47.811.7 02.3701,299,52939.863.6067.75 195690,172,0001,665,278724,460940,81818.58.110.5 -0.52.223677,47140.663.5967.54 195790,928,0001,566,713752,445814,26817.38.39.0 -0.62.043781,00040.063.2467.60 195891,767,0001,653,469684,189969,28018.17.510.6 -1.42.110812,00034.564.9869.61 195992,641,0001,626,088689,959936,12917.67.510.1 -0.62.039888,00033.765.2169.88 196093,418,5011,606,041706,599899,44217.37.69.7 -1.32.004984,50130.765.3270.19 196194,287,0001,589,372695,644893,72817.07.49.6 -0.31.9611,524,49928.666.0370.79 196295,181,0001,618,616710,265908,35117.17.59.6 -0.11.976889,00026.466.2371.16 196396,156,0001,659,521670,770988,75117.47.010.4 -0.22.005980,00023.267.2172.34 196497,182,0001,716,761673,0671,043,69417.86.910.8 -0.12.0491,014,00020.467.6772.87 196598,274,9611,823,697700,4381,123,25918.77.111.5 -0.32.139448,96118.567.7472.92 196699,036,0001,360,974670,342690,63213.86.87.1 0.61.5781,515,03919.368.3573.61 1967100,196,0001,935,647675,0061,260,64119.46.712.7 -1.02.226935,00014.968.9174.15 1968101,331,0001,871,839686,5551,185,28418.56.811.8 -0.52.1341,336,00015.369.0574.30 1969102,536,0001,889,815693,7871,196,02818.56.811.7 0.22.1311,111,00014.269.1874.67 1970103,720,0601,934,239712,9621,221,27718.76.911.9 -0.42.135548,06013.169.3174.66 1971105,145,0002,000,973684,5211,316,45219.16.512.6 1.12.1571,976,94012.470.1775.58 1972107,595,0002,038,682683,7511,354,93119.26.412.8 10.52.1421,491,00011.770.5075.94 1973109,104,0002,091,983709,4161,382,56719.26.512.7 1.32.1401,521,00011.370.7076.02 1974110,573,0002,029,989710,5101,319,47918.46.412.0 1.52.0491,453,00010.871.1676.31 1975111,939,6431,901,440702,2751,199,16517.06.310.7 1.71.9091,777,64310.071.7376.89 1976113,094,0001,832,617703,2701,129,34716.36.210.0 0.31.852835,3579.372.1577.35 1977114,165,0001,755,100690,0741,065,02615.46.19.4 0.11.8001,097,0008.972.6977.95 1978115,190,0001,708,643695,8211,012,82214.96.18.8 0.21.792662,0008.472.9778.33 1979116,155,0001,642,580689,664952,91614.26.08.2 0.21.769962,0007.973.4678.89 1980117,060,3961,576,889722,801854,08813.66.27.3 0.51.7471,104,3967.573.3578.76 1981117,902,0001,529,455720,262809,19313.06.16.9 0.31.741621,6047.173.7979.13 1982118,728,0001,515,392711,883803,50912.86.06.8 0.21.770821,0006.674.2279.66 1983119,536,0001,508,687740,038768,64912.76.26.5 0.31.800796,0006.274.2079.78 1984120,305,0001,489,780740,247749,53312.56.26.3 0.11.811654,0006.074.5480.18 1985121,049,0001,431,577752,283679,29411.96.35.6 0.61.764755,9235.574.7880.48 1986121,660,0001,382,946750,620632,32611.46.25.2 -0.21.723670,0775.275.2380.93 1987122,239,0001,346,658751,172595,48611.16.24.9 -0.11.690863,0005.075.6181.39 1988122,745,0001,314,006793,014520,99210.86.54.3 -0.21.656565,0004.875.5481.30 1989123,205,0001,246,802788,594458,20810.26.43.7 01.572609,0004.675.9181.77 1990123,611,0001,221,585820,305401,28010.06.73.3 01.543455,1674.675.9281.90 1991124,101,0001,223,245829,797393,4489.96.73.2 0.81.533511,8334.476.1182.11 1992124,567,0001,208,989856,643352,3469.86.92.9 0.91.502453,0004.576.0982.22 1993124,928,0001,188,282878,532309,7509.67.12.5 0.41.458431,0004.376.2582.51 1994125,265,0001,238,328875,933362,39510.07.12.9 -0.21.500452,0004.276.5782.98 1995125,570,0001,187,064922,139264,9259.67.42.2 0.21.423213,0004.376.3882.85 1996125,859,0001,206,555896,211310,3449.77.22.5 -0.21.425285,0003.877.0183.59 1997126,157,0001,191,665913,402278,2639.57.32.2 0.21.388300,0003.777.1983.82 1998126,472,0001,203,147936,484266,6639.67.52.1 0.41.384343,0003.677.1684.01 1999126,667,0001,177,669982,031195,6389.47.81.6 -0.11.342231,0003.477.1083.99 2000126,926,0001,190,547961,653228,8949.57.71.8 0.21.359212,0003.277.7284.60 2001127,291,0001,170,662970,331200,3319.37.71.6 1.31.334306,0003.178.0784.93 2002127,435,0001,153,855982,379171,4769.27.81.4 -0.31.319296,0003.078.3285.23 2003127,619,0001,123,6101,014,951108,6598.98.00.9 0.51.291273,0003.078.3685.33 2004127,687,0001,110,7211,028,60282,1198.88.20.6 -0.11.28943,0002.878.6485.59 2005127,768,0001,062,5301,083,796-21,2668.48.6-0.2 0.8 1.26012,0002.878.5685.52 2006127,770,0001,092,6741,084,4518,2238.78.60.1 -0.11.31781,0002.679.0085.81 2007127,771,0001,089,8181,108,334-18,5168.68.8-0.2 0.21.337147,0002.679.1985.99 2008127,692,0001,091,1561,142,407-51,2518.79.1-0.4 -0.21.36762,0002.679.2986.05 2009127,510,0001,070,0361,141,865-71,8298.59.1-0.6 -0.81.3682.479.5986.44 2010128,057,0001,071,3051,197,014-125,7098.59.5-1.0 5.31.3872.379.6486.39 2011127,799,0001,050,8071,253,068-202,2618.39.9-1.6 -0.41.3932.379.4485.90 2012127,515,0001,037,2321,256,359-219,1278.210.0-1.8 -0.41.4052.279.93 86.37 2013127,298,0001,029,8171,268,438-238,6218.210.1-1.9 0.21.4272.180.19 86.56 2014127,083,0001,003,6091,273,025-269,4168.010.1-2.1 0.41.42380.48 86.77 2015127,095,0001,005,7211,290,510-284,7898.010.3-2.3 2.41.4511.980.75 86.98 2016 127,042,000977,2421,308,158-330,9167.810.5-2.7 2.31.44280.98 87.14 2017 126,919,000946,1461,340,567-394,4217.610.8-3.2 2.21.4281.981.09 87.26 2018126,749,000918,3971,362,482-444,0857.411.0-3.6 2.31.41681.2587.322019 126,555,000865,2391,381,093-515,8547.011.2-4.2 2.71.36181.4187.452020126,146,000840,8321,372,648-531,8166.811.1-4.3 1.11.33081.6487.742021125,502,000811,6041,439,809 -628,2056.611.7-5.1 01.3031.681.4787.572022124,947,000 770,747 1,568,961 -798,2146.112.5-6.4 2.21.25780.7486.88===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January — November 2022''' 735,572 1,423,646 688,074 '''January — November 2023''' 696,886 1,444,146 747,260 '''Difference''' 38,686 (5.3%) +20,500 (+1.4%) 59,186" ], [ "Migration", "===Internal migration===Between 6 million and 7 million people moved their residences each year during the 1980s.", "About 50% of these moves were within the same prefecture; the others were relocations from one prefecture to another.", "During Japan's economic development in the twentieth century, and especially during the 1950s and 1960s, migration was characterized by urbanization as people from rural areas in increasing numbers moved to the larger metropolitan areas in search of better jobs and education.", "Out-migration from rural prefectures continued in the late 1980s, but more slowly than in previous decades.In the 1980s, government policy provided support for new urban development away from the large cities, particularly Tokyo, and assisted regional cities to attract young people to live and work there.", "Regional cities offered familiarity to those from nearby areas, lower costs of living, shorter commutes, and, in general, a more relaxed lifestyle than could be had in larger cities.", "Young people continued to move to large cities, however, to attend universities and find work, but some returned to regional cities (a pattern known as U-turn) or to their prefecture of origin (referred to as \"J-turn\"), or even moved to a rural area for the first time (\"I-turn\").Government statistics show that in the 1980s significant numbers of people left the largest central cities (Tokyo and Osaka) to move to suburbs within their metropolitan areas.", "In 1988, more than 500,000 people left Tokyo, which experienced a net loss through migration of nearly 73,000 for the year.", "Osaka had a net loss of nearly 36,000 in the same year.With a decreasing total population, internal migration results in only eight prefectures showing an increase in population.", "These are Okinawa (2.9%), Tokyo (2.7%), Aichi (1.0%), Saitama (1.0%), Kanagawa (0.9%), Fukuoka (0.6%), Shiga (0.2%), and Chiba (0.1%).===Emigration===About 663,300 Japanese were living abroad, approximately 75,000 of whom had permanent foreign residency, more than six times the number who had that status in 1975.More than 200,000 Japanese went abroad in 1990 for extended periods of study, research, or business assignments.", "As the government and private corporations have stressed internationalization, greater numbers of individuals have been directly affected, decreasing Japan's historical insularity.", "By the late 1980s, these problems, particularly the bullying of returnee children in schools, had become a major public issue both in Japan and in Japanese communities abroad.Cities with significant populations of Japanese nationals in 2015 included: * Los Angeles, United States: 68,689* Bangkok, Thailand: 48,700* Shanghai, China: 46,115* New York, United States: 44,636* Singapore: 36,963* London, United Kingdom: 36,721* Sydney, Australia: 30,448* Vancouver, Canada: 26,999* Hong Kong: 26,869* San Francisco, United States: 18,777* Toronto, Canada: 13,410Note: The above data shows the number of Japanese nationals living overseas.", "It was published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan and relates to 2015.===Immigration===According to the Japanese immigration centre, the number of foreign residents in Japan has steadily increased, and the number of foreign residents exceeded 2.8 million people in 2020.In 2020, the number of foreigners in Japan was 2,887,116.This includes 325,000 Filipinos, many of whom are married to Japanese nationals and possessing some degree of Japanese ancestry, 208,538 Brazilians, the majority possessing some degree of Japanese ancestry, 778,112 Chinese, 448,053 Vietnamese and 426,908 South Koreans.", "Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, Filipinos and Brazilians account for about 77% of foreign residents in Japan.The current issue of the shrinking workforce in Japan alongside its aging population has resulted in a recent need to attract foreign labour to the country.", "Reforms which took effect in 2015 relax visa requirements for \"Highly Skilled Foreign Professionals\" and create a new type of residence status with an unlimited period of stay.The number of naturalizations peaked in 2008 at 16,000, declining to over 9,000 in the most recent year for which data are available.", "Most of the decline is accounted for by a steep reduction in the number of Japan-born Koreans taking Japanese citizenship.", "Historically the bulk of those taking Japanese citizenship have not been foreign-born immigrants but rather Japanese-born descendants of Koreans and Taiwanese who lost their citizenship in the Japanese Empire in 1947 as part of the American Occupation policy for Japan.Japanese statistical authorities do not collect information on ethnicity, only nationality.", "As a result, both native and naturalized Japanese citizens are counted in a single group.", "Although official statistics therefore show homogeneity, other analyses describe the population as “multi-ethnic”." ], [ "Languages", "The Japanese society of Yamato people is linguistically homogeneous with small populations of Koreans (0.9 million), Chinese/Taiwanese (0.65 million), Filipino (306,000 some being Japanese Filipino; children of Japanese and Filipino parentage).", "This can be also said for Brazilians (300,000, many of whom are ethnically Japanese) as well as Peruvians and Argentineans of both Latin American and Japanese descent.", "Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryukyuans, who generally speak Japanese." ], [ "Citizenship", "Japanese citizenship is conferred ''jure sanguinis'', and monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth, although legally they are allowed to do so.", "This is because Japanese law does not recognise dual citizenship after the age of adulthood, and so people becoming naturalised Japanese citizens must relinquish their previous citizenship upon reaching the age of 20 years In addition, people taking Japanese citizenship must take a name using one or more of the Japanese character sets (hiragana, katakana, kanji).", "Names written in the Western alphabet, Korean alphabet, Arabic characters, etc., are not acceptable as legal names.", "Chinese characters are usually legally acceptable as nearly all Chinese characters are recognized as valid by the Japanese government.", "Transliterations of non-Japanese names using katakana (e.g. 　\"\"", "for \"Smith\") are also legally acceptable.However, some naturalizing foreigners feel that becoming a Japanese citizen should mean that they have a Japanese name and that they should abandon their foreign name, and some foreign residents do not wish to do this—although most Special Permanent Resident Koreans and Chinese already use Japanese names.", "Nonetheless, some 10,000 Zainichi Koreans naturalize every year.", "Approximately 98.6% of the population are Japanese citizens, and 99% of the population speak Japanese as their first language.", "Non-ethnic Japanese in the past, and to an extent in the present, also live in small numbers in the Japanese archipelago." ], [ "Society", "===Lifestyle===Japanese people enjoy a high standard of living, and nearly 90% of the population consider themselves part of the middle class.", "However, many studies on happiness and satisfaction with life tend to find that Japanese people average relatively low levels of life satisfaction and happiness when compared with most of the highly developed world; the levels have remained consistent if not declining slightly over the last half century.", "Japanese have been surveyed to be relatively lacking in financial satisfaction.", "The societal view generally disapproves of out-of-wedlock births and premarital pregnancies.Social isolation is a problem for a segment of Japanese society, with almost 500,000 young people belonging to this group, they are also known as ''hikikomori''.The Japanese management working culture in Japan has led some to work-related deaths due to heart attack or stroke, this has led to the term ''karoshi'' (lit.", "\"overwork death\")''.''", "The government has received 200 claims of karoshi related work injuries each year, with some leading to suicide.Many Japanese lead a sexless marriage.", "Japan has the lowest level of couples having sex at 45 times per year, well below the global average of 103 times.", "With reasons of \"tired\" and \"bored with intercourse\" usually given as an answer.", "Despite this, Japan ranks as number two globally on the amount spent on pornography, after South Korea.=== Marriages and divorce ===File:Marriages in Japan over time.svg\|Marriages in Japan over timeFile:Marriage rate per 1000 people in Japan.svg\|Marriage rate per 1000 people in JapanFile:Average age of first marriage in Japan.svg\|Average age of first marriage in JapanFile:Number of divorces in Japan over time.svg\|Number of divorces in Japan over timeFile:Divorce rates per 1000 of total population in Japan.svg\|Divorce rates per 1000 of total population" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Naturalized Japanese citizens and native-born Japanese nationals with a multi-ethnic background are all considered to be Japanese in the population census of Japan.===Discrimination against ethnic minorities===Three native Japanese minority groups can be identified.", "The largest are the ''hisabetsu buraku'' or \"discriminated communities\", also known as the ''burakumin''.", "These descendants of premodern outcast hereditary occupational groups, such as butchers, leatherworkers, funeral directors, and certain entertainers, may be considered a Japanese analog of India's Dalits.", "Discrimination against these occupational groups arose historically because of Buddhist prohibitions against killing and Shinto notions of pollution, as well as governmental attempts at social control.During the Edo period, such people were required to live in special ''buraku'' and, like the rest of the population, were bound by sumptuary laws based on the inheritance of social class.", "The Meiji government abolished most derogatory names applied to these discriminated communities in 1871, but the new laws had little effect on the social discrimination faced by the former outcasts and their descendants.", "The laws, however, did eliminate the economic monopoly they had over certain occupations.", "The ''buraku'' continued to be treated as social outcasts and some casual interactions with the majority caste were perceived taboo until the era after World War II.Estimates of their number range from 2 to 4 million (about 4% of the national population in 2022).", "Although members of these discriminated communities are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese, they often live in urban ghettoes or in the traditional special hamlets in rural areas, and membership can be surmised from the location of the family home, occupation, dialect, or mannerisms.", "Checks on family background designed to ferret out ''buraku'' were commonly performed as part of marriage arrangements and employment applications, but have been illegal since 1985 in Osaka.Past and current discrimination has resulted in lower educational attainment and socioeconomic status among ''hisabetsu buraku'' than among the majority of Japanese.", "Movements with objectives ranging from \"liberation\" to encouraging integration have tried to change this situation, with some success.", "Nadamoto Masahisa of the Buraku History Institute estimates that as of 1998, between 60 and 80% of burakumin marry a non-burakumin.===Ryukyuans===One of the largest minority groups among Japanese citizens is the Ryukyuan people.", "They are primarily distinguished by their use of several distinct Ryukyuan languages, though use of Ryukyuan is dying out.", "The Ryukyuan people and language originated in the Ryukyu Islands, which are in Okinawa prefecture and Kagoshima Prefecture.===Ainu===Japanese Ainu group in 1904The third largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the Ainu, whose language is an isolate.", "Historically, the Ainu were an indigenous hunting and gathering population who occupied most of northern Honshū as late as the Nara period (A.D. 710–94).", "As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, by the Tokugawa shogunate, the Ainu were pushed into the island of Hokkaido.Characterized as remnants of a primitive circumpolar culture, the fewer than 20,000 Ainu in 1990 were considered racially distinct and thus not fully Japanese.", "Disease and a low birth rate had severely diminished their numbers over the past two centuries, and intermarriage had brought about an almost completely mixed population.Although no longer in daily use, the Ainu language is preserved in epics, songs, and stories transmitted orally over succeeding generations.", "Distinctive rhythmic music and dances and some Ainu festivals and crafts are preserved, but mainly in order to take advantage of tourism.===Hāfu===Hāfu (a kana rendition of \"half\") is a term used for people who are biracial and ethnically half Japanese.", "Of the one million children born in Japan in 2013, 2.2% had one or two non-Japanese parents.Marriage in Japan#cite note-70\|70 According to the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, one in forty-nine babies born in Japan today are born into families with one non-Japanese parent.", "Most intermarriages in Japan are between Japanese men and women from other Asian countries, including China, the Philippines and South Korea.", "Southeast Asia too, also has significant populations of people with half-Japanese ancestry, particularly in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.In the 1940s, biracial Japanese children (Ainoko), specifically Amerasian children, encountered social problems such as poverty, perception of impurity and discrimination due to negative treatment in Japan.", "In the 21st century, discrimination against hāfu occurs based on how different their identity, behavior and appearance is from a typical Japanese person." ], [ "Foreign residents", "Transition of numbers of registered foreigners in JapanAge and sex distribution of major foreigners in JapanIn 2021, there were 2,887,116 foreign residents in Japan, representing 2.3% of the Japanese population.", "Foreign Army personnel, of which there were up to 430,000 from the SCAP (post-occupation, United States Forces Japan) and 40,000 BCOF in the immediate post-war years, have not been at any time included in Japanese foreign resident statistics.", "Most foreign residents in Japan come from Brazil or from other Asian countries, particularly from China, Vietnam, South Korea, the Philippines, and Nepal.A number of long-term resident Koreans in Japan today retain familial links with the descendants of Koreans, that either immigrated voluntarily or were forcibly relocated during the Japanese Occupation of the Korea.", "Within this group, a number hold Special Permanent Resident status, granted under the terms of the Normalisation Treaty (22.June 1965) between South Korea and Japan.", "In many cases special residents, despite being born in Japan and speaking Japanese, have chosen not to take advantage of the mostly automatic granting of citizenship to special resident applicants.Beginning in 1947 the Japanese government started to repatriate Korean nationals, who had nominally been granted Japanese citizenship during the years of military occupation.", "When the Treaty of San Francisco came into force many ethnic Koreans lost their Japanese citizenship from April 28, 1952, and with it the right to welfare grants, to hold a government job of any kind or to attend Japanese schools.", "In the following year the government contrived, with the help of the Red Cross, a scheme to \"repatriate\" Korean residents, who mainly were from the Southern Provinces, to their \"home\" of North Korea.", "Between 1959 and 1984 93,430 people used this route, of whom 6,737 were Japanese or Chinese dependents.", "Most of these departures – 78,276 – occurred before 1962.Foreign-born population by citizenship in 2023All non-Japanese without special residential status (people whose residential roots go back to before WWII) are required by law to register with the government and carry alien registration cards.", "From the early 1980s, a civil disobedience movement encouraged refusal of the fingerprinting that accompanied registration every five years.Opponents of fingerprinting argued that it was discriminatory because the only Japanese who were fingerprinted were criminals.", "The courts upheld fingerprinting, but the law was changed so that fingerprinting was done once rather than with each renewal of the registration, which until a law reform in 1989 was usually required every six months for anybody from the age of 16.Those refusing fingerprinting were denied re-entry permits, thus depriving them of freedom of movement.Of these foreign residents below, the new wave started in 2014 comes to Japan as students or trainees.", "These foreigners are registered under student visa or trainee visa, which gives them the student residency status.", "Most of these new foreigners are under this visa.", "Almost all of these foreign students and trainees will return to their home country after three to four years (one valid period); few students extend their visa.", "Vietnamese makes the largest increase, however Burmese, Cambodians, Filipinos and Chinese are also increasing.Asian migrant wives of Japanese men have also contributed to the foreign-born population in the country.", "Many young single Japanese male farmers choose foreign wives, mainly from the Philippines, Thailand, China and South Korea, due to a lack of interest from Japanese women living a farming life.", "Migrant wives often travel as mail-order brides as a result of arranged marriages with Japanese men.", "Additionally, Japanese men in urban parts of the country have also begun marrying foreign Asian women.Country region groupsNumberPercentage ofForeigncitizensTotalpopulationSouth Asians255,168 8.8%0.20%Southeast Asians1,304,765 45.2%1.0%Other East Asians1,301,610 45.1%1.0%Europeans/North Americans84,916 2.9%0.05%South Americans256,794 8.8%0.20%Others (African, West Asian, etc.", ")635,78723.6%0.50%Total (as of 2022) 2,887,116 100%2.3%Country199020002005201020112012 20142015 2017201920202023Main　article China Chinese people in JapanVietnamese people in Japan South KoreaKoreans in JapanFilipinos in JapanBrazilians in JapanNepalis in JapanIndonesians in Japan Burmese people in Japan TaiwanAmericans in Japan Peruvian migration to Japan Indians in JapanSri Lankans in Japan Bangladeshis in Japan Pakistanis in Japan Britons in Japan North Korea Koreans in Japan French people in Japan Mongolians in Japan Russians in JapanAustralians in Japan Turks in Japan5125726446938579381,3291,503 Iranians in Japan Nigerians in Japan Ghanaians in Japan '''Total foreign residents'''=== Foreign residents as of 2015 ===There was an increase of 110,358 foreign residents from 2014 to 2015.Vietnamese made the largest proportion of these new foreign residents, whilst Nepalese, Filipino, Chinese and Taiwanese are also significant in numbers.", "Together these countries makes up 91,126 or 82.6% of all new residents from 2014 to 2015.However, the majority of these immigrants will only remain in Japan for a maximum of five years, as many of them have entered the country in order to complete trainee programmes.", "Once they complete their programmes, they will be required to return to their home countries.As of December 2014 there were 2,121,831 foreigners residing in Japan, 677,019 of whom were long-term residents in Japan, according to national demographics figures.", "The majority of long-term residents were from Asia, totalling 478,953.Chinese made up the largest portion of them with 215,155, followed by Filipinos with 115,857, and Koreans with 65,711.Thai, Vietnamese, and Taiwanese long-term residents totaled 47,956, and those from other Asian countries totaled 34,274.The Korean figures do not include zainichi Koreans with ''tokubetsu eijusha'' (\"special permanent resident\") visas, of whom there were 354,503 (of a total of 358,409 of all nationalities with such visas).", "The total number of permanent residents had declined over the previous five years due to high cost of living.=== Foreign residents as of 2021 ===The number of foreign residents of Japan reached a high of 2.93 million in 2019 before falling to 2.76 million at the end of 2021.The number of foreign workers was 1.46 million in 2018, 29.7% are in the manufacturing sector; 389,000 are from Vietnam and 316,000 are from China.On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted.", "The revision clarifies and better protects the rights of foreign workers.", "Japan formally accepts foreign blue-collar workers.", "This helps reduce labour shortage in certain sectors of the economy.", "The reform changes the status of foreign workers to regular employees and they can obtain permanent residence status.", "The reform includes a new visa status called .", "In order to qualify, applicants must pass a language and skills test (level N4 or higher of the Japanese-Language Proficiency Test).", "In the old \"Technical Trainee programme\" a foreign employee was tied to their employer.", "This caused numerous cases of exploitation.", "The revision gives foreign workers more freedom to leave and change their employer.File:Percentage of Japan who is of Japanese nationality.svg\|Japanese nationality (96.3% total)File:Percentage of Japan who is of Foreign nationality in 2020.svg\|Foreign nationality (1.9% total)File:Percentage of Japan who had No nationality stated in 2020.svg\|No nationality stated (1.7% total)" ], [ "Religion", "Shinto wedding at the Meiji ShrineShinto and Buddhism are Japan's two major religions.", "They have co-existed for more than a thousand years.", "However, most Japanese people generally do not exclusively identify themselves as adherents of one religion, but rather incorporate various elements in a syncretic fashion.", "There are small Christian and other minorities as well, with the Christian population dating to as early as the 1500s, as a result of European missionary work before sakoku was implemented from 1635 to 1853." ], [ "See also", "* Demographic history of Japan before the Meiji Restoration* Demography of the Empire of Japan* Elderly people in Japan* Largest cities in Japan by population by decade" ], [ "References", "* Details for Japan birth life information.", "Data is for 2023." ], [ "External links", "* * Japan Population Census 2010* Expatriates in Japan * \"The Dilemma Posed by Japan's Population Decline\"—Discussion paper by Julian Chapple in the ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'', 18 October 2004.", "* The Exodus to North Korea Museum—Commemorates the story of the 93,340 people who migrated from Japan to North Korea in the period 1959–1984* Another Tsunami Warning: Caring for Japan's Elderly—Brief on what the future of Japan looks like for an increasingly aging population, and if this demographic transition is limited to Japan alone* Morita, Kiriro and Saskia Sassen. \"", "The New Illegal Immigration in Japan, 1980–1992\".", "''International Migration Review''.", "Vol.", "28, No.", "1 (Spring 1994), pp.", "153–163.." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "The National Diet Building in Tokyo'''Politics of Japan''' are conducted in a framework of a dominant-party bicameral parliamentary constitutional monarchy, in which the Emperor is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government and the head of the Cabinet, which directs the executive branch.Legislative power is vested in the National Diet, which consists of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors.", "The House of Representatives has eighteen standing committees ranging in size from 20 to 50 members and The House of Councillors has sixteen ranging from 10 to 45 members.Judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts, and sovereignty is vested in the people of Japan by the 1947 Constitution, which was written during the Occupation of Japan primarily by American officials and had replaced the previous Meiji Constitution.", "Japan is considered a constitutional monarchy with a system of civil law.Politics in Japan in the post-war period has largely been dominated by the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which has been in power almost continuously since its foundation in 1955, a phenomenon known as the 1955 System.", "Of the 31 prime ministers since the end of the country's occupation, 24 as well as the longest serving ones have been members of the LDP.", "Consequently, Japan has been described as a ''de facto'' one-party state.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Japan was 2023 the 23rd most electoral democratic country in the world." ], [ "Constitution", "===Legitimacy===The creation and ratification of this current document has been widely viewed by many geopolitical analysts and historians as one that was forced upon Japan by the United States after the end of World War II.Although this \"imposition\" claim arose originally as a rallying cry among conservative politicians in favour of constitutional revision in the 1950s, and that it wasn't \"inherently Japanese\", it has also been supported by the research of several independent American and Japanese historians of the period.A competing claim, which also emerged from the political maelstrom of the 1950s revision debate, holds that the ratification decision was actually the result of apparent \"collaboration\" between American occupation authorities, successive Japanese governments of the time, and private sector \"actors\"." ], [ "Government", "Imperial Palace in Tokyo has been the primary residence of the Emperor since 1869.Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan (日本国憲法, ''Nihon-koku kenpō'') defines the Emperor (天皇, ''Tennō'') to be \"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\".", "He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power.", "Political power is held mainly by the Prime Minister, Cabinet, and other elected members of the National Diet.", "The Imperial Throne is succeeded by a paternal male member of the Imperial House as designated by the Imperial Household Law.The chief of the executive branch and head of government, the Prime Minister (内閣総理大臣, ''Naikaku Sōri-Daijin''), is appointed by the Emperor as directed by the National Diet.", "They are a member of either house of the National Diet and must be a civilian.", "The Cabinet (内閣, ''Naikaku'') members are nominated by the Prime Minister, and are also required to be civilian.", "With the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) in power, it has been convention that the President of the party serves as the Prime Minister." ], [ "Legislature", "Japanese constitution states that the National Diet (国会, ''Kokkai''), its law-making institution, shall consist of two Houses, namely the House of Representatives (衆議院, ''Shūgiin'') and the House of Councillors (参議院, ''Sangiin'').", "The Diet shall be the highest organ of state power, and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State.", "It states that both Houses shall consist of elected members, representative of all the people and that the number of the members of each House shall be fixed by law.", "Both houses pass legislation in identical form for it to become law.", "Similarly to other parliamentary systems, most legislation that is considered in the National Diet is proposed by the cabinet.", "The cabinet then relies on the expertise of the bureaucracy to draft actual bills.The lower house, the House of Representatives, the most powerful of the two, holds power over the government, being able to force its resignation.", "The lower house also has ultimate control of the passage of the budget, the ratification of treaties, and the selection of the Prime Minister.", "Its power over its sister house is, if a bill is passed by the lower house (the House of Representatives) but is voted down by the upper house (the House of Councillors), the ability to override the decision of the House of Councillors.", "Members of the lower house, as a result of the Prime Minister's power to dissolve them, more frequently serve for less than four years in any given terms.The upper house, the House of Councillors, is very weak and bills are sent to the House of Councillors only to be approved, not made.", "Members of the upper house are elected for six-year terms with half the members elected every three years.It is possible for different parties to control the lower house and the upper house, a situation referred to as a \"twisted Diet\", something that has become more common since the JSP took control of the upper house in 1989." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "Several political parties exist in Japan.", "However, the politics of Japan have primarily been dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) since 1955, with the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) playing an important role as the opposition several times.", "The DPJ was the ruling party from 2009 to 2012 with the LDP as the opposition.", "The LDP was the ruling party for decades since 1955, despite the existence of multiple parties.", "Most of the prime ministers (presidents of the LDP) were elected from inner factions of the LDP.===House of Councillors======House of Representatives===" ], [ "Policy making", "Despite an increasingly unpredictable domestic and international environment, policy making conforms to well established postwar patterns.", "The close collaboration of the ruling party, the elite bureaucracy and important interest groups often make it difficult to tell who exactly is responsible for specific policy decisions.===Policy development in Japan===After a largely informal process within elite circles in which ideas were discussed and developed, steps might be taken to institute more formal policy development.", "This process often took place in deliberation councils (''shingikai'').", "There were about 200 ''shingikai'', each attached to a ministry; their members were both officials and prominent private individuals in business, education, and other fields.", "The ''shingikai'' played a large role in facilitating communication among those who ordinarily might not meet.Given the tendency for real negotiations in Japan to be conducted privately (in the ''nemawashi'', or root binding, process of consensus building), the ''shingikai'' often represented a fairly advanced stage in policy formulation in which relatively minor differences could be thrashed out and the resulting decisions couched in language acceptable to all.", "These bodies were legally established but had no authority to oblige governments to adopt their recommendations.", "The most important deliberation council during the 1980s was the Provisional Commission for Administrative Reform, established in March 1981 by Prime Minister Suzuki Zenko.", "The commission had nine members, assisted in their deliberations by six advisers, twenty-one \"expert members,\" and around fifty \"councillors\" representing a wide range of groups.", "Its head, Keidanren president Doko Toshio, insisted that the government agree to take its recommendations seriously and commit itself to reforming the administrative structure and the tax system.In 1982, the commission had arrived at several recommendations that by the end of the decade had been actualized.", "These implementations included tax reform, a policy to limit government growth, the establishment in 1984 of the Management and Coordination Agency to replace the Administrative Management Agency in the Office of the Prime Minister, and privatization of the state-owned railroad and telephone systems.", "In April 1990, another deliberation council, the Election Systems Research Council, submitted proposals that included the establishment of single-seat constituencies in place of the multiple-seat system.Another significant policy-making institution in the early 1990s was the Liberal Democratic Party's Policy Research Council.", "It consisted of a number of committees, composed of LDP Diet members, with the committees corresponding to the different executive agencies.", "Committee members worked closely with their official counterparts, advancing the requests of their constituents, in one of the most effective means through which interest groups could state their case to the bureaucracy through the channel of the ruling party." ], [ "Post-war political developments in Japan", "Political parties had begun to revive almost immediately after the Allied occupation began because of surrender of Japan in World War II.", "Left-wing organizations, such as the Japan Socialist Party and the Japanese Communist Party, quickly reestablished themselves, as did various conservative parties.", "The old Rikken Seiyūkai and Rikken Minseitō came back as, the Liberal Party (Nihon Jiyūtō) and the Japan Progressive Party (Nihon Shimpotō) respectively.", "The first postwar general election was held in 1946 (women were given the franchise for the first time in 1946), and the Liberal Party's vice president, Yoshida Shigeru (1878–1967), became prime minister.For the 1947 general election, anti-Yoshida forces left the Liberal Party and joined forces with the Progressive Party to establish the new Democratic Party (Minshutō).", "This divisiveness in conservative ranks gave a plurality to the Japan Socialist Party, which was allowed to form a cabinet, which lasted less than a year.", "Thereafter, the socialist party steadily declined in its electoral successes.", "After a short period of Democratic Party administration, Yoshida returned in late 1948 and continued to serve as prime minister until 1954.Even before Japan regained full sovereignty, the government had rehabilitated nearly 80,000 people who had been purged, many of whom returned to their former political and government positions.", "A debate over limitations on military spending and the sovereignty of the Emperor ensued, contributing to the great reduction in the Liberal Party's majority in the first post-occupation elections (October 1952).", "After several reorganizations of the armed forces, in 1954 the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) were established under a civilian director.", "Cold War realities and the hot war in nearby Korea also contributed significantly to the United States-influenced economic redevelopment, the suppression of communism, and the discouragement of organized labor in Japan during this period.Continual fragmentation of parties and a succession of minority governments led conservative forces to merge the Liberal Party (Jiyūtō) with the Japan Democratic Party (Nihon Minshutō), an offshoot of the earlier Democratic Party, to form the Liberal Democratic Party (Jiyū-Minshutō; LDP) in November 1955, called 1955 System.", "This party continuously held power from 1955 through 1993, except for a short while when it was replaced by a new minority government.", "LDP leadership was drawn from the elite who had seen Japan through the defeat and occupation.", "It attracted former bureaucrats, local politicians, businessmen, journalists, other professionals, farmers, and university graduates.In October 1955, socialist groups reunited under the Japan Socialist Party (JSP), which emerged as the second most powerful political force.", "It was followed closely in popularity by the Komeito, founded in 1964 as the political arm of the Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society), until 1991, a lay organization affiliated with the Nichiren Shōshū Buddhist sect.", "The Komeito emphasized the traditional Japanese beliefs and attracted urban laborers, former rural residents, and women.", "Like the Japan Socialist Party, it favored the gradual modification and dissolution of the Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact." ], [ "Political developments since 1990", "The LDP domination lasted until the National Diet Lower House general election on 18 July 1993, in which LDP failed to win a majority.", "A coalition of new parties and existing opposition parties formed a governing majority and elected a new non-LDP prime minister, Morihiro Hosokawa (leader of Japan New Party), in August 1993.His government's major legislative objective was political reform, consisting of a package of new political financing restrictions and major changes in the electoral system.", "The coalition succeeded in passing landmark political reform legislation in January 1994.In April 1994, Prime Minister Hosokawa resigned.", "Prime Minister Tsutomu Hata (leader of Japan Renewal Party) formed the successor coalition government, Japan's first minority government in almost 40 years.", "Prime Minister Hata resigned less than two months later.", "Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama (leader of JSP) formed the next government in June 1994 with the coalition of JSP, the LDP, and the small New Party Sakigake.", "The advent of a coalition containing the JSP and LDP shocked many observers because of their previously fierce rivalry.Prime Minister Murayama served from June 1994 to January 1996.He was succeeded by Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto (president of the LDP), who served from January 1996 to July 1998.Prime Minister Hashimoto headed a loose coalition of three parties until the July 1998 Upper House election, when the two smaller parties cut ties with the LDP.", "Hashimoto resigned due to a poor electoral performance by the LDP in the Upper House elections.", "He was succeeded as party president of the LDP and prime minister by Keizō Obuchi, who took office on 30 July 1998.The LDP formed a governing coalition with the Liberal Party in January 1999, and Obuchi remained prime minister.", "The LDP-Liberal coalition expanded to include the New Komeito Party in October 1999." ], [ "Political developments since 2000", "Prime Minister Obuchi suffered a stroke in April 2000 and was replaced by Yoshirō Mori.", "After the Liberal Party left the coalition in April 2000, Prime Minister Mori welcomed a Liberal Party splinter group, the New Conservative Party, into the ruling coalition.", "The three-party coalition made up of the LDP, New Komeito, and the New Conservative Party maintained its majority in the Diet following the June 2000 Lower House elections.After a turbulent year in office in which he saw his approval ratings plummet to the single digits, Prime Minister Mori agreed to hold early elections for the LDP presidency in order to improve his party's chances in crucial July 2001 Upper House elections.", "On 24 April 2001, riding a wave of grassroots desire for change, maverick politician Junichiro Koizumi defeated former prime minister Hashimoto and other party stalwarts on a platform of economic and political reform.Koizumi was elected as Japan's 56th Prime Minister on 26 April 2001.On 11 October 2003, Prime Minister Koizumi dissolved the lower house and he was re-elected as the president of the LDP.", "Likewise, that year, the LDP won the general election, even though it suffered setbacks from the new opposition party, the liberal and social-democratic Democratic Party (DPJ).", "A similar event occurred during the 2004 Upper House election as well.In a strong move, on 8 August 2005, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi called for a snap general election to the lower house, as threatened, after LDP stalwarts and opposition DPJ parliamentarians defeated his proposal for a large-scale reform and privatization of Japan Post, which besides being Japan's state-owned postal monopoly is arguably the world's largest financial institution, with nearly 331 trillion yen of assets.", "The election was scheduled for 11 September 2005, with the LDP achieving a landslide victory under Junichiro Koizumi's leadership.The ruling LDP started losing hold in 2006.No prime minister except Koizumi had good public support.", "On 26 September 2006, the new LDP President Shinzo Abe was elected by a special session of the National Diet to succeed Junichiro Koizumi as the next prime minister.", "He was Japan's youngest post-World War II prime minister and the first born after the war.", "On 12 September 2007, Abe surprised Japan by announcing his resignation from office.", "He was replaced by Yasuo Fukuda, a veteran of LDP.In the meantime, on 4 November 2007, the leader of the main opposition party, Ichirō Ozawa announced his resignation from the post of party president, after controversy over an offer to the DPJ to join the ruling coalition in a grand coalition, but has since, with some embarrassment, rescinded his resignation.On 11 January 2008, Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda forced a bill allowing ships to continue a refueling mission in the Indian Ocean in support of US-led operations in Afghanistan.", "To do so, PM Fukuda used the LDP's overwhelming majority in the Lower House to ignore a previous \"no-vote\" of the opposition-controlled Upper House.", "This was the first time in 50 years that the Lower House voted to ignore the opinion of the Upper House.", "Fukuda resigned suddenly on 1 September 2008, just a few weeks after reshuffling his cabinet.", "On 1 September 2008, Fukuda's resignation was designed so that the LDP did not suffer a \"power vacuum\".", "It thus caused a leadership election within the LDP, and the winner, Tarō Asō (Shigeru Yoshida's grandson) was chosen as the new LDP president on 24 September 2008, he was appointed as the 92nd Prime Minister after the House of Representatives voted in his favor in the extraordinary session of the National Diet.Later, on 21 July 2009, Prime Minister Asō dissolved the House of Representatives and general election was held on 30 August.The election results for the House of Representatives were announced on 30 and 31 August 2009.The opposition party DPJ led by Yukio Hatoyama (Ichirō Hatoyama's grandson), won a majority by gaining 308 seats (10 seats were won by its allies the Social Democratic Party and the People's New Party).", "On 16 September 2009, the leader of DPJ, Hatoyama was elected by the House of Representatives as the 93rd Prime Minister of Japan." ], [ "Political developments since 2010", "On 2 June 2010, Hatoyama resigned due to lack of fulfillments of his policies, both domestically and internationally and soon after, on 8 June, Akihito, Emperor of Japan ceremonially swore in the newly elected DPJ's leader, Naoto Kan as the 94th prime minister.", "Kan suffered an early setback in the 2010 Japanese House of Councillors election.", "In a routine political change in Japan, DPJ's new leader and former finance minister of Kan Cabinet, Yoshihiko Noda was cleared and elected by the National Diet as 95th prime minister on 30 August 2011.He was officially appointed as prime minister in the attestation ceremony by Emperor Akihito at the Tokyo Imperial Palace on 2 September 2011.Noda dissolved the lower house on 16 November 2012 (as he failed to get support outside the Diet on various domestic issues i.e.", "consumption tax, nuclear energy) and general election was held on 16 December.", "The results were in favor of the LDP, which won an absolute majority in the leadership of former prime minister Shinzo Abe.", "He was appointed as the 96th Prime Minister of Japan on 26 December 2012.With the changing political situation, earlier in November 2014, Prime Minister Abe called for a fresh mandate for the Lower House.", "In an opinion poll the government failed to win public trust due to bad economic achievements in the two consecutive quarters and on the tax reforms.The general election was held on 14 December 2014, and the results were in favor of the LDP and its ally New Komeito.", "Together they managed to secure a huge majority by winning 325 seats for the Lower House.", "The opposition, DPJ, could not manage to provide alternatives to the voters with its policies and programs.", "\"Abenomics\", the ambitious self-titled fiscal policy of the current prime minister, managed to attract more voters in this election, many Japanese voters supported the policies.", "Shinzō Abe was sworn as the 97th prime minister on 24 December 2014 and would go ahead with his agenda of economic revitalization and structural reforms in Japan.Prime Minister Abe was elected again for a fourth term after the 2017 general election.", "It was a snap election called by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe.", "Abe's ruling coalition won a clear majority with more than two-thirds of 465 seats in the lower house of Parliament (House of Representatives).", "The opposition was in deep political crisis.In July 2019, Japan had a national election.", "The ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) of Prime Minister Abe won a majority of seats in the upper house of Parliament (House of Councillors).", "However, Abe failed to achieve the two-thirds majority, and the ruling coalition could not amend the constitution." ], [ "Political developments since 2020", "On 28 August 2020 following reports of ill-health, Abe resigned citing health concerns, triggering a leadership election to replace him as prime minister.", "Abe was the longest-serving Prime Minister in the political history of Japan.After winning the leadership of the governing Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga, a close ally of his predecessor, was elected as the 99th prime minister of Japan by the National Diet on 16 September 2020.He became the first prime minister appointed by Emperor Naruhito at the Tokyo Imperial Palace.", "Suga's response to the novel coronavirus pandemic, as the architect of the GoTo tourism program criticised for helping the virus spread, along with high case numbers in April 2021 ahead of the Tokyo Olympics has since negatively affected perceptions of his administration.", "On 2 September 2021, Suga announced that he would not seek reelection as LDP President, effectively ending his term as prime minister.", "On 4 October 2021, Fumio Kishida took office as new prime minister.", "Kishida was elected leader of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) previous week.", "He was officially confirmed as the 100th prime minister following a parliamentary vote with appointment by Emperor Naruhito at Tokyo Imperial Palace.", "On 31 October 2021, the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) held onto its single party majority in the general election.On 8 July 2022, former prime minister Shinzo Abe was shot and killed at a campaign rally in Nara for the 2022 Japanese House of Councillors election.", "State funeral of Abe was held on 27 September at Nippon Budokan." ], [ "See also", "* Foreign relations of Japan* Government of Japan* Law of Japan* Liberalism in Japan* Honebuto no hōshin* Neoconservatism in Japan* Political extremism in Japan* Political status of women in Japan" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "Further reading", "************" ], [ "External links", " ''Electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''* ''JapanesePolitics''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Japan" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''economy of Japan''' is a highly developed/advanced social market economy, often referred to as an East Asian model.", "It is the 4th-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP behind the United States , China and Germany and the 4th-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).According to the IMF, the country's per capita GDP (PPP) was at $52,120 (2023).", "Due to a volatile currency exchange rate, Japan's GDP as measured in dollars fluctuates sharply.", "The Japanese economy is forecast by the Quarterly Tankan survey of business sentiment conducted by the Bank of Japan.", "The Nikkei 225 presents the monthly report of top blue chip equities on the Japan Exchange Group, which is the world's fifth-largest stock exchange by market capitalisation.", "In 2018, Japan was the world's fourth-largest importer and the fourth-largest exporter.", "It has the world's second-largest foreign-exchange reserves, worth $1.4 trillion.", "It ranks 5th on the Global Competitiveness Report.", "It ranks first in the world in the Economic Complexity Index.", "Japan is also the world's fourth-largest consumer market.Japan is the world's second-largest automobile manufacturing country.", "It is often ranked among the world's most innovative countries, leading several measures of global patent filings.", "Facing increasing competition from China and South Korea, manufacturing in Japan currently focuses primarily on high-tech and precision goods, such as integrated circuits, hybrid vehicles, and robotics.", "Besides the Kantō region, the Kansai region is one of the leading industrial clusters and manufacturing centers for the Japanese economy.", "Japan is the world's largest creditor nation.", "Japan generally runs an annual trade surplus and has a considerable net international investment surplus.", "Japan has the third-largest financial assets in the world, valued at $12 trillion, or 8.6% of the global GDP total as of 2020.As of 2022, 47 of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Japan.", "The country is the third-largest in the world by total wealth.Japan had formerly the second-largest assets and wealth, behind only the United States in both categories, until it was surpassed by China in both assets and wealth.", "Japan also had the world's second-largest economy by nominal GDP behind the United States.", "In 2010, it was surpassed by China.Japanese government asset price bubble collapse in 1991 led to a period of economic stagnation known as the \"Lost Decade\", sometimes extended to a \"lost 20 years\" or greater.", "The \"Plaza Accord of 1985 is considered a major factor in the collapse of the asset price bubble and the \"Lost Decades\".", "From 1995 to 2007, GDP fell from $5.33 trillion to $5.04 trillion in nominal terms.", "From the early 2000s, the Bank of Japan set out to encourage economic growth through a novel policy of quantitative easing.", "Debt levels in Japan continued to rise in response to the national crises, such as the Great Recession in 2008, the Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami and subsequent Fukushima nuclear disaster in March 2011, and with COVID-19 pandemic in January 2020 and the end of September 2021.As of 2021, Japan has significantly higher levels of public debt than any other developed nation at approximately 260% of GDP.", "45% of this debt is held by the Bank of Japan.", "The Japanese economy faces considerable challenges posed by an aging and declining population, which peaked at 128 million in 2010 and has fallen to 125.5 million as of 2022.Projections show the population will continue to fall, potentially to below 100 million by the middle of the 21st century." ], [ "Overview", "In the three decades of economic development following 1960, rapid economic growth referred to as the Japanese post-war economic miracle occurred.", "By the guidance of Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, with average growth rates of 10% in the 1960s, 5% in the 1970s, and 4% in the 1980s, Japan was able to establish and maintain itself as the world's second-largest economy from 1978 until 2010, when it was surpassed by the People's Republic of China.", "By 1990, income per capita in Japan equaled or surpassed that in most countries in the West.During the second half of the 1980s, rising stock and real estate prices created an economic bubble.", "The economic bubble came to an abrupt end as the Tokyo Stock Exchange crashed in 1990–92 and real estate prices peaked in 1991.Growth in Japan throughout the 1990s at 1.5% was slower than global growth, giving rise to the term Lost Decade.", "After another decade of low growth rate, the term became the Lost 20 Years.", "Nonetheless, GDP per capita growth from 2001 to 2010 has still managed to outpace Europe and the United States.With this low growth rate, the national debt of Japan has expanded due to its considerable social welfare spending in an aging society with a shrinking tax-base.", "The scenario of \"Abandoned homes\" continues to spread from rural areas to urban areas in Japan.A mountainous, volcanic island country, Japan has inadequate natural resources to support its growing economy and large population, and therefore exports goods in which it has a comparative advantage such as engineering-oriented, research and development-led industrial products in exchange for the import of raw materials and petroleum.", "Japan is among the top-three importers for agricultural products in the world next to the European Union and the United States in total volume for covering of its own domestic agricultural consumption.", "Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market is the largest wholesale market for primary products in Japan, including the renowned Toyosu fish market.", "Japanese whaling, ostensibly for research purposes, has been sued as illegal under international law.Although many kinds of minerals were extracted throughout the country, most mineral resources had to be imported in the postwar era.", "Local deposits of metal-bearing ores were difficult to process because they were low grade.", "The nation's large and varied forest resources, which covered 70 per cent of the country in the late 1980s, were not utilized extensively.", "Because of political decisions on local, prefectural, and national levels, Japan decided not to exploit its forest resources for economic gain.", "Domestic sources only supplied between 25 and 30 per cent of the nation's timber needs.", "Agriculture and fishing were the best-developed resources, but only through years of painstaking investment and toil.", "The nation, therefore, built up the manufacturing and processing industries to convert raw materials imported from abroad.", "This strategy of economic development necessitated the establishment of a strong economic infrastructure to provide the needed energy, transportation, communications, and technological know-how.Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry.", "Iron ore, copper, bauxite, and alumina must be imported, as well as many forest products.Compared to other industrialized economies, Japan is characterized by its low levels of exports relative to the size of its GDP.", "From the period 1970–2018, Japan was either the least or second least export-dependent economy in the G7, and one of the least export-dependent economies in the world.", "It has also been one of the least trade-dependent economies in the 1970-2018 period.Japan receives exceptionally low levels of foreign investment.", "Its inward FDI stock was by far the smallest in the G7 as of 2018, and less than those of much smaller economies such as Austria, Poland, and Sweden.", "Relative to GDP, its ratio of inward FDI stock is one of the lowest in the world.Japan lags behind other developed countries in labor productivity.", "From 1970 to 2018 Japan has consistently had the lowest labor productivity in the G7.In 2020, Japan ranked 23rd in labor productivity among OECD nations.", "A particularity of the Japanese economy are very long-established businesses (''shinise''), of which some are over a thousand years old and enjoy great prestige.", "In contrast, startup culture is not as prominent in Japan as elsewhere.", "As of December 2021, Japan had just 6 i.e.", "less than 0.64% of world's total unicorn startups.", "One of the reasons for lagging behind in the startup scene has been the traditional cultural value systems, which conflict with the startup culture." ], [ "History", "An 1856 ukiyo-e depicting Echigoya, the current MitsukoshiThe economic history of Japan is one of the most studied.", "First was the foundation of Edo (in 1603) to whole inland economic developments, second was the Meiji Restoration (in 1868) to be the first non-European power, third was after the defeat of World War II (in 1945) when the island nation rose to become the world's second largest economy." ], [ "First contacts with Europe (16th century)", "Japan was considered as a country rich in precious metals, mainly owing to Marco Polo's accounts of gilded temples and palaces, but also due to the relative abundance of surface ores characteristic of a massive huge volcanic country, before large-scale deep-mining became possible in Industrial times.", "Japan was to become a major exporter of silver, copper, and gold during the period until exports for those minerals were banned.Renaissance Japan was also perceived as a sophisticated feudal society with a high culture and a strong pre-industrial technology.", "It was densely populated and urbanized.", "Prominent European observers of the time seemed to agree that the Japanese ''\"excel not only all the other Oriental peoples, they surpass the Europeans as well\"'' (Alessandro Valignano, 1584, \"Historia del Principo y Progresso de la Compania de Jesus en las Indias Orientales).Early European visitors were amazed by the quality of Japanese craftsmanship and metalsmithing.", "This stems from the fact that Japan itself is rather rich in natural resources found commonly in Europe, especially iron.The cargo of the first Portuguese ships (usually about 4 smaller-sized ships every year) arriving in Japan almost entirely consisted of Chinese goods (silk, porcelain).", "The Japanese were very much looking forward to acquiring such goods, but had been prohibited from any contacts with the Emperor of China, as a punishment for Wakō pirate raids.", "The Portuguese (who were called ''Nanban'', lit.", "Southern Barbarians) therefore found the opportunity to act as intermediaries in Asian trade." ], [ "Edo period (1603–1868)", "Japanese export porcelain in the European shape of a barber's shaving basin bowl, with copulating cock, around 1700The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period, during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place.", "It is at the beginning of the Edo period that Japan built her first ocean-going Western-style warships, such as the ''San Juan Bautista'', a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, which then continued to Europe.", "Also during that period, the ''bakufu'' commissioned around 350 Red Seal Ships, three-masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce.", "Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, were active throughout Asia.In order to eradicate the influence of Christianization, Japan entered in a period of isolation called sakoku, during which its economy enjoyed stability and mild progress.", "But not long after, in the 1650s, the production of Japanese export porcelain increased greatly when civil war put the main Chinese center of porcelain production, in Jingdezhen, out of action for several decades.", "For the rest of the 17th century, most Japanese porcelain production was for export, mostly in Kyushu.", "The trade dwindled under renewed Chinese competition by the 1740s, before resuming after the opening of Japan in the mid-19th century.Economic development during the Edo period included urbanization, increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade and handicraft industries.", "The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations.", "Increasingly, ''han'' authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts.By the mid-eighteenth century, Edo had a population of more than 1 million and Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants.", "Many other castle towns grew as well.", "Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods.Rice was the base of the economy, as the daimyō collected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice.", "Taxes were high, about 40% of the harvest.", "The rice was sold at the ''fudasashi'' market in Edo.", "To raise money, the daimyō used forward contracts to sell rice that was not even harvested yet.", "These contracts were similar to modern futures trading.Japan reopened its economy to the West after being pressured by the United States of America.", "During the period, Japan progressively studied Western sciences and techniques (called ''rangaku'', literally \"Dutch studies\") through the information and books received through the Dutch traders in Dejima.", "The main areas that were studied included geography, medicine, natural sciences, astronomy, art, languages, physical sciences such as the study of electrical phenomena, and mechanical sciences as exemplified by the development of Japanese clockwatches, or wadokei, inspired from Western techniques." ], [ "Pre-war period (1868–1945)", "Since the mid-19th century, after the Meiji Restoration, the country was opened up to Western commerce and influence and Japan has gone through two periods of economic development.", "The first began in earnest in 1868 and extended through to World War I; the second began in 1945 and a very rapid economic growth took place till 1973, slowed down a bit but continued till 1991.Economic developments of the prewar period began with the \"Rich State and Strong Army Policy\" by the Meiji government.", "During the Meiji period (1868–1912), leaders inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Oyatoi gaikokujin).", "The government also built railroads, improved road, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development.To promote industrialization, the government decided that, while it should help private business to allocate resources and to plan, the private sector was best equipped to stimulate economic growth.", "The greatest role of government was to help provide good economic conditions for business.", "In short, government was to be the guide and business the producer.", "In the early Meiji period, the government built factories and shipyards that were sold to entrepreneurs at a fraction of their value.", "Many of these businesses grew rapidly into the larger conglomerates.", "Government emerged as chief promoter of private enterprise, enacting a series of pro-business policies.In the mid-1930s, the Japanese nominal wage rates were \"10 times less\" than the one of the U.S. (based on mid-1930s exchange rates), while the price level is estimated to have been about 44% the one of the U.S.The size and industrial structure of cities in Japan have maintained tight regularities despite substantial churning of population and industries across cities overtime." ], [ "Post-war period (1945–1989)", "Japanese exports partners in 2005Government control and influence over businesses is more widespread than most other countries.", "Instead of taking legislation action, their control is exercised through constant consultation with businesses and through the government's deep involvement in banking.From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth was extremely large: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and a 4% average in the 1980s.", "By the end of said period, Japan had moved into being a high-wage economy." ], [ "Heisei period (1989–2019)", " Inverted yield curve in 1990 Zero interest-rate policy started in 1995Japan money supply and inflation (year over year)Growth slowed markedly in the late 1990s also termed the Lost Decade after the collapse of Japanese asset price bubble.", "As a consequence Japan ran massive budget deficits (added trillions in Yen to Japanese financial system) to finance large public works programs.By 1998, Japan's public works projects still could not stimulate demand enough to end the economy's stagnation.", "In desperation, the Japanese government undertook \"structural reform\" policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets.", "Unfortunately, these policies led Japan into deflation on numerous occasions between 1999 and 2004.The Bank of Japan used quantitative easing to expand the country's money supply in order to raise expectations of inflation and spur economic growth.", "Initially, the policy failed to induce any growth, but it eventually began to affect inflationary expectations.", "By late 2005, the economy finally began what seems to be a sustained recovery.", "GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.", "Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor of growth.Negative interest rates started in 2014.Despite having interest rates down near zero for a long period of time, the quantitative easing strategy did not succeed in stopping price deflation.", "This led some economists, such as Paul Krugman, and some Japanese politicians, to advocate the generation of higher inflation expectations.", "In July 2006, the zero-rate policy was ended.", "In 2008, the Japanese Central Bank still had the lowest interest rates in the developed world, but deflation had still not been eliminated and the Nikkei 225 has fallen over approximately 50% (between June 2007 and December 2008).", "However, on 5 April 2013, the Bank of Japan announced that it would be purchasing 60–70 trillion yen in bonds and securities in an attempt to eliminate deflation by doubling the money supply in Japan over the course of two years.", "Markets around the world have responded positively to the government's current proactive policies, with the Nikkei 225 adding more than 42% since November 2012.The Economist has suggested that improvements to bankruptcy law, land transfer law, and tax laws will aid Japan's economy.", "In recent years, Japan has been the top export market for almost 15 trading nations worldwide.In December 2018, a free trade agreement between Japan and the European Union was cleared to commence in February 2019.It creates the world's largest free trade zone valued at 1/3rd of global gross domestic product.", "This reduces tariffs on Japanese cars by 10%, duties by 30% on cheese and 10% on wines and opens service markets." ], [ "Reiwa period (2020–present)", "=== 2020–21 recession ===Since early January 2020, Japanese economy began to suffer from the COVID-19 pandemic as several countries reported a significant increase in cases by March 2020.However, in early April, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that he declared state of emergency, citing gave the nation its worst economic crisis since the end of World War II.", "Jun Saito of the Japan Center for Economic Research stated that the pandemic delivered the \"final blow\" to Japan's long fledging economy, which also resumed slow growth in 2018.Less than a quarter of Japanese people expect living conditions to improve in the coming decades.In October 2020 during the pandemic, Japan and the United Kingdom formally signed the first free-trade agreement post-Brexit, which will boost trade by approximately £15.2 billion.", "It enables tariff-free trade on 99% of exports to Japan.On 15 February 2021, the Nikkei average breached the 30k benchmark, the highest since November 1991.It is due to strong corporate earnings, GDP data and optimism over COVID-19 vaccination program in the country.In the year ending of March 2021 despite COVID-19 spreading, SoftBank Group made a record net profit of 45.88 billion, which is largely due to the debut of e-commerce company Coupang.", "However, this is the largest annual profit by a Japanese company in the nation's history.As of result, Japanese economic impact of COVID-19 was officially ended by early October 2021 as the country ahead of the endemic phase.=== Post-recession (2021–present) ===At the end of March 2022, the Ministry of Finance announced that the national debt reached precisely 1.017 million billion yen.", "The total public debt of the country, which includes debts contracted by local governments, represents 1.210 million billion yen (9,200 billion dollars) which is nearly 250% of Japan's GDP.", "Economist Kohei Iwahara said such an exceptional debt to GDP level is only possible because Japanese hold most of the debt: \"“Japanese households hold most of their savings in bank accounts (48%) and these sums are used by commercial banks to buy Japanese government bonds.", "Thus, 85.7% of these bonds are held by Japanese investors.” However, an aging population could decrease savings.By 2022, the yen will be at 151 to the dollar, the first depreciation of the yen in 32 years in terms of nominal effective exchange rate and the first depreciation of the yen in 52 years in terms of real effective exchange rate.", "The Asahi Shimbun and other media have reported that the decline in the currency's value has made it a junk currency.Japan's annual exports grew much-less than expected in June 2023, highlighting weak Chinese and Western demand that continues to undercut the post-COVID recovery in the world's fourth-biggest economy." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Shinkansen N700 SeriesIn 2018, Japan ranked 5th overall in the World Bank's Logistics Performance Index, and 2nd in the infrastructure category.In 2005, one half of Japan's energy was produced from petroleum, a fifth from coal, and 14% from natural gas.", "Nuclear power in Japan made a quarter of electricity production but due to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster there has been a large desire to end Japan's nuclear power program.", "In September 2013, Japan closed its last 50 nuclear power plants nationwide, causing the nation to be nuclear free.", "The country has since then opted to restart a few of its nuclear reactors.Japan's spendings on roads has been considered large.", "The 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are one of the major means of transportation.", "Japan has left-hand traffic.", "A single network of speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and are operated by toll-collecting enterprises.", "New and used cars are inexpensive, and the Japanese government has encouraged people to buy hybrid vehicles.", "Car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy-efficiency.Rail transport is a major means of transport in Japan.", "Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; for instance, 6 passenger JR enterprises, Kintetsu Railway, Seibu Railway, and Keio Corporation.", "Often, strategies of these enterprises contain real estate or department stores next to stations, and many major stations have major department stores near them.", "The Japanese cities of Fukuoka, Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka, Sapporo, Sendai, Tokyo and Yokohama all have subway systems.", "Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities.", "All trains are known for punctuality, and a delay of 90 seconds can be considered late for some train services.There are 98 passenger and 175 total airports in Japan, and flying is a popular way to travel.", "The largest domestic airport, Tokyo International Airport, is Asia's second busiest airport.", "The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area).", "The largest ports in Japan include Nagoya Port, the Port of Yokohama, the Port of Tokyo and the Port of Kobe.About 84% of Japan's energy is imported from other countries.", "Japan is the world's largest liquefied natural gas importer, second largest coal importer, and third largest net oil importer.", "Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources.", "Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from 77.4% in 1973 to about 43.7% in 2010 and increased dependence on natural gas and nuclear power.", "In September 2019, Japan will invest 10 billion on liquefied natural gas projects worldwide, in a strategy to boost the global LNG market and reinforce the security of energy supply.", "Other important energy source includes coal, and hydroelectricity is Japan's biggest renewable energy source.", "Japan's solar market is also currently booming.", "Kerosene is also used extensively for home heating in portable heaters, especially farther north.", "Many taxi companies run their fleets on liquefied natural gas.", "A recent success towards greater fuel economy was the introduction of mass-produced hybrid vehicles.", "Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, who was working on Japan's economic revival, signed a treaty with Saudi Arabia and UAE about the rising prices of oil, ensuring Japan's stable deliveries from that region." ], [ "Macro-economic trend", "Real GDP growth rateQuarterly change in the real GDP (blue) and the unemployment rate (red) of Japan from 2000 to 2010.See Okun's law.This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Japan at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Japanese Yen.", "See also: '''Year''' '''Gross domestic product''' '''US dollar exchange''' '''Price index(2000=100)''' '''Nominal per-capita GDP(as % of US)''' '''PPP capita GDP(as % of US)''' 1955 8,369,500 ¥360.00 10.31 – 1960 16,009,700 ¥360.00 16.22 – 1965 32,866,000 ¥360.00 24.95 – 1970 73,344,900 ¥360.00 38.56 – 1975 148,327,100 ¥297.26 59.00 – 1980 240,707,315 ¥225.82 100 105.85 71.87 2005 502,905,400 ¥110.01 97 85.04 71.03 2010 477,327,134 ¥88.54 98 89.8 71.49For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar was exchanged at ¥109 in 2010.===GDP composition===Industries by GDP value-added 2012.Values are converted using the exchange rate on 13 April 2013.Industry GDP value-added billions 2018 % of total GDPOther service activities 1,238 23.5%Manufacturing 947 18.0%Real estate 697 13.2%Wholesale and retail trade 660 12.5%Transport and communication 358 6.8%Public administration 329 6.2%Construction 327 6.2%Finance and insurance 306 5.8%Electricity, gas and water supply 179 3.4%Government service activities 41 0.7%Mining3 0.1%Total 5,268 100%=== Development of main indicators ===The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027).", "Inflation under 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Per cent)Unemployment(in Per cent)Government debt(in % of GDP)19801,068.19,147.01,127.99,659.03.2%7.8%2.0%47.8%19811,218.410,358.11,243.810,574.44.2%4.9%2.2%52.9%19821,336.511,283.01,157.69,772.83.3%2.8%2.4%57.8%19831,437.812,054.51,268.610,636.53.5%1.9%2.7%63.6%19841,556.712,967.11,345.211,205.44.5%2.3%2.7%65.6%19851,690.013,989.81,427.411,815.85.2%2.0%2.6%68.3%19861,781.414,667.92,121.317,466.73.3%0.6%2.8%74.0%19871,911.815,666.32,584.321,177.84.7%0.1%2.9%75.7%19882,113.517,246.03,134.225,575.16.8%0.7%2.5%71.8%19892,303.018,719.63,117.125,336.24.9%2.3%2.3%65.5%19902,506.120,302.73,196.625,896.04.9%3.1%2.1%63.0%19912,679.421,620.83,657.329,511.83.4%3.3%2.1%62.2%19922,763.722,222.43,988.332,069.10.8%1.7%2.2%66.6%19932,814.622,558.24,544.836,425.2-0.5%1.3%2.5%72.7%19942,899.923,177.44,998.839,953.20.9%0.7%2.9%84.4%19953,038.624,224.05,545.644,210.22.6%-0.1%3.2%92.5%19963,191.225,385.04,923.439,164.33.1%0.1%3.4%98.1%19973,278.126,014.14,492.435,651.31.0%1.7%3.4%105.0%19983,272.825,903.34,098.432,436.9-1.3%0.7%4.1%116.0%19993,307.926,131.34,636.036,622.9-0.3%-0.3%4.7%129.5%20003,476.327,409.24,968.439,173.02.8%-0.7%4.7%135.6%20013,568.428,068.34,374.734,410.70.4%-0.7%5.0%145.1%20023,625.528,457.74,182.832,832.30.0%-0.9%5.4%154.1%20033,753.829,410.94,519.635,410.21.5%-0.3%5.2%160.0%20043,938.930,836.44,893.138,307.12.2%0.0%4.7%169.5%20054,135.732,372.74,831.537,819.11.8%-0.3%4.4%174.3%20064,321.833,831.14,601.736,021.91.4%0.3%4.1%174.0%20074,504.535,257.94,579.735,847.21.5%0.0%3.8%172.8%20084,534.635,512.25,106.739,992.1-1.2%1.4%4.0%180.7%20094,303.933,742.55,289.541,469.8-5.7%-1.3%5.1%198.7%20104,534.135,535.25,759.145,135.84.1%-0.7%5.1%205.7%20114,629.436,215.16,233.148,760.90.0%-0.3%4.6%219.1%20124,799.637,628.86,272.449,175.11.4%0.0%4.3%226.1%20135,021.639,436.85,212.340,934.82.0%0.3%4.0%229.6%20145,034.539,604.14,897.038,522.80.3%2.8%3.6%233.5%20155,200.940,959.34,444.935,005.71.6%0.8%3.4%228.4%20165,159.740,640.55,003.739,411.40.8%-0.1%3.1%232.5%20175,248.441,409.04,930.838,903.31.7%0.5%2.8%231.4%20185,408.442,755.45,040.939,850.40.6%1.0%2.4%232.3%20195,485.443,459.15,120.340,566.3-0.4%0.5%2.4%236.3%20205,295.142,075.45,031.639,981.5-4.6%0.0%2.8%259.4%20215,682.945,279.35,011.939,933.01.7%-0.2%2.8%262.5%20226,110.049,089.54,237.533,853.81.7%2.5%2.6%263.9%20236,495.252,119.64,230.833,949.71.6%3.2%2.4%261.1%20246,652.753,633.34,568.736,832.81.3%1.0%2.4%260.3%20256,839.555,411.74,811.638,982.70.9%1.0%2.4%260.7%20267,002.557,025.85,010.040,799.80.5%1.0%2.4%262.0%20277,167.558,684.75,172.142,347.00.4%1.0%2.4%263.4%" ], [ "Sectors of the economy", "===Agriculture===Rice is a very important crop in Japan as shown here in a rice paddy in Tawaramoto, Nara.The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.1% (2017) of the total country's GDP.", "Only 12% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation.", "Due to this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas.", "This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than 56,000 km2 (14 million acres) cultivated.Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America.", "There has been a growing concern about farming as the current farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors.Rice accounts for almost all of Japan's cereal production.", "Japan is the second-largest agricultural product importer in the world.", "Rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 777.7%.Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods) and wheat, the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops and relies on imports for half of its supply of meat.", "Japan imports large quantities of wheat and soybeans.", "Japan is the 5th largest market for the European Union's agricultural exports.", "Over 90% of mandarin oranges in Japan are grown in Japan.", "Apples are also grown due to restrictions on apple imports.==== Fishery ====Global fish catch in JapanJapan ranked fourth in the world in 1996 in tonnage of fish caught.", "Japan captured 4,074,580 metric tons of fish in 2005, down from 4,987,703 tons in 2000, 9,558,615 tons in 1990, 9,864,422 tons in 1980, 8,520,397 tons in 1970, 5,583,796 tons in 1960 and 2,881,855 tons in 1950.In 2003, the total aquaculture production was predicted at 1,301,437 tonnes.", "In 2010, Japan's total fisheries production was 4,762,469 fish.", "Offshore fisheries accounted for an average of 50% of the nation's total fish catches in the late 1980s although they experienced repeated ups and downs during that period.Coastal fishing by small boats, set nets, or breeding techniques accounts for about one third of the industry's total production, while offshore fishing by medium-sized boats makes up for more than half the total production.", "Deep-sea fishing from larger vessels makes up the rest.", "Among the many species of seafood caught are sardines, skipjack tuna, crab, shrimp, salmon, pollock, squid, clams, mackerel, sea bream, sauries, tuna and Japanese amberjack.", "Freshwater fishing, including salmon, trout and eel hatcheries and fish farms, takes up about 30% of Japan's fishing industry.", "Among the nearly 300 fish species in the rivers of Japan are native varieties of catfish, chub, herring and goby, as well as such freshwater crustaceans as crabs and crayfish.", "Marine and freshwater aquaculture is conducted in all 47 prefectures in Japan.Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna.", "Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling.=== Industry ===Japanese manufacturing and industry is very diversified, with a variety of advanced industries that are highly successful.", "Industry accounts for 30.1% (2017) of the nation's GDP.", "The country's manufacturing output is the third highest in the world.Industry is concentrated in several regions, with the Kantō region surrounding Tokyo, (the Keihin industrial region) as well as the Kansai region surrounding Osaka (the Hanshin industrial region) and the Tōkai region surrounding Nagoya (the Chūkyō–Tōkai industrial region) the main industrial centers.", "Other industrial centers include the southwestern part of Honshū and northern Shikoku around the Seto Inland Sea (the Setouchi industrial region); and the northern part of Kyūshū (Kitakyūshū).", "In addition, a long narrow belt of industrial centers called the Taiheiyō Belt is found between Tokyo and Fukuoka, established by particular industries, that have developed as mill towns.Japan enjoys high technological development in many fields, including consumer electronics, automobile manufacturing, semiconductor manufacturing, optical fibers, optoelectronics, optical media, facsimile and copy machines, and fermentation processes in food and biochemistry.", "However, many Japanese companies are facing emerging rivals from the United States, South Korea, and China.==== Automobile manufacturing ====Lexus LS.", "The rapid growth and success of Toyota's Lexus and other Japanese automakers reflects Japan's strength and global dominance in the automobile industry.Japan is the third biggest producer of automobiles in the world.", "Toyota is currently the world's largest car maker, and the Japanese car makers Nissan, Honda, Suzuki, and Mazda also count for some of the largest car makers in the world.", "By number, Japan is the world's largest exporter of cars as of 2021.===Mining and petroleum exploration===Japan's mining production has been minimal, and Japan has very little mining deposits.", "However, massive deposits of rare earths have been found off the coast of Japan.", "In the 2011 fiscal year, the domestic yield of crude oil was 820 thousand kiloliters, which was 0.4% of Japan's total crude processing volume.In 2019, Japan was the 2nd largest world producer of iodine, 4th largest worldwide producer of bismuth, the world's 9th largest producer of sulfur and the 10th largest producer of gypsum.=== Services ===Japan Airlines, though faced with massive debts as of 2010, is considered one of the largest airlines in the world.Japan's service sector accounts for 68.7% (2017) of its total economic output.", "Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries such as Mitsubishi UFJ, Mizuho, NTT, TEPCO, Nomura, Mitsubishi Estate, ÆON, Mitsui Sumitomo, Softbank, JR East, Seven & I, KDDI and Japan Airlines counting as one of the largest companies in the world.", "Four of the five most circulated newspapers in the world are Japanese newspapers.", "The Koizumi government set Japan Post, one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services for privatization by 2015.The six major ''keiretsus'' are the Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa Groups.", "Japan is home to 251 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 12.55% (as of 2013).==== Tourism ====Himeji, Hyōgo Prefecture, is one of the most visited sights in Japan.In 2012, Japan was the fifth most visited country in Asia and the Pacific, with over 8.3 million tourists.", "In 2013, due to the weaker yen and easier visa requirements for southwest Asian countries, Japan received a record 11.25 million visitors, which was higher than the government's projected goal of 10 million visitors.", "The government hopes to attract 40 million visitors a year by the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.", "Some of the most popular visited places include the Shinjuku, Ginza, Shibuya and Asakusa areas in Tokyo, and the cities of Osaka, Kobe and Kyoto, as well as Himeji Castle.", "Hokkaido is also a popular winter destination for visitors with several ski resorts and luxury hotels being built there.Japan's economy is less dependent on international tourism than those of other G7 countries and OECD countries in general; from 1995 to 2014, it was by far the least visited country in the G7 despite being the second largest country in the group, and as of 2013 was one of the least visited countries in the OECD on a per capita basis.", "In 2013, international tourist receipts was 0.3% of Japan's GDP, while the corresponding figure was 1.3% for the United States and 2.3% for France." ], [ "Finance", "The main trading room of the Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in the worldThe Tokyo Stock Exchange is the third largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, as well as the 2nd largest stock market in Asia, with 2,292 listed companies.", "The Nikkei 225 and the TOPIX are the two important stock market indexes of the Tokyo Stock Exchange.", "The Tokyo Stock Exchange and the Osaka Stock Exchange, another major stock exchange in Japan, merged on 1 January 2013, creating one of the world's largest stock exchanges.", "Other stock exchanges in Japan include the Nagoya Stock Exchange, Fukuoka Stock Exchange and Sapporo Securities Exchange." ], [ "Labor force", "Unemployment rate of Japan.", "Red line is G7 average.", "15-24 age (thin line) is youth unemployment.", "The unemployment rate in December 2013 was 3.7%, down 1.5 percentage points from the claimed unemployment rate of 5.2% in June 2009 due to the strong economic recovery.In 2008 Japan's labor force consisted of some 66 million workers—40% of whom were women—and was rapidly shrinking.One major long-term concern for the Japanese labor force is its low birthrate.", "In 2005, the number of deaths in Japan exceeded the number of births, indicating that the decline in population had already started.", "While one countermeasure for a declining birthrate would be to increase immigration, Japan has struggled to attract potential migrants despite immigration laws being relatively lenient (especially for high-skilled workers) compared to other developed countries.", "This is also apparent when looking at Japan's work visa programme for \"specified skilled worker\", which had less than 3,000 applicants, despite an annual goal of attracting 40,000 overseas workers, suggesting Japan faces major challenges in attracting migrants compared to other developed countries regardless of its immigration policies.", "A Gallup poll found that few potential migrants wished to migrate to Japan compared to other G7 countries, consistent with the country's low migrant inflow.In 1989, the predominantly public sector union confederation, SOHYO (General Council of Trade Unions of Japan), merged with RENGO (Japanese Private Sector Trade Union Confederation) to form the Japanese Trade Union Confederation.", "Labor union membership is about 12 million.As of 2019 Japan's unemployment rate was the lowest in the G7.Its employment rate for the working-age population (15–64) was the highest in the G7." ], [ "Law and government", "Japan ranks 27th of 185 countries in the ease of doing business index 2013.Japan has one of the smallest tax rates in the developed world.", "After deductions, the majority of workers are free from personal income taxes.", "Consumption tax rate is 10%, while corporate tax rates are high, second highest corporate tax rate in the world, at 36.8%.", "However, the House of Representatives has passed a bill which increased the consumption tax to 10% in October 2015.The government has also decided to reduce corporate tax and to phase out automobile tax.In 2016, the IMF encouraged Japan to adopt an income policy that pushes firms to raise employee wages in combination with reforms to tackle the labor market dual tiered employment system to drive higher wages, on top of monetary and fiscal stimulus.", "Shinzo Abe has encouraged firms to raise wages by at least three per cent annually (the inflation target plus average productivity growth).Shareholder activism is rare despite the fact that the corporate law gives shareholders strong powers over managers.", "Under Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, corporate governance reform has been a key initiative to encourage economic growth.", "In 2012 around 40% of leading Japanese companies had any independent directors while in 2016 most all have begun to appoint independent directors.The government's liabilities include the second largest public debt of any nation with debt of over one quadrillion yen, or 8,535,340,000,000 in USD.", "Former Prime Minister Naoto Kan has called the situation 'urgent'.Japan's central bank has the second largest foreign-exchange reserves after the People's Republic of China, with over one trillion US Dollars in foreign reserves." ], [ "Culture", "===Overview===Nemawashi (根回し), or \"consensus building\", in Japanese culture is an informal process of quietly laying the foundation for some proposed change or project, by talking to the people concerned, gathering support and feedback, and so forth.", "It is considered an important element in any major change, before any formal steps are taken, and successful ''nemawashi'' enables changes to be carried out with the consent of all sides.Japanese companies are known for management methods such as \"The Toyota Way\".", "Kaizen (改善, Japanese for \"improvement\") is a Japanese philosophy that focuses on continuous improvement throughout all aspects of life.", "When applied to the workplace, Kaizen activities continually improve all functions of a business, from manufacturing to management and from the CEO to the assembly line workers.", "By improving standardized activities and processes, Kaizen aims to eliminate waste (see Lean manufacturing).", "Kaizen was first implemented in several Japanese businesses during the country's recovery after World War II, including Toyota, and has since spread to businesses throughout the world.", "Within certain value systems, it is ironic that Japanese workers labor amongst the most hours per day, even though kaizen is supposed to improve all aspects of life.", "According to the OECD, annual hours worked per employee is below the OECD average and in the middle among G7 countries.Some companies have powerful enterprise unions and ''shuntō''.", "The Nenko System or Nenko Joretsu, as it is called in Japan, is the Japanese system of promoting an employee based on his or her proximity to retirement.", "The advantage of the system is that it allows older employees to achieve a higher salary level before retirement and it usually brings more experience to the executive ranks.", "The disadvantage of the system is that it does not allow new talent to be combined with experience and those with specialized skills cannot be promoted to the already crowded executive ranks.", "It also does not guarantee or even attempt to bring the \"right person for the right job\".Relationships between government bureaucrats and companies are often close.", "is the institutionalised practice where Japanese senior bureaucrats retire to high-profile positions in the private and public sectors.", "The practice is increasingly viewed as corrupt and a limitation on efforts to reduce ties between the private sector and the state that prevent economic and political reforms.", "Lifetime employment (''shūshin koyō'') and seniority-based career advancement have been common in the Japanese work environment.", "Japan has begun to gradually move away from some of these norms.", "refers to someone whose income is salary based; particularly those working for corporations.", "Its frequent use by Japanese corporations, and its prevalence in Japanese manga and anime has gradually led to its acceptance in English-speaking countries as a noun for a Japanese white-collar businessman.", "The word can be found in many books and articles pertaining to Japanese culture.", "Immediately following World War II, becoming a salaryman was viewed as a gateway to a stable, middle-class lifestyle.", "In modern use, the term carries associations of long working hours, low prestige in the corporate hierarchy, absence of significant sources of income other than salary, wage slavery, and karōshi.", "The term salaryman refers almost exclusively to males.An office lady, often abbreviated OL (Japanese: オーエル ''Ōeru''), is a female office worker in Japan who performs generally pink collar tasks such as serving tea and secretarial or clerical work.", "Like many unmarried Japanese, OLs often live with their parents well into early adulthood.", "Office ladies are usually full-time permanent staff, although the jobs they do usually have little opportunity for promotion, and there is usually the tacit expectation that they leave their jobs once they get married.", "is a Japanese expression for people between the age of 15 and 34 who lack full-time employment or are unemployed, excluding homemakers and students.", "They may also be described as ''underemployed'' or freelance workers.", "These people do not start a career after high school or university but instead usually live as parasite singles with their parents and earn some money with low skilled and low paid jobs.", "The low income makes it difficult for freeters to start a family, and the lack of qualifications makes it difficult to start a career at a later point in life., which can be translated quite literally from Japanese as \"death from overwork\", is occupational sudden death.", "The major medical causes of karōshi deaths are heart attack and stroke due to stress., (sometimes also translated as ''corporate bouncers'', ''meeting-men'', or ''corporate blackmailers'') are a form of specialized racketeer unique to Japan, and often associated with the yakuza that extort money from or blackmail companies by threatening to publicly humiliate companies and their management, usually in their .", "is a Japanese term for moneylender, or loan shark.", "It is a contraction of the Japanese words for salaryman and cash.", "Around 14 million people, or 10% of the Japanese population, have borrowed from a ''sarakin''.", "In total, there are about 10,000 firms (down from 30,000 a decade ago); however, the top seven firms make up 70% of the market.", "The value of outstanding loans totals 100 billion.", "The biggest ''sarakin'' are publicly traded and often allied with big banks.The first \"Western-style\" department store in Japan was Mitsukoshi, founded in 1904, which has its root as a kimono store called Echigoya from 1673.When the roots are considered, however, Matsuzakaya has an even longer history, dated from 1611.The kimono store changed to a department store in 1910.In 1924, Matsuzakaya store in Ginza allowed street shoes to be worn indoors, something innovative at the time.", "These former kimono shop department stores dominated the market in its earlier history.", "They sold, or rather displayed, luxurious products, which contributed for their sophisticated atmospheres.", "Another origin of Japanese department store is that from railway company.", "There have been many private railway operators in the nation, and from the 1920s, they started to build department stores directly linked to their lines' termini.", "Seibu and Hankyu are the typical examples of this type.", "From the 1980s onwards, Japanese department stores face fierce competition from supermarkets and convenience stores, gradually losing their presences.", "Still, ''depāto'' are bastions of several aspects of cultural conservatism in the country.", "Gift certificates for prestigious department stores are frequently given as formal presents in Japan.", "Department stores in Japan generally offer a wide range of services and can include foreign exchange, travel reservations, ticket sales for local concerts and other events." ], [ "Keiretsu", "A is a set of companies with interlocking business relationships and shareholdings.", "A ''keiretsu'' unequivocally exists as an identical form of business structure to the ''affiliate'', or an associate.", "It is a type of business group.", "The prototypical ''keiretsu'' appeared in Japan during the \"economic miracle\" following World War II.", "Before Japan's surrender, Japanese industry was controlled by large family-controlled vertical monopolies called ''zaibatsu''.", "The Allies dismantled the ''zaibatsu'' in the late 1940s, but the companies formed from the dismantling of the ''zaibatsu'' were reintegrated.", "The dispersed corporations were re-interlinked through share purchases to form horizontally integrated alliances across many industries.", "Where possible, ''keiretsu'' companies would also supply one another, making the alliances vertically integrated as well.", "In this period, official government policy promoted the creation of robust trade corporations that could withstand pressures from intensified world trade competition.The major ''keiretsu'' were each centered on one bank, which lent money to the ''keiretsu'' member companies and held equity positions in the companies.", "Each central bank had great control over the companies in the ''keiretsu'' and acted as a monitoring entity and as an emergency bail-out entity.", "One effect of this structure was to minimize the presence of hostile takeovers in Japan, because no entities could challenge the power of the banks.There are two types of ''keiretsu'': vertical and horizontal.", "Vertical ''keiretsu'' illustrates the organization and relationships within a company (for example all factors of production of a certain product are connected), while a horizontal ''keiretsu'' shows relationships between entities and industries, normally centered on a bank and trading company.", "Both are complexly woven together and sustain each other.The Japanese recession in the 1990s had profound effects on the ''keiretsu''.", "Many of the largest banks were hit hard by bad loan portfolios and forced to merge or go out of business.", "This had the effect of blurring the lines between the ''keiretsu'': Sumitomo Bank and Mitsui Bank, for instance, became Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation in 2001, while Sanwa Bank (the banker for the Hankyu-Toho Group) became part of Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, now known as MUFG Bank.", "Additionally, many companies from outside the keiretsu system, such as Sony, began outperforming their counterparts within the system.Generally, these causes gave rise to a strong notion in the business community that the old ''keiretsu'' system was not an effective business model, and led to an overall loosening of ''keiretsu'' alliances.", "While the ''keiretsu'' still exist, they are not as centralized or integrated as they were before the 1990s.", "This, in turn, has led to a growing corporate acquisition industry in Japan, as companies are no longer able to be easily \"bailed out\" by their banks, as well as rising derivative litigation by more independent shareholders." ], [ "Mergers and acquisitions", "Japanese companies have been involved in 50,759 deals between 1985 and 2018.This cumulates to a total value of 2,636 bil.", "USD which translates to 281,469.9 bil.", "YEN.", "In the year 1999 there was an all-time high in terms of value of deals with almost 220 bil.", "USD.", "The most active year so far was 2017 with over 3,150 deals, but only a total value of 114 bil.", "USD (see graph \"M&A in Japan by number and value\").Here is a list of the most important deals (ranked by value in bil.", "USD) in Japanese history:'''Date announced''''''Acquiror name''''''Acquiror mid industry''''''Acquiror state''''''Target name''''''Target mid industry''''''Target state''''''Value of transaction ($mil)'''13 October 1999Sumitomo Bank LtdBanksJapanSakura Bank LtdBanksJapan45,494.3618 February 2005Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial GrpBanksJapanUFJ Holdings IncBanksJapan41,431.0320 August 1999Fuji Bank LtdBanksJapanDai-Ichi Kangyo Bank LtdBanksJapan40,096.6327 March 1995Mitsubishi Bank LtdBanksJapanBank of Tokyo LtdBanksJapan33,787.7318 July 2016SoftBank Group CorpWirelessJapanARM Holdings PLCSemiconductorsUnited Kingdom31,879.4920 August 1999Fuji Bank LtdBanksJapanIndustrial Bank of Japan LtdBanksJapan30,759.6124 August 2004Sumitomo Mitsui Finl Grp IncBanksJapanUFJ Holdings IncBanksJapan29,261.4828 August 1989Mitsui Taiyo Kobe Bank LtdBanksJapanTaiyo Kobe Bank LtdBanksJapan23,016.8015 October 2012SoftBank CorpWirelessJapanSprint Nextel CorpTelecommunications ServicesUnited States21,640.0020 September 2017KK PangeaOther FinancialsJapanToshiba Memory CorpSemiconductorsJapan17,930.00Among the top 50 deals by value, 92% of the time the acquiring nation is Japan.", "Foreign direct investment is playing a much smaller role than national M&A in Japan." ], [ "Other economic indicators", "Current account balance (2006)'''Net international investment position:''' 266,223 / billion (1st)'''Industrial production growth rate:''' 7.5% (2010 est.", ")'''Investment (gross fixed):''' 20.3% of GDP (2010 est.", ")'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''* ''Lowest 10%:'' 4.8%* ''Highest 10%:'' 21.7% (1993)'''Agriculture products:''' rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish'''Export commodities:''' machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, semiconductors, chemicals'''Import commodities:''' machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, raw materials (2001)'''Exchange rates:'''''Japanese Yen per US$1'' – 88.67 (2010), 93.57 (2009), 103.58 (2008), 117.99 (2007), 116.18 (2006), 109.69 (2005), 115.93 (2003), 125.39 (2002), 121.53 (2001), 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06 (1995)'''Electricity:'''* ''Electricity – consumption:'' 925.5 billion kWh (2008)* ''Electricity – production:'' 957.9 billion kWh (2008 est.", ")* ''Electricity – exports:'' 0 kWh (2008)* ''Electricity – imports:'' 0 kWh (2008)'''Electricity production by source:'''* ''Fossil Fuel:'' 69.7%* ''Hydro:'' 7.3%* ''Nuclear:'' 22.5%* ''Other:'' 0.5% (2008)'''Electricity standards:'''* 100 volts at 50 Hz from the Ōi River (in Shizuoka) Northward;* 100 volts at 60 Hz Southward'''Oil:'''* ''production:'' (2009) (46th)* ''consumption:'' (2009) (3rd)* ''exports:'' (2008) (64th)* ''imports:'' (2008) (2nd)* ''net imports:'' (2008 est.", ")* ''proved reserves:'' (1 January 2010 est.)" ], [ "See also", "* Economic history of Japan* Economic relations of Japan* List of exports of Japan* List of countries by leading trade partners* List of the largest trading partners of JapanList of largest Japanese companies Japan External Trade Organization* Tokugawa coinage* Tourism in Japan* Japanese post-war economic miracle* Japanese asset price bubble* Machine orders, an economic indicator specific to the Japanese economy* Quantitative easing* Loans in Japan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", " * * Bank of Japan* Minister of Finance (Japan)* Cabinet Office Monthly Economic Report and Main Economic Indicators* Japan profile at The World Bank * Japan - OECD* Japan Trade Organization" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Communications in Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "This Tokyo complex houses the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, which administers Japanese cellphone networks while also providing many other services.The nation of Japan currently possesses one of the most advanced communication networks in the world.", "For example, by 2008 the Japanese government's Internal Affairs and Communications Ministry stated that about 75 million people used mobile phones to access the Internet, said total accounting for about 82% of individual Internet users." ], [ "Overview of communication services", "===Telephone services==='''Telephones and ISDN – main lines in use:''' 52.3981 million (2007)'''IP phone lines in use:''' 16.766 million (2007)'''Mobile and PHS lines in use:''' 105.297 million (2007):''international:'' satellite earth stations – 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region), and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); submerged cables to China, Philippines, Russia, and US (via Guam)====Mobile phone services====There are four nationwide mobile phone service providers: NTT DoCoMo, KDDI, Ymobile, and Rakuten mobile.===Radio and television broadcasting==='''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 190, FM 88, shortwave 24 (1999)'''Radios:''' 120.5 million (1997)'''Television broadcast stations:''' 7,108 (plus 441 repeaters; note – in addition, US Forces are served by 3 TV stations and 2 TV cable services) (1999)'''Televisions:''' 86.5 million (1997)'''Amateur radio:''' 446,602 licensed stations as of October 2011.See Amateur radio call signs of Japan.===Internet services==='''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 357 (1999)'''Internet Service Providers via Cable network:''' 334 (June 2004)'''Number of Portable Phone Users with the Internet Access:''' 71,044,000 (June 2004)Number of Broadband Users by Access (April 2005)'''Number of the xDSL Users:''' 13,675,840 lines'''Number of the FTTH Users:''' 2,852,205 lines'''Number of the CATV Service Users:''' 2,959,712 linesNumber of Broadband Users by Access (June 2004)'''Number of the xDSL Users:''' 12,068,718 lines'''Number of the FTTH Users:''' 1,417,483 lines'''Number of the CATV Service Users:''' 2,702,000 lines'''Number of the Dial-up Users:''' 17,730,000 linesNumber of Broadband Users by Access (June 2002)'''Number of the xDSL Users:''' 3,300,926 lines'''Number of the FTTH Users:''' 84,903 lines'''Number of the CATV Service Users:''' 1852000 lines'''Number of the Dial-up Users:''' 20,390,000 lines'''Country code (Top-level domain):''' JP=== Postal services ===A postbox in Japan as pictured in 2005.Note the double-bar symbol, the country's postal mark, on the front.Japan's first modern postal service got started in 1871, with mail professionally traveling between Kyoto and Tokyo as well as the latter city and Osaka.", "This took place in the midst of the rapid industrialization and social reorganization that the Meiji period symbolized in Japanese history.", "Given how the nation's railroad technology was in its infancy, Japan's growing postal system relied heavily on human-powered transport, including rickshaws, as well as horse-drawn methods of delivery.", "For example, while commemorating the 50th anniversary of Japan's postal service, the country's 1921 government released decorative postcards depicting intrepid horseback riders carrying the mail.In communication terms, British technicians had already been employed in assisting with Japanese lighthouses, and the country's budding mail system looked to hybridize British ideas with local practicalities.", "Shipping along the nation's coastline in particular demonstrates a key instance of how the Japanese economy developed: the government closely working with private companies to industrially expand in a way that met social needs while also allowing for large profits.", "Mitsubishi's contract for mail transport by sea proved lucrative enough that it assisted with the firm becoming one of the famous \"zaibatsu\".Since 2007, the nation's post offices have been managed by the firm Japan Post Network, which, in turn, is a part of the larger Japan Post Holdings conglomerate.", "As of December 2017, the smaller company has been managed by CEO Koji Furukawa.", "The simple Japanese postal mark, predating mass literacy in the nation, is still used to this day." ], [ "General background and history", "Emperor Meiji, photographed in military dress by Uchida Kuichi, presided over a time of massive industrialization, with the Meiji period establishing the roots of modern Japanese communications.An example of the dawn of modern Japanese communications is the shift in newspaper publication.", "News vendors of the Tokugawa period, taking place from 1603 to 1867, typically promoted publications by reading the contents aloud and handed out papers that were printed from hand-graven blocks.", "Widespread adoption of movable type took place as Japanese society modernized.", "In particular, ''Yomiuri Shimbun'', a national daily newspaper that became the country's largest by circulation, was founded in 1874 and designed to be read in detail using standard Japanese vernacular.", "Five such dailies got started early in the Meiji period, taking place from 1868 to 1912.", "''Yomiuri'' specifically took direct influence from American publications controlled by William Randolph Hearst.The first such mass newspaper to be founded was the ''Nagasaki Shipping List & Advertiser'', established in 1861 in Nagasaki by the Englishman A.W.", "Hansard.", "Its first issue ran 22 June of that year.", "The newspaper, which notably discussed matters in the English language, laid the groundwork for Hansard's later publication ''Japan Herald''.The broadcast industry has been dominated by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon Hoso Kyokai—NHK) since its founding in 1925.In the postwar period, NHK's budget and operations were under the purview of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, the Broadcasting Law of 1950 provides for independent management and programming by NHK.", "Television broadcasting began in 1953, and color television was introduced in 1960.Cable television was introduced in 1969.In 1978 an experimental broadcast satellite with two color television channels was launched.", "Operational satellites for television use were launched between 1984 and 1990.Television viewing spread so rapidly that, by 1987, 99 percent of Japan's households had color television sets and the average family had its set on at least five hours a day.", "Starting in 1987, NHK began full-scale experimental broadcasting on two channels using satellite-to-audience signals, thus bringing service to remote and mountainous parts of the country that earlier had experienced poor reception.", "The new system also provided twenty-four hours a day, nonstop service.In the late 1980s, NHK operated two public television and three radio networks nationally, producing about 1,700 programs per week.", "Its general and education programs were broadcast through more than 6,900 television stations and nearly 330 AM and more than 500 FM radio transmitting stations.", "Comprehensive service in twenty-one languages is available throughout the world.Rapid improvements, innovations, and diversification in communications technology, including optical fiber cables, communications satellites, and fax machines, led to rapid growth of the communications industry in the 1980s.", "Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, owned by the government until 1985, had dominated the communications industry until April 1985, when new common carriers, including Daini Denden, were permitted to enter the field.", "NTT Worldwide Telecommunications Corp (Kokusai Denshin Denwa Company, commonly known as KDD, now part of KDDI Inc.) lost its monopoly hold on international communications activities in 1989, when Nihon Kokusai Tsushin and other private overseas communications firms began operations.In 1992 Japan also had more than 12,000 televisions stations, and the country had more than 350 radio stations, 300 AM radio stations and 58 FM.", "Broadcasting innovations in the 1980s included sound multiplex (two-language or stereo) broadcasting, satellite broadcasting, and in 1985 the University of the Air and teletext services were inaugurated.Japan has been the world leader in telecommunications in the 1980s, but this position that has been challenged by the United States' dot-com industry in the 1990s and the emerging tiger states in Asia.", "While the United States is leading in digital content, South Korea is leading in broadband access, India is leading in software, and Taiwan is leading in research and development.Japan went into the 21st century after achieving widespread saturation with telecommunication devices.", "For instance, by 2008 the government's Internal Affairs and Communications Ministry stated that about 75 million people used mobile phones to access the Internet, accounting for about 82% of individual internet users." ], [ "See also", "* Economy of Japan** Economic history of Japan* Telecommunications" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "A JR East E5 series shinkansen train'''Transport in Japan''' is modern and highly developed.", "Japan's transport sector stands out for its energy efficiency: it uses less energy per person compared to other countries, thanks to a high share of rail transport and low overall travel distances.", "Transport in Japan is also very expensive in international comparison, reflecting high tolls and taxes, particularly on automobile transport.Japan's spending on roads has been large.", "The of paved road are the main means of transport.", "Traffic in Japan drives on the left.", "A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities, which are operated by toll-collecting enterprises.Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transport markets; for instance, seven JR Group companies, Kintetsu Railway, Seibu Railway, and Keio Corporation.", "Often, strategies of these enterprises contain real estate or department stores next to stations.", "Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities.", "All trains are known for punctuality.There are 176 airports, and the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, was by passenger traffic the third-busiest in Asia and the fourth-busiest in the world in 2018, but not in the top ten in 2022.The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area).", "The largest ports include Nagoya Port." ], [ "Railway", "Yamanote Line, TokyoA tram in KumamotoIn Japan, railways are a major means of passenger transport, especially for mass and high-speed transport between major cities and for commuter transport in metropolitan areas.", "Seven Japan Railways Group companies, state-owned until 1987, cover most parts of Japan.", "There also are railway services operated by private rail companies, regional governments, and companies funded by both regional governments and private companies.Total railways of include several track gauges, the most common of which is narrow gauge, with of track of which is electrified.Fukuoka, Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka, Sapporo, Sendai, Tokyo, and Yokohama have subway systems.Most Japanese people traveled on foot until the later part of the 19th century.", "The first railway was built between Tokyo's Shimbashi Station and Yokohama's former Yokohama Station (now Sakuragichō Station) in 1872.Many more railways developed soon afterward.Modern Japan is home to one of the world's most developed transport networks.", "Mass transport is well developed in Japan, but the road system lags and is inadequate for the number of cars owned in Japan.", "This is often attributed to the fact that road construction is difficult in Japan because of its very high population density, and the limited amount of available usable land for road construction.===Shinkansen (bullet train)===Map of Shinkansen lines except Hakata-Minami Line and Gala-Yuzawa LineThe Shinkansen, or \"bullet trains\", as they are known colloquially, are the high-speed rail trains that run across Japan.", "The of 8 Shinkansen lines run on completely separate lines from their commuting train counterparts, with a few exceptions.", "Shinkansen takes up a large portion of the long-distance travel in Japan, with the whole system carrying over 10 billion passengers in its lifetime.", "1,114,000 journeys are made daily, with the fastest train being the JR East E5 and E6 series trains, which operate at a maximum speed of .", "Shinkansen trains are known to be very safe, with no accident-related deaths or injuries from passengers in their 50-plus year history.", "Shinkansen trains are also known to be very punctual, following suit with all other Japanese transport; in 2003, the average delay per train on the Tokaido Shinkansen was a mere 6 seconds.", "Japan has been trying to sell its Shinkansen technology overseas, and has struck deals to help build systems in India, Thailand, and the United States.The first Shinkansen line opened between Tokyo and Osaka in 1964, and trains can now make the journey in 2 hours and 25 minutes.", "Additional Shinkansen lines connect Tokyo to Aomori, Niigata, Kanazawa, and Hakodate and Osaka to Fukuoka and Kagoshima, with new lines under construction to Tsuruga and Sapporo.", "A separate line heads out to Nagasaki, albeit through a separate relay service.Japan has been developing maglev technology trains, and broke the world maglev speed record in April 2015 with a train traveling at the speed of .", "The Chūō Shinkansen, a commercial maglev service, is currently under construction from Tokyo to Nagoya and Osaka, and when completed in 2045 will cover the distance in 67 minutes, half the time of the current Shinkansen." ], [ "Road", "Mount Fuji as seen from the Chuo ExpresswayTypical Japanese expressway (Tokyo Gaikan Expressway) above the city road (Japan National Route 298)According to Japan Statistical Yearbook 2015, Japan in April 2012 had approximately 1,215,000 km of roads made up of 1,022,000 km of city, town and village roads, 129,000 km of prefectural roads, 55,000 km of general national highways and 8,050 km of national expressways.", "The Foreign Press Center/Japan cites a total length of expressways at 7,641 km (fiscal 2008).", "A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities on Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu.", "Hokkaido has a separate network, and Okinawa Island has a highway of this type.", "In the year 2005, the toll collecting companies, formerly Japan Highway Public Corporation, have been transformed into private companies in public ownership, and there are plans to sell parts of them.", "This policy aims to encourage competition and decrease tolls.Road passenger and freight transport expanded considerably during the 1980s as private ownership of motor vehicles greatly increased along with the quality and extent of the nation's roads.", "Bus companies including the JR Bus companies operate long-distance bus services on the nation's expanding expressway network.", "In addition to relatively low fares and deluxe seating, the buses are well utilized because they continue service during the night when air and train services are limited.The cargo sector grew rapidly in the 1980s, recording 274.2 billion tonne-kilometres in 1990.The freight handled by motor vehicles, mainly trucks, in 1990, was over 6 billion tonnes, accounting for 90 percent of domestic freight tonnage and about 50 percent of tonne-kilometers.Recent large infrastructure projects were the construction of the Great Seto Bridge and the Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line (opened 1997).===Road safety===Road fatalities have decreased in Japan, due in part to stricter enforcement of drunk driving laws:2004 saw 7,358 deaths on Japanese roads,2017 had 3,694 deaths for 125 million population,2019 saw 3,215 deaths, the lowest it has been since 1948, with a rate of 25.4 deaths per million lower than many European nations, and close to the UK's rates.In Tokyo, road safety is 13 killed per million." ], [ "{{anchor\|Air}}Air", "Kansai International Airport, OsakaIn 2013, Japan had the fourth largest passenger air market in the world with 105,913,000 passengers.", "In 2013 Japan had 98 airports.", "The main international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area).", "The main domestic hub is Tokyo International Airport (Haneda Airport), by passenger traffic the third-busiest in Asia and the fourth-busiest in the world in 2018, but not in the top ten in 2022; other major traffic hubs include Osaka International Airport, New Chitose Airport outside Sapporo, and Fukuoka Airport.", "14 heliports are estimated to exist (1999).Passenger airlines of JapanThe two main airlines are Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways.", "Other passenger carriers include Skymark Airlines, Solaseed Air, Air Do, StarFlyer and Fuji Dream Airlines.", "United Airlines and Delta Air Lines, formerly Northwest Airlines, are major international operators from Narita Airport.Domestic air travel in Japan has historically been highly regulated.", "From 1972, the three major domestic airlines (JAL, ANA, and JAS) were allocated certain routes, with JAL and ANA sharing trunk routes, and ANA and JAS sharing local feeder routes.", "JAL and JAS have since been merged to help compete with ANA.", "JAL also had a flag-carrier monopoly on international routes until 1986.Airfares were set by the government until 2000, although carriers had the freedom to adjust the standard fares starting in 1995 (when discounts of up to 50% were permitted).", "Today, fares can be set by carriers, but the government retains the ability to veto fares that are too high." ], [ "Maritime", "Ferry Miyajima on the Inland Sea near Miyajima, HiroshimaThere are 1770 km of waterways in Japan; seagoing craft ply all coastal inland seas.There are some 994 ports in Japan as of April 2014.There are overlapping classifications of these ports, some of which are multi-purpose, e.g.", "cargo, passenger, naval, and fishery.", "The five designated \"super\" container ports are Yokkaichi, Yokohama, Nagoya, Kobe, and Osaka.", "23 are designated major/international, 125 designated as important, while there are also purely fisherman ports.The twenty-three major seaports designated as special, important ports by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism: Chiba, Fushiki/Toyama, Himeji, Hiroshima, Kawasaki, Kitakyushu, Kobe, Kudamatsu, Muroran, Nagoya, Niigata, Osaka, Sakai/Senpoku, Sendai/Shiogama, Shimizu, Shimonoseki, Tokyo, Tomakomai, Wakayama, Yokkaichi, and Yokohama.Japan has 988 ships of or over on its national ship register, totaling .", "However, only 17% of Japanese-owned capacity is registered in Japan.", "UNCTAD estimates that 224 million dwt of tonnage is controlled by Japanese owners, making Japan the second largest beneficial owner of tonnage after Greece.Ferries connect Hokkaido to Honshu, and Okinawa Island to Kyushu and Honshu.", "They also connect other smaller islands and the main islands.", "The scheduled international passenger routes are to China, Russia, South Korea, and Taiwan.", "Coastal and cross-channel ferries on the main islands decreased in routes and frequencies following the development of bridges and expressways but some are still operating (as of 2007)." ], [ "Pipelines", "Japan has 84 km of pipelines for crude oil, 322 km for petroleum products, and 1,800 km for natural gas." ], [ "By region", "Transport in Greater TokyoTransport in KeihanshinTransport in Greater NagoyaTransport in Fukuoka-Kitakyushu" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Ericson, Steven J.", "''The Sound of the Whistle: Railroads and the State in Meiji Japan'' (Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1996).", "Kinzley, W. Dean.", "\"Merging Lines: Organising Japan's National Railroad, 1906-1914\" ''Journal of Transport History'' 27#2 (2006)" ], [ "External links", " Hyperdia - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese* Jorudan - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese* Toei Transportation Information - English information on Toei bus, subway, and trolley services and multilingual maps* Domestic aviation in Japan: Responding to market forces amid regulatory constraints* Japan Automobile Research Institute (JARI) * Roads In Japan, from Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) - English and Japanese website, the link refer specifically to 5 PDF chapters - as well as a reference chapter - on road history, statistics, maps, construction and advanced road technologies in Japan (graphics throughout, 41 total pages).", "* Japanese Trains - Why the Japanese Train System so Efficient" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Japan" ], [ "Introduction", "Results of 2017 BBC World Service pollViews of Japan's influence by country(sorted by pos − neg)Country polled Positive Negative Neutral Pos − Neg 3 -53 25 3 18 18 42 18 38 28 39 29 19 31 19 33 5 35 18 36 20 36 37 37 26 40 12 42 5 53 15 55 5 61 11 65The are handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.Japan maintains diplomatic relations with every United Nations member state except for North Korea, in addition to UN observer states Holy See, as well as Kosovo, Cook Islands and Niue.Japanese foreign relations had earliest beginnings in the 14th century and after their opening to the world in 1854 with the Convention of Kanagawa.", "Japan rapidly modernized and built a strong military.", "It was imperialistic seeking control of nearby areas—with major wars against China and Russia.", "It gained control of parts of China and Manchuria, as well as Korea and islands such as Taiwan and Okinawa.", "It lost in World War II and was stripped of all of its foreign conquests and possessions.", "See History of Japanese foreign relations.", "American general Douglas MacArthur, acting for the Allied powers, supervised occupied Japan 1945–51.Since occupation ended diplomatic policy has been based on close partnership with the United States and seeking trade agreements, In the Cold War, Japan was demilitarized but it allied with the U.S. in the confrontation with the Soviet Union.", "It played a major support role in the Korean War (1950–1953).", "In the rapid economic developments in the 1960s and 1970s, Japan was one of the major economic powers in the world.By the 1990s Japan participated in the Peacekeeping operations by the UN, and sent troops to Cambodia, Mozambique, Golan Heights and the East Timor.", "After the 9/11 terror attacks in 2001, Japanese naval vessels have been assigned to resupply duties in the Indian Ocean to the present date.", "The Ground Self-Defense Force also dispatched their troops to Southern Iraq for the restoration of basic infrastructures." ], [ "Foreign policy", "Beyond its immediate neighbors, Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility which accompanies its economic strength.", "Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda stressed a changing direction in a policy speech to the National Diet: \"Japan aspires to become a hub of human resource development as well as for research and intellectual contribution to further promote cooperation in the field of peace-building.\"", "This follows the modest success of a Japanese-conceived peace plan which became the foundation for nationwide elections in Cambodia in 1998." ], [ "History", "===Links===* Foreign relations of Meiji Japan* International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)* Diplomatic history of World War I* International relations (1919–1939)* Causes of World War II* Diplomatic history of World War II* Cold War History of Sino-Japanese relations, China France–Japan relations Germany–Japan relations Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 1930–1945 History of Japan–Korea relations * Japan–North Korea relations* Japan–South Korea relations Japanese foreign policy on Southeast Asia Japan–Russia relations* Japan–Soviet Union relations Japan–United Kingdom relations Japan–United States relations" ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Japan maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738394041424344454647484950—51525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186187188189190——191—" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "=== Africa ===Japan is increasingly active in Africa.", "In May 2008, the first Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize will be awarded at Fourth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD IV), which signals a changing emphasis in bilateral relations.", "Country Formal relations beganNotes1962See Algeria–Japan relationsSeptember 1976See Angola–Japan relationsAngola–Japan relations were established in September 1976, shortly after Angola received formal sovereignty.", "As of 2007, economic relations played \"a fundamental role in the bilateral relations between the two governments\".", "News World Centers1922See Egypt–Japan relationsJapan considers Egypt to be a key player in the Middle East and, as such, sees Egypt as a vital part of its diplomacy in the region.", "The two heads of government have been known to support each other on issues pertaining to the peace process in the Middle East.Additionally, the two countries claim to share a common vision for world peace.", "The two countries maintain a \"Joint Committee\" dedicated to exploring developments in areas of mutual interest to the two countries.1963See Japan–Kenya relations* Japan has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya has an embassy in Tokyo.1957See Japan–Libya relations* Japan has an embassy in Tripoli.", "* Libya has an embassy in Tokyo.See Foreign relations of Madagascar* Japan has an embassy in Antananarivo.", "* Madagascar has an embassy in Tokyo.See Japan-Nigeria relationsJapan and Nigeria engage in strong economic and political cooperation.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 October 1960.July 1960See Japan–Somalia relations1910See Japan–South Africa relations* Japan has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Tokyo.June 1956See Foreign relations of TunisiaJapan and Tunisia have a mutual free visa agreement.", "* Japan has an embassy in Cité Mahrajène, Tunis.", "* Tunisia has an embassy in Kudanminami, Chiyoda, Tokyo.=== Americas ===Japan has continued to extend significant support to development and technical assistance projects in Latin America.", "Country Formal relations beganNotes3 February 1898See Argentina–Japan relationsArgentina maintains an embassy in Tokyo and Japan maintains an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "Diplomatic relations were restored by the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1952.Argentine president Arturo Frondizi visited Japan in 1960, and subsequently bilateral trade and Japanese investment into Argentina have increased in importance.", "Japanese imports were primarily foodstuffs and raw materials, while exports were mostly machinery and finished products.Members of the Imperial Family of Japan have visited Argentina on a number of occasions, including Prince and Princess Takamado in 1991, Emperor and Empress Akihito in 1997 and Prince and Princess Akishino in 1998.Argentine President Raúl Alfonsín visit Japan in 1986, as did President Carlos Menem in 1990, 1993 and 1998.29 August 1967See Barbados–Japan relationsJapan was accredited to Barbados from its embassy in Port of Spain (Trinidad and Tobago) and an honorary consulate in Bridgetown.", "Since January 2016, Japan opened a new embassy directly in Bridgetown, Barbados.", "Barbados is represented towards Japan through a non-resident ambassador in Bridgetown.3 April 1914See Bolivia–Japan relations* Bolivia has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in La Paz and a consular office in Santa Cruz de la Sierra.", "* There are around 15,000 Bolivians who are of Japanese descent.", "(See also Japanese Bolivians)1895See Brazil–Japan relations* Brazil has an embassy in Tokyo and consulates-general in Hamamatsu and Nagoya.", "* Japan has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Belém, Curitiba, Manaus, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and consular offices in Recife and Porto Alegre.21 January 1928See Canada–Japan relationsDiplomatic relations between both countries officially began in 1950 with the opening of the Japanese consulate in Ottawa.", "In 1929, Canada opened its Tokyo legation, the first in Asia; and in that same year, Japan its Ottawa consulate to legation form.Some Canadian–Japanese contacts predate the mutual establishment of permanent legations.", "The first known Japanese immigrant to Canada, Manzo Nagano, landed in New Westminster, British Columbia in 1877.Japan's consulate in Vancouver was established in 1889, 40 years before its embassy was opened in Ottawa in 1929.Canadians G. G. Cochran helped in founding Doshisha University in Kyoto, and Davidson McDonald helped in establishing Aoyama Gakuin University in Tokyo.In the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, a Canadian steamship, the RMS ''Empress of Australia'' and her captain, Samuel Robinson achieved international acclaim for stalwart rescue efforts during the immediate aftermath of that disaster.Canadian military attaché Herbert Cyril Thacker served in the field with Japanese forces in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), for which the Japanese government awarded him the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Third Class and the Japanese War medal for service during that campaign.Canada and Japan have had diplomatic relations since 1928.Both countries are characterized by their active role in the Asia-Pacific community, as well as a relationship consisting of important economic, political, and socio-cultural ties.", "As major international donors, both Canada and Japan are strongly committed to promoting human rights, sustainable development and peace initiatives.Canada–Japan relations are underpinned by their partnership in multilateral institutions: the G-7/8; the United Nations; the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Quad (Canada, the European Union, Japan and the United States), and by their common interest in the Pacific community, including participation in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF).Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko visited Canada in 2009.See Chile–Japan relationsDuring World War II, relations between both countries were severed.", "In 1943, President Juan Antonio Ríos suspended relations with Japan and in February 1945, he declared a \"state of belligerancy\".", "Finally, on 12 April 1945, Chile declared war against Japan.", "Relations were re-established by the signing of San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1952.", "Japan has an embassy in Santiago de ChileChile has an embassy and a consulate-general in Tokyo and three honorary consulates in Osaka, Sapporo and Nagasaki.25 May 1908See Colombia–Japan relationsThe relationship was officially established in 1908, only interrupted between 1942 and 1954 with the surge of World War II.", "Relations are mostly based on commercial trade that has favored Japan interests such as Colombian coffee (which Japan imports a lot), cultural exchanges and technological and philanthropic aid to Colombia.26 August 1918See Ecuador–Japan relations30 November 1888See Japan–Mexico relationsThe Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation concluded in 1888 between Japan and Mexico was the nation's first \"equal\" treaty with any country; which overshadows Tokugawa Ieyasu's pre-Edo period initiatives which sought to establish official relations with the New Spain in Mexico.In 1897, the 35 members of the so-called ''Enomoto'' Colonization Party settle in the Mexican state of Chiapas.", "This was the first organized emigration from Japan to Latin America.President Álvaro Obregón was awarded Japan's Order of the Chrysanthemum at a special ceremony in Mexico City.", "On 27 November 1924, Baron Shigetsuma Furuya, Special Ambassador from Japan to Mexico, conferred the honor on Obregón.", "It was reported that this had been the first time that the Order had been conferred outside the Imperial family.In 1952, Mexico becomes the second country to ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty, preceded only by the United Kingdom.Mexico and Japan on 17 September 2004, signed the \"Agreement Between Japan and The United Mexican States for the Strengthening of The Economic Partnership.\"", "This was the among many historic steps led by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to strengthen global economic stability.17 November 1919See Japan–Paraguay relations Commercial relations started prior to the establishment of diplomatic relations.", "Trade agreement was signed in Asuncion on 17 November 1919.", "* Japan has an embassy in Asuncion.", "* Paraguay has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* There are around 10,000 Paraguayans who are of Japanese descent, whose ancestors came to Paraguay between 1936 and 1959.", "(See also Japanese Paraguayans)* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Paraguay* Paraguayan Ministry of Foreign Relations about relations with Japan21 August 1873See Japan–Peru relations* Japan has an embassy in Lima.", "* Peru has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate-general in Nagoya.May 1964See Japan–Trinidad and Tobago relations29 July 1858See Japan–United States relationsYasuo Fukuda and George W. BushThe United States is Japan's closest ally, and Japan relies on the U.S. for its national security to a high degree.", "As two of the world's top three economic powers, both countries also rely on close economic ties for their wealth, despite ongoing and occasionally acrimonious trade frictions.After Japan's defeat in World War II, the Japanese-ruled Northern Mariana Islands came under control of the United States.Although its constitution and government policy preclude an offensive military role for Japan in international affairs, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the 1960 U.S.–Japan Security Treaty has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia.", "Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation of Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution.", "All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the mutual security treaty for strategic protection.The relationship probably hit a post-war nadir around the early 1990s, when Japan's \"economic rise\" was seen as a threat to American power.", "Japan was the primary financier of the Gulf War, yet received major criticism in some US circles for its refusal to commit actual military support.", "Following the collapse of the so-called Bubble economy and the 1990s boom in the US, the Japanese economy was perceived as less of a threat to US interests.", "Some observers still feel that Japan's willingness to deploy troops in support of current US operations in Iraq, as spearheaded by Koizumi and the conservative Liberal Democratic Party, reflects a vow not to be excluded from the group of countries the US considers friends.", "This decision may reflect a realpolitik understanding of the threat Japan faces from a rapidly modernizing China, which from its continued and indeed growing pattern of anti-Japanese demonstrations reveals the belief that old historical scores remain unsettled.24 September 1921See Japan–Uruguay relations* Japan has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* There are several thousand people of Japanese descent living in Uruguay.", "(See also Japanese Uruguayans)* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Uruguay19 August 1938See Japan–Venezuela relationsFormal diplomatic relations between the countries were established in August 1938.Venezuela broke off diplomatic ties with Japan (and the other Axis Powers) in December 1941, shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.In 1999, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez made a three-day trip to Japan.", "He made another two-day trip in 2009, during which he met Prime Minister Taro Aso.In February 2019, Japan recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaido as Venezuelan legitimate president.=== Asia ===Results of 2013 Pew Research Center pollAsia/Pacific views of Japan by country(sorted by fav − unfav)Country polled Positive Negative Neutral Pos − Neg6-861-5542444606629671474==== Southeast Asia ====Embassy of Indonesia in JapanBy 1990 Japan's interaction with the vast majority of Asia-Pacific countries, especially its burgeoning economic exchanges, was multifaceted and increasingly important to the recipient countries.", "The developing countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) regarded Japan as critical to their development.", "Japan's aid to the ASEAN countries totaled US$1.9 billion in Japanese fiscal year (FY) 1988 versus about US$333 million for the United States during U.S. FY 1988.As of the late 1980s, Japan was the number one foreign investor in the ASEAN countries, with cumulative investment as of March 1989 of about US$14.5 billion, more than twice that of the United States.", "Japan's share of total foreign investment in ASEAN countries in the same period ranged from 70 to 80 percent in Thailand to 20 percent in Indonesia.In the late 1980s, the Japanese government was making a concerted effort to enhance its diplomatic stature, especially in Asia.", "Toshiki Kaifu's much publicized spring 1991 tour of five Southeast Asian nations—Malaysia, Brunei, Thailand, Singapore, and the Philippines—culminated in a 3 May major foreign policy address in Singapore, in which he called for a new partnership with the ASEAN and pledged that Japan would go beyond the purely economic sphere to seek an \"appropriate role in the political sphere as a nation of peace.\"", "As evidence of this new role, Japan took an active part in promoting negotiations to resolve the Cambodian conflict.In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ASEAN Plus Three meetings.", "In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural East Asia Summit (EAS).==== South Asia ====In South Asia, Japan's role is mainly that of an aid donor.", "Japan's aid to seven South Asian countries totaled US$1.1 billion in 1988.Except for Pakistan, which received heavy inputs of aid from the United States, all other South Asian countries received most of their aid from Japan as of the early 1990s.", "Four South Asian nations—India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka—are in the top ten list of Tokyo's aid recipients worldwide as of the early 1990s.", "A point to note is that Indian Government has received no aid since the 2004 Tsunami that struck India but Indian registered NGOs look to Japan for much investment in their projects.Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu signaled a broadening of Japan's interest in South Asia with his swing through the region in April 1990.In an address to the Indian parliament, Kaifu stressed the role of free markets and democracy in bringing about \"a new international order,\" and he emphasized the need for a settlement of the Kashmir territorial dispute between India and Pakistan and for economic liberalization to attract foreign investment and promote dynamic growth.", "To India, which was very short of hard currency, Kaifu pledged a new concessional loan of ¥100 billion (about US$650 million) for the coming year.", "Country Formal relations began Notes19 November 1930See Afghanistan–Japan relationsAfghan–Japanese relations have existed as far back as World War II, and have been mainly positive.", "The Japanese government in 1974 started feasibility study under grant aid to develop and built television in Afghanistan.27 January 1992See Azerbaijan–Japan relations15 May 1974See Bahrain–Japan relationsFebruary 1972See Bangladesh–Japan relationsBangladeshi–Japanese relations were established in February 1972.Japan is Bangladesh's 11th-largest export market; imports from Bangladesh make up 26% of all Japanese imports from the least developed countries, second only to those from Cambodia.", "Common imports from Bangladesh to Japan include leather goods, ready-made garments, and shrimp.", "By 2004, Japan had become Bangladesh's fourth-largest source of foreign direct investment, behind the United States, United Kingdom, and Malaysia.", "Japan's political goals in its relationship with Bangladesh include gaining support for their bid to join the United Nations Security Council, and securing markets for their finished goods.", "Japan is a significant source of development aid to Bangladesh.28 March 1986See Bhutan–Japan relations2 April 1984See Brunei–Japan relationsBrunei has an embassy in Tokyo, and Japan has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan.", "Relations has been established since 2 April 1984.1953See Cambodia–Japan relationsJapan has an embassy in Phnom Penh.", "Trade is sizable between the two countries:Japan to Cambodia: 14.0 billion yen (2006)Cambodia to Japan: 9.5 billion yen (2006)Japanese investment in Cambodia includes Phnom Penh Commercial Bank, a joint venture of Hyundai Switzerland and Japanese SBI Group, opened in 2008.Japan remains Cambodia's top donor country providing some US$1.2 billion in total overseas development assistance (ODA) during the period since 1992.In 2006, Japanese and Cambodian governments signed an agreement outlining a new Japanese aid program worth US$59 million.The Japanese Government has provided significant assistance for demining and education.", "* Japanese embassy in Cambodia1972See China–Japan relationsEmbassy of Japan in BeijingDuring the Meiji Era, China was one of the first countries to experience the effects of Japanese Imperialism.", "After the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, relations with Japan changed from hostility and an absence of contact to cordiality and extremely close cooperation in many fields.", "During the 1960s the two countries resumed trade for the first time since World War II under the Liao–Takasaki Agreement.", "On 29 September 1972, Japan and China signed a treaty establishing diplomatic relations between the states.", "The 1990s led to an enormous growth in China's economic welfare.", "Trade between Japan and China was one of the many reasons China was able to grow in the double-digit rates during the 1980s and 1990s.", "Japan was in the forefront among leading industrialized nations in restoring closer economic and political relations with China.", "China and Japan's bilateral relationship has often been referred to as \"politically cold and economically warm\".", "The two countries have been able to keep their political issues separate in hopes of being able to continue to benefit from each other's economic success and prosperity.", "Resumption of Japan's multibillion-dollar investments to China and increased visits to China by Japanese officials, culminating in the October 1992 visit of Emperor Akihito, gave a clear indication that Japan considered closer ties with China in its economic and strategic interest.", "Despite a 1995 apology regarding World War II by Japanese Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama, tensions still remain, mostly because many Chinese feel there is a lack of true remorse for wartime crimes committed by Imperial Japanese forces.", "This has been reinforced by numerous visits to the Yasukuni Shrine by Japanese Prime Ministers, attempts to revise textbooks by Japanese nationalists, the continued dispute over Japan's atrocities in the Nanking Massacre, and the resurgence of nationalism and militarism in Japan.", "The resurgence of Japan's nationalism has changed widespread feelings about China among citizens.", "During the post-war period, many Japanese people acknowledged and appreciated China's influence on their culture and the country's achievements.", "However, the approval rate of the country began to go down due to a lack of acknowledgement of Japan's past economic contribution to China's development as China grew to be one of the largest economies in east Asia, China's military and economic growth and what that would mean for the possibility of growth in Japan, and the 2004 anti-Japanese nationalism protests in China, Relations between China and Japan have also been strained due to territory politics such as fights over The Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands continue.", "Because the two are highly engaged economically, the countries try to keep their issues at bay but, as social disapproval increases and disagreements drawn out, it is possible the relationship between the two countries could shift.20 May 2002See East Timor–Japan relations28 April 1952See India–Japan relationsIndian, Japanese and US naval warships take part in a military exercise near Bōsō Peninsula in 2007.India is one of the only three nations with whom Japan has a security pact, the other two being the United States and Australia.Throughout history, bilateral foreign relations between Japan and India have generally been friendly and strong.", "In December 2006, Prime Minister Singh's visit to Japan culminated in the signing of the \"Joint Statement Towards Japan–India Strategic and Global Partnership\".According to Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's ''arc of freedom'' theory, it is in Japan's interests to develop closer ties with India, world's most populous democracy, while its relations with China remain chilly.", "To this end, Japan has funded many infrastructure projects in India, most notably in New Delhi's metro subway system and Maruti.India and Japan have signed a deal to build high speed trains in IndiaIndian applicants have been welcomed in 2006–07 to the JET Programme, starting with just one slot available in 2006 and 41 in 2007.India and Japan signed a security cooperation agreement in which both will hold military exercises, police the Indian Ocean and conduct military-to-military exchanges on fighting terrorism, making India one of only three countries, the others being the United States and Australia, with which Japan has such a security pact.Japan is aiding India in building the High Speed Railway by giving India money and there are plans to export Japan's Shinkansen to India.", "There are 25,000 Indians in Japan as of 2008.April 1958See Indonesia–Japan relations* Indonesia has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate in Osaka.", "Japan has an embassy in Jakarta, consulate-general in Surabaya, and consulates in Medan, Denpasar, Makassar.", "* Japan is Indonesia's largest export partner.", "* Both countries are members of the G20 major economies and APEC.1878See Iran–Japan relationsJapan's foreign policy towards and investments in Iran have historically been dominated by the desire to secure reliable energy supplies; Iran is Japan's third-largest oil supplier after Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.", "Iran and Japan signed a visa-free travel arrangement in 1974, but it was terminated in April 1992 due to large-scale illegal Iranian migration to Japan.", "Iran and Japan also cooperate on regional foreign policy issues in the Middle East, such as the reconstruction of Afghanistan and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.", "Since 2004, Japan has been working on developing Iran's largest on-shore oil field, located at Azadegan.15 May 1952See Israel–Japan relationsThe Japanese government refrained from appointing a Minister Plenipotentiary to Israel until 1955.Relations between the two states were distant at first, but after 1958, as demand no break occurred.", "This had been at the same time that OPEC had imposed an oil embargo against several countries, including Japan.Recently ties between Israel and Japan have strengthened significantly, with many mutual investments between the two nations.", "Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe visited Israel twice – once in 2015 and a second time in 2018.", "* Israel has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Tel Aviv and an honorary consulate in Jerusalem.14 July 1954Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 1954.Japan is one of Jordan's biggest donors.5 March 1955See Japan-Laos relationsNovember 1954* The embassy of Japan in Lebanon is located in the Serail Hill Area, Army Street, Zokak El-Blat, Beirut.", "The current ambassador is Yoshihisa Kuroda.", "* The embassy of Lebanon in Japan is located in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo.", "* The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan: Japan–Lebanon Relations31 August 1957See Japan–Malaysia relationsJapan has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur, and consulates in George Town and Kota Kinabalu.", "Malaysia maintains an embassy in Tokyo.", "The Japanese and Malaysian governments had visited each other on multiple occasions.", "Notable visits include the King of Malaysia visiting Japan in 2005 while in 2006, the Emperor and Empress of Japan visited Malaysia.6 November 1967See Japan–Maldives relations1972See Mongolia–Japan relations* Japan has an embassy in Ulaanbaatar.", "* Mongolia has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs- Mongolia* Mongolian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Japan (in Mongolian)1 December 1954See Japan–Myanmar relations28 July 1956See Japan–Nepal relations* Japan has an embassy in Kathmandu.", "* Nepal has an embassy in Tokyo.See Japan–North Korea relationsNo formal relations have been established between Japan and North Korea, though Japanese politicians have occasionally visited North Korea.", "Relations between Japan and North Korea have been historical hostile with incidents of confrontation.", "Japan strongly supports the U.S. in its efforts to encourage North Korea to abide by the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and its agreements with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).", "Despite 31 August 1998 North Korean missile test which overflew the Home Islands, Japan has maintained its support for the Korean Energy Development Organization (KEDO) and the Agreed Framework, which seeks to freeze the North Korean nuclear program.", "The U.S., Japan, and South Korea closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, at least on a government level.", "Japan has limited economic and commercial ties with North Korea.", "Japanese normalization talks halted when North Korea refused to discuss a number of issues with Japan.28 April 1952See Japan–Pakistan relations* There has been a regular exchange of high level visits between the two countries.", "* The 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations, jointly celebrated by the two countries in 2002, was a significant landmark in the history of this friendship.", "* There are at least 10,000 Pakistanis residing in Japan.July 1956See Japan-Philippines relationsRelations between Japan and the Philippines were generally very strong since the end of World War II.", "It span a period from before the 16th century to the present.", "The Philippines gained independence from the United States in 1946.Diplomatic relations were re-established in 1956, when a war reparations agreement was concluded.", "By the end of the 1950s, Japanese companies and individual investors had begun to return to the Philippines and in 1975, Japan displaced the United States as the main source of investment in the Philippines.1972See Japan–Qatar relationsJune 1955See Japan–Saudi Arabia relationsSaudi Arabian – Japan relations were established during the past half a century.", "Saudi–Japanese relations are based on mutual respect and common interests in all areas.26 April 1966See Japan–Singapore relationsDecember 1965See Japan–South Korea relationsJapan and South Korea have had many disputes.", "Former South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun rejected a conference with the Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi following his visits to the controversial Yasukuni Shrine.", "Many Koreans thought the presence of the Minister attending was a clear indication of the lack of respect and accountability Japan has done regarding the historical story of Japanese imperialism.", "Protests occurred in South Korea with citizens demanding the President to moblize and respond to the Japanese minister's offense and lack of remorse.", "Other long-running issues between the two countries include The Sea of Japan naming dispute, territorial disputes over the Liancourt Rocks theses disputes are long lasting effects of nationalistic feelings that overtime leaders have been able to use as part of political agenda.", "For Koreans, feelings of hope are also intermingled with deep rooted hostility towards the Japanese neighbors who once occupied their country and who still claim the islets as theirs.", "Takeshima is \"indisputably an inherent part of the territory of Japan, in light of historical facts and based on international law\", says the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "It adds that the Republic of Korea has been occupying Takeshima with \"no basis in international law,\" and that it will continue to seek the settlement \"in a calm and peaceful manner\".", "Additionally, disagreement about whether or not the matter of World War II-era forced prostitution has been resolved, so tensions between both countries have at times escalated situations surrounding elections and economic trade deals which have impacted both positive and negative interactions.", "While there has been compensation to the women and the families of the sex slave genuine polices to resolve the issue still arises during talks of cooperation especially since some are still living and the fact that many Japanese historical textbooks change the number of women or tend to ignore the very fact why the state is anti-military it was because of the abuses that occurred during the imperial times which makes cooperation between the two difficult.", "But with recent change in leadership and the objective to build up their trust we have seen talks of positive interactions moving forward.", "1952See Japan–Sri Lanka relations* Japan has an embassy in Colombo.", "* Sri Lanka has an embassy in TokyoDecember 1953* Japan has an embassy in Damascus* Syria has an Embassy of Syria in Tokyo.1952See Japan–Taiwan relationsTaiwan was ceded to Japan in 1895 and was a major Japanese prefecture in World War II.", "Following the unconditional surrender of Japan to Allied Powers after World War II, Taiwan was relinquished by Japan as a stolen territory from China (like Manchukuo) by the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951.Current relations are guided by the 1972 Japan–PRC Joint Communique.", "Since the joint Communique, Japan has maintained non-governmental, working-level relations with Taiwan.", "Japan refers to the Republic of China on Taiwan with the neutral name \"Taiwan.", "\"26 September 1887See Japan–Thailand relationsJapan–Thailand relations span a period from the 17th century to the present.", "Contacts had an early start with Japanese trade on Red seal ships and the installation of Japanese communities on Siamese soil, only to be broken off with Japan's period of seclusion.", "Contacts resumed in the 19th century and developed to the point where Japan is today one of Thailand's foremost economic partners.", "Thailand and Japan share the distinction of never having lost sovereignty during the Colonial period.1890sSee Japan–Turkey relations* First embassies were opened in 1925.", "* Japan has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* There are 10,000 Turks living in Japan.", "* Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Japan21 September 1973See Japan–Vietnam relationsVietnamese–Japanese relations stretch back to at least the 16th century, when the two countries engaged in friendly trade.", "Modern relations between the two countries are based on Vietnam's developing economy and Japan's role as an investor and foreign aid donor.=== Europe ===34th G8 summit (Tōyako Town, Hokkaidō)In what became known as the Tenshō embassy, the first ambassadors from Japan to European powers reached Lisbon, Portugal in August 1584.From Lisbon, the ambassadors left for the Vatican in Rome, which was the main goal of their journey.", "The embassy returned to Japan in 1590, after which time the four nobleman ambassadors were ordained by Alessandro Valignano as the first Japanese Jesuit fathers.A second embassy, headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga and sponsored by Date Masamune, was also a diplomatic mission to the Vatican.", "The embassy left 28 October 1613 from Ishinomaki, Miyagi Prefecture, in the northern Tōhoku region of Japan, where Date was ''daimyō''.", "It traveled to Europe by way of New Spain, arriving in Acapulco on 25 January 1614, Mexico City in March, Havana in July, and finally Seville on 23 October 1614.After a short stop-over in France, the embassy reached Rome in November 1615, where it was received by Pope Paul V. After return travel by way of New Spain and the Philippines, the embassy reached the harbor of Nagasaki in August 1620.While the embassy was gone, Japan had undergone significant change, starting with the 1614 Osaka Rebellion, leading to a 1616 decree from the Tokugawa shogunate that all interaction with non-Chinese foreigners was confined to Hirado and Nagasaki.", "In fact, the only western country that was allowed to trade with Japan was the Dutch Republic.", "This was the beginning of \"sakoku\", where Japan was essentially closed to the western world until 1854.===Modern era===Embassy of Japan in Bratislava, SlovakiaThe cultural and non-economic ties with Western Europe grew significantly during the 1980s, although the economic nexus remained by far the most important element of Japanese – West European relations throughout the decade.", "Events in West European relations, as well as political, economic, or even military matters, were topics of concern to most Japanese commentators because of the immediate implications for Japan.", "The major issues centred on the effect of the coming West European economic unification on Japan's trade, investment, and other opportunities in Western Europe.", "Some West European leaders were anxious to restrict Japanese access to the newly integrated European Union, but others appeared open to Japanese trade and investment.", "In partial response to the strengthening economic ties among nations in Western Europe and to the United States–Canada–Mexico North American Free Trade Agreement, Japan and other countries along the Asia-Pacific rim began moving in the late 1980s toward greater economic cooperation.On 18 July 1991, after several months of difficult negotiations, Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu signed a joint statement with the Dutch prime minister and head of the European Community Council, Ruud Lubbers, and with the European Commission president, Jacques Delors, pledging closer Japanese – European Community consultations on foreign relations, scientific and technological cooperation, assistance to developing countries, and efforts to reduce trade conflicts.", "Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials hoped that this agreement would help to broaden Japanese – European Community political links and raise them above the narrow confines of trade disputes.", "Country Formal relations beganNotesApril 1922; re-established in 1981See Albania–Japan relationsAlbania and Japan resumed established diplomatic relations in March 1981.", "* Albania has an embassy in Tokyo.7 September 1992See Armenia–Japan relations* Armenia has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Yerevan.", "* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia18 October 1869See Austria–Japan relations* Austria has an embassy in Tokyo and 4 honorary consulates (in Hiroshima, Nagoya, Osaka and Sapporo).", "* Japan has an embassy in Vienna and an honorary consulate in Salzburg.1 August 1866See Belgium–Japan relations1890sSee Bulgaria–Japan relations* Bulgaria has an embassy in Tokyo and an honorary consulate in Yokohama.", "* Japan has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Bulgaria5 March 1992See Croatia–Japan relations12 January 1920See Czech Republic–Japan relations 1867See Denmark–Japan relations1959See Japan–European Union relations6 September 1919See Finland–Japan relations * Finland has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Helsinki.9 October 1858See France–Japan relationsThe history of goes back to the early 17th century, when a Japanese samurai and ambassador on his way to Rome landed for a few days in Southern France, creating a sensation.", "France and Japan have enjoyed a very robust and progressive relationship spanning centuries through various contacts in each other's countries by senior representatives, strategic efforts, and cultural exchanges.3 August 1992See Georgia–Japan relations* Japan has extended foreign aid to Georgia for various economic and cultural development projects.", "* The balance of trade between the two nations is heavily in favor of Japan, with Japan exporting automobiles and manufactured goods, and Georgia exporting food products and chemicals.", "* Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze made an official visit to Japan in March 1999 and President Mikheil Saakashvili visited Japan in March 2007.", "* Since November 2006, Georgia has maintained an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Tbilisi.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Japan* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Georgia24 January 1861See Germany–Japan relationsRegular meetings between the two countries have led to several cooperations.", "In 2004 German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan, the promotion of economic exchange activities, youth and sports exchanges as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields.June 1899See Greece–Japan relationsThere has been a Greek embassy in Tokyo since 1960, and a Japanese embassy in Athens since the same year, when it was decided to upgrade the Japanese Consulate which had opened in 1956.Since then the two countries have enjoyed excellent relations in all fields, and cooperate closely.March 1942See Holy See–Japan relationsThe first Papal visit to Japan took place in 1981.the present Apostolic Nuncio to Japan is Joseph Chennoth (since 2011) Japan first sent an ambassador, Ken Harada, to the Vatican during World War II.1921See Hungary–Japan relations* Hungary has an embassy in Tokyo and two honorary consulates (in Hamamatsu and Osaka).", "* Japan has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary8 December 1956See Iceland–Japan relations* Iceland has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Reykjavík.March 1957See Ireland–Japan relations* Ireland has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Dublin.25 August 1866See Italy–Japan relations* Italy has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Rome.", "* Foreign Affairs Ministers of both nation held informal talks on the margins of the G7 Foreign Ministers’ meeting in Tokyo in early November 2023.25 February 2009See Japan–Kosovo relationsJapan recognised it on 18 March 2008.The first Ambassador of Japan to the Republic of Kosovo is Akio Tanaka.", "He is subordinate to the Japanese Embassy in Vienna, Austria.June 1996See Japan–Liechtenstein relations* Japan has an honorary consulate in Schaan.", "* The two countries signed a tax treaty in 2012.1919;10 October 1991See Japan–Lithuania relations* Japan has an embassy in Vilnius, established in 1997.", "* In 1998, Lithuania has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Ambassador to Lithuania is Miyoko Akashi, ambassador to Japan is Dainius Kamaitis.", "* In 2007 the Emperor and Empress of Japan Akihito and Michiko paid an official visit in Lithuania.See Japan–Malta relations* Malta has a consulate in Tokyo.", "* Japan has a consulate in Valletta.16 March 1992* Japan has a non-resident ambassador in Ukraine.", "* Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Moldova, Nicolae Tăbăcaru paid a visit to Japan from 31 January to 4 February 1999.It was a first official visit of a Cabinet Member of the Republic of Moldova to Japan.", "The visit has strengthened the friendly relations between Japan and the Republic of Moldova.", "* Since 2000 Japan implements in Moldova the grant programme for the improvement of agriculture and private farming.", "* Embassy of the Republic of Moldova in China* Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Moldova* Japanese ministry of foreign affairs about Moldova24 July 2006 See Japan–Montenegro relationsJapan recognised Montenegro on 16 June 2006 and established diplomatic relations on 24 July 2006.Montenegro had declared war on Japan in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War and never signed a peace treaty until 2006, shortly before the opening of diplomatic relations.", "The war lasted for 101 years.", "Trade, mostly related to electronics, exports from Japan to Montenegro (163 million yen per annum) outweigh Japan's imports (2 million yen per annum).", "* Japan is accredited to Montenegro from its embassy in Belgrade, Serbia.", "* Montenegro is accredited to Japan from its embassy in Beijing, China.1609See Japan–Netherlands relationsThe relations between Japan and the Netherlands after 1945 have been a triangular relationship.", "The invasion and Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies during World War II brought about the destruction of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government as they could, weakening the post-war grip the Netherlands had over the territory.", "Under pressure from the United States, the Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in 1949 (see United States of Indonesia).", "* Japan has an embassy in The Hague.", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Tokyo.1905–11See Foreign relations of Norway* Japan has an embassy in Oslo.", "* Norway has an embassy in Tokyo.", "March 1919See Japan–Poland relations* Japan has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Tokyo 3 August 1860See Japan–Portugal relations 18 June 1902See Foreign relations of Romania#Asia: East Asia* The first representation of Romania in Japan was opened in 1921.", "* Japan was represented in Romania through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).", "* After World War II, both states resumed their diplomatic relations in 1959.", "* Japan has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Romania has an embassy in Tokyo and four honorary consulates (in Atami, Osaka, Nagoya and Yokohama).", "* Japanese Ministry of Foreign affairs about relations with Romania7 February 1855See Japan–Russia relationsJapan's relations with Russia are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the four islands that make up the Northern Territories (Kuriles), which the Soviet Union seized towards the end of World War II.", "The stalemate has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war.", "The dispute over the Kuril Islands exacerbated the Japan–Russo relations when the Japanese government published a new guideline for school textbooks on 16 July 2008 to teach Japanese children that their country has sovereignty over the Kuril Islands.", "The Russian public was outraged by the action the Foreign Minister of Russia criticized the action while reaffirming its sovereignty over the islands.", "reestablished in 1952See Japan–Serbia relations* Japan has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Serbia has an embassy in Tokyo and an honorary consulate in Osaka.12 October 1992* Japan has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Slovenia has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with SloveniaFirst contact in 1584, officialized in 1868.Relations were broken on 11 April 1945 and reestablished in 1952See Japan–Spain relations* Japan has an embassy in Madrid and consulates in Barcelona and Las Palmas.", "* Spain has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Since 1997, every year a Japan–Spain Symposium for the cultural exchange between the two countries is held.", "* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Spain* Spanish Embassy in Tokyo about Spanish relations with Japan1868See Japan–Sweden relations* Japan has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Tokyo.6 February 1864* Japan has an embassy in Bern and a general consulate in Geneva.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Switzerland* Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs about relations with Japan26 January 1992See Japan–Ukraine relations* Japan extended diplomatic recognition to the Ukrainian state on 28 December 1991, immediately after the breakup of the Soviet Union* Ukraine maintains an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan maintains an embassy in Kyiv.14 October 1854See Japan–United Kingdom relationsThe relationship between the United Kingdom and Japan began in 1600 with the arrival of William Adams (Adams the Pilot, ''Miura Anjin'') on the shores of Kyūshū at Usuki in Ōita Prefecture.", "During the Sakoku period (1641–1853) there were no relations, but the treaty of 1854 saw the resumption of ties which, despite the hiatus of the Second World War, remain very strong in the present day.", "Today, the United Kingdom views Japan as its closest ally in the Asia Pacific region, while Japan views the UK as its closest ally in Europe.=== Oceania === Country Formal relations beganNotes1947See Australia–Japan relationsJapanese Foreign Minister Katsuya Okada (left), U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (centre) and Australian Foreign Minister Stephen Smith (right), in 2009Australia–Japan relations have generally warm as well as acknowledged mutuality of strong interests, beliefs and friendship, and has since continued to grow strongly over the years.", "However, memories of World War II linger among the older members of the Australian public, as does a contemporary fear of Japanese economic domination over countries, particularly Australia, although such fears have fallen off in response to Japan's economic stagnation in the 1990s.", "At the same time, government and business leaders see Japan as a vital export market and an essential element in Australia's strong future growth and prosperity in the Asia-Pacific region.Australia is also a major source of food and raw materials for Japan.", "In 1988 Australia accounted for 5.5 percent of total Japanese imports, a share that held relatively steady in the late 1980s.", "Due to its ability to export raw materials, Australia had a trade surplus with Japan.", "Australia was the largest single supplier of coal, iron ore, wool, and sugar to Japan in 1988.Australia is also a supplier of uranium.", "Japanese investment by 1988 made Australia the single largest source of Japanese regional imports.", "Resource development projects in Australia attracted Japanese capital, as did trade protectionism by necessitating local production for the Australian market.", "Investments in Australia totaled US$8.1 billion in 1988, accounting for 4.4 percent of Japanese direct investment abroad.", "There is some tension regarding the issue of whaling.1 October 1970See Fiji-Japan relationsJapan has an embassy in Suva and Fiji has an embassy in Tokyo.1952See Japan–New Zealand relationsNew Zealand Prime Minister Keith Holyoake (left) met with Japanese Foreign Minister Masayoshi Ohira (right), in October 1972.Japan–New Zealand relations have had generally cordial relations since the post-World War II period, with Japan being a major trading partner with New Zealand.", "These relations have held together despite policy disputes over whaling and the International Whaling Commission.In March 2011, New Zealand sent an urban search and rescue team, which had spent time the previous three weeks searching buildings after the last month's devastating earthquake in Christchurch, and 15 tonnes of rescue equipment to assist Japan following the Tōhoku earthquake and the subsequent of tsunami and Fukushima nuclear disaster.", "New Zealand Parliament sends condolences to the people of Japan, and the government donated $2 million to the Japanese Red Cross Society to support relief efforts.", " New Zealand has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Wellington and two consulates-general in Auckland and Christchurch.2 November 1994See Japan–Palau relations1970See Japan–Tonga relationsJapan and the Kingdom of Tonga have maintained official diplomatic relations since July 1970.Japan is Tonga's leading donor in the field of technical aid.", "The Japanese government describes its relations with Tonga as \"excellent\", and states that \"the Imperial family of Japan and the Royal family of Tonga have developed a cordial and personal relationship over the years\"." ], [ "Disputed territories", "Japan has several territorial disputes with its neighbors concerning the control of certain outlying islands.Japan contests Russia's control of the Southern Kuril Islands (including Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai group) which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.South Korea's assertions concerning Liancourt Rocks (Japanese: \"Takeshima\", Korean: \"Dokdo\") are acknowledged, but not accepted by Japan.", "Japan has strained relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) over the Senkaku Islands; and with the People's Republic of China over the status of Okinotorishima." ], [ "See also", "* Foreign policy of Japan* List of diplomatic missions in Japan* List of diplomatic missions of Japan* List of war apology statements issued by Japan* Hotta Masayoshi* Visa requirements for Japanese citizens" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Akagi, Roy Hidemichi.", "''Japan's Foreign Relations 1542-1936: A Short History'' (Hokuseido Press, 1936).", "online 560pp* Akimoto, Daisuke.", "''The Abe Doctrine: Japan's Proactive Pacifism and Security Strategy'' (Springer, 2018).", "* Barnhart, Michael A.", "''Japan and the World since 1868'' (Hodder Education, 1995) excerpt* Bradford, John.", "\"Southeast Asia: A New Strategic Nexus for Japan's Maritime Strategy.\"", "''CIMSEC'' (September 2020).", "online* Buckley, Roger.", "''US-Japan Alliance Diplomacy 1945–1990'' (Cambridge University Press, 1992).", "* Duus, Peter, ed.", "''The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol.", "6: The Twentieth Century'' (Cambridge University Press, 1989).", "* Gustafsson, Karl, Linus Hagström, and Ulv Hanssen.", "\"Japan's pacifism is dead.\"", "''Survival'' 60.6 (2018): 137–158.", "* Hatano, Sumio.", "''One Hundred Fifty Years of Japanese Foreign Relations: From 1868 to 2018'' (Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture, 2022).", "* Hook, Glenn D. et al.", "''Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security'' 3rd ed (Routledge, 2011), covers 1945–2010.", "* Inoguchi, Takashi.", "''Japan's Foreign Policy in an Era of Global Change'' (Bloomsbury, 2013).", "* Iriye, Akira.", "''Japan and the Wider World: From the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present'' (Routledge, 1997).", "Iriye, Akira and Robert A. Wampler eds.", "''Partnership: The United States and Japan, 1951-2001'' (Kodansha International, 2001).", "online Kibata, Yoichi and Ian Nish, eds.", "''The History of Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1600–2000: Volume I: The Political-Diplomatic Dimension, 1600–1930'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000) excerpt, first of five topical volumes also covering social, economic and military relations between Japan and Great Britain.", "* LaFeber, Walter.", "''The Clash: A History of U.S.-Japan Relations'' (W. W. Norton, 1997), a standard scholarly history; online* Malafaia, Thiago Corrêa.", "\"Japanese International Relations: An Assessment of the 1971–2011 Period.\"", "''Brazilian Political Science Review'' 10.1 (2016).", "online in English* Maslow, Sebastian, Ra Mason, and Paul O’Shea, eds.", "''Risk State: Japan's Foreign Policy in an Age of Uncertainty'' (Ashgate, 2015) 202pp excerpt * Matray, James I. ed.", "''East Asia and the United States: An Encyclopedia of Relations since 1784'' 2 volumes (Greenwood, 2002).", "* Peng Er, Lam, ed.", "''Japan's Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century: Continuity and Change'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2020).", "excerpt * Pugliese, Giulio, and Alessio Patalano.", "\"Diplomatic and Security Practice under Abe Shinzō: The Case for Realpolitik Japan.\"", "''Australian Journal of International Affairs'' 74.6 (2020): 615–632.", "* Shimamoto, Mayako, Koji Ito, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds.", "''Historical Dictionary of Japanese Foreign Policy'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015) excerpt* Togo, Kazuhiko.", "''Japan's Foreign Policy 1945–2003'' (Brill, 2005).", "* Yoshimatsu, Hidetaka.", "\"Japan's Role Conception in Multilateral Initiatives: The Evolution from Hatoyama to Abe.\"", "''Australian Journal of International Affairs'' 72.2 (2018): 129–144.", "* Zakowski, Karol et al.", "eds.", "''Japan's Foreign Policy Making: Central Government Reforms, Decision-Making Processes, and Diplomacy'' (Springer, 2018).", "online* Zakowski, Karol.", "\"Nationalism vs.", "Interests: A Neoclassical Realist Perspective on Japan's Policy towards China under the Second Abe Administration.\"", "''Pacific Focus'' 34.3 (2019): 473–495." ], [ "External links", "* * Various articles and discussion papers on Japan's foreign relations in the ''electronic journal of contemporary Japanese studies''* Rwanda: Kagame Addresses Japanese Senate* Videos on Japan's Relations with the US from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joshua Jackson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joshua Carter Jackson''' (born June 11, 1978) is a Canadian actor.", "He is known for his portrayals of Pacey Witter on The WB's teen drama ''Dawson's Creek'' (1998–2003), Peter Bishop in the Fox science fiction series ''Fringe'' (2008–2013), Cole Lockhart on Showtime's ''The Affair'' (2014–2018), Dan Gallagher in the Paramount+ series ''Fatal Attraction'', and Dr. Christopher Duntsch in the Peacock crime drama series ''Dr.", "Death'' (2021).", "For the latter, he was nominated for the 2022 Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Limited Series.", "His other credits include ''When They See Us'' (2019), and ''Little Fires Everywhere'' (2020).Outside of television, Jackson came to prominence playing Charlie Conway in the ''Mighty Ducks'' film series (1992–1996).", "His other film appearances include ''Apt Pupil'' (1998), ''Urban Legend'' (1998), ''Cruel Intentions'' (1999), ''The Skulls'' (2000), ''Gossip'' (2000), ''The Safety of Objects'' (2001), ''The Laramie Project'' (2002), ''Cursed'' (2005), ''Bobby'' (2006), and ''Shutter'' (2008).", "For his performance in the Canadian independent drama ''One Week'' (2008), Jackson won the 2010 Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role." ], [ "Early life", "Jackson was born on June 11, 1978, in Vancouver to parents John and Fiona.", "His mother is a casting director.", "Jackson's father is from Texas, and his mother is a native of Ballyfermot, Ireland, having immigrated to North America in the late 1960s.", "He has a younger sister, Aisleagh, and two older half brothers, Jonathan and Lyman.", "He was raised Catholic.Jackson lived in California until the age of 8.He moved to Vancouver with his mother and younger sister.", "He attended Ideal Mini School and later switched to Kitsilano Secondary School.", "He attended high school with actor Ryan Reynolds.", "In an interview with ''The New York Times'', Jackson said he was kicked out of high school once because of ''The Jon Stewart Show'': \"The show played, at least where I grew up, at 1:30 in the morning, so I would stay up at night to watch Jon Stewart, but then I'd be too tired—or too lazy—to go to school in the morning.", "So I'd just take the first couple of classes off, 'cause I wanted to be fresh when I got there.\"" ], [ "Career", "Bobby'', Toronto International Film Festival, 2006Jackson started acting in a small role in the film ''Crooked Hearts'' in 1991.The next year, he played the role of Charlie in a musical version of ''Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory''.", "At this point, with the help of the play's casting director Laura Kennedy, he joined the William Morris Agency.", "Soon after, he landed the role of Charlie (#96) in ''The Mighty Ducks'' series, playing a young and aspiring hockey player.Jackson went on to appear as Pacey Witter on ''Dawson's Creek'', which was created by Kevin Williamson and ran on the WB network from 1998 to 2003, and also starred James Van Der Beek, Michelle Williams, and Katie Holmes.", "While the show was on hiatus, he appeared in several movies including ''Cruel Intentions'' (an adaptation of ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' that also starred Sarah Michelle Gellar and Ryan Phillippe), ''The Skulls'', ''The Safety of Objects'', ''The Laramie Project'' and a short cameo in the remake of ''Ocean's Eleven'' in which he appears as himself in a poker scene with Brad Pitt, George Clooney and Holly Marie Combs.", "In 2000, he also guest-starred in Season 12 of ''The Simpsons'', voicing the character of Jesse Grass, a \"hunky environmentalist\" and love interest for Lisa Simpson in the episode \"Lisa the Tree Hugger\".", "He also was cast as \"Beau\" in the movie ''Gossip'' in 2000 with actors James Marsden, Kate Hudson and Norman Reedus.Shortly after ''Dawson's Creek'' ended in 2003, Jackson played the lead role in films alongside Dennis Hopper (''Americano''), Harvey Keitel (''Shadows in the Sun''), and Donald Sutherland (''Aurora Borealis'').", "In 2005, Jackson moved to the UK and made his stage debut on the London West End with Patrick Stewart in David Mamet's two-man play, ''A Life in the Theatre''.", "The play was a critical and popular success, and ran from February to April of that year.", "Jackson said that he would consider returning to the stage, to try his hand on Broadway.", "His next film role was in ''Bobby'', directed by Emilio Estevez, Jackson's co-star from ''The Mighty Ducks''.", "He played a lead role in ''Shutter'', a U.S. remake of film of the same name.", "He starred and acted as executive producer in the Canadian independent film ''One Week'', which opened on March 6, 2009.Jackson at the 2012 San Diego Comic-ConFrom 2008 to 2013, Jackson played the lead role of Peter Bishop in the science-fiction series ''Fringe'', created by JJ Abrams, Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman.", "The serieswas the second-highest rated new show of the 2008–2009 season after ''The Mentalist''.", "BuddyTV ranked him #9 on its \"TV's 100 Sexiest Men of 2010\" list, #19 in 2011 and #14 in 2012.Jackson was nominated for a Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role for the film ''One Week''.", "He won the award on April 12, 2010.He held and hosted the satirical Pacey-Con in 2010, directly across the street from the Comic-Con, sporting a bowling shirt and giving out fan fiction, written by ''Dawson's Creek'' fans, to those waiting in the Comic-Con entrance line.", "Footage of the event was recorded for a video, entitled 'Pacey-Con', which he was filming for Will Ferrell's Funny or Die celebrity humor website.", "In 2013, Jackson appeared in the IFC film ''Inescapable'' with Marisa Tomei and Alexander Siddig.", "Jackson wrote the first story from the comic book trilogy ''Beyond the Fringe'', titled \"Peter and the Machine\".", "Jackson starred in the successful television show ''The Affair'', where he played Cole Lockhart, the protagonist husband of the unfaithful Alison Lockhart.In March 2018, Jackson made his theatrical debut on Broadway in ''Children of a Lesser God'', where he played James Leeds, an unconventional teacher at a school for the deaf who gets in a conflicted professional and romantic relationship with a deaf former student, Sarah Norman (Lauren Ridloff).", "The play ran through May 2018.In 2019, Jackson starred as defense attorney Mickey Joseph in the miniseries ''When They See Us''.In 2020, Jackson co-starred with Reese Witherspoon and Kerry Washington in the miniseries ''Little Fires Everywhere'' based on the novel by Celeste Ng.Jackson has been cast as Christopher Duntsch, a neurosurgeon who was convicted of intentionally maiming his patients, in ''Dr.", "Death'', based on the podcast of the same name.In 2022, Jackson was set to lead the series ''Fatal Attraction'' with Lizzy Caplan, inspired by the 1980s thriller film of the same name." ], [ "Personal life", "Jackson with his ex wife, Jodie Turner-Smith in February 2020Jackson was in a relationship with ''Dawson's Creek'' co-star Katie Holmes during the first two seasons of the show's run.", "Holmes said that Jackson was her first love.From 2006 to 2016, he was in a relationship with German actress Diane Kruger.", "Jackson began a relationship with British actress Jodie Turner-Smith in 2018.They married on August 18, 2019 and have a daughter, Juno Rose Diana, born April 2020.In October 2023, it was revealed that Turner-Smith had filed for divorce from Jackson.He owns his childhood home in Topanga, California.", "He previously lived in Wilmington, North Carolina, where ''Dawson's Creek'' was filmed; and in New York City, where ''Fringe'' filmed its first season.", "In 2009, he moved back to Vancouver to shoot four seasons of the show before the last episode was aired on January 18, 2013.Jackson is a fan of the Vancouver Canucks hockey team.In December 2023 Joshua and fellow actor Lupita Nyong'o confirmed they are dating." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film===+ Year Title Role Notes 1991 ''Crooked Hearts'' Tom (11 years) 1992 ''The Mighty Ducks'' Charlie Conway 1993 ''Digger'' Billy 1994 ''D2: The Mighty Ducks'' Charlie Conway ''Andre'' Mark Baker 1995 ''Magic in the Water'' Joshua Black 1996 ''D3: The Mighty Ducks'' Charlie Conway ''Robin of Locksley'' John Prince, Jr. 1997 ''Ronnie and Julie'' Ronnie ''Scream 2'' Film Class Guy #11998 ''The Battery'' Michael Papperman Short film ''Apt Pupil'' Joey ''Urban Legend'' Damon Brooks 1999 ''Cruel Intentions'' Blaine Tuttle ''Muppets from Space'' Pacey Witter Uncredited cameo 2000 ''The Skulls'' Lucas 'Luke' McNamara ''Gossip'' Beau Edson 2001 ''The Safety of Objects'' Paul Gold ''Ocean's Eleven'' Himself Cameo 2002 ''The Laramie Project'' Matt Galloway ''Lone Star State of Mind'' Earl Crest Alternative title: ''Cowboys and Idiots'' 2003 ''I Love Your Work'' John Everhart 2005 ''Cursed'' Jake Taylor ''Racing Stripes'' Trenton's Pride Voice ''Americano'' Chris McKinley ''Aurora Borealis'' Duncan Shorter ''The Shadow Dancer'' Jeremy Taylor Alternative title: ''Shadows in the Sun'' 2006 ''Bobby'' Wade Buckley 2007 ''Battle in Seattle'' Randall 2008 ''Shutter'' Benjamin Shaw ''Gashole'' Himself Documentary ''One Week'' Ben Tyler 2012 ''Lay the Favorite'' Jeremy ''Inescapable'' Paul 2015 ''Sky'' Detective Ruther===Television===+ Year Title Role Notes 1991 ''Payoff'' Young Mac Television film 1996 ''Champs'' Matt Mazzilli 2 episodes ''Robin of Locksley'' John Prince, Jr. Television film 1997 ''Ronnie & Julie'' Ronnie Monroe Television film ''On the Edge of Innocence'' Sammy Television film ''The Outer Limits'' Devon Taylor Episode: \"Music of the Spheres\" 1998–2003 ''Dawson's Creek'' Pacey Witter Main role: 124 episodes 2000 ''Saturday Night Live'' Himself/host Episode: \"Joshua Jackson/NSYNC\" ''The Simpsons'' Jesse Grass Voice, episode: \"Lisa the Tree Hugger\" 2001 ''Cubix'' Brian Voice 2006 ''Capitol Law'' Mark Clayton Unsold TV pilot 2008–2013 ''Fringe'' Peter Bishop 96 episodes 2014–2018 ''The Affair'' Cole Lockhart 29 episodes 2016 ''Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt'' Purvis Episode: \"Kimmy Goes to a Hotel!\"", "''Years of Living Dangerously'' Himself Episode: \"Collapse of the Oceans\" 2019 ''When They See Us'' Mickey Joseph Episode: \"Part Two\" 2020 ''Little Fires Everywhere'' Bill Richardson Miniseries; 7 episodes 2021 ''Dr.", "Death'' Dr. Christopher Duntsch 8 episodes 2023 ''Fatal Attraction'' Dan Gallagher Miniseries ===Stage===+ Year Title Role Notes2005 ''A Life in The Theatre''JohnDavid Mamet play with Patrick Stewart 2016 ''Smart People'' Brian play by Lydia R. Diamond at Second Stage Theater2017, 2018''Children of a Lesser God''James LeedsBerkshire Theatre Festival with Kenny LeonStudio 54" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Association Category Nominated work Result 1993 Young Artist Award Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast in a Motion Picture ''The Mighty Ducks'' 1999 Teen Choice Award Choice TV Actor ''Dawson's Creek'' 2000 Choice Liar in a Film ''The Skulls'' Choice TV Actor ''Dawson's Creek'' Young Hollywood Award Male Superstar of Tomorrow 2001 Teen Choice Award Choice TV Actor ''Dawson's Creek'' 2002 2003 2005 Ft. Lauderdale International Film Festival Best Actor ''Aurora Borealis'' 2006 Hollywood Film Festival Best Ensemble of the Year ''Bobby'' Satellite Award Best Actor – Motion Picture ''Aurora Borealis'' 2007 Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture ''Bobby'' 2009 Teen Choice Award Choice Actor Fantasy/Sci-Fi ''Fringe'' 2010 Genie Awards Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role ''One Week'' Teen Choice Award Choice Actor Fantasy/Sci-Fi ''Fringe'' 2011 2012 2013 Saturn Awards Best Actor on Television 2016 People's Choice Awards Favorite Premium Cable TV Actor ''The Affair'' 2017 2018Drama League AwardsDistinguished Performance Award''Children of a Lesser God'' 2022Critics' Choice Television AwardsBest Actor in a Movie/Miniseries''Dr.", "Death''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Joshua Jackson on ''The Hour'' with George Stroumboulopoulos" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jung (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carl Gustav Jung''' (1875–1961) was the founder of analytical psychology.", "'''Jung''' may also refer to:* Jung (surname)* Jung (Korean given name)* JUNG, the Java Universal Network/Graph Framework* ''Jung'' (1996 film), an Indian Hindi-language film* ''Jung'' (2000 film), an Indian Hindi-language film* Jung, Victoria, Australia* JUNG (company), a German electrical wiring company" ], [ "See also", "* Arnold Jung Lokomotivfabrik, German locomotive manufacturer* Jeong (surname)* Jung-Kellogg Library, at Missouri Baptist University* Salar Jung Museum, in India* Xirong (Hsi-jung), ancient barbarian peoples* Jang (disambiguation)* Junga (disambiguation)* Young (disambiguation)* Yung (disambiguation)* Djong (ship)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "JFK (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''JFK''', or in full form '''John F. Kennedy''', (1917–1963) was the president of the United States from 1961 to 1963.", "'''JFK''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Transportation", "* John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City, IATA code and common name JFKHoward Beach–JFK Airport stationSutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport station* JFK/UMass station, in Boston, Massachusetts* John F. Kennedy Memorial Airport, or JFK Memorial Airport, Ashland, Wisconsin* , two U.S. Navy ships* MV John F. Kennedy, Staten Island Ferry" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''JFK'' (film), 1991** ''JFK'' (soundtrack)* ''JFK'' (opera), 2016* JFK (''Clone High''), a fictional character * \"JFK\", a song by Azealia Banks from the 2014 album ''Broke with Expensive Taste''" ], [ "Education", "* JFK International School, in Saanen, Switzerland* JFK University, in Pleasant Hill, California, U.S.* JFK College, in Wahoo, Nebraska, U.S.* John F. Kennedy High School (disambiguation)" ], [ "See also", "* John F. Kennedy (disambiguation)* John F. Kennedy Stadium (disambiguation)* JFK Medical Center (disambiguation)* JFK Express, a former New York subway service* ''JFK Reloaded'', a 2004 video game * KJFK (disambiguation), including stations in zone K called JFK* WJFK (disambiguation), including stations in zone W called JFK" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Ray" ], [ "Introduction", "John Ray by Roubiliac, British Museum'''John Ray''' FRS (29 November 1627 – 17 January 1705) was a Christian English naturalist widely regarded as one of the earliest of the English parson-naturalists.", "Until 1670, he wrote his name as '''John Wray'''.", "From then on, he used 'Ray', after \"having ascertained that such had been the practice of his family before him\".", "He published important works on botany, zoology, and natural theology.", "His classification of plants in his ''Historia Plantarum'', was an important step towards modern taxonomy.", "Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified by repeated sub-division into groups according to a pre-conceived series of characteristics they have or have not, and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emerged from observation.", "He was among the first to attempt a biological definition for the concept of ''species'', as \"a group of morphologically similar organisms arising from a common ancestor\".", "Another significant contribution to taxonomy was his division of plants into those with two seedling leaves (dicotyledons) or only one (monocotyledons), a division used in taxonomy today." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life ===John Ray's birthplace in Black Notley, EssexBlue plaque to John RayJohn Ray was born in the village of Black Notley in Essex.", "He is said to have been born in the smithy, his father having been the village blacksmith.", "After studying at Braintree school, he was sent at the age of sixteen to Cambridge University: studying at Trinity College.", "Initially at Catharine Hall, his tutor was Daniel Duckfield, and later transferred to Trinity where his tutor was James Duport, and his intimate friend and fellow-pupil the celebrated Isaac Barrow.", "Ray was chosen minor fellow of Trinity in 1649, and later major fellow.", "He held many college offices, becoming successively lecturer in Greek (1651), mathematics (1653), and humanity (1655), ''praelector'' (1657), frias (1657), and college steward (1659 and 1660); and according to the habit of the time, he was accustomed to preach in his college chapel and also at Great St Mary's, long before he took holy orders on 23 December 1660.Among these sermons were his discourses on ''The wisdom of God manifested in the works of the creation'', and ''Deluge and Dissolution of the World''.", "Ray was also highly regarded as a tutor and he communicated his own passion for natural history to several pupils.", "Ray's student, Isaac Barrow, helped Francis Willughby learn mathematics and Ray collaborated with Willughby later.", "It was at Trinity that he came under the influence of John Wilkins, when the latter was appointed master of the college in 1659.=== Later life and family ===After leaving Cambridge in 1663 he spent some time travelling both in Britain and the continent.", "In 1673, Ray married Margaret Oakley of Launton in Oxfordshire; in 1676 he went to Middleton Hall near Tamworth, and in 1677 to Falborne (or Faulkbourne) Hall in Essex.", "Finally, in 1679, he removed to his birthplace at Black Notley, where he afterwards remained.", "His life there was quiet and uneventful, although he had poor health, including chronic sores.", "Ray kept writing books and corresponded widely on scientific matters, collaborating with his doctor and contemporary Samuel Dale.", "He lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-seven, dying at Black Notley.", "He is buried in the churchyard of St Peter and St Paul where there is a memorial to him.", "He is widely regarded as one of the earliest of the English parson-naturalists.Memorial to John Ray in the churchyard of St Peter and St Paul in Black NotleyClose-up of memorial to John Ray" ], [ "Work", "''Synopsis methodica stirpium britannicarum'', 1690At Cambridge, Ray spent much of his time in the study of natural history, a subject which would occupy him for most of his life, from 1660 to the beginning of the eighteenth century.", "When Ray found himself unable to subscribe as required by the Act of Uniformity 1662 he, along with 13 other college fellows, resigned his fellowship on 24 August 1662 rather than swear to the declaration that the Solemn League and Covenant was not binding on those who had taken it.", "Tobias Smollett quoted the reasoning given in the biography of Ray by William Derham:His religious views were generally in accord with those imposed under the restoration of Charles II of England, and (though technically a nonconformist) he continued as a layman in the Established Church of England.From this time onwards he seems to have depended chiefly on the bounty of his pupil Francis Willughby, who made Ray his constant companion while he lived.", "They travelled extensively, carrying out field observations and collecting specimens of botany, ornithology, ichthyology, mammals, reptiles and insects.", "Initially they agreed that Ray would take responsibility for the plants, and Willughby for birds, beasts, fishes, and insects.", "Willughby arranged that after his death, Ray would have 6 shillings a year for educating Willughby's two sons.In the spring of 1663 Ray started together with Willughby and two other pupils (Philip Skippon and Nathaniel Bacon) on a tour through Europe, from which he returned in March 1666, parting from Willughby at Montpellier, whence the latter continued his journey into Spain.", "He had previously in three different journeys (1658, 1661, 1662) travelled through the greater part of Great Britain, and selections from his private notes of these journeys were edited by George Scott in 1760, under the title of ''Mr Ray's Itineraries''.", "Ray himself published an account of his foreign travel in 1673, entitled ''Observations topographical, moral, and physiological, made on a Journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France''.", "From this tour Ray and Willughby returned laden with collections, on which they meant to base complete systematic descriptions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms.In 1667 Ray was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1669 he and Willughby published a paper on ''Experiments concerning the Motion of Sap in Trees''.", "In 1671, he presented the research of Francis Jessop on formic acid to the Royal Society.Following Willughby's death in 1672, Ray took on the responsibility of bringing both Willughby's work and his own to publication.", "Ray was left with an ornithology and ichthyology to edit as well as his own work dealing with mammals, reptiles and insects.", "Although he presented the''Ornithologia'' (1676) as Willughby's, he made extensive contributions to the work.", "His task became more difficult after the death of Lady Cassandra, Willughby's mother, on July 25, 1675.Lady Cassandra had supported Ray's continued work, but the widow Willughby had no interest in her late husband's scientific interests or his scientific friends.", "Ray was no longer allowed to instruct the children, and Ray and his wife Margaret Oakley were forced to leave the Willughby household in Middleton.", "Critically, Ray lost access to the Willughby collections, notes and manuscripts at this time.", "The plants gathered on his British tours had already been described in his ''Catalogus plantarum Angliae'' (1670), which formed the basis for later English floras.", "He had likely already used the botanical collections to lay much of the groundwork of his ''Methodus plantarum nova'' (1682), His great ''Historia generalis plantarum'' appeared in 3 vols.", "in 1686, 1688, 1704.In the 1690s, he published three volumes on religion—the most popular being ''The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation'' (1691), an essay describing evidence that all in nature and space is God's creation as in the Bible is affirmed.", "In this volume, he moved on from the naming and cataloguing of species like his successor Carl Linnaeus.", "Instead, Ray considered species' lives and how nature worked as a whole, giving facts that are arguments for God's will expressed in His creation of all 'visible and invisible' (Colossians 1:16).Ray gave an early description of dendrochronology, explaining how to find the ash tree's age from its tree-rings.=== Taxonomy ===Ray's work on plant taxonomy spanned a wide range of thought, starting with an approach that was predominantly in the tradition of the herbalists and Aristotelian, but becoming increasingly theoretical and finally rejecting Aristotelianism.", "Despite his early adherence to Aristotelian tradition, his first botanical work, the ''Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium'' (1660), was almost entirely descriptive, being arranged alphabetically.", "His model was an account by Bauhin of the plants growing around Basel in 1622 and was the first English county flora, covering about 630 species.", "However at the end of the work he appended a brief taxonomy which he stated followed the usage of Bauhin and other herbalists.==== System of classification ====Ray's system, starting with his Cambridge catalogue, began with the division between the imperfect or lower plants (Cryptogams), and perfect (''planta perfecta'') higher plants (Seed plants).", "The latter he divided by life forms, e.g.", "trees (''arbores''), shrubs (''frutices''), subshrubs (''suffrutices'') and herbaceous plants (''herbae'') and lastly grouping them by common characteristics.", "The trees he divided into 8 groups, e.g.", "''Pomiferae'' (including apple and pear).", "The shrubs he placed in 2 groups, ''Spinosi'' (Berberis etc.)", "and ''Non Spinosi'' (Jasmine etc.).", "The subshrubs formed a single group and the herbs into 21 groups.Division of Herbae;# Bulbosae (''Lilium'' etc.", ")# Tuberosae (''Asphodelus'' etc.", ")# Umbelliferae (''Foeniculum'' etc.", ")# Verticellatae (''Mentha'' etc.", ")# Spicatae (''Lysimachia'' etc.", ")# Scandentes (''Cucurbita'' etc.", ")# Corymbiferae (''Tanacetum'')# Pappiflorae (''Senecio'' etc.", ")# Capitatae (''Scabiosa'' etc.", ")# Campaniformes (''Digitalis'' etc.", ")# Coronariae (''Caryophyllus'' etc.", ")# Rotundifoliae (''Cyclamen'' etc.", ")# Nervifoliae (''Plantago'' etc.", ")# Stellatae (''Rubia'' etc.", ")# Cerealia (''Legumina'' etc.", ")# Succulentae (''Sedum'' etc.", ")# Graminifoliae (''Gramina'' etc.", ")# omitted# Oleraceae (''Beta'' etc.", ")# Aquaticae (''Nymphaea'' etc.", ")# Marinae (''Fucus'' etc.", ")# Saxatiles (''Asplenium'' etc)As outlined in his ''Historia Plantarum'' (1685–1703):* Herbae (Herbaceous plants) Imperfectae (Cryptogams) Perfectae (Seed plants)* Monocotyledons* Dicotyledons* Arborae (Trees) Monocotyledons Dicotyledons==== Definition of species ====Ray was the first person to produce a biological definition of '''species''', in his 1686 ''History of Plants'':=== Publications ===Ray published about 23 works, depending on how they are counted.", "The biological works were usually in Latin, the rest in English.", "His first publication, while at Cambridge, was the ''Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium'' (1660), followed by many works, botanical, zoological,theological and literary.", "Until 1670, he wrote his name as '''John Wray'''.", "From then on, he used 'Ray', after \"having ascertained that such had been the practice of his family before him\".==== List of selected publications ====* Appendices 1663, 1685 * 1668: ''Tables of plants'', in John Wilkins' ''Essay''* * 1670: ''Collection of English proverbs''.", "* 1673: ''Observations in the Low Countries and Catalogue of plants not native to England''.", "* 1674: ''Collection of English words not generally used''.", "online* 1675: ''Trilingual dictionary, or nomenclator classicus''.", "* 1676: ''Willughby's Ornithologia''.", "* ** English translation by Stephen Nimis* 1686: ''History of fishes''.", "* 1686–1704: ''Historia plantarum species'' ''History of plants''.", "London:Clark 3 vols; Vol 1 1686, Vol 2 1688, Vol 3 1704 (in Latin) Lazenby, Elizabeth Mary (1995).", "The Historia Plantarum Generalis of John Ray, Book I : a translation and commentary.", "PhD thesis Newcastle University* ** 2nd ed 1696* 1691: ''The wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation'' 7th ed.", "2nd ed 1692, 3rd ed 1701, 4th ed 1704, 7th ed 1717* 1692: ''Miscellaneous discourses concerning the dissolution and changes of the world''* 1693: '' Synopsis of animals and reptiles''.", "* 1693: ''Collection of travels''.", "* 1694: ''Collection of European plants''.", "* 1695: ''Plants of each county''.", "(Camden's Britannia)* ** English translation by Stephen Nimis* 1700: ''A persuasive to a holy life''.", "* ;Posthumous* 1705.", "''Method and history of insects''* 1713: '' Synopsis methodica avium & piscium: opus posthumum (''Synopsis of birds and fishes'')'', in Latin.", "William Innys, London vol.", "1: ''Avium'' vol.", "2: ''Piscium''* 1713 ''Three Physico-theological discourses''* Facsimile edition 197, Ray Society, London.", "With introduction by William T. Stearn.", " Fourth edition 1760==== Libraries holding Ray's works ====Including the various editions, there are 172 works of Ray, of which most are rare.", "The only libraries with substantial holdings are all in England.p153 The list in order of holdings is::The British Library, Euston, London.", "Holds over 80 of the editions.", ":The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.", ":The University of Cambridge Library.", ":Library of Trinity College, Cambridge.", ":The Natural History Museum Library, South Kensington, London.", ":The John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, Deansgate, Manchester:The Sobrang Bayabas, University of Bayabas" ], [ "Legacy", "Woodcut (1693)Ray's biographer, Charles Raven, commented that \"Ray sweeps away the litter of mythology and fable... and always insists upon accuracy of observation and description and the testing of every new discovery\".p10 Ray's works were directly influential on the development of taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus.The Ray Society, named after John Ray, was founded in 1844.It is a scientific text publication society and registered charity, based at the Natural History Museum, London, which exists to publish books on natural history, with particular (but not exclusive) reference to the flora and fauna of the British Isles.", "As of 2017, the Society had published 179 volumes.The John Ray Society (a separate organisation) is the Natural Sciences Society at St Catharine's College, Cambridge.", "It organises a programme of events of interest to science students in the college.In 1986, to mark the 300th anniversary of the publication of Ray's ''Historia Plantarum'', there was a celebration of Ray's legacy in Braintree, Essex.", "A \"John Ray Gallery\" was opened in the Braintree Museum.The John Ray Initiative (JRI) is an educational charity that seeks to reconcile scientific and Christian understandings of the environment.", "It was formed in 1997 in response to the global environmental crisis and the challenges of sustainable development and environmental stewardship.", "John Ray's writings proclaimed God as creator whose wisdom is \"manifest in the works of creation\", and as redeemer of all things.", "JRI aims to teach appreciation of nature, increase awareness of the state of the global environment, and to promote a Christian understanding of environmental issues." ], [ "See also", "* Monocotyledons" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Books ===* * * * (also here at Biodiversity Heritage Library)* * See also ebook 2010* * * , see also * * * , in === Articles ===* * === Websites ===* , see also Ray Society* John Ray's works at the Biodiversity Heritage Library" ], [ "External links", "* John Ray Biography ( University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley)* The first biological species concept (Evolving Thoughts)* ''Memoir of John Ray'' by James Duncan* Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* De Variis Plantarum Methodis Dissertatio Brevis at Europeana* John Ray and taxonomy.", "King's College London* Encyclopaedia Britannica* Dictionary of Scientific Biography* The John Ray Initiative: connecting Environment and Christianity" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Joyce" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Augustine Aloysius Joyce''' (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic.", "He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century.", "Joyce's novel ''Ulysses'' (1922) is a landmark in which the episodes of Homer's ''Odyssey'' are paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularly stream of consciousness.", "Other well-known works are the short-story collection ''Dubliners'' (1914), and the novels ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' (1916) and ''Finnegans Wake'' (1939).", "His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism.Joyce was born in Dublin into a middle-class family.", "He attended the Jesuit Clongowes Wood College in County Kildare, then, briefly, the Christian Brothers–run O'Connell School.", "Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the Jesuit Belvedere College and graduated from University College Dublin in 1902.In 1904, he met his future wife, Nora Barnacle, and they moved to mainland Europe.", "He briefly worked in Pula and then moved to Trieste in Austria-Hungary, working as an English instructor.", "Except for an eight-month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce resided there until 1915.In Trieste, he published his book of poems ''Chamber Music'' and his short story collection ''Dubliners'', and he began serially publishing ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' in the English magazine ''The Egoist''.", "During most of World War I, Joyce lived in Zürich, Switzerland, and worked on ''Ulysses''.", "After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and then moved to Paris in 1920, which became his primary residence until 1940.", "''Ulysses'' was first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity.", "Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid-1930s, when publication finally became legal.", "Joyce started his next major work, ''Finnegans Wake'', in 1923, publishing it sixteen years later in 1939.Between these years, Joyce travelled widely.", "He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1931.He made a number of trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter, Lucia.", "When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zürich in 1940.He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer, less than one month before his 59th birthday.", "''Ulysses'' frequently ranks high in lists of great books of literature, and the academic literature analysing his work is extensive and ongoing.", "Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use of interior monologue, wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development.", "Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there.", "''Ulysses'' in particular is set in the streets and alleyways of the city.", "Joyce is quoted as saying, \"For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world.", "In the particular is contained the universal.\"" ], [ "Early life", "Photograph of Joyce aged six, 1888Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square, Rathgar, Dublin, Ireland, to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane \"May\" ( Murray).", "He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings.", "He was baptised with the name ''James Augustine Joyce'' according to the rites of the Roman Catholic Church in the nearby St Joseph's Church in Terenure on 5 February 1882 by Rev.", "John O'Mulloy.", "His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.", "John Stanislaus Joyce's family came from Fermoy in County Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works.", "Joyce's paternal grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties in Cork City.", "Ellen's family claimed kinship with the political leader Daniel O'Connell, who had helped secure Catholic emancipation for the Irish in 1829.Joyce's father was appointed rate collector by Dublin Corporation in 1887.The family moved to the fashionable small town of Bray, from Dublin.", "Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, leading to his lifelong fear of dogs.", "He later developed a fear of thunderstorms, which he acquired through a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God's wrath.In 1891, nine-year-old Joyce wrote the poem \"Et Tu, Healy\" on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell that his father printed and distributed to friends.", "The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce, who was angry at Parnell's apparent betrayal by the Irish Catholic Church, the Irish Parliamentary Party, and the British Liberal Party that resulted in a collaborative failure to secure Irish Home Rule in the British Parliament.", "This sense of betrayal, particularly by the church, left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art.That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.", "John Joyce's name was published in ''Stubbs' Gazette'', a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.", "In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension.Joyce began his education in 1888 at Clongowes Wood College, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.", "He studied at home and briefly attended the Christian Brothers O'Connell School on North Richmond Street, Dublin.", "Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priest John Conmee, who knew the family.", "Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brother Stanislaus to attend the Jesuits' Dublin school, Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected by his peers to join the Sodality of Our Lady.", "Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in the ''Ratio Studiorum'' (''Plan of Studies'').", "He displayed his writing talent by winning first place for English composition in his final two years before graduating in 1898." ], [ "University years", "alt=picture of the Newman HouseJoyce enrolled at University College in 1898 to study English, French and Italian.", "While there, he was exposed to the scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.", "He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles.", "His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation, most notably, George Clancy, Tom Kettle and Francis Sheehy-Skeffington.", "Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.", "His first publication—a laudatory review of Henrik Ibsen's ''When We Dead Awaken''—was printed in ''The Fortnightly Review'' in 1900.Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegian and wrote a play, ''A Brilliant Career'', which he later destroyed.In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) in Clontarf, Dublin.", "During this year he became friends with Oliver St. John Gogarty, the model for Buck Mulligan in ''Ulysses''.", "In November, Joyce wrote an article, ''The Day of the Rabblement'', criticising the Irish Literary Theatre for its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen, Leo Tolstoy, and Gerhart Hauptmann.", "He protested against nostalgic Irish populism and argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.", "Because he mentioned Gabriele D'Annunzio's novel, (''The Flame''), which was on the Roman Catholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it.", "Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed.", "Arthur Griffith decried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaper ''United Irishman''.Joyce graduated from the Royal University of Ireland in October 1902.He considered studying medicine and began attending lectures at the Catholic University Medical School in Dublin.", "When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris, where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.", "By the end of January 1903, he had given up plans to study medicine but he stayed in Paris, often reading late in the .", "He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet, appealing for money his family could ill-afford." ], [ "Post-university years in Dublin", "Bust of Joyce on St Stephen's Green, Dublin, by Marjorie Fitzgibbon\|alt=Jame's Joyce's bust on St. Stephen's Green, Dublin.", "It says James Joyce 1882–1914.In April 1903, Joyce learned his mother was dying and immediately returned to Ireland.", "He would tend to her, reading aloud from drafts that would eventually be worked into his unfinished novel ''Stephen Hero''.", "During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make his confession and to take communion.", "She died on 13 August.", "Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.", "John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.", "Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues, and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books.Joyce's life began to change when he met Nora Barnacle on 10 June 1904.She was a twenty-year-old woman from Galway city, who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.", "They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904, walking through the Dublin suburb of Ringsend, where Nora masturbated him.", "This event was commemorated as the date for the action of ''Ulysses'', known in popular culture as \"Bloomsday\" in honour of the novel's main character Leopold Bloom.", "This began a relationship that continued for thirty-seven years until Joyce died.", "Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been carousing with his colleagues, approached a young woman in St Stephen's Green and was beaten up by her companion.", "He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries.", "Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist of ''Ulysses''.Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.", "On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in the ''Feis Ceoil'', an Irish music competition for promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.", "In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.", "He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.", "For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs.", "He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had to sight read the third, he refused.", "Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.", "After the contest, Palmieri wrote Joyce that Luigi Denza, the composer of the popular song \"\" who was the judge for the contest, spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.", "Palmieri even offered to give Joyce free singing lessons afterwards.", "Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.", "His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation.", "On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examining aesthetics called ''A Portrait of the Artist'', but it was rejected by the intellectual journal ''Dana''.", "He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he called ''Stephen Hero'' that he labored over for years but eventually abandoned.", "He wrote a satirical poem called \"The Holy Office\", which parodied W. B. Yeats's poem \"To Ireland in the Coming Times\" and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.", "It too was rejected for publication; this time for being \"unholy\".", "He wrote the collection of poems ''Chamber Music'' at this time; which was also rejected.", "He did publish three poems, one in ''Dana'' and two in ''The Speaker'', and George William Russell published three of Joyce's short stories in the Irish Homestead.", "These stories—\"The Sisters\", \"Eveline\", and \"After the Race\"—were the beginnings of ''Dubliners''.In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into a Martello tower near Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another roommate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.", "With the help of funds from Lady Gregory and a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later." ], [ "1904–1906: Zürich, Pula and Trieste", "===Zürich and Pula===In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.", "They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure funds before heading on to Zürich.Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at the Berlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.", "The couple stayed in Zürich for a little over a week.", "The director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the First World War.", "There was no vacancy there either.", "The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him in Pola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base, where he mainly taught English to naval officers.", "Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had already become pregnant.", "Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola, and his wife Clothilde.", "By the beginning of 1905, both families were living together.", "Joyce kept writing when he could.", "He completed a short story for ''Dubliners'', \"Clay\", and worked on his novel ''Stephen Hero''.", "He disliked Pola, calling it a \"back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia\", and soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste.The Caffè Stella Polare in alt='Stella Polare', a café on the corner of an intersection.", "Tables with umbrellas on one street.Joyce's statue in Trieste===First stay in Trieste===When 23-year-old Joyce first moved to Trieste in March 1905, he immediately started teaching English at the Berlitz school.", "By June, Joyce felt financially secure enough to have his satirical poem \"Holy Office\" printed and asked Stanislaus to distribute copies to his former associates in Dublin.After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio, on 27 July 1905, Joyce convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and got a position for him at the Berlitz school.", "Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived in October, and most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.", "In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis.Joyce kept writing despite all these changes.", "He completed 24 chapters of ''Stephen Hero'' and all but the final story of ''Dubliners''.", "But he was unable to get ''Dubliners'' in press.", "Though the London publisher Grant Richards had contracted with Joyce to publish it, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial because English law could hold them liable if they were brought to court for indecent language.", "Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's sense of artistic integrity.", "As they continued to negotiate, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully.", "He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement.Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920.Although he would temporarily leave the city—briefly staying in Rome, travelling to Dublin, and emigrating to Zürich during World War I— it became a second Dublin for him and played an important role in his development as a writer.", "He completed ''Dubliners,'' reworked ''Stephen Hero'' into ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'', wrote his only published play ''Exiles'', and decided to make ''Ulysses'' a full-length novel as he created his notes and jottings for the work.", "He worked out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.", "Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people, and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced by Futurism.", "There are even words of the Triestine dialect in ''Finnegans Wake''.", "Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste.", "Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and would later draw on it in creating the liturgical parodies in ''Ulysses''." ], [ "1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin", "===Rome===Monument to Giordano Bruno at the Campo de' Fiori by Ettore Ferrari.", "Joyce admired Bruno and attended the procession in his honour while in Rome.In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds.", "Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.", "Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher for ''Dubliners'', Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.", "He was hired for the position, and went to Rome at the end of July.Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome, but it had a large impact on his writing.", "Though his new job took up most of his time, he revised ''Dubliners'' and worked on ''Stephen Hero''.", "Rome was the birthplace of the idea for \"The Dead\", which would become the final story of ''Dubliners'', and for ''Ulysses'', which was originally conceived as a short story.", "His stay in the city was one of his inspirations for ''Exiles''.", "While there, he read the socialist historian Guglielmo Ferrero in depth.", "Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jews would find their way into ''Ulysses'', particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.", "In London, Elkin Mathews published ''Chamber Music'' on the recommendation of the British poet Arthur Symons.", "Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.", "He left Rome after only seven months.===Second stay in Trieste===alt=Photograph of Trieste filled with ships around 1907 viewing the city from out in the harborJoyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work.", "He went back to being an English instructor, working part time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.", "The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen name Italo Svevo, was one of his students.", "Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.", "Joyce learned much of what he knew about Judaism from him.", "The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.", "Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block with ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man''.", "Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaper ''Piccolo della Sera'', was another of Joyce's students.", "He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper.", "Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italian irredentists in Trieste.", "He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule.", "Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures on Ireland and the arts atTrieste's Università Popolare.", "In May, Joyce was struck by an attack of rheumatic fever, which left him incapacitated for weeks.", "The illness exacerbated eye problems that plagued him for the rest of his life.", "While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.During his convalescence, he was able to finish \"The Dead\", the last story of ''Dubliners''.Although a heavy drinker, Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.He reworked ''Stephen Hero'' as the more concise and interior ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man''.", "He completed the third chapter by April and translated John Millington Synge's ''Riders to the Sea'' into Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.", "He even took singing lessons again.", "Joyce had been looking for an English publisher for ''Dubliners'' but was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned by George Roberts.====Visits to Dublin====alt=Dublin in 1909, with trams, horsecarts, and pedestriansIn July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family (his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway).", "He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at his alma mater, which had become University College Dublin.", "He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing the ''Dubliners''.", "He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.", "Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none.", "He quickly got the backing of some Triestine business men and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, the Volta Cinematograph.", "It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.", "He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen.From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income.", "This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.", "In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at the University of Padua.", "He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university.", "In 1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer.", "While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication of ''Dubliners'' came to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel.", "Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.", "When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, \"Gas from a Burner\".", "He never went to Dublin again.====Publication of ''Dubliners'' and ''A Portrait'' ====Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publish ''Dubliners''.", "It was issued on 15 June 1914, eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.", "Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate in Ezra Pound, who was living in London.", "On the advice of Yeats, Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem from ''Chamber Music'', \"I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land\" in the journal ''Des Imagistes''.", "They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s.", "Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were both published and publicized.After Pound persuaded Dora Marsden to serially publish ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' in the London literary magazine ''The Egoist'', Joyce's pace of writing increased.", "He completed ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' by 1914; resumed ''Exiles'', completing it in 1915; started the novelette Giacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned; and began drafting ''Ulysses''.In August 1914, World War I broke out.", "Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste.", "Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay.", "In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zürich in neutral Switzerland." ], [ "1915–1920: Zürich and Trieste", "===Zürich===Zürich, Switzerland where Joyce lived 1915–1919Joyce arrived in Zürich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.", "To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.", "During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services.Joyce's first concern was earning a living.", "One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months.", "Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from the Royal Literary Fund in 1915 and a grant from the British civil list the following year.", "Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editor Harriet Shaw Weaver, who operated ''The Egoist'', and the psychotherapist Edith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zürich studying under Carl Jung.", "Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral.", "Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well; the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.", "However, health problems remained a constant issue.", "During their time in Zürich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as \"nervous breakdowns\" and he had to undergo many eye surgeries.====''Ulysses''====During the war, Zürich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community.", "Joyce's regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen, where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time, including the sculptor August Suter and the painter Frank Budgen.", "He often used the time spent with them as material for ''Ulysses''.", "He made the acquaintance of the writer Stefan Zweig, who organised the premiere of ''Exiles'' in Munich in August 1919.He became aware of Dada, which was coming into its own at the Cabaret Voltaire.", "He may have even met the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin at the Cafe Odeon, a place they both frequented.Joyce kept up his interest in music.", "He met Ferruccio Busoni, staged music with Otto Luening, and learned music theory from Philipp Jarnach.", "Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way into ''Ulysses'', particularly the \"Sirens\" section.Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained a strict neutrality.", "He made few comments about the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement, he disagreed with its violence.", "He stayed intently focused on ''Ulysses''and the ongoing struggle to get his work published.", "Some of the serial instalments of \"The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man\" in ''The Egoist'' had been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published by B. W. Huebsch in 1916.In 1918, Pound got a commitment from Margaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazine ''The Little Review'', to publish ''Ulysses'' serially.====The English Players====alt=The Pfauen complex, a large stone building.", "Theatre is in the center.", "Cafe used to be right of theatreJoyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager.", "The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort, and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such as Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.", "For Synge's ''Riders to the Sea'', Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage, which he did again when Robert Browning's ''In a Balcony'' was staged.", "He hoped the company would eventually stage his play, ''Exiles'', but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of the Great Influenza epidemic of 1918, though the company continued until 1920.Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit.", "Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role in ''The Importance of Being Earnest''.", "Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel.", "The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.", "The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich.===Third stay in Trieste===By 1919, Joyce was in financial straits again.", "McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung, and Zürich had become expensive to live in after the war.", "Furthermore, he was becoming isolated as the city's emigres returned home.", "In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed.", "The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.", "Eight months after his return, Joyce went to Sirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.", "Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920." ], [ "1920–1941: Paris and Zürich", "===Paris===''Shadowland'' photographed by Man Ray\|alt=Picture of James Joyce from 1922 in three-quarters view looking downwardWhen Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.", "For the first four months, he stayed with and met Sylvia Beach, who ran the Rive Gauche bookshop, Shakespeare and Company.", "Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support, and becoming one of Joyce's publishers.", "Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the international modernist artist community.", "Joyce met Valery Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the French and supervised the French translation of ''Ulysses''.", "Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long.====Publication of ''Ulysses''====Joyce finished writing ''Ulysses'' near the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published.", "With financial backing from the lawyer John Quinn, Margaret Anderson and her co-editor Jane Heap had begun serially publishing it in ''The Little Review'' in March 1918 but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.", "In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the \"Nausicaa\" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.", "The trial proceedings continued until February 1921, when both Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenity and ordered to cease publishing ''Ulysses''.", "Huebsch, who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.Weaver was unable to find an English printer, and the novel was banned for obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936.", "''Ulysses''Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printing ''Ulysses'', Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.", "She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver mailed books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.", "Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.", "They were then smuggled into both countries.", "Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, \"bootleg\" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisher Samuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a court enjoined publication.", "''Ulysses'' was not legally published in the United States until 1934 after Judge John M. Woolsey ruled in ''United States v. One Book Called Ulysses'' that the book was not obscene.====''Finnegans Wake''====In 1923, Joyce began his next work, an experimental novel that eventually became ''Finnegans Wake''.", "It would take sixteen years to complete.", "At first, Joyce called it ''Work in Progress'', which was the name Ford Madox Ford used in April 1924 when he published its \"Mamalujo\" episode in his magazine, ''The Transatlantic Review''.", "In 1926, Eugene and Maria Jolas serialised the novel in their magazine, ''transition''.", "When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver— wrote negatively about it, and it was criticised by writers like Seán Ó Faoláin, Wyndham Lewis, and Rebecca West.", "In response, Joyce and the Jolases organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titled ''Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress'', which included writings by Samuel Beckett and William Carlos Williams.", "An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to market ''Work in Progress'' to a larger audience.", "Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title as ''Finnegans Wake'' in 1939, the same year he completed it.", "It was published in London by Faber and Faber with the assistance of T. S. Eliot.Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years.", "He had over a dozen eye operations, but his vision severely declined.", "By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.", "He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection.", "At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finish ''Finnegans Wake'', asking the Irish author James Stephens to complete it if something should happen.Joyce's financial problems continued.", "Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.", "Despite these issues, he published ''Pomes Penyeach'' in 1927, a collection of thirteen poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris.====Marriage in London====1966 drawing of Joyce by upright=.75In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more, primarily to assure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.", "Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on the electoral roll, and became liable for jury service.", "After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at the Register Office in Kensington on 4 July 1931.Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness.", "He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England.In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgery or for treatment for Lucia, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia.", "Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written that ''Ulysses'' was similar to schizophrenic writing.", "Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was falling.", "In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death.===Final return to Zürich===In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.", "As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution.", "After the fall of France in 1940, Joyce and his family fled from Nazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time." ], [ "Death", "Grave of James Joyce in Zürich-Fluntern; sculpture by Milton HebaldOn 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for a perforated duodenal ulcer.", "He fell into a coma the following day.", "He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son.", "They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, less than a month before his 59th birthday.His body was buried in the Fluntern Cemetery in Zürich.", "Swiss tenor Max Meili sang \"Addio terra, addio cielo\" from Monteverdi's ''L'Orfeo'' at the burial service.", "Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and only the British consul attended the funeral.", "Although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, neither attended Joyce's funeral.", "When Joseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins, ''chargé d'affaires'' at Bern, Walshe responded, \"Please wire details of Joyce's death.", "If possible find out did he die a Catholic?", "Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral.\"", "Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent \"honour grave\", with a seated portrait statue by American artist Milton Hebald nearby.", "Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years.", "She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976.After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains, despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomat John J. Slocum.", "In October 2019, a motion was put to Dublin City Council to plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.", "The proposal immediately became controversial, with the ''Irish Times'' commenting: \"... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read\"." ], [ "Political views", "1934 portrait of James Joyce by alt=seated portrait of James Joyce in a suit.", "He is in three-quarters view looking left, wearing a suit.", "Table with books is in background on the right.", "Throughout his life, Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politics and in its relationship to British colonialism.", "He studied socialism and anarchism.", "He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced by Benjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism\".", "He described his opinions as \"those of a socialist artist\".", "Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.", "After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned, but his later works still reflect his commitment.", "He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical of coercive ideologies such as nationalism.", "His novels address socialist, anarchist and Irish nationalist issues.", "''Ulysses'' has been read as a novel critiquing the effect of British colonialism on the Irish people.", "''Finnegans Wake'' has been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics, the interrelationship between colonialism and race, and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism.Joyce's politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport.", "He wrote about the negative effects of British occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it.", "In 1907, he expressed his support for the early Sinn Féin movement before the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one.", "When he had a choice, he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State, and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leave Vichy France more easily.", "His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally, his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics, and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political relationship with the Catholic Church." ], [ "Religious views", "Greek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò in Trieste, where Joyce occasionally attended services\|alt=Picture showing the iconostasis of the Church of San Nicolò flanked by candles.Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.", "Firsthand statements by him and Stanislaus, attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.", "In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.", "Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church.", "When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Friday or occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better.Some critics have argued that Joyce firmly rejected the Catholic faith.", "He lapsed from the Church early in life and Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.", "His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism, and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.Nevertheless, Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith, wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.", "They argue that ''Ulysses'' and ''Finnegans Wake'' are expressions of a Catholic sensibility, insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by the characters in his novel do not represent the views of Joyce the author.", "Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation, a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.", "Joyce's attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.", "He has been compared to the medieval (wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought.Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous.", "For example, during an interview after the completion of ''Ulysses'', Joyce was asked, \"When did you leave the Catholic Church?\"", "He answered, \"That's for the Church to say.\"" ], [ "Major works", "===''Dubliners''===alt=alt=Title page saying 'DUBLINERS BY JAMES JOYCE', then a colophon, then 'LONDON / GRANT RICHARDS LTD. / PUBLISHERS'.", "''Dubliners'' is a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914, that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century.", "The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak.", "Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.", "The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination.", "Many of the characters in ''Dubliners'' later appear in minor roles in Joyce's novel ''Ulysses''.", "The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists.", "Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people.", "This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity.===''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man''===''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'', published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the abandoned novel ''Stephen Hero''.", "It is a ''Künstlerroman'', a kind of coming-of-age novel depicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonist Stephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.", "It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.", "Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such as stream of consciousness, interior monologue, and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel.===''Exiles'' and poetry===Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, ''Exiles'', begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918.A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to \"The Dead\" (the final story in ''Dubliners'') and forward to ''Ulysses'', which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition.He published three books of poetry.", "The first full-length collection was ''Chamber Music'' (1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics.", "It led to his inclusion in the ''Imagist Anthology'', edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work.", "Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes \"Gas from a Burner\" (1912), ''Pomes Penyeach'' (1927), and \"Ecce Puer\" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father).", "These were published by the Black Sun Press in ''Collected Poems'' (1936).===''Ulysses''===alt=alt=Worn out blue book cover saying 'Ulysses', at top and 'by James Joyce' at the bottomThe action of ''Ulysses'' starts on 16 June 1904 at 8am and ends sometime after 2am the following morning.", "Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy.", "The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.", "Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode in Homer's Odyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.", "''Ulysses'' sets the characters and incidents of Homer's ''Odyssey'' in 1904 Dublin, representing Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope, and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus.", "It uses humor, including parody, satire and comedy, to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models.", "Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles so the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure.", "''Ulysses'' can be read as a study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony.", "Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.", "To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail.", "Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition of ''Thom's Directory''—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.", "This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and an exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature.===''Finnegans Wake''===''Finnegans Wake'' is an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousness and literary allusions to their extremes.", "Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly.", "Much of the word play stems from the work being written in a peculiar and obscure English, based mainly on complex multilevel puns.", "This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used by Lewis Carroll in ''Jabberwocky'' and draws on a wide range of languages.", "The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream.The metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola, who Joyce had read in his youth, plays an important role in ''Finnegans Wake'', as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.", "Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history (in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos) structures the text's narrative, as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book: ''Finnegans Wake'' opens with the words \"riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs\" and ends \"A way a lone a last a loved a long the\".", "In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle." ], [ "Legacy", "Statue of James Joyce on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie FitzgibbonJoyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.", "''Ulysses'' is a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations in the power of language.", "Its emphasis on the details of everyday life have opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.", "It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.", "Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers, and ''Finnegans Wake'' has become one of the key texts for French post-structuralism.", "It also provided the name for the ''quark'', one of the elementary particles proposed by physicist Murray Gell-Mann.The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keep them open to constant reinterpretation.", "They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics.", "Joyce studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions.In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.===Collections.", "museums and study centres===The National Library of Ireland holds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.", "A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, the Museum of Literature Ireland (branded MoLI in homage to Molly Bloom), the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include \"Copy No.", "1\" of ''Ulysses''.", "Dedicated centres in Dublin include the James Joyce Centre in North Great George's Street, the James Joyce Tower and Museum in Sandycove (the Martello tower where Joyce once lived, and the setting for the opening scene in ''Ulysses''), and the Dublin Writers Museum.", "University College London holds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce's major works, most other early and later editions (including translations), as well as critical and background literature." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Prose===* ''Dubliners'' (short-story collection, 1914)* ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' (novel, 1916)* ''Ulysses'' (novel, 1922)* ''Finnegans Wake'' (novel, 1939, restored 2012)===Poetry collections===* ''Chamber Music'' (poems, Elkin Mathews, 1907)* ''Giacomo Joyce'' (written 1907, published by Faber and Faber, 1968)* ''Pomes Penyeach'' (poems, Shakespeare and Company, 1927)* ''Collected Poems'' (poems, Black Sun Press, 1936, which includes ''Chamber Music'', ''Pomes Penyeach'' and other previously published works)===Play===* ''Exiles'' (play, 1918)===Posthumous publications and drafts=======Fiction====* ''Stephen Hero'' (precursor to ''A Portrait''; written 1904–06, published 1944)* ''The Cat and the Devil'' (London: Faber and Faber, 1965)* ''The Cats of Copenhagen'' (Ithys Press, 2012)* ''Finn's Hotel'' (Ithys Press, 2013)====Non-fiction====* ''The Critical Writings of James Joyce'' (Eds.", "Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann, 1959)* ''Letters of James Joyce Vol.", "1'' (Ed.", "Stuart Gilbert, 1957)* ''Letters of James Joyce Vol.", "2'' (Ed.", "Richard Ellmann, 1966)* ''Letters of James Joyce Vol.", "3'' (Ed.", "Richard Ellmann, 1966)* ''Selected Letters of James Joyce'' (Ed.", "Richard Ellmann, 1975)" ], [ "Notes", "==References== '''Citations'''" ], [ "Sources", ";Books* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** }* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Journal articles* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Online sources* * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * :'''Primary sources'''* * * * * * * * * * Gorman's biography was substantially edited by Joyce; see Nadel, 1991 and Witemeyer, 1995 cited above.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * :'''Literary works'''* * * * * * " ], [ "Further viewing", "" ], [ "External links", "'''Joyce Papers, National Library of Ireland'''* The Joyce Papers 2002, c. 1903–1928* The James Joyce – Paul Léon Papers, 1930–1940* Hans E. Jahnke Bequest at the Zurich James Joyce Foundation online at the National Library Of Ireland, 2014* ''James Joyce'' by Djuna Barnes: ''Vanity Fair'', March, 1922'''Electronic editions'''* * * * '''Resources'''* James Joyce Collection at University College London* * The James Joyce Scholars' Collection from the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center* James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition from the collections of Cornell University* Bibliography of Joycean Scholarship, Articles and Literary Criticism" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judo" ], [ "Introduction", " is an unarmed modern Japanese martial art, combat sport, Olympic sport (since 1964), and the most prominent form of jacket wrestling competed internationally.", "Judo was created in 1882 by Kanō Jigorō () as an eclectic martial art, distinguishing itself from its predecessors (primarily Tenjin Shinyo-ryu jujutsu and Kitō-ryū jujutsu) due to an emphasis on \"randori\" (, lit.", "'free sparring') instead of \"kata\" (pre-arranged forms) alongside its removal of striking and weapon training elements.", "Judo rose to prominence for its dominance over established jujutsu schools in tournaments hosted by the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department (警視庁武術大会, ''Keishicho Bujutsu Taikai''), resulting in its adoption as the department's primary martial art.", "A judo practitioner is called a , and the judo uniform is called .The objective of competitive judo is to throw an opponent, immobilize them with a pin, or force an opponent to submit with a joint lock or a choke.", "While strikes and use of weapons are included in some pre-arranged forms (kata), they are not frequently trained and are illegal in judo competition or free practice.", "Judo's international governing body is the International Judo Federation, and competitors compete in the international IJF professional circuit.Judo's philosophy revolves around two primary principles: \"Seiryoku-Zenyo\" (, lit.", "'good use of energy') and \"Jita-Kyoei\" (, lit.", "'mutual welfare and benefit').", "The philosophy and subsequent pedagogy developed for judo became the model for other modern Japanese martial arts that developed from .", "Judo also spawned a number of derivative martial arts around the world, such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Krav Maga, sambo, and ARB.", "Judo also influenced other combat styles such as close-quarters combat (CQC), mixed martial arts (MMA), shoot wrestling and submission wrestling." ], [ "History and philosophy", "===Early life of its founder===Jigoro Kano, founder of judoThe early history of judo is inseparable from its founder, Japanese polymath and educator , born .", "Kano was born into a relatively affluent family.", "His father, Jirosaku, was the second son of the head priest of the Shinto Hiyoshi shrine in Shiga Prefecture.", "He married Sadako Kano, daughter of the owner of Kiku-Masamune sake brewing company and was adopted by the family, changing his name to Kano.", "He ultimately became an official in the Shogunate government.Jigoro Kano had an academic upbringing and, from the age of seven, he studied English, and the under a number of tutors.", "When he was fourteen, Kano began boarding at an English-medium school, Ikuei-Gijuku in Shiba, Tokyo.", "The culture of bullying endemic at this school was the catalyst that caused Kano to seek out a at which to train.Early attempts to find a jujutsu teacher who was willing to take him on met with little success.", "Jujutsu had become unfashionable in an increasingly westernized Japan.", "Many of those who had once taught the art had been forced out of teaching or become so disillusioned with it that they had simply given up.", "Nakai Umenari, an acquaintance of Kanō's father and a former soldier, agreed to show him ''kata'', but not to teach him.", "The caretaker of Jirosaku's second house, Katagiri Ryuji, also knew jujutsu, but would not teach it as he believed it was no longer of practical use.", "Another frequent visitor, Imai Genshiro of school of jujutsu, also refused.", "Several years passed before he finally found a willing teacher.In 1877, as a student at the Tokyo-''Kaisei'' school (soon to become part of the newly founded Tokyo Imperial University), Kano learned that many jujutsu teachers had been forced to pursue alternative careers, frequently opening .", "After inquiring at a number of these, Kano was referred to Fukuda Hachinosuke (–1880), a teacher of the of jujutsu, who had a small nine mat dōjō where he taught five students.", "Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano's emphasis on in judo.On Fukuda's death in 1880, Kano, who had become his keenest and most able student in both ''randori'' and , was given the of the Fukuda dōjō.", "Kano chose to continue his studies at another ''Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū'' school, that of Iso Masatomo (–1881).", "Iso placed more emphasis on the practice of \"kata\", and entrusted ''randori'' instruction to assistants, increasingly to Kano.", "Iso died in June 1881 and Kano went on to study at the dōjō of Iikubo Tsunetoshi (1835–1889) of .", "Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on ''randori'', with ''Kitō-ryū'' having a greater focus on .===Founding of the Kodokan===''Eisho-ji'' temple, TokyoIn February 1882, Kano founded a school and dōjō at the , a Buddhist temple in what was then the Shitaya ward of Tokyo (now the Higashi Ueno district of Taitō ward).", "Iikubo, Kano's ''Kitō-ryū'' instructor, attended the dōjō three days a week to help teach and, although two years would pass before the temple would be called by the name , and Kano had not yet received his in ''Kitō-ryū'', this is now regarded as the Kodokan founding.The ''Eisho-ji'' dōjō was originally shoin.", "It was a relatively small affair, consisting of a 12 jo (214 sq ft) training area.", "Kano took in resident and non-resident students, the first two being Tomita Tsunejirō and Shiro Saigo.", "In August, the following year, the pair were granted grades, the first that had been awarded in any martial art.===Judo versus jujutsu===Central to Kano's vision for judo were the principles of and .", "He illustrated the application of ''seiryoku zen'yō'' with the concept of :, written in kanji Kano realised that ''seiryoku zen'yō'', initially conceived as a jujutsu concept, had a wider philosophical application.", "Coupled with the Confucianist-influenced ''jita kyōei'', the wider application shaped the development of judo from a to a .", "Kano rejected techniques that did not conform to these principles and emphasised the importance of efficiency in the execution of techniques.", "He was convinced that practice of jujutsu while conforming to these ideals was a route to self-improvement and the betterment of society in general.", "He was, however, acutely conscious of the Japanese public's negative perception of jujutsu:Kano believed that \"''jūjutsu'' was insufficient to describe his art: although means \"art\" or \"means\", it implies a method consisting of a collection of physical techniques.", "Accordingly, he changed the second character to , meaning \"way\", \"road\" or \"path\", which implies a more philosophical context than ''jutsu'' and has a common origin with the Chinese concept of ''tao''.", "Thus Kano renamed it ." ], [ "Judo ''waza'' (techniques)", "There are three basic categories of in judo: , and .", "Judo is mostly known for ''nage-waza'' and ''katame-waza''.Judo practitioners typically devote a portion of each practice session to , in order that ''nage-waza'' can be practiced without significant risk of injury.", "Several distinct types of ''ukemi'' exist, including ; ; ; and The person who performs a ''Waza'' is known as and the person to whom it is performed is known as .===''Nage-waza'' (throwing techniques)===''Nage-waza'' include all techniques in which ''tori'' attempts to throw or trip ''uke'', usually with the aim of placing ''uke'' on their back.", "Each technique has three distinct stages:: the opponent becoming off balanced;: turning in and fitting into the throw;: execution and completion of the throw.", "''Nage-waza'' are typically drilled by the use of , repeated turning-in, taking the throw up to the point of ''kake''.Traditionally, ''nage-waza'' are further categorised into , throws that are performed with ''tori'' maintaining an upright position, and , throws in which ''tori'' sacrifices his upright position in order to throw ''uke''.", "''Tachi-waza'' are further subdivided into , in which ''tori'' predominantly uses their arms to throw ''uke''; throws that predominantly use a lifting motion from the hips; and , throws in which ''tori'' predominantly utilises their legs., a ''koshi-waza'' throwing techniques standing techniques hand techniques hip techniques foot and leg techniques sacrifice techniques rear sacrifice techniques side sacrifice techniques===''Katame-waza'' (grappling techniques)===''Katame-waza'' is further categorised into , in which ''tori'' traps and pins ''uke'' on their back on the floor; , in which ''tori'' attempts to force a submission by choking or strangling ''uke''; and , in which ''tori'' attempts to submit ''uke'' by painful manipulation of their joints.A related concept is that of , in which ''waza'' are applied from a non-standing position.In competitive judo, ''Kansetsu-waza'' is currently limited to elbow joint manipulation.", "Manipulation and locking of other joints can be found in various kata, such as ''Katame-no-kata'' and ''Kodokan goshin jutsu''.", "(armbar), a ''kansetsu-waza'' grappling techniques holding or pinning techniques strangulation techniques Joint techniques (locks)===''Atemi-waza'' (striking techniques)===''Atemi-waza'' are techniques in which ''tori'' disables ''uke'' with a strike to a vital point.", "''Atemi-waza'' are not permitted outside of ''kata''." ], [ "Pedagogy", "Children practicing judo in Tokyo===''Randori'' (free practice)===Judo pedagogy emphasizes .", "This term covers a variety of forms of practice, and the intensity at which it is carried out varies depending on intent and the level of expertise of the participants.", "At one extreme, is a compliant style of randori, known as , in which neither participant offers resistance to their partner's attempts to throw.", "A related concept is that of , in which an experienced judoka allows himself to be thrown by his less-experienced partner.", "At the opposite extreme from ''yakusoku geiko'' is the hard style of randori that seeks to emulate the style of judo seen in competition.", "While hard randori is the cornerstone of judo, over-emphasis of the competitive aspect is seen as undesirable by traditionalists if the intent of the randori is to \"win\" rather than to learn.===Kata (forms)===Jigoro Kano and Yamashita Yoshitsugu performing ''Koshiki-no-kata'' are pre-arranged patterns of techniques and in judo, with the exception of elements of the ''Seiryoku-Zen'yō Kokumin-Taiiku'', they are all practised with a partner.", "Their purposes include illustrating the basic principles of judo, demonstrating the correct execution of a technique, teaching the philosophical tenets upon which judo is based, allowing for the practice of techniques that are not allowed in randori, and to preserve ancient techniques that are historically important but are no longer used in contemporary judo.There are ten kata that are recognized by the Kodokan today: , comprising two kata: Fifteen throws, practiced both left- and right-handed, three each from the five categories of ''nage waza'': ''te waza'', ''koshi waza'', ''ashi waza'', ''ma sutemi waza'' and ''yoko sutemi waza''.", " .", "Fifteen techniques in three sets of five, illustrating the three categories of ''katame waza'': ''osaekomi waza'', ''shime waza'' and ''kansetsu waza''.", "* .", "Twenty techniques, illustrating the principles of defence in a combat situation, performed from kneeling and standing positions.", "Attacks are made unarmed and armed with a dagger and a sword.", "This kata utilises ''atemi waza'', striking techniques, that are forbidden in randori.", "* .", "The most recent recognised kata, comprising twenty-one techniques of defence against attack from an unarmed assailant and one armed with a knife, stick and pistol.", "This kata incorporates various jujutsu techniques such as wrist locks and ''atemi waza''.", "* .", "Fifteen techniques, arranged in three sets of five, demonstrating the principle of ''Jū'' and its correct use in offence and defence.", "* .", "One of the oldest kata, comprising ten forms that illustrate the efficient use of force and resistance.", "Now rarely practiced.", "* .", "An advanced kata, illustrating the principle of ''seiryoku zen'yō'' and the movements of the universe.", "The kata predates the creation of Kodokan and originated in Tenjin Shinyō-ryū.", "* .", "Derived from ''Kitō-ryū'' Jujutsu, this kata was originally intended to be performed wearing armour.", "Kano chose to preserve it as it embodied the principles of judo.", "* .", "A series of exercises designed to develop the physique for judo.", "* .", "An exercise completed in 1943, and of which the development was ordered by Jiro Nango, the second Kodokan president.In addition, there are a number of commonly practiced kata that are not recognised by the Kodokan.", "Some of the more common kata include:* A \"kata\" of pre-emptive counter techniques that some claim has a heritage from Waseda University in Tokyo.", "The form is little more than standard counters, bookended by some protocol.", "Moreover, there is no universal standard nor accepted reference text.", "The exercise is unknown of in Japan, and was popularised in the West by Mikinosuke Kawaishi.", "* A much more elegant and coherent kata of counter techniques, created by Kyuzo Mifune.", "* a kata of counter-attacks to controlling techniques, attributed to ===Tandoku-renshu (practice by oneself)===* Personal work." ], [ "Competitive judo", "===History===Japanese judoka Takamasa Anai Vs French judoka Thierry Fabre during the 2010 World Judo Championships held in TokyoYoshihiko Yoshimatsu attempting to throw Toshiro Daigo with an uchi mata in the final of the 1951 All-Japan Judo Championships is a vitally important aspect of judo.", "In 1899, Kano was asked to chair a committee of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai to draw up the first formal set of contest rules for jujutsu.", "These rules were intended to cover contests between different various traditional schools of jujutsu as well as practitioners of Kodokan judo.", "Contests were 15 minutes long and were judged on the basis of ''nage waza'' and ''katame waza'', excluding ''atemi waza''.", "Wins were by two ippons, awarded in every four-main different path of winning alternatives, by \"Throwing\", where the opponent's back strikes flat onto the mat with sufficient force, by \"Pinning\" them on their back for a \"sufficient\" amount of time, or by \"Submission\", which could be achieved via ''Shime-waza'' or ''Kansetsu-waza'', in which the opponent was forced to give himself or herself up or summon a referee's or corner-judge's stoppage.", "Finger, toe and ankle locks were prohibited.", "In 1900, these rules were adopted by the Kodokan with amendments made to prohibit all joint locks for ''kyu'' grades and added wrist locks to the prohibited ''kansetsu-waza'' for ''dan'' grades.", "It was also stated that the ratio of ''tachi-waza'' to ''ne-waza'' should be between 70% and 80% for ''kyu'' grades and between 60% and 70% for ''dan'' grades.In 1916, additional rulings were brought in to further limit ''kansetsu waza'' with the prohibition of ''ashi garami'' and neck locks, as well as ''do jime''.", "These were further added to in 1925.Jigoro Kano for a long time wished to see judo as an Olympic discipline.", "The first time judo was seen in the Olympic Games was in an informal demonstration hosted by Kano at the 1932 Games.", "However, Kano was ambivalent about judo's potential inclusion as an Olympic sport:===Use of judo at the Summer Olympic Games===Judo (1935)Olympic Judo pictogramAt the 57th general session of the International Olympic Committee, held in Rome on 22 August 1960, the IOC members formally decided to include Judo among the events to be contested at the Olympic Games.", "The proposal, which was placed before the session by the Japanese delegation, was welcomed by all participants.", "The few who opposed had nothing against Judo itself but against increasing the number of Olympic events as a whole.", "There were only two dissenting votes in the final poll.", "For the first time in history a traditional Japanese sport has been included in the Olympic competition.Finally, judo was first contested as an Olympic sport for men in the 1964 Games in Tokyo.", "The Olympic Committee initially dropped judo for the 1968 Olympics, meeting protests.", "Dutchman Anton Geesink won the first Olympic gold medal in the open division of judo by defeating Akio Kaminaga of Japan.", "The women's event was introduced at the Olympics in 1988 as a demonstration event, and an official medal event in 1992.===Use of judo at the Summer Paralympic Games===Judo was introduced as a Paralympic sport at the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul, with women's events contested for the first time at 2004 Summer Paralympics.===Use of judo at the Commonwealth Games===Judo was an optional sport included in the three editions of the Commonwealth Games: 1990 Commonwealth Games in Auckland, 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester and 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow.", "From 2022, judo will become a core sport in the 22nd edition of the Commonwealth Games, in Birmingham.===Current international contest rules===All-Japan Judo Championships, 2007 men's finalPenalties may be given for: passivity or preventing progress in the match; for safety infringements for example by using prohibited techniques, or for behavior that is deemed to be against the spirit of judo.", "Fighting must be stopped if a participant is outside the designated area on the mat.====Weight divisions====There are currently seven weight divisions, subject to change by governing bodies, and may be modified based on the age of the competitors:+ Weight divisions Extra Lightweight Half Lightweight Lightweight Half Middleweight Middleweight Half Heavyweight Heavyweight Men Under Over Women Under Over Throw during competition, leads to an ippon====Competition scoring====A throw that places the opponent on their back with impetus and control scores an , winning the contest.", "A lesser throw, where the opponent is thrown onto his back, but with insufficient force to merit an ippon, scores a .", "Two scores of waza-ari equal an ippon .", "This rule was cancelled in 2017, but it was resumed in 2018.Formerly, a throw that places the opponent onto his side scores a .In 2017, the International Judo Federation announced changes in evaluation of points.", "There will only be ippon and waza-ari scores given during a match with yuko scores now included within waza-ari.Ippon is scored in ''ne-waza'' for pinning an opponent on his back with a recognised ''osaekomi-waza'' for 20 seconds or by forcing a submission through ''shime-waza'' or ''kansetsu-waza''.", "A submission is signalled by tapping the mat or the opponent at least twice with the hand or foot, or by saying .", "A pin lasting for less than 20 seconds, but more than 10 seconds scores waza-ari (formerly waza-ari was awarded for holds of longer than 15 seconds and yuko for holds of longer than 10 seconds).Formerly, there was an additional score that was lesser to yuko, that of .", "This has since been removed.If the scores are identical at the end of the match, the contest is resolved by the ''Golden Score'' rule.", "''Golden Score'' is a sudden death situation where the clock is reset to match-time, and the first contestant to achieve any score wins.", "If there is no score during this period, then the winner is decided by , the majority opinion of the referee and the two corner judges.There have been changes to the scoring.", "In January 2013, the Hantei was removed and the \"Golden Score\" no longer has a time limit.", "The match would continue until a judoka scored through a technique or if the opponent is penalised (Hansoku-make).====Penalties====Two types of penalties may be awarded.", "A shido (指導 literally \"guidance\") is awarded for minor rule infringements.", "A shido can also be awarded for a prolonged period of non-aggression.", "Recent rule changes allow for the first shidos to result in only warnings.", "If there is a tie, then and only then, will the number of shidos (if less than three) be used to determine the winner.", "After three shidos are given, the victory is given to the opponent, constituting an indirect hansoku-make (反則負け literally \"foul-play defeat\"), but does not result in expulsion from the tournament.", "Note: Prior to 2017, the 4th shido was hansoku-make.", "If hansoku-make is awarded for a major rule infringement, it results not just in loss of the match, but in the expulsion from the tournament of the penalized player." ], [ "In mixed martial arts", "A number of judo practitioners have made an impact in mixed martial arts.", "Notable judo-trained MMA fighters include Olympic medalists Hidehiko Yoshida (Gold, 1992), Naoya Ogawa (Silver, 1992), Paweł Nastula (Gold, 1996), Makoto Takimoto (Gold, 2000), Satoshi Ishii (Gold, 2008), Ronda Rousey (Bronze, 2008), and Kayla Harrison (Gold, 2012 and 2016), former Russian national judo championship bronze medalist Fedor Emelianenko, Yoshihiro Akiyama, Don Frye, Rick Hawn, Daniel Kelly, Hector Lombard, Karo Parisyan, Ayaka Hamasaki, Antônio Silva, Oleg Taktarov, Rhadi Ferguson, Dong-Sik Yoon, and Khabib Nurmagomedov." ], [ "Alternative styles and derivative martial arts", "International judo camp in Artjärvi, Orimattila, FinlandKano Jigoro's Kodokan judo is the most popular and well-known style of judo, but is not the only one.", "The terms judo and jujutsu were quite interchangeable in the early years, so some of these forms of judo are still known as jujutsu or jiu-jitsu either for that reason, or simply to differentiate them from mainstream judo.", "From Kano's original style of judo, several related forms have evolved—some now widely considered to be distinct arts:===Kosen judo===Commonly described as a separate style of Judo, Kosen judo is a competition rules set of Kodokan judo that was popularized in the early 20th century for use in Japanese Special High Schools Championships held at Kyoto Imperial University.", "The word \"Kosen\" is an acronym of .", "Currently, competitions are organized between Japan's seven former Imperial Universities and referred to as ''Nanatei Judo'' (:ja:七帝柔道, literally \"Seven Emperors Judo\").", "Kosen judo's focus on newaza has drawn comparisons with Brazilian jiu-jitsu.===Freestyle Judo===Freestyle Judo is a form of competitive judo practiced primarily in the United States that retains techniques that have been removed from mainstream IJF rules.", "Freestyle Judo is currently backed by the International Freestyle Judo Alliance (IFJA).", "The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) officially sanctions Freestyle Judo in the United States of America.===Georgian Judo===Georgian Judo is influenced by Chidaoba (Georgian cultural jacket wrestling).", "Chidaoba's major influence on the Georgian style of judo is in its unorthodox grips as well as its throws and takedowns.", "Georgian Judo is also known for its countering techniques through the use of power moves such as bear hugs and double underhooks into throws and takedowns.", "It is represented by various olympic winners and World Champions, such as Lasha Bekauri, Lukhumi Chkhvimiani, Shota Chochishvili, Tato Grigalashvili, Zaza Kedelashvili, David Khakhaleishvili, Luka Maisuradze,Lasha Shavdatuashvili and others.===Russian Judo===This distinctive style of judo was influenced by the Soviet martial art of Sambo.", "It is represented by well-known coaches such as Alexander Retuinskih and Igor Yakimov, and mixed martial arts fighters such as Fedor Emelianenko, Oleg Taktarov, Khabib Nurmagomedov, and Karo Parisyan.", "In turn, Russian judo has influenced mainstream judo, with techniques such as the flying armbar being accepted into Kodokan judo.===Mongolian Judo===Unlike other Far East styles of Judo, Mongolian Judo focuses much more on power rather than technique.", "The influence of Bokh on Mongolian Judo can be seen in its grips and body positioning.", "Judo grips such as the over under, double underhooks and the heavy use of grips on the belt.", "It is represented by various world champions, such as Khaliuny Boldbaatar, Tsendiin Damdin, Boldyn Gankhaich, Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar, Mönkhbatyn Urantsetseg, Ganbatyn Boldbaatar.===Korean Judo===Korean Judo is also very technical but what really separates it from other styles is the speed at which its techniques are performed.", "Korean Judo it is not powerful in terms of using strength but instead, the practitioners use speed, movement and technique in order to create fast and powerful snaps.", "This styles produced various olympic champions, like Ahn Byeong-keun, Cho Min-sun, Choi Min-ho, Ha Hyung-joo, Jeon Ki-young, Kim Jae-bum, Kim Jae-Yup, Lee Kyung-Keun, Lee Won-hee, Song Dae-Nam and others.===French Judo===French Judo is based on tactical Kumi Kata and focuses on breaking the posture of the opponent as well they are excellent at preventing opponents from attaining a proper grip.", "This style does not use a huge amount of power, it prefer to use technique, tactics and timing.", "Many French judo practuctioners have become World and Olympic champions, like Clarisse Agbegnenou, Émilie Andéol, Marc Alexandre, Djamel Bouras, Amandine Buchard, Guillaume Chaine, Axel Clerget, Sarah-Léonie Cysique, Lucie Décosse, Romane Dicko, David Douillet, Catherine Fleury-Vachon, Alexandre Iddir and many others.===Cuban Judo===Cuban Judo is characterized by an explosive and high athletic style that puts an emphasis on body conditioning and calculated planning mixed with raw power.In terms of training the athletes use a particularly methodical and intellectual approach to the sport.===Azerbaijani Judo===Judo in Azerbaijan has developed over the years and has become deep rooted and considered a top sport in the country.It's very similar to Georgian Judo, as its mostly focused on the practitioner's strength during throws.It's a hybrid of the original Kodokan Judo and the traditional Azerbaijan style of wrestling called Azeri, whose techniques consist of unorthodox grips and positioning during counter-attacks.===Israeli Judo===Judo has become a top sport in Israel only recently.Israeli Judo is characterized by a particular emphasis on hip throws, which are executed with a mix of technique and aggression, with the practitioner that has to adjust his sleeves before powerfully gripping and throwing the opponent away.===Sambo===Sambo is influenced by judo combined with wrestling techniques, and striking in case of combat sambo.", "Vasili Oshchepkov was one of the first European judo black belts under Kano.", "Oshchepkov went on to contribute his knowledge of judo as one of the three founders of Sambo, which also integrated various international and Soviet bloc wrestling styles and other combative techniques.", "Oshchepkov was executed during the political purges of 1937 and judo was banned for decades until its inclusion in the 1964 Olympics, where sambists won 4 bronze medals.", "In their ''History of Sambo'', Brett Jacques and Scott Anderson wrote that in Russia \"judo and SOMBO were considered to be the same thing\"—albeit with a different uniform and some differences in the rules.===Brazilian jiu-jitsu===An adoption of ''Kano jiu jitsu'' (a common name for judo at the time) in Brazil attributed to Mitsuya Maeda's students, most notably the Gracie family.", "10th Planet Jiu Jitsu and other wrestling-influenced systems without the gi have also become popular.=== Other styles ===Judo also influenced other combat styles such as close-quarters combat (CQC), mixed martial arts (MMA), shoot wrestling and submission wrestling." ], [ "Safety", "Kano's vision for judo was one of a martial way that could be practiced realistically.", "Randori (free practice) was a central part of judo pedagogy and shiai (competition) a crucial test of a judoka's understanding of judo.", "Safety necessitated some basic innovations that shaped judo's development.", "Atemi waza (striking techniques) were entirely limited to kata (prearranged forms) early in judo's history.", "Kansetsu waza (joint manipulation techniques) were limited to techniques that focused on the elbow joint.", "Various throwing techniques that were judged to be too dangerous to practice safely at full force, such as all joint-locking throws from Jujutsu, were also prohibited in shiai.", "To maximise safety in nage waza (throwing techniques), judoka trained in ukemi (break falls) and practiced on tatami (rice straw mats).===''Kansetsu'' and ''shime waza''===The application of joint manipulation and strangulation/choking techniques is generally safe under controlled conditions typical of judo dōjō and in competition.", "It is usual for there to be age restrictions on the practice and application of these types of techniques, but the exact nature of these restrictions will vary from country to country and from organization to organization.===''Nage waza''===Safety in the practice of throwing techniques depends on the skill level of both tori and uke.", "Inexpertly applied throws have the potential to injure both tori and uke, for instance when tori compensates for poor technique by powering through the throw.", "Similarly, poor ukemi can result in injury, particularly from more powerful throws that uke lacks the skill to breakfall from.", "For these reasons, throws are normally taught in order of difficulty for both tori and uke.", "This is exemplified in the ''Gokyo'' , a traditional grouping of throws arranged in order of difficulty of ukemi.", "Those grouped in are relatively simple to breakfall from whereas those grouped in are difficult to breakfall from." ], [ "Mental training", "Mental training is an emerging modality of training in judo that aims to improve the performance of high-performance athletes in training and competition and also to promote health and well-being in the daily life of athletes and their entourage through the learning and application of psychological skills.", "The first publication of a judo-specific practical mental training approach based on sports training principles was in 2005 with the work of Boris Blumenstein, Ronnie Lidor and Gershon Tenenbaum.", "In 2022, Caio Gabriel published the first article on mental training that appeared in the scientific journal of the International Judo Federation, \"The Arts and Sciences of Judo\"." ], [ "Judoka (practitioner)", "Two judoka wearing judogiA practitioner of judo is known as a .", "The modern meaning of \"judoka\" in English is a judo practitioner of any level of expertise, but traditionally those below the rank of 4th ''dan'' were called ; and only those of 4th ''dan'' or higher were called \"judoka\".", "(The suffix , when added to a noun, means a person with expertise or special knowledge on that subject).A judo teacher is called .", "The word ''sensei'' comes from ''sen'' or ''saki'' (before) and ''sei'' (life) – i.e.", "one who has preceded you.", "In Western dōjō, it is common to call an instructor of any ''dan'' grade ''sensei''.", "Traditionally, that title was reserved for instructors of 4th ''dan'' and above." ], [ "Judogi (uniform)", "The judogi is made from a heavy weave to withstand the stress of throwing and grappling.Judo practitioners traditionally wear white uniforms called or sometimes abbreviated in the west as \"gi\".", "It comprises a heavy cotton kimono-like jacket called an , similar to traditional fastened by an , coloured to indicate rank, and cotton draw-string .", "Early examples of keikogi had short sleeves and trouser legs and the modern long-sleeved judogi was adopted in 1906.The modern use of the blue judogi for high level competition was first suggested by Anton Geesink at the 1986 Maastricht IJF DC Meeting.", "For competition, a blue judogi is worn by one of the two competitors for ease of distinction by judges, referees, and spectators.", "In Japan, both judoka use a white judogi and the traditional red obi (based on the colors of the Japanese flag) is affixed to the belt of one competitor.", "Outside Japan, a colored obi may also be used for convenience in minor competitions, the blue judogi only being mandatory at the regional or higher levels, depending on organization.", "Japanese practitioners and traditionalists tend to look down on the use of blue because judo is considered a pure sport, and replacing the pure white judogi with the impure blue is an offense.For events organized under the auspices of the International judo Federation (IJF), judogi have to bear the IJF Official Logo Mark Label.", "This label demonstrates that the judogi has passed a number of quality control tests to ensure it conforms to construction regulations ensuring it is not too stiff, flexible, rigid or slippery to allow the opponent to grip or to perform techniques." ], [ "Organizations", "''The international governing body for judo is the International Judo Federation (IJF), founded in 1951.Members of the IJF include the African Judo Union (AJU), the Pan-American Judo Confederation (PJC), the Judo Union of Asia (JUA), the European Judo Union (EJU) and the Oceania Judo Union (OJU), each comprising a number of national judo associations.", "The IJF is responsible for organising international competition and hosts the World Judo Championships and is involved in running the Olympic Judo events." ], [ "Rank and grading", "Two children training in judo techniques Judo is a hierarchical art, where seniority of judoka is designated by what is known as the - ranking system.", "This system was developed by Jigoro Kano and was based on the ranking system in the board game Go.Beginning students progress through kyu grades towards dan grades.A judoka's position within the kyu-dan ranking system is displayed by the color of their belt.", "Beginning students typically wear a white belt, progressing through descending kyu ranks until they are deemed to have achieved a level of competence sufficient to be a dan grade, at which point they wear the .", "The kyu-dan ranking system has since been widely adopted by modern martial arts.The highest black belt ranks have no formal requirements and are decided by the president of the Kodokan.", "Kano Jigoro's grandson Kano Yukimitsu served as the fourth president from 1980 until 2009.As an educator by profession, Kanō believed that there should be no end to an individual's learning, and therefore no limit to the number of dan ranks.", "As of 2011, fifteen Japanese men have been promoted to the tenth degree black belt ''judan'' by the Kodokan; the IJF and Western and Asian national federations have promoted another eleven who are not recognized at that level of rank by the Kodokan.", "On 28 July 2011, the promotion board of USA Judo awarded Keiko Fukuda the rank of 10th ''dan'', who was the first woman to be promoted to judo's highest level, albeit not a Kodokan-recognized rank.Although ''dan'' ranks tend to be consistent between national organizations there is more variation in the ''kyū'' grades, with some countries having more ''kyū'' grades.", "Although initially ''kyū'' grade belt colours were uniformly white, today a variety of colours are used.", "The first black belts to denote a dan rank in the 1880s, initially the wide obi was used; as practitioners trained in kimono, only white and black obi were used.", "It was not until the early 1900s, after the introduction of the judogi, that an expanded colored belt system of awarding rank was created.", "Written accounts from the archives of London's Budokwai judo club, founded in 1918, record the use of coloured judo belts at the 1926 9th annual Budokwai Display, and a list of ranked colored judokas appears in the Budokwai Committee Minutes of June 1927.Kawaishi visited London and the Budokwai in 1928, and was probably inspired to bring the coloured belt system to France." ], [ "World Judo Day", "On October 28 of every year, the judo community celebrates the World Judo Day in the honor of the birth of Judo's founder, Jigoro Kano.", "The theme of the World Judo Day changes from year to year, but the goal is always to highlight the moral values of Judo.", "The first celebration was held in 2011.Past themes for the celebration have included:* Bring a Friend (2023)* Inclusion (2022)* Solidarity (2021)* Stronger Together (2020)* Plant a Tree (2019)* Friendship (2018)* Courage (2017)" ], [ "Filmography", "Akira Kurosawa, , 1943.", "Akira Kurosawa, , 1945.", "Johnnie To, , 2004." ], [ "See also", "Judo by countryList of celebrity judokaList of judo techniques, partial list of judo techniquesList of judokaList of World Champions in JudoJacket wrestling" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*******************************" ], [ "External links", " International Judo Federation (IJF)—The worldwide governing body for judo* All judoka profiles at Judoinside.com* Kodokan Judo Institute—Headquarters of judo (Kano Jigoro's school)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Bond" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''James Bond''''' series focuses on the titular character, a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections.", "Since Fleming's death in 1964, eight other authors have written authorised Bond novels or novelisations: Kingsley Amis, Christopher Wood, John Gardner, Raymond Benson, Sebastian Faulks, Jeffery Deaver, William Boyd, and Anthony Horowitz.", "The latest novel is ''With a Mind to Kill'' by Anthony Horowitz, published in May 2022.Additionally Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond, and Kate Westbrook wrote three novels based on the diaries of a recurring series character, Moneypenny.The character—also known by the code number '''007''' (pronounced \"double-oh-seven\")—has also been adapted for television, radio, comic strip, video games and film.", "The films are one of the longest continually running film series and have grossed over US$7.04 billion in total at the box office, making it the fifth-highest-grossing film series to date, which started in 1962 with ''Dr.", "No'', starring Sean Connery as Bond.", ", there have been twenty-five films in the Eon Productions series.", "The most recent Bond film, ''No Time to Die'' (2021), stars Daniel Craig in his fifth portrayal of Bond; he is the sixth actor to play Bond in the Eon series.", "There have also been two independent Bond film productions: ''Casino Royale'' (a 1967 spoof starring David Niven) and ''Never Say Never Again'' (a 1983 remake of an earlier Eon-produced film, 1965's ''Thunderball'', both starring Connery).", "In 2015, the series was estimated to be worth $19.9 billion in total (based on box-office grosses, DVD sales and merchandise tie-ins), making ''James Bond'' one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time.", "''Casino Royale'' has also been adapted for television, as a one-hour show in 1954 as part of the CBS series ''Climax!", "''.The Bond films are renowned for a number of features, including their soundtracks, with the theme songs having received Academy Award nominations on several occasions, and three wins.", "Other important elements which run through most of the films include Bond's cars, his guns, and the gadgets with which he is supplied by Q Branch.", "The films are also noted for Bond's relationships with various women, who are popularly referred to as \"Bond girls\"." ], [ "Publication history", "=== Creation and inspiration ===Ian Fleming created the fictional character of James Bond as the central figure for his works.", "Bond is an intelligence officer in the Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6.Bond is known by his code number, 007, and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander.", "Fleming based his fictional creation on a number of individuals he came across during his time in the Naval Intelligence Division and 30 Assault Unit during the Second World War, admitting that Bond \"was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war\".", "Among those types were his brother, Peter, who had been involved in behind-the-lines operations in Norway and Greece during the war.", "Aside from Fleming's brother, a number of others also provided some aspects of Bond's make up, including Conrad O'Brien-ffrench, Patrick Dalzel-Job, Bill \"Biffy\" Dunderdale and Duško Popov.The name James Bond came from that of the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide ''Birds of the West Indies''.", "Fleming, a keen birdwatcher himself, had a copy of Bond's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist's wife that \"It struck me that this brief, unromantic, Anglo-Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed, and so a second James Bond was born\".", "He further explained that:On another occasion, Fleming said: \"I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, 'James Bond' was much better than something more interesting, like 'Peregrine Carruthers'.", "Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure—an anonymous, blunt instrument wielded by a government department.", "\"Hoagy Carmichael—Fleming's view of James BondFleming decided that Bond should resemble both American singer Hoagy Carmichael and himself and in ''Casino Royale'', Vesper Lynd remarks, \"Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless.\"", "Likewise, in ''Moonraker'', Special Branch officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is \"certainly good-looking ... Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way.", "That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow.", "Much the same bones.", "But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth, and the eyes were cold.", "\"Fleming endowed Bond with many of his own traits, including sharing the same golf handicap, the taste for scrambled eggs, and using the same brand of toiletries.", "Bond's tastes are also often taken from Fleming's own as was his behaviour, with Bond's love of golf and gambling mirroring Fleming's own.", "Fleming used his experiences of his career in espionage and all other aspects of his life as inspiration when writing, including using names of school friends, acquaintances, relatives and lovers throughout his books.It was not until the penultimate novel, ''You Only Live Twice'', that Fleming gave Bond a sense of family background.", "The book was the first to be written after the release of ''Dr.", "No'' in cinemas, and Sean Connery's depiction of Bond affected Fleming's interpretation of the character, henceforth giving Bond both a dry sense of humour and Scottish antecedents that were not present in the previous stories.", "In a fictional obituary, purportedly published in ''The Times'', Bond's parents were given as Andrew Bond, from the village of Glencoe, Scotland, and Monique Delacroix, from the canton of Vaud, Switzerland.", "Fleming did not provide Bond's date of birth, but John Pearson's fictional biography of Bond, ''James Bond: The Authorized Biography of 007'', gives Bond a birth date on 11 November 1920, while a study by John Griswold puts the date at 11 November 1921.=== Novels and related works ======= Ian Fleming novels ====Goldeneye, in Jamaica, where Fleming wrote all the Bond novelsWhilst serving in the Naval Intelligence Division, Fleming had planned to become an author and had told a friend, \"I am going to write the spy story to end all spy stories.\"", "On 17 February 1952, he began writing his first James Bond novel, ''Casino Royale'', at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica, where he wrote all his Bond novels during the months of January and February each year.", "He started the story shortly before his wedding to his pregnant girlfriend, Ann Charteris, in order to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials.After completing the manuscript for ''Casino Royale'', Fleming showed it to his friend (and later editor) William Plomer to read.", "Plomer liked it and submitted it to the publishers, Jonathan Cape, who did not like it as much.", "Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming's older brother Peter, an established travel writer.", "Between 1953 and 1966, two years after his death, twelve novels and two short-story collections were published, with the last two books—''The Man with the Golden Gun'' and ''Octopussy and The Living Daylights''—published posthumously.", "All the books were published in the UK through Jonathan Cape.", "* 1953 ''Casino Royale''* 1954 ''Live and Let Die''* 1955 ''Moonraker''* 1956 ''Diamonds Are Forever''* 1957 ''From Russia, with Love''* 1958 ''Dr.", "No''* 1959 ''Goldfinger''* 1960 ''For Your Eyes Only'' (short stories)* 1961 ''Thunderball''* 1962 ''The Spy Who Loved Me''* 1963 ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service''* 1964 ''You Only Live Twice''* 1965 ''The Man with the Golden Gun''* 1966 ''Octopussy and The Living Daylights'' (short stories; \"The Property of a Lady\" added to subsequent editions)==== Post-Fleming novels ====After Fleming's death, a continuation novel, ''Colonel Sun'', was written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham) and published in 1968.Amis had already written a literary study of Fleming's Bond novels in his 1965 work ''The James Bond Dossier''.", "Although novelisations of two of the Eon Productions Bond films appeared in print, ''James Bond, The Spy Who Loved Me'' and ''James Bond and Moonraker'', both written by screenwriter Christopher Wood, the series of novels did not continue until the 1980s.", "In 1981, the thriller writer John Gardner picked up the series with ''Licence Renewed''.", "Gardner went on to write sixteen Bond books in total; two of the books he wrote were novelisations of Eon Productions films of the same name: ''Licence to Kill'' and ''GoldenEye''.", "Gardner moved the Bond series into the 1980s, although he retained the ages of the characters as they were when Fleming had left them.", "In 1996, Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health.", "* 1981 ''Licence Renewed''* 1982 ''For Special Services''* 1983 ''Icebreaker''* 1984 ''Role of Honour''* 1986 ''Nobody Lives for Ever''* 1987 ''No Deals, Mr.", "Bond''* 1988 ''Scorpius''* 1989 ''Win, Lose or Die''* 1989 ''Licence to Kill'' (novelisation)* 1990 ''Brokenclaw''* 1991 ''The Man from Barbarossa''* 1992 ''Death Is Forever''* 1993 ''Never Send Flowers''* 1994 ''SeaFire''* 1995 ''GoldenEye'' (novelisation)* 1996 ''Cold''In 1996, the American author Raymond Benson became the author of the Bond novels.", "Benson had previously been the author of ''The James Bond Bedside Companion'', first published in 1984.By the time he moved on to other, non-Bond related projects in 2002, Benson had written six Bond novels, three novelisations and three short stories.", "* 1997 \"Blast From the Past\" (short story)* 1997 ''Zero Minus Ten''* 1997 ''Tomorrow Never Dies'' (novelisation)* 1998 ''The Facts of Death''* 1999 \"Midsummer Night's Doom\" (short story)* 1999 \"Live at Five\" (short story)* 1999 ''The World Is Not Enough'' (novelisation)* 1999 ''High Time to Kill''* 2000 ''DoubleShot''* 2001 ''Never Dream of Dying''* 2002 ''The Man with the Red Tattoo''* 2002 ''Die Another Day'' (novelisation)After a gap of six years, Sebastian Faulks was commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to write a new Bond novel, which was released on 28 May 2008, the 100th anniversary of Fleming's birth.", "The book—titled ''Devil May Care''—was published in the UK by Penguin Books and by Doubleday in the US.", "American writer Jeffery Deaver was then commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to produce ''Carte Blanche'', which was published on 26 May 2011.The book turned Bond into a post-9/11 agent, independent of MI5 or MI6.On 26 September 2013, ''Solo'' by William Boyd, set in 1969, was published.", "In October 2014, it was announced that Anthony Horowitz was to write a ''Bond'' continuation novel.", "Set in the 1950s two weeks after the events of ''Goldfinger'', it contains material written, but previously unreleased, by Fleming.", "''Trigger Mortis'' was released on 8 September 2015.Horowitz's second Bond novel, ''Forever and a Day'', tells the origin story of Bond as a 00 agent prior to the events of ''Casino Royale''.", "The novel, also based on unpublished material from Fleming, was released on 31 May 2018.Horowitz's third Bond novel, ''With a Mind to Kill'', was published on 26 May 2022.Charlie Higson's first adult Bond novel, ''On His Majesty's Secret Service'', was published on 4 May 2023 to celebrate the Coronation of King Charles III and support the National Literacy Trust.", "* 2008 ''Devil May Care''* 2011 ''Carte Blanche''* 2013 ''Solo''* 2015 ''Trigger Mortis''* 2018 ''Forever and a Day''* 2022 ''With a Mind to Kill''* 2023 ''On His Majesty's Secret Service''==== Young Bond ====The ''Young Bond'' series of novels was started by Charlie Higson and, between 2005 and 2009, five novels and one short story were published.", "The first Young Bond novel, ''SilverFin'' was also adapted and released as a graphic novel on 2 October 2008 by Puffin Books.", "In October 2013 Ian Fleming Publications announced that Stephen Cole would continue the series, with the first edition scheduled to be released in Autumn 2014.", "* 2005 ''SilverFin''* 2006 ''Blood Fever''* 2007 ''Double or Die''* 2007 ''Hurricane Gold''* 2008 ''By Royal Command'' & ''SilverFin'' (graphic novel)* 2009 \"A Hard Man to Kill\" (short story)==== ''The Moneypenny Diaries'' ====''The Moneypenny Diaries'' are a trilogy of novels chronicling the life of Miss Moneypenny, M's personal secretary.", "The novels are written by Samantha Weinberg under the pseudonym Kate Westbrook, who is depicted as the book's \"editor\".", "The first instalment of the trilogy, subtitled ''Guardian Angel'', was released on 10 October 2005 in the UK.", "A second volume, subtitled ''Secret Servant'' was released on 2 November 2006 in the UK, published by John Murray.", "A third volume, subtitled ''Final Fling'' was released on 1 May 2008.", "* 2005 ''The Moneypenny Diaries: Guardian Angel''* 2006 ''Secret Servant: The Moneypenny Diaries''* 2008 ''The Moneypenny Diaries: Final Fling''" ], [ "Adaptations", "=== Television ===In 1954, CBS paid Ian Fleming $1,000 ($ in dollars) to adapt his novel ''Casino Royale'' into a one-hour television adventure, \"Casino Royale\", as part of its ''Climax!''", "series.", "The episode aired live on 21 October 1954 and starred Barry Nelson as \"Card Sense\" James Bond and Peter Lorre as Le Chiffre.", "The novel was adapted for American audiences to show Bond as an American agent working for \"Combined Intelligence\", while the character Felix Leiter—American in the novel—became British onscreen and was renamed \"Clarence Leiter\".In 1973, a BBC documentary ''Omnibus: The British Hero'' featured Christopher Cazenove playing a number of such title characters (e.g.", "Richard Hannay and Bulldog Drummond).", "The documentary included James Bond in dramatised scenes from''Goldfinger''—notably featuring 007 being threatened with the novel's circular saw, rather than the film's laser beam—and ''Diamonds Are Forever''.", "In 1991, a spin-off animated series, ''James Bond Jr.'', was produced with Corey Burton in the role of Bond's nephew, James Bond Jr.", "In 2022, a reality competition show based on the franchise, ''007: Road to a Million'', was released on Amazon Prime Video.=== Radio ===In 1958, the novel ''Moonraker'' was adapted for broadcast on South African radio, with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond.", "According to ''The Independent'', \"listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination\".The BBC have adapted five of the Fleming novels for broadcast: in 1990 ''You Only Live Twice'' was adapted into a 90-minute radio play for BBC Radio 4 with Michael Jayston playing James Bond.", "The production was repeated a number of times between 2008 and 2011.On 24 May 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation of ''Dr.", "No''.", "The actor Toby Stephens, who played Bond villain Gustav Graves in the Eon Productions version of ''Die Another Day'', played Bond, while Dr. No was played by David Suchet.", "Following its success, a second story was adapted and on 3 April 2010 BBC Radio 4 broadcast ''Goldfinger'' with Stephens again playing Bond.", "Sir Ian McKellen was Goldfinger and Stephens' ''Die Another Day'' co-star Rosamund Pike played Pussy Galore.", "The play was adapted from Fleming's novel by Archie Scottney and was directed by Martin Jarvis.In 2012, the novel ''From Russia, with Love'' was dramatised for Radio 4; it featured a full cast again starring Stephens as Bond.", "In May 2014 Stephens again played Bond, in ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', with Alfred Molina as Blofeld, and Joanna Lumley (who appeared in the 1969 film adaptation) as Irma Bunt.=== Comics ===John McLusky's rendition of James BondIn 1957, the ''Daily Express'' approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips, offering him £1,500 per novel and a share of takings from syndication.", "After initial reluctance, Fleming, who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing, agreed.", "To aid the ''Daily Express'' in illustrating Bond, Fleming commissioned an artist to create a sketch of how he believed James Bond looked.", "The illustrator, John McLusky, however, felt that Fleming's 007 looked too \"outdated\" and \"pre-war\" and changed Bond to give him a more masculine look.", "The first strip, ''Casino Royale'' was published from 7 July 1958 to 13 December 1958 and was written by Anthony Hern and illustrated by John McLusky.Most of the Bond novels and short stories have since been adapted for illustration, as well as Kingsley Amis's ''Colonel Sun''; the works were written by Henry Gammidge or Jim Lawrence (except for the adaptation of ''Dr.", "No'' which was written by future Modesty Blaise creator Peter O'Donnell) with Yaroslav Horak replacing McClusky as artist in 1966.After the Fleming and Amis material had been adapted, original stories were produced, continuing in the ''Daily Express'' and ''Sunday Express'' until May 1977.Several comic book adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years: at the time of ''Dr.", "No'''s release in October 1962, a comic book adaptation of the screenplay, written by Norman J. Nodel, was published in Britain as part of the ''Classics Illustrated'' anthology series.", "It was later reprinted in the United States by DC Comics as part of its ''Showcase'' anthology series, in January 1963.This was the first American comic book appearance of James Bond and is noteworthy for being a relatively rare example of a British comic being reprinted in a fairly high-profile American comic.", "It was also one of the earliest comics to be censored on racial grounds (some skin tones and dialogue were changed for the American market).With the release of the 1981 film ''For Your Eyes Only'', Marvel Comics published a two-issue comic book adaptation of the film.", "When ''Octopussy'' was released in the cinemas in 1983, Marvel published an accompanying comic; Eclipse also produced a one-off comic for ''Licence to Kill'', although Timothy Dalton refused to allow his likeness to be used.", "New Bond stories were also drawn up and published from 1989 onwards through Marvel, Eclipse Comics, Dark Horse Comics and Dynamite Entertainment.=== Films ======= Eon Productions films ====Franchise logo, 1995–presentEon Productions, the company of Canadian Harry Saltzman and American Albert R. \"Cubby\" Broccoli, released the first cinema adaptation of an Ian Fleming novel, ''Dr.", "No'' (1962), based on the eponymous 1958 novel and featuring Sean Connery as 007.Connery starred in a further four films before leaving the role after ''You Only Live Twice'' (1967), which was taken up by George Lazenby for ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'' (1969).", "Lazenby left the role after just one appearance and Connery was brought back for his last Eon-produced film ''Diamonds Are Forever''.Roger Moore was appointed to the role of 007 for ''Live and Let Die'' (1973).", "He played Bond a further six times over twelve years, before being replaced by Timothy Dalton for two films.", "After a six-year hiatus, during which a legal wrangle threatened Eon's productions of the Bond films, Irish actor Pierce Brosnan was cast as Bond in ''GoldenEye'' (1995); he remained in the role for a total of four films through 2002.In 2006, Daniel Craig was given the role for ''Casino Royale'' (2006), which rebooted the series.", "Craig appeared for a total of five films.", "The series has grossed well over $7 billion to date, making it the fifth-highest-grossing film series.File:Sean Connery as James Bond at Switzerland 1964 (two thirds crop).jpg\|File:On Her Majesty's Secret Service (17) (Lazenby crop).jpg\|File:Sir Roger Moore crop.jpg\|File:Timothy_Dalton_1987.jpg\|File:PierceBrosnanCannesPhoto2.jpg\|File:Daniel Craig - Film Premiere \"Spectre\" 007 - on the Red Carpet in Berlin (22387409720) (cropped).jpg\| TitleYearActorDirector''Dr.", "No''1962Sean ConneryTerence Young''From Russia with Love''1963''Goldfinger''1964Guy Hamilton''Thunderball''1965Terence Young''You Only Live Twice''1967Lewis Gilbert''On Her Majesty's Secret Service''1969George LazenbyPeter R. Hunt''Diamonds Are Forever''1971Sean ConneryGuy Hamilton''Live and Let Die''1973Roger Moore''The Man with the Golden Gun''1974''The Spy Who Loved Me''1977Lewis Gilbert''Moonraker''1979''For Your Eyes Only''1981John Glen''Octopussy''1983''A View to a Kill''1985''The Living Daylights''1987Timothy Dalton''Licence to Kill''1989''GoldenEye''1995Pierce BrosnanMartin Campbell''Tomorrow Never Dies''1997Roger Spottiswoode''The World Is Not Enough''1999Michael Apted''Die Another Day''2002Lee Tamahori''Casino Royale''2006Daniel CraigMartin Campbell''Quantum of Solace''2008Marc Forster''Skyfall''2012Sam Mendes''Spectre''2015 ''No Time to Die''2021Cary Joji Fukunaga==== Non-Eon films ====In 1967, ''Casino Royale'' was adapted into a parody Bond film starring David Niven as Sir James Bond and Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd.", "Niven had been Fleming's preference for the role of Bond.", "The result of a court case in the High Court in London in 1963 allowed Kevin McClory to produce a remake of ''Thunderball'' titled ''Never Say Never Again'' in 1983.The film, produced by Jack Schwartzman's Taliafilm production company and starring Sean Connery as Bond, was not part of the Eon series of Bond films.", "In 1997, the Sony Corporation acquired all or some of McClory's rights in an undisclosed deal, which were then subsequently acquired by MGM, whilst on 4 December 1997, MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to ''Never Say Never Again'' from Taliafilm.", ", Eon holds the full adaptation rights to all of Fleming's Bond novels.", "Title Year Actor Director(s)''Casino Royale''1967David NivenKen HughesJohn HustonJoseph McGrathRobert ParrishVal GuestRichard Talmadge''Never Say Never Again''1983Sean ConneryIrvin Kershner==== Music ====The \"James Bond Theme\" was written by Monty Norman and was first orchestrated by the John Barry Orchestra for 1962's ''Dr.", "No'', although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years.", "In 2001, Norman won £30,000 in libel damages from ''The Sunday Times'' newspaper, which suggested that Barry was entirely responsible for the composition.", "The theme, as written by Norman and arranged by Barry, was described by another Bond film composer, David Arnold, as \"bebop-swing vibe coupled with that vicious, dark, distorted electric guitar, definitely an instrument of rock 'n' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want: It was cocky, swaggering, confident, dark, dangerous, suggestive, sexy, unstoppable.", "And he did it in two minutes.\"", "Barry composed the scores for eleven Bond films and had an uncredited contribution to ''Dr.", "No'' with his arrangement of the Bond Theme.A Bond film staple are the theme songs heard during their title sequences sung by well-known popular singers.", "Shirley Bassey performed three Bond theme songs, with her 1964 song \"Goldfinger\" inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2008.Several of the songs produced for the films have been nominated for Academy Awards for Original Song, including Paul McCartney's \"Live and Let Die\", Carly Simon's \"Nobody Does It Better\", Sheena Easton's \"For Your Eyes Only\", Adele's \"Skyfall\", Sam Smith's \"Writing's on the Wall\", and Billie Eilish's \"No Time to Die\".", "Adele won the award at the 85th Academy Awards, Smith won at the 88th Academy Awards, and Eilish won at the 94th Academy Awards.", "For the non-Eon produced ''Casino Royale'', Burt Bacharach's score included \"The Look of Love\" (sung by Dusty Springfield), which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song.=== Video games ===In 1983, the first Bond video game, developed and published by Parker Brothers, was released for the Atari 2600, Atari 5200, Atari 8-bit family, Commodore 64, and ColecoVision.", "Since then, there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines.", "In 1997, the first-person shooter video game ''GoldenEye 007'' was developed by Rare for the Nintendo 64, based on ''GoldenEye''.", "The game received highly positive reviews, won the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for UK Developer of the Year in 1998, and sold over eight million copies worldwide, grossing $250 million, making it the third-best-selling Nintendo 64 game.", "It is frequently cited as one of the greatest video games of all time.In 1999, Electronic Arts acquired the licence and released ''Tomorrow Never Dies'' on 16 December 1999.In October 2000, they released ''The World Is Not Enough'' for the Nintendo 64 followed by ''007 Racing'' for the PlayStation on 21 November 2000.In 2003, the company released ''James Bond 007: Everything or Nothing'', which included the likenesses and voices of Pierce Brosnan, Willem Dafoe, Heidi Klum, Judi Dench and John Cleese, amongst others.", "In November 2005, Electronic Arts released a video game adaptation of ''007: From Russia with Love'', which involved Sean Connery's image and voice-over for Bond.", "In 2006, Electronic Arts announced a game based on then-upcoming film ''Casino Royale'': the game was cancelled because it would not be ready by the film's release in November of that year.", "With MGM losing revenue from lost licensing fees, the franchise was removed from EA to Activision.", "Activision subsequently released the ''007: Quantum of Solace'' game on 31 October 2008, based on the film of the same name.A new version of ''GoldenEye 007'' featuring Daniel Craig was released for the Wii and a handheld version for the Nintendo DS in November 2010.A year later a new version was released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 under the title ''GoldenEye 007: Reloaded''.", "In October 2012 ''007 Legends'' was released, which featured one mission from each of the Bond actors of the Eon Productions' series.", "In November 2020, IO Interactive announced ''Project 007'', an original James Bond video game, working closely with licensors MGM and Eon Productions.=== Role-playing game ===From 1983 to 1987, a licensed tabletop role-playing game, ''James Bond 007: Role-Playing In Her Majesty's Secret Service'', was published by Victory Games (a branch of Avalon Hill) and designed by Gerard Christopher Klug.", "It was the most popular espionage role-playing game for its time.", "In addition to providing materials for players to create original scenarios, the game also offered players the opportunity to have adventures modelled after many of the Eon Productions film adaptations, albeit with modifications to provide challenges by preventing players from slavishly imitating Bond's actions in the stories." ], [ "Guns, vehicles and gadgets", "=== Guns ===For the first five novels, Fleming armed Bond with a Beretta 418 until he received a letter from a thirty-one-year-old Bond enthusiast and gun expert, Geoffrey Boothroyd, criticising Fleming's choice of firearm for Bond, calling it \"a lady's gun—and not a very nice lady at that!\"", "Boothroyd suggested that Bond should swap his Beretta for a 7.65mm Walther PPK and this exchange of arms made it to ''Dr.", "No''.", "Boothroyd also gave Fleming advice on the Berns-Martin triple draw shoulder holster and a number of the weapons used by SMERSH and other villains.", "In thanks, Fleming gave the MI6 Armourer in his novels the name Major Boothroyd and, in ''Dr.", "No'', M, the Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service, introduces him to Bond as \"the greatest small-arms expert in the world\".", "Bond also used a variety of rifles, including the Savage Model 99 in \"For Your Eyes Only\" and a Winchester .308 target rifle in \"The Living Daylights\".", "Other handguns used by Bond in the Fleming books included the Colt Detective Special and a long-barrelled Colt .45 Army Special.The first Bond film, ''Dr.", "No'', saw M ordering Bond to leave his Beretta behind and take up the Walther PPK, which Bond used in eighteen films.", "In ''Tomorrow Never Dies'' and the two subsequent films, Bond's main weapon was the Walther P99 semi-automatic pistol.An Aston Martin DB5 as seen in ''Goldfinger''=== Vehicles ===In the early Bond stories Fleming gave Bond a battleship-grey Bentley Litre with an Amherst Villiers supercharger.", "After Bond's car was written off by Hugo Drax in ''Moonraker'', Fleming gave Bond a Mark II Continental Bentley, which he used in the remaining books of the series.", "During ''Goldfinger'', Bond was issued an Aston Martin DB Mark III with a homing device, which he used to track Goldfinger across France.", "Bond returned to his Bentley for the subsequent novels.The Bond of the films has driven a number of cars, including the Aston Martin V8 Vantage, during the 1980s, the V12 Vanquish and DBS during the 2000s, as well as the Lotus Esprit; the BMW Z3, BMW 750iL and the BMW Z8.He has, however, also needed to drive a number of other vehicles, ranging from a Citroën 2CV to a Routemaster Bus, amongst others.Bond's most famous car is the silver grey Aston Martin DB5, first seen in ''Goldfinger''; it later featured in ''Thunderball'', ''GoldenEye'', ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', ''Casino Royale'', ''Skyfall'' and ''Spectre''.", "The films have used a number of different Aston Martins for filming and publicity, one of which was sold in January 2006 at an auction in the US for $2.1 million to an unnamed European collector.", "In 2010, another DB5 used in Goldfinger was sold at auction for $4.6m million (£2.6 million).=== Gadgets ===The ''Little Nellie'' autogyro with its creator and pilot, Ken WallisFleming's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as the booby-trapped attaché case in ''From Russia, with Love'', although this situation changed dramatically with the films.", "However, the effects of the two Eon-produced Bond films ''Dr.", "No'' and ''From Russia with Love'' had an effect on the novel ''The Man with the Golden Gun'', through the increased number of devices used in Fleming's final story.For the film adaptations of Bond, the pre-mission briefing by Q Branch became one of the motifs that ran through the series.", "''Dr.", "No'' provided no spy-related gadgets, but a Geiger counter was used; industrial designer Andy Davey observed that the first ever onscreen spy-gadget was the attaché case shown in ''From Russia with Love'', which he described as \"a classic 007 product\".", "The gadgets assumed a higher profile in the 1964 film ''Goldfinger''.", "The film's success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to Bond, although the increased use of technology led to an accusation that Bond was over-reliant on equipment, particularly in the later films.Davey noted that \"Bond's gizmos follow the zeitgeist more closely than any other ... nuance in the films\" as they moved from the potential representations of the future in the early films, through to the brand-name obsessions of the later films.", "It is also noticeable that, although Bond uses a number of pieces of equipment from Q Branch, including the Little Nellie autogyro, a jet pack and the exploding attaché case, the villains are also well-equipped with custom-made devices, including Scaramanga's golden gun, Rosa Klebb's poison-tipped shoes, Oddjob's steel-rimmed bowler hat and Blofeld's communication devices in his agents' vanity case." ], [ "Cultural impact", "James Bond Island (Khao Phing Kan, Thailand)Cinematically, Bond has been a major influence within the spy genre since the release of ''Dr.", "No'' in 1962, with 22 secret agent films released in 1966 alone attempting to capitalise on the Bond franchise's popularity and success.", "The first parody was the 1964 film ''Carry On Spying'', which shows the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included James Bind (Charles Hawtry) and Daphne Honeybutt (Barbara Windsor).", "One of the films that reacted against the portrayal of Bond was the Harry Palmer series, whose first film, ''The Ipcress File'', starring Michael Caine, was released in 1965.The eponymous hero is a rough-edged, petty crook turned spy, and was what academic Jeremy Packer called an \"anti-Bond\", or what Christoph Lindner calls \"the thinking man's Bond\".", "The Palmer series were produced by Harry Saltzman, who also used key crew members from the Bond series, including designer Ken Adam, editor Peter R. Hunt and composer John Barry.", "The four \"Matt Helm\" films starring Dean Martin (released between 1966 and 1969), the \"Flint\" series starring James Coburn (comprising two films, one each in 1966 and 1969), while ''The Man from U.N.C.L.E.''", "also moved onto the cinema screen, with eight films released: all were testaments to Bond's prominence in popular culture.", "More recently, the ''Austin Powers'' series by writer, producer and comedian Mike Myers, and other parodies such as the ''Johnny English'' trilogy of films, have also used elements from or parodied the Bond films.Model of Connery next to an Aston Martin DB5 at the London Film MuseumFollowing the release of the film ''Dr.", "No'' in 1962, the line \"Bond ... James Bond\", became a catch phrase that entered the lexicon of Western popular culture: writers Cork and Scivally said of the introduction in ''Dr.", "No'' that the \"signature introduction would become the most famous and loved film line ever\".", "In 2001, it was voted as the \"best-loved one-liner in cinema\" by British cinema goers, and in 2005, it was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the American Film Institute as part of their 100 Years Series.", "The 2005 American Film Institute's '100 Years' series recognised the character of James Bond himself as the third greatest film hero.", "He was also placed at number 11 on a similar list by ''Empire'' and as the fifth greatest movie character of all time by ''Premiere''.", "In 1965, ''Time'' magazine observed \"James Bond has developed into the biggest mass-cult hero of the decade\".Waxwork of Daniel Craig, the current 007, at Madame Tussauds, LondonThe 25 James Bond films produced by Eon are the longest continually running film series of all time, and including the two non Eon produced films, the 27 Bond films have grossed over $7.04 billion in total, making it the sixth-highest-grossing franchise to date.", "It is estimated that since ''Dr.", "No'', a quarter of the world's population have seen at least one Bond film.", "The UK Film Distributors' Association have stated that the importance of the Bond series of films to the British film industry cannot be overstated, as they \"form the backbone of the industry\".Television also saw the effect of Bond films, with the NBC series ''The Man from U.N.C.L.E.", "'', which was described as the \"first network television imitation\" of Bond, largely because Fleming provided advice and ideas on the development of the series, even giving the main character the name Napoleon Solo.", "Other 1960s television series inspired by Bond include ''I Spy'', and ''Get Smart''.Considered a British cultural icon, James Bond had become such a symbol of the United Kingdom that the character, played by Craig, appeared in the opening ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics as Queen Elizabeth II's escort.", "From 1968 to 2003, and since 2016, the Cadbury chocolate box Milk Tray has been advertised by the 'Milk Tray Man', a tough James Bond–style figure who undertakes daunting 'raids' to surreptitiously deliver a box of Milk Tray chocolates to a lady.", "Bond has been commemorated numerous times on a UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail, most recently in their March 2020 series to mark the 25th Bond film release.", "Throughout the life of the film series, a number of tie-in products have been released.", "\"Bondmania\", a term deriving from the adjacent \"Beatlemania\" and initiated in 1964 following the enormous success of ''Goldfinger'', described the clamour for Bond films and their related products, from soundtrack LPs to children's toys, board games, alarm clocks playing the Bond theme, and 007-branded shirts.", "In 2018, a James Bond museum opened atop the Austrian Alps.", "The futuristic museum is constructed on the summit of Gaislachkogl Mountain in Sölden at 10,000 ft (3,048 m) above sea level.The real MI6 has an ambiguous relationship with Bond.", "The films may attract job applicants who may be unsuited for espionage, while dissuading more-qualified candidates.", "While serving as Chief of SIS, Alex Younger said that were Bond to apply for a MI6 job \"he would have to change his ways\".", "Younger said, however, that the franchise had \"created a powerful brand for MI6 ...", "Many of our counterparts envy the sheer global recognition of our acronym\", and that being depicted to global audiences as a \"ubiquitous intelligence presence\" was \"quite a force multiplier\".", "The Russian Federal Security Service so envied Bond that it created an annual award for fictional depictions of Russian spies." ], [ "Public reception", "The James Bond franchise enjoys widespread popularity across the world.", "In 2014, it was estimated that approximately 20% of the world's population has watched at least one Bond film.In 2012, the polling organisation YouGov conducted a survey of American Bond fans, categorizing responses by age, sex, and political affiliation.", "All groups selected Sean Connery as their favourite Bond actor.", "A 2018 poll found that 47% of American adults had seen at least one Bond film, with 27% having seen every film.Queen Elizabeth II met the first of her six James Bond's, Sean Connery, at the world premiere of ''You Only Live Twice'' in 1967, and according to royal biographer Gyles Brandreth: \"She really did love all the early James Bond films\", preferring the earlier films, \"before they got so loud.\"", "Several prominent politicians have also been fans of the franchise, including John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, and Kim Jong Il.=== Criticisms ===The James Bond character and related media have received a number of criticisms and reactions across the political spectrum, and are still highly debated in popular culture studies.", "Some observers accuse the Bond novels and films of misogyny and sexism.", "In September 2021, ''No Time to Die'' director Cary Fukunaga described Sean Connery's version of Bond as 'basically a rapist'.", "The franchise has on occasion also been a target of religious criticism.", "In 1962, Vatican City's official newspaper ''L'Osservatore Romano'' condemned the film ''Dr.", "No'', referring to it as \"a dangerous mixture of violence, vulgarity, sadism and sex\".", "However, in 2012, the newspaper went on to give positive reviews to the film ''Skyfall''.Geographers have considered the role of exotic locations in the movies in the dynamics of the Cold War, with power struggles among blocs playing out in the peripheral areas.", "Other critics claim that the Bond films reflect imperial nostalgia." ], [ "Censorship and alterations", "===Bans and censorship by country===Several James Bond novels, films, and video games have been banned, censored, or altered in several countries.", "Release year Title Country Notes Novels 1954 ''Live and Let Die'' Republic of Ireland Banned in 1954.1957 ''Dr.", "No'' Francoist Spain Under Francoist Spain, the final pages of ''Dr.", "No'' were cut entirely, due to sexual references.", "The censored editions are still sometimes reproduced in Spain today, often unknowingly.", "Various All titles Soviet Union All Bond novels were banned during the existence of the Soviet Union.", "Russian newspaper the ''Komsomolskaya Pravda'' condemned the series, describing it as being set in a \"nightmarish world where laws are written at the point of a gun, where coercion and rape is considered valour and murder is a funny trick.\"", "Films Various All titles Soviet Union All Bond films were banned during the existence of the Soviet Union.", "1964 ''Goldfinger'' Israel In December 1965, shortly after its release in the country, Israel banned the film ''Goldfinger'', after discovering actor Gert Fröbe's past association with the Nazi Party.", "The ban was lifted two months later, in February 1966, after the Israel Film Censorship Board found evidence that Fröbe had quit the Nazi Party in 1937.Additionally, the film's producers were believed to have made appeals to Israel to lift the ban, and because Israeli public demand to see the popular film was high, the reversal on the ban was made.", "2012 ''Skyfall'' People's Republic of China In 2007, China gave permission for the 2006 film ''Casino Royale'' to play uncensored in the nation.", "It was the first Bond film to gain a release unaltered in the country, followed by ''Quantum of Solace''.", "However, ''Skyfall'' was released in an edited version, after cutting a torture scene, altering subtitles, and removing references to prostitution in the film.", "2015 ''Spectre'' India In 2015, ''Spectre'' was released censored in India, after the Central Board of Film Certification ordered kissing scenes in the film be trimmed by 50%.", "Video games 1997 ''GoldenEye 007'' Germany In 1997, Germany banned the video game ''GoldenEye 007'', with the German Federal Review Board placing it on their ''List of Media Harmful to Minors''.", "The ban was lifted in 2021.===2023 changes===In February 2023, Ian Fleming Publications (which administers all Fleming's literary works), edited the Bond series as part of a sensitivity review.", "The April 2023 re-releases of the series are planned to tie into the 70th anniversary of ''Casino Royale'', the first Bond novel.", "The new editions remove a number of references to race, including some slurs, along with some disparagements of women and homosexuality.", "They include a disclaimer added at the beginning of each book, reading: \"This book was written at a time when terms and attitudes which might be considered offensive by modern readers were commonplace.", "A number of updates have been made in this edition, while keeping as close as possible to the original text and the period in which it is set.\"", "The decision was generally met with strong criticism.", "Numerous Bond fans, news and media outlets, and public commentators condemned the changes as literary censorship.", "''The View'' host Whoopi Goldberg expressed her opposition, arguing that offensive historical literature should be left unaltered; while ''National Review'' contributors Charles C. W. Cooke and Douglas Murray attacked the changes as excessive political correctness.", "Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett also opposed the changes, writing that \"what an author commits to paper is sacrosanct and shouldn't be altered...The only changes to the text should come from the author.\"" ], [ "See also", "* 9007 James Bond, asteroid named after the character" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Ian Fleming publications website* Young Bond official website* Pinewood Studios Albert R. Broccoli 007 Stage website * James Bond on IMDb" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Japanese language" ], [ "Introduction", " is the principal language of the Japonic language family spoken by the Japanese people.", "It has around 128 million speakers, primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language, and within the Japanese diaspora worldwide.", "The Japonic family also includes the Ryukyuan languages and the variously classified Hachijō language.", "There have been many attempts to group the Japonic languages with other families such as the Ainu, Austroasiatic, Koreanic, and the now-discredited Altaic, but none of these proposals have gained any widespread acceptance.Little is known of the language's prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan.", "Chinese documents from the 3rd century AD recorded a few Japanese words, but substantial Old Japanese texts did not appear until the 8th century.", "From the Heian period (794–1185), extensive waves of Sino-Japanese vocabulary entered the language, affecting the phonology of Early Middle Japanese.", "Late Middle Japanese (1185–1600) saw extensive grammatical changes and the first appearance of European loanwords.", "The basis of the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region (modern Tokyo) in the Early Modern Japanese period (early 17th century–mid 19th century).", "Following the end of Japan's self-imposed isolation in 1853, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, and words from English roots have proliferated.Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with relatively simple phonotactics, a pure vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length, and a lexically significant pitch-accent.", "Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, and sentence structure is topic–comment.", "Sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or form questions.", "Nouns have no grammatical number or gender, and there are no articles.", "Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person.", "Japanese adjectives are also conjugated.", "Japanese has a complex system of honorifics, with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener, and persons mentioned.The Japanese writing system combines Chinese characters, known as , with two unique syllabaries (or moraic scripts) derived by the Japanese from the more complex Chinese characters: ( or , 'simple characters') and ( or , 'partial characters').", "Latin script ( ) is also used in a limited fashion (such as for imported acronyms) in Japanese writing.", "The numeral system uses mostly Arabic numerals, but also traditional Chinese numerals." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Proto-Japonic, the common ancestor of the Japanese and Ryukyuan languages, is thought to have been brought to Japan by settlers coming from the Korean peninsula sometime in the early- to mid-4th century BC (the Yayoi period), replacing the languages of the original Jōmon inhabitants, including the ancestor of the modern Ainu language.", "Because writing had yet to be introduced from China, there is no direct evidence, and anything that can be discerned about this period must be based on internal reconstruction from Old Japanese, or comparison with the Ryukyuan languages and Japanese dialects.===Old Japanese===A page from the , the oldest anthology of classical Japanese poetryThe Chinese writing system was imported to Japan from Baekje around the start of the fifth century, alongside Buddhism.", "The earliest texts were written in Classical Chinese, although some of these were likely intended to be read as Japanese using the method, and show influences of Japanese grammar such as Japanese word order.", "The earliest text, the , dates to the early eighth century, and was written entirely in Chinese characters, which are used to represent, at different times, Chinese, ''kanbun'', and Old Japanese.", "As in other texts from this period, the Old Japanese sections are written in Man'yōgana, which uses ''kanji'' for their phonetic as well as semantic values.Based on the Man'yōgana system, Old Japanese can be reconstructed as having 88 distinct syllables.", "Texts written with Man'yōgana use two different sets of ''kanji'' for each of the syllables now pronounced (ki), (hi), (mi), (ke), (he), (me), (ko), (so), (to), (no), (mo), (yo) and (ro).", "(The has 88, but all later texts have 87.The distinction between mo1 and mo2 apparently was lost immediately following its composition.)", "This set of syllables shrank to 67 in Early Middle Japanese, though some were added through Chinese influence.", "Man'yōgana also has a symbol for , which merges with before the end of the period.Several fossilizations of Old Japanese grammatical elements remain in the modern language – the genitive particle ''tsu'' (superseded by modern ''no'') is preserved in words such as ''matsuge'' (\"eyelash\", lit.", "\"hair of the eye\"); modern ''mieru'' (\"to be visible\") and ''kikoeru'' (\"to be audible\") retain a mediopassive suffix -''yu(ru)'' (''kikoyu'' → ''kikoyuru'' (the attributive form, which slowly replaced the plain form starting in the late Heian period) → ''kikoeru'' (all verbs with the ''shimo-nidan'' conjugation pattern underwent this same shift in Early Modern Japanese)); and the genitive particle ''ga'' remains in intentionally archaic speech.===Early Middle Japanese===A 12th-century emaki scroll of ''The Tale of Genji'' from the 11th centuryEarly Middle Japanese is the Japanese of the Heian period, from 794 to 1185.It formed the basis for the literary standard of Classical Japanese, which remained in common use until the early 20th century.During this time, Japanese underwent numerous phonological developments, in many cases instigated by an influx of Chinese loanwords.", "These included phonemic length distinction for both consonants and vowels, palatal consonants (e.g.", "''kya'') and labial consonant clusters (e.g.", "''kwa''), and closed syllables.", "This had the effect of changing Japanese into a mora-timed language.===Late Middle Japanese===Late Middle Japanese covers the years from 1185 to 1600, and is normally divided into two sections, roughly equivalent to the Kamakura period and the Muromachi period, respectively.", "The later forms of Late Middle Japanese are the first to be described by non-native sources, in this case the Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries; and thus there is better documentation of Late Middle Japanese phonology than for previous forms (for instance, the ''Arte da Lingoa de Iapam'').", "Among other sound changes, the sequence merges to , in contrast with ; is reintroduced from Chinese; and merges with .", "Some forms rather more familiar to Modern Japanese speakers begin to appear – the continuative ending -''te'' begins to reduce onto the verb (e.g.", "''yonde'' for earlier ''yomite''), the -k- in the final syllable of adjectives drops out (''shiroi'' for earlier ''shiroki''); and some forms exist where modern standard Japanese has retained the earlier form (e.g.", "''hayaku'' > ''hayau'' > ''hayɔɔ'', where modern Japanese just has ''hayaku'', though the alternative form is preserved in the standard greeting ''o-hayō gozaimasu'' \"good morning\"; this ending is also seen in ''o-medetō'' \"congratulations\", from ''medetaku'').Late Middle Japanese has the first loanwords from European languages – now-common words borrowed into Japanese in this period include ''pan'' (\"bread\") and ''tabako'' (\"tobacco\", now \"cigarette\"), both from Portuguese.===Modern Japanese===Modern Japanese is considered to begin with the Edo period (which spanned from 1603 to 1867).", "Since Old Japanese, the ''de facto'' standard Japanese had been the Kansai dialect, especially that of Kyoto.", "However, during the Edo period, Edo (now Tokyo) developed into the largest city in Japan, and the Edo-area dialect became standard Japanese.", "Since the end of Japan's self-imposed isolation in 1853, the flow of loanwords from European languages has increased significantly.", "The period since 1945 has seen many words borrowed from other languagessuch as German, Portuguese and English.", "Many English loan words especially relate to technologyfor example, ''pasokon'' (short for \"personal computer\"), ''intānetto'' (\"internet\"), and ''kamera'' (\"camera\").", "Due to the large quantity of English loanwords, modern Japanese has developed a distinction between and , and and , with the latter in each pair only found in loanwords." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has also been spoken outside of the country.", "Before and during World War II, through Japanese annexation of Taiwan and Korea, as well as partial occupation of China, the Philippines, and various Pacific islands, locals in those countries learned Japanese as the language of the empire.", "As a result, many elderly people in these countries can still speak Japanese.Japanese emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in Brazil, with 1.4 million to 1.5 million Japanese immigrants and descendants, according to Brazilian IBGE data, more than the 1.2 million of the United States) sometimes employ Japanese as their primary language.", "Approximately 12% of Hawaii residents speak Japanese, with an estimated 12.6% of the population of Japanese ancestry in 2008.Japanese emigrants can also be found in Peru, Argentina, Australia (especially in the eastern states), Canada (especially in Vancouver, where 1.4% of the population has Japanese ancestry), the United States (notably in Hawaii, where 16.7% of the population has Japanese ancestry, and California), and the Philippines (particularly in Davao Region and the Province of Laguna).===Official status===Japanese has no official status in Japan, but is the ''de facto'' national language of the country.", "There is a form of the language considered standard: , meaning \"standard Japanese\", or , \"common language\", or even \"Tokyo dialect\" at times.", "The meanings of the two terms () are almost the same.", "''Hyōjungo'' or ''kyōtsūgo'' is a conception that forms the counterpart of dialect.", "This normative language was born after the from the language spoken in the higher-class areas of Tokyo (see Yamanote).", "''Hyōjungo'' is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications.", "It is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.Formerly, standard was different from .", "The two systems have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary.", "''Bungo'' was the main method of writing Japanese until about 1900; since then ''kōgo'' gradually extended its influence and the two methods were both used in writing until the 1940s.", "''Bungo'' still has some relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in ''bungo'', although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language).", "''Kōgo'' is the dominant method of both speaking and writing Japanese today, although ''bungo'' grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect.The 1982 state constitution of Angaur, Palau, names Japanese along with Palauan and English as an official language of the state.", "However, the results of the 2005 census show that in April 2005 there were no usual or legal residents of Angaur aged 5 or older who spoke Japanese at home at all.===Dialects and mutual intelligibility===Map of Japanese dialects and Japonic languagesJapanese dialects typically differ in terms of pitch accent, inflectional morphology, vocabulary, and particle usage.", "Some even differ in vowel and consonant inventories, although this is less common.In terms of mutual intelligibility, a survey in 1967 found that the four most unintelligible dialects (excluding Ryūkyūan languages and Tōhoku dialects) to students from Greater Tokyo were the Kiso dialect (in the deep mountains of Nagano Prefecture), the Himi dialect (in Toyama Prefecture), the Kagoshima dialect and the Maniwa dialect (in Okayama Prefecture).", "The survey was based on 12- to 20-second-long recordings of 135 to 244 phonemes, which 42 students listened to and translated word-for-word.", "The listeners were all Keio University students who grew up in the Kanto region.", "Intelligibility to students from Tokyo and Kanto region (Date: 1967) '''Dialect''' Kyoto City Ōgata, Kōchi Tatsuta, Aichi Kumamoto City Osaka City Kanagi, Shimane Maniwa, Okayama Kagoshima City Kiso, Nagano Himi, Toyama '''Percentage''' 67.1% 45.5% 44.5% 38.6% 26.4% 24.8% 24.7% 17.6% 13.3% 4.1% There are some language islands in mountain villages or isolated islands such as Hachijō-jima island, whose dialects are descended from Eastern Old Japanese.", "Dialects of the Kansai region are spoken or known by many Japanese, and Osaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy (see Kansai dialect).", "Dialects of Tōhoku and North Kantō are associated with typical farmers.The Ryūkyūan languages, spoken in Okinawa and the Amami Islands (politically part of Kagoshima), are distinct enough to be considered a separate branch of the Japonic family; not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryūkyūan languages.", "However, in contrast to linguists, many ordinary Japanese people tend to consider the Ryūkyūan languages as dialects of Japanese.", "The imperial court also seems to have spoken an unusual variant of the Japanese of the time, most likely the spoken form of Classical Japanese, a writing style that was prevalent during the Heian period, but began decline during the late Meiji period.", "The Ryūkyūan languages are classified by UNESCO as 'endangered', as young people mostly use Japanese and cannot understand the languages.", "Okinawan Japanese is a variant of Standard Japanese influenced by the Ryūkyūan languages, and is the primary dialect spoken among young people in the Ryukyu Islands.Modern Japanese has become prevalent nationwide (including the Ryūkyū islands) due to education, mass media, and an increase of mobility within Japan, as well as economic integration." ], [ "Classification", "Japanese is a member of the Japonic language family, which also includes the Ryukyuan languages spoken in the Ryukyu Islands.", "As these closely related languages are commonly treated as dialects of the same language, Japanese is often called a language isolate.According to Martine Irma Robbeets, Japanese has been subject to more attempts to show its relation to other languages than any other language in the world.", "Since Japanese first gained the consideration of linguists in the late 19th century, attempts have been made to show its genealogical relation to languages or language families such as Ainu, Korean, Chinese, Tibeto-Burman, Uralic, Altaic (or Ural-Altaic), Mon–Khmer and Malayo-Polynesian.", "At the fringe, some linguists have suggested a link to Indo-European languages, including Greek, and to Lepcha.", "Main modern theories try to link Japanese either to northern Asian languages, like Korean or the proposed larger Altaic family, or to various Southeast Asian languages, especially Austronesian.", "None of these proposals have gained wide acceptance (and the Altaic family itself is now considered controversial).", "As it stands, only the link to Ryukyuan has wide support.Other theories view the Japanese language as an early creole language formed through inputs from at least two distinct language groups, or as a distinct language of its own that has absorbed various aspects from neighbouring languages." ], [ "Phonology", "Spoken Japanese===Vowels===The vowels of Standard Japanese on a vowel chart.", "Adapted from .", "Front Central Back Close Mid Open Japanese has five vowels, and vowel length is phonemic, with each having both a short and a long version.", "Elongated vowels are usually denoted with a line over the vowel (a macron) in rōmaji, a repeated vowel character in hiragana, or a chōonpu succeeding the vowel in katakana.", "is compressed rather than protruded, or simply unrounded.===Consonants=== Bilabial Alveolar Alveolo-palatal Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal Nasal () () () Stop Affricate () () () () Fricative () () () () Liquid Semivowel Special moras , Some Japanese consonants have several allophones, which may give the impression of a larger inventory of sounds.", "However, some of these allophones have since become phonemic.", "For example, in the Japanese language up to and including the first half of the 20th century, the phonemic sequence was palatalized and realized phonetically as , approximately ; however, now and are distinct, as evidenced by words like \"Western-style tea\" and \"social status\".The \"r\" of the Japanese language is of particular interest, ranging between an apical central tap and a lateral approximant.", "The \"g\" is also notable; unless it starts a sentence, it may be pronounced , in the Kanto prestige dialect and in other eastern dialects.The phonotactics of Japanese are relatively simple.", "The syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), that is, a core vowel surrounded by an optional onset consonant, a glide and either the first part of a geminate consonant (/, represented as Q) or a moraic nasal in the coda (/, represented as N).The nasal is sensitive to its phonetic environment and assimilates to the following phoneme, with pronunciations including .", "Onset-glide clusters only occur at the start of syllables but clusters across syllables are allowed as long as the two consonants are the moraic nasal followed by a homorganic consonant.Japanese also includes a pitch accent, which is not represented in syllabic writing; for example (\"chopsticks\") and (\"bridge\") are both spelled , and are only differentiated by the tone contour." ], [ "Grammar", "===Sentence structure===Japanese word order is classified as subject–object–verb.", "Unlike many Indo-European languages, the only strict rule of word order is that the verb must be placed at the end of a sentence (possibly followed by sentence-end particles).", "This is because Japanese sentence elements are marked with particles that identify their grammatical functions.The basic sentence structure is topic–comment.", "For example, ''Kochira wa Tanaka-san desu'' ().", "''kochira'' (\"this\") is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle ''wa''.", "The verb ''desu'' is a copula, commonly translated as \"to be\" or \"it is\" (though there are other verbs that can be translated as \"to be\"), though technically it holds no meaning and is used to give a sentence 'politeness'.", "As a phrase, ''Tanaka-san desu'' is the comment.", "This sentence literally translates to \"As for this person, (it) is Mx Tanaka.\"", "Thus Japanese, like many other Asian languages, is often called a topic-prominent language, which means it has a strong tendency to indicate the topic separately from the subject, and that the two do not always coincide.", "The sentence ''Zō wa hana ga nagai'' () literally means, \"As for elephant(s), (the) nose(s) (is/are) long\".", "The topic is ''zō'' \"elephant\", and the subject is ''hana'' \"nose\".Japanese grammar tends toward brevity; the subject or object of a sentence need not be stated and pronouns may be omitted if they can be inferred from context.", "In the example above, ''hana ga nagai'' would mean \"their noses are long\", while ''nagai'' by itself would mean \"they are long.\"", "A single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Yatta!''", "() \"I / we / they / etc did it!\".", "In addition, since adjectives can form the predicate in a Japanese sentence (below), a single adjective can be a complete sentence: ''Urayamashii!''", "() \"I'm jealous about it!", "\".While the language has some words that are typically translated as pronouns, these are not used as frequently as pronouns in some Indo-European languages, and function differently.", "In some cases, Japanese relies on special verb forms and auxiliary verbs to indicate the direction of benefit of an action: \"down\" to indicate the out-group gives a benefit to the in-group, and \"up\" to indicate the in-group gives a benefit to the out-group.", "Here, the in-group includes the speaker and the out-group does not, and their boundary depends on context.", "For example, ''oshiete moratta'' () (literally, \"explaining got\" with a benefit from the out-group to the in-group) means \"he/she/they explained it to me/us\".", "Similarly, ''oshiete ageta'' () (literally, \"explaining gave\" with a benefit from the in-group to the out-group) means \"I/we explained it to him/her/them\".", "Such beneficiary auxiliary verbs thus serve a function comparable to that of pronouns and prepositions in Indo-European languages to indicate the actor and the recipient of an action.Japanese \"pronouns\" also function differently from most modern Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns) in that they can take modifiers as any other noun may.", "For instance, one does not say in English:The amazed he ran down the street.", "(grammatically incorrect insertion of a pronoun)But one ''can'' grammatically say essentially the same thing in Japanese:Transliteration: ''Odoroita kare wa michi o hashitte itta.''", "(grammatically correct)This is partly because these words evolved from regular nouns, such as ''kimi'' \"you\" ( \"lord\"), ''anata'' \"you\" ( \"that side, yonder\"), and ''boku'' \"I\" ( \"servant\").", "This is why some linguists do not classify Japanese \"pronouns\" as pronouns, but rather as referential nouns, much like Spanish ''usted'' (contracted from ''vuestra merced'', \"your (flattering majestic) plural grace\") or Portuguese ''o senhor''.", "Japanese personal pronouns are generally used only in situations requiring special emphasis as to who is doing what to whom.The choice of words used as pronouns is correlated with the sex of the speaker and the social situation in which they are spoken: men and women alike in a formal situation generally refer to themselves as ''watashi'' (, literally \"private\") or ''watakushi'' (also , hyper-polite form), while men in rougher or intimate conversation are much more likely to use the word ''ore'' ( \"oneself\", \"myself\") or ''boku''.", "Similarly, different words such as ''anata'', ''kimi'', and ''omae'' (, more formally \"the one before me\") may refer to a listener depending on the listener's relative social position and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and the listener.", "When used in different social relationships, the same word may have positive (intimate or respectful) or negative (distant or disrespectful) connotations.Japanese often use titles of the person referred to where pronouns would be used in English.", "For example, when speaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use ''sensei'' (, \"teacher\"), but inappropriate to use ''anata''.", "This is because ''anata'' is used to refer to people of equal or lower status, and one's teacher has higher status.===Inflection and conjugation===Japanese nouns have no grammatical number, gender or article aspect.", "The noun ''hon'' () may refer to a single book or several books; ''hito'' () can mean \"person\" or \"people\", and ''ki'' () can be \"tree\" or \"trees\".", "Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a counter word) or (rarely) by adding a suffix, or sometimes by duplication (e.g.", ", ''hitobito'', usually written with an iteration mark as ).", "Words for people are usually understood as singular.", "Thus ''Tanaka-san'' usually means ''Mx Tanaka''.", "Words that refer to people and animals can be made to indicate a group of individuals through the addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that indicates a group), such as ''-tachi'', but this is not a true plural: the meaning is closer to the English phrase \"and company\".", "A group described as ''Tanaka-san-tachi'' may include people not named Tanaka.", "Some Japanese nouns are effectively plural, such as ''hitobito'' \"people\" and ''wareware'' \"we/us\", while the word ''tomodachi'' \"friend\" is considered singular, although plural in form.Verbs are conjugated to show tenses, of which there are two: past and present (or non-past) which is used for the present and the future.", "For verbs that represent an ongoing process, the ''-te iru'' form indicates a continuous (or progressive) aspect, similar to the suffix ''ing'' in English.", "For others that represent a change of state, the ''-te iru'' form indicates a perfect aspect.", "For example, ''kite iru'' means \"They have come (and are still here)\", but ''tabete iru'' means \"They are eating\".Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and yes/no questions) have the same structure as affirmative sentences, but with intonation rising at the end.", "In the formal register, the question particle ''-ka'' is added.", "For example, ''ii desu'' () \"It is OK\" becomes ''ii desu-ka'' () \"Is it OK?\".", "In a more informal tone sometimes the particle ''-no'' () is added instead to show a personal interest of the speaker: ''Dōshite konai-no?''", "\"Why aren't (you) coming?\".", "Some simple queries are formed simply by mentioning the topic with an interrogative intonation to call for the hearer's attention: ''Kore wa?''", "\"(What about) this?", "\"; ''O-namae wa?''", "() \"(What's your) name?", "\".Negatives are formed by inflecting the verb.", "For example, ''Pan o taberu'' () \"I will eat bread\" or \"I eat bread\" becomes ''Pan o tabenai'' () \"I will not eat bread\" or \"I do not eat bread\".", "Plain negative forms are ''i''-adjectives (see below) and inflect as such, e.g.", "''Pan o tabenakatta'' () \"I did not eat bread\".The so-called ''-te'' verb form is used for a variety of purposes: either progressive or perfect aspect (see above); combining verbs in a temporal sequence (''Asagohan o tabete sugu dekakeru'' \"I'll eat breakfast and leave at once\"), simple commands, conditional statements and permissions (''Dekakete-mo ii?''", "\"May I go out?", "\"), etc.The word ''da'' (plain), ''desu'' (polite) is the copula verb.", "It corresponds approximately to the English ''be'', but often takes on other roles, including a marker for tense, when the verb is conjugated into its past form ''datta'' (plain), ''deshita'' (polite).", "This comes into use because only ''i''-adjectives and verbs can carry tense in Japanese.", "Two additional common verbs are used to indicate existence (\"there is\") or, in some contexts, property: ''aru'' (negative ''nai'') and ''iru'' (negative ''inai''), for inanimate and animate things, respectively.", "For example, ''Neko ga iru'' \"There's a cat\", ''Ii kangae-ga nai'' \"I haven't got a good idea\".The verb \"to do\" (''suru'', polite form ''shimasu'') is often used to make verbs from nouns (''ryōri suru'' \"to cook\", ''benkyō suru'' \"to study\", etc.)", "and has been productive in creating modern slang words.", "Japanese also has a huge number of compound verbs to express concepts that are described in English using a verb and an adverbial particle (e.g.", "''tobidasu'' \"to fly out, to flee\", from ''tobu'' \"to fly, to jump\" + ''dasu'' \"to put out, to emit\").There are three types of adjectives (see Japanese adjectives):# ''keiyōshi'', or ''i'' adjectives, which have a conjugating ending ''i'' () (such as ''atsui'' \"to be hot\") which can become past ( ''atsukatta'' \"it was hot\"), or negative ( ''atsuku nai'' \"it is not hot\").", "''nai'' is also an ''i'' adjective, which can become past ( ''atsuku nakatta'' \"it was not hot\").#: ''atsui hi'' \"a hot day\".# ''keiyōdōshi'', or ''na'' adjectives, which are followed by a form of the copula, usually ''na''.", "For example, ''hen'' (strange)#: ''hen na hito'' \"a strange person\".# ''rentaishi'', also called true adjectives, such as ''ano'' \"that\"#: ''ano yama'' \"that mountain\".Both ''keiyōshi'' and ''keiyōdōshi'' may predicate sentences.", "For example, ''Gohan ga atsui.''", "\"The rice is hot.\"", "''Kare wa hen da.''", "\"He's strange.", "\"Both inflect, though they do not show the full range of conjugation found in true verbs.The ''rentaishi'' in Modern Japanese are few in number, and unlike the other words, are limited to directly modifying nouns.", "They never predicate sentences.", "Examples include ''ookina'' \"big\", ''kono'' \"this\", ''iwayuru'' \"so-called\" and ''taishita'' \"amazing\".Both ''keiyōdōshi'' and ''keiyōshi'' form adverbs, by following with ''ni'' in the case of ''keiyōdōshi'': ''hen ni naru'' \"become strange\",and by changing ''i'' to ''ku'' in the case of ''keiyōshi'': ''atsuku naru'' \"become hot\".The grammatical function of nouns is indicated by postpositions, also called particles.", "These include for example:* ''' ''ga''''' for the nominative case.", ": '''''Kare ga''' yatta.''", "\"He did it.", "\"* ''' ''ni''''' for the dative case.", ": '''''Tanaka-san ni''' agete kudasai'' \"Please give it '''to Mx Tanaka'''.", "\"It is also used for the lative case, indicating a motion to a location.", ": '''''Nihon ni''' ikitai'' \"I want to go '''to Japan'''.", "\"However, '''へ ''e''''' is more commonly used for the lative case.", ": '''''pātī e''' ikanai ka?''", "\"Won't you go '''to the party'''?", "\" ''' ''no''''' for the genitive case, or nominalizing phrases.", ": '''watashi no''' kamera'' \"'''my''' camera\": ''Sukī-ni iku '''no''' ga suki desu'' \"(I) like go'''ing''' skiing.", "\"* ''' ''o''''' for the accusative case.", ": '''''Nani o''' tabemasu ka?''", "\"'''What''' will (you) eat?", "\"* ''' ''wa''''' for the topic.", "It can co-exist with the case markers listed above, and it overrides ''ga'' and (in most cases) ''o''.", ": '''''Watashi wa''' sushi ga ii desu.''", "(literally) \"'''As for me''', sushi is good.\"", "The nominative marker ''ga'' after ''watashi'' is hidden under ''wa''.Note: The subtle difference between '''''wa''''' and '''''ga''''' in Japanese cannot be derived from the English language as such, because the distinction between sentence topic and subject is not made there.", "While ''wa'' indicates the topic, which the rest of the sentence describes or acts upon, it carries the implication that the subject indicated by ''wa'' is not unique, or may be part of a larger group.", "''Ikeda-san '''wa''' yonjū-ni sai da.''", "\"As for Mx Ikeda, they are forty-two years old.\"", "Others in the group may also be of that age.Absence of ''wa'' often means the subject is the focus of the sentence.", "''Ikeda-san '''ga''' yonjū-ni sai da.''", "\"It is Mx Ikeda who is forty-two years old.\"", "This is a reply to an implicit or explicit question, such as \"who in this group is forty-two years old?", "\"===Politeness===Japanese has an extensive grammatical system to express politeness and formality.", "This reflects the hierarchical nature of Japanese society.The Japanese language can express differing levels of social status.", "The differences in social position are determined by a variety of factors including job, age, experience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person asking a favour tends to do so politely).", "The person in the lower position is expected to use a polite form of speech, whereas the other person might use a plainer form.", "Strangers will also speak to each other politely.", "Japanese children rarely use polite speech until they are teens, at which point they are expected to begin speaking in a more adult manner.", "''See uchi-soto''.Whereas ''teineigo'' () (polite language) is commonly an inflectional system, ''sonkeigo'' () (respectful language) and ''kenjōgo'' () (humble language) often employ many special honorific and humble alternate verbs: ''iku'' \"go\" becomes ''ikimasu'' in polite form, but is replaced by ''irassharu'' in honorific speech and ''ukagau'' or ''mairu'' in humble speech.The difference between honorific and humble speech is particularly pronounced in the Japanese language.", "Humble language is used to talk about oneself or one's own group (company, family) whilst honorific language is mostly used when describing the interlocutor and their group.", "For example, the ''-san'' suffix (\"Mr\", \"Mrs\", \"Miss\", or \"Mx\") is an example of honorific language.", "It is not used to talk about oneself or when talking about someone from one's company to an external person, since the company is the speaker's in-group.", "When speaking directly to one's superior in one's company or when speaking with other employees within one's company about a superior, a Japanese person will use vocabulary and inflections of the honorific register to refer to the in-group superior and their speech and actions.", "When speaking to a person from another company (i.e., a member of an out-group), however, a Japanese person will use the plain or the humble register to refer to the speech and actions of their in-group superiors.", "In short, the register used in Japanese to refer to the person, speech, or actions of any particular individual varies depending on the relationship (either in-group or out-group) between the speaker and listener, as well as depending on the relative status of the speaker, listener, and third-person referents.Most nouns in the Japanese language may be made polite by the addition of ''o-'' or ''go-'' as a prefix.", "''o-'' is generally used for words of native Japanese origin, whereas ''go-'' is affixed to words of Chinese derivation.", "In some cases, the prefix has become a fixed part of the word, and is included even in regular speech, such as ''gohan'' 'cooked rice; meal.'", "Such a construction often indicates deference to either the item's owner or to the object itself.", "For example, the word ''tomodachi'' 'friend,' would become ''o-tomodachi'' when referring to the friend of someone of higher status (though mothers often use this form to refer to their children's friends).", "On the other hand, a polite speaker may sometimes refer to ''mizu'' 'water' as ''o-mizu'' to show politeness." ], [ "Vocabulary", "There are three main sources of words in the Japanese language, the ''yamato kotoba'' () or ''wago'' (), ''kango'' (), and ''gairaigo'' ().The original language of Japan, or at least the original language of a certain population that was ancestral to a significant portion of the historical and present Japanese nation, was the so-called ''yamato kotoba'' ( or infrequently , i.e.", "\"Yamato words\"), which in scholarly contexts is sometimes referred to as ''wago'' ( or rarely , i.e.", "the \"Wa language\").", "In addition to words from this original language, present-day Japanese includes a number of words that were either borrowed from Chinese or constructed from Chinese roots following Chinese patterns.", "These words, known as ''kango'' (), entered the language from the 5th century onwards via contact with Chinese culture.", "According to the Japanese dictionary, ''kango'' comprise 49.1% of the total vocabulary, ''wago'' make up 33.8%, other foreign words or ''gairaigo'' () account for 8.8%, and the remaining 8.3% constitute hybridized words or ''konshugo'' () that draw elements from more than one language.There are also a great number of words of mimetic origin in Japanese, with Japanese having a rich collection of sound symbolism, both onomatopoeia for physical sounds, and more abstract words.", "A small number of words have come into Japanese from the Ainu language.", "''Tonakai'' (reindeer), ''rakko'' (sea otter) and ''shishamo'' (smelt, a type of fish) are well-known examples of words of Ainu origin.Words of different origins occupy different registers in Japanese.", "Like Latin-derived words in English, ''kango'' words are typically perceived as somewhat formal or academic compared to equivalent Yamato words.", "Indeed, it is generally fair to say that an English word derived from Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in Japanese, whereas an Anglo-Saxon word would best be translated by a Yamato equivalent.Incorporating vocabulary from European languages, ''gairaigo'', began with borrowings from Portuguese in the 16th century, followed by words from Dutch during Japan's long isolation of the Edo period.", "With the Meiji Restoration and the reopening of Japan in the 19th century, borrowing occurred from German, French, and English.", "Today most borrowings are from English.In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate European concepts; these are known as wasei kango (Japanese-made Chinese words).", "Many of these were then imported into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese via their kanji in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "For example, , and are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages.", "As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way many Greek- and Latin-derived words – both inherited or borrowed into European languages, or modern coinages from Greek or Latin roots – are shared among modern European languages – see classical compound.In the past few decades, ''wasei-eigo'' (\"made-in-Japan English\") has become a prominent phenomenon.", "Words such as ''wanpatān'' (< ''one'' + ''pattern'', \"to be in a rut\", \"to have a one-track mind\") and ''sukinshippu'' (< ''skin'' + ''-ship'', \"physical contact\"), although coined by compounding English roots, are nonsensical in most non-Japanese contexts; exceptions exist in nearby languages such as Korean however, which often use words such as ''skinship'' and ''rimokon'' (remote control) in the same way as in Japanese.The popularity of many Japanese cultural exports has made some native Japanese words familiar in English, including ''emoji'', ''futon, haiku, judo, kamikaze, karaoke, karate, ninja, origami, rickshaw'' (from ''jinrikisha''), ''samurai, sayonara, Sudoku, sumo, sushi, tofu, tsunami, tycoon''.", "See list of English words of Japanese origin for more." ], [ "Writing system", "===History===Literacy was introduced to Japan in the form of the Chinese writing system, by way of Baekje before the 5th century.", "Using this language, the Japanese king Bu presented a petition to Emperor Shun of Liu Song in AD 478.After the ruin of Baekje, Japan invited scholars from China to learn more of the Chinese writing system.", "Japanese emperors gave an official rank to Chinese scholars (/) and spread the use of Chinese characters from the 7th century to the 8th century.Youon): Hiragana top, Katakana in the center and Romanized equivalents at the bottomAt first, the Japanese wrote in Classical Chinese, with Japanese names represented by characters used for their meanings and not their sounds.", "Later, during the 7th century AD, the Chinese-sounding phoneme principle was used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose, but some Japanese words were still written with characters for their meaning and not the original Chinese sound.", "This is when the history of Japanese as a written language begins in its own right.", "By this time, the Japanese language was already very distinct from the Ryukyuan languages.An example of this mixed style is the , which was written in AD 712.Japanese writers then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as ''man'yōgana'', a syllabic script which used Chinese characters for their sounds in order to transcribe the words of Japanese speech syllable by syllable.Over time, a writing system evolved.", "Chinese characters (kanji) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings.", "Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements, were simplified, and eventually became two syllabic scripts: hiragana and katakana which were developed based on Manyogana.", "Some scholars claim that Manyogana originated from Baekje, but this hypothesis is denied by mainstream Japanese scholars.Hiragana and katakana were first simplified from kanji, and hiragana, emerging somewhere around the 9th century, was mainly used by women.", "Hiragana was seen as an informal language, whereas katakana and kanji were considered more formal and was typically used by men and in official settings.", "However, because of hiragana's accessibility, more and more people began using it.", "Eventually, by the 10th century, hiragana was used by everyone.Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: kanji, characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese loanwords into Japanese and a number of native Japanese morphemes; and two syllabaries: hiragana and katakana.", "The Latin script (or romaji in Japanese) is used to a certain extent, such as for imported acronyms and to transcribe Japanese names and in other instances where non-Japanese speakers need to know how to pronounce a word (such as \"ramen\" at a restaurant).", "Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as ''tōitsu'' (\"unification\").Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in use commenced in the mid-19th century, but did not become a matter of government intervention until after Japan's defeat in the Second World War.", "During the period of post-war occupation (and influenced by the views of some U.S. officials), various schemes including the complete abolition of kanji and exclusive use of rōmaji were considered.", "The ''jōyō kanji'' (\"common use kanji\", originally called ''tōyō kanji'' kanji for general use) scheme arose as a compromise solution.Japanese students begin to learn kanji from their first year at elementary school.", "A guideline created by the Japanese Ministry of Education, the list of ''kyōiku kanji'' (\"education kanji\", a subset of ''jōyō kanji''), specifies the 1,006 simple characters a child is to learn by the end of sixth grade.", "Children continue to study another 1,130 characters in junior high school, covering in total 2,136 ''jōyō kanji''.", "The official list of ''jōyō kanji'' was revised several times, but the total number of officially sanctioned characters remained largely unchanged.As for kanji for personal names, the circumstances are somewhat complicated.", "''Jōyō kanji'' and ''jinmeiyō kanji'' (an appendix of additional characters for names) are approved for registering personal names.", "Names containing unapproved characters are denied registration.", "However, as with the list of ''jōyō kanji'', criteria for inclusion were often arbitrary and led to many common and popular characters being disapproved for use.", "Under popular pressure and following a court decision holding the exclusion of common characters unlawful, the list of ''jinmeiyō kanji'' was substantially extended from 92 in 1951 (the year it was first decreed) to 983 in 2004.Furthermore, families whose names are not on these lists were permitted to continue using the older forms.===Hiragana===''Hiragana'' are used for words without kanji representation, for words no longer written in kanji, for replacement of rare kanji that may be unfamiliar to intended readers, and also following kanji to show conjugational endings.", "Because of the way verbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are conjugated, kanji alone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood, as kanji cannot be subject to variation when written without losing their meaning.", "For this reason, hiragana are appended to kanji to show verb and adjective conjugations.", "Hiragana used in this way are called okurigana.", "Hiragana can also be written in a superscript called furigana above or beside a kanji to show the proper reading.", "This is done to facilitate learning, as well as to clarify particularly old or obscure (or sometimes invented) readings.===Katakana===''Katakana'', like hiragana, constitute a syllabary; katakana are primarily used to write foreign words, plant and animal names, and for emphasis.", "For example, \"Australia\" has been adapted as ''Ōsutoraria'' (), and \"supermarket\" has been adapted and shortened into ''sūpā'' ()." ], [ "Gender in the Japanese language", "Depending on the speakers’ gender, different linguistic features might be used.", "The typical lect used by females is called and the one used by males is called .", "''Joseigo'' and ''danseigo'' are different in various ways, including first-person pronouns (such as ''watashi'' or ''atashi'' for women and for men) and sentence-final particles (such as , , or for ''joseigo'', or , , or for ''danseigo'').", "In addition to these specific differences, expressions and pitch can also be different.", "For example, ''joseigo'' is more gentle, polite, refined, indirect, modest, and exclamatory, and often accompanied by raised pitch.=== Kogal Slang ===In the 1990s, the traditional feminine speech patterns and stereotyped behaviors were challenged, and a popular culture of “naughty” teenage girls emerged, called , sometimes referenced in English-language materials as “kogal”.", "Their rebellious behaviors, deviant language usage, the particular make-up called , and the fashion became objects of focus in the mainstream media.", "Although kogal slang was not appreciated by older generations, the ''kogyaru'' continued to create terms and expressions.", "Kogal culture also changed Japanese norms of gender and the Japanese language." ], [ "Non-native study", "Many major universities throughout the world provide Japanese language courses, and a number of secondary and even primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language.", "This is a significant increase from before World War II; in 1940, only 65 Americans not of Japanese descent were able to read, write and understand the language.International interest in the Japanese language dates from the 19th century but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of Japanese popular culture (such as anime and video games) since the 1990s.", "As of 2015, more than 3.6 million people studied the language worldwide, primarily in East and Southeast Asia.", "Nearly one million Chinese, 745,000 Indonesians, 556,000 South Koreans and 357,000 Australians studied Japanese in lower and higher educational institutions.", "Between 2012 and 2015, considerable growth of learners originated in Australia (20.5%), Thailand (34.1%), Vietnam (38.7%) and the Philippines (54.4%).The Japanese government provides standardized tests to measure spoken and written comprehension of Japanese for second language learners; the most prominent is the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT), which features five levels of exams.", "The JLPT is offered twice a year." ], [ "Example text", "Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Japanese:" ], [ "See also", "* Aizuchi* Culture of Japan* Japanese dictionaries* Japanese exonyms* Japanese language and computers* Japanese literature* Japanese name* Japanese punctuation* Japanese profanity* Japanese Sign Language family* Japanese words and words derived from Japanese in other languages at Wiktionary, Wikipedia's sibling project* Classical Japanese language* Romanization of Japanese** Hepburn romanization* Rendaku* YojijukugoOther:History of writing in Vietnam" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======Works cited=== Bloch, Bernard (1946).", "Studies in colloquial Japanese I: Inflection.", "''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', ''66'', pp. 97–130.", "* Bloch, Bernard (1946).", "Studies in colloquial Japanese II: Syntax.", "''Language'', ''22'', pp. 200–248.", "* Chafe, William L. (1976).", "Giveness, contrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics, and point of view.", "In C. Li (Ed.", "), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 25–56).", "New York: Academic Press.", ".", "* Dalby, Andrew.", "(2004).", "\"Japanese\", in ''Dictionary of Languages: the Definitive Reference to More than 400 Languages.''", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "; * * * * Kuno, Susumu (1973).", "''The structure of the Japanese language''.", "Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.", ".", "* Kuno, Susumu.", "(1976).", "\"Subject, theme, and the speaker's empathy: A re-examination of relativization phenomena\", in Charles N. Li (Ed.", "), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 417–444).", "New York: Academic Press.", ".", "* McClain, Yoko Matsuoka.", "(1981).", "''Handbook of modern Japanese grammar:'' ''Kōgo Nihon bumpō''.", "Tokyo: Hokuseido Press.", ".", "* Miller, Roy (1967).", "''The Japanese language''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press.", "* Miller, Roy (1980).", "''Origins of the Japanese language: Lectures in Japan during the academic year, 1977–78''.", "Seattle: University of Washington Press.", ".", "* Mizutani, Osamu; & Mizutani, Nobuko (1987).", "''How to be polite in Japanese:'' ''Nihongo no keigo''.", "Tokyo: The Japan Times.", ".", "* * * * Shibamoto, Janet S. (1985).", "''Japanese women's language''.", "New York: Academic Press.", ".", "Graduate Level* (pbk).", "* Tsujimura, Natsuko (1996).", "''An introduction to Japanese linguistics''.", "Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.", "(hbk); (pbk).", "Upper Level Textbooks* Tsujimura, Natsuko (Ed.)", "(1999).", "''The handbook of Japanese linguistics''.", "Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.", ".", "Readings/Anthologies" ], [ "Further reading", "*** * " ], [ "External links", " National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics* Japanese Language Student's Handbook (archived 2 January 2010)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johnny Got His Gun" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Johnny Got His Gun''''' is an anti-war novel written in 1938 by American novelist Dalton Trumbo and published in September 1939 by J.", "B. Lippincott.", "The novel won one of the early National Book Awards: the Most Original Book of 1939.A 1971 film adaptation was written and directed by Trumbo." ], [ "Plot", "Joe Bonham, a young American soldier serving in World War I, awakens in a hospital bed after being caught in the blast of an exploding artillery shell.", "He gradually realizes that he has lost his arms, legs, and all of his face (including his eyes, ears, nose, teeth, and tongue), but that his mind functions perfectly, leaving him a prisoner in his own body.Joe attempts suicide by suffocation, but finds that he has had a tracheotomy that he can neither remove nor control.", "He then decides that he wants to be placed in a glass coffin and toured around the country in order to demonstrate to others the true horrors of war.", "Joe eventually successfully communicates this with military officials after several months of banging his head on his pillow in Morse code.", "However, he realizes that the military will not grant his wish, nor will they put him out of his misery by euthanizing him, as it is \"against regulations\".", "It is implied that he will live the rest of his natural life in his condition.As Joe drifts between reality and fantasy, he remembers his old life with his family and girlfriend, and reflects upon the myths and realities of war." ], [ "Characters", "; Joe BonhamJoe Bonham is the main character.", "\"The novel mainly consists of his reminiscences of childhood and his current struggle to remain sane and finally to communicate.", "\"; Regular day nurse\"As a caretaker, capable of great humanistic love, the regular day nurse stands apart from the terse medical establishment, represented by the Morse code man, yet is not capable of the perceptive sympathy of the new day nurse.", "\"; Bill Bonham (Joe's father)Joe's father, Bill Bonham, courted Joe's mother and raised a family with her in Colorado.", "\"His character comes to stand for Joe's nostalgia for an older way of life.\"", "It is also said that Bill passes away (chapter 1) leaving his mother and his younger sisters alone (one aged 13 years, the other aged about 9 years).", "; Marcia Bonham (Joe's mother)Joe's mother, Marcia Bonham, was close to Joe and Bill.", "She is referenced regularly in the book singing, cooking/baking and playing the piano.", ";Kareen (Joe's girlfriend before he leaves for war)Kareen (who was aged 19 years at the time of Joe's departure) is mentioned throughout the book as Joe floats between reality and fantasy.", "She and Joe sleep together for the first time (chapter 3) the night before he leaves, with her father's reluctant approval.", ";Diane (Joe's first girlfriend)Diane is only mentioned in chapter 4.In that chapter it is mentioned that she cheated on Joe with a boy named Glen Hogan.", "She also cheats on Joe with his best friend, Bill Harper (who told him that she cheated with Hogan).", ";Bill Harper (Joe's best friend)Bill Harper warns Joe that Diane has cheated on him with Glen Hogan.", "Joe, who doesn't believe the news, hits Bill.", "Joe later finds out Bill was truthful and decides that he wants to renew their friendship.", "However, he finds Bill and Diane making out at her home and is hurt by both.", "The end of chapter 4 references how Bill was killed at Belleau Wood.", ";HowieJoe meets Howie (chapter 9) after his troubles with Diane and Glen Hogan.", "It seems that Howie was never able to keep a girl in his life, and his girlfriend Onie also cheated on him with Glen Hogan.", "Joe and Howie decide not only to forget about their girlfriends but also about Glen Hogan.", "Joe and Howie join a group of Mexicans working on a railroad.", "However, once Howie receives an apologetic telegram from Onie, the boys decide to return home.", ";JoséJosé worked at a bakery with Joe.", "He was given the job at the bakery through the local homeless shelter.", "José has many stories that set him apart from the other homeless workers, including the fact that he refused marriage to a wealthy woman.", "José wanted to work in Hollywood.", "When the opportunity presented itself to work for a picture company, José purposely gets fired because he feels his own personal honor will not allow him to quit on the boss that gave him his original opportunity.", ";New day nurseThe new day nurse was the first person to successfully communicate with Joe after his injuries.", "She moved her finger on his bare chest in the shape of the letter M until Joe signaled that he understood \"M\".", "She then spelled out \"MERRY CHRISTMAS\" and Joe signaled that he understood.", "The new day nurse then deduced that Joe's head-banging was in Morse Code and fetched someone who knew Morse Code." ], [ "Title and context", "The title is a play on the phrase \"Johnny get your gun\",a rallying call that was commonly used to encourage young American men to enlist in the military in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "That phrase was popularized in the George M. Cohan song \"Over There\", which was widely recorded in the first year of American involvement in World War I.", "''Johnny Get Your Gun'' is also the name of a 1919 film directed by Donald Crisp.Many of protagonist Joe Bonham's early memories are based on Dalton Trumbo's early life in Colorado and Los Angeles.", "The novel is inspired by articles about two men with severe injuries that Trumbo read about: the tearful hospital visit of Edward, Prince of Wales to Curley Christian, considered to be the first and only Canadian soldier in WWI who was a quadruple amputee, and a British major whose body was damaged so horrifically that he was reported as MIA to his family.", "The family discovered the truth years after his death in the hospital.", "\"Though the novel was a pacifist piece published in wartime, it was well reviewed and won an American Booksellers Award in 1940.", "\"(It was published two days after the declaration of war in Europe, more than two years before the United States joined World War II.)" ], [ "Publication", "Serialized in the ''Daily Worker'' in March 1940, published by the Communist Party USA to which Trumbo belonged, the book became \"a rally point for the political left\" which had opposed involvement in World War II during the period of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939–1941) when the USSR maintained a non aggression pact with Nazi Germany.", "Shortly after the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, Trumbo and his publishers decided to suspend reprinting the book until the end of the war, due to the Communist Party USA's support for the war so long as the US was allied with the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany.In his introduction to a 1959 reprinting, Trumbo describes receiving letters from right-wing isolationists requesting copies of the book when it was out of print.", "Trumbo contacted the FBI and turned these letters over to them.", "Trumbo regretted this decision, which he later called \"foolish,\" after two FBI agents showed up at his home and it became clear that \"their interest lay not in the letters but in me.\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "* On March 9, 1940, a radio adaptation of ''Johnny Got His Gun'' was produced and directed by Arch Oboler, based on his script, and presented on the NBC Radio series, ''Arch Oboler's Plays''.", "James Cagney voiced Joe Bonham on that broadcast.", "* In 1971, Trumbo adapted for the screen and directed an eponymous film adaptation of the novel, starring Timothy Bottoms as Joe Bonham.", "* In early 2009, the 1971 film made its U.S. DVD debut, produced by Shout!", "Factory.", "The DVD included the original, uncut film, plus a 2005 documentary (''Dalton Trumbo: Rebel In Hollywood''), new cast interviews, Metallica's music video \"One\", behind-the-scenes footage with commentary by stars Timothy Bottoms and Jules Brenner, the 1940 radio adaptation, and the original theatrical trailer.", "* In 1982, ''Johnny Got His Gun'' was adapted into a stage play by Bradley Rand Smith, which has since been performed worldwide.", "Its first off-Broadway run starred Jeff Daniels, who won an Obie Award for his performance.", "* In 1984, a television adaptation was filmed by director Miroslava Valová under the Czech name ''Johnny si vzal pušku''.", "It was filmed via Czechoslovak Television in Prague, starring , Petr Haničinec and Věra Galatíková.", "* In 1988, Metallica released the studio album ''...And Justice for All'', which includes the song \"One\", heavily based on the book's events and depiction of Joe Bonham's condition.", "The music video for the song features several clips from the film adaptation.", "* In 2008, Ben McKenzie starred in a solo performance in the \"live on stage, on film\" version of the play.", "From May 21, 2014 to June 14, 2014, the UK stage premiere, directed by David Mercatali and starring Jack Holden, ran at the Southwark Playhouse." ], [ "See also", " Anti-war movement* Antimilitarism* Euthanasia* Right to die" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* www.johnnygothisgunthemovie.com* James Cagney performs Johnny Got His Gun on Arch Oboler's Plays* * * The cinematographer's page on the movie" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Simon–Ehrlich wager" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Simon–Ehrlich wager''' was a 1980 scientific wager between business professor Julian L. Simon and biologist Paul Ehrlich, betting on a mutually agreed-upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990.The widely-followed contest originated in the pages of ''Social Science Quarterly'', where Simon challenged Ehrlich to put his money where his mouth was.", "In response to Ehrlich's published claim that \"If I were a gambler, I would take even money that England will not exist in the year 2000\" Simon offered to take that bet, or, more realistically, \"to stake US$10,000 ... on my belief that the cost of non-government-controlled raw materials (including grain and oil) will not rise in the long run.", "\"Simon challenged Ehrlich to choose any raw material he wanted and a date more than a year away, and he would wager on the inflation-adjusted prices decreasing as opposed to increasing.", "Ehrlich chose copper, chromium, nickel, tin, and tungsten.", "The bet was formalized on September 29, 1980, with September 29, 1990, as the payoff date.", "Ehrlich lost the bet, as all five commodities that were bet on declined in price from 1980 through 1990, the wager period." ], [ "Background", "In 1968, Ehrlich published ''The Population Bomb'', which argued that mankind was facing a demographic catastrophe with the rate of population growth quickly outstripping growth in the supply of food and resources.", "Simon was highly skeptical of such claims, so proposed a wager, telling Ehrlich to select any raw material he wanted and select \"any date more than a year away,\" and Simon would bet that the commodity's price on that date would be lower than what it was at the time of the wager.Ehrlich and his colleagues picked five metals that they thought would undergo big price increases: chromium, copper, nickel, tin, and tungsten.", "Then, on paper, they bought $200 worth of each, for a total bet of $1,000, using the prices on September 29, 1980, as an index.", "They designated September 29, 1990, 10 years hence, as the payoff date.", "If the inflation-adjusted prices of the various metals rose in the interim, Simon would pay Ehrlich the combined difference.", "If the prices fell, Ehrlich et al.", "would pay Simon.Between 1980 and 1990, the world's population grew by more than 800 million, the largest increase in one decade in all of history.", "But by September 1990, the price of each of Ehrlich's selected metals had fallen.", "Chromium, which had sold for $3.90 a pound in 1980, was down to $3.70 in 1990.Tin, which was $8.72 a pound in 1980, was down to $3.88 a decade later.As a result, in October 1990, Paul Ehrlich mailed Julian Simon a check for $576.07 to settle the wager in Simon's favor." ], [ "Analysis", "Julian Simon won because the price of three of the five metals went down in nominal terms and all five of the metals fell in price in inflation-adjusted terms, with both tin and tungsten falling by more than half.", "In his book ''Betrayal of Science and Reason'', Ehrlich wrote that Simon \"asserted that humanity would never run out of anything\".", "Ehrlich added that he and fellow scientists viewed renewable resources as more important indicators of the state of planet Earth, but that he decided to go along with the bet anyway.", "Afterward, Simon offered to raise the wager to $20,000 and to use any resources at any time that Ehrlich preferred.", "Ehrlich countered with a challenge to bet that temperatures would increase in the future.", "The two were unable to reach an agreement on the terms of a second wager before Simon died.Ehrlich could have won if the bet had been for a different ten-year period.", "Ehrlich wrote that the five metals in question had increased in price between the years 1950 and 1975.Asset manager Jeremy Grantham wrote that if the Simon–Ehrlich wager had been for a longer period (from 1980 to 2011), then Simon would have lost on four of the five metals.", "He also noted that if the wager had been expanded to \"all of the most important commodities,\" instead of just five metals, over that longer period of 1980 to 2011, then Simon would have lost \"by a lot.", "\"However, economist Mark J. Perry noted that for an even longer period of time, from 1934 to 2013, the inflation-adjusted price of the Dow Jones-AIG Commodities Index showed \"an overall significant downward trend\" and concluded that Simon was \"more right than lucky\"." ], [ "The proposed second wager", "Understanding that Simon wanted to bet again, Ehrlich and climatologist Stephen Schneider counter-offered, challenging Simon to bet on 15 current trends, betting $1000 that each will get worse (as in the previous wager) over a ten-year future period.The bets were:* The three years 2002–2004 will on average be warmer than 1992–1994.", "* There will be more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in 2004 than in 1994.", "* There will be more nitrous oxide in the atmosphere in 2004 than 1994.", "* The concentration of ozone in the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) will be greater than in 1994.", "* Emissions of the air pollutant sulfur dioxide in Asia will be significantly greater in 2004 than in 1994.", "* There will be less fertile cropland per person in 2004 than in 1994.", "* There will be less agricultural soil per person in 2004 than 1994.", "* There will be on average less rice and wheat grown per person in 2002–2004 than in 1992–1994.", "* In developing nations there will be less firewood available per person in 2004 than in 1994.", "* The remaining area of virgin tropical moist forests will be significantly smaller in 2004 than in 1994.", "* The oceanic fishery harvest per person will continue its downward trend and thus in 2004 will be smaller than in 1994.", "* There will be fewer plant and animal species still extant in 2004 than in 1994.", "* More people will die of AIDS in 2004 than in 1994.", "* Between 1994 and 2004, sperm cell counts of human males will continue to decline and reproductive disorders will continue to increase.", "* The gap in wealth between the richest 10% of humanity and the poorest 10% will be greater in 2004 than in 1994.Simon declined Ehrlich and Schneider's offer to bet, and used the following analogy to explain why he did so:In his 1981 book ''The Ultimate Resource'', Simon noted that not all decreases in resources or increases in unwanted effects correspond to overall decreases in human wellbeing.", "Hence there can be an \"optimal level of pollution\" which accepts some increases in certain kinds of pollution in a way that increases overall wellbeing, while acknowledging that any increase in pollution is nevertheless a cost which must be considered in any such calculation (p. 143).", "Some of the trends listed above are actually predicted by Simon's theory of resource development, and do not in themselves even count as costs (as pollution does).", "E.g., he pointed out that due to increased efficiency, the amount of cropland required and actually used to grow food for each person has decreased over time and is likely to continue to do so (p. 5).", "The same might potentially be true of decreased reliance on firewood in developing countries, and per capita use of specific food sources like rice, wheat, and fish, if economic development makes a diverse range of alternative foods available.", "Some have also proven false, e.g., the amount of ozone in the lower atmosphere has decreased from 1994 to 2004." ], [ "Other wagers", "In 1996, Simon bet $1000 with David South, professor of the Auburn University School of Forestry, that the inflation-adjusted price of timber would decrease in the following five years.", "Simon paid out early on the bet in 1997 (before his death in 1998) based on his expectation that prices would remain above 1996 levels (which they did).In 1999, when ''The Economist'' headlined an article entitled, \"$5 a barrel oil soon?\"", "and with oil trading in the $12/barrel range, David South offered $1000 to any economist who would bet with him that the price of oil would be greater than $12/barrel in 2010.No economist took him up on the offer.", "However, in October 2000, Zagros Madjd-Sadjadi, an economist with The University of the West Indies, bet $1000 with David South that the inflation-adjusted price of oil would decrease to an inflation-adjusted price of $25 by 2010 (down from what was then $30/barrel).", "Madjd-Sadjadi paid South an inflation-adjusted $1,242 in January 2010.The price of oil at the time was $81/barrel." ], [ "See also", "* Long Bet Project* Malthusian catastrophe* Oil price increases since 2003* Peak oil* Richard Rainwater* Simmons–Tierney bet* Scientific wager" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Sabin, Paul (2013), ''The Bet'' (Yale University Press).", "* Desrochers, Pierre and Vincent Geloso, \" Snatching the Wrong Conclusions from the Jaws of Defeat: A Historical/Resourceship Perspective on Paul Sabin's The Bet: Paul Ehrlich, Julian Simon, and Our Gamble over Earth's Future (Yale University Press, 2013), Part 2: The Wager: Protagonists and Lessons.\"", "''New Perspectives on Political Economy'', vol.", "12, no.", "1-2 (2016), pp. 42–64.", "* Desrochers, Pierre and Vincent Geloso, \" Snatching the Wrong Conclusions from the Jaws of Defeat: A Historical/Resourceship Perspective on Paul Sabin's The Bet: Paul Ehrlich, Julian Simon, and Our Gamble over Earth's Future (Yale University Press, 2013).", "Part 1: The Missing History of Thought: Depletionism vs Resourceship.\"", "''New Perspectives on Political Economy'', vol.", "12, no.", "1-2 (2016), pp.", "5–41." ], [ "External links", "* Paul Ehrlich's webpage on the two Simon bets" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Tenniel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir John Tenniel''' (; 28 February 182025 February 1914) was an English illustrator, graphic humourist and political cartoonist prominent in the second half of the 19th century.", "An alumnus of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, he was knighted for artistic achievements in 1893, the first such honour ever bestowed on an illustrator or cartoonist.Tenniel is remembered mainly as the principal political cartoonist for ''Punch'' magazine for over 50 years and for his illustrations to Lewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' (1865) and ''Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There'' (1871).", "Tenniel's detailed black-and-white drawings remain the definitive depiction of the ''Alice'' characters, with comic book illustrator and writer Bryan Talbot stating, \"Carroll never describes the Mad Hatter: our image of him is pure Tenniel.\"" ], [ "Early life", "300x300pxTenniel was born in Bayswater, West London, to John Baptist Tenniel, a fencing and dancing master of Huguenot descent, and Eliza Maria Tenniel.", "Tenniel had five siblings; two brothers and three sisters.", "One sister, Mary, was later to marry Thomas Goodwin Green, owner of the pottery that produced Cornishware.", "Tenniel was a quiet and introverted person, both as a boy and as an adult.", "He was content to remain firmly out of the limelight and seemed unaffected by competition or change.", "His biographer Rodney Engen wrote that Tenniel's \"life and career was that of the supreme gentlemanly outside, living on the edge of respectability.", "\"In 1840, Tenniel, while practising fencing, received a serious eye wound from his father's foil, which had accidentally lost its protective tip.", "Over the years, Tenniel gradually lost sight in his right eye; he never told his father of the severity of the wound, as he did not wish to upset him further.In spite of a tendency towards high art, Tenniel was already known and appreciated as a humourist.", "His early companionship with Charles Keene fostered his talent for scholarly caricature." ], [ "Training", "Tenniel became a student of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1842 by probation; he was admitted because he had made enough copies of classical sculptures to fill the necessary admission portfolio.", "So it was here that Tenniel returned to his earlier independent education.While Tenniel's more formal training at the Royal Academy and other institutions was beneficial in nurturing his artistic ambitions, he disagreed with the school's teaching methods, and so he set about educating himself.", "He studied classical sculptures through painting.", "However, he was frustrated in this because he lacked instruction in drawing.", "Tenniel would draw the classical statues at London's Townley Gallery, copy illustrations from books of costumes and armour in the British Museum, and draw animals from the zoo in Regent's Park, as well as actors from London theatres, which he drew from the pits.", "These studies taught Tenniel to love detail, yet he became impatient in his work and was happiest when he could draw from memory.", "Though he had a photographic memory, it undermined his early formal training and restricted his artistic ambitions.Another \"formal\" means of training was Tenniel's participation in an artists' group, free from the rules of the academy that were stifling him.", "In the mid-1840s he joined the Artist's Society or Clipstone Street Life Academy, and it could be said that Tenniel first emerged there as a satirical draughtsman." ], [ "Early career", "Tenniel's first book illustration was for Samuel Carter Hall's ''The Book of British Ballads'', in 1842.While engaged with his first book illustrations, various contests were taking place in London, as a way in which the government could combat the growing Germanic Nazarenes style and promote a truly national English school of art.", "Tenniel planned to enter the 1845 House of Lords competition amongst artists to win the opportunity to design the mural decoration of the new Palace of Westminster.", "Despite missing the deadline, he submitted a cartoon, ''An Allegory of Justice'', to a competition for designs for the mural decoration of the new Palace of Westminster.", "For this he received a £200 premium and a commission to paint a fresco in the Upper Waiting Hall (or Hall of Poets) in the House of Lords.===''Punch''===A cartoon by Tenniel on the subject of the 1867 Lambeth Conference.As the influential result of his position as the chief cartoon artist for ''Punch'', Tenniel remained a witness to Britain's sweeping changes.", "He furthered political and social reform through satirical, often radical, and at times vitriolic images of the world.", "At Christmas 1850 he was invited by Mark Lemon to fill the position of joint cartoonist (with John Leech) on ''Punch'', having been selected on the strength of recent illustrations to Aesop's ''Fables''.", "He contributed his first drawing in the initial letter appearing on p. 224, vol.", "xix.", "This was entitled \"Lord Jack the Giant Killer\" and showed Lord John Russell assailing Cardinal Wiseman.Tenniel's first characteristic lion appeared in 1852, as did his first obituary cartoon.", "Gradually he took over altogether the weekly drawing of the political \"big cut,\" which Leech was happy to cede to Tenniel in order to restrict himself to his pictures of life and character.In 1861, Tenniel was offered Leech's position at ''Punch'', as political cartoonist, but Tenniel still maintained a sense of decorum and restraint in the heated social and political issues of the day.", "When Leech died in 1864, Tenniel continued their work alone, rarely missing a single week.His task was to follow the wilful choices of his ''Punch'' editors, who probably took their cue from ''The Times'' and would have felt the suggestions of political tensions from Parliament as well.", "Tenniel's work could be scathing in effect.", "The restlessness in the issues of working-class radicalism, labour, war, economy, and other national themes were the targets of ''Punch'', which in turn settled the nature of Tenniel's subjects.", "His cartoons of the 1860s popularised a portrait of the Irishman as a sub-human being, wanton in his appetites and resembling an orangutan in facial features and posture.", "Many of Tenniel's political cartoons expressed strong hostility to Irish Nationalism, with Fenians and Land leagues depicted as monstrous, ape-like brutes, while \"Hibernia\" – the personification of Ireland – was depicted as a beautiful, helpless girl threatened by such \"monsters\" and turning for protection to an \"elder sister\" in the shape of a powerful, armoured Britannia.", "\"An Unequal Match\", his drawing published in ''Punch'' on 8 October 1881, depicted a police officer fighting a criminal with only a baton for protection, trying to put a point across to the public that policing methods needed to be changed.When examined separately from the book illustrations he did over time, Tenniel's work at ''Punch'' alone, expressing decades of editorial viewpoints, often controversial and socially sensitive, was created to echo the voices of the British public.", "Tenniel drew 2,165 cartoons for ''Punch'', a liberal and politically active publication that mirrored the Victorian public's mood for liberal social changes; thus Tenniel, in his cartoons, represented for years the conscience of the British majority.Tenniel contributed around 2,300 cartoons, innumerable minor drawings, many double-page cartoons for ''Punch's Almanac'' and other specials, and 250 designs for ''Punch's Pocket-books''.", "By 1866 he could \"command ten to fifteen guineas for the reworking of a single ''Punch'' cartoon as a pencil sketch,\" alongside his \"comfortable\" ''Punch'' salary \"of about £800 a year\".===Alice===Caterpillar using a hookah.", "An illustration from ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''Despite the thousands of political cartoons and hundreds of illustrative works attributed to him, much of Tenniel's fame stems from his illustrations for ''Alice''.", "Tenniel drew 92 drawings for Lewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' (London: Macmillan, 1865) and ''Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There'' (London: Macmillan, 1871).Lewis Carroll originally illustrated ''Wonderland'' himself, but his artistic abilities were limited.", "Engraver Orlando Jewitt, who had worked for Carroll in 1859 and reviewed Carroll's drawings for ''Wonderland'', suggested that he employ a professional.", "Carroll was a regular reader of ''Punch'' and therefore familiar with Tenniel, who in 1865 had long talks with Carroll before illustrating the first edition of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''.Chapter 12: Alice's evidence.", "MS Eng 718.6 (12) Tenniel, John, Sir, 1820–1914.Studies for illustrations to ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'': drawings, tracings, from Houghton Library, Harvard UniversityThe first print run of 2,000 was sold in the United States, rather than England, because Tenniel objected to the print quality.", "A new edition was released in December 1865, carrying an 1866 date, and became an instant best-seller, increasing Tenniel's fame.", "His drawings for both books have become some of the most famous literary illustrations.", "After 1872, when the Carroll projects were finished, Tenniel largely abandoned literary illustration.", "Carroll did later approach Tenniel to undertake another project for him.", "To this Tenniel replied:Tenniel's ''Alice'' illustrations were engraved onto blocks of deal wood by the Brothers Dalziel.", "These then served as masters for the electrotype copies for the actual printing of the books.", "The original wood blocks are held by the Bodleian Library in Oxford.", "They are not usually on public display, but were exhibited in 2003.The bronze Alice in Wonderland sculpture (1959) in Central Park in Manhattan, New York City, is patterned on his illustrations." ], [ "Style", "===Influence of German Nazarenes===The style associated with the Nazarene movement of the 19th century influenced many later artists, including Tenniel.", "It can be characterised as \"shaded outlines\", where the lines on the side of figures or objects are given extra thickness or drawn double to suggest shading or volume.", "Furthermore, this style is extremely precise, with the artist making a hard clear outline for its figures, dignifying them and the compositions, while giving restraint in expression and paleness of tone.", "Though Tenniel's early illustrations in the Nazarene style were not well received, his encounter with the style pointed him in a good direction.===Eye for detail===After the 1850s, Tenniel's style was modernised to incorporate more detail in backgrounds and in figures.", "The inclusion of background details corrected the previously weak Germanic staging of his illustrations.", "Tenniel's more precisely-designed illustrations depicted specific moments of time, locale and individual character instead of just generalised scenes.In addition to a change in specificity of background, Tenniel developed a new interest in human types, expressions, and individualised representation, something that would carry over into his illustrations of Wonderland.", "Referred to by many as theatricality, this hallmark of Tenniel's style probably stemmed from his earlier interest in caricature.", "In Tenniel's first years on ''Punch'' he developed this caricaturist's interest in the uniqueness of persons and things, almost giving a human like personality to the objects in the environment.", "For example, a comparison of one of John Everett Millais's illustrations of a girl in a chair with Tenniel's illustration of Alice in a chair shows clearly that Millais's chair is just a prop, whereas Tenniel's chair possesses a menacing and towering presence.Another change in style was his shaded lines.", "These transformed from mechanical horizontal lines to vigorously hand-drawn hatching that greatly intensified darker areas.===Grotesque===Tenniel's \"grotesque\" was one reason why Lewis Carroll wanted Tenniel as his illustrator for the ''Alice'' books, in the sense of imparting a disturbing sense that the real world may have ceased to be reliable.", "Tenniel's style was characteristically grotesque through his dark, atmospheric compositions of exaggerated fantasy creatures carefully drawn in outline.", "Often the mechanism was to use animal heads on recognisable human bodies or vice versa, as Grandville had done in the Parisian satirical journal ''Charivari''.", "In Tenniel's illustrations, the grotesque is found also in mergers of beings and things, deformities in and violence to the human body (e. g. when Alice drinks the potion and grows huge), and a proclivity to deal with ordinary things of this world while presenting such phenomena.", "The most noticeably grotesque is Tenniel's famous Jabberwock drawing in ''Alice''.The ''Alice'' illustrations combine fantasy and reality.", "Scholars such as Morris trace Tenniel's stylistic change to the late 1850s trend towards realism.", "For the grotesque to operate, \"it is our world which has to be transformed and not some fantasy realm.\"", "The illustrations constantly but subtly remind us of the real world, as do some of Tenniel's scenes derived from a medieval town, the portico of a Georgian town, or the checked jacket on the White Rabbit.", "Additionally, Tenniel closely follows Carroll's text, so that the reader sees the similitude between the written text and the illustrations.", "These touches of realism help to convince readers that all these seemingly grotesque inhabitants of Wonderland are simply themselves, simply real, not just performing." ], [ "Image and text in ''Alice''", "One unusual aspect of the ''Alice'' books is the placing of Tenniel's illustrations on the pages.", "This physical relation of illustrations to text meshes them together.", "Carroll and Tenniel expressed this in various ways.", "One was bracketing: two relevant sentences would bracket an image as a way of imparting the moment that Tenniel was trying to illustrate.", "This bracketing of Tenniel's pictures with text adds to their \"dramatic immediacy.\"", "However, other, less frequent illustrations work with the texts as captions.Another link between illustration and text is the use of broader and narrower illustrations.", "Broader ones are meant to be centred on the page, narrower to be \"let in\" or run flush to the margin, alongside a narrow column of continuing text.", "Still, words run in parallel with the depiction of those things.", "For example, when Alice says, \"Oh, my poor little feet!", "\", it not only occurs at the foot of the page but is right next to her feet in the illustration.", "Some of these narrower illustrations are L-shaped, and of great importance as some of his most memorable work.", "The top or base of these illustrations runs the full width of the page, but the other end leaves room on one side for text." ], [ "Book illustrations", "A selected list:'''Entirely by Tenniel'''''Juvenile Verse and Picture Book'' (1846)''Undine'' (1846)''Aesop's Fables'' (1848)Blair's ''Grave'' (1858)Shirley Brooks' ''The Gordian Knot'' (1860)Shirley Brooks' ''The Silver Cord'' (1861)Moore's ''Lalla Rookh'' (1861), 69 drawingsLewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' (1866)''The Mirage of Life'' (1867)Lewis Carroll's ''Through the Looking-Glass'' (1870)Lewis Carroll's ''The Nursery \"Alice\"'' (1890)'''Tenniel's different collaborations''':Thomas Ingoldsby's ''The Ingoldsby Legends''Pollok's ''Course of Time'' (1857)''The Poets of the Nineteenth Century'' (1858)Edgar Allan Poe's \"The Raven\", in ''The Poetical Works of Edgar Allan Poe'' (1858)''Home Affections'' (1858)Cholmondeley Pennell's ''Puck on Pegasus'' (1863)''The Arabian Nights'' (1863)L. B.", "White, ''English Sacred Poetry of the Olden Time'' (1864)''Legends and Lyrics'' (1865)Martin Farquhar Tupper's ''Proverbial Philosophy''Barry Cornwall's ''Dramatic Scenes: With other poems'' (1857)" ], [ "Retirement and death", "''The Black-and-White Knight'', by Linley Sambourne, ''Punch'', 24 June 1893, a tribute to TennielAn ultimate tribute came to an elderly Tenniel as he was knighted for public service in 1893 by Queen Victoria.", "It was the first such honour ever bestowed on an illustrator or cartoonist.", "His fellows saw his knighthood as gratitude for \"raising what had been a fairly lowly profession to an unprecedented level of respectability.\"", "With his knighthood, Tenniel elevated the social status of the black-and-white illustrator, and sparked a new sense of recognition of his profession.", "When he retired in January 1901, Tenniel was honoured with a farewell banquet (on 12 June), at which AJ Balfour, then Leader of the House of Commons, presided, and described Tenniel as \"a great artist and a great gentleman\".Tenniel died of natural causes on 25 February 1914, three days shy of his 94th birthday.", "He was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery in London." ], [ "Legacy", "The ''Punch'' historian M. H. Spielmann, who knew Tenniel, wrote that the political clout contained in his ''Punch'' cartoons was capable of \"swaying parties and people, too\".", "Two days after his death, ''The Daily Graphic'' recalled how Tenniel \"had an influence on the political feeling of this time which is hardly measurable....", "While Tenniel was drawing them (his subjects), we always looked to the Punch cartoon to crystallize the national and international situation, and the popular feeling about it—and never looked in vain.\"", "This social influence resulted from the weekly publishing of his political cartoons over 50 years, whereby Tenniel's fame allowed for a want and need for his particular illustrative work, away from the newspaper.", "Tenniel became not only one of Victorian Britain's most published illustrators, but as a ''Punch'' cartoonist one of the \"supreme social observers\" of British society and an integral component of a powerful journalistic force.", "The ''New-York Tribune'' journalist George W. Smalley referred to John Tenniel in 1914 as \"one of the greatest intellectual forces of his time, (who) understood social laws and political energies.", "\"Public exhibitions of Sir John Tenniel's work were held in 1895 and 1900.Tenniel was also the author of one of the mosaics, ''Leonardo da Vinci'', in the South Court in the Victoria and Albert Museum.", "His stippled watercolour drawings appeared from time to time in the exhibitions of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, to which he had been elected in 1874.Tenniel Close, a Bayswater street near his former studio, is named after him." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Alice par John Tenniel 14.png\|Alice playing with the puppyFile:Jabberwocky.jpg\|''The Jabberwock'', as illustrated by John Tenniel for Lewis Carroll's ''Through the Looking-Glass'', including the poem \"Jabberwocky\"File:Punch Davy Jones's Locker.png\|''Davy Jones' Locker'', 1892 ''Punch'' cartoonFile:1890 Bismarcks Ruecktritt.jpg\|''Dropping the Pilot'', 1890 ''Punch'' cartoon commenting on Otto von Bismarck's dismissalFile:John Tenniel - Punch - Ripper cartoon.png\|''The Nemesis of Neglect'', 1888 ''Punch'' cartoon commenting on the Jack the Ripper murdersFile:A Christmas Puzzle, Punch, Dec 1895.jpg\|''A Christmas Puzzle'', (Father Christmas: \"Now, my little man, where's your stocking?\")", "''Punch'', 1895" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "John Buchanan-Brown, ''Early Victorian Illustrated Books: Britain, France and Germany.''", "London: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press, 2005Lewis Carroll, ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland & Through the Looking-Glass.''", "Edited by Roger Lancelyn Green.", "Illustrated by John Tenniel.", "Oxford: Oxford UP, 1971Lewis Carroll, ''The Annotated Alice: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland & Through the Looking-Glass.''", "Introduction and notes by Martin Gardner.", "Illustrated by John Tenniel.", "New York: Bramhall House, 1960Morton N. Cohen and Edward Wakeling, eds, ''Lewis Carroll and His Illustrators: Collaborations and Correspondence, 1865–1898.''", "Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2003L. Perry Curtis, book review: ''Sir John Tenniel: Aspects of His Work.''", "''Victorian Studies''.", "Vol.", "40, Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1996.168–171.JSTOR recovered 21 November 2010L. Perry Curtis, book review: ''Drawing Conclusions: A Cartoon History of Anglo-Irish Relations, 1798–1998'' by Roy Douglas, et al.", "Victorian Studies.", "Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2001.520–522.JSTOR recovered 21 November 2010Edward D. Dalziel and George Dalziel, ''The Brothers Dalziel: A Record of Fifty Years' Work'', London: Methuen, 1901Eleanor M. Garvey and W. H. Bond, Introduction, ''Tenniel's Alice.''", "Cambridge: Harvard College Library/The Stinehour Press, 1978J. Francis Gladstone and Jo Elwyn-Jones, ''The Alice Companion'' Palgrave Macmillan, 1998.", "Paul Goldman, ''Victorian Illustrators'', Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1996Marguerite Mespoulet, ''Creators of Wonderland.''", "New York: Arrow Editions, 1934Harry Levin, \"Wonderland Revisited\" ''The Kenyon Review'', Vol.", "27, no.", "4, Kenyon College, 1965, pp.", "591–616 JSTOR recovered 3 December 2010*Frankie Morris, ''John Tenniel, Cartoonist: A Critical and Sociocultural Study in the Art of the Victorian Political Cartoon'', PhD dissertation, Columbia: University of Missouri, 1985William Cosmo Monkhouse, ''The Life and Works of Sir John Tenniel'', London: ''ArtJournal Easter Annual'', 1901Graham Ovenden and John Davis, ''The Illustrators of Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass'', New York: St Martin's Press, 1972Forrest Reid, ''Illustrators of the Eighteen Sixties: An Illustrated Survey of the Work of 58 British Artists'', New York: Dover Publications, 1975Frances Sarzano, ''Sir John Tenniel'', London: Pellegrini & Cudahy, 1948Richard Scully, ''Eminent Victorian Cartoonists, Volume I: The Founders'', London: Political Cartoon Society, 2018*William Thomas Stead, ed., ''The Review of Reviews'', Vol.", "23, p. 406, London: Horace Marshall & Son, 1901M. H. Spielmann, ''The History of Punch'', London: Cassell, 1895G. P. Stoker, '' Sir John Tenniel A study of his development as an artist, with particular reference to the Book Illustrations and Political Cartoons'', U of London PhD thesis, 1994Jan Susina, ''The Place of Lewis Carroll in Children's Literature.''", "New York: Routledge, 2010Jan Susina, book review: \"Artist of Wonderland: The Life, Political Cartoons and Illustrations of Tenniel\", ''Children's Literature Association Quarterly'', Vol.", "31, no.", "2, pp.", "202–205, The Johns Hopkins UP, 2006" ], [ "External links", "*** More about John Tenniel and the making of the illustrations for the ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' books Works by John Tenniel at HeidICON* Tenniel's ''Alice'' Illustrations at Lewis Carroll Resources" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jazz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jazz''' is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in blues and ragtime.", "Since the 1920s Jazz Age, it has been recognized as a major form of musical expression in traditional and popular music.", "Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, complex chords, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation.", "Jazz has roots in European harmony and African rhythmic rituals.As jazz spread around the world, it drew on national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to different styles.", "New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation.", "But jazz did not begin as a single musical tradition in New Orleans or elsewhere.", "In the 1930s, arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz (a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style), and gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) were the prominent styles.", "Bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \"musician's music\" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation.", "Cool jazz developed near the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.The mid-1950s saw the emergence of hard bop, which introduced influences from rhythm and blues, gospel, and blues to small groups and particularly to saxophone and piano.", "Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation, as did free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures.", "Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instruments, and highly amplified stage sound.", "In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering significant radio airplay.", "Other styles and genres abound in the 21st century, such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz." ], [ "<span id=\"Definition\"></span> Etymology and definition", "American jazz composer, lyricist, and pianist Eubie Blake made an early contribution to the genre's etymology.The origin of the word ''jazz'' has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented.", "It is believed to be related to ''jasm'', a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning .", "The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the ''Los Angeles Times'' in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a 'jazz ball' \"because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it\".The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the ''Chicago Daily Tribune.''", "Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916, ''Times-Picayune'' article about \"jas bands\".", "In an interview with National Public Radio, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying: \"When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z'.", "It wasn't called that.", "It was spelled 'J-A-S-S'.", "That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies.\"", "The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the 20th Century.Albert Gleizes, 1915, ''Composition for \"Jazz\"'' from the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New YorkJazz is difficult to define because it encompasses a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ragtime to rock-infused fusion.", "Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music.", "But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader, defining jazz as a \"form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music\" and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a \"special relationship to time defined as 'swing.", "Jazz involves \"a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role\" and contains a \"sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician\".", "A broader definition that encompasses different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: \"it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities\".", "Krin Gibbard argued that \"jazz is a construct\" which designates \"a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition\".", "Duke Ellington, one of jazz's most famous figures, said, \"It's all music.\"" ], [ "Elements", "===Improvisation===Although jazz is considered difficult to define, in part because it contains many subgenres, improvisation is one of its defining elements.", "The centrality of improvisation is attributed to the influence of earlier forms of music such as blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of African-American slaves on plantations.", "These work songs were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early blues was also improvisational.", "Classical music performance is evaluated more by its fidelity to the musical score, with less attention given to interpretation, ornamentation, and accompaniment.", "The classical performer's goal is to play the composition as it was written.", "In contrast, jazz is often characterized by the product of interaction and collaboration, placing less value on the contribution of the composer, if there is one, and more on the performer.", "The jazz performer interprets a tune in individual ways, never playing the same composition twice.", "Depending on the performer's mood, experience, and interaction with band members or audience members, the performer may change melodies, harmonies, and time signatures.In early Dixieland, a.k.a.", "New Orleans jazz, performers took turns playing melodies and improvising countermelodies.", "In the swing era of the 1920s–'40s, big bands relied more on arrangements which were written or learned by ear and memorized.", "Soloists improvised within these arrangements.", "In the bebop era of the 1940s, big bands gave way to small groups and minimal arrangements in which the melody was stated briefly at the beginning and most of the piece was improvised.", "Modal jazz abandoned chord progressions to allow musicians to improvise even more.", "In many forms of jazz, a soloist is supported by a rhythm section of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar), double bass, and drums.", "The rhythm section plays chords and rhythms that outline the composition structure and complement the soloist.", "In avant-garde and free jazz, the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales, and meters.===Traditionalism===Since the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized.", "According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a \"tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form\".", "Regarding the Dixieland jazz revival of the 1940s, Black musicians rejected it as being shallow nostalgia entertainment for white audiences.", "On the other hand, traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, and jazz fusion as forms of debasement and betrayal.", "An alternative view is that jazz can absorb and transform diverse musical styles.", "By avoiding the creation of norms, jazz allows avant-garde styles to emerge." ], [ "Diversity in jazz", "===Jazz and race===For some African Americans, jazz has drawn attention to African-American contributions to culture and history.", "For others, jazz is a reminder of \"an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions\".", "Amiri Baraka argues that there is a \"white jazz\" genre that expresses whiteness.", "White jazz musicians appeared in the Midwest and in other areas throughout the U.S. Papa Jack Laine, who ran the Reliance band in New Orleans in the 1910s, was called \"the father of white jazz\".", "The Original Dixieland Jazz Band, whose members were white, were the first jazz group to record, and Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent jazz soloists of the 1920s.", "The Chicago Style was developed by white musicians such as Eddie Condon, Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland, and Dave Tough.", "Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of swing during the 1930s.", "Many bands included both Black and white musicians.", "These musicians helped change attitudes toward race in the U.S.===Roles of women===Ethel Waters sang \"Stormy Weather\" at the Cotton Club.", "Female jazz performers and composers have contributed to jazz throughout its history.", "Although Betty Carter, Ella Fitzgerald, Adelaide Hall, Billie Holiday, Peggy Lee, Abbey Lincoln, Anita O'Day, Dinah Washington, and Ethel Waters were recognized for their vocal talent, less familiar were bandleaders, composers, and instrumentalists such as pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, trumpeter Valaida Snow, and songwriters Irene Higginbotham and Dorothy Fields.", "Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, drawing particular recognition on piano.When male jazz musicians were drafted during World War II, many all-female bands replaced them.", "The International Sweethearts of Rhythm, which was founded in 1937, was a popular band that became the first all-female integrated band in the U.S. and the first to travel with the USO, touring Europe in 1945.Women were members of the big bands of Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson.", "Beginning in the 1950s, many women jazz instrumentalists were prominent, some sustaining long careers.", "Some of the most distinctive improvisers, composers, and bandleaders in jazz have been women.", "Trombonist Melba Liston is acknowledged as the first female horn player to work in major bands and to make a real impact on jazz, not only as a musician but also as a respected composer and arranger, particularly through her collaborations with Randy Weston from the late 1950s into the 1990s.===Jews in jazz===Al Jolson in 1929Jewish Americans played a significant role in jazz.", "As jazz spread, it developed to encompass many different cultures, and the work of Jewish composers in Tin Pan Alley helped shape the many different sounds that jazz came to incorporate.Jewish Americans were able to thrive in Jazz because of the probationary whiteness that they were allotted at the time.", "George Bornstein wrote that African Americans were sympathetic to the plight of the Jewish American and vice versa.", "As disenfranchised minorities themselves, Jewish composers of popular music saw themselves as natural allies with African Americans.", "''The Jazz Singer'' with Al Jolson is one example of how Jewish Americans were able to bring jazz, music that African Americans developed, into popular culture.", "Benny Goodman was a vital Jewish American to the progression of Jazz.", "Goodman was the leader of a racially integrated band named King of Swing.", "His jazz concert in the Carnegie Hall in 1938 was the first ever to be played there.", "The concert was described by Bruce Eder as \"the single most important jazz or popular music concert in history\".Shep Fields also helped to popularize \"Sweet\" Jazz music through his appearances and Big band remote broadcasts from such landmark venues as Chicago's Palmer House, Broadway's Paramount Theater and the Starlight Roof at the famed Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.", "He entertained audiences with a light elegant musical style which remained popular with audiences for nearly three decades from the 1930s until the late 1950s." ], [ "Early development", "Jazz originated in the late-19th to early-20th century.", "It developed out of many forms of music, including blues, spirituals, hymns, marches, vaudeville song, ragtime, and dance music.", "It also incorporated interpretations of American and European classical music, entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture.", "Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.===Blended African and European music sensibilities===Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artist's conception by E. W. Kemble from a century laterThe late 18th-century painting ''The Old Plantation'', depicting African-Americans on a Virginia plantation dancing to percussion and a banjoBy the 18th century, slaves in the New Orleans area gathered socially at a special market, in an area which later became known as Congo Square, famous for its African dances.By 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America.", "The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin and brought strong musical traditions with them.", "The African traditions primarily use a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns.An 1885 account says that they were making strange music (Creole) on an equally strange variety of 'instruments'—washboards, washtubs, jugs, boxes beaten with sticks or bones and a drum made by stretching skin over a flour-barrel.Lavish festivals with African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843.There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States.", "Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music:Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration.", "As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered \"gumbo box\", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion.", "There are quite a few accounts from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850.Some of the earliest Mississippi Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.Another influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals.", "The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals.", "However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz \"was largely based on concepts of heterophony\".The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo, and bonesDuring the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances.", "In turn, European American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment.", "In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music.", "New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African American cultures.===African rhythmic retention===The Black Codes outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean.", "African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through \"body rhythms\" such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba dancing.In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was \"Afro-Latin music\", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time.", "A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as ''tresillo'' is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example \"Souvenirs From Havana\" (1859)).", "Tresillo (shown below) is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora.", ":\\new RhythmicStaff { \\clef percussion \\time 2/4 \\repeat volta 2 { c8.c16 r8 c }}Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present.", "\"By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions,\" jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed.", "\"Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed.", "\"In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures.", "This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility.", "\"The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms,\" observed the writer Robert Palmer, speculating that \"this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured.", "\"===Afro-Cuban influence===African-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity.", "Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City.", "John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera \"reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published.\"", "For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.Habaneras were widely available as sheet music and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).", "From the perspective of African-American music, the \"habanera rhythm\" (also known as \"congo\"), \"tango-congo\", or tango.", "can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat.", "The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.", ": \\new Staff >New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece \"Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)\" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.", "In Gottschalk's symphonic work \"A Night in the Tropics\" (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively.", "The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.", ":\\new RhythmicStaff { \\clef percussion \\time 2/4 \\repeat volta 2 { c8 c16 c r c c r }}Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans \"clavé\", a Spanish word meaning \"code\" or \"key\", as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.", "Although the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music.", "Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.===Ragtime===Scott Joplin in 1903The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans.", "Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment.", "Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during which time many marching bands were formed.", "Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ragtime developed.Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895.Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as \"Rag Time Medley\".", "Also in 1897, the white composer William Krell published his \"Mississippi Rag\" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his \"Harlem Rag\", the first rag published by an African-American.Classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his \"Original Rags\" in 1898 and, in 1899, had an international hit with \"Maple Leaf Rag\", a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords.", "Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.", "The last four measures of Scott Joplin's \"Maple Leaf Rag\" (1899) are shown below.", ": { \\new PianoStaff 16 bes 8 16 ~ bes' aes bes 8 16~ bes' aes' r 8 es16 8 } >> \\new Staff 8 \\bar \"\|.\"", "} >> >>}African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin and Turpin.", "Joplin's \"Solace\" (1909) is generally considered to be in the habanera genre: both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm.", "Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm \"found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,\" whilst Roberts suggests that \"the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass\".===Ragtime in other regions===In the northeastern United States, a \"hot\" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York City, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.In Ohio and elsewhere in the mid-west the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919.Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged.", "A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.===Blues=======African genesis====Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre, which originated in African-American communities of primarily the Deep South of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz.", "As Kubik explains:Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are ''stylistically'' an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:* A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the Hausa.", "It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.", "* An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents.====W.", "C. Handy: early published blues====W.", "C. Handy at 19, 1892W.", "C. Handy became interested in folk blues of the Deep South while traveling through the Mississippi Delta.", "In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another \"voice\".", "Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format and arrange them in a popular music form.Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues:The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor.", "Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same.", "Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man.", "I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ... , and I carried this device into my melody as well.The publication of his \"Memphis Blues\" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but \"more like a cakewalk\").", "This composition, as well as his later \"St. Louis Blues\" and others, included the habanera rhythm, and would become jazz standards.", "Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.===New Orleans origins===The Bolden Band around 1905The music of New Orleans, Louisiana had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz.", "In New Orleans, slaves could practice elements of their culture such as voodoo and playing drums.", "Many early jazz musicians played in the bars and brothels of the red-light district around Basin Street called Storyville.", "In addition to dance bands, there were marching bands which played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals).", "The instruments used by marching bands and dance bands became the instruments of jazz: brass, drums, and reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale.", "Small bands contained a combination of self-taught and formally educated musicians, many from the funeral procession tradition.", "These bands traveled in black communities in the deep south.", "Beginning in 1914, Louisiana Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which carried jazz to cities in the northern and western parts of the U.S. Jazz became international in 1914, when the Creole Band with cornettist Freddie Keppard performed the first ever jazz concert outside the United States, at the Pantages Playhouse Theatre in Winnipeg, Canada.In New Orleans, a white bandleader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band.", "He was known as \"the father of white jazz\" because of the many top players he employed, such as George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano, and future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band.", "During the early 1900s, jazz was mostly performed in African-American and mulatto communities due to segregation laws.", "Storyville brought jazz to a wider audience through tourists who visited the port city of New Orleans.", "Many jazz musicians from African-American communities were hired to perform in bars and brothels.", "These included Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton in addition to those from other communities, such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez.", "Louis Armstrong started his career in Storyville and found success in Chicago.", "Storyville was shut down by the U.S. government in 1917.==== Syncopation ====Jelly Roll Morton, a Louisiana Creole jazz artist, or 1918Cornetist Buddy Bolden played in New Orleans from 1895 to 1906.No recordings by him exist.", "His band is credited with creating the big four: the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.", "As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.", ": \\new Staff } \\repeat volta 2 { r8 \\xNote a'\\noBeam g, \\xNote a' g, \\xNote a'16.g,32 g8 } } >>Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville.", "Beginning in 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows to southern cities, Chicago, and New York City.", "In 1905, he composed \"Jelly Roll Blues\", which became the first jazz arrangement in print when it was published in 1915.It introduced more musicians to the New Orleans style.Morton considered the tresillo/habanera, which he called the Spanish tinge, an essential ingredient of jazz.", "\"Now in one of my earliest tunes, \"New Orleans Blues,\" you can notice the Spanish tinge.", "In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.", "\"An excerpt of \"New Orleans Blues\" is shown below.", "In the excerpt, the left hand plays the tresillo rhythm, while the right hand plays variations on cinquillo.", ": { \\new PianoStaff 4 r8 4 r8 } >> \\new Staff 4.8~ 4 4 4.8~ 4 4 4.8~ 4 4 } >> >> }Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles.", "Morton's solos, however, were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz, but his use of the blues was of equal importance.====Swing in the early 20th century====Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing feeling.", "Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz.", "An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: \"if you don't feel it, you'll never know it.\"", "''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music'' states that swing is: \"An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz...Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments.\"", "The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions: swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions.", "This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music.", "One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse \"grids\".New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty.", "The leader of New Orleans' Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it.", "Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes.", "Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their \"Livery Stable Blues\" became the earliest released jazz record.", "That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring \"jazz\" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz.", "In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's \"Hellfighters\" infantry band took ragtime to Europe, then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including \"Darktown Strutters' Ball\"." ], [ "The Jazz Age", "The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921From 1920 to 1933, Prohibition in the United States banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the \"Jazz Age\", hosting popular music, dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes.", "Jazz began to get a reputation as immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as a threat to the old cultural values by promoting the decadent values of the Roaring 20s.", "Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote, \"... it is not music at all.", "It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion.\"", "''The New York Times'' reported that Siberian villagers used jazz to scare away bears, but the villagers had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.In 1919, Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.", "During the same year, Bessie Smith made her first recordings.", "Chicago was developing \"Hot Jazz\", and King Oliver joined Bill Johnson.", "Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras.", "In 1918, Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco.", "He signed a contract with Victor and became the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving hot jazz a white component, hiring white musicians such as Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti.", "In 1924, Whiteman commissioned George Gershwin's ''Rhapsody in Blue'', which was premiered by his orchestra.", "Jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form.", "Olin Downes, reviewing the concert in ''The New York Times'', wrote, \"This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master.", "...", "In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form.", "... His first theme ... is no mere dance-tune ... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener.", "\"After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and Nathaniel Shilkret.", "According to Mario Dunkel, Whiteman's success was based on a \"rhetoric of domestication\" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read \"white\") a previously inchoate (read \"black\") kind of music.Louis Armstrong began his career in New Orleans and became one of jazz's most recognizable performers.Whiteman's success caused black artists to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman, with Henderson and Redman developing the \"talking to one another\" formula for \"hot\" swing music.In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist.By 1924, one of Armstrong's favorite \"Sweet Jazz\" Big bands was also formed in Canada by Guy Lombardo.", "His Royal Canadians Orchestra specialized in performances of \"the Sweetest music this side of Heaven\" which transcended racial boundaries.", "The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation.", "Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists.", "Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies.", "According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded \"stiff, stodgy\", with \"jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality\".", "The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of \"Mandy, Make Up Your Mind\" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).", "Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language.", "After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his Hot Five band, where he popularized scat singing.===Swing in the 1920s and 1930s===Benny Goodman (1943)The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders.", "Key figures in developing the \"big\" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Harry James, Jimmie Lunceford, Glenn Miller and Artie Shaw.", "Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to \"solo\" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be complex \"important\" music.Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones.", "In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups.", "In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s.", "An early 1940s style known as \"jumping the blues\" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.===The influence of Duke Ellington===Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)While swing was reaching the height of its popularity, Duke Ellington spent the late 1920s and 1930s developing an innovative musical idiom for his orchestra.", "Abandoning the conventions of swing, he experimented with orchestral sounds, harmony, and musical form with complex compositions that still translated well for popular audiences; some of his tunes became hits, and his own popularity spanned from the United States to Europe.Ellington called his music ''American Music'', rather than ''jazz'', and liked to describe those who impressed him as \"beyond category\".", "These included many musicians from his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most popular jazz orchestras in the history of jazz.", "He often composed for the style and skills of these individuals, such as \"Jeep's Blues\" for Johnny Hodges, \"Concerto for Cootie\" for Cootie Williams (which later became \"Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me\" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and \"The Mooche\" for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley.", "He also recorded compositions written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's \"Caravan\" and \"Perdido\", which brought the \"Spanish Tinge\" to big-band jazz.", "Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades.", "The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.===Beginnings of European jazz===As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I.", "It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.", "The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919.In 1926, Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.", "Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous.This style entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934.Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.", "Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall \"musette\", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass.", "Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section.", "Some researchers believe Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre, which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s." ], [ "Post-war jazz", "The \"classic quintet\": Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Max Roach performing at Three Deuces in New York City.", "Photograph by William P. Gottlieb (August 1947), Library of Congress.The outbreak of World War II marked a turning point for jazz.", "The swing-era jazz of the previous decade had challenged other popular music as being representative of the nation's culture, with big bands reaching the height of the style's success by the early 1940s; swing acts and big bands traveled with U.S. military overseas to Europe, where it also became popular.", "Stateside, however, the war presented difficulties for the big-band format: conscription shortened the number of musicians available; the military's need for shellac (commonly used for pressing gramophone records) limited record production; a shortage of rubber (also due to the war effort) discouraged bands from touring via road travel; and a demand by the musicians' union for a commercial recording ban limited music distribution between 1942 and 1944.Many of the big bands who were deprived of experienced musicians because of the war effort began to enlist young players who were below the age for conscription, as was the case with saxophonist Stan Getz's entry in a band as a teenager.", "This coincided with a nationwide resurgence in the Dixieland style of pre-swing jazz; performers such as clarinetist George Lewis, cornetist Bill Davison, and trombonist Turk Murphy were hailed by conservative jazz critics as more authentic than the big bands.", "Elsewhere, with the limitations on recording, small groups of young musicians developed a more uptempo, improvisational style of jazz, collaborating and experimenting with new ideas for melodic development, rhythmic language, and harmonic substitution, during informal, late-night jam sessions hosted in small clubs and apartments.", "Key figures in this development were largely based in New York and included pianists Thelonious Monk and Bud Powell, drummers Max Roach and Kenny Clarke, saxophonist Charlie Parker, and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie.", "This musical development became known as bebop.Bebop and subsequent post-war jazz developments featured a wider set of notes, played in more complex patterns and at faster tempos than previous jazz.", "According to Clive James, bebop was \"the post-war musical development which tried to ensure that jazz would no longer be the spontaneous sound of joy ... Students of race relations in America are generally agreed that the exponents of post-war jazz were determined, with good reason, to present themselves as challenging artists rather than tame entertainers.\"", "The end of the war marked \"a revival of the spirit of experimentation and musical pluralism under which it had been conceived\", along with \"the beginning of a decline in the popularity of jazz music in America\", according to American academic Michael H. Burchett.With the rise of bebop and the end of the swing era after the war, jazz lost its cachet as pop music.", "Vocalists of the famous big bands moved on to being marketed and performing as solo pop singers; these included Frank Sinatra, Peggy Lee, Dick Haymes, and Doris Day.", "Older musicians who still performed their pre-war jazz, such as Armstrong and Ellington, were gradually viewed in the mainstream as passé.", "Other younger performers, such as singer Big Joe Turner and saxophonist Louis Jordan, who were discouraged by bebop's increasing complexity, pursued more lucrative endeavors in rhythm and blues, jump blues, and eventually rock and roll.", "Some, including Gillespie, composed intricate yet danceable pieces for bebop musicians in an effort to make them more accessible, but bebop largely remained on the fringes of American audiences' purview.", "\"The new direction of postwar jazz drew a wealth of critical acclaim, but it steadily declined in popularity as it developed a reputation as an academic genre that was largely inaccessible to mainstream audiences\", Burchett said.", "\"The quest to make jazz more relevant to popular audiences, while retaining its artistic integrity, is a constant and prevalent theme in the history of postwar jazz.\"", "During its swing period, jazz had been an uncomplicated musical scene; according to Paul Trynka, this changed in the post-war years:===Bebop===In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \"musician's music\".", "The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach.", "Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.Composer Gunther Schuller wrote: \"In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians.", "They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work.", "Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.", "\"Dizzy Gillespie wrote: \"People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band.", "But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new.", "It was not.", "The music evolved from what went before.", "It was the same basic music.", "The difference was in how you got from here to here to here...naturally each age has got its own shit.", "\"Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos.", "Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents.", "This led to a highly syncopated music with a linear rhythmic complexity.Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation.", "Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note; bebop also uses \"passing\" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords.", "New forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or \"flatted fifth\") interval became the \"most important interval of bebop\" Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era tunes and reused with a new and more complex melody or reharmonized with more complex chord progressions to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style.", "Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I–IV–V, but often infused with ii–V motion) and \"rhythm changes\" (I-vi-ii-V) – the chords to the 1930s pop standard \"I Got Rhythm\".", "Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing \"Cherokee\" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942.", "\"I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used...and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else.", "I could hear it sometimes.", "I couldn't play it...I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing.", "It came alive.\"", "Gerhard Kubik postulates that harmonic development in bebop sprang from blues and African-related tonal sensibilities rather than 20th-century Western classical music.", "\"Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in Parker's life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories.", "Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices.", "\"Samuel Floyd states that blues was both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about a new harmonic conception using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety, a developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device; and reestablishment of the blues as the primary organizing and functional principle.", "Kubik wrote:While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western \"serious\" music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach.", "Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing.", "And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music.", "West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings.", "On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self.", "Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach.", "The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions.These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time met a divided, sometimes hostile response among fans and musicians, especially swing players who bristled at the new harmonic sounds.", "To hostile critics, bebop seemed filled with \"racing, nervous phrases\".", "But despite the friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.===Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)===Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)====Machito and Mario Bauza====The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was \"Tanga\" (1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York City.", "\"Tanga\" began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz.", "The use of clave brought the African ''timeline'', or ''key pattern'', into jazz.", "Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African cross-rhythm.", "Within the context of jazz, however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm.", "The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic \"one\" is always understood to be \"one\".", "If the progression begins on the \"three-side\" of clave, it is said to be in ''3–2 clave'' (shown below).", "If the progression begins on the \"two-side\", it is in ''2–3 clave''.", ":\\new RhythmicStaff { \\clef percussion \\time 4/4 \\repeat volta 2 { c8.c16 r8 c r c c4 }}====Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo====Dizzy Gillespie, 1955Mario Bauzá introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo.", "Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards.", "\"Manteca\" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave.", "According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge.", "Gillespie recounted: \"If I'd let it go like Chano wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way.", "There wouldn't have been a bridge.", "I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ...", "I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.\"", "The bridge gave \"Manteca\" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal \"Tanga\" of a few years earlier.Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop.", "While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, ''cu-bop'' also drew from African rhythm.", "Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes of the jazz standard repertoire.", "This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of \"Manteca\", \"A Night in Tunisia\", \"Tin Tin Deo\", and \"On Green Dolphin Street\".==== \"Un Poco Loco\" ====Another jazz composition critical to the development of Afro-Cuban jazz was Bud Powell's \"Un Poco Loco,\" recorded with Curley Russell on bass and Max Roach on drums.", "Noted for its \"frenetic energy\" and \"clanging cowbell and polyrhythmic accompaniment,\" the composition combined Afro-Cuban rhythm with polytonality and preceded further use of modality and avant-garde harmony in Latin jazz.====African cross-rhythm====Mongo Santamaria (1969)Cuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition \"Afro Blue\" in 1959.", "\"Afro Blue\" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola.", "The piece begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of , or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2).The following example shows the original ostinato \"Afro Blue\" bass line.", "The cross noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes).", ": \\new Staff >When John Coltrane covered \"Afro Blue\" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3).", "Originally a B pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of \"Afro Blue\".Perhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band.", "Tjader had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie Bobo on his early recording dates.===Dixieland revival===In the late 1940s, there was a revival of Dixieland, harking back to the contrapuntal New Orleans style.", "This was driven in large part by record company reissues of jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s.", "There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison.", "Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved.", "The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band.", "By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble.", "Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.===Hard bop===Art Blakey (1973)Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or \"bop\") music that incorporates influences from blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel, especially in saxophone and piano playing.", "Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues.", "It has been described as \"funky\" and can be considered a relative of soul jazz.", "Some elements of the genre were simplified from their bebop roots.Miles Davis' 1954 performance of \"Walkin'\" at the first Newport Jazz Festival introduced the style to the jazz world.", "Further leaders of hard bop's development included the Clifford Brown/Max Roach Quintet, Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers, the Horace Silver Quintet, and trumpeters Lee Morgan and Freddie Hubbard.", "The late 1950s to early 1960s saw hard boppers form their own bands as a new generation of blues- and bebop-influenced musicians entered the jazz world, from pianists Wynton Kelly and Tommy Flanagan to saxophonists Joe Henderson and Hank Mobley.", "Coltrane, Johnny Griffin, Mobley, and Morgan all participated on the album ''A Blowin' Session'' (1957), considered by Al Campbell to have been one of the high points of the hard bop era.Hard bop was prevalent within jazz for about a decade spanning from 1955 to 1965, but has remained highly influential on mainstream or \"straight-ahead\" jazz.", "It went into decline in the late 1960s through the 1970s due to the emergence of other styles such as jazz fusion, but again became influential following the Young Lions Movement and the emergence of neo-bop.===Modal jazz===Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation.", "Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given chord progression, but with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes.", "The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody: \"Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale)\", explained pianist Mark Levine.The modal theory stems from a work by George Russell.", "Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with ''Kind of Blue'' (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time.", "In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, ''Kind of Blue'' was composed as a series of modal sketches in which the musicians were given scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style.", "\"I didn't write out the music for ''Kind of Blue'', but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,\" recalled Davis.", "The track \"So What\" has only two chords: D-7 and E-7.Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean, and two of the musicians who had also played on ''Kind of Blue'': John Coltrane and Bill Evans.===Free jazz===John Coltrane, 1963Free jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz, broke through into an open space of \"free tonality\" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of world music from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.", "While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed.", "The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album ''Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation'' coined the term) and Cecil Taylor.", "In the 1960s, exponents included Albert Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giuffre, Steve Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah Sanders, and John Tchicai.", "In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor as leader.", "In November 1961, Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic ''Chasin' the 'Trane'', which ''DownBeat'' magazine panned as \"anti-jazz\".", "On his 1961 tour of France, he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new Impulse!", "Records in 1960 and turning it into \"the house that Trane built\", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day \"October Revolution in Jazz\" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's sheets of sound.", "In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone.", "In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom.", "The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings ''The John Coltrane Quartet Plays'', ''Living Space'' and ''Transition'' (both June 1965), ''New Thing at Newport'' (July 1965), ''Sun Ship'' (August 1965), and ''First Meditations'' (September 1965).In June 1965, Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded ''Ascension'', a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avant-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos.", "Dave Liebman later called it \"the torch that lit the free jazz thing\".", "After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965.While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.====Free jazz in Europe====Peter Brötzmann is a key figure in European free jazz.Free jazz was played in Europe in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy, and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods of time there, and European musicians such as Michael Mantler and John Tchicai traveled to the U.S. to experience American music firsthand.", "European contemporary jazz was shaped by Peter Brötzmann, John Surman, Krzysztof Komeda, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Tomasz Stanko, Lars Gullin, Joe Harriott, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler, Graham Collier, Michael Garrick and Mike Westbrook.", "They were eager to develop approaches to music that reflected their heritage.Since the 1960s, creative centers of jazz in Europe have developed, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam.", "Following the work of drummer Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore by improvising collectively until a form (melody, rhythm, a famous song) is found Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book ''New Dutch Swing''.", "Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has defended free jazz from criticism.", "British writer Stuart Nicholson has argued European contemporary jazz has an identity different from American jazz and follows a different trajectory.===Latin jazz===Latin jazz is jazz that employs Latin American rhythms and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America.", "A more precise term might be ''Afro-Latin jazz'', as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz.", "The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.In the 1960s and 1970s, many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as \"Latin tunes\", with no distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova.", "Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a \"Latin bass figure\".", "It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern.", "Many jazz standards such as \"Manteca\", \"On Green Dolphin Street\" and \"Song for My Father\" have a \"Latin\" A section and a swung B section.", "Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth \"Latin\" feel in the A section of the head and swing throughout all of the solos.", "Latin jazz specialists like Cal Tjader tended to be the exception.", "For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of \"A Night in Tunisia\", pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over an authentic mambo.====Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance====For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms.", "But by the end of the 1970s, a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both salsa dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms.", "This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass).", "During 1974–1976, they were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways.", "He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps.", "The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba The first Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere.", "Their \"Chékere-son\" (1976) introduced a style of \"Cubanized\" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time.", "It was based on Charlie Parker's composition \"Billie's Bounce\", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines.", "In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as timba.====Afro-Brazilian jazz====Naná Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian BerimbauBrazilian jazz, such as bossa nova, is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles.", "Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst the related jazz-samba is an adaptation of street samba into jazz.The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of \"Chega de Saudade\" on the ''Canção do Amor Demais'' LP.", "Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film ''Black Orpheus'', achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians.", "The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's ''Getz/Gilberto'', numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Naná Vasconcelos also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.While bossa nova has been labeled as jazz by music critics, namely those from outside of Brazil, it has been rejected by many prominent bossa nova musicians such as Jobim, who once said \"Bossa nova is not Brazilian jazz.", "\"===African-inspired===Randy Weston====Rhythm====The first jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's \"Footprints\" (1967).", "On the version recorded on ''Miles Smiles'' by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a tresillo figure at 2:20.", "\"Footprints\" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing.", "Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent.", "The following example shows the and forms of the bass line.", "The slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where one ordinarily taps their foot to \"keep time\".", ": { \\relative c, > \\new Staff > >> }====Pentatonic scales====The use of pentatonic scales was another trend associated with Africa.", "The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos, and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues.", "The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's \"African Queen\" (1965).Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the ''V pentatonic scale''.C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pentatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II–V–I jazz progression.", "This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' \"Tune Up\".", "The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II–V–I progression.V pentatonic scale over II–V–I chord progressionAccordingly, John Coltrane's \"Giant Steps\" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales.", "Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's ''Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns'', which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of \"Giant Steps\".", "The harmonic complexity of \"Giant Steps\" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music.", "Superimposing the pentatonic scale over \"Giant Steps\" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of \"Africanizing\" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing.", "Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional \"playing the changes\", pentatonic scales provide \"structure and a feeling of increased space\".===Sacred and liturgical jazz===As noted above, jazz has incorporated from its inception aspects of African-American sacred music including spirituals and hymns.", "Secular jazz musicians often performed renditions of spirituals and hymns as part of their repertoire or isolated compositions such as \"Come Sunday\", part of \"Black and Beige Suite\" by Duke Ellington.", "Later many other jazz artists borrowed from black gospel music.", "However, it was only after World War II that a few jazz musicians began to compose and perform extended works intended for religious settings or as religious expression.", "Since the 1950s, sacred and liturgical music has been performed and recorded by many prominent jazz composers and musicians.", "The \"Abyssinian Mass\" by Wynton Marsalis (Blueengine Records, 2016) is a recent example.Relatively little has been written about sacred and liturgical jazz.", "In a 2013 doctoral dissertation, Angelo Versace examined the development of sacred jazz in the 1950s using disciplines of musicology and history.", "He noted that the traditions of black gospel music and jazz were combined in the 1950s to produce a new genre, \"sacred jazz\".", "Versace maintained that the religious intent separates sacred from secular jazz.", "Most prominent in initiating the sacred jazz movement were pianist and composer Mary Lou Williams, known for her jazz masses in the 1950s and Duke Ellington.", "Prior to his death in 1974 in response to contacts from Grace Cathedral in San Francisco, Duke Ellington wrote three Sacred Concerts: 1965 – A Concert of Sacred Music; 1968 – Second Sacred Concert; 1973 – Third Sacred Concert.The most prominent form of sacred and liturgical jazz is the jazz mass.", "Although most often performed in a concert setting rather than church worship setting, this form has many examples.", "An eminent example of composers of the jazz mass was Mary Lou Williams.", "Williams converted to Catholicism in 1957, and proceeded to compose three masses in the jazz idiom.", "One was composed in 1968 to honor the recently assassinated Martin Luther King Jr. and the third was commissioned by a pontifical commission.", "It was performed once in 1975 in St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City.", "However the Catholic Church has not embraced jazz as appropriate for worship.", "In 1966 Joe Masters recorded \"Jazz Mass\" for Columbia Records.", "A jazz ensemble was joined by soloists and choir using the English text of the Roman Catholic Mass.", "Other examples include \"Jazz Mass in Concert\" by Lalo Schiffrin (Aleph Records, 1998, UPC 0651702632725) and \"Jazz Mass\" by Vince Guaraldi (Fantasy Records, 1965).", "In England, classical composer Will Todd recorded his \"Jazz Missa Brevis\" with a jazz ensemble, soloists and the St Martin's Voices on a 2018 Signum Records release, \"Passion Music/Jazz Missa Brevis\" also released as \"Mass in Blue\", and jazz organist James Taylor composed \"The Rochester Mass\" (Cherry Red Records, 2015).", "In 2013, Versace put forth bassist Ike Sturm and New York composer Deanna Witkowski as contemporary exemplars of sacred and liturgical jazz.===Jazz fusion===Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa.", "Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords, and harmonies.According to AllMusic:... until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate.", "However, ... as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.====Miles Davis' new directions====In 1969, Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with ''In a Silent Way'', which can be considered his first fusion album.", "Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ambient music.As Davis recalls:The music I was really listening to in 1968 was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi Hendrix, and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, \"Dance to the Music\", Sly and the Family Stone ...", "I wanted to make it more like rock.", "When we recorded ''In a Silent Way'' I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.Two contributors to ''In a Silent Way'' also joined organist Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: ''Emergency!''", "(1969) by The Tony Williams Lifetime.====Psychedelic-jazz=========Weather Report=====Weather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic ''Weather Report'' debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music.", "The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion.", "It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on ''Bitches Brew'', including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favor of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further.", "To emphasize the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece \"Milky Way\", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedaled the instrument.", "''DownBeat'' described the album as \"music beyond category\", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.Weather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.====Jazz-rock====Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion.", "As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, \"fuzz\" pedals, wah-wah pedals and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands.", "Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea, and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams, violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin, Ryo Kawasaki, and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke.", "Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea released more than thirty fusion albums.According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, \"just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same\" with albums such as Williams' ''Emergency!''", "(1970) and Davis' ''Agharta'' (1975), which Nicholson said \"suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before.\"", "This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre \"mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio\" at the end of the 1970s.==== Electronic music ====Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s.", "Musicians using this approach include Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and the Swedish group e.s.t.", "Since the beginning of the 1990s, electronic music had significant technical improvements that popularized and created new possibilities for the genre.", "Jazz elements such as improvisation, rhythmic complexities and harmonic textures were introduced to the genre and consequently had a big impact in new listeners and in some ways kept the versatility of jazz relatable to a newer generation that did not necessarily relate to what the traditionalists call real jazz (bebop, cool and modal jazz).", "Artists such as Squarepusher, Aphex Twin, Flying Lotus and sub genres like IDM, drum 'n' bass, jungle and techno ended up incorporating a lot of these elements.", "Squarepusher being cited as one big influence for jazz performers drummer Mark Guiliana and pianist Brad Mehldau, showing the correlations between jazz and electronic music are a two-way street.===Jazz-funk===By the mid-1970s, the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers.", "Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw.", "Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important.", "The integration of funk, soul, and R&B music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.Early examples are Herbie Hancock's Headhunters band and Miles Davis' ''On the Corner'' album, which, in 1972, began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk.", "While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape.", "The album was a culmination of sorts of the ''musique concrète'' approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.===Straight-ahead jazz===Wynton MarsalisThe 1980s saw something of a reaction against the fusion and free jazz that had dominated the 1970s.", "Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as the hard bop of the 1950s.", "It is debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly modal jazz and post-bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if fusion and free jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.For example, several musicians who had been prominent in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock.", "Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s; for example, Bill Evans, Joe Henderson, and Stan Getz.", "Even the 1980s music of Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognizably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.A similar reaction took place against free jazz.", "According to Ted Gioia:the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of free jazz.", "Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes.", "Cecil Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack.", "And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice.", "Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.Pianist Keith Jarrett—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards.", "Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating \"jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated.\"", "It passed in the House on September 23, 1987, and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.In 2001, Ken Burns's documentary ''Jazz'' premiered on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of American jazz to that time.", "It received some criticism, however, for its failure to reflect the many distinctive non-American traditions and styles in jazz that had developed, and its limited representation of US developments in the last quarter of the 20th century.==== Neo-bop ====The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community.", "In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz-rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop.", "In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur.", "This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams.", "In the 1980s, in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in the 1990s and 2000s.The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney and Mark Whitfield were also influenced by Wynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition.", "These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the first Miles Davis quintet.", "This group of \"Young Lions\" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of classical music.In addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers.", "Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri Allen.", "O.T.B.", "ensemble included a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson Jr., Billy Drummond, and Robert Hurst.Starting in the 1990s, a number of players from largely straight-ahead or post-bop backgrounds emerged as a result of the rise of neo-traditionalist jazz, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride.===Smooth jazz===David Sanborn, 2008In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called \"pop fusion\" or \"smooth jazz\" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in \"quiet storm\" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S.", "This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan, and Sade, as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James, and David Sanborn.", "In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are popular).In his ''Newsweek'' article \"The Problem With Jazz Criticism\", Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz.", "Critic Aaron J.", "West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative.", "Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era.", "Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.===Acid jazz, nu jazz, and jazz rap===Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music.", "Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including sampling or live DJ cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance.", "Richard S. Ginell of AllMusic considers Roy Ayers \"one of the prophets of acid jazz\".Nu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects.", "It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept.", "It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova, and Fila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example, The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and the Norwegian \"future jazz\" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist, and Nils Petter Molvær).Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and incorporates jazz influences into hip hop.", "In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single \"Words I Manifest\", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 \"Night in Tunisia\", and Stetsasonic released \"Talkin' All That Jazz\", which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith.", "Gang Starr's debut LP ''No More Mr. Nice Guy'' (1989) and their 1990 track \"Jazz Thing\" sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis.", "The groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut ''Straight Out the Jungle'' (1988), and A Tribe Called Quest's ''People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm'' (1990) and ''The Low End Theory'' (1991).", "Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut ''Mecca and the Soul Brother''.", "Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993 using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.Although jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album ''Doo-Bop'' (released posthumously in 1992) was based on hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee.", "Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album ''Dis Is Da Drum'' in 1994.The mid-2010s saw an increased influence of R&B, hip-hop, and pop music on jazz.", "In 2015, Kendrick Lamar released his third studio album, ''To Pimp a Butterfly''.", "The album heavily featured prominent contemporary jazz artists such as Thundercat and redefined jazz rap with a larger focus on improvisation and live soloing rather than simply sampling.", "In that same year, saxophonist Kamasi Washington released his nearly three-hour long debut, ''The Epic''.", "Its hip-hop inspired beats and R&B vocal interludes was not only acclaimed by critics for being innovative in keeping jazz relevant, but also sparked a small resurgence in jazz on the internet.===Punk jazz and jazzcore===John Zorn performing in 2006The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz.", "In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock.", "In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk.", "Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's ''Queen of Siam'', Gray, the work of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk) and the Lounge Lizards (the first group to call themselves \"punk jazz\").John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the ''Spy vs. Spy'' album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.", "In the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell, and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit, a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.", "These developments are the origins of ''jazzcore'', the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk.===M-Base===Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby, and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving sound.In the 1990s, most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept.Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, according to pianist Vijay Iver and critic Ben Ratlifff of ''The New York Times''.M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman \"school\", with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.", "Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept gained recognition as \"next logical step\" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman.=== Jazz pluralism ===Since the 1990s, jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of styles and genres are popular.", "Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance.", "Pianist Brad Mehldau and The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians.", "The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music.", "A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.Joan Chamorro (bass), Andrea Motis (trumpet), and Ignasi Terraza (piano) in 2018Harry Connick Jr. began his career playing stride piano and the Dixieland jazz of his home, New Orleans, beginning with his first recording when he was 10 years old.", "Some of his earliest lessons were at the home of pianist Ellis Marsalis.", "Connick had success on the pop charts after recording the soundtrack to the movie ''When Harry Met Sally'', which sold over two million copies.", "Crossover success has also been achieved by Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling, and Jamie Cullum.Additionally, the era saw the release of recordings and videos from the previous century, such as a Just Jazz tape broadcast by a band led by Gene Ammons and studio archives such as ''Just Coolin''' by Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers.==== Social media ====An internet-aided trend of 2010's jazz was that of extreme reharmonization, inspired by both virtuosic players known for their speed and rhythm such as Art Tatum, as well as players known for their ambitious voicings and chords such as Bill Evans.", "Supergroup Snarky Puppy adopted this trend, allowing players like Cory Henry to shape the grooves and harmonies of modern jazz soloing.", "YouTube phenomenon Jacob Collier also gained recognition for his ability to play an incredibly large number of instruments and his ability to use microtones, advanced polyrhythms, and blend a spectrum of genres in his largely homemade production process.Other jazz musicians gained popularity through social media during the 2010s and 2020s.", "These included Joan Chamorro, a bassist and bandleader based in Barcelona whose big band and jazz combo videos have received tens of millions of views on YouTube, and Emmet Cohen, who broadcast a series of performances live from New York starting in March 2020." ], [ "See also", "* Jazz (Henri Matisse)* Jazz piano* Jazz royalty* Victorian Jazz Archive* Hogan Jazz Archive * International Jazz Day* Bibliography of jazz* Timeline of jazz education* List of certified jazz recordings* List of jazz festivals* List of jazz genres* List of jazz musicians* List of jazz standards* List of jazz venues* List of jazz venues in the United States" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* .", "* * Includes a 120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.", "* * * * * * * * New printing 1986.", "* * Also: ''Jazz'' (2001 miniseries)." ], [ "Further reading", "* * Carr, Ian.", "''Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain.''", "2nd edition.", "London: Northway.", "* * Downbeat (2009).", "''The Great Jazz Interviews'': Frank Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds).", "Hal Leonard Books.", "* Gridley, Mark C.", "2004.", "''Concise Guide to Jazz'', fourth edition.", "Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall.", "* Hendler, Maximilian (2023).", "''Prehistory of Jazz''.", "Vienna: Hollitzer (=Studies in Jazz Research Vol.", "16).", "* Nairn, Charlie.", "1975.", "''Earl 'Fatha' Hines'': 1 hour 'solo' documentary made in \"Blues Alley\" Jazz Club, Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: produced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm film plus out-takes of additional tunes from that film archived in British Film Institute Library at bfi.org.uk and itvstudios.com: DVD copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library who hold The Earl Hines Collection/Archive, University of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago, Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries.", "* Schuller, Gunther.", "1991.", "''The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945''.", "Oxford University Press." ], [ "External links", "* Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum* Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website* RedHotJazz.com* Jazz at Lincoln Center* American Jazz Museum website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jonathan Swift" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jonathan Swift''' (30 November 1667 – 19 October 1745) was an Anglo-Irish satirist, author, essayist, political pamphleteer (first for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet, and Anglican cleric who became Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, hence his common sobriquet, \"Dean Swift\".Swift is remembered for works such as ''A Tale of a Tub'' (1704), ''An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity'' (1712), ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and ''A Modest Proposal'' (1729).", "He is regarded by the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' as the foremost prose satirist in the English language.", "He originally published all of his works under pseudonyms—such as Lemuel Gulliver, Isaac Bickerstaff, M. B. Drapier—or anonymously.", "He was a master of two styles of satire, the Horatian and Juvenalian styles.His deadpan, ironic writing style, particularly in ''A Modest Proposal'', has led to such satire being subsequently termed \"Swiftian\"." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life===Jonathan Swift was born on 30 November 1667 in Dublin in the Kingdom of Ireland.", "He was the second child and only son of Jonathan Swift (1640–1667) and his wife Abigail Erick (or Herrick) of Frisby on the Wreake.", "His father was a native of Goodrich, Herefordshire, but he accompanied his brothers to Ireland to seek their fortunes in law after their Royalist father's estate was brought to ruin during the English Civil War.", "His maternal grandfather, James Ericke, was the vicar of Thornton in Leicestershire.", "In 1634 the vicar was convicted of Puritan practices.", "Some time thereafter, Ericke and his family, including his young daughter Abigail, fled to Ireland.Swift's father joined his elder brother, Godwin, in the practice of law in Ireland.", "He died in Dublin about seven months before his namesake was born.", "He died of syphilis, which he said he got from dirty sheets when out of town.His mother returned to England after his birth, leaving him in the care of his uncle Godwin Swift (1628–1695), a close friend and confidant of Sir John Temple, whose son later employed Swift as his secretary.At the age of one, child Jonathan was taken by his wet nurse to her hometown of Whitehaven, Cumberland, England.", "He said that there he learned to read the Bible.", "His nurse returned him to his mother, still in Ireland, when he was three.The house in which Swift was born; 1865 illustrationSwift's family had several interesting literary connections.", "His grandmother Elizabeth (Dryden) Swift was the niece of Sir Erasmus Dryden, grandfather of poet John Dryden.", "The same grandmother's aunt Katherine (Throckmorton) Dryden was a first cousin of Elizabeth, wife of Sir Walter Raleigh.", "His great-great-grandmother Margaret (Godwin) Swift was the sister of Francis Godwin, author of ''The Man in the Moone'' which influenced parts of Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels''.", "His uncle Thomas Swift married a daughter of poet and playwright Sir William Davenant, a godson of William Shakespeare.Swift's benefactor and uncle Godwin Swift took primary responsibility for the young man, sending him with one of his cousins to Kilkenny College (also attended by philosopher George Berkeley).", "He arrived there at the age of six, where he was expected to have already learned the basic declensions in Latin.", "He had not, and thus began his schooling in a lower form.", "Swift graduated in 1682, when he was 15.Jonathan Swift in 1682, by Thomas Pooley.", "The artist had married into the Swift family.He attended Trinity College Dublin in 1682, financed by Godwin's son Willoughby.", "The four-year course followed a curriculum largely set in the Middle Ages for the priesthood.", "The lectures were dominated by Aristotelian logic and philosophy.", "The basic skill taught to students was debate, and they were expected to be able to argue both sides of any argument or topic.", "Swift was an above-average student but not exceptional, and received his B.A.", "in 1686 \"by special grace.", "\"=== Adult life ===Swift was studying for his master's degree when political troubles in Ireland surrounding the Glorious Revolution forced him to leave for England in 1688, where his mother helped him get a position as secretary and personal assistant of Sir William Temple at Moor Park, Farnham.", "Temple was an English diplomat who had arranged the Triple Alliance of 1668.He had retired from public service to his country estate, to tend his gardens and write his memoirs.", "Gaining his employer's confidence, Swift \"was often trusted with matters of great importance\".", "Within three years of their acquaintance, Temple introduced his secretary to William III and sent him to London to urge the King to consent to a bill for triennial Parliaments.Swift took up his residence at Moor Park where he met Esther Johnson, then eight years old, the daughter of an impoverished widow who acted as companion to Temple's sister Lady Giffard.", "Swift was her tutor and mentor, giving her the nickname \"Stella\", and the two maintained a close but ambiguous relationship for the rest of Esther's life.In 1690, Swift left Temple for Ireland because of his health, but returned to Moor Park the following year.", "The illness consisted of fits of vertigo or giddiness, now believed to be Ménière's disease, and it continued to plague him throughout his life.", "During this second stay with Temple, Swift received his M.A.", "from Hart Hall, Oxford, in 1692.He then left Moor Park, apparently despairing of gaining a better position through Temple's patronage, in order to become an ordained priest in the Established Church of Ireland.", "He was appointed to the prebend of Kilroot in the Diocese of Connor in 1694, with his parish located at Kilroot, near Carrickfergus in County Antrim.Swift appears to have been miserable in his new position, being isolated in a small, remote community far from the centres of power and influence.", "While at Kilroot, however, he may well have become romantically involved with Jane Waring, whom he called \"Varina\", the sister of an old college friend.", "A letter from him survives, offering to remain if she would marry him and promising to leave and never return to Ireland if she refused.", "She presumably refused, because Swift left his post and returned to England and Temple's service at Moor Park in 1696, and he remained there until Temple's death.", "There he was employed in helping to prepare Temple's memoirs and correspondence for publication.", "During this time, Swift wrote ''The Battle of the Books'', a satire responding to critics of Temple's ''Essay upon Ancient and Modern Learning'' (1690), though ''Battle'' was not published until 1704.Temple died on 27 January 1699.Swift, normally a harsh judge of human nature, said that all that was good and amiable in mankind had died with Temple.", "He stayed on briefly in England to complete editing Temple's memoirs, and perhaps in the hope that recognition of his work might earn him a suitable position in England.", "His work made enemies among some of Temple's family and friends, in particular Temple's formidable sister Martha, Lady Giffard, who objected to indiscretions included in the memoirs.", "Moreover, she noted that Swift had borrowed from her own biography, an accusation that Swift denied.", "Swift's next move was to approach King William directly, based on his imagined connection through Temple and a belief that he had been promised a position.", "This failed so miserably that he accepted the lesser post of secretary and chaplain to the Earl of Berkeley, one of the Lords Justice of Ireland.", "However, when he reached Ireland, he found that the secretaryship had already been given to another.", "He soon obtained the living of Laracor, Agher, and Rathbeggan, and the prebend of Dunlavin in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin.Swift ministered to a congregation of about 15 at Laracor, which was just over from Summerhill, County Meath, and from Dublin.", "He had abundant leisure for cultivating his garden, making a canal after the Dutch fashion of Moor Park, planting willows, and rebuilding the vicarage.", "As chaplain to Lord Berkeley, he spent much of his time in Dublin and travelled to London frequently over the next ten years.", "In 1701, he anonymously published the political pamphlet ''A Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome''.====Writer====Swift resided in Trim, County Meath, after 1700.He wrote many of his works during this period.", "In February 1702, Swift received his Doctor of Divinity degree from Trinity College Dublin.", "That spring he travelled to England and then returned to Ireland in October, accompanied by Esther Johnson—now 20—and his friend Rebecca Dingley, another member of William Temple's household.", "There is a great mystery and controversy over Swift's relationship with Esther Johnson, nicknamed \"Stella\".", "Many, notably his close friend Thomas Sheridan, believed that they were secretly married in 1716; others, like Swift's housekeeper Mrs Brent and Rebecca Dingley (who lived with Stella all through her years in Ireland), dismissed the story as absurd.", "Swift certainly did not wish her to marry anyone else: in 1704, when their mutual friend William Tisdall informed Swift that he intended to propose to Stella, Swift wrote to him to dissuade him from the idea.", "Although the tone of the letter was courteous, Swift privately expressed his disgust for Tisdall as an \"interloper\", and they were estranged for many years.During his visits to England in these years, Swift published ''A Tale of a Tub'' and ''The Battle of the Books'' (1704) and began to gain a reputation as a writer.", "This led to close, lifelong friendships with Alexander Pope, John Gay, and John Arbuthnot, forming the core of the Martinus Scriblerus Club (founded in 1713).Swift became increasingly active politically in these years.", "Swift supported the Glorious Revolution and early in his life belonged to the Whigs.", "As a member of the Anglican Church, he feared a return of the Catholic monarchy and \"Papist\" absolutism.", "From 1707 to 1709 and again in 1710, Swift was in London unsuccessfully urging upon the Whig administration of Lord Godolphin the claims of the Irish clergy to the First-Fruits and Twentieths (\"Queen Anne's Bounty\"), which brought in about £2,500 a year, already granted to their brethren in England.", "He found the opposition Tory leadership more sympathetic to his cause, and, when they came to power in 1710, he was recruited to support their cause as editor of ''The Examiner''.", "In 1711, Swift published the political pamphlet ''The Conduct of the Allies'', attacking the Whig government for its inability to end the prolonged war with France.", "The incoming Tory government conducted secret (and illegal) negotiations with France, resulting in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ending the War of the Spanish Succession.Swift was part of the inner circle of the Tory government, and often acted as mediator between Henry St John (Viscount Bolingbroke), the secretary of state for foreign affairs (1710–15), and Robert Harley (Earl of Oxford), lord treasurer and prime minister (1711–14).", "Swift recorded his experiences and thoughts during this difficult time in a long series of letters to Esther Johnson, collected and published after his death as ''A Journal to Stella''.", "The animosity between the two Tory leaders eventually led to the dismissal of Harley in 1714.With the death of Queen Anne and accession of George I that year, the Whigs returned to power, and the Tory leaders were tried for treason for conducting secret negotiations with France.Swift has been described by scholars as \"a Whig in politics and Tory in religion\" and Swift related his own views in similar terms, stating that as \"a lover of liberty, I found myself to be what they called a Whig in politics ...", "But, as to religion, I confessed myself to be an High-Churchman.\"", "In his ''Thoughts on Religion'', fearing the intense partisan strife waged over religious belief in seventeenth-century England, Swift wrote that \"Every man, as a member of the commonwealth, ought to be content with the possession of his own opinion in private.\"", "However, it should be borne in mind that, during Swift's time period, terms like \"Whig\" and \"Tory\" both encompassed a wide array of opinions and factions, and neither term aligns with a modern political party or modern political alignments.Also during these years in London, Swift became acquainted with the Vanhomrigh family (Dutch merchants who had settled in Ireland, then moved to London) and became involved with one of the daughters, Esther.", "Swift furnished Esther with the nickname \"Vanessa\" (derived by adding \"Essa\", a pet form of Esther, to the \"Van\" of her surname, Vanhomrigh), and she features as one of the main characters in his poem ''Cadenus and Vanessa''.", "The poem and their correspondence suggest that Esther was infatuated with Swift, and that he may have reciprocated her affections, only to regret this and then try to break off the relationship.", "Esther followed Swift to Ireland in 1714, and settled at her old family home, Celbridge Abbey.", "Their uneasy relationship continued for some years; then there appears to have been a confrontation, possibly involving Esther Johnson.", "Esther Vanhomrigh died in 1723 at the age of 35, having destroyed the will she had made in Swift's favour.", "Another lady with whom he had a close but less intense relationship was Anne Long, a toast of the Kit-Cat Club.====Final years ====Jonathan Swift (shown without wig) by Rupert Barber, 1745, National Portrait Gallery, LondonBefore the fall of the Tory government, Swift hoped that his services would be rewarded with a church appointment in England.", "However, Queen Anne appeared to have taken a dislike to Swift and thwarted these efforts.", "Her dislike has been attributed to ''A Tale of a Tub'', which she thought blasphemous, compounded by ''The Windsor Prophecy'', where Swift, with a surprising lack of tact, advised the Queen on which of her bedchamber ladies she should and should not trust.", "The best position his friends could secure for him was the Deanery of St Patrick's; this was not in the Queen's gift, and Anne, who could be a bitter enemy, made it clear that Swift would not have received the preferment if she could have prevented it.", "With the return of the Whigs, Swift's best move was to leave England and he returned to Ireland in disappointment, a virtual exile, to live \"like a rat in a hole\".Llist of deans of Saint Patrick's Cathedral, including Jonathan SwiftOnce in Ireland, however, Swift began to turn his pamphleteering skills in support of Irish causes, producing some of his most memorable works: ''Proposal for Universal Use of Irish Manufacture'' (1720), ''Drapier's Letters'' (1724), and ''A Modest Proposal'' (1729), earning him the status of an Irish patriot.", "This new role was unwelcome to the Government, which made clumsy attempts to silence him.", "His printer, Edward Waters, was convicted of seditious libel in 1720, but four years later a grand jury refused to find that the ''Drapier's Letters'' (which, though written under a pseudonym, were universally known to be Swift's work) were seditious.", "Swift responded with an attack on the Irish judiciary almost unparalleled in its ferocity, his principal target being the \"vile and profligate villain\" William Whitshed, Lord Chief Justice of Ireland.Also during these years, he began writing his masterpiece, ''Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, in Four Parts, by Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships'', better known as ''Gulliver's Travels''.", "Much of the material reflects his political experiences of the preceding decade.", "For instance, the episode in which the giant Gulliver puts out the Lilliputian palace fire by urinating on it can be seen as a metaphor for the Tories' illegal peace treaty; having done a good thing in an unfortunate manner.", "In 1726 he paid a long-deferred visit to London, taking with him the manuscript of ''Gulliver's Travels''.", "During his visit, he stayed with his old friends Alexander Pope, John Arbuthnot and John Gay, who helped him arrange for the anonymous publication of his book.", "First published in November 1726, it was an immediate hit, with a total of three printings that year and another in early 1727.French, German, and Dutch translations appeared in 1727, and pirated copies were printed in Ireland.Swift returned to England one more time in 1727, and stayed once again with Alexander Pope.", "The visit was cut short when Swift received word that Esther Johnson was dying, and rushed back home to be with her.", "On 28 January 1728, Johnson died; Swift had prayed at her bedside, even composing prayers for her comfort.", "Swift could not bear to be present at the end, but on the night of her death he began to write his ''The Death of Mrs Johnson''.", "He was too ill to attend the funeral at St Patrick's.", "Many years later, a lock of hair, assumed to be Johnson's, was found in his desk, wrapped in a paper bearing the words, \"Only a woman's hair\".===== Death =====Bust in St Patrick's CathedralDeath became a frequent feature of Swift's life from this point.", "In 1731 he wrote ''Verses on the Death of Dr.", "Swift'', his own obituary, published in 1739.In 1732, his good friend and collaborator John Gay died.", "In 1735, John Arbuthnot, another friend from his days in London, died.", "In 1738 Swift began to show signs of illness, and in 1742 he may have suffered a stroke, losing the ability to speak and realising his worst fears of becoming mentally disabled.", "(\"I shall be like that tree\", he once said, \"I shall die at the top.\")", "He became increasingly quarrelsome, and long-standing friendships, like that with Thomas Sheridan, ended without sufficient cause.", "To protect him from unscrupulous hangers-on, who had begun to prey on the great man, his closest companions had him declared of \"unsound mind and memory\".", "However, it was long believed by many that Swift was actually insane at this point.", "In his book ''Literature and Western Man'', author J.", "B. Priestley even cites the final chapters of ''Gulliver's Travels'' as proof of Swift's approaching \"insanity\".", "Bewley attributes his decline to 'terminal dementia'.In part VIII of his series, ''The Story of Civilization'', Will Durant describes the final years of Swift's life as such:\"Definite symptoms of madness appeared in 1738.In 1741, guardians were appointed to take care of his affairs and watch lest in his outbursts of violence he should do himself harm.", "In 1742, he suffered great pain from the inflammation of his left eye, which swelled to the size of an egg; five attendants had to restrain him from tearing out his eye.", "He went a whole year without uttering a word.", "\"In 1744, Alexander Pope died.", "Then on 19 October 1745, Swift, at nearly 78, died.", "After being laid out in public view for the people of Dublin to pay their last respects, he was buried in his own cathedral by Esther Johnson's side, in accordance with his wishes.", "The bulk of his fortune (£12,000) was left to found a hospital for the mentally ill, originally known as St Patrick's Hospital for Imbeciles, which opened in 1757, and which still exists as a psychiatric hospital.Epitaph in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin near his burial site:''(Text extracted from the introduction to ''The Journal to Stella'' by George A. Aitken and from other sources).", "''Jonathan Swift wrote his own epitaph:''Hic'' depositum est CorpusIONATHAN SWIFT S.T.D.Hujus Ecclesiæ Cathedralis Decani,''Ubi'' sæva IndignatioUlteriusCor lacerare nequit.Abi ViatorEt imitare, si poteris,Strenuum pro viriliLibertatis Vindicatorem.Obiit 19º Die Mensis OctobrisA.D.", "1745 Anno Ætatis 78º.", "''Here'' is laid the Bodyof Jonathan Swift, Doctor of Sacred Theology,Dean of this Cathedral Church,''where'' fierce Indignationcan no longerinjure the Heart.Go forth, Voyager,and copy, if you can,this vigorous (to the best of his ability)Champion of Liberty.He died on the 19th Day of the Month of October,A.D.", "1745, in the 78th Year of his Age.W.", "B. Yeats poetically translated it from the Latin as:: Swift has sailed into his rest;: Savage indignation there: Cannot lacerate his breast.", ": Imitate him if you dare,: World-besotted traveller; he: Served human liberty.====Swift, Stella and Vanessa – an alternative view====British politician Michael Foot was a great admirer of Swift and wrote about him extensively.", "In ''Debts of Honour'' he cites with approbation a theory propounded by Denis Johnston that offers an explanation of Swift's behavior towards Stella and Vanessa.", "Pointing to contradictions in the received information about Swift's origins and parentage, Johnston postulates that Swift's real father was Sir William Temple's father, Sir John Temple who was Master of the Rolls in Dublin at the time.", "It is widely thought that Stella was Sir William Temple's illegitimate daughter.", "So Swift was Sir William's brother and Stella's uncle.", "Marriage or close relations between Swift and Stella would therefore have been incest, an unthinkable prospect.It follows that Swift could not have married Vanessa either without Stella appearing to be a cast-off mistress, which he would not contemplate.", "Johnston's theory is expounded fully in his book ''In Search of Swift''.", "He is also cited in the ''Dictionary of Irish Biography'' and the theory is presented without attribution in the ''Concise Cambridge History of English Literature''." ], [ "Works", "Swift was a prolific writer.", "The collection of his prose works (Herbert Davis, ed.", "Basil Blackwell, 1965–) comprises fourteen volumes.", "A 1983 edition of his complete poetry (Pat Rodges, ed.", "Penguin, 1983) is 953 pages long.", "One edition of his correspondence (David Woolley, ed.", "P. Lang, 1999) fills three volumes.===Major prose works===Jonathan Swift at the Deanery of St Patrick's, illus.", "from 1905 Temple Scott edition of ''Works''Swift's first major prose work, ''A Tale of a Tub'', demonstrates many of the themes and stylistic techniques he would employ in his later work.", "It is at once wildly playful and funny while being pointed and harshly critical of its targets.", "In its main thread, the ''Tale'' recounts the exploits of three sons, representing the main threads of Christianity, who receive a bequest from their father of a coat each, with the added instructions to make no alterations whatsoever.", "However, the sons soon find that their coats have fallen out of current fashion, and begin to look for loopholes in their father's will that will let them make the needed alterations.", "As each finds his own means of getting around their father's admonition, they struggle with each other for power and dominance.", "Inserted into this story, in alternating chapters, the narrator includes a series of whimsical \"digressions\" on various subjects.In 1690, Sir William Temple, Swift's patron, published ''An Essay upon Ancient and Modern Learning'' a defence of classical writing (see Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns), holding up the ''Epistles of Phalaris'' as an example.", "William Wotton responded to Temple with ''Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning'' (1694), showing that the ''Epistles'' were a later forgery.", "A response by the supporters of the Ancients was then made by Charles Boyle (later the 4th Earl of Orrery and father of Swift's first biographer).", "A further retort on the Modern side came from Richard Bentley, one of the pre-eminent scholars of the day, in his essay ''Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris'' (1699).", "The final words on the topic belong to Swift in his ''Battle of the Books'' (1697, published 1704) in which he makes a humorous defence on behalf of Temple and the cause of the Ancients.Horatian motto reads, , \"I have completed a monument more lasting than brass.\"", "The 'brass' is a pun, for William Wood's halfpennies (alloyed with brass) lie scattered at his feet.", "Cherubim award Swift a poet's laurel.In 1708, a cobbler named John Partridge published a popular almanac of astrological predictions.", "Because Partridge falsely determined the deaths of several church officials, Swift attacked Partridge in ''Predictions for the Ensuing Year'' by Isaac Bickerstaff, a parody predicting that Partridge would die on 29 March.", "Swift followed up with a pamphlet issued on 30 March claiming that Partridge had in fact died, which was widely believed despite Partridge's statements to the contrary.", "According to other sources, Richard Steele used the persona of Isaac Bickerstaff, and was the one who wrote about the \"death\" of John Partridge and published it in ''The Spectator'', not Jonathan Swift.The ''Drapier's Letters'' (1724) was a series of pamphlets against the monopoly granted by the English government to William Wood to mint copper coinage for Ireland.", "It was widely believed that Wood would need to flood Ireland with debased coinage in order to make a profit.", "In these \"letters\" Swift posed as a shopkeeper—a draper—to criticise the plan.", "Swift's writing was so effective in undermining opinion in the project that a reward was offered by the government to anyone disclosing the true identity of the author.", "Though hardly a secret (on returning to Dublin after one of his trips to England, Swift was greeted with a banner, \"Welcome Home, Drapier\") no one turned Swift in, although there was an unsuccessful attempt to prosecute the publisher John Harding.", "Thanks to the general outcry against the coinage, Wood's patent was rescinded in September 1725 and the coins were kept out of circulation.", "In \"Verses on the Death of Dr.", "Swift\" (1739) Swift recalled this as one of his best achievements.", "''Gulliver's Travels'', a large portion of which Swift wrote at Woodbrook House in County Laois, was published in 1726.It is regarded as his masterpiece.", "As with his other writings, the ''Travels'' was published under a pseudonym, the fictional Lemuel Gulliver, a ship's surgeon and later a sea captain.", "Some of the correspondence between printer Benj.", "Motte and Gulliver's also-fictional cousin negotiating the book's publication has survived.", "Though it has often been mistakenly thought of and published in bowdlerised form as a children's book, it is a great and sophisticated satire of human nature based on Swift's experience of his times.", "''Gulliver's Travels'' is an anatomy of human nature, a sardonic looking-glass, often criticised for its apparent misanthropy.", "It asks its readers to refute it, to deny that it has adequately characterised human nature and society.", "Each of the four books—recounting four voyages to mostly fictional exotic lands—has a different theme, but all are attempts to deflate human pride.", "Critics hail the work as a satiric reflection on the shortcomings of Enlightenment thought.In 1729, Swift's ''A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland Being a Burden on Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Publick'' was published in Dublin by Sarah Harding.", "It is a satire in which the narrator, with intentionally grotesque arguments, recommends that Ireland's poor escape their poverty by selling their children as food to the rich: \"I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food ...\" Following the satirical form, he introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by deriding them:Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients ... taxing our absentees ... using nothing except what is of our own growth and manufacture ... rejecting ... foreign luxury ... introducing a vein of parsimony, prudence and temperance ... learning to love our country ... quitting our animosities and factions ... teaching landlords to have at least one degree of mercy towards their tenants. ...", "Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of these and the like expedients, till he hath at least some glympse of hope, that there will ever be some hearty and sincere attempt to put them into practice.===Essays, tracts, pamphlets, periodicals===* \"A Meditation upon a Broom-stick\" (1703–10)* \"A Tritical Essay upon the Faculties of the Mind\" (1707–11)* The Bickerstaff-Partridge Papers (1708–09)* \"An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity\" (1708–11): Full text* ''The Intelligencer'' (with Thomas Sheridan (1719–1788)): Text: Project Gutenberg* ''The Examiner'' (1710): Texts: Project Gutenberg* \"A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue\" (1712): Full texts: Jack Lynch, U of Virginia* \"On the Conduct of the Allies\" (1711)* \"Hints Toward an Essay on Conversation\" (1713): Full text: Bartleby.com* \"The Publick Spirit of the Whigs, set forth in their generous encouragement of the author of the crisis\" (1714)* \"A Letter to a Young Gentleman, Lately Entered into Holy Orders\" (1720)* \"A Letter of Advice to a Young Poet\" (1721): Full text: Bartleby.com* ''Drapier's Letters'' (1724, 1725): Full text: Project Gutenberg* \"Bon Mots de Stella\" (1726): a curiously irrelevant appendix to \"Gulliver's Travels\"* \"A Modest Proposal\", perhaps the most notable satire in English, suggesting that the Irish should engage in cannibalism.", "(Written in 1729)* \"An Essay on the Fates of Clergymen\"* \"A Treatise on Good Manners and Good Breeding\": Full text: Bartleby.com* \"A modest address to the wicked authors of the present age.", "Particularly the authors of Christianity not founded on argument; and of The resurrection of Jesus considered\" (1743–45?", ")===Poems===An 1850 illustration of Swift* \"Ode to the Athenian Society\", Swift's first publication, printed in The Athenian Mercury in the supplement of Feb 14, 1691.", "* Poems of Jonathan Swift, D.D.", "Texts at Project Gutenberg: Volume One, Volume Two* \"Baucis and Philemon\" (1706–09): Full text: Munseys* \"A Description of the Morning\" (1709): Full annotated text: U of Toronto; Another text: U of Virginia* \"A Description of a City Shower\" (1710): Full text: U of Virginia* \"Cadenus and Vanessa\" (1713): Full text: Munseys* \"Phillis, or, the Progress of Love\" (1719): Full text: theotherpages.org* Stella's birthday poems: 1719.Full annotated text: U of Toronto 1720.Full text: U of Virginia** 1727.Full text: U of Toronto* \"The Progress of Beauty\" (1719–20): Full text: OurCivilisation.com* \"The Progress of Poetry\" (1720): Full text: theotherpages.org* \"A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General\" (1722): Full text: U of Toronto* \"To Quilca, a Country House not in Good Repair\" (1725): Full text: U of Toronto* \"Advice to the Grub Street Verse-writers\" (1726): Full text: U of Toronto* \"The Furniture of a Woman's Mind\" (1727)* \"On a Very Old Glass\" (1728): Full text: Gosford.co.uk* \"A Pastoral Dialogue\" (1729): Full text: Gosford.co.uk* \"The Grand Question debated Whether Hamilton's Bawn should be turned into a Barrack or a Malt House\" (1729): Full text: Gosford.co.uk* \"On Stephen Duck, the Thresher and Favourite Poet\" (1730): Full text: U of Toronto* \"Death and Daphne\" (1730): Full text: OurCivilisation.com* \"The Place of the Damn'd\" (1731): * \"A Beautiful Young Nymph Going to Bed\" (1731): Full annotated text: Jack Lynch; Another text: U of Virginia* \"Strephon and Chloe\" (1731): Full annotated text: Jack Lynch; Another text: U of Virginia * \"Helter Skelter\" (1731): Full text: OurCivilisation.com* \"Cassinus and Peter: A Tragical Elegy\" (1731): Full annotated text: Jack Lynch* \"The Day of Judgment\" (1731): Full text* \"Verses on the Death of Dr.", "Swift, D.S.P.D.\"", "(1731–32): Full annotated texts: Jack Lynch, U of Toronto; Non-annotated text:: U of Virginia* \"An Epistle to a Lady\" (1732): Full text: OurCivilisation.com* \"The Beasts' Confession to the Priest\" (1732): Full annotated text: U of Toronto* \"The Lady's Dressing Room\" (1732): Full annotated text: Jack Lynch* \"On Poetry: A Rhapsody\" (1733)* \"The Puppet Show\"* \"The Logicians Refuted\"===Correspondence, personal writings===* \"When I Come to Be Old\" – Swift's resolutions.", "(1699)* ''A Journal to Stella'' (1710–13): Full text (presented as daily entries): The Journal to Stella; Extracts: OurCivilisation.com;* Letters: Selected Letters To Oxford and Pope: OurCivilisation.com* ''The Correspondence of Jonathan Swift, D.D''.", "Edited by David Woolley.", "In four volumes, plus index volume.", "Frankfurt am Main; New York : P. Lang, .===Sermons, prayers===* Three Sermons and Three Prayers.", "Full text: U of Adelaide, Project Gutenberg* Three Sermons: I. on mutual subjection.", "II.", "on conscience.", "III.", "on the trinity.", "Text: Project Gutenberg* Writings on Religion and the Church.", "Text at Project Gutenberg: Volume One, Volume Two* \"The First He Wrote Oct. 17, 1727.\"", "Full text: Worldwideschool.org* \"The Second Prayer Was Written Nov. 6, 1727.\"", "Full text: Worldwideschool.org===Miscellany===* ''Directions to Servants'' (1731): Full text: Jonathon Swift Archive* ''A Complete Collection of Genteel and Ingenious Conversation'' (1738)* \"Thoughts on Various Subjects.\"", "Full text: U of Adelaide * Historical Writings: Project Gutenberg* Swift quotes at Bartleby: Bartleby.com – 59 quotations, with notes''The Benefit of Farting Explained'', published under the pseudonym Don Fartinando Puff-Indorst, Professor of Bumbast in the University of Crackow." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Literary ===Swift's death mask John Ruskin named him as one of the three people in history who were the most influential for him.", "George Orwell named him as one of the writers he most admired, despite disagreeing with him on almost every moral and political issue.", "Modernist poet Edith Sitwell wrote a fictional biography of Swift, titled ''I Live Under a Black Sun'' and published in 1937.A.", "L. Rowse wrote a biography of Swift, essays on his works, and edited the Pan Books edition of ''Gulliver's Travels''.Literary scholar Frank Stier Goodwin wrote a full biography of Swift: ''Jonathan Swift – Giant in Chains'', issued by Liveright Publishing Corporation, New York (1940, 450pp, with Bibliography).In 1982, Soviet playwright Grigory Gorin wrote a theatrical fantasy called ''The House That Swift Built'' based on the last years of Jonathan Swift's life and episodes of his works.", "The play was filmed by director Mark Zakharov in the 1984 two-part television movie of the same name.", "Jake Arnott features him in his 2017 novel ''The Fatal Tree''.", "A 2017 analysis of library holdings data revealed that Swift is the most popular Irish author, and that ''Gulliver’s Travels'' is the most widely held work of Irish literature in libraries globally.The first woman to write a biography of Swift was Sophie Shilleto Smith, who published ''Dean Swift'' in 1910.=== Eponymous places ===Swift crater, a crater on Mars's moon Deimos, is named after Jonathan Swift, who predicted the existence of the moons of Mars.In honour of Swift's long-time residence in Trim, there are several monuments in the town marking his legacy.", "Most notable is Swift's Street, named after him.", "Trim also holds a recurring festival in honour of Swift, called the Trim Swift Festival.", "In 2020, festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and has not been held since." ], [ "See also", " ''Poor Richard's Almanack''* Sweetness and light* Founding Fathers of India" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* .", "Includes almost 100 illustrations.", "* * * .", " ** * * * Noted biographer succinctly critiques (pp.", "v–vii) biographical works by Lord Orrery, Patrick Delany, Deane Swift, John Hawkesworth, Samuel Johnson, Thomas Sheridan, Walter Scott, William Monck Mason, John Forester, John Barrett, and W.R.", "Wilde.", "* * * Samuel Johnson's \"Life of Swift\": JaffeBros .", "From his ''Lives of the Poets''.", "* William Makepeace Thackeray's influential vitriolic biography: JaffeBros .", "From his ''English Humourists of The Eighteenth Century''.", "* Sir Walter Scott Memoirs of Jonathan Swift, D.D., Dean of St. Patrick's, Dublin .", "Paris: A. and W. Galignani, 1826.", "" ], [ "External links", " Jonathan Swift at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)* * BBC audio file \"Swift's ''A modest Proposal''\".", "BBC discussion.", "''In our time''.", "* * Jonathan Swift at the National Portrait Gallery, London* Swift, Jonathan (1667–1745) Dean of St Patrick's Dublin Satirist at the National Register of Archives'''Online works'''* * * * * * Works by Jonathan Swift at The Online Books Page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jello Biafra" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Eric Reed Boucher''' (born June 17, 1958), known professionally as '''Jello Biafra''', is an American singer, spoken word artist and political activist.", "He is the former lead singer and songwriter for the San Francisco punk rock band Dead Kennedys.Initially active from 1979 to 1986, Dead Kennedys were known for rapid-fire music topped with Biafra's sardonic lyrics and biting social commentary, delivered in his \"unique quiver of a voice\".", "When the band broke up in 1986, he took over the influential independent record label Alternative Tentacles, which he had founded in 1979 with Dead Kennedys bandmate East Bay Ray.", "In a 2000 lawsuit, upheld on appeal in 2003 by the California Supreme Court, Biafra was found liable for breach of contract, fraud, and malice in withholding a decade's worth of royalties from his former bandmates and ordered to pay over $200,000 in compensation and punitive damages; the band subsequently reformed without Biafra.", "Although now focused primarily on spoken word performances, Biafra has continued as a musician in numerous collaborations.", "He has also occasionally appeared in cameo roles in films.Politically, Biafra is a member of the Green Party of the United States and supports various political causes.", "He ran for the party's presidential nomination in the 2000 presidential election, finishing a distant second to Ralph Nader.", "In 1979 he ran for mayor of San Francisco, California.", "He is a supporter of a free society and utilizes shock value and advocates direct action and pranksterism in the name of political causes.", "Biafra uses absurdist media tactics, in the leftist tradition of the Yippies, to highlight issues of civil rights and social justice." ], [ "Early life", "Eric Reed Boucher was born in Boulder, Colorado, the son of Virginia (née Parker), a librarian, and Stanley Wayne Boucher, a psychiatric social worker and poet.", "His sister, Julie J. Boucher, was Associate Director of the Library Research Service at the Colorado State Library; she died in a mountain-climbing accident on October 12, 1996.He has a Jewish great-grandparent, but was unaware of this until he was in his mid-40s.", "Due to his secular upbringing and lack of knowledge of his distant Jewish ancestry until adulthood, he does not consider himself Jewish.As a child, Boucher developed an interest in international politics that was encouraged by his parents.", "An avid news watcher, one of his earliest memories was of the John F. Kennedy assassination.", "Boucher became a fan of rock music after first hearing it in 1965 when his parents accidentally tuned in to a rock radio station.", "As a teenager, his high school guidance counselor advised him to spend his adolescence preparing to become a dental hygienist." ], [ "Musical career", "===Colorado bands===In 1977, he worked as a roadie for a local band called The Ravers (who later changed their name to The Nails), helping set up their equipment at shows, including as an opener for the Ramones.", "The job ended shortly after the Ramones show, when The Ravers were offered a record contract and left Colorado.", "Boucher credits seeing Joey Ramone as inspiration to become a singer, and the Ramones lyrics for inspiring the use of humor in his own songs.Shortly after graduating high school, he formed a band called The Healers, with John Greenway and an unknown third member.", "Boucher has described The Healers' music as \"banging on instruments we didn't know how to play when our parents weren't home\".", "While never playing a show, the band made recordings, including an early version of \"California Über Alles\", but did not want any of it to be released to the public.", "Some of their music was made available on a 2009 compilation of late 1970s Colorado punk bands titled ''Rocky Mountain Low'', including the original version of \"California Über Alles\", which Maximum Rocknroll described as experimental improv in their review.Boucher left Boulder to attend the University of California, Santa Cruz but dropped out after the first quarter of the school year.===Dead Kennedys===Biafra performing with the Dead KennedysIn June 1978, Boucher responded to an advertisement placed in a store by guitarist East Bay Ray, stating \"guitarist wants to form punk band\", and together they formed the Dead Kennedys.", "He began performing with the band under the stage name Occupant, but soon began to use the stage name Jello Biafra, a combination of the brand name Jell-O and the short-lived African state of Biafra.Biafra initially attempted to compose music on guitar, but his lack of experience on the instrument and his own admission of being \"a fumbler with my hands\" led Dead Kennedys bassist Klaus Flouride to suggest that Biafra simply sing the parts he envisioned to the band.", "Biafra sang his riffs and melodies into a tape recorder, which he brought to the band's rehearsal and/or recording sessions.", "This later became a problem when the other members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra over royalties and publishing rights.", "By all accounts, including his own, Biafra is not a conventionally skilled musician, though he and his collaborators (Joey Shithead of D.O.A.", "in particular) attest that he is a skilled composer and his work, particularly with the Dead Kennedys, is highly respected by punk-oriented critics and fans.The first single by Dead Kennedys was their version of \"California über alles\".", "The song, which spoofed California governor Jerry Brown, was the first of many political songs by the group and Biafra.", "Its popularity resulted in being covered by other musicians, such as The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy (who rewrote the lyrics to parody Pete Wilson), John Linnell of They Might Be Giants and Six Feet Under on their ''Graveyard Classics'' album of cover versions.", "Not long after, the Dead Kennedys had a second and bigger hit with \"Holiday in Cambodia\" from their debut album ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables''.", "''AllMusic'' cites this song as \"possibly the most successful single of the American hardcore scene\" and Biafra counts it as his personal favorite Dead Kennedy's song.The Dead Kennedys received some controversy in the spring of 1981 over the single \"Too Drunk to Fuck\".", "The song became a hit in Britain, and the BBC feared that it would manage to be a big enough hit to appear among the top 30 songs on the national charts, requiring a mention on ''Top of the Pops''.", "However, the single peaked at number 31 in the charts.The EP ''In God We Trust, Inc.'' contained the song \"Nazi Punks Fuck Off!\"", "as well as \"We've Got A Bigger Problem Now\", a rewritten version of \"California über alles\" about Ronald Reagan.", "Punk musician and scholar Vic Bondi considers the latter song to be the song that \"defined the lyrical agenda of much of hardcore music, and represented its break with punk\".", "The band's most controversial album, ''Frankenchrist'', brought with it the song \"MTV Get Off the Air,\" which accused MTV of promoting poor quality music and sedating the public.", "The album also contained a controversial poster by Swiss surrealist artist H. R. Giger entitled ''Penis Landscape''.The Dead Kennedys toured widely during their career, starting in the late 1970s.", "They began playing at San Francisco's Mabuhay Gardens (their home base) and other Bay Area venues, later branching out to shows in southern Californian clubs (most notably the Whisky a Go Go), but eventually they moved to major clubs across the country, including CBGB in New York.", "Later, they played to larger audiences such as at the 1980 Bay Area Music Awards (where they played the notorious \"Pull My Strings\" for the only time), and headlined the 1983 Rock Against Reagan festival.On May 7, 1994, punk rock fans who believed Biafra was a \"sell out\" attacked him at the 924 Gilman Street club in Berkeley, California.", "Biafra claims that he was attacked by a man nicknamed Cretin, who crashed into him while moshing.", "The crash injured Biafra's leg, causing an argument between the two men.", "During the argument, Cretin pushed Biafra to the floor and five or six friends of Cretin assaulted Biafra while he was down, yelling \"Sellout rock star, kick him\", and attempting to pull out his hair.", "Biafra was later hospitalized with serious injuries.", "The attack derailed Biafra's plans for both a Canadian spoken-word tour and an accompanying album, and the production of ''Pure Chewing Satisfaction'' was halted.", "However, Biafra returned to the Gilman club a few months after the incident to perform a spoken-word performance as an act of reconciliation with the club.Biafra has been a prominent figure in the Californian punk scene and was one of the third-generation members of the San Francisco punk community.", "Many later hardcore bands have cited the Dead Kennedys as a major influence.", "Hardcore punk author Steven Blush describes Biafra as hardcore's \"biggest star\" who was a \"powerful presence whose political insurgence and rabid fandom made him the father figure of a burgeoning subculture and an inspirational force who could also be a real prick ... Biafra was a visionary, incendiary performer.", "\"After the Dead Kennedys disbanded, Biafra's new songs were recorded with other bands, and he released only spoken word albums as solo projects.", "These collaborations had less popularity than Biafra's earlier work.", "However, his song \"That's Progress\", originally recorded with D.O.A.", "for the album ''Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors'', received considerable exposure when it appeared on the album ''Rock Against Bush, Vol.", "1''.====Obscenity prosecution====In April 1986, police officers raided Biafra's house in response to complaints by the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC).", "In June 1986, L.A. deputy city attorney Michael Guarino, working under City Attorney James Hahn, brought Biafra to trial in Los Angeles for distributing \"harmful material to minors\" in the Dead Kennedys album ''Frankenchrist''.", "However, the dispute was about neither the music nor the lyrics from the album, but rather the print of the H. R. Giger poster ''Landscape XX'' (''Penis Landscape'') included with the album.Music author Reebee Garofalo argued that Biafra and Alternative Tentacles may have been targeted because the label was a \"small, self-managed and self-supported company that could ill afford a protracted legal battle.\"", "Facing the possible sentence of a year in jail and a $2,000 fine, Biafra, Dirk Dirksen, and Suzanne Stefanac founded the No More Censorship Defense Fund, a benefit featuring several punk rock bands, to help pay for his legal fees, which neither he nor his record label could afford.", "The jury deadlocked 5 to 7 in favor of acquittal, prompting a mistrial; despite a motion to retry the case, the judge ordered all charges dropped.", "The Dead Kennedys disbanded during the trial, in December 1986, due to the mounting legal costs; in the wake of their disbandment, Biafra made a career of his spoken word performances.Biafra has a cameo role in the 1988 film ''Tapeheads''.", "He plays an FBI agent who arrests the two protagonists (played by Tim Robbins and John Cusack).", "While arresting them his character asks \"Remember what we did to Jello Biafra?\"", "lampooning the obscenity prosecution.On March 25, 2005, Biafra appeared on the U.S. radio program ''This American Life'', \"Episode 285: Know Your Enemy\", which featured a phone call between Jello Biafra and Michael Guarino, the prosecutor in the ''Frankenchrist'' trial.====Lawsuit and reunion activities====In October 1998, three former members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra for nonpayment of royalties.", "The other members of Dead Kennedys alleged that Biafra, in his capacity as the head of Alternative Tentacles records, discovered an accounting error amounting to some $75,000 in unpaid royalties over almost a decade.", "Rather than informing his bandmates of this mistake, the suit alleged, Biafra knowingly concealed the information until a whistleblower employee at the record label notified the band.According to Biafra, the suit resulted from his refusal to allow one of the band's most well-known singles, \"Holiday in Cambodia\", to be used in a commercial for Levi's Dockers; Biafra opposes Levi's because of his belief that they use unfair business practices and sweatshop labor.", "Biafra maintained that he had never denied them royalties and that he himself had not even received royalties for re-releases of their albums or \"posthumous\" live albums which had been licensed to other labels by the Decay Music partnership.", "Decay Music denied this charge and have posted what they say are his cashed royalty checks, written to his legal name of Eric Boucher.", "Biafra also complained about the songwriting credits in new reissues and archival live albums of songs, alleging that he was the sole composer of songs that were wrongly credited to the entire band.In May 2000, a jury found Biafra and Alternative Tentacles liable by not promptly informing his former bandmates of the accounting error and instead withholding the information during subsequent discussions and contractual negotiations.", "Biafra was ordered to pay $200,000, including $20,000 in punitive damages.", "After an appeal by Biafra's lawyers, in June 2003, the California Court of Appeals unanimously upheld all the conditions of the 2000 verdict against Biafra and Alternative Tentacles.", "Furthermore, the plaintiffs were awarded the rights to most of Dead Kennedys recorded works—which accounted for about half the sales for Alternative Tentacles.", "Now in control of the Dead Kennedys name, Biafra's former bandmates went on tour with a new lead vocalist.===Other bands===In the early 1980s, Biafra collaborated with musicians Christian Lunch and Adrian Borland (of The Sound) and Morgan Fisher (of Mott the Hoople) for the electropunk musical project The Witch Trials, releasing one self-titled EP in its lifetime.In 1988, Biafra, with Al Jourgensen and Paul Barker of the band Ministry, and Jeff Ward, formed Lard.", "The band became yet another side project for Ministry, with Biafra providing vocals and lyrics.", "According to a March 2009 interview with Jourgensen, he and Biafra are working on a new Lard album, which is being recorded in Jourgensen's El Paso studio.", "Jourgensen also claimed in 2021 that Biafra was in the works on a new Lard album.", "While working on the film ''Terminal City Ricochet'' in 1989, Biafra did a song for the film's soundtrack with D.O.A.. As a result, Biafra worked with D.O.A.", "on the album ''Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors''.", "Biafra also worked with Nomeansno on the soundtrack, which led to their collaboration on the album ''The Sky Is Falling and I Want My Mommy'' the following year.", "Biafra also provided lyrics for the song \"Biotech is Godzilla\" for Sepultura's 1993 album ''Chaos A.D.''.In 1999, Biafra and other members of the anti-globalization movement protested the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle.", "Along with other prominent West Coast musicians, he formed the short-lived band No WTO Combo to help promote the movement's cause.", "The band was originally scheduled to play during the protest, but the performance was canceled due to riots.", "The band performed a short set the following night at the Showbox in downtown Seattle (outside the designated area), along with the hip-hop group Spearhead.", "No WTO Combo later released a CD of recordings from the concert, entitled ''Live from the Battle in Seattle''.As of late 2005, Biafra was performing with the band The Melvins under the name \"Jello Biafra and the Melvins\", though fans sometimes refer to them as \"The Jelvins\".", "Together they have released two albums, and worked on material for a third collaborative release, much of which was premiered live at two concerts at the Great American Music Hall in San Francisco during an event called Biafra Five-O, commemorating Biafra's 50th birthday, the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Dead Kennedys, and the beginning of legalized same-sex marriage in California.", "Biafra was also working with a band known as Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, which included Ralph Spight of Victims Family on guitar and Billy Gould of Faith No More on bass.", "This group debuted during Biafra Five-O.In 2011, Biafra appeared in a singular concert event with an all-star cast of Southern musicians including members from Cowboy Mouth, Dash Rip Rock, Mojo Nixon, and Down entitled, \"Jello Biafra and the New Orleans Raunch & Soul All Stars\" who performed an array of classic Soul covers to a packed house at the 12-Bar in New Orleans, Louisiana.", "He would later reunite with many of the same musicians during the Carnival season 2014 to revisit many of these classics in Siberia, New Orleans.", "A live album from the 2011 performance, ''Walk on Jindal's Splinters'', and a companion single, ''Fannie May''/''Just a Little Bit'', were released in 2015.===Alternative Tentacles===In June 1979, Biafra co-founded the record label Alternative Tentacles, with which the Dead Kennedys released their first single, \"California über alles\".", "The label was created to allow the band to release albums without having to deal with pressure from major labels to change their music, although the major labels were not willing to sign the band due to their songs being deemed too controversial.", "After dealing with Cherry Red in the UK and IRS Records in the US for their first album ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables'', the band released all later albums, and later pressings of ''Fresh Fruit'' on Alternative Tentacles.", "The exception was live albums released after the band's break-up, which the other band members compiled from recordings in the band partnership's vaults without Biafra's input or endorsement.. Biafra has been the owner of the company since its founding, though he does not receive a salary for his position; Biafra has referred to his position in the company as \"absentee thoughtlord\".Biafra is an collector of unusual vinyl records of all kinds, from 1950s and 1960s ethno-pop recordings by the likes of Les Baxter and Esquivel to vanity pressings that have circulated regionally, to German crooner Heino (for whom he would later participate in the documentary ''Heino: Made In Germany''); he cites his always growing collection as one of his biggest musical influences.", "In 1993 he gave an interview to RE/Search Publications for their second ''Incredibly Strange Music'' book focusing primarily on these records, and later participated in a two-part episode of Fuse TV's program ''Crate Diggers'' on the same subject.", "His interest in such recordings, often categorized as outsider music, led to his discovery of the prolific (and schizophrenic) singer/songwriter/artist Wesley Willis, whom he signed to Alternative Tentacles in 1994, preceding Willis' major label deal with American Recordings.", "His collection grew so large that on October 1, 2005, Biafra donated a portion of his collection to an annual yard sale co-promoted by Alternative Tentacles and held at their warehouse in Emeryville, California.In 2006, along with Alternative Tentacles employee and The Frisk lead singer Jesse Luscious, Biafra began co-hosting ''The Alternative Tentacles Batcast'', a downloadable podcast hosted by alternativetentacles.com.", "The show primarily focuses on interviews with artists and bands that are currently signed to the Alternative Tentacles label, although there are also occasional episodes where Biafra devoted the show to answering fan questions." ], [ "Spoken word", "Biafra in an appearance in Aarau, SwitzerlandBiafra became a spoken word artist in January 1986 with a performance at University of California, Los Angeles.", "In his performance, he combined humor with his political beliefs, much in the same way that he did with the lyrics to his songs.", "Despite his continued spoken word performances, he did not begin recording spoken word albums until after the disbanding of the Dead Kennedys.His ninth spoken word album, ''In the Grip of Official Treason'', was released in October 2006.Biafra was also featured in the British band Pitchshifter's song ''As Seen on TV'' reciting the words of dystopian futuristic radio advertisements." ], [ "Politics", "Biafra has resisted identifying with any particular ideology, saying, \"I don't label myself strictly an anarchist or a socialist or let alone a libertarian or something like that,\" In a 2012 interview, Biafra said \"I'm very pro-tax as long as it goes for the right things.", "I don't mind paying more money as long as it's going to provide shelter for people sleeping in the street or getting the schools fixed back up, getting the infrastructure up to the standards of other countries, including a high-speed rail system.", "I'm totally down with that.\"", "Music critic Anthony Fantano credits Biafra as his \"political idol\".===Mayoral campaign===In the autumn of 1979, Biafra ran for mayor of San Francisco, using the Jell-O ad campaign catchphrase, \"There's always room for Jello\", as his campaign slogan.", "Having entered the race before creating a campaign platform, Biafra later wrote his platform on a napkin while attending a Pere Ubu concert where Dead Kennedys drummer Ted told Biafra, \"Biafra, you have such a big mouth that you should run for Mayor.\"", "As he campaigned, Biafra wore campaign T-shirts from his opponent Quentin Kopp's previous campaign and at one point vacuumed leaves off the front lawn of another opponent, Dianne Feinstein, to mock her publicity stunt of sweeping streets in downtown San Francisco for a few hours.", "He also made a whistlestop campaign tour along the BART line.", "Supporters committed equally odd actions; two well-known signs held by supporters said \"If he doesn't win I'll kill myself\" and \"What if he does win?", "\"At the time, in San Francisco, any individual could legally run for mayor if a petition was signed by 1500 people or if $1500 was paid.", "Biafra paid $900 and got signatures over time and eventually became a legal candidate, meaning he received statements put in voters' pamphlets and equal news coverage.His platform included unconventional points such as forcing businessmen to wear clown suits within city limits, erecting statues of Dan White, who assassinated Mayor George Moscone and City Supervisor Harvey Milk in 1978, around the city and allowing the parks department to sell eggs and tomatoes with which people could pelt the statues, hiring workers who had lost their jobs due to a tax initiative to panhandle in wealthy neighborhoods (including Feinstein's), and a citywide ban on cars.", "Biafra has expressed irritation that these parts of his platform attained such notoriety, preferring instead to be remembered for serious proposals such as legalizing squatting in vacant, tax-delinquent buildings and requiring police officers to run for election by the people of the neighborhoods they patrol.He finished fourth out of a field of ten, receiving 3.79 percent of the vote (6,591 votes); the election ended in a runoff that did not involve him (Feinstein was declared the winner).===Presidential campaign===Biafra discussing politics in 2006In 2000, the New York State Green Party drafted Biafra as a candidate for the Green Party presidential nomination, and a few supporters were elected to the party's nominating convention in Denver, Colorado.", "Biafra chose death row inmate Mumia Abu-Jamal as his running mate.", "The party overwhelmingly chose Ralph Nader as the presidential candidate with 295 of the 319 delegate votes.", "Biafra received 10 votes.Biafra, along with a camera crew (dubbed by Biafra as \"The Camcorder Truth Jihad\"), later reported for the Independent Media Center at the Republican and Democratic conventions.===Post-2000===After losing the 2000 nomination, Biafra became highly active in Nader's presidential campaign, as well as in 2004 and 2008.During the 2008 campaign Jello played at rallies and answered questions for journalists in support of Nader.", "When gay rights activists accused Nader of costing Al Gore the 2000 election, Biafra reminded them that Tipper Gore's Parents Music Resource Center wanted warning stickers on albums with content referencing homosexuality.After Barack Obama won the general election, Biafra wrote an open letter making suggestions on how to run his term as president.", "Biafra criticized Obama during his term, stating that \"Obama even won the award for best advertising campaign of 2008.\"", "Biafra dubbed Obama \"Barackstar O'Bummer\".", "Biafra refused to support Obama in 2012.Biafra has stated that he feels that Obama continued many of George W. Bush's policies, summarizing Obama's policies as containing \"worse and worse laws against human rights and more and more illegal unconstitutional spying.", "\"On September 18, 2015, it was announced that Biafra would be supporting Bernie Sanders in his campaign for the 2016 presidential election.", "He has strongly criticized the political position of Donald Trump, saying \"how can people be so fucking stupid\" on hearing the election result.", "He also criticized Trump's cabinet picks, saying of then-Secretary of Energy Rick Perry, \"The last person we want with their finger on the nuclear button is somebody connected to this extreme Christianist doomsday cult.", "\"On February 28, 2020, Jello announced that he would be supporting both Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders in the 2020 presidential election.", "\"I personally like Warren slightly better than Bernie because: 1) She’s done her homework.", "Bernie too, but not to quite the same depth or degree.", "2) Think about it — who really has a better chance of actually beating Trump, and helping flip Congress and state legislatures?", "It’s Elizabeth Warren, hands down.\"", "He went on to say that he considered Joe Biden and Mike Bloomberg \"almost as bad as Trump\".On April 12, 2020, Biafra expressed disappointment that Sanders had suspended his campaign for the 2020 Democratic nomination.=== Boycott of Israel ===In mid-2011 Jello Biafra and his band were scheduled to play at the Barby Club in Tel Aviv.", "They came under pressure by the pro-Palestinian Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign, and finally decided to cancel the concert – after a debate which according to Biafra \"deeply tore at the fabric of our band ...", "This whole controversy has been one of the most intense situations of my life – and I thrive on intense situations\".Biafra then decided to travel to Israel and the Palestinian Occupied Territories, at his own expense, and talk with Israeli and Palestinian activists as well as with fans disappointed at his cancellation.", "In the article stating his conclusions he wrote:\"I will not perform in Israel unless it is a pro-human rights, anti-occupation event, that does not violate the spirit of the boycott.", "Each musician, artist, etc.", "must decide this for themselves.", "I am staying away for now, but am also really creeped out by the attitudes of some of the hardliners and hope someday to find a way to contribute something positive here.", "I will not march or sign on with anyone who runs around calling people Zionazis and is more interested in making threats than making friends.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Biafra married Theresa Soder, a.k.a.", "Ninotchka, lead singer of San Francisco-area punk band the Situations, on October 31, 1981.The wedding was conducted by Flipper vocalist/bassist Bruce Loose, who became a Universal Life Church minister specifically to conduct the ceremony, which took place in a graveyard.", "The wedding reception, which members of Flipper, Black Flag, and D.O.A.", "attended, was held at director Joe Rees' Target Video studios.", "The marriage ended in 1986.Biafra generally does not discuss his private life.", "He lives in San Francisco, California." ], [ "Selected discography", "''For a more complete list, see the Jello Biafra discography.", "''===Dead Kennedys===* 1980 – ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables''* 1981 – ''In God We Trust, Inc.''* 1982 – ''Plastic Surgery Disasters''* 1985 – ''Frankenchrist''* 1986 – ''Bedtime for Democracy''* 1987 – ''Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death''===Spoken word===* 1987 – ''No More Cocoons''* 1989 – ''High Priest of Harmful Matter: Tales From the Trial''* 1991 – ''I Blow Minds for a Living''* 1994 – ''Beyond the Valley of the Gift Police''* 1998 – ''If Evolution Is Outlawed, Only Outlaws Will Evolve''* 2000 – ''Become the Media''* 2002 – ''The Big Ka-Boom, Pt.", "1''* 2002 – ''Machine Gun in the Clown's Hand''* 2006 – ''In the Grip of Official Treason''===Lard===* 1989 – ''The Power of Lard''* 1990 – ''The Last Temptation of Reid''* 1997 – ''Pure Chewing Satisfaction''* 2000 – ''70's Rock Must Die''===Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine===* 2009 – ''The Audacity of Hype''* 2011 – ''Enhanced Methods of Questioning''* 2012 – SHOCK-U-PY* 2013 – ''White People and the Damage Done''* 2020 – ''Tea Party Revenge Porn''===Collaborations===+Jello Biafra musical collaborations Year Album Artist 1980 ''The Witch Trials'' Jello Biafra with East Bay Ray, Adrian Borland, Morgan Fisher, Christian Lunch 1989 ''Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors'' Jello Biafra with D.O.A.", "''The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech... Just Watch What You Say!''", "Ice-T (Several samples from Biafra's ''No More Coccons'' album, appear on \"Shut Up, Be Happy\" and \"Freedom of Speech\".)", "1991 ''The Sky is Falling and I Want My Mommy'' Jello Biafra with Nomeansno ''Tumor Circus'' Tumor Circus was a collaboration between Jello Biafra and members of Steel Pole Bath Tub and Grong Grong.", "Dave Brockie and Michael Bishop of Gwar also provide backing vocals on one track.", "1993 ''Chaos A.D.'' Sepultura (Biafra appears on the track \"Biotech Is Godzilla\") 1994 ''Prairie Home Invasion'' Jello Biafra & Mojo Nixon 1995 ''Notes from Thee Underground'' Pigface (Biafra appears on the track \"Hag-Seed\") 1997 ''Ixnay on the Hombre'' The Offspring (Biafra speaks on the opening track \"Disclaimer\") 2000 ''Live from the Battle in Seattle'' The No WTO Combo ''Deviant'' Pitchshifter (Biafra is featured on \"As Seen On TV\") 2004 ''Never Breathe What You Can't See'' Jello Biafra with The Melvins 2005 ''Sieg Howdy!''", "2008 Jezebel/Speed Demon 7\" Jello Biafra with members of Zen Guerillas 2012 We Occupy Jello Biafra with D.O.A.", "2015 ''Walk on Jindal's Splinters'' Jello Biafra and the New Orleans Raunch & Soul Allstars 2016 In the Age of Corporate Personhood Disaster Strikes (Biafra is featured on Age of Corporate Personhood) 2019 bi/MENTAL Le Butcherettes (Biafra is featured on spider/WAVES) 2020 ''Carnivore'' Body Count (Biafra is featured on \"The Hate is Real\") 2022 Who Are We?", "Al-Qasar (Biafra is featured on \"Ya Malak\"" ], [ "Filmography", "* 1977 – ''This Is America, Pt.", "2''* 1981 – ''Urgh!", "A Music War''* 1983 – ''Anarchism in America''* 1986 – ''Lovedolls Superstar'', directed by Dave Markey* 1987 – ''Household Affairs'', directed & filmed by Allen Ginsberg* 1988 – ''Tapeheads'', directed by Bill Fishman* 1990 – ''Terminal City Ricochet''* 1991 – ''Highway 61'', directed by Bruce McDonald* 1994 – ''Skulhedface'', directed by Melanie Mandl* 1997 – ''Mary Jane's Not a Virgin Anymore'', directed by Sarah Jacobson* 1999 – ''The Widower''* 1999 – ''Virtue''* 2001 – ''Plaster Caster''* 2002 – ''Bikini Bandits'', directed by Steve and Peter Grasse* 2004 – ''Death and Texas''* 2004 – ''Punk: Attitude''* 2005 – ''We Jam Econo: The Story of the Minutemen''* 2006 – ''Punk's Not Dead'', directed by Susan Dynner* 2006 – ''Whose War?", "'', directed by Donald Farmer* 2007 – ''American Drug War: The Last White Hope'', directed by Kevin Booth* 2008 – ''Nerdcore Rising'', directed by Negin Farsad* 2009 – ''Open Your Mouth and Say Mr. Chi Pig'', directed by Sean Patrick Shaul* 2010 – ''A Man Within'', directed by Yony Leyser* 2011 – ''I Love You ...", "I Am the Porn Queen'', short film directed by Ani Kyd* 2014 – ''Heino: Made in Germany'', directed by Oliver Schwabe * 2014 – ''Portlandia'', season 4, episode 4 – \"Pull-Out King\"* 2018 – ''Bathtubs Over Broadway'', directed by Dava Whisenant (as himself)* 2018 – ''Boiled Angels: The Trial of Mike Diana'', directed by Frank Henenlotter (narrator)* 2019 – ''The Last Black Man in San Francisco'', directed by Joe Talbot" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jello Biafra on Alternative Tentacles*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Grierson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Grierson''' (26 April 1898 – 19 February 1972) was a pioneering Scottish documentary maker, often considered the father of British and Canadian documentary film.", "In 1926, Grierson coined the term \"documentary\" in a review of Robert J. Flaherty's ''Moana''." ], [ "Early life", "Grierson was born in the old schoolhouse in Deanston, near Doune, Scotland, to schoolmaster Robert Morrison Grierson from Boddam, near Peterhead, and Jane Anthony, a teacher from Ayrshire.", "His mother, a suffragette and ardent Labour Party activist, often took the chair at Tom Johnston's election meetings.The family moved to Cambusbarron, Stirling, in 1900, when the children were still young, after Grierson's father was appointed headmaster of Cambusbarron school.", "When the family moved, John had three elder sisters, Agnes, Janet, and Margaret, and a younger brother, Anthony.", "John and Anthony were enrolled at Cambusbarron school in November 1903.His sister Margaret died in 1906; however, the family continued to grow as John gained three younger sisters, Dorothy, Ruby, and finally Marion in 1907.Both parents steeped their son in liberal politics, humanistic ideals, and Calvinist moral and religious philosophies, particularly that education was essential to individual freedom and that hard and meaningful work was the way to prove oneself worthy in the sight of God.", "John was enrolled in the High School at Stirling in September 1908, and he played football and rugby for the school.=== World War I ===In July 1915, Grierson left school with an overall subject mark of 82%; John had sat the bursary examination at Gilmorehill the month before, as his parents wanted him to follow his elder sisters, Janet and Agnes, in going to the University of Glasgow.", "The results for the bursary examination were not posted until October 1915; Grierson applied to work at the munitions at Alexandria; the munitions building had been the original home of the Argyll Motor Company which had earlier in the twentieth century built the first complete motor car in Scotland.Grierson was the second name on the bursary list and received the John Clark bursary, which was tenable for four years.", "Grierson entered the University of Glasgow in 1916; however, he was unhappy that his efforts to help in World War I were only through his work at the munitions.", "Grierson wanted to join the navy; his family on his father's side had long been lighthouse keepers, and John had many memories of visiting lighthouses and being beside the sea.", "He went to the Crystal Palace in London to train with the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve.", "In his recruitment letter he had added a year to his age so that he could attend.On 7 January 1916, Grierson was sent to the wireless telegraphy station at Aultbea, Cromarty, as an ordinary telegraphist but was promoted to telegraphist on 2 June 1916.On 23 January 1917, he became a telegraphist on the minesweeper H.M.S ''Surf'' and served there until 13 October 1917.The next day he joined H.M.S ''Rightwhale'', where he was promoted to leading telegraphist on 2 June 1918 and remained on the vessel until he was demobilised with a British War Medal and the Victory Medal.=== University of Glasgow ===Grierson returned to university in 1919; he joined the Fabian Society in 1919 and dissolved it in 1921.The New University Labour Club was initiated by John as well as the Critic's Club; he also had poetry published in the Glasgow University magazine from November 1920 until February 1923.Grierson received the Buchan Prize in the Ordinary Class of English Language in the academic year of 1919–20, he also received the prize and first-class certificate in the academic year of 1920–21 in the Ordinary Class of Moral Philosophy and graduated with a Master of Arts in English and moral philosophy in 1923.In 1923, Grierson received a Rockefeller Research Fellowship to study in the United States at the University of Chicago, and later at Columbia and the University of Wisconsin–Madison.", "His research focus was the psychology of propaganda—the impact of the press, film, and other mass media on forming public opinion.", "Grierson was particularly interested in the popular appeal and influence of the \"yellow\" (tabloid) press, and the influence and role of these journals on the education of new American citizens from abroad." ], [ "Social critic", "In his review of Robert Flaherty's film ''Moana'' (1926) in the ''New York Sun'' (8 February 1926), Grierson wrote that it had 'documentary' value.In his essay \"First Principles of Documentary\" (1932), Grierson argued that the principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the \"original\" actor and \"original\" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials \"thus taken from the raw\" can be more real than the acted article.", "In this regard, Grierson's views align with the Soviet filmmaker Dziga Vertov's contempt for dramatic fiction as \"bourgeois excess\", though with considerably more subtlety.", "Grierson's definition of documentary as \"creative treatment of actuality\" has gained some acceptance, though it presents philosophical questions about documentaries containing stagings and reenactments.Like many social critics of the time, Grierson was profoundly concerned about what he perceived to be clear threats to democracy.", "In the US, he encountered a marked tendency toward political reaction, anti-democratic sentiments, and political apathy.", "He read and agreed with the journalist and political philosopher Walter Lippmann's book ''Public Opinion'' which blamed the erosion of democracy in part on the fact that the political and social complexities of contemporary society made it difficult if not impossible for the public to comprehend and respond to issues vital to the maintenance of democratic society.In Grierson's view, a way to counter these problems was to involve citizens in their government with the kind of engaging excitement generated by the popular press, which simplified and dramatized public affairs.", "It was during this time that Grierson developed a conviction that motion pictures could play a central role in promoting this process.", "(It has been suggested that some of Grierson's notions regarding the social and political uses of film were influenced by reading Lenin's writing about film as education and propaganda.", ")Grierson's emerging view of film was as a form of social and political communication—a mechanism for social reform, education, and perhaps spiritual uplift.", "His view of Hollywood movie-making was considerably less sanguine::\"In an age when the faiths, the loyalties, and the purposes have been more than usually undermined, mental fatigue--or is it spiritual fatigue?--represents a large factor in everyday experience.", "Our cinema magnate does no more than exploit the occasion.", "He also, more or less frankly, is a dope pedlar.\"" ], [ "Film critic", "Grierson's emerging and outspoken film philosophies caught the attention of New York film critics at the time.", "He was asked to write criticism for the ''New York Sun''.", "At the ''Sun'', Grierson wrote articles on film aesthetics and audience reception, and developed broad contacts in the film world.", "According to popular myth, in the course of this writing stint, Grierson coined the term \"documentary\" in writing about Robert J. Flaherty's film ''Moana'' (1926): \"Of course ''Moana'', being a visual account of events in the daily life of a Polynesian youth and his family, has documentary value.", "\"During this time, Grierson was also involved in scrutinizing the film industries of other countries.", "He may have been involved in arranging to bring Sergei Eisenstein's groundbreaking film ''The Battleship Potemkin'' (1925) to US audiences for the first time.", "Eisenstein's editing techniques and film theories, particularly the use of montage, would have a significant influence on Grierson's own work." ], [ "Filmmaker", "Grierson returned to Great Britain in 1927 armed with the sense that film could be enlisted to deal with the problems of the Great Depression, and to build national morale and national consensus.", "Filmmaking for Grierson was an exalted calling; the Filmmaker a patriot.", "In all of this, there was more than a little elitism, a stance reflected in Grierson's many dicta of the time: \"The elect have their duty.\"", "\"I look on cinema as a pulpit, and use it as a propagandist.", "\"In the US Grierson had met pioneering documentary filmmaker Robert Flaherty.", "Grierson respected Flaherty immensely for his contributions to documentary form and his attempts to use the camera to bring alive the lives of everyday people and everyday events.", "Less commendable in Grierson's view was Flaherty's focus on exotic and faraway cultures.", "(\"In the profounder kind of way\", wrote Grierson of Flaherty, \"we live and prosper each of us by denouncing the other\").", "In Grierson's view, the focus of film should be on the everyday drama of ordinary people.", "As Grierson wrote in his diaries: \"Beware the ends of the earth and the exotic: the drama is on your doorstep wherever the slums are, wherever there is malnutrition, wherever there is exploitation and cruelty.\"", "\"'You keep your savages in the far place Bob; we are going after the savages of Birmingham,' I think I said to him pretty early on.", "And we did.", "\")=== Empire Marketing Board ===On his return to England, Grierson was employed on a temporary basis as an Assistant Films Officer of the Empire Marketing Board (EMB), a governmental agency which had been established in 1926 to promote British world trade and British unity throughout the empire.", "One of the major functions of the EMB was publicity, which the Board accomplished through exhibits, posters, and publications and films.", "It was within the context of this State-funded organisation that the \"documentary\" as we know it today got its start.In late 1929 Grierson and his cameraman, Basil Emmott completed his first film, ''Drifters'', which he wrote, produced and directed.", "The film, which follows the heroic work of North Sea herring fishermen, was a radical departure from anything being made by the British film industry or Hollywood.", "A large part of its innovation lies in the fierce boldness in bringing the camera to rugged locations such as a small boat in the middle of a gale while leaving relatively less of the action staged.", "The choice of topic was chosen less from Grierson's curiosity than the fact that he discovered that the Financial Secretary had made the herring industry his hobbyhorse.", "It premiered in a private film club in London in November 1929 on a double-bill with Eisenstein's -then controversial- film ''The Battleship Potemkin'' (which was banned from general release in Britain until 1954) and received high praise from both its sponsors and the press.", "The film was shown from 9 December 1929, in the Stoll in Kingsway and then was later screened throughout Britain.After this success, Grierson moved away from film direction into a greater focus on production and administration within the EMB.", "He became a tireless organizer and recruiter for the EMB, enlisting a stable of energetic young filmmakers into the film unit between 1930 and 1933.Those enlisted included filmmakers Basil Wright, Edgar Anstey, Stuart Legg, Paul Rotha, Arthur Elton, Humphrey Jennings, Harry Watt, and Alberto Cavalcanti.", "This group formed the core of what was to become known as the British Documentary Film Movement.", "Robert Flaherty himself also worked briefly for the unit.", "In 1933 the EMB Film Unit was disbanded, a casualty of Depression-era economics.=== General Post Office ===Grierson's boss at the EMB moved to the General Post Office (GPO) as its first public relations officer, with the stipulation that he could bring the EMB film unit with him.", "Grierson's crew were charged with demonstrating how the Post Office facilitated modern communication and brought the nation together, a task aimed as much at GPO workers as the general public.", "During Grierson's administration, the GPO Film Unit produced a series of groundbreaking films, including ''Night Mail'' (dir.", "Basil Wright and Harry Watt, 1936) and ''Coal Face'' (dir.", "Alberto Cavalcanti, 1935).", "In 1934 he produced at the GPO Film Unit the award-winning ''The Song of Ceylon'' (dir.", "Basil Wright) which was sponsored jointly by the Ceylon Tea Propaganda Bureau and the EMB.In 1934, Grierson sailed on the ''Isabella Greig'' out of Granton to film ''Granton Trawler'' on Viking Bank which is between Shetland and the Norwegian coast.", "The footage from his voyage was handed over to Edgar Anstey, who pulled footage of when the camera had fallen over on the deck of the boat to create a storm scene.", "''Granton Trawler'' was a favourite film of Grierson's, he saw it as a homage to the ''Isabella Greig'' that was sunk in 1941 by German bombs when it went out to fish and was never seen again.", "''The Private Life of Gannets'' was also filmed on the ''Isabella Greig;'' the film was shot on Grassholm with Grierson shooting the slow-motion sequence of the gannets diving for fish which took only one afternoon to shoot near Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth.", "The Private Life of Gannets went on to pick up an Academy Award in 1937.Grierson eventually grew restless with having to work within the bureaucratic and budgetary confines of government sponsorship.", "Grierson resigned from the G.P.O.", "on 30 June 1937, which gave him more time to pursue his passions and the freedom to speak his mind on issues around the world.", "In response, he sought out private industry sponsorship for film production.", "He was finally successful in getting the British gas industry to underwrite an annual film program.", "Perhaps the most significant works produced during this time were ''Housing Problems'' (dir.", "Arthur Elton, Edgar Anstey, John Taylor, and Grierson's sister Ruby Grierson, 1935).alt=Two men looking at a film poster on a desk against a background of movie posters=== Canada ===In 1938, Grierson was invited by the Canadian government to study the country's film production.", "Grierson sailed at the end of May in 1938 for Canada and arrived on 17 June.", "Grierson met with the Prime Minister, William Lyon Mackenzie King and also spoke with many important figures across Canada, they were all in agreement of the importance of film in reducing sectionalism and in promoting the relationship of Canada between home and abroad.", "The head of the Motion Picture Bureau for Canada, Frank Bagdley, did not appreciate Grierson's assessment and criticism of the films made by the Bureau which was that they focused too much on Canada as a place to holiday.", "Grierson delivered his report on government film propaganda and the weaknesses he had found in Canadian film production; his suggestion was to create a national coordinating body for the production of films.", "An abridged version of the report ran to 66 pages, which was prepared by August in London.", "Grierson returned to Britain but was invited back to Canada on 14 October 1938; he returned in November.==== National Film Board of Canada and Wartime Information Board ====In 1939, Canada created the National Film Commission, which would later become the National Film Board of Canada.", "The bill to create a National Film Board was drafted by Grierson; the bill was introduced in March 1939 and given Royal Assent on 2 May 1939.Grierson was appointed the first Commissioner of the National Film Board in October 1939.When Canada entered World War II in 1939, the NFB focused on the production of propaganda films, many of which Grierson directed.", "For example, captured footage of German war activity was incorporated in documentaries that were distributed to the then-neutral United States.Grierson grieved the death of his sister Ruby in 1940; she was on the ''SS City of Benares'' while it was evacuating one hundred children to Canada.", "The ''Benares'' was torpedoed four days after its sailing, and sank within thirty-one minutes in a Force 10 Gale.", "Ruby Grierson had managed to enter Lifeboat 8, full with more than thirty people, including eighteen girls and two female escorts, but as it was lowering, a wave crashed into the lifeboat, sending it into a vertical position, and throwing everyone in that boat into the sea.", "No one from Boat 8 survived.", "In the end, of 406 people on board, only 148 people survived, including only 19 of 100 children.", "Grierson resigned from his position in January 1941.Over his year as Commissioner at the National Film Board 40 films were made; the year before the Motion Picture Bureau had made only one and a half.", "Recommendations for the future running were made for the National Film Board, and Grierson was persuaded to stay for a further six months to oversee the changes.During WWII, Grierson was a consultant to prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King as a minister of the Wartime Information Board.", "He remained on the National Film Board and managed to complete his duties to Wartime Information Board as well through his deputies that aided him in the task.", "Grierson was asked to keep his dual role until January 1944, however, he resigned in 1943 as the job he had been asked to complete had been finished as far as he was concerned.", "Before he finished with the Wartime Information Bureau Grierson was also offered the role of chairman of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation but turned it down as he believed that this would give him too much power.On 26 February 1942, Grierson attended the Academy Awards and received the award on behalf of the National Film Board for ''Churchill's Island''.", "Grierson also presented the award for the best documentary, the first time that this award was given by the Academy.", "After the Dieppe Raid, there were reports that Canadians that had been taken as prisoners of war had been manacled under Hitler's orders.", "Grierson proposed that the Film Board show how the German prisoners of war were being treated in Canada through a film.", "Ham Wright directed the film showing the German sailors that had been captured; playing football, enjoying meals and looking healthy.", "Only one copy of the film was made, it was sent to the Swiss Red Cross who deliberately let it fall into German hands.", "Grierson was to learn at a later date that Hitler had indeed watched the film and ordered that the Canadian prisoners of war released from their manacles.After the war, the National Film Board focused on producing documentaries that reflected the lives of Canadians.", "The National Film Board has become recognized around the world for producing quality films, some of which have won Academy Awards.", "The National Film Board had become one of the largest film studios and was respected around the world for what it had achieved; it had especially had influence in Czechoslovakia and China.In December 1943 Grierson was elected by the Permanent Film Committee of the National Council for Canadian-Soviet Friendship to become honorary chairman.", "One of the tasks at the National Film Board that Grierson strongly pushed for the films being produced to be in French as well as English.", "He also pushed for a French unit in the National Film Board.Grierson concentrated on documentary film production in New York after resigning his post following in August 1945; his resignation was to take effect in November 1945.In 1946 Grierson was asked to testify as part of the investigation of the Gouzenko Affair regarding communist spies in the National Film Board and the Wartime Information Board, rumours spread that he had been a leader of a spy ring during his offices with the Canadian government, a rumour he denied.", "Due to the rumours, the projects that Grierson had been trying to put together were not commissioned and he was barred from taking an important position at the United Nations.=== Commission on Freedom of the Press ===Grierson was appointed as a foreign adviser to the Commission on Freedom of the Press in December 1943, which had been set up by the University of Chicago.", "Grierson was able to make a large contribution to the committee which included Robert M. Hutchins, William E. Hocking, Harold D. Lasswell, Archibald McLeish and Charles Merriam.", "''A Free and Responsible Press'' was published in 1947.=== UNESCO ===Grierson was offered the position of head of information at UNESCO at the end of 1946; he attended the first General Conference of UNESCO from 26 November until 10 December in Paris.", "He had the idea for the ''Unesco Courier'' which was published in several languages across the world, first as a tabloid and later as a magazine.", "Grierson was invited to open the Edinburgh International Film Festival in 1947, from 31 August to 7 September.", "At the start of 1948 he resigned from his position as director for Mass Communications and Public Information, he left in April to return to Britain.=== Central Office of Information ===In February 1948, Grierson was appointed the controller of the Central Office of Information's film operations to co-ordinate the work of the Crown Film Unit and Films Division, and to take overall charge of the planning, production and distribution of government films.", "On 23 June 1948, he accepted an honorary degree, an LL.D from the University of Glasgow.", "He left in 1950 due to financial restrictions on the documentaries that he wished to make.=== Group 3 ===Grierson was appointed to the position of executive producer of Group 3 at the end of 1950; it was a film production enterprise that received loans of government money through the National Film Finance Corporation.", "They filmed at Southall Studios in West London but later moved to Beaconsfield Studios.", "Group 3 was to have continuous production from 1951 until 1955 when it stopped producing films, the organisation had made a loss of over £400,000 as production of the films usually ran over the time allocated, and there had also been difficulty getting the films shown in cinemas.During this time Grierson had been diagnosed with tuberculosis in May 1953, he spent a fortnight in hospital and then had a year of convalescing at his home, Tog Hill in Calstone.", "Grierson spent much of his time corresponding with the directors at Group 3, as well as commenting on scripts and story ideas.", "He had recovered enough to attend the Cannes Film Festival in April 1954, taking the production of ''Man of Africa''.", "At the Edinburgh Film Festival in the same year, a dinner was held in Grierson's honour to celebrate twenty-five years of documentary.=== Films of Scotland Committee ===Grierson joined the newly revived Films of Scotland Committee in 1955.Also on the committee were Norman Wilson, Forsyth Hardy, George Singleton, C. A. Oakley and Neil Paterson.", "In 1956, Grierson was the president of the Venice Film Festival's jury; he was also jury president at the Cork Film Festival and the South American Film Festival in 1958.In 1957, Grierson received a special Canadian Film Award.", "Grierson wrote the script for, ''Seawards the Great Ships,'' which was directed by Hilary Harris and awarded an Academy Award in 1961, a feat for the Films of Scotland Committee.=== This Wonderful World ===The first programme of This Wonderful World was aired on 11 October 1957 in Scotland; it was on ''The Culbin Sands'' which focused on how the Forestry Commission had replanted six thousand acres of woodland along the mouth of Findhorn.", "In the seventeenth century wild sand had blown into the mouth and covered the land, the successful replanting of the forest was a great success for the commission.", "This Wonderful World was shown weekly, other topics for episodes included Leonardo da Vinci, ballet, King Penguins and Norman McLaren's ''Boogie Doodle''.This Wonderful World began to be aired in England in February 1959, it ran for a further eight years and was in the Top Ten programmes for the week for the UK in 1960.In 1961, Grierson was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen's Birthday Honours.", "In 1962, he was a member of the jury for the Vancouver Film Festival, during his visit to Canada he also received the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts Medal for his contribution to the visual arts.", "In 1963, he was busy with This Wonderful World and the Films of Scotland Committee but still found time to attend the twenty-fifth anniversary of the National Film Board in Montreal.In 1965, Grierson was the patron of the Commonwealth Film Festival which took place in Cardiff in that year.", "In 1966, he was offered the role of Governor of the British Film Institute; however, he turned down the position.", "This Wonderful World changed the title to John Grierson Presents.In 1967, after returning from the Oberhausen Film Festival where he had been the President of Honour of the jury, Grierson suffered a bout of bronchitis which lasted eight days.", "His brother Anthony, who had trained to be a doctor was called and diagnosed Grierson with emphysema, his coughing fits were a cause for concern, and he was admitted to Manor Hospital.", "Grierson decided to give up smoking and drinking to benefit his health.===Later life===Grierson opened the new primary school at Cambusbarron on 10 October 1967; his sister Dorothy attended the day with him.", "The BBC expressed their wishes to make a programme about Grierson in the year of his seventieth birthday, which he turned down three times In the year of his seventieth birthday, Grierson received many tributes from across the globe.", "He was made an honorary member of the Association of Cinematograph, Television and Allied Technicians; he pressed for the ceremony to be held in Glasgow.", "He also received the Golden Thistle Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Art of Cinema at the Edinburgh Film Festival.In January 1969, Grierson left for Canada to lecture at McGill University; enrollment for his classes grew to around seven hundred students.", "He also lectured at Carleton University once a fortnight.", "At Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh on 8 July 1969, Grierson received an Honorary Doctorate of Literature.", "A few days earlier on 4 July 1969, Grierson had opened the Scottish Fisheries Museum in Anstruther.Grierson was a member of the jury for the Canadian Film Awards in 1970.He spent a few months in 1971, travelling around India instilling the importance of having small production units throughout the country.", "He returned to the UK in December 1971 and was meant to travel back to India; however, his trip was delayed by the Indo-Pakistani War.", "Grierson went into hospital for a health check-up in January 1972; he was diagnosed with lung and liver cancer and was given months to live.", "During his time in hospital he spent time dictating letters to his wife, Margaret, and received visitors; however, he fell unconscious on 18 February and died on the 19th.", "In his wishes for his funeral he had detailed his desire to be cremated.", "Also according to his wishes, his urn was placed in the sea off the Old Head in Kinsale, and his brother Anthony, who had died in August 1971, had his ashes placed at the same time.", "A small flotilla followed the ''Able Seaman'', which carried the ashes, and when the urns were lowered into the water, the fishing boats sounded their sirens.The Grierson Archive at the University of Stirling Archives was opened by Angus Macdonald in October 1977." ], [ "Filmography", "Filmography as director:* ''Drifters'' (1929; first screened at the British premiere of ''Battleship Potemkin'')* ''Granton Trawler'' (1934)Filmography as producer/creative contributor:* ''O'er Hill and Dale'' (dir.", "Basil Wright 1932)* ''UP-STREAM: A Story of the Scottish Salmon Fisheries'' (dir.", "Arthur Elton 1932)* ''Cargo from Jamaica'' (dir.", "Basil Wright 1933)* ''Industrial Britain'' (dir.", "Robert Flaherty 1933)* ''Cable Ship'' (dir.", "Alexander Shaw and Stuart Legg 1933)* ''Coming of the Dial'' (dir.", "Stuart Legg 1933)* ''Liner Cruising South'' (dir.", "Basil Wright 1933)* ''Man of Aran'' (dir.", "Robert Flaherty 1934)* ''New Operator'' (dir.", "Stuart Legg 1934)* ''Pett and Pott: A Fairy Story of the Suburbs'' (dir.", "Alberto Cavalcanti 1934)* ''Post Haste'' (dir.", "Humphrey Jennings 1934)* ''Spring Comes to England'' dir.", "Donald Taylor 1934)* ''Six-thirty Collection'' (dir.", "Harry Watt and Edgar Anstey 1934)* ''Song of Ceylon'' (dir.", "Basil Wright 1934)* ''BBC: The Voice of Britain'' (dir.", "Stuart Legg 1935)* ''A Colour Box'' (dir.", "Len Lye 1935)* ''Housing Problems'' (dir.", "Edgar Anstey, Arthur Elton 1935)* ''Introducing the Dial'' (dir.", "Stuart Legg 1935)* ''Coal Face'' (dir.", "Alberto Cavalcanti 1935)* ''B.B.C.", "Droitwich'' (dir.", "Harry Watt 1935)* ''Night Mail'' ( dir.", "(Basil Wright, and Harry Watt 1936)* ''Saving of Bill Blewitt'' (dir.", "Basil Wright 1936)* ''Line To The Tschierva Hut'' (dir.", "Alberto Cavalcanti 1937)* ''Children At School'' (dir.", "Basil Wright 1937)* ''We Live In Two Worlds'' (dir.", "Alberto Cavalcanti 1937)* ''Daily Round'' (dir.", "Richard Massingham, Karl Urbahn 1937)* ''Trade Tattoo'' (dir.", "Len Lye 1937)* ''The Face of Scotland'' (dir.", "Basil Wright 1938)* ''The Children's Story'' (dir.", "Alexander Shaw 1938)* ''Scotland for Fitness'' (dir.", "Brian Salt 1938)* ''They Made the Land'' (dir.", "Mary Field 1938)* ''Sport in Scotland'' (dir.", "Stanley L. Russell 1938)* ''Wealth of a Nation'' (dir.", "Donald Alexander 1938)* ''Sea Food'' (1938)* ''The Londoners'' (dir.", "John Taylor (director) 1939)''Churchill's Island'' (dir.", "Stuart Legg 1941) ''Four Men in Prison'' (dir.", "Max Anderson 1950)* ''Judgment Deferred'' (dir.", "John Baxter 1951)* ''Brandy for the Parson'' (dir.", "John Eldridge 1952)* ''The Brave Don't Cry'' (dir.", "Philip Leacock 1952)* ''Miss Robin Hood'' (dir.", "John Guillermin 1952)* ''Time Gentlemen, Please!''", "(dir.", "Lewis Gilbert 1952)* ''You're Only Young Twice'' (dir.", "Terry Bishop 1952)* ''Man of Africa'' (dir.", "Cyril Frankel 1953)* ''Background'' (dir.", "Daniel Birt 1953)* ''Laxdale Hall'' (dir.", "John Eldridge 1953)* ''The Oracle'' (dir.", "C.M.", "Pennington-Richards 1953)* ''Child's Play'' (dir.", "Margaret Thomson 1954)* ''Devil on Horseback'' (dir.", "Cyril Frankel 1954)* ''Rivers at Work'' (dir.", "Lew Davidson 1958)* ''This Wonderful World'' (dir.", "various 1957–67)* ''Seawards the Great Ships'' (dir.", "Hilary Harris 1960)* ''The Heart of Scotland'' (dir.", "Laurence Henson 1961)* ''The Creative Process'' (dir.", "Donald McWilliams 1961)* ''Health of a City'' (dir.", "Derek Williams 1965)* ''I Remember, I Remember'' (dir.", "James Sutherland 1968)" ], [ "Works about Grierson", "=== Books ===* ''Grierson on Documentary'' (ed.", "Forsyth Hardy, Faber & Faber, 1946)* ''John Grierson: A Documentary Biography'' (ed.", "Forsyth Hardy, Faber & Faber, 1979)* ''John Grierson and the National Film Board: The Politics of Wartime Propaganda'' (ed.", "Gary Evans, University of Toronto Press, 1984)* ''The Colonized Eye: Rethinking the Grierson Legend'' (ed.", "Joyce Nelson, Between the Lines, 1988)=== Documentary films ===* In a short film ''John Grierson at the NFT'' (1959) he recalls the British documentary film movement and is included in the ''Land of Promise'' Region 2 DVD set (BFI 2008).", "* ''Hitchcock on Grierson'' (1965), in which Alfred Hitchcock talks about his work and how it inspired him.", "* He was also the subject of a 1973 NFB documentary, ''Grierson'', produced and directed by Roger Blais." ], [ "Awards named for John Grierson", "=== Grierson Documentary Film Awards ===The Grierson Documentary Film Awards were established in 1972 to commemorate John Grierson andare currently supervised by The Grierson Trust.", "The aim of the awards is to recognise ''outstanding films that demonstrate integrity, originality and technical excellence, together with social or cultural significance''.Grierson Awards are presented annually in nine categories:* Best Documentary on a Contemporary Issue* Best Documentary on the Arts* Best Historical Documentary* Best Documentary on Science or the Natural World* The Frontier Post Award for Most Entertaining Documentary* Best Drama Documentary* Best International Cinema Documentary* Best Newcomer* Trustees' Award=== Other ===The Canadian Film Awards had presented a Grierson Award for \"an outstanding contribution to Canadian cinema in the spirit of John Grierson.\"" ], [ "See also", "* ''Documentary News Letter'', a publication founded by Grierson* Edgar Anstey* Arthur Elton* Robert Flaherty* Humphrey Jennings* Stuart Legg* Paul Rotha* Basil Wright" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Canada's Awards Database * Credits from: British Film Institute Catalog (Film Index International)" ], [ "External links", "* Grierson Bibliography at UC Berkeley* The Grierson Trust* * The John Grierson Archive at The University of Stirling* Bfi Screenonline entry.", "* John Grierson in South Africa: Afrikaaner nationalism and the National Film Board* Biography and biographical documentary, National Film Board of Canada* Online essay about Grierson and Flaherty from the University of Glasgow (no link)* Literature on John Grierson* National Library of Scotland: SCOTTISH SCREEN ARCHIVE (selection of archive films relating to John Grierson)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Cameron" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Francis Cameron''' (born August 16, 1954) is a Canadian filmmaker.", "He is a major figure in the post-New Hollywood era, and one of the industry's most innovative filmmakers.", "He often uses novel technologies with a classical filmmaking style.", "He first gained recognition for writing and directing ''The Terminator'' (1984) and found further success with ''Aliens'' (1986), ''The Abyss'' (1989), ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' (1991), and the action comedy ''True Lies'' (1994).", "He wrote and directed ''Titanic'' (1997), ''Avatar'' (2009) and its sequels, with ''Titanic'' winning Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Film Editing.", "He is a recipient of various other industry accolades, and three of his films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.Cameron co-founded the production companies Lightstorm Entertainment, Digital Domain, and Earthship Productions.", "In addition to filmmaking, he is a National Geographic sea tourist and has produced many documentaries on the subject, including ''Ghosts of the Abyss'' (2003) and ''Aliens of the Deep'' (2005).", "Cameron has also contributed to underwater filming and remote vehicle technologies and helped create the digital 3D Fusion Camera System.", "In 2012, Cameron became the first person to do a solo descent to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the Earth's ocean, in the ''Deepsea Challenger'' submersible.Cameron's films have grossed over $8 billion worldwide, making him the second-highest-grossing film director of all time.", "Three of Cameron's films are amongst the top four highest-grossing films of all time; ''Avatar'' (2009), ''Avatar: The Way of Water'' (2022) and ''Titanic'' (1997) are the highest, third-highest and fourth-highest-grossing films of all time, respectively.", "Cameron directed the first film to gross over $1 billion, the first two films to gross over $2 billion, and is the only director to have had three films gross over $2 billion.", "In 2010, ''Time'' named Cameron one of the 100 most influential people in the world.", "Cameron is also an environmentalist and runs several sustainability businesses." ], [ "Early life", "James Francis Cameron was born on August 16, 1954, in Kapuskasing, Ontario, to Philip Cameron, an electrical engineer, and Shirley (), an artist and nurse.", "He is the first of five children, with two brothers and two sisters.", "His paternal great-great-great-grandfather emigrated from Balquhidder, Scotland, in 1825.Cameron spent summers on his grandfather's farm in southern Ontario.", "He attended Stamford Collegiate in Niagara Falls.", "At age 17, Cameron and his family moved from Chippawa to Brea, California.", "He attended Sonora High School and then moved to Brea Olinda High School.", "Classmates recalled that he was not a sportsman but instead enjoyed building things that \"either went up into the air or into the deep\".After high school, Cameron enrolled at Fullerton College, a community college in 1973 to study physics.", "He switched subjects to English, but left the college at the end of 1974.Cameron worked odd jobs, including as a truck driver and a high school janitor, drank beer, smoked cannabis and did a lot of LSD, but wrote in his free time.", "During this period, he learned about special effects by reading other students' work on \"optical printing, or front screen projection, or dye transfers, anything that related to film technology\" at the USC library.", "After the excitement of seeing ''Star Wars'' in 1977, Cameron quit his job as a truck driver to enter the film industry." ], [ "Film career", "=== Early work and 1980s ===alt=Cameron in September 1986Cameron's directing career began in 1978.After borrowing money from a consortium of dentists, he learned to direct, write and produce his first short film, ''Xenogenesis'' (1978) with a friend.", "Learning as they went, Cameron said he felt like a doctor doing his first surgical procedure.", "He then served as a production assistant for ''Rock 'n' Roll High School'' (1979).", "While educating himself about filmmaking techniques, Cameron started a job as a miniature model maker at Roger Corman Studios.", "He was soon employed as an art director for the science-fiction film ''Battle Beyond the Stars'' (1980).", "He carried out the special effects for John Carpenter's ''Escape from New York'' (1981), served as production designer for ''Galaxy of Terror'' (1981), and consulted on the design for ''Android'' (1982).Cameron was hired as the special effects director for the sequel to ''Piranha'' (1978), titled ''Piranha II: The Spawning'' in 1982.The original director, Miller Drake, left the project due to creative differences with producer Ovidio Assonitis.", "Shot in Rome, Italy and on Grand Cayman, the film gave Cameron the opportunity to become director for a major film for the first time.", "Cameron later said that it did not feel like his first film due to power-struggles with Assonitis.", "Upon release of ''Piranha II: The Spawning'', critics were not impressed; author Tim Healey called it \"a marvellously bad movie which splices clichés from every conceivable source\".In 1982, inspired by John Carpenter's horror film ''Halloween'' (1978), as well as a nightmare about an invincible robot hit-man sent from the future to assassinate him, Cameron wrote the script for ''The Terminator'' (1984), a sci-fi action film about a cyborg sent from the future to carry out a lethal mission.", "Cameron wanted to sell the script so that he could direct the movie.", "Whilst some film studios expressed interest in the project, many executives were unwilling to let a new and unfamiliar director make the movie.", "Gale Anne Hurd, a colleague and founder of Pacific Western Productions, agreed to buy Cameron's script for one dollar, on the condition that Cameron direct the film.", "He convinced the president of Hemdale Pictures to make the film, with Cameron as director and Hurd as a producer.", "Lance Henriksen, who starred in ''Piranha II: The Spawning'', was considered for the lead role, but Cameron decided that Arnold Schwarzenegger was more suitable as the cyborg villain due to his bodybuilder appearance.", "Henriksen was given a smaller role instead.", "Michael Biehn and Linda Hamilton also joined the cast.", "''The Terminator'' was a box office success, exceeding expectations set by Orion Pictures.", "The film proved popular with audiences and earned over $78 million worldwide.", "George Perry of the BBC praised Cameron's direction, writing \"Cameron laces the action with ironic jokes, but never lets up on hinting that the terror may strike at any moment\".", "In 2008, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, being deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".In 1984, Cameron was hired to write a sequel to ''First Blood''; it was rewritten by Sylvester Stallone and released as ''Rambo: First Blood Part II''.", "Cameron was then hired to write and direct a sequel to ''Alien'' (1979), a science fiction horror film directed by Ridley Scott.", "Like the original, the sequel ''Aliens'' (1986) featured Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley.", "''Aliens'' follows Ripley as she helps a group of marines fight off extraterrestrials.", "Despite conflicts with cast and crew during production, and having to replace one of the lead actors — James Remar with Michael Biehn — ''Aliens'' was a box office success, generating over $130 million worldwide.", "The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1987; Best Actress, Best Art Direction, Best Film Editing, Best Original Score and Best Sound.", "It won awards for Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects.", "In addition, Weaver and the film made the cover of ''Time'' in July 1986.alt=Cameron with Gale Anne Hurd, 1986After ''Aliens'', Cameron and Gale Anne Hurd decided to make ''The Abyss'', a story about oil-rig workers who discover strange intelligent life in the ocean.", "Based on an idea which Cameron had conceived of during high school, the film was initially budgeted at $41 million, although it ran considerably over this amount.", "It starred Ed Harris, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio and Michael Biehn.", "The production process began in the Cayman Islands and in South Carolina, inside the building of an unfinished nuclear power plant with two huge water tanks.", "The cast and crew recall Cameron's dictatorial behavior, and the filming of water scenes which were mentally and physically exhausting.", "Upon the film's release, ''The Abyss'' was praised for its special effects, and earned $90 million at the worldwide box office.", "''The Abyss'' received four Academy Award nominations, and won Best Visual Effects.===1990s===In 1990, Cameron co-founded the firm Lightstorm Entertainment with partner Lawrence Kasanoff.", "In 1991, Cameron served as executive producer for ''Point Break'' (1991), directed by Kathryn Bigelow.", "After the success of ''The Terminator'', there were discussions for a sequel, and by the late 1980s, Mario Kassar of Carolco Pictures secured the rights to the sequel, allowing Cameron to begin production of the film, ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' (1991).", "Written by Cameron and William Wisher Jr., Schwarzenegger and Linda Hamilton reprise their roles.", "The story follows on from ''Terminator'', depicting a new villain (T-1000), with shape-shifting abilities who hunts for Sarah Connor's son, John (Edward Furlong).", "Cameron cast Robert Patrick as T-1000 because of his lean and thin appearance — a sharp contrast to Schwarzenegger.", "Cameron explained: \"I wanted someone who was extremely fast and agile.", "If the T-800 is a human Panzer tank, then the T-1000 is a Porsche\".", "''Terminator 2'' was one of the most expensive films to be produced, costing at least $ ($ in ).", "Despite the challenging use of computer-generated imagery (CGI), the film was completed on time and released on July 3, 1991.", "''Terminator 2'' broke box office records (including the opening weekend record for an R-rated film), earning over $ in North America and being the first to earn over $ worldwide (respectively over $ and $ in ).", "It won four Academy Awards: Best Makeup, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects.", "It also received nominations for Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing, but lost both to political thriller ''JFK'' (1991).In subsequent years, Cameron planned to do a third ''Terminator'' film, but plans never materialized.", "The rights to the ''Terminator'' franchise were eventually purchased by Kassar from a bankruptcy sale of Carolco's assets.", "Cameron moved on to other projects and, in 1993, co-founded Digital Domain, a visual effects production company.", "In 1994, Cameron and Schwarzenegger reunited for their third collaboration, ''True Lies,'' a remake of the 1991 French comedy ''La Totale!''", "The story depicts an American secret agent who leads a double life as a married man, whose wife believes he is a computer salesman.", "The film co-stars Jamie Lee Curtis, Eliza Dushku and Tom Arnold.", "Cameron's Lightstorm Entertainment signed a deal with 20th Century Fox for the production of ''True Lies''.", "Budgeted at a minimum of $100 million, the film earned $146 million in the United States and Canada.", "The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and Curtis won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress.", "In 1995, Cameron co-produced ''Strange Days'', a science fiction thriller.", "Directed by Kathryn Bigelow and co-written by Jay Cocks, ''Strange Days'' was critically and financially unsuccessful.", "In 1996, Cameron reunited with the cast of ''Terminator 2'' to film ''T2 3-D: Battle Across Time'', an attraction at Universal Studios Florida, and in other parks around the world.His next major project was ''Titanic'' (1997), an epic about , which sank in 1912 after striking an iceberg.", "With a production budget of $200 million, at the time it was the most expensive film ever made.", "Starting in 1995, Cameron took several dives to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean to capture footage of the wreck, which would later be used in the film.", "A replica of the ship was built in Rosarito Beach and principal photography began in September 1996.", "''Titanic'' made headlines before its release, for being over-budget and exceeding its schedule.", "Cameron's completed screenplay depicts two star-crossed lovers, portrayed by Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet, from different social classes who fall in love amid the backdrop of the tragedy; a radical departure from his previous work.", "The supporting cast includes Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Gloria Stuart, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Victor Garber, Danny Nucci, David Warner and Bill Paxton.Cameron promoting ''Avatar'' at the San Diego Comic-Con, 2009\|alt=Cameron promoting Avatar during the 2009 San Diego Comic-ConAfter months of delay, ''Titanic'' premiered on December 19, 1997.The film received strong critical acclaim and became the highest-grossing film of all time, holding this position for twelve years, until Cameron's ''Avatar'' beat the record in 2010.The costumes and sets were praised, and ''The Washington Post'' considered the CGI graphics to be spectacular.", "''Titanic'' received a record-tie of fourteen nominations (tied with ''All About Eve'' (1950)) at the 1998 Academy Awards.", "It won eleven of the awards, tying the record for most wins with 1959's ''Ben-Hur'', and 2003's ''The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King'', including: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing, Best Original Score and Best Original Song.", "Upon receiving Best Picture, Cameron and producer Jon Landau asked for a moment of silence to remember the 1,500 people who died when the ship sank.", "Film critic Roger Ebert praised Cameron's storytelling, writing: \"It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding\".", "Authors Kevin Sandler and Gaylyn Studlar wrote in 1999 that the romance, historical nostalgia and James Horner's music contributed to the film's cultural phenomenon.", "In 2017, on its 20th anniversary, ''Titanic'' became Cameron's second film to be selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.After the huge success of ''Titanic'', Cameron kept a low profile.", "In 1998, he and his brother, John, formed Earthship Productions, to stream documentaries about the deep sea, one of Cameron's interests.", "He had planned to make a film about Spider-Man, a project developed by Menahem Golan of Cannon Films.", "Columbia hired David Koepp to adapt Cameron's ideas into a screenplay, but due to various disagreements, Cameron abandoned the project.", "In 2002, ''Spider-Man'' was released with the screenplay credited solely to Koepp.===2000s===In 2000, Cameron made his debut in television and co-created ''Dark Angel'' with Charles H. Eglee, a television series influenced by cyberpunk, biopunk, contemporary superheroes and third-wave feminism.", "''Dark Angel'' starred Jessica Alba as Max Guevara, a genetically enhanced super-soldier created by a secretive organization.", "While the first season was moderately successful, the second season did less well, which led to its cancellation.In 2002, Cameron served as producer on the 2002 film ''Solaris'', a science fiction drama directed by Steven Soderbergh.", "The film gained mixed reviews and failed at the box office.", "Keen to make documentaries, Cameron directed ''Expedition: Bismarck'', about the German Battleship ''Bismarck''.", "In 2003, he directed ''Ghosts of the Abyss'', a documentary about RMS ''Titanic'' which was released by Walt Disney Pictures and Walden Media, and designed for 3D theaters.", "Cameron told ''The Guardian'' his intention for filming everything in 3D.", "In 2005, Cameron co-directed ''Aliens of the Deep'', a documentary about the various forms of life in the ocean.", "He also starred in ''Titanic Adventure'' with Tony Robinson'','' another documentary about the ''Titanic'' shipwreck.", "In 2006, Cameron co-created and narrated ''The Exodus Decoded'', a documentary exploring the Biblical account of the Exodus.", "In 2007, Cameron and fellow director Simcha Jacobovici, produced ''The Lost Tomb of Jesus''.", "It was broadcast on Discovery Channel on March 4, 2007; the documentary was controversial for arguing that the Talpiot Tomb was the burial place of Jesus of Nazareth.TED talk, February 2010\|alt=Cameron speaking at a TED talk in February 2010By the mid-2000s, Cameron returned to directing and producing another mainstream film since ''Titanic''.", "Cameron had displayed interest in making ''Avatar'' (2009) and ''Alita: Battle Angel'' (2019) as early as June 2005, with both films to be shot using 3D technology.", "He wanted to make ''Alita: Battle Angel'' first, followed by ''Avatar'', but switched the order in February 2006.Although Cameron had written an 80-page treatment for ''Avatar'' in 1995, Cameron stated that he wanted the necessary technology to improve before starting production.", "''Avatar'', with the story line set in the mid-22nd century, had an estimated budget in excess of $300 million.", "The cast includes Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, Michelle Rodriguez and Sigourney Weaver.", "It was composed with a mix of live-action footage and computer-generated animation, using an advanced version of the performance capture technique, previously used by director Robert Zemeckis in ''The Polar Express''.", "Cameron intended ''Avatar'' to be 3D-only but decided to adapt it for conventional viewing as well.Intended for release in May 2009, ''Avatar'' premiered on December 18, 2009.This delay allowed more time for post-production and the opportunity for theaters to install 3D projectors.", "''Avatar'' broke several box office records during its initial theatrical run.", "It grossed $749.7 million in the United States and Canada and more than $2.74 billion worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of all time in the United States and Canada, surpassing ''Titanic''.", "It was the first film to earn more than $2 billion worldwide.", "''Avatar'' was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and won three: Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects.", "In July 2010, an extended theatrical re-release generated an additional $33.2 million worldwide () at the box office.", "In his mixed review, Sukhdev Sandhu of ''The Telegraph'' complimented the 3D, but opined that Cameron \"should have been more brutal in his editing\".", "That year, ''Vanity Fair'' reported that Cameron's earnings were US$257 million, making him the highest earner in Hollywood.", "As of 2022, ''Avatar'' and ''Titanic'' hold the achievement for being the first two of the six films in history to gross over $2 billion worldwide.=== 2010s and 2020s ===leftIn 2011, Cameron served as an executive producer for ''Sanctum'', a disaster-survival film about a cave diving expedition which turns deadly.", "Although receiving mixed reviews, the film earned a fair $108 million at the worldwide box office.", "Cameron re-investigated the sinking of RMS ''Titanic'' with eight experts in a 2012 TV documentary special, ''Titanic: The Final Word with James Cameron'', which premiered on April 8 on the National Geographic channel.", "In the feature, the experts revised the CGI animation of the sinking conceived in 1995.In March 2010, Cameron announced that ''Titanic'' will be converted and re-released in 3D to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the tragedy.", "On March 27, 2012, ''Titanic'' 3D premiered at London's Royal Albert Hall.", "He also served as executive producer of ''Cirque du Soleil: Worlds Away'' and ''Deepsea Challenge 3D'' in 2012 and 2014, respectively.Cameron starred in the 2017 documentary ''Atlantis Rising,'' with collaborator Simcha Jacobovici.", "The pair go on an adventure to explore the existence of the city of Atlantis.", "The programme aired on January 29 on National Geographic.", "Next, Cameron produced and appeared in a documentary about the history of science fiction.", "''James Cameron's Story of Science Fiction,'' the six-episodic series was broadcast on AMC in 2018.The series featured interviews with guests including Ridley Scott, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and Christopher Nolan.", "He stated \"Without Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, there wouldn't have been Ray Bradbury or Robert A. Heinlein, and without them, there wouldn't be George Lucas, Steven Spielberg, Ridley Scott or me\".", "''Alita: Battle Angel'' was finally released in 2019, after being in parallel development with ''Avatar''.", "Written by Cameron and friend Jon Landau, the film was directed by Robert Rodriguez and produced by Cameron.", "The film is based on a 1990s Japanese manga series ''Battle Angel Alita,'' depicting a cyborg who cannot remember anything of her past life and tries to uncover the truth.", "Produced with similar techniques and technology as in ''Avatar,'' the film starred Rosa Salazar, Christoph Waltz, Jennifer Connelly, Mahershala Ali, Ed Skrein, Jackie Earle Haley and Keean Johnson.", "The film premiered on January 31, 2019, to generally positive reviews and $404 million () at the worldwide box office.", "In her review, Monica Castillo of ''RogerEbert.com'' called it \"an awe-inspiring jump for Rodriguez\" and \"a visual bonanza\", despite the bulky script.", "Cameron then returned to the ''Terminator'' franchise as producer and writer for Tim Miller's ''Terminator: Dark Fate'' (2019).In August 2013, Cameron announced plans to direct three sequels to ''Avatar'' simultaneously, for release in December 2016, 2017, and 2018.However, the release dates were adjusted due to Cameron's other priorities, with ''Avatar'' ''3'', ''4'' and ''5'' to be released, respectively, on December 20, 2024, December 18, 2026, and December 22, 2028.", "''Deadline Hollywood'' estimated that the budget for these would be over $1 billion.", "''Avatar 2'' (later given the subtitle ''The Way of Water)'' and ''Avatar 3'' began simultaneous production in Manhattan Beach, California on August 15, 2017.Principal photography began in New Zealand on September 25, 2017.Parts of ''Avatar 4'' were also filmed during this time.", "Cameron stated in a 2017 interview: \"Let's face it, if ''Avatar 2'' and ''3'' don't make enough money, there's not going to be a ''4'' and ''5''\".", "''Avatar: The Way of Water'' had its world premiere in London on December 6, 2022.It became the highest-grossing film released in 2022, and as of 2023 stood as the 3rd highest-grossing film of all time, behind only ''Avatar'' and ''Avengers: Endgame'', and just ahead of ''Titanic''.Lightstorm Entertainment bought the film rights to the Taylor Stevens novel, ''The Informationist,'' a thriller set in Africa with Cameron planning to direct.", "In 2010, he indicated he would adapt the Charles R. Pellegrino book ''The Last Train from Hiroshima,'' which is about the survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.", "Cameron met with survivor Tsutomu Yamaguchi before his death in 2010.In June 2010, Cameron met with officials of the Environmental Protection Agency to discuss possible solutions to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.", "It was reported that he offered his assistance to help stop the oil well from leaking.", "He is a member of the NASA Advisory Council and he worked with the space agency to build cameras for the Curiosity rover sent for Mars.", "NASA launched the rover without Cameron's technology due to a lack of time during testing.", "He has expressed interest in a project about Mars, stating: \"I've been very interested in the Humans to Mars movement ... and I've done a tremendous amount of personal research for a novel, a miniseries, and a 3D film.\"", "Cameron is a member of the Mars Society, a non-profit organization lobbying for the colonization of Mars.", "Cameron endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton for the 2016 United States presidential election.===Deep-sea exploration===Cameron has experience with deep-sea exploration, in part because of his work on ''The Abyss'' and ''Titanic'', and his childhood fascination with shipwrecks.", "He has contributed to advancements in underwater filming and remotely operated vehicles, and helped develop the 3D Fusion Camera System.", "In 2011, Cameron became a ''National Geographic'' explorer-in-residence.", "In this role, on March 7, 2012, he dived five miles deep to the bottom of the New Britain Trench with the ''Deepsea Challenger''.", "19 days later, Cameron reached the Challenger Deep, the deepest part of the Mariana Trench.", "He spent more than three hours exploring the ocean floor, becoming the first to accomplish the trip alone.", "During his dive to the Challenger Deep, he discovered new species of sea cucumber, squid worm and a giant single-celled amoeba.", "He was preceded by unmanned dives in 1995 and 2009, as well as by Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, the first men to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench aboard the bathyscaphe ''Trieste'' in 1960.In the aftermath of the ''Titan'' submersible implosion, Cameron made appearances in multiple news outlets where he criticized OceanGate and its co-founder Stockton Rush for failing to certify the company's submersibles for safety.", "He was also critical of the use of carbon-fiber composite in the company's ''Titan'' submersible, stating that the material has \"no strength in external compression\" when withstanding the pressure in deep-sea environments.", "On July 15, Cameron stated that he had no plans for an OceanGate documentary." ], [ "Personal life", "Cameron has been married five times.", "He was married to Sharon Williams from 1978 to 1984.A year after he and Williams divorced, Cameron married film producer Gale Anne Hurd, a close collaborator for his 1980s films.", "They divorced in 1989.Soon after separating from Hurd, Cameron met the director Kathryn Bigelow, whom he wed in 1989; they divorced in 1991.Cameron then began a relationship with Linda Hamilton, the lead actress in ''The Terminator'' series.", "Their daughter was born in 1993.Cameron married Hamilton in 1997.Amid speculation of an affair between Cameron and actress Suzy Amis, Cameron and Hamilton separated after two years of marriage, with Hamilton receiving a settlement of $50 million.", "He married Amis, his fifth wife, in 2000.They have one son and two daughters together.Cameron applied for American citizenship in 2004, but withdrew his application after George W. Bush won the presidential election.", "Cameron resided in the United States, but after filming ''Avatar'' in New Zealand, Cameron bought a home and a farm there in 2012.He divided his time between Malibu, California and New Zealand until 2020, after which he sold his Malibu home and decided to live in New Zealand permanently.", "He said in August 2020: \"I plan to make all my future films in New Zealand, and I see the country having an opportunity to demonstrate to the international film industry how to safely return to work.", "Doing so with ''Avatar'' sequels will be a beacon that, when this is over COVID-19 pandemic, will attract more production to New Zealand and continue to stimulate the screen industry and the economy for years.", "\"Cameron is an atheist; he formerly associated himself with agnosticism, a stance he said he had come to see as \"cowardly atheism.\"", "Since 2011, he is vegan.", "Cameron met close friend Guillermo del Toro on the production of his 1993 film, ''Cronos''.", "In 1998, del Toro's father was kidnapped in Guadalajara and Cameron gave del Toro more than $1 million () in cash to pay a ransom and have his father released.", "Cameron had been friends with ''Titanic'' expert Paul-Henri Nargeolet for over 25 years before the latter's death.In June 2013, British artist Roger Dean filed a copyright complaint against Cameron, seeking damages of $50 million ().", "Relating to ''Avatar'', Cameron was accused of \"wilful and deliberate copying, dissemination and exploitation\" of Dean's original images; the case was dismissed by US district judge Jesse Furman in 2014.In 2016, Premier Exhibitions, owner of many RMS ''Titanic'' artifacts, filed for bankruptcy.", "Cameron supported the UK's National Maritime Museum and National Museums Northern Ireland decision to bid for the artifacts, but they were acquired by an investment group before a formal bid took place." ], [ "Filmmaking style", "=== Themes ===Cameron's films are often based on themes which explore the conflicts between intelligent machines and humanity or nature, dangers of corporate greed, strong female characters, and a romance subplot.", "Cameron has further stated in an interview with The Talks, \"All my movies are love stories.\"", "Both ''Titanic'' and ''Avatar'' are noted for featuring star-crossed lovers.", "Characters suffering from emotionally intense and dramatic environments in the sea wilderness are explored in ''The Abyss'' and ''Titanic.", "The'' ''Terminator'' series amplifies technology as an enemy which could lead to devastation of mankind.", "Similarly, ''Avatar'' views tribal people as an honest group, whereas a \"technologically advanced imperial culture is fundamentally evil\".Cameron in 2012=== Method ===Cameron is regarded as an innovative filmmaker in the industry, with a classical filmmaking style, as well as not easy to work for.", "''Radio Times'' critic John Ferguson described Cameron as \"the king of hi-tech thrillers\".", "Dalin Rowell of ''/Film'' stated: \"Known for his larger-than-life creations and unique filmmaking style, director James Cameron is in a league all of his own.", "With his genre-spanning work, lofty ambitions, and unrestrained energy, Cameron has carved out a name for himself in Hollywood as an artist willing to do anything to see his vision come true.\"", "Rebecca Keegan, author of ''The Futurist: The Life and Films of James Cameron,'' describes Cameron as \"comically hands-on\", and would try to do every job on the set.", "Andrew Gumbel of ''The Independent'' says Cameron \"is a nightmare to work with.", "Studios fear his habit of straying way over schedule and over budget.", "He is notorious on set for his uncompromising and dictatorial manner, as well as his flaming temper\".", "Author Alexandra Keller writes that Cameron is an egomaniac, obsessed with vision, but praises his \"technological ingenuity\" at creating a \"visceral viewing experience\".According to Ed Harris, who starred in Cameron's film ''The Abyss'', Cameron behaved in an autocratic manner.", "Orson Scott Card, who novelized ''The Abyss'', stated that Cameron \"made everyone around him miserable, and his unkindness did nothing to improve the film in any way.", "Nor did it motivate people to work faster or better\".", "Harris later said: \"I like Jim.", "He's an incredibly talented, intelligent guy\", adding that \"it was always good to see him\" in later years.", "Speaking of her experience on ''Titanic'', Kate Winslet said that she admired Cameron, but \"there were times I was genuinely frightened of him\".", "Describing him as having \"a temper like you wouldn't believe\", she had said she would not work with him again unless it was \"for a lot of money\".", "Despite this, Winslet and Cameron still looked for future projects, and Winslet was eventually cast in ''Avatar 2''.", "Her co-star Leonardo DiCaprio told ''Esquire'': \"When somebody felt a different way on the set, there was a confrontation.", "He lets you know exactly how he feels\", but complimented Cameron, \"he's of the lineage of John Ford.", "He knows what he wants his film to be.\"", "Sam Worthington, who starred in ''Avatar'', said that if a mobile phone rang during filming, Cameron would \"nail it to the wall with a nail gun\".", "Composer James Horner was also not immune to Cameron's demands; he recalls having to write music in a short time frame for ''Aliens.''", "After the experience, Horner did not work with Cameron for a decade.", "In 1996, they reconciled their friendship and Horner produced the soundtracks for ''Titanic'' and ''Avatar''.Despite this reputation, Sigourney Weaver has praised Cameron's perfectionism and attention to detail, saying: \"He really does want us to risk our lives and limbs for the shot, but he doesn't mind risking his own\".", "In 2015, Weaver and Jamie Lee Curtis both applauded Cameron in an interview.", "Curtis remarked: \"He can do every other job than acting.", "I'm talking about every single department, from art direction to props to wardrobe to cameras, he knows more than everyone doing the job\".", "Curtis also said Cameron \"loves actors\", while Weaver referred to Cameron as \"so generous to actors\" and a \"genius\".", "Michael Biehn, a frequent collaborator, also praised Cameron, saying he \"is a really passionate person.", "He cares more about his movies than other directors care about their movies\", adding, \"I've never seen him yell at anybody\".", "Biehn acknowledged that Cameron is \"not real sensitive when it comes to actors and their trailers, and waiting for actors to come to the set\".", "Worthington commented: \"He demands excellence.", "If you don't give it to him, you're going to get chewed out.", "And that's a good thing\".", "When asked in 2012 about his reputation, Cameron dryly responded: \"I don't have to shout any more, because the word is out there already\".In 2021, while giving a MasterClass during a break from his work on the ''Avatar'' sequels, Cameron acknowledged his past demanding behaviour, opining that if he could go back in time, he would improve the working relationship with his cast and crew members by being less autocratic, thinking of himself as a \"tinpot dictator\"; Cameron stated that when he visited one of Ron Howard's sets, he was \"dumbfounded\" at how much time Howard took to compliment his crew, aspiring to become \"his inner Ron Howard\".=== Influence ===Cameron's work has had an impact in the Hollywood film industry.", "''The Avengers'' (2012), directed by Joss Whedon, was inspired by Cameron's approach to action sequences.", "Whedon also admires Cameron's ability for writing heroic female characters such as Ellen Ripley of ''Aliens'', adding that he is \"the leader and the teacher and the Yoda\".", "Director Michael Bay idolizes Cameron and was convinced by him to use 3D cameras for filming ''Transformers: Dark of the Moon'' (2011).", "Cameron's approach to 3D inspired Baz Luhrmann during the production of ''The Great Gatsby'' (2013).", "Other directors that have been inspired by Cameron include Peter Jackson, Neill Blomkamp, and Xavier Dolan." ], [ "Filmography", "+Directed feature films Year Title Distributor1982''Piranha II: The Spawning''Saturn International Pictures / Columbia Pictures1984''The Terminator''Orion Pictures1986''Aliens''20th Century Fox1989''The Abyss''1991''Terminator 2: Judgment Day''TriStar Pictures1994''True Lies''20th Century Fox / Universal Pictures1997''Titanic''Paramount Pictures / 20th Century Fox2009''Avatar''20th Century Fox2022''Avatar: The Way of Water''20th Century Studios2025''Avatar 3''2029''Avatar 4''" ], [ "Awards and recognition", "Cameron receiving a star on the alt=Cameron receiving a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in December 2009Cameron received the inaugural Ray Bradbury Award from the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1992 for ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day''.", "In recognition of \"a distinguished career as a Canadian filmmaker\", Carleton University awarded Cameron the honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts on June 13, 1998.Cameron received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1998, presented by Awards Council member George Lucas.", "He also received an honorary doctorate in 1998 from Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, for his accomplishments in the international film industry.", "In 1998, Cameron attended a convocation to receive an honorary degree from Ryerson University, Toronto.", "The university awards its highest honor to those who have made extraordinary contributions in Canada or internationally.", "A year later, Cameron received the honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from California State University, Fullerton.", "He accepted the degree at the university's summer annual commencement exercise.Cameron's work has been recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences; as one of the few directors to have won three Academy Awards in a single year.", "For ''Titanic'', he won Best Director, Best Picture (shared with Jon Landau) and Best Film Editing (shared with Conrad Buff and Richard A. Harris).", "In 2009, he was nominated for awards in Best Film Editing (shared with John Refoua and Stephen E. Rivkin, Best Director and Best Picture for ''Avatar.''", "Cameron has won two Golden Globes: Best Director for ''Titanic'' and ''Avatar''.In recognition of his contributions to underwater filming and remote vehicle technology, University of Southampton awarded Cameron the honorary degree of doctor of the university in July 2004.Cameron accepted the award at the National Oceanography Centre.", "In 2008, Cameron received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame and a year later, received the 2,396th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "On February 28, 2010, Cameron was honored with a Visual Effects Society (VES) Lifetime Achievement Award.", "In June 2012, Cameron was inducted to The Science Fiction Hall of Fame at the Museum of Pop Culture for his contribution to the science fiction and fantasy field.", "Cameron collaborated with Walt Disney Imagineering and served as a creative consultant on Pandora – The World of ''Avatar'', an ''Avatar''-themed land at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida which opened to the public on May 27, 2017.A species of frog, ''Pristimantis jamescameroni,'' was named after Cameron for his work in promoting environmental awareness and advocacy of veganism.In 2010, ''Time'' magazine named Cameron one of the 100 most influential people in the world.", "That same year, he was ranked at the top of the list in ''The Guardian'' Film Power 100 and in 30th place in ''New Statesman's'' list of \"The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010\".", "In 2013, Cameron received the Nierenberg Prize for Science in the Public, which is annually awarded by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.", "In 2019, Cameron was appointed as a Companion of the Order of Canada by Governor General Julie Payette, giving him the Post Nominal Letters \"CC\" for life.In 2020, Cameron was the subject of the second season of the Epicleff Media dramatic podcast ''Blockbuster''.", "The audio drama, created and narrated by Emmy Award-winning journalist and filmmaker Matt Schrader, chronicles Cameron's life and career (leading up to the creation and release of ''Titanic''), and stars actor Ross Marquand in the lead voice role as Cameron.+Awards and nominations received by Cameron's films Year Title Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations Wins1986''Aliens''724111989''The Abyss''411991''Terminator 2: Judgment Day''64321994''True Lies''11111997''Titanic''141110842009''Avatar''9382422022''Avatar: The Way of Water''41212Total4522286167" ], [ "See also", "* Hans Hass Award* James Cameron's unrealized projects* List of people who descended to Challenger Deep* List of vegans" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Matthew Wilhelm Kapell and Stephen McVeigh, The Films of James Cameron: Critical Essays.", "McFarland & Company.", "2011.", "* *" ], [ "External links", " * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Judaism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Judaism''' ( ) is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and widely an ethnic religion.", "It comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jewish people, having originated as an organized religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age.", "Contemporary Judaism evolved from Yahwism, the cultic religious movement of ancient Israel and Judah, around the 6th/5th century BCE, and is thus considered to be one of the oldest monotheistic religions.", "Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of observing the Mosaic covenant, which was established between God and the Israelites, their ancestors.", "Along with the Samaritanism, Judaism is one of the two oldest Abrahamic religions.Jewish religious doctrine encompasses a wide body of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization.", "Among Judaism's core texts is the Torah, the first five books of the Tanakh, a collection of ancient Hebrew scriptures.", "The Tanakh, known in English as the Hebrew Bible, is also referred to as the \"Old Testament\" in Christianity.", "In addition to the original written scripture, the supplemental Oral Torah is represented by later texts, such as the Midrash and the Talmud.", "The Hebrew-language word ''torah'' can mean \"teaching\", \"law\", or \"instruction\", although \"Torah\" can also be used as a general term that refers to any Jewish text that expands or elaborates on the original Five Books of Moses.", "Representing the core of the Jewish spiritual and religious tradition, the Torah is a term and a set of teachings that are explicitly self-positioned as encompassing at least seventy, and potentially infinite, facets and interpretations.", "Judaism's texts, traditions, and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity and Islam.", "Hebraism, like Hellenism, played a seminal role in the formation of Western civilization through its impact as a core background element of Early Christianity.Within Judaism, there are a variety of religious movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah.", "Historically, all or part of this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the Second Temple period; the Karaites during the early and later medieval period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations.", "Some modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be considered secular or nontheistic.", "Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Haredi and Modern Orthodox), Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism.", "Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to ''halakha'' (Jewish law), the authority of the rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel.", "Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and ''halakha'' are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed.", "Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism.", "A typical Reform position is that ''halakha'' should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews.", "Historically, special courts enforced ''halakha''; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary.", "Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the rabbis and scholars who interpret them.Jews are an ethnoreligious group including those born Jewish (or \"ethnic Jews\"), in addition to converts to Judaism.", "In 2021, the world Jewish population was estimated at 15.2 million, or roughly 0.195% of the total world population, although religious observance varies from strict to none.", "In 2021, about 45.6% of all Jews resided in Israel and another 42.1% resided in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other groups spread throughout Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia." ], [ "Etymology", "''Maccabees'' by Wojciech Stattler (1842)The term ''Judaism'' derives from ''Iudaismus'', a Latinized form of the Ancient Greek ''Ioudaismos'' (Ἰουδαϊσμός) (from the verb , \"to side with or imitate the Judeans\").", "Its ultimate source was the Hebrew יהודה, ''Yehudah'', \"Judah\", which is also the source of the Hebrew term for Judaism: יַהֲדוּת, ''Yahadut''.", "The term ''Ἰουδαϊσμός'' first appears in the Hellenistic Greek book of 2 Maccabees in the 2nd century BCE.", "In the context of the age and period it meant \"seeking or forming part of a cultural entity\" and it resembled its antonym ''hellenismos'', a word that signified a people's submission to Hellenic (Greek) cultural norms.", "The conflict between ''iudaismos'' and ''hellenismos'' lay behind the Maccabean revolt and hence the invention of the term ''iudaismos''.Shaye J. D. Cohen writes in his book ''The Beginnings of Jewishness'':According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' the earliest citation in English where the term was used to mean \"the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews\" is Robert Fabyan's ''The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce'' (1516).", "\"Judaism\" as a direct translation of the Latin ''Iudaismus'' first occurred in a 1611 English translation of the apocrypha (Deuterocanon in Catholic and Eastern Orthodoxy), 2 Macc.", "ii.", "21: \"Those that behaved themselves manfully to their honour for Iudaisme.\"" ], [ "History", "===Origins===A painting of Moses decorates the Dura-Europos synagogue dating from 244 CEAt its core, the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple ().", "Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people.", "As a reward for his act of faith in one God, he was promised that Isaac, his second son, would inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan).", "Later, the descendants of Isaac's son Jacob were enslaved in Egypt, and God commanded Moses to lead the Exodus from Egypt.", "At Mount Sinai, they received the Torah—the five books of Moses.", "These books, together with Nevi'im and Ketuvim are known as ''Torah Shebikhtav'' as opposed to the Oral Torah, which refers to the Mishnah and the Talmud.", "Eventually, God led them to the land of Israel where the tabernacle was planted in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years to rally the nation against attacking enemies.", "As time went on, the spiritual level of the nation declined to the point that God allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle.", "The people of Israel then told Samuel the prophet that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, and Samuel appointed Saul to be their King.", "When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint David in his stead.The Western Wall in Jerusalem is a remnant of the wall encircling the Second Temple.", "The Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism.Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law, which are called the ''Oral Torah'' or ''oral law'', were originally an unwritten tradition based upon what God told Moses on Mount Sinai.", "However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by Rabbi Judah HaNasi (Judah the Prince) in the Mishnah, redacted ''circa'' 200 CE.", "The Talmud was a compilation of both the Mishnah and the Gemara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries.", "The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Babylonia.", "Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created.", "The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud.", "It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Palestine.According to critical scholars, the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts.", "Several of these scholars, such as Professor Martin Rose and John Bright, suggest that during the First Temple period the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god was superior to other gods.", "Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile, perhaps in reaction to Zoroastrian dualism.", "In this view, it was only by the Hellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god and that the notion of a clearly bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed.", "John Day argues that the origins of biblical Yahweh, El, Asherah, and Ba'al, may be rooted in earlier Canaanite religion, which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like the Greek pantheon.===Antiquity===Kingdoms of Israel and Judah map 900 BC.According to the Hebrew Bible, a United Monarchy was established under Saul and continued under King David and Solomon with its capital in Jerusalem.", "After Solomon's reign, the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel (in the north) and the Kingdom of Judah (in the south).", "The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire; many people were taken captive from the capital Samaria to Media and the Khabur River valley.", "The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE.", "The Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and the First Temple, which was at the center of ancient Jewish worship.", "The Judeans were exiled to Babylon, in what is regarded as the first Jewish diaspora.", "Later, many of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylon by the Persian Achaemenid Empire seventy years later, an event known as the Return to Zion.", "A Second Temple was constructed and old religious practices were resumed.During the early years of the Second Temple, the highest religious authority was a council known as the Great Assembly, led by Ezra the Scribe.", "Among other accomplishments of the Great Assembly, the last books of the Bible were written at this time and the canon sealed.", "Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BCE, and its creation sparked widespread controversy in Jewish communities, starting \"conflicts within Jewish communities about accommodating the cultures of occupying powers.", "\"During the Great Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE), the Romans sacked Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.", "Later, Roman emperor Hadrian built a pagan idol on the Temple Mount and prohibited circumcision; these acts of ethnocide provoked the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE), after which the Romans banned the study of the Torah and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea.", "In 200 CE, however, Jews were granted Roman citizenship and Judaism was recognized as a ''religio licita'' (\"legitimate religion\") until the rise of Gnosticism and Early Christianity in the fourth century.Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around the community (represented by a minimum of ten adult men) and the establishment of the authority of rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities." ], [ "Defining characteristics and principles of faith", "Kennicott Bible, a 1476 Spanish TanakhUnlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people he created.", "Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism: the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of mankind.", "According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation.", "Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world.", "He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God's love for people.Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism (Kabbalah), Rabbinic scholar Max Kadushin has characterized normative Judaism as \"normal mysticism\", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews.", "This is played out through the observance of the ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and given verbal expression in the Birkat Ha-Mizvot, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled:Whereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether God is immanent or transcendent, and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, ''halakha'' is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world.Ethical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism.", "However, monotheism has not always been followed in practice.", "The Hebrew Bible (or ''Tanakh'') records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient Israel.", "In the Greco-Roman era, many different interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism, including the interpretations that gave rise to Christianity.Moreover, some have argued that Judaism is a non-creedal religion that does not require one to believe in God.", "For some, observance of ''halakha'' is more important than belief in God ''per se''.", "The debate about whether one can speak of authentic or normative Judaism is not only a debate among religious Jews but also among historians.In continental Europe, Judaism is heavily associated with and most often thought of as Orthodox Judaism.===Core tenets===In the strict sense, in Judaism, unlike Christianity and Islam, there are no fixed universally binding articles of faith, due to their incorporation into the liturgy.", "Scholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets, all of which have met with criticism.", "The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in the 12th century.", "According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.", "Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides' principles.", "Thus, within Reform Judaism only the first five principles are endorsed.In Maimonides' time, his list of tenets was criticized by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo.", "Albo and the Raavad argued that Maimonides' principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faithAlong these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe ''halakha'' and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs.", "Maimonides' principles were largely ignored over the next few centuries.", "Later, two poetic restatements of these principles (\"''Ani Ma'amin''\" and \"''Yigdal''\") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies, leading to their eventual near-universal acceptance.The oldest non-Rabbinic instance of articles of faith were formulated, under Islamic influence, by the 12th century Karaite figure Judah ben Elijah Hadassi:In modern times, Judaism lacks a centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma.", "Because of this, many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism.", "Even so, all Jewish religious movements are, to a greater or lesser extent, based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible or various commentaries such as the Talmud and Midrash.", "Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical Covenant between God and the Patriarch Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to Moses, who is considered Judaism's greatest prophet.", "In the Mishnah, a core text of Rabbinic Judaism, acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the World to Come.Establishing the core tenets of Judaism in the modern era is even more difficult, given the number and diversity of the contemporary Jewish denominations.", "Even if to restrict the problem to the most influential intellectual trends of the nineteenth and twentieth century, the matter remains complicated.", "Thus, for instance, Joseph Soloveitchik's (associated with the Modern Orthodox movement) answer to modernity is constituted upon the identification of Judaism with following the ''halakha'' whereas its ultimate goal is to bring the holiness down to the world.", "Mordecai Kaplan, the founder of the Reconstructionist Judaism, abandons the idea of religion for the sake of identifying Judaism with civilization and by means of the latter term and secular translation of the core ideas, he tries to embrace as many Jewish denominations as possible.", "In turn, Solomon Schechter's Conservative Judaism was identical with the tradition understood as the interpretation of Torah, in itself being the history of the constant updates and adjustment of the Law performed by means of the creative interpretation.", "Finally, David Philipson draws the outlines of the Reform movement in Judaism by opposing it to the strict and traditional rabbinical approach and thus comes to the conclusions similar to that of the Conservative movement." ], [ "Religious texts", "Aleppo Codex, a Tanakh produced in Tiberias in the 10th centuryThe following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought:* Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and Rabbinic literature Mesorah Targum** Jewish Biblical exegesis (also see Midrash below)* Works of the Talmudic Era (classic rabbinic literature) Mishnah and commentaries Tosefta and the minor tractates Talmud:* The Babylonian Talmud and commentaries*** Jerusalem Talmud and commentaries* Midrashic literature: Halakhic Midrash Aggadic Midrash* Halakhic literature Major codes of Jewish law and custom* Mishneh Torah and commentaries* Tur and commentaries* Shulchan Aruch and commentaries** Responsa literature* Thought and ethics Jewish philosophy Musar literature and other works of Jewish ethics Kabbalah Hasidic works* Siddur and Jewish liturgy* ''Piyyut'' (Classical Jewish poetry)Sephardi-style torah at the Western Wall, Jerusalem===Legal literature===The basis of ''halakha'' and tradition is the Torah (also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses).", "According to rabbinic tradition, there are 613 commandments in the Torah.", "Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups, the Kohanim and Leviyim (members of the tribe of Levi), some only to farmers within the Land of Israel.", "Many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and only 369 of these commandments are still applicable today.While there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g., the Sadducees, and the Karaites), most Jews believe in the oral law.", "These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee school of thought of ancient Judaism and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis.According to Rabbinical Jewish tradition, God gave both the Written Law (the Torah) and the Oral Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.", "The Oral law is the oral tradition as relayed by God to Moses and from him, transmitted and taught to the sages (rabbinic leaders) of each subsequent generation.For centuries, the Torah appeared only as a written text transmitted in parallel with the oral tradition.", "Fearing that the oral teachings might be forgotten, Rabbi Judah haNasi undertook the mission of consolidating the various opinions into one body of law which became known as the ''Mishnah''.The Mishnah consists of 63 tractates codifying ''halakha'', which are the basis of the Talmud.", "According to Abraham ben David, the ''Mishnah'' was compiled by Rabbi Judah haNasi after the destruction of Jerusalem, in anno mundi 3949, which corresponds to 189 CE.Over the next four centuries, the Mishnah underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in Israel and Babylonia).", "The commentaries from each of these communities were eventually compiled into the two Talmuds, the Jerusalem Talmud (''Talmud Yerushalmi'') and the Babylonian Talmud (''Talmud Bavli'').", "These have been further expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages.In the text of the Torah, many words are left undefined, and many procedures are mentioned without explanation or instructions.", "Such phenomena are sometimes offered to validate the viewpoint that the Written Law has always been transmitted with a parallel oral tradition, illustrating the assumption that the reader is already familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, sources.", "''Halakha'', the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition—the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries.", "The ''halakha'' has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system.", "The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa (in Hebrew, ''Sheelot U-Teshuvot''.)", "Over time, as practices develop, codes of ''halakha'' are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the Shulchan Aruch, largely determines Orthodox religious practice today.===Jewish philosophy===Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba, SpainJewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology.", "Major Jewish philosophers include Philo of Alexandria, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Judah Halevi, Maimonides, and Gersonides.", "Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers.", "Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy.", "Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, Joseph B. Soloveitchik, and Yitzchok Hutner.", "Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Will Herberg, and Emmanuel Lévinas.===Rabbinic hermeneutics===Orthodox and many other Jews do not believe that the revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents, but of its interpretations as well.", "The study of Torah (in its widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance.", "For the sages of the Mishnah and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to learn the contents of God's revelation, but an end in itself.", "According to the Talmud:In Judaism, \"the study of Torah can be a means of experiencing God\".", "Reflecting on the contribution of the Amoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism, Professor Jacob Neusner observed:To study the Written Torah and the Oral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study ''how'' to study the word of God.In the study of Torah, the sages formulated and followed various logical and hermeneutical principles.", "According to David Stern, all Rabbinic hermeneutics rest on two basic axioms:These two principles make possible a great variety of interpretations.", "According to the Talmud:Observant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic, because it contains within it a host of interpretations.According to Rabbinic tradition, all valid interpretations of the written Torah were revealed to Moses at Sinai in oral form, and handed down from teacher to pupil (The oral revelation is in effect coextensive with the Talmud itself).", "When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interpretations, they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic principles to legitimize their arguments; some rabbis claim that these principles were themselves revealed by God to Moses at Sinai.Thus, Hillel called attention to seven commonly used hermeneutical principles in the interpretation of laws (baraita at the beginning of Sifra); R. Ishmael, thirteen (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is largely an amplification of that of Hillel).", "Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili listed 32, largely used for the exegesis of narrative elements of Torah.", "All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the Talmudim and Midrashim have been collected by Malbim in ''Ayyelet ha-Shachar'', the introduction to his commentary on the Sifra.", "Nevertheless, R. Ishmael's 13 principles are perhaps the ones most widely known; they constitute an important, and one of Judaism's earliest, contributions to logic, hermeneutics, and jurisprudence.", "Judah Hadassi incorporated Ishmael's principles into Karaite Judaism in the 12th century.", "Today R. Ishmael's 13 principles are incorporated into the Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a daily basis." ], [ "Jewish identity", "===Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism===According to Daniel Boyarin, the underlying distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism itself, and is one form of the dualism between spirit and flesh that has its origin in Platonic philosophy and that permeated Hellenistic Judaism.", "Consequently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture.", "Boyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of Judaism's more than 3,000-year history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West (that is, Europe, particularly medieval and modern Europe).", "During this time, Jews experienced slavery, anarchic and theocratic self-government, conquest, occupation, and exile.", "In the Jewish diaspora, they were in contact with, and influenced by, ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, and Hellenic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the Enlightenment (see Haskalah) and the rise of nationalism, which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in their ancient homeland, the Land of Israel.", "Thus, Boyarin has argued that \"Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension.", "\"In contrast to this point of view, practices such as Humanistic Judaism reject the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions.===Who is a Jew?===According to Rabbinic Judaism, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who converted to Judaism in accordance with ''halakha''.", "Reconstructionist Judaism and the larger denominations of worldwide Progressive Judaism (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches.", "All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud.", "The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge.", "Converts are called \"ben Abraham\" or \"bat Abraham\", (son or daughter of Abraham).", "Conversions have on occasion been overturned.", "In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi.Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever.", "Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish.", "According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew, and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes.", "However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions.", "For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism \"without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community\" and \"A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew\".Karaite Judaism believes that Jewish identity can only be transmitted by patrilineal descent.", "Although a minority of modern Karaites believe that Jewish identity requires that both parents be Jewish, and not only the father.", "They argue that only patrilineal descent can transmit Jewish identity on the grounds that all descent in the Torah went according to the male line.The question of what determines Jewish identity in the State of Israel was given new impetus when, in the 1950s, David Ben-Gurion requested opinions on ''mihu Yehudi'' (\"Who is a Jew\") from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citizenship questions.", "This is still not settled, and occasionally resurfaces in Israeli politics.Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on ''halakhic'' definitions of matrilineal descent, and ''halakhic'' conversions.", "Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE.", "Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and Canaanites because \"the non-Jewish husband will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods (i.e., idols) of others.\"", "Leviticus 24 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is \"of the community of Israel.\"", "This is complemented by Ezra 10, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.", "A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.", "Since the anti-religious ''Haskalah'' movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, ''halakhic'' interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.===Jewish demographics===The total number of Jews worldwide is difficult to assess because the definition of \"who is a Jew\" is problematic; not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish, and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews.", "According to the ''Jewish Year Book'' (1901), the global Jewish population in 1900 was around 11 million.", "The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population Survey of 2002 and the Jewish Year Calendar (2005).", "In 2002, according to the Jewish Population Survey, there were 13.3 million Jews around the world.", "The Jewish Year Calendar cites 14.6 million.", "It is 0.25% of world population.", "Jewish population growth is currently near zero percent, with 0.3% growth from 2000 to 2001.The overall growth rate of Jews in Israel is 1.7% annually, and is consistently growing through natural population growth and extensive immigration.", "The diaspora countries, by contrast, have low Jewish birth rates, an increasingly elderly age composition, high rates of interreligious marriage and a negative balance of people leaving Judaism versus those joining.In 2022, the world Jewish population was estimated at 15.2 million, the majority live in one of only two countires: Israel and the United States.", "About 46.6% of all Jews resided in Israel (6.9 million) and another 6 million Jews resided in the United States, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other groups spread throughout Canada, Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia." ], [ "Jewish religious movements", "===Rabbinic Judaism===Rabbinic Judaism (or in some older sources, Rabbinism; Hebrew: \"Yahadut Rabanit\" – יהדות רבנית) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud.", "It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (Written Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the Law.The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Western Jewry (primeraly, the Ashkenazi, but also western part of Sephardim and Italian rite Jews, a.k.a.", "''Italkim'', and Greek Romaniote Jews—both last groups are considered distinct from Ashkenazim and Sephardim) into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries.", "The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different) are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform.", "The notion \"traditional Judaism\" includes the Orthodox with Conservative or solely the Orthodox Jews:Two Haredi Jewish couples at a bus stop in Jerusalem Hasids at front of Belz Great Synagogue, Jerusalem* Orthodox Judaism holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to Moses and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging.", "Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the ''Shulchan Aruch'' (a condensed codification of ''halakha'' that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of ''halakha''.", "Orthodoxy places a high importance on Maimonides' 13 principles as a definition of Jewish faith.", ":Orthodoxy is often divided into Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism.", "Haredi is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from Modern Orthodox Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices.", "Subsets of Haredi Judaism along both ethnic and ideological lines include Hardal (\"Nationalist Haredi\" within Religious Zionism); Hasidic Judaism, which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a Rebbe or religious teacher; their traditionalist opponents the ''Misnagdim'' (also known as Lithuanian or ''Lita'im''); and Sephardic Haredi Judaism, which emerged among Sephardic and Mizrahi (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel.", "\"Centrist\" Orthodoxy (Joseph B. Soloveitchik) is sometimes also distinguished.Conservative women rabbis, Israel* Conservative Judaism (known as ''Masorti Judaism'' outside North America and Israel) is characterized by a commitment to traditional ''halakha'' and customs, including observance of Shabbat and kashrut, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts.", "Conservative Judaism teaches that ''halakha'' is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions.", "It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses.", "Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.", "* Reform Judaism, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the Prophets.", "Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.", "* Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that ''halakha'', as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow.", "It sometimes recognized as the 4th major stream of Judaism.", "* Jewish Renewal is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of ''halakha''.", "Men and women participate equally in prayer.", "* Humanistic Judaism is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity.", "* Subbotniks (Sabbatarians) are a movement of Jews of Russian ethnic origin in the 18th–20th centuries, the majority of whom belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism.", "Many settled in the Holy Land as part of the Zionist First Aliyah in order to escape oppression in the Russian Empire and later mostly intermarried with other Jews, their descendants included Alexander Zaïd, Major-General Alik Ron, and the mother of Ariel Sharon.====Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism====El Ghriba synagogue in Djerba, TunisiaWhile traditions and customs vary between discrete communities, it can be said that Sephardi (Iberian, for example, most Jews from France and the Netherlands) and Mizrahi (Oriental) Jewish communities do not generally adhere to the \"movement\" framework popular in and among Ashkenazi Jewry.", "Historically, Sephardi and Mizrahi communities have eschewed denominations in favour of a \"big tent\" approach.", "This is particularly the case in contemporary Israel, which is home to the largest communities of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in the world.", "(However, individual Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews or some their communities may be members of or attend synagogues that do adhere to one Ashkenazi-inflected movement or another.)", "Among the pioneers of Reform Judaism in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation Beth Elohim in Charleston, South Carolina.", "A part of the European Sephardim were also linked with the Judaic modernization.Sephardi and Mizrahi observance of Judaism tends toward the traditional (Orthodox) and prayer rites are reflective of this, with the text of each rite being largely unchanged since their respective inception.", "Observant Sephardim may follow the teachings of a particular rabbi or school of thought; for example, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel.====Jewish movements in Israel====In Israel, as in the West, Judaism is also divided into major Orthodox, Conservative and Reform traditions.", "At the same time, for statistical and practical purposes, a different division of society is used there on the basis of a person's attitude to religion.Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as \"secular\" (''hiloni''), \"traditional\" (''masorti''), \"religious\" (''dati'') or \"ultra-religious\" (''haredi'').", "The term \"secular\" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice.", "This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative).The term \"traditional\" (''masorti'') is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of \"eastern\" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa).", "This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with Conservative Judaism, which also names itself \"Masorti\" outside North America.", "Only a few authors, like Elliot Nelson Dorff, consider the American Conservative (masorti) movement and Israeli masorti sector to be one and the same.", "There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways \"secular\" and \"traditional\" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance.", "The term \"Orthodox\" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the Jewish diaspora.", "What would be called \"Orthodox\" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called ''dati'' (religious, including religious zionist) or ''haredi'' (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel.", "The former term includes what is called \"religious Zionism\" or the \"National Orthodox\" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as ''haredi-leumi'' (nationalist ''haredi''), or \"Hardal\", which combines a largely ''haredi'' lifestyle with nationalist ideology.", "(Some people, in Yiddish, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as ''frum'', as opposed to ''frei'' (more liberal Jews)).===Karaites and Samaritans===Karaite Judaism defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the Second Temple period, such as the Sadducees.", "The Karaites (\"Scripturalists\") accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the Peshat (\"simple\" meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative.", "Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do.The Samaritans, a very small community located entirely around Mount Gerizim in the Nablus/Shechem region of the West Bank and in Holon, near Tel Aviv in Israel, regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of the Iron Age kingdom of Israel.", "Their religious practices are based on the literal text of the written Torah (Five Books of Moses), which they view as the only authoritative scripture (with a special regard also for the Samaritan Book of Joshua).Beta Israeli Kahen at the Western Wall===Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism)===Haymanot (meaning \"religion\" in Ge'ez and Amharic) refers the Judaism practiced by Ethiopian Jews.", "This version of Judaism differs substantially from Rabbinic, Karaite, and Samaritan Judaisms, Ethiopian Jews having diverged from their coreligionists earlier.", "Sacred scriptures (the Orit) are written in Ge'ez, not Hebrew, and dietary laws are based strictly on the text of the Orit, without explication from ancillary commentaries.", "Holidays also differ, with some Rabbinic holidays not observed in Ethiopian Jewish communities, and some additional holidays, like Sigd.=== Noahide (''B'nei Noah'' movement) ===Noahidism is a Jewish religious movement based on the Seven Laws of Noah and their traditional interpretations within Rabbinic Judaism.", "According to the ''halakha'', non-Jews (gentiles) are not obligated to convert to Judaism, but they are required to observe the Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in the World to Come (Olam Ha-Ba), the final reward of the righteous.", "The divinely ordained penalty for violating any of the Laws of Noah is discussed in the Talmud, but in practical terms it is subject to the working legal system which is established by the society at large.", "Those who subscribe to the observance of the Noahic Covenant are referred to as ''B'nei Noach'' (Hebrew: בני נח, \"Children of Noah\") or ''Noahides'' (/ˈnoʊ.ə.haɪdɪs/).", "Supporting organizations have been established around the world over the past decades by both Noahides and Orthodox Jews.Historically, the Hebrew term ''B'nei Noach'' has applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah.", "However, nowadays it's primarily used to refer specifically to those non-Jews who observe the Seven Laws of Noah." ], [ "Jewish observances", "===Jewish ethics===Jewish ethics may be guided by ''halakhic'' traditions, by other moral principles, or by central Jewish virtues.", "Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness (chesed), compassion, humility, and self-respect.", "Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity (tzedakah) and refraining from negative speech (lashon hara).", "Proper ethical practices regarding sexuality and many other issues are subjects of dispute among Jews.===Prayers===A Yemenite Jew at morning prayers, wearing a kippah skullcap, prayer shawl and tefillinTraditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with a fourth prayer, Mussaf added on Shabbat and holidays.", "At the heart of each service is the ''Amidah'' or ''Shemoneh Esrei''.", "Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the ''Shema Yisrael'' (or ''Shema'').", "The ''Shema'' is the recitation of a verse from the Torah (Deuteronomy 6:4): ''Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad''—\"Hear, O Israel!", "The Lord is our God!", "The Lord is One!", "\"An Israeli female soldier prays at the Western WallMost of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer, although communal prayer is preferred.", "Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult Jews, called a ''minyan''.", "In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male Jews are counted toward a ''minyan''; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well.In addition to prayer services, observant traditional Jews recite prayers and benedictions throughout the day when performing various acts.", "Prayers are recited upon waking up in the morning, before eating or drinking different foods, after eating a meal, and so on.The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations.", "Differences can include the texts of prayers, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular.", "In general, Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services.", "Also, in most Conservative synagogues, and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an equal basis with men, including roles traditionally filled only by men, such as reading from the Torah.", "In addition, many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs.===Religious clothing===Jewish boys wearing tzitzit and kippot play soccer in JerusalemMen wearing tallitot pray at the Western WallA ''kippah'' (Hebrew: כִּפָּה, plural ''kippot''; Yiddish: יאַרמלקע, ''yarmulke'') is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying, eating, reciting blessings, or studying Jewish religious texts, and at all times by some Jewish men.", "In Orthodox communities, only men wear kippot; in non-Orthodox communities, some women also wear kippot.", "''Kippot'' range in size from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head to a large, snug cap that covers the whole crown.", "''Tzitzit'' (Hebrew: צִיציִת) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: ''tzitzis'') are special knotted \"fringes\" or \"tassels\" found on the four corners of the ''tallit'' (Hebrew: טַלִּית) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: ''tallis''), or prayer shawl.", "The ''tallit'' is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service.", "Customs vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit.", "In the Sephardi community, boys wear a tallit from bar mitzvah age.", "In some Ashkenazi communities, it is customary to wear one only after marriage.", "A ''tallit katan'' (small tallit) is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day.", "In some Orthodox circles, the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing.Tefillin (Hebrew: תְפִלִּין), known in English as phylacteries (from the Greek word φυλακτήριον, meaning ''safeguard'' or ''amulet''), are two square leather boxes containing biblical verses, attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps.", "They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men and some Jewish women.A ''kittel'' (Yiddish: קיטל), a white knee-length overgarment, is worn by prayer leaders and some observant traditional Jews on the High Holidays.", "It is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover seder in some communities, and some grooms wear one under the wedding canopy.", "Jewish males are buried in a ''tallit'' and sometimes also a ''kittel'' which are part of the ''tachrichim'' (burial garments).===Jewish holidays===Jewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar, which celebrate moments in Jewish history, as well as central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption.====Shabbat====challot placed under an embroidered challah cover at the start of the Shabbat meal''Shabbat'', the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly before sundown on Friday night to nightfall on Saturday night, commemorates God's day of rest after six days of creation.", "It plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law.", "At sundown on Friday, the woman of the house welcomes the Shabbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing.", "The evening meal begins with the Kiddush, a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine, and the Mohtzi, a blessing recited over the bread.", "It is customary to have challah, two braided loaves of bread, on the table.", "During Shabbat, Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under 39 categories of ''melakhah'', translated literally as \"work\".", "In fact, the activities banned on the Sabbath are not \"work\" in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a fire, writing, using money and carrying in the public domain.", "The prohibition of lighting a fire has been extended in the modern era to driving a car, which involves burning fuel and using electricity.====Three pilgrimage festivals====Jewish holy days (''chaggim''), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle.", "The three major festivals, Sukkot, Passover and Shavuot, are called \"regalim\" (derived from the Hebrew word \"regel\", or foot).", "On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple:* A haggadah used by the Jewish community of Cairo in Arabic Passover (''Pesach'') is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from Egypt.", "Outside Israel, Passover is celebrated for eight days.", "In ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest.", "It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the Seder.", "Leavened products (chametz) are removed from the house prior to the holiday and are not consumed throughout the week.", "Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder.", "Matzo is eaten instead of bread.", "* Shavuot (\"Pentecost\" or \"Feast of Weeks\") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai.", "Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest.", "Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot, eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites), reading the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symbolizing purity.", "* A sukkah Sukkot (\"Tabernacles\" or \"The Festival of Booths\") commemorates the Israelites' forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land.", "It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called ''sukkot'' (sing.", "''sukkah'') that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering.", "It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle.", "Jews around the world eat in ''sukkot'' for seven days and nights.", "Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for rain and Simchat Torah, \"Rejoicing of the Torah\", a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again.", "The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls.", "Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.Jews in Mumbai break the Yom Kippur fast with roti and samosas====High Holy Days====The High Holidays (''Yamim Noraim'' or \"Days of Awe\") revolve around judgment and forgiveness:* Rosh Hashanah, (also ''Yom Ha-Zikkaron'' or \"Day of Remembrance\", and ''Yom Teruah'', or \"Day of the Sounding of the Shofar\").", "Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year (literally, \"head of the year\"), although it falls on the first day of the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar, Tishri.", "Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the 10-day period of atonement leading up to Yom Kippur, during which Jews are commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed, intentionally or not, throughout the year.", "Holiday customs include blowing the shofar, or ram's horn, in the synagogue, eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as pomegranates.", "* Yom Kippur, (\"Day of Atonement\") is the holiest day of the Jewish year.", "It is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for one's sins.", "Observant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue, sometimes with a short break in the afternoon, reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a \"Machzor\".", "Many non-religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on Yom Kippur.", "On the eve of Yom Kippur, before candles are lit, a prefast meal, the \"seuda mafseket\", is eaten.", "Synagogue services on the eve of Yom Kippur begin with the Kol Nidre prayer.", "It is customary to wear white on Yom Kippur, especially for Kol Nidre, and leather shoes are not worn.", "The following day, prayers are held from morning to evening.", "The final prayer service, called \"Ne'ilah\", ends with a long blast of the shofar.====Purim====Purim street scene in JerusalemJewish personnel of the US Navy light candles on HanukkahPurim (Hebrew: ''Pûrîm'' \"lots\") is a joyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from the plot of the evil Haman, who sought to exterminate them, as recorded in the biblical Book of Esther.", "It is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther, mutual gifts of food and drink, charity to the poor, and a celebratory meal (Esther 9:22).", "Other customs include drinking wine, eating special pastries called hamantashen, dressing up in masks and costumes, and organizing carnivals and parties.Purim has celebrated annually on the 14th of the Hebrew month of Adar, which occurs in February or March of the Gregorian calendar.====Hanukkah====Hanukkah (, \"dedication\") also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of Kislev (Hebrew calendar).", "The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on.The holiday was called Hanukkah (meaning \"dedication\") because it marks the re-dedication of the Temple after its desecration by Antiochus IV Epiphanes.", "Spiritually, Hanukkah commemorates the \"Miracle of the Oil\".", "According to the Talmud, at the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem following the victory of the Maccabees over the Seleucid Empire, there was only enough consecrated oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day.", "Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days—which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate new oil.Hanukkah is not mentioned in the Bible and was never considered a major holiday in Judaism, but it has become much more visible and widely celebrated in modern times, mainly because it falls around the same time as Christmas and has national Jewish overtones that have been emphasized since the establishment of the State of Israel.====Fast days====Tisha B'Av ( or , \"the Ninth of Av\") is a day of mourning and fasting commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples, and in later times, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain.There are three more minor Jewish fast days that commemorate various stages of the destruction of the Temples.", "They are the 17th Tamuz, the 10th of Tevet and Tzom Gedaliah (the 3rd of Tishrei).====Israeli holidays====The modern holidays of Yom Ha-shoah (Holocaust Remembrance Day), Yom Hazikaron (Israeli Memorial Day) and Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israeli Independence Day) commemorate the horrors of the Holocaust, the fallen soldiers of Israel and victims of terrorism, and Israeli independence, respectively.There are some who prefer to commemorate those who were killed in the Holocaust on the 10th of Tevet.A man reads a torah using a yad===Torah readings===The core of festival and Shabbat prayer services is the public reading of the Torah, along with connected readings from the other books of the Tanakh, called Haftarah.", "Over the course of a year, the whole Torah is read, with the cycle starting over in the autumn, on Simchat Torah.===Synagogues and religious buildings===The Sarajevo Synagogue in Sarajevo, Bosnia and HerzegovinaGreat Synagogue (Jerusalem)Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study.", "They usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use.", "There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly.", "The Reform movement mostly refer to their synagogues as temples.", "Some traditional features of a synagogue are:Congregation Emanu-El of New York* The ark (called ''aron ha-kodesh'' by Ashkenazim and ''hekhal'' by Sephardim) where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (''parochet'') outside or inside the ark doors);* The elevated reader's platform (called ''bimah'' by Ashkenazim and ''tebah'' by Sephardim), where the Torah is read (and services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues);* The eternal light (''ner tamid''), a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem* The pulpit, or ''amud'', a lectern facing the Ark where the hazzan or prayer leader stands while praying.In addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include yeshivas, or institutions of Jewish learning, and mikvahs, which are ritual baths.===Dietary laws: ''kashrut''===The Jewish dietary laws are known as ''kashrut''.", "Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as ''treifah'' or ''treif''.", "People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be \"keeping kosher\".Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods.", "For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud.", "The pig is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal.", "Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud.", "For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales.", "Certain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered non-kosher.", "Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the Torah.", "The exact translations of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain.", "However, traditions exist about the ''kashrut'' status of a few birds.", "For example, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities.", "Other types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether.In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as ''shechitah''.", "Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered ''treif''.", "The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal.", "Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve.", "''Halakha'' also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together.", "The waiting period between eating meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community and can extend for up to six hours.", "Based on the Biblical injunction against cooking a kid in its mother's milk, this rule is mostly derived from the Oral Torah, the Talmud and Rabbinic law.", "Chicken and other kosher birds are considered the same as meat under the laws of ''kashrut'', but the prohibition is rabbinic, not biblical.The use of dishes, serving utensils, and ovens may make food ''treif'' that would otherwise be kosher.", "Utensils that have been used to prepare non-kosher food, or dishes that have held meat and are now used for dairy products, render the food ''treif'' under certain conditions.Furthermore, all Orthodox and some Conservative authorities forbid the consumption of processed grape products made by non-Jews, due to ancient pagan practices of using wine in rituals.", "Some Conservative authorities permit wine and grape juice made without rabbinic supervision.The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of ''kashrut''.", "However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community.", "The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons.", "For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained.", "In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because \"they are unclean\".", "The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating.Survival concerns supersede all the laws of ''kashrut'', as they do for most ''halakhot''.===Laws of ritual purity===The Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is ''tahor'' or ritually pure may become ''tamei'' or ritually impure.", "Some of these circumstances are contact with human corpses or graves, seminal flux, vaginal flux, menstruation, and contact with people who have become impure from any of these.", "In Rabbinic Judaism, Kohanim, members of the hereditary caste that served as priests in the time of the Temple, are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies.", "During the Temple period, such priests (Kohanim) were required to eat their bread offering (Terumah) in a state of ritual purity, which laws eventually led to more rigid laws being enacted, such as hand-washing which became a requisite of all Jews before consuming ordinary bread.====Family purity====Museum of Jewish Art and HistoryAn important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating women.", "These laws are also known as ''niddah'', literally \"separation\", or family purity.", "Vital aspects of ''halakha'' for traditionally observant Jews, they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal denominations.Especially in Orthodox Judaism, the Biblical laws are augmented by Rabbinical injunctions.", "For example, the Torah mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from sexual intercourse for seven days.", "A woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped.", "The Rabbis conflated ordinary ''niddah'' with this extended menstrual period, known in the Torah as ''zavah'', and mandated that a woman may not have sexual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her menstrual flow until seven days after it ends.", "In addition, Rabbinical law forbids the husband from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period.", "Afterwards, purification can occur in a ritual bath called a mikvehTraditional Ethiopian Jews keep menstruating women in separate huts and, similar to Karaite practice, do not allow menstruating women into their temples because of a temple's special sanctity.", "Emigration to Israel and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to Ethiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices.Two boys wearing tallit at a bar mitzvah.", "The torah is visible in the foreground.===Life-cycle events===Life-cycle events, or rites of passage, occur throughout a Jew's life that serves to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him/her to the entire community:* – Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life.", "The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony.", "A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named ''zeved habat'' or brit bat, enjoys limited popularity.", "* Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah – This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations.", "In the Reform movement, both girls and boys have their bat/bar mitzvah at age thirteen.", "This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Orthodox tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a \"portion\" of the Torah.", "* Marriage – Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event and an ideal human state.", "A wedding takes place under a ''chuppah'', or wedding canopy, which symbolizes a happy house.", "At the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people.", "An intermarriage is prohibited, except as within Reform Judaism:''Le Get'' (The Divorce) by Moshe Rynecki, * Divorce – Divorce is allowed in accordance with Halakha.", "The divorce ceremony involves the husband giving the short document written in Aramaic into the hand of the wife in rabbinical court, that is all.", "But, since the 11th century among the Ashkenazim and many Sephardim a divorce became prohibited against will of a wife, than a man had way for polygamy.", "The ''get'' contains declaration: \"You are hereby permitted to all men.", "\"tish'', Bnei Brak, Israel* Death and Mourning () – The ''Torah'' requires burial as soon as possible, even for executed criminals.", "Judaism has a multi-staged mourning practice.", "The first stage is called the shiva (literally \"seven\", observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the ''shloshim'' (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, ''avelut yud bet chodesh'', which is observed for eleven months.", "A cremation within Orthodox Judaism permited only by some leading rabbis in West Europe." ], [ "Community leadership", "===Classical priesthood===Jewish students with their teacher in Samarkand, Uzbekistan .The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices.", "The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities.", "Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty:* Kohen (priest) – patrilineal descendant of Aaron, brother of Moses.", "In the Temple, the ''kohanim'' were charged with performing the sacrifices.", "Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the Priestly Blessing, as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born.", "* Levi (Levite) – Patrilineal descendant of Levi the son of Jacob.", "In the Temple in Jerusalem, the levites sang Psalms, performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public.", "Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.===Prayer leaders===Magen David Synagogue in Kolkata, IndiaFrom the time of the Mishnah and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies.", "A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself.", "Some activities—reading the Torah and ''haftarah'' (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals—require a ''minyan'', the presence of ten Jews.The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are:* Rabbi of a congregation – Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation.", "This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries).", "A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi.", "Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as ''shatz'' or ''baal kriyah'' (see below).", "** Hassidic ''Rebbe'' – rabbi who is the head of a Hasidic dynasty.", "* Hazzan (note: the \"h\" denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative) (cantor) – a trained vocalist who acts as ''shatz''.", "Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them.", "A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations.", "In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis:* Shaliach tzibur or ''Shatz'' (leader—literally \"agent\" or \"representative\"—of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community.", "When a ''shatz'' recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is ''not'' acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator.", "The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying ''amen'' at their conclusion; it is with this act that the ''shatz's'' prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation.", "Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as ''shatz''.", "In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function.", "* The Baal kriyah or ''baal koreh'' (master of the reading) reads the weekly Torah portion.", "The requirements for being the ''baal kriyah'' are the same as those for the ''shatz''.", "These roles are not mutually exclusive.", "The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does.", "Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each.Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:* Gabbai (sexton) – Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the ''shatz'' for each prayer session if there is no standard ''shatz'', and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor.", "Since the Enlightenment large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as ''shatz'' and ''baal kriyah'', and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations.", "However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis.", "Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still.Yemeni sofer writing a torah in the 1930s===Specialized religious roles===* ''Dayan'' (judge) – An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a ''beth din'' (rabbinical court).", "In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community.", "* Mohel (circumciser) – An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified ''mohel'' and performs the ''brit milah'' (circumcision).", "* Shochet (ritual slaughterer) – In order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a ''shochet'' who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another ''shochet.", "''* Sofer (scribe) – Torah scrolls, ''tefillin'' (phylacteries), ''mezuzot'' (scrolls put on doorposts), and ''gittin'' (bills of divorce) must be written by a ''sofer'' who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts.", "* Rosh yeshiva – A Torah scholar who runs a yeshiva.", "* Mashgiach/Mashgicha of a yeshiva – Depending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on mussar (Jewish ethics).", "* Mashgiach/Mashgicha – Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher.", "Must be an expert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself or herself.===Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)===Around the 1st century CE, there were several small Jewish sects: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, Essenes, and Christians.", "After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished.", "Christianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the Pharisees survived but in the form of Rabbinic Judaism (today, known simply as \"Judaism\").", "The Sadducees rejected the divine inspiration of the Prophets and the Writings, relying only on the Torah as divinely inspired.", "Consequently, a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Sadducees.", "(The Samaritans practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.", ")Like the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the Mishnah (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh.", "These included the Isunians, the Yudganites, the Malikites, and others.", "They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the Karaite sect.", "Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel.", "Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous.Over a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas—amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of central and Eastern Europe), the Sephardi Jews (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, the Yemenite Jews from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and the Malabari and Cochin Jews from Kerala .", "Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however, these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute.===Persecutions===Antisemitism arose during the Middle Ages, in the form of persecutions, pogroms, forced conversions, expulsions, social restrictions and ghettoization.This was different in quality from the repressions of Jews which had occurred in ancient times.", "Ancient repressions were politically motivated and Jews were treated the same as members of other ethnic groups.", "With the rise of the Churches, the main motive for attacks on Jews changed from politics to religion and the religious motive for such attacks was specifically derived from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.", "During the Middle Ages, Jewish people who lived under Muslim rule generally experienced tolerance and integration, but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like Almohad's persecutions.===Hasidism===Hasidic Judaism was founded by Yisroel ben Eliezer (1700–1760), also known as the ''Ba'al Shem Tov'' (or ''Besht'').", "It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too \"academic\", and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy.", "Its adherents favored small and informal gatherings called Shtiebel, which, in contrast to a traditional synagogue, could be used both as a place of worship and for celebrations involving dancing, eating, and socializing.", "Ba'al Shem Tov's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe.", "Unlike other religions, which typically expanded through word of mouth or by use of print, Hasidism spread largely owing to Tzadiks, who used their influence to encourage others to follow the movement.", "Hasidism appealed to many Europeans because it was easy to learn, did not require full immediate commitment, and presented a compelling spectacle.", "Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe.", "Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States.", "The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a ''refreshment'' of original Judaism.", "As some have put it: ''\"they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost\"''.", "Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews.", "European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as Misnagdim, (lit.", "\"opponents\").", "Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the exuberance of Hasidic worship, its deviation from tradition in ascribing infallibility and miracles to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect.", "Over time differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism.===The Enlightenment and new religious movements===In the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the Enlightenment.", "The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience.", "A parallel Jewish movement, Haskalah or the \"Jewish Enlightenment\", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms.", "It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason.", "With the promise of political emancipation, many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe ''halakha'' and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe.", "Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend.In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform (or Liberal) Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition.", "Modern Orthodox Judaism developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of ''halakha''.", "Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe.", "These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that ''halakha'' should not be entirely abandoned, to form the Conservative movement.", "Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed Haredi Orthodox Judaism.", "After massive movements of Jews following The Holocaust and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries.===Spectrum of observance===Judaism is practiced around the world.", "This is an 1889 siddur published in Hebrew and Marathi for use by the Bene Israel communityJewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance.", "According to the 2001 edition of the National Jewish Population Survey, in the United States' Jewish community—the world's second largest—4.3 million Jews out of 5.1 million had some sort of connection to the religion.", "Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a congregation, and fewer than 16% attend regularly." ], [ "Judaism and other religions", "===Christianity and Judaism===The 12th century Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca in Toledo, Spain was converted to a church shortly after anti-Jewish pogroms in 1391Christianity was originally a sect of Second Temple Judaism, but the two religions diverged in the first century.", "The differences between Christianity and Judaism originally centered on whether Jesus was the Jewish Messiah but eventually became irreconcilable.", "Major differences between the two faiths include the nature of the Messiah, of atonement and sin, the status of God's commandments to Israel, and perhaps most significantly of the nature of God himself.", "Due to these differences, Judaism traditionally regards Christianity as Shituf or worship of the God of Israel which is not monotheistic.", "Christianity has traditionally regarded Judaism as obsolete with the invention of Christianity and Jews as a people replaced by the Church, though a Christian belief in dual-covenant theology emerged as a phenomenon following Christian reflection on how their theology influenced the Nazi Holocaust.Since the time of the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church upheld the ''Constitutio pro Judæis'' (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated: Until their emancipation in the late 18th and the 19th century, Jews in Christian lands were subject to humiliating legal restrictions and limitations.", "They included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as the Jewish hat and the yellow badge, restricting Jews to certain cities and towns or in certain parts of towns (ghettos), and forbidding Jews to enter certain trades (for example selling new clothes in medieval Sweden).", "Disabilities also included special taxes levied on Jews, exclusion from public life, restraints on the performance of religious ceremonies, and linguistic censorship.", "Some countries went even further and completely expelled Jews, for example, England in 1290 (Jews were readmitted in 1655) and Spain in 1492 (readmitted in 1868).", "The first Jewish settlers in North America arrived in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam in 1654; they were forbidden to hold public office, open a retail shop, or establish a synagogue.", "When the colony was seized by the British in 1664 Jewish rights remained unchanged, but by 1671 Asser Levy was the first Jew to serve on a jury in North America.", "In 1791, Revolutionary France was the first country to abolish disabilities altogether, followed by Prussia in 1848.Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was achieved in 1858 after an almost 30-year struggle championed by Isaac Lyon Goldsmid with the ability of Jews to sit in parliament with the passing of the Jews Relief Act 1858.The newly created German Empire in 1871 abolished Jewish disabilities in Germany, which were reinstated in the Nuremberg Laws in 1935.Jewish life in Christian lands was marked by frequent blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres.", "Religious prejudice was an underlying source against Jews in Europe.", "Christian rhetoric and antipathy towards Jews developed in the early years of Christianity and was reinforced by ever increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries.", "The action taken by Christians against Jews included acts of violence, and murder culminating in the Holocaust.", "These attitudes were reinforced by Christian preaching, in art and popular teaching for two millennia which expressed contempt for Jews, as well as statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews.", "The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian Churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church, as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the antireligious régime.The attitude of Christians and Christian Churches toward the Jewish people and Judaism have changed in a mostly positive direction since World War II.", "Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have \"upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people\" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews.", "In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.===Islam and Judaism===Muslim women in the mellah of EssaouiraThe bimah of the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Cairo, EgyptBoth Judaism and Islam track their origins from the patriarch Abraham, and they are therefore considered Abrahamic religions.", "In both Jewish and Muslim tradition, the Jewish and Arab peoples are descended from the two sons of Abraham—Isaac and Ishmael, respectively.", "While both religions are monotheistic and share many commonalities, they differ based on the fact that Jews do not consider Jesus or Muhammad to be prophets.", "The religions' adherents have interacted with each other since the 7th century when Islam originated and spread in the Arabian peninsula.", "Indeed, the years 712 to 1066 CE under the Ummayad and the Abbasid rulers have been called the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain.", "Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as dhimmis.", "Dhimmis were allowed to practice their own religions and administer their own internal affairs, but they were subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims.", "For example, they had to pay the jizya, a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males, and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving Muslims.", "Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic.", "For example, dhimmis in some countries were required to wear distinctive clothing, a practice not found in either the Qur'an or the hadiths but invented in early medieval Baghdad and inconsistently enforced.", "Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution—for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in Persia, and by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Al-Andalus, as well as by the Zaydi imams of Yemen in the 17th century (see: Mawza Exile).", "At times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residence—in Morocco, for example, Jews were confined to walled quarters (mellahs) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.In the mid-20th century, Jews were expelled from nearly all of the Arab countries.", "Most have chosen to live in Israel.", "Today, antisemitic themes including Holocaust denial have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi.===Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism===There are some movements in other religions that include elements of Judaism.", "Among Christianity these are a number of denominations of ancient and contemporary Judaizers.", "The most well-known of these is Messianic Judaism, a religious movement, which arose in the 1960s, In this, elements of the messianic traditions in Judaism, are incorporated in, and melded with the tenets of Christianity.", "The movement generally states that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah, that he is one of the Three Divine Persons, and that salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one's savior.", "Some members of Messianic Judaism argue that it is a sect of Judaism.", "Jewish organizations of every denomination reject this, stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect, because it teaches creeds which are identical to those of Pauline Christianity, and because the conditions for Messiah to have come accordingly within traditional Jewish thought have not yet been met.", "Another religious movement is the Black Hebrew Israelite group, which not to be confused with less syncretic Black Judaism (a constellation of movements which, depending on their adherence to normative Jewish tradition, receive varying degrees of recognition by the broader Jewish community).Other examples of syncretism include Semitic neopaganism, loosely organized sects which incorporate pagan, Goddess movement or Wiccan beliefs with some Jewish religious practices; Jewish Buddhists, another loosely organized group that incorporates elements of Buddhism and other Asian spirituality in their faith.Some Renewal Jews borrow freely and openly from Buddhism, Sufism, Native American religions, and other faiths.The Kabbalah Centre, which employs teachers from multiple religions, is a one of \"New Age Judaism\" movements that claims to popularize the kabbalah, part of the Jewish esoteric tradition." ], [ "Criticism" ], [ "See also", "* Heaven in Judaism* List of 21st-century religious leaders#Judaism* List of religious organizations#Jewish organizations* Judaism by country* Outline of Judaism" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Selected cited works ===* * * * * * * Day, John (2000).", "''Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan''.", "Chippenham: Sheffield Academic Press.", "* * Dever, William G. (2005).", "''Did God Have a Wife?''.", "Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm.", "B. Eerdmans Publ.", "* * * * Finkelstein, Israel (1996).", "\"Ethnicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Please Stand Up?\"", "The ''Biblical Archaeologist'', 59(4).", "* * * * * * * * Guttmann, Julius (1964).", "Trans.", "by David Silverman, ''Philosophies of Judaism''.", "Philadelphia, Pa: Jewish Publication Society.", "* Holtz, Barry W.", "(ed.", "), ''Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts''.", "Summit Books.", "* * * * Johnson, Paul (1988).", "''A History of the Jews''.", "HarperCollins.", "* * Khanbaghi, A.", "(2006).", "''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''.", "IB Tauris.", "* * * Lewis, Bernard (1984).", "''The Jews of Islam''.", "Princeton, NJ; Oxford: Princeton University Press.", ".", "* Lewis, Bernard (1999).", "''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''.", "W. W. Norton & Co.", ".", "* Mayer, Egon; Kosmin, Barry; Keysar, Ariela.", "\"The American Jewish Identity Survey\", a subset of ''The American Religious Identity Survey'', City University of New York Graduate Center.", "An article on this survey is printed in ''The New York Jewish Week'', 2 November 2001.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * Simon, Reeva; Laskier, Michael; Reguer, Sara (eds.)", "(2002).", "''The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa In Modern Times'', New York: Columbia University Press.", "* Online version* Stillman, Norman (1979).", "''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''.", "Philadelphia, Pa: Jewish Publication Society.", ".", "* * Walsh, J.P.M.", "(1987).", "''The Mighty from Their Thrones''.", "Eugene, Or: Wipf and Stock Publ.", "* * Weber, Max (1967).", "''Ancient Judaism''.", "Glencoe, Il: The Free Press, .", "* * * === Further reading ===; Encyclopedias* * * * * * * Online version* ; General works* * * * * * * * ; Regional contemporary* * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", ";General * * Online version of ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'' (1901–1906)* About Judaism by ''Dotdash'' (formerly ''About.com'')* Shamash's Judaism and Jewish Resources;Orthodox/Haredi* Orthodox Judaism – The Orthodox Union* Rohr Jewish Learning Institute* The Various Types of Orthodox Judaism * Aish HaTorah* Ohr Somayach;Traditional/Conservadox* Union for Traditional Judaism;Conservative* The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism* Masorti (Conservative) Movement in Israel* United Synagogue Youth;Reform/Progressive* The Union for Reform Judaism (USA)* Reform Judaism (UK)* Liberal Judaism (UK)* World Union for Progressive Judaism (Israel);Reconstructionist* Jewish Reconstructionist Federation;Renewal* ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal* OHALAH Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal;Humanistic* Society for Humanistic Judaism;Karaite* World Movement for Karaite Judaism;Jewish religious literature and texts* Complete Tanakh (in Hebrew, with vowels).", "* Parallel Hebrew-English Tanakh * English Tanakh from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society version.", "* Torah.org (also known as ''Project Genesis'') – contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes.", "* The complete formatted Talmud online – audio files of lectures for each page from an Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French, English, Yiddish and Hebrew.", "Reload the page for an image of a page of the Talmud.See also Torah database for links to more Judaism e-texts.", ";Wikimedia Torah study projectsText study projects at Wikisource.", "In many instances, the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English.", "* Mikraot Gedolot (Rabbinic Bible) in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample).", "* Cantillation at the \"Vayavinu Bamikra\" Project in Hebrew (lists nearly 200 recordings) and English.", "* Mishnah in Hebrew (sample) and English (sample).", "* Shulchan Aruch in Hebrew and English (Hebrew text with English translation)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Stuart Mill" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Stuart Mill''' (20 May 1806 – 7 May 1873) was an English philosopher, political economist, politician and civil servant.", "One of the most influential thinkers in the history of classical liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, and political economy.", "Dubbed \"the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century\" by the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', he conceived of liberty as justifying the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control.Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham.", "He contributed to the investigation of scientific methodology, though his knowledge of the topic was based on the writings of others, notably William Whewell, John Herschel, and Auguste Comte, and research carried out for Mill by Alexander Bain.", "He engaged in written debate with Whewell.A member of the Liberal Party and author of the early feminist work ''The Subjection of Women'', Mill was also the second member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage after Henry Hunt in 1832." ], [ "Biography", "John Stuart Mill was born at 13 Rodney Street in Pentonville, then on the edge of the capital and now in central London, the eldest son of Harriet Barrow and the Scottish philosopher, historian, and economist James Mill.", "John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place.", "He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings.", "His father, a follower of Bentham and an adherent of associationism, had as his explicit aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham had died.Mill was a notably precocious child.", "He describes his education in his autobiography.", "At the age of three he was taught Greek.", "By the age of eight, he had read ''Aesop's Fables'', Xenophon's ''Anabasis'', and the whole of Herodotus, and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes Laërtius, Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato.", "He had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic, physics and astronomy.At the age of eight, Mill began studying Latin, the works of Euclid, and algebra, and was appointed schoolmaster to the younger children of the family.", "His main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease.", "His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study and compose poetry.", "One of his earliest poetic compositions was a continuation of the ''Iliad''.", "In his spare time he also enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as ''Don Quixote'' and ''Robinson Crusoe''.His father's work, ''The History of British India'', was published in 1818; immediately thereafter, at about the age of twelve, Mill began a thorough study of the scholastic logic, at the same time reading Aristotle's logical treatises in the original language.", "In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, ultimately completing their classical economic view of factors of production.", "Mill's ''comptes rendus'' of his daily economy lessons helped his father in writing ''Elements of Political Economy'' in 1821, a textbook to promote the ideas of Ricardian economics; however, the book lacked popular support.", "Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk to talk about political economy.At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of Jeremy Bentham and in the company of George Ensor, then pursuing his polemic against the political economy of Thomas Malthus.", "The mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes.", "The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left a deep impression on him.", "In Montpellier, he attended the winter courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the ''Faculté des Sciences'', as well as taking a course in higher mathematics.", "While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, a friend of Mill's father.", "There he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon.Mill went through months of sadness and contemplated suicide at twenty years of age.", "According to the opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a just society, his life's objective, would actually make him happy.", "His heart answered \"no\", and unsurprisingly he lost the happiness of striving towards this objective.", "Eventually, the poetry of William Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy.", "With renewed vigour, he continued to work towards a just society, but with more relish for the journey.", "He considered this one of the most pivotal shifts in his thinking.", "In fact, many of the differences between him and his father stemmed from this expanded source of joy.Mill met Thomas Carlyle during one of the latter's visits to London in the early 1830s, and the two quickly became companions and correspondents.", "Mill offered to print Carlyle's works at his own expense and encouraged Carlyle to write his ''French Revolution'', supplying him with materials in order to do so.", "In March 1835, while the manuscript of the completed first volume was in Mill's possession, Mill's housemaid unwittingly used it as tinder, destroying all \"except some three or four bits of leaves\".", "Mortified, Mill offered Carlyle £200 (£17,742.16 in 2021) as compensation (Carlyle would only accept £100).", "Ideological differences would put an end to the friendship during the 1840s, though Carlyle's early influence on Mill would colour his later thought.Mill had been engaged in a pen-friendship with Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism and sociology, since Mill first contacted Comte in November 1841.Comte's ''sociologie'' was more an early philosophy of science than modern sociology is.", "Comte's positivism motivated Mill to eventually reject Bentham's psychological egoism and what he regarded as Bentham's cold, abstract view of human nature focused on legislation and politics, instead coming to favour Comte's more sociable view of human nature focused on historical facts and directed more towards human individuals in all their complexities.As a nonconformist who refused to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England, Mill was not eligible to study at the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge.", "Instead he followed his father to work for the East India Company, and attended University College, London, to hear the lectures of John Austin, the first Professor of Jurisprudence.", "He was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1856.Mill's career as a colonial administrator at the East India Company spanned from when he was 17 years old in 1823 until 1858, when the company's territories in India were directly annexed by the Crown, establishing direct Crown control over India.", "In 1836, he was promoted to the company's political department, where he was responsible for correspondence pertaining to the company's relations with the princely states, and, in 1856, was finally promoted to the position of Examiner of Indian Correspondence.", "In ''On Liberty'', ''A Few Words on Non-Intervention'', and other works, he opined that \"To characterize any conduct whatever towards a barbarous people as a violation of the law of nations, only shows that he who so speaks has never considered the subject.\"", "(However, Mill immediately added that \"A violation of the great principles of morality it may easily be.\")", "Mill viewed places such as India as having once been progressive in their outlook, but had now become stagnant in their development; he opined that this meant these regions had to be ruled via a form of \"benevolent despotism...provided the end is improvement\".", "When the Crown proposed to take direct control over the territories of the East India Company, Mill was tasked with defending Company rule and penned ''Memorandum on the Improvements in the Administration of India during the Last Thirty Years'', among other petitions.", "He was offered a seat on the Council of India, the body created to advise the new Secretary of State for India, but declined, citing disapproval of the new system of administration in India.On 21 April 1851, Mill married Harriet Taylor after 21 years of intimate friendship.", "Taylor was married when they met, and their relationship was close but generally believed to be chaste during the years before her first husband died in 1849.The couple waited two years before marrying in 1851.Accomplished in her own right, Taylor was a significant influence on Mill's work and ideas during both friendship and marriage.", "His relationship with Taylor reinforced Mill's advocacy of women's rights.", "He said that in his stand against domestic violence, and for women's rights he was \"chiefly an amanuensis to my wife\".", "He called her mind a \"perfect instrument\", and said she was \"the most eminently qualified of all those known to the author\".", "He cites her influence in his final revision of ''On Liberty'', which was published shortly after her death.", "Taylor died in 1858 after developing severe lung congestion, after only seven years of marriage to Mill.Between the years 1865 and 1868 Mill served as Lord Rector of the University of St Andrews.", "At his inaugural address, delivered to the University on 1 February 1867, he made the now-famous (but often wrongly attributed) remark that \"Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than that good men should look on and do nothing\".", "That Mill included that sentence in the address is a matter of historical record, but it by no means follows that it expressed a wholly original insight.", "During the same period, 1865–68, he was also a Member of Parliament (MP) for City of Westminster.", "He was sitting for the Liberal Party.", "During his time as an MP, Mill advocated easing the burdens on Ireland.", "In 1866, he became the first person in the history of Parliament to call for women to be given the right to vote, vigorously defending this position in subsequent debate.", "He also became a strong advocate of such social reforms as labour unions and farm cooperatives.", "In ''Considerations on Representative Government'', he called for various reforms of Parliament and voting, especially proportional representation, the single transferable vote, and the extension of suffrage.", "In April 1868, he favoured in a Commons debate the retention of capital punishment for such crimes as aggravated murder; he termed its abolition \"an effeminacy in the general mind of the country\".He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1867.He was godfather to the philosopher Bertrand Russell.In his views on religion, Mill was an agnostic and a sceptic.Mill died in 1873, thirteen days before his 67th birthday, of erysipelas in Avignon, France, where his body was buried alongside his wife's." ], [ "Works and theories", "===''A System of Logic''===Mill joined the debate over scientific method which followed on from John Herschel's 1830 publication of ''A Preliminary Discourse on the study of Natural Philosophy'', which incorporated inductive reasoning from the known to the unknown, discovering general laws in specific facts and verifying these laws empirically.", "William Whewell expanded on this in his 1837 ''History of the Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time'', followed in 1840 by ''The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon their History'', presenting induction as the mind superimposing concepts on facts.", "Laws were self-evident truths, which could be known without need for empirical verification.Mill countered this in 1843 in ''A System of Logic'' (fully titled ''A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence, and the Methods of Scientific Investigation'').", "In \"Mill's Methods\" (of induction), as in Herschel's, laws were discovered through observation and induction, and required empirical verification.", "Matilal remarks that Dignāga analysis is much like John Stuart Mill's Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, which is inductive.", "He suggested that it was very likely that during his stay in India he came across the tradition of logic, in which scholars started taking interest after 1824, though it is unknown whether it influenced his work.===Theory of liberty===Mill's ''On Liberty'' (1859) addresses the nature and limits of the power that can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual.", "Mill's idea is that only if a democratic society follows the Principle of Liberty can its political and social institutions fulfill their role of shaping national character so that its citizens can realise the permanent interests of people as progressive beings (Rawls, Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy; p 289).Mill states the Principle of Liberty as: \"the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection\".", "\"The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.", "His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant.", "\"One way to read Mill's Principle of Liberty as a principle of public reason is to see it excluding certain kinds of reasons from being taken into account in legislation, or in guiding the moral coercion of public opinion.", "(Rawls, Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy; p. 291).", "These reasons include those founded in other persons good; reasons of excellence and ideals of human perfection; reasons of dislike or disgust, or of preference.Mill states that \"harms\" which may be prevented include acts of omission as well as acts of commission.", "Thus, failing to rescue a drowning child counts as a harmful act, as does failing to pay taxes, or failing to appear as a witness in court.", "All such harmful omissions may be regulated, according to Mill.", "By contrast, it does not count as harming someone if—without force or fraud—the affected individual consents to assume the risk: thus one may permissibly offer unsafe employment to others, provided there is no deception involved.", "(He does, however, recognise one limit to consent: society should not permit people to sell themselves into slavery.", ")The question of what counts as a self-regarding action and what actions, whether of omission or commission, constitute harmful actions subject to regulation, continues to exercise interpreters of Mill.", "He did not consider giving offence to constitute \"harm\"; an action could not be restricted because it violated the conventions or morals of a given society.Helen Taylor.", "Helen was the daughter of Harriet Taylor and collaborated with Mill for fifteen years after her mother's death in 1858.====Social liberty and tyranny of majority====Mill believed that \"the struggle between Liberty and Authority is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of history.\"", "For him, liberty in antiquity was a \"contest…between subjects, or some classes of subjects, and the government.", "\"Mill defined ''social liberty'' as protection from \"the tyranny of political rulers\".", "He introduced a number of different concepts of the form tyranny can take, referred to as social tyranny, and ''tyranny of the majority''.", "''Social liberty'' for Mill meant putting limits on the ruler's power so that he would not be able to use that power to further his own wishes and thus make decisions that could harm society.", "In other words, people should have the right to have a say in the government's decisions.", "He said that ''social liberty'' was \"the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual.\"", "It was attempted in two ways: first, by obtaining recognition of certain immunities (called ''political liberties'' or ''rights''); and second, by establishment of a system of \"constitutional checks\".However, in Mill's view, limiting the power of government was not enough:Society can and does execute its own mandates: and if it issues wrong mandates instead of right, or any mandates at all in things with which it ought not to meddle, it practises a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into the details of life, and enslaving the soul itself.====Liberty====Mill's view on liberty, which was influenced by Joseph Priestley and Josiah Warren, is that individuals ought to be free to do as they wished unless they caused harm to others.", "Individuals are rational enough to make decisions about their well-being.", "Government should interfere when it is for the protection of society.", "Mill explained:The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection.", "That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.", "His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant.", "He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right.… The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others.", "In the part which merely concerns him, his independence is, of right, absolute.", "Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.====Freedom of speech====''On Liberty'' involves an impassioned defense of free speech.", "Mill argues that free discourse is a necessary condition for intellectual and social progress.", "We can never be sure, he contends, that a silenced opinion does not contain some element of the truth.", "He also argues that allowing people to air false opinions is productive for two reasons.", "First, individuals are more likely to abandon erroneous beliefs if they are engaged in an open exchange of ideas.", "Second, by forcing other individuals to re-examine and re-affirm their beliefs in the process of debate, these beliefs are kept from declining into mere dogma.", "It is not enough for Mill that one simply has an unexamined belief that happens to be true; one must understand why the belief in question is the true one.", "Along those same lines Mill wrote, \"unmeasured vituperation, employed on the side of prevailing opinion, really does deter people from expressing contrary opinions, and from listening to those who express them.", "\"As an influential advocate of freedom of speech, Mill objected to censorship:I choose, by preference the cases which are least favourable to me—In which the argument opposing freedom of opinion, both on truth and that of utility, is considered the strongest.", "Let the opinions impugned be the belief of God and in a future state, or any of the commonly received doctrines of morality ...", "But I must be permitted to observe that it is not the feeling sure of a doctrine (be it what it may) which I call an assumption of infallibility.", "It is the undertaking to decide that question ''for others'', without allowing them to hear what can be said on the contrary side.", "And I denounce and reprobate this pretension not the less if it is put forth on the side of my most solemn convictions.", "However positive anyone's persuasion may be, not only of the faculty but of the pernicious consequences, but (to adopt expressions which I altogether condemn) the immorality and impiety of opinion.—yet if, in pursuance of that private judgement, though backed by the public judgement of his country or contemporaries, he prevents the opinion from being heard in its defence, he assumes infallibility.", "And so far from the assumption being less objectionable or less dangerous because the opinion is called immoral or impious, this is the case of all others in which it is most fatal.Mill outlines the benefits of \"searching for and discovering the truth\" as a way to further knowledge.", "He argued that even if an opinion is false, the truth can be better understood by refuting the error.", "And as most opinions are neither completely true nor completely false, he points out that allowing free expression allows the airing of competing views as a way to preserve partial truth in various opinions.", "Worried about minority views being suppressed, he argued in support of freedom of speech on political grounds, stating that it is a critical component for a representative government to have to empower debate over public policy.", "He also eloquently argued that freedom of expression allows for personal growth and self-realization.", "He said that freedom of speech was a vital way to develop talents and realise a person's potential and creativity.", "He repeatedly said that eccentricity was preferable to uniformity and stagnation.=====Harm principle=====The belief that freedom of speech would advance society presupposed a society sufficiently culturally and institutionally advanced to be capable of progressive improvement.", "If any argument is really wrong or harmful, the public will judge it as wrong or harmful, and then those arguments cannot be sustained and will be excluded.", "Mill argued that even any arguments which are used in justifying murder or rebellion against the government should not be politically suppressed or socially persecuted.", "According to him, if rebellion is really necessary, people should rebel; if murder is truly proper, it should be allowed.", "However, the way to express those arguments should be a public speech or writing, not in a way that causes actual harm to others.", "Such is the ''harm principle'': \"That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.", "\"At the beginning of the 20th century, Associate justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. made the standard of \"clear and present danger\" based on Mill's idea.", "In the majority opinion, Holmes writes: The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent.Holmes suggested that falsely shouting out \"Fire!\"", "in a dark theatre, which evokes panic and provokes injury, would be such a case of speech that creates an illegal danger.", "But if the situation allows people to reason by themselves and decide to accept it or not, any argument or theology should not be blocked.Mill's argument is now generally accepted by many democratic countries, and they have laws at least guided by the harm principle.", "For example, in American law some exceptions limit free speech such as obscenity, defamation, breach of peace, and \"fighting words\".=====Freedom of the press=====In ''On Liberty'', Mill thought it was necessary for him to restate the case for press freedom.", "He considered that argument already won.", "Almost no politician or commentator in mid-19th-century Britain wanted a return to Tudor and Stuart-type press censorship.", "However, Mill warned new forms of censorship could emerge in the future.", "Indeed, in 2013 the Cameron Tory government considered setting up a so-called independent official regulator of the UK press.", "This prompted demands for better basic legal protection of press freedom.", "A new British Bill of Rights could include a US-type constitutional ban on governmental infringement of press freedom and block other official attempts to control freedom of opinion and expression.===Colonialism===Mill, an employee of the East India Company from 1823 to 1858, argued in support of what he called a \"benevolent despotism\" with regard to the administration of overseas colonies.", "Mill argued:To suppose that the same international customs, and the same rules of international morality, can obtain between one civilized nation and another, and between civilized nations and barbarians, is a grave error.… To characterize any conduct whatever towards a barbarous people as a violation of the law of nations, only shows that he who so speaks has never considered the subject.", "Mill expressed general support for Company rule in India, but expressed reservations on specific Company policies in India which he disagreed with.===Slavery and racial equality===In 1850, Mill sent an anonymous letter (which came to be known under the title \"The Negro Question\"), in rebuttal to Thomas Carlyle's letter to ''Fraser's Magazine for Town and Country'' in which Carlyle argued for slavery.", "Mill supported abolishing slavery in the United States, expressing his opposition to slavery in his essay of 1869, ''The Subjection of Women'':This absolutely extreme case of the law of force, condemned by those who can tolerate almost every other form of arbitrary power, and which, of all others, presents features the most revolting to the feeling of all who look at it from an impartial position, was the law of civilized and Christian England within the memory of persons now living: and in one half of Anglo-Saxon America three or four years ago, not only did slavery exist, but the slave trade, and the breeding of slaves expressly for it, was a general practice between slave states.", "Yet not only was there a greater strength of sentiment against it, but, in England at least, a less amount either of feeling or of interest in favour of it, than of any other of the customary abuses of force: for its motive was the love of gain, unmixed and undisguised: and those who profited by it were a very small numerical fraction of the country, while the natural feeling of all who were not personally interested in it, was unmitigated abhorrence.Mill corresponded with John Appleton, an American legal reformer from Maine, extensively on the topic of racial equality.", "Appleton influenced Mill's work on such, especially swaying him on the optimal economic and social welfare plan for the Antebellum South.", "In a letter sent to Appleton in response to a previous letter, Mill expressed his view on antebellum integration:I cannot look forward with satisfaction to any settlement but complete emancipation—land given to every negro family either separately or in organized communities under such rules as may be found temporarily necessary—the schoolmaster set to work in every village & the tide of free immigration turned on in those fertile regions from which slavery has hitherto excluded it.", "If this be done, the gentle & docile character which seems to distinguish the negroes will prevent any mischief on their side, while the proofs they are giving of fighting powers will do more in a year than all other things in a century to make the whites respect them & consent to their being politically & socially equals.Unlike many of his peers, Mill supported the Union in the American Civil War, seeing it as a necessary evil that would deliver a vital “salutary shock” to the national conscience and help preserve liberal ideals while eradicating the \"stain\" of slavery in the United States.", "Mill expressed his views in an article for ''Fraser's Magazine'', arguing against the defenders of the Confederate States of America.There are people who tell us that, on the side of the North, the question is not one of slavery at all.", "The North, it seems, have no more objection to slavery than the South have.", "...", "If this be the true state of the case, what are the Southern chiefs fighting about?", "Their apologists in England say that it is about tariffs, and similar trumpery.", "They say nothing of the kind.", "They tell the world, and they told their own citizens when they wanted their votes, that the object of the fight was slavery.", "...", "The world knows what the question between the North and South has been for many years, and still is.", "Slavery alone was thought of, alone talked of.===Women's rights===Spy published in ''Vanity Fair'' in 1873Mill's view of history was that right up until his time \"the whole of the female\" and \"the great majority of the male sex\" were simply \"slaves\".", "He countered arguments to the contrary, arguing that relations between sexes simply amounted to \"the legal subordination of one sex to the other – which is wrong itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality\".", "Here, then, we have an instance of Mill's use of \"slavery\" in a sense which, compared to its fundamental meaning of absolute unfreedom of person, is an extended and arguably a rhetorical rather than a literal sense.With this, Mill can be considered among the earliest male proponents of gender equality, having been recruited by American feminist John Neal during his stay in London circa 1825–1827.His book ''The Subjection of Women'' (1861, publ.1869) is one of the earliest written on this subject by a male author.", "In ''The Subjection of Women'', Mill attempts to make a case for perfect equality.In his proposal for a universal education system sponsored by the state, Mill expands benefits for many marginalized groups, especially for women.", "For Mill, a universal education held the potential to create new abilities and novel types of behavior of which the current receiving generation and their descendants could both benefit from.", "Such a pathway to opportunity would enable women to gain \"industrial and social independence\" that would allow them the same movement in their agency and citizenship as men.Mill's view of opportunity stands out in its reach, but even more so for the population he foresees who could benefit from it.", "Mill was hopeful of the autonomy such an education could allow for its recipients and especially for women.", "Through the consequential sophistication and knowledge attained, individuals are able to properly act in ways that recedes away from those leading towards overpopulation.This stands directly in contrast with the view held by many of Mill's contemporaries and predecessors who viewed such inclusive programs to be counter intuitive.", "Aiming such help at marginalized groups, such as the poor and working class, would only serve to reward them with the opportunity to move to a higher status, thus encouraging greater fertility which at its extreme could lead to overproduction.He talks about the role of women in marriage and how it must be changed.", "Mill comments on three major facets of women's lives that he felt are hindering them:# society and gender construction;# education; and# marriage.He argues that the oppression of women was one of the few remaining relics from ancient times, a set of prejudices that severely impeded the progress of humanity.", "As a Member of Parliament, Mill introduced an unsuccessful amendment to the Reform Bill to substitute the word \"person\" in place of \"man\".===''Utilitarianism''===Utilitarianism'' (1863)The canonical statement of Mill's utilitarianism can be found in his book, ''Utilitarianism''.", "Although this philosophy has a long tradition, Mill's account is primarily influenced by Jeremy Bentham and Mill's father James Mill.John Stuart Mill believed in the philosophy of ''utilitarianism'', which he would describe as the principle that holds \"that actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness\".", "By ''happiness'' he means, \"intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure\".", "It is clear that we do not all value virtues as a path to happiness and that we sometimes only value them for selfish reasons.", "However, Mill asserts that upon reflection, even when we value virtues for selfish reasons we are in fact cherishing them as a part of our happiness.Bentham's famous formulation of utilitarianism is known as the '''greatest-happiness principle'''.", "It holds that one must always act so as to produce the greatest aggregate happiness among all sentient beings, within reason.", "In a similar vein, Mill's method of determining the best utility is that a moral agent, when given the choice between two or more actions, ought to choose the action that contributes most to (maximizes) the total happiness in the world.", "''Happiness'', in this context, is understood as the production of pleasure or privation of pain.", "Given that determining the action that produces the most utility is not always so clear cut, Mill suggests that the utilitarian moral agent, when attempting to rank the utility of different actions, should refer to the general experience of persons.", "That is, if people generally experience more happiness following action ''X'' than they do action ''Y'', the utilitarian should conclude that action ''X'' produces more utility than action ''Y'', and so is to be preferred.Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory, meaning that it holds that acts are justified insofar as they produce a desirable outcome.", "The overarching goal of utilitarianism—the ideal consequence—is to achieve the \"greatest good for the greatest number as the end result of human action.\"", "In ''Utilitarianism,'' Mill states that \"happiness is the sole end of human action\".", "This statement aroused some controversy, which is why Mill took it a step further, explaining how the very nature of humans wanting happiness, and who \"take it to be reasonable under free consideration\", demands that happiness is indeed desirable.", "In other words, free will leads everyone to make actions inclined on their own happiness, unless reasoned that it would improve the happiness of others, in which case, the greatest utility is still being achieved.", "To that extent, the ''utilitarianism'' that Mill is describing is a default lifestyle that he believes is what people who have not studied a specific opposing field of ethics would naturally and subconsciously use when faced with a decision.Utilitarianism is thought of by some of its activists to be a more developed and overarching ethical theory of Immanuel Kant's belief in goodwill, and not just some default cognitive process of humans.", "Where Kant (1724–1804) would argue that reason can only be used properly by goodwill, Mill would say that the only way to universally create fair laws and systems would be to step back to the consequences, whereby Kant's ethical theories become based around the ultimate good—utility.", "By this logic the only valid way to discern what is the proper reason would be to view the consequences of any action and weigh the good and the bad, even if on the surface, the ethical reasoning seems to indicate a different train of thought.==== Higher and lower pleasures ====Mill's major contribution to utilitarianism is his argument for the qualitative separation of pleasures.", "Bentham treats all forms of happiness as equal, whereas Mill argues that intellectual and moral pleasures (''higher pleasures'') are superior to more physical forms of pleasure (''lower pleasures'').", "He distinguishes between happiness and contentment, claiming that the former is of higher value than the latter, a belief wittily encapsulated in the statement that, \"it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.", "And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question.", "\"This made Mill believe that \"our only ultimate end\" is happiness.", "One unique part of his utilitarian view, that is not seen in others, is the idea of higher and lower pleasures.", "Mill explains the different pleasures as:He defines '''higher pleasures''' as mental, moral, and aesthetic pleasures, and '''lower pleasures''' as being more sensational.", "He believed that higher pleasures should be seen as preferable to lower pleasures since they have a greater quality in virtue.", "He holds that pleasures gained in activity are of a higher quality than those gained passively.Mill defines the difference between higher and lower forms of pleasure with the principle that those who have experienced both tend to prefer one over the other.", "This is, perhaps, in direct contrast with Bentham's statement that \"Quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin is as good as poetry\", that, if a simple child's game like hopscotch causes more pleasure to more people than a night at the opera house, it is more incumbent upon a society to devote more resources to propagating hopscotch than running opera houses.", "Mill's argument is that the \"simple pleasures\" tend to be preferred by people who have no experience with high art, and are therefore not in a proper position to judge.", "He also argues that people who, for example, are noble or practise philosophy, benefit society more than those who engage in individualist practices for pleasure, which are lower forms of happiness.", "It is not the agent's own greatest happiness that matters \"but the greatest amount of happiness altogether\".====Chapters====Mill separated his explanation of Utilitarianism into five different sections:# General Remarks;# What Utilitarianism Is;# Of the Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility;# Of What Sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible;# and Of the Connection between Justice and Utility.In the General Remarks portion of his essay, he speaks how next to no progress has been made when it comes to judging what is right and what is wrong of morality and if there is such a thing as moral instinct (which he argues that there may not be).", "However, he agrees that in general \"Our moral faculty, according to all those of its interpreters who are entitled to the name of thinkers, supplies us only with the general principles of moral judgments\".In '''What Utilitarianism Is''', he focuses no longer on background information but utilitarianism itself.", "He quotes utilitarianism as \"The greatest happiness principle\", defining this theory by saying that pleasure and no pain are the only inherently good things in the world and expands on it by saying that \"actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.", "By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure.\"", "He views it not as an animalistic concept because he sees seeking out pleasure as a way of using our higher facilities.", "He also says in this chapter that the happiness principle is based not exclusively on the individual but mainly on the community.Mill also defends the idea of a \"strong utilitarian conscience (i.e.", "a strong feeling of obligation to the general happiness)\".", "He argued that humans have a desire to be happy and that that desire causes us to want to be in unity with other humans.", "This causes us to care about the happiness of others, as well as the happiness of complete strangers.", "But this desire also causes us to experience pain when we perceive harm to other people.", "He believes in internal sanctions that make us experience guilt and appropriate our actions.", "These internal sanctions make us want to do good because we do not want to feel guilty for our actions.", "Happiness is our ultimate end because it is our duty.", "He argues that we do not need to be constantly motivated by the concern of people's happiness because most of the actions done by people are done out of good intention, and the good of the world is made up of the good of the people.In Mill's fourth chapter, '''Of What Sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible''', he speaks of what proofs of Utility are affected.", "He starts this chapter off by saying that all of his claims cannot be backed up by reasoning.", "He claims that the only proof that something brings one pleasure is if someone finds it pleasurable.", "Next, he talks about how morality is the basic way to achieve happiness.", "He also discusses in this chapter that Utilitarianism is beneficial for virtue.", "He says that \"it maintains not only that virtue is to be desired, but that it is to be desired disinterestedly, for itself.\"", "In his final chapter he looks at the connection between Utilitarianism and justice.", "He contemplates the question of whether justice is something distinct from Utility or not.", "He reasons this question in several different ways and finally comes to the conclusion that in certain cases justice is essential for Utility, but in others, social duty is far more important than justice.", "Mill believes that \"justice must give way to some other moral principle, but that what is just in ordinary cases is, by reason of that other principle, not just in the particular case.", "\"The qualitative account of happiness that Mill advocates thus sheds light on his account presented in ''On Liberty''.", "As he suggests in that text, utility is to be conceived in relation to humanity \"as a progressive being\", which includes the development and exercise of rational capacities as we strive to achieve a \"higher mode of existence\".", "The rejection of censorship and paternalism is intended to provide the necessary social conditions for the achievement of knowledge and the greatest ability for the greatest number to develop and exercise their deliberative and rational capacities.Mill redefines the definition of happiness as \"the ultimate end, for the sake of which all other things are desirable (whether we are considering our own good or that of other people) is an existence as free as possible from pain and as rich as possible in enjoyments\".", "He firmly believed that moral rules and obligations could be referenced to promoting happiness, which connects to having a noble character.", "While Mill is not a standard act utilitarian or rule utilitarian, he is a minimizing utilitarian, which \"affirms that it would be ''desirable'' to maximize happiness for the greatest number, but not that we are morally ''required'' to do so\".===Achieving happiness===Mill believed that for the majority of people (those with but a moderate degree of sensibility and of capacity for enjoyment) happiness is best achieved en passant, rather than striving for it directly.", "This meant no self-consciousness, scrutiny, self-interrogation, dwelling on, thinking about, imagining or questioning on one's happiness.", "Then, if otherwise fortunately circumstanced, one would \"inhale happiness with the air you breathe\".===Economic philosophy===''Essays on Economics and Society'', 1967Mill's early economic philosophy was one of free markets.", "However, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds.", "He also accepted the principle of legislative intervention for the purpose of animal welfare.", "He originally believed that \"equality of taxation\" meant \"equality of sacrifice\" and that progressive taxation penalized those who worked harder and saved more and was therefore \"a mild form of robbery\".Given an equal tax rate regardless of income, Mill agreed that inheritance should be taxed.", "A utilitarian society would agree that everyone should be equal one way or another.", "Therefore, receiving inheritance would put one ahead of society unless taxed on the inheritance.", "Those who donate should consider and choose carefully where their money goes—some charities are more deserving than others.", "Considering public charities boards such as a government will disburse the money equally.", "However, a private charity board like a church would disburse the monies fairly to those who are in more need than others.Later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his ''Principles of Political Economy'' in defence of a socialist outlook, and defending some socialist causes.", "Within this revised work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system.", "Nonetheless, some of his views on the idea of flat taxation remained, albeit altered in the third edition of the ''Principles of Political Economy'' to reflect a concern for differentiating restrictions on \"unearned\" incomes, which he favoured, and those on \"earned\" incomes, which he did not favour.In his autobiography, Mill stated that in relation to his later views on political economy, his \"ideal of ultimate improvement... would class him decidedly under the general designation of Socialists\".", "His views shifted partly due to reading the works of utopian socialists, but also from the influence of Harriet Taylor.", "In his work ''Socialism'', Mill argued that the prevalence of poverty in contemporary industrial capitalist societies was \"''pro tanto'' a failure of the social arrangements\", and that attempts to condone this state of affairs as being the result of individual failings did not represent a justification of them but instead were \"an irresistible claim upon every human being for protection against suffering\".Mill's ''Principles'', first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in the period.", "As Adam Smith's ''Wealth of Nations'' had during an earlier period, ''Principles'' came to dominate economics teaching.", "In the case of Oxford University it was the standard text until 1919, when it was replaced by Marshall's ''Principles of Economics''.==== Criticism ====Karl Marx, in his critique of political economy, mentioned Mill in the ''Grundrisse''.", "Marx contended that Mill's thinking posited the categories of capital in an ahistorical fashion.====Economic democracy====Mill's main objection to Marxism focused on what he saw its destruction of competition.", "He wrote, \"I utterly dissent from the most conspicuous and vehement part of their teaching—their declamations against competition.\"", "Though he was an egalitarian, Mill argued more for equal opportunity and placed meritocracy above all other ideals in this regard.", "He further argued that a socialist society would only be attainable through the provision of basic education for all, promoting economic democracy instead of capitalism, in the manner of substituting capitalist businesses with worker cooperatives.", "He says:====Political democracy====Mill's major work on political democracy, ''Considerations on Representative Government'', defends two fundamental principles: extensive participation by citizens and enlightened competence of rulers.", "The two values are obviously in tension, and some readers have concluded that he is an elitist democrat, while others count him as an earlier participatory democrat.", "In one section, he appears to defend plural voting, in which more competent citizens are given extra votes (a view he later repudiated).", "However, in another chapter he argues cogently for the value of participation by all citizens.", "He believed that the incompetence of the masses could eventually be overcome if they were given a chance to take part in politics, especially at the local level.Mill is one of the few political philosophers ever to serve in government as an elected official.", "In his three years in Parliament, he was more willing to compromise than the \"radical\" principles expressed in his writing would lead one to expect.Mill was a major proponent of the diffusion and use of public education to the working class.", "He saw the value of the individual person, and believed that \"man had the inherent capability of guiding his own destiny-but only if his faculties were developed and fulfilled\", which could be achieved through education.", "He regarded education as a pathway to improve human nature which to him meant \"to encourage, among other characteristics, diversity and originality, the energy of character, initiative, autonomy, intellectual cultivation, aesthetic sensibility, non-self-regarding interests, prudence, responsibility, and self-control\".", "Education allowed for humans to develop into full informed citizens that had the tools to improve their condition and make fully informed electoral decisions.", "The power of education lay in its ability to serve as a great equalizer among the classes allowing the working class the ability to control their own destiny and compete with the upper classes.", "Mill recognised the paramount importance of public education in avoiding the tyranny of the majority by ensuring that all the voters and political participants were fully developed individuals.", "It was through education, he believed, that an individual could become a full participant within representative democracy.In regards to higher education, Mill defended liberal education against contemporary arguments for models of higher education focused on religion or science.", "His 1867 St. Andrews Address called on elites educated in reformed universities to work towards education policy committed to liberal principles.====Theories of wealth and income distribution====In ''Principles of Political Economy'', Mill offered an analysis of two economic phenomena often linked together: the laws of production and wealth and the modes of its distribution.", "Regarding the former, he believed that it was not possible to alter to laws of production, \"the ultimate properties of matter and mind... only to employ these properties to bring about events we are interested\".", "The modes of distribution of wealth is a matter of human institutions solely, starting with what Mill believed to be the primary and fundamental institution: Individual Property.", "He believed that all individuals must start on equal terms, with division of the instruments of production fairly among all members of society.", "Once each member has an equal amount of individual property, they must be left to their own exertion not to be interfered with by the state.", "Regarding inequality of wealth, Mill believed that it was the role of the government to establish both social and economic policies that promote the equality of opportunity.The government, according to Mill, should implement three tax policies to help alleviate poverty:# fairly assessed income tax;# an inheritance tax; and# a policy to restrict sumptuary consumption.Inheritance of capital and wealth plays a large role in development of inequality, because it provides greater opportunity for those receiving the inheritance.", "Mill's solution to inequality of wealth brought about by inheritance was to implement a greater tax on inheritances, because he believed the most important authoritative function of the government is taxation, and taxation judiciously implemented could promote equality.====The environment====Mill demonstrated an early insight into the value of the natural world.", "In Book IV, chapter VI of ''Principles of Political Economy'': \"Of the Stationary State\", Mill recognised wealth beyond the material and argued that the logical conclusion of unlimited growth was destruction of the environment and a reduced quality of life.", "He concluded that a stationary state could be preferable to unending economic growth:I cannot, therefore, regard the stationary states of capital and wealth with the unaffected aversion so generally manifested towards it by political economists of the old school.If the earth must lose that great portion of its pleasantness which it owes to things that the unlimited increase of wealth and population would extirpate from it, for the mere purpose of enabling it to support a larger, but not a better or a happier population, I sincerely hope, for the sake of posterity, that they will be content to be stationary, long before necessity compel them to it.====Rate of profit====According to Mill, the ultimate tendency in an economy is for the rate of profit to decline due to diminishing returns in agriculture and increase in population at a Malthusian rate." ], [ "Major publications", " Title Date Source \"Two Letters on the Measure of Value\" 1822 \"The Traveller\" \"Questions of Population\" 1823 \"Black Dwarf\" \"War Expenditure\" 1824 ''Westminster Review'' \"Quarterly Review – Political Economy\" 1825 ''Westminster Review'' \"Review of Miss Martineau's Tales\" 1830 ''Examiner'' \"The Spirit of the Age\" 1831 ''Examiner'' \"Use and Abuse of Political Terms\" 1832 \"What is Poetry\" 1833, 1859 \"Rationale of Representation\" 1835 \"De Tocqueville on Democracy in America i\" 1835 \"State of Society in America\" 1836 \"Civilization\" 1836 \"Essay on Bentham\" 1838 \"Essay on Coleridge\" 1840 \"Essays on Government\" 1840 \"De Tocqueville on Democracy in America ii\" 1840 ''A System of Logic'' 1843 ''Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy'' 1844 \"Claims of Labour\" 1845 ''Edinburgh Review'' ''The Principles of Political Economy: with some of their applications to social philosophy'' 1848 \"The Negro Question\" 1850 ''Fraser's Magazine'' \"Reform of the Civil Service\" 1854 ''Dissertations and Discussions'' 1859 ''A Few Words on Non-intervention'' 1859 ''On Liberty'' 1859 ''Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform'' 1859 ''Considerations on Representative Government'' 1861 \"Centralisation\" 1862 ''Edinburgh Review'' \"The Contest in America\" 1862 ''Harper's Magazine'' ''Utilitarianism'' 1863 ''An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy'' 1865 ''Auguste Comte and Positivism'' 1865 ''Inaugural Address at St. Andrews'' Concerning the value of culture 1867 \"Speech in Favour of Capital Punishment\" 1868 ''England and Ireland'' 1868 \"Thornton on Labour and its Claims\" 1869 ''Fortnightly Review'' ''The Subjection of Women'' 1869 ''Chapters and Speeches on the Irish Land Question'' 1870 ''Autobiography'' 1873 ''Three Essays on Religion: Nature, the Utility of religion, and Theism'' 1874 Internet Archive ''Socialism'' 1879 Belfords, Clarke & Co. \"Notes on N. W. Senior's Political Economy\" 1945 ''Economica'' N.S.", "12" ], [ "See also", "* John Stuart Mill Institute* Mill's methods* John Stuart Mill Library* List of liberal theorists* ''On Social Freedom''* Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Mill's work======Other sources=== * * Brink, David, \"Mill's Moral and Political Philosophy\" , The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.", ")* Claeys, Gregory.", "''Mill and Paternalism'' (Cambridge University Press, 2013)* Christians, Clifford G. & John C. Merrill (eds) Ethical Communication: Five Moral Stances in Human Dialogue, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2009* * * * Gopnick, Adam, \"Right Again, The passions of John Stuart Mill\", ''The New Yorker'', 6 October 2008 * * Harwood, Sterling.", "\"Eleven Objections to Utilitarianism\", in Louis P. Pojman, ed., ''Moral Philosophy: A Reader'' (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co., 1998), and in Sterling Harwood, ed., ''Business as Ethical and Business as Usual'' (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996), Chapter 7* Hollander, Samuel, ''The Economics of John Stuart Mill'' (University of Toronto Press, 1985)* Kitcher, Philip.", "''On John Stuart Mill''.", "Columbia University Press, 2023.", "* Kolmar, Wendy & Frances Bartowski.", "''Feminist Theory''.", "2nd ed.", "New York: Mc Graw Hill, 2005* Letwin, Letwin, ''The Pursuit of Certainty'' (Cambridge University Press, 1965).", "* Packe, Michael St. John, ''The Life of John Stuart Mill'' (Macmillan, 1952)* Pateman, Carole, ''Participation and Democratic Theory'' (Cambridge University Press, 1970).", "* Reeves, Richard, ''John Stuart Mill: Victorian Firebrand'', Atlantic Books (2007), paperback 2008.", "* Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003).", "''Introducing Political Philosophy''.", "Icon Books.", "* Rosen, Frederick, ''Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill'' (Routledge Studies in Ethics & Moral Theory), 2003.", "* * * * Ten, Chin Liew, ''Mill on Liberty'', Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980, full-text online at Contents Victorianweb.org (National University of Singapore)* Thompson, Dennis F., ''John Stuart Mill and Representative Government'' (Princeton University Press, 1976).", "* Thompson, Dennis F., \"Mill in Parliament: When Should a Philosopher Compromise?\"", "in ''J.", "S. Mill's Political Thought'', eds.", "N. Urbinati and A. Zakaras (Cambridge University Press, 2007).", "" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * * * * * * Francisco Vergara, « Bentham and Mill on the \"Quality\" of Pleasures», ''Revue d'études benthamiennes'', Paris, 2011.", "" ], [ "External links", "===Mill's works=== * * * * The Online Books Page lists works on various sites* Works , readable and downloadable* Primary and secondary works* More easily readable versions of ''On Liberty'', ''Utilitarianism'', ''Three Essays on Religion'', ''The Subjection of Women'', ''A System of Logic'', and ''Autobiography''* ''Of the Composition of Causes'', Chapter VI of ''System of Logic'' (1859)* John Stuart Mill's diary of a walking tour at Mount Holyoke College * ''A System of Logic'', University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002, ===Secondary works===* * John Stuart Mill in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy===Further information===* * Catalogue of Mill's correspondence and papers held at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics.", "View the Archives Catalogue of the contents of this important holding, which also includes letters of James Mill and Helen Taylor.", "* John Stuart Mill's library, Somerville College Library in Oxford holds ≈ 1700 volumes owned by John Stuart Mill and his father James Mill, many containing their marginalia* * Mill, BBC Radio 4 discussion with A. C. Grayling, Janet Radcliffe Richards & Alan Ryan (''In Our Time'', 18 May 2006)* * John Stuart Mill on Google Scholar* John Stuart Mill, biographical profile, including quotes and further resources, at Utilitarianism.net." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Junk science" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Junk science''' is spurious or fraudulent scientific data, research, or analysis.", "The concept is often invoked in political and legal contexts where facts and scientific results have a great amount of weight in making a determination.", "It usually conveys a pejorative connotation that the research has been untowardly driven by political, ideological, financial, or otherwise unscientific motives.The concept was popularized in the 1990s in relation to expert testimony in civil litigation.", "More recently, invoking the concept has been a tactic to criticize research on the harmful environmental or public health effects of corporate activities, and occasionally in response to such criticism.", "Author Dan Agin in his book ''Junk Science'' harshly criticized those who deny the basic premise of global warming,In some contexts, junk science is counterposed to the \"sound science\" or \"solid science\" that favors one's own point of view.", "Junk science has been criticized for undermining public trust in real science.", "Junk science is not the same as pseudoscience." ], [ "Definition", "Junk science has been defined as:* \"science done to establish a preconceived notion—not to test the notion, which is what proper science tries to do, but to establish it regardless of whether or not it would hold up to real testing.\"", "* \"opinion posing as empirical evidence, or through evidence of questionable warrant, based on inadequate scientific methodology.", "\"* \"methodologically sloppy research conducted to advance some extrascientific agenda or to prevail in litigation.\"" ], [ "Motivations", "Junk science happens for different reasons: researchers believing that their ideas are correct before proper analysis (a sort of scientific self-delusion or drinking the Kool-Aid), researchers biased with their study designs, and/or a \"plain old lack of ethics\".", "Being overly attached to one's own ideas can cause research to veer from ordinary junk science (e.g., designing an experiment that is expected to produce the desired results) into scientific fraud (e.g., lying about the results) and pseudoscience (e.g., claiming that the unfavorable results actually proved the idea correct).Junk science can occur when the perpetrator has something to gain from arriving at the desired conclusion.", "It can often happen in the testimony of expert witnesses in legal proceedings, and especially in the self-serving advertising of products and services.", "These situations may encourage researchers to make sweeping or overstated claims based on limited evidence." ], [ "History", "The phrase ''junk science'' appears to have been in use prior to 1985.A 1985 United States Department of Justice report by the Tort Policy Working Group noted:The use of such invalid scientific evidence (commonly referred to as 'junk science') has resulted in findings of causation which simply cannot be justified or understood from the standpoint of the current state of credible scientific or medical knowledge.In 1989, the climate scientist Jerry Mahlman (Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory) characterized the theory that global warming was due to solar variation (presented in ''Scientific Perspectives on the Greenhouse Problem'' by Frederick Seitz et al.)", "as \"noisy junk science.", "\"Peter W. Huber popularized the term with respect to litigation in his 1991 book ''Galileo's Revenge: Junk Science in the Courtroom.''", "The book has been cited in over 100 legal textbooks and references; as a consequence, some sources cite Huber as the first to coin the term.", "By 1997, the term had entered the legal lexicon as seen in an opinion by Supreme Court of the United States Justice John Paul Stevens:An example of 'junk science' that should be excluded under the Daubert standard as too unreliable would be the testimony of a phrenologist who would purport to prove a defendant's future dangerousness based on the contours of the defendant's skull.", "Lower courts have subsequently set guidelines for identifying junk science, such as the 2005 opinion of United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit Judge Frank H. Easterbrook:Positive reports about magnetic water treatment are not replicable; this plus the lack of a physical explanation for any effects are hallmarks of junk science.As the subtitle of Huber's book, ''Junk Science in the Courtroom'', suggests, his emphasis was on the use or misuse of expert testimony in civil litigation.", "One prominent example cited in the book was litigation over casual contact in the spread of AIDS.", "A California school district sought to prevent a young boy with AIDS, Ryan Thomas, from attending kindergarten.", "The school district produced an expert witness, Steven Armentrout, who testified that a possibility existed that AIDS could be transmitted to schoolmates through yet undiscovered \"vectors\".", "However, five experts testified on behalf of Thomas that AIDS is not transmitted through casual contact, and the court affirmed the \"solid science\" (as Huber called it) and rejected Armentrout's argument.In 1999, Paul Ehrlich and others advocated public policies to improve the dissemination of valid environmental scientific knowledge and discourage junk science:The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports offer an antidote to junk science by articulating the current consensus on the prospects for climate change, by outlining the extent of the uncertainties, and by describing the potential benefits and costs of policies to address climate change.In a 2003 study about changes in environmental activism regarding the Crown of the Continent Ecosystem, Pedynowski noted that junk science can undermine the credibility of science over a much broader scale because misrepresentation by special interests casts doubt on more defensible claims and undermines the credibility of all research.In his 2006 book ''Junk Science'', Dan Agin emphasized two main causes of junk science: fraud, and ignorance.", "In the first case, Agin discussed falsified results in the development of organic transistors:As far as understanding junk science is concerned, the important aspect is that both Bell Laboratories and the international physics community were fooled until someone noticed that noise records published by Jan Hendrik Schön in several papers were identical—which means physically impossible.In the second case, he cites an example that demonstrates ignorance of statistical principles in the lay press:Since no such proof is possible that genetically modified food is harmless, the article in ''The New York Times'' was what is called a \"bad rap\" against the U.S. Department of Agriculture—a bad rap based on a junk-science belief that it's possible to prove a null hypothesis.Agin asks the reader to step back from the rhetoric, as \"how things are labeled does not make a science junk science.\"", "In its place, he offers that junk science is ultimately motivated by the desire to hide undesirable truths from the public.The rise of open source (free to read) journals has resulted in economic pressure on academic publishers to publish junk science.", "Even when the journal is peer-reviewed, the authors, rather than the readers, become the customer and the source of funding for the journal, so the publisher is incentivized to publish as many papers as possible, including those that are methodologically unsound." ], [ "Misuse in public relations", "John Stauber and Sheldon Rampton of ''PR Watch'' say the concept of junk science has come to be invoked in attempts to dismiss scientific findings that stand in the way of short-term corporate profits.", "In their book ''Trust Us, We're Experts'' (2001), they write that industries have launched multimillion-dollar campaigns to position certain theories as junk science in the popular mind, often failing to employ the scientific method themselves.", "For example, the tobacco industry has described research demonstrating the harmful effects of smoking and second-hand smoke as junk science, through the vehicle of various astroturf groups.Theories more favorable to corporate activities are portrayed in words as \"sound science\".", "Past examples where \"sound science\" was used include the research into the toxicity of Alar, which was heavily criticized by antiregulatory advocates, and Herbert Needleman's research into low dose lead poisoning.", "Needleman was accused of fraud and personally attacked.Fox News commentator Steven Milloy often denigrates credible scientific research on topics like global warming, ozone depletion, and passive smoking as \"junk science\".", "The credibility of Milloy's website junkscience.com was questioned by Paul D. Thacker, a writer for ''The New Republic'', in the wake of evidence that Milloy had received funding from Philip Morris, RJR Tobacco, and Exxon Mobil.", "Thacker also noted that Milloy was receiving almost $100,000 a year in consulting fees from Philip Morris while he criticized the evidence regarding the hazards of second-hand smoke as junk science.", "Following the publication of this article, the Cato Institute, which had hosted the junkscience.com site, ceased its association with the site and removed Milloy from its list of adjunct scholars.Tobacco industry documents reveal that Philip Morris executives conceived of the \"Whitecoat Project\" in the 1980s as a response to emerging scientific data on the harmfulness of second-hand smoke.", "The goal of the Whitecoat Project, as conceived by Philip Morris and other tobacco companies, was to use ostensibly independent \"scientific consultants\" to spread doubt in the public mind about scientific data through invoking concepts like junk science.", "According to epidemiologist David Michaels, Assistant Secretary of Energy for Environment, Safety, and Health in the Clinton Administration, the tobacco industry invented the \"sound science\" movement in the 1980s as part of their campaign against the regulation of second-hand smoke.David Michaels has argued that, since the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in ''Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.'', lay judges have become \"gatekeepers\" of scientific testimony and, as a result, respected scientists have sometimes been unable to provide testimony so that corporate defendants are \"increasingly emboldened\" to accuse adversaries of practicing junk science." ], [ "Notable cases", "American psychologist Paul Cameron has been designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) as an anti-gay extremist and a purveyor of \"junk science\".", "Cameron's research has been heavily criticized for unscientific methods and distortions which attempt to link homosexuality with pedophilia.", "In one instance, Cameron claimed that lesbians are 300 times more likely to get into car accidents.", "The SPLC states his work has been continually cited in some sections of the media despite being discredited.", "Cameron was expelled from the American Psychological Association in 1983." ], [ "Combatting junk science", "In 1995, the Union of Concerned Scientists launched the Sound Science Initiative, a national network of scientists committed to debunking junk science through media outreach, lobbying, and developing joint strategies to participate in town meetings or public hearings.", "In its newsletter on Science and Technology in Congress, the American Association for the Advancement of Science also recognized the need for increased understanding between scientists and lawmakers: \"Although most individuals would agree that sound science is preferable to junk science, fewer recognize what makes a scientific study 'good' or 'bad'.\"", "The American Dietetic Association, criticizing marketing claims made for food products, has created a list of \"Ten Red Flags of Junk Science\"." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * for admissibility* * * * * * List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * " ], [ "External links", " * Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy(SKAPP) DefendingScience.org* * * * * * (10 questions we should ask when encountering a pseudoscience claim)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Java (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Java''' is an island of Indonesia.", "'''Java''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Computing", "* Java (programming language), an object-oriented high-level programming language* Java (software platform), software and specifications developed by Sun, acquired by Oracle* Java virtual machine, an abstract computing machine enabling a computer to run a Java program" ], [ "Food and drink", "* Java (drink), American slang term for coffee* Java chicken, a breed of chicken originating in the United States* Java coffee, a variety of coffee grown on the island of Java" ], [ "Geography", "===United States===* Java, Alabama* Java, Montana* Java, New York* Java, Ohio* Java, South Dakota* Java, Virginia===Other places===* Java, Mull, a hamlet on the Isle of Mull, Argyll and Bute, Scotland* Java-eiland, a neighborhood in Amsterdam* Java (town), a town in Georgia/South Ossetia* Java District, district around this town in Georgia* Java, São Tomé and Príncipe * Jave la Grande or Java Maior, a phantom island south of Java." ], [ "Entertainment", "* ''Java'' (board game), a board game set on the island of Java* Java (comics), a villain appearing in the DC Comics series ''Metamorpho''* Java the Caveman, one of the main characters in the French-Canadian animated series ''Martin Mystery''" ], [ "Music and dance", "* Java (band), a French band* Java (dance), a Parisian Bal-musette dance* \"Java\" (instrumental), a 1958 song by Allen Toussaint* \"Java\", a 1956 song by Lucienne Delyle * \"Java\", a song by Augustus Pablo* \"Java Jive\", a song by The Ink Spots" ], [ "Transportation", "* Avian Java, a British hang glider* HMS ''Java'', three ships of the British Royal Navy* ''Java'' (1813 ship), a British merchant and migrant ship* USS ''Java'' (1815), a 44-gun frigate in the United States Navy* SS ''Java'' (1865), a British and French ocean liner built in 1865* ''Java''-class cruiser, a class of Dutch World War II light cruisers* Bentley Java, a 1994 concept car* Chrysler Java, a 1999 concept car" ], [ "Other uses", "* Javanese script (ISO 15924 code: Java)* Java (cigarette), a brand of Russian cigarettes" ], [ "See also", "* Java Man, one of the first specimens of ''Homo erectus'' to be discovered* JavaScript, an interpreted programming language* Javan (disambiguation)* Javanese (disambiguation)* Jawa (disambiguation)* Jaffa (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "James Cook" ], [ "Introduction", "Captain '''James Cook''' ( – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, cartographer and naval officer famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to New Zealand and Australia in particular.", "He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755.He served during the Seven Years' War and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec, which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and the Royal Society.", "This acclaim came at a crucial moment for the direction of British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1768 as commander of for the first of three Pacific voyages.In these voyages, Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe.", "He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers.", "He surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time.", "He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.During his third voyage in the Pacific, Cook encountered the Hawaiian islands in 1779.He was killed while attempting to take hostage Kalaniʻōpuʻu, chief of the island of Hawaii.", "There is controversy over Cook's role as an enabler of British colonialism and the violence associated with some of his contacts with indigenous peoples.", "He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him." ], [ "Early life and family", "James Cook was born on in the village of Marton in the North Riding of Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November (N.S.)", "in the parish church of St Cuthbert, where his name can be seen in the church register.", "He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his locally born wife, Grace Pace (1702–1765), from Thornaby-on-Tees.", "In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school.", "In 1741, after five years' schooling, he began work for his father, who had been promoted to farm manager.", "Despite not being formally educated, he became capable in mathematics, astronomy and charting by the time of his ''Endeavour'' voyage.", "For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude.In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved to the fishing village of Staithes, to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson.", "Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.Elizabeth Cook, wife and for 56 years widow of James Cook, by William Henderson, 1830After 18 months, not proving suited for shop work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker.", "The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade.", "Their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum.", "Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast.", "His first assignment was aboard the collier ''Freelove'', and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London.", "As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy – all skills he would need one day to command his own ship.His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea.", "After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig ''Friendship''.", "In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War.", "Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts, keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping and one of his mentors, on 21 December 1762 at St Margaret's Church, Barking, Essex.", "The couple had six children: James (1763–1794), Nathaniel (1764–1780, lost aboard which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the West Indies), Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772) and Hugh (1776–1793, who died of scarlet fever while a student at Christ's College, Cambridge).", "When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London.", "He attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised.", "Cook has no direct descendants – all of his children died before having children of their own." ], [ "Start of Royal Navy career", "Cook's first posting was with , serving as able seaman and master's mate under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter.", "In October and November 1755, he took part in ''Eagle'''s capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties.", "His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of ''Cruizer'', a small cutter attached to ''Eagle'' while on patrol.In June 1757 Cook formally passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.", "He then joined the frigate HMS ''Solebay'' as master under Captain Robert Craig.===Canada===During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rate Navy vessel .", "With others in ''Pembroke''s crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759.Throughout his service he demonstrated a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, thus allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack during the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham.Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s, aboard .", "He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767.At this time, Cook employed local pilots to point out the \"rocks and hidden dangers\" along the south and west coasts.", "During the 1765 season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast west of \"Great St Lawrence\", Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay, John Dawson for Connaigre and Hermitage Bay, and John Peck for the \"Bay of Despair\".While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the sun on 5 August 1766.By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England, it was possible to calculate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland.", "This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767.His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island's coasts and were the first scientific, large-scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines.", "They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery.", "Cook's maps were used into the 20th century, with copies being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland's waters for 200 years.Following his exertions in Newfoundland, Cook wrote that he intended to go not only \"farther than any man has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go\"." ], [ "First voyage (1768–1771)", "On 25 May 1768, the Admiralty commissioned Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean.", "The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun which, when combined with observations from other places, would help to determine the distance of the Earth from the Sun.", "Cook, at age 39, was promoted to lieutenant to grant him sufficient status to take the command.", "For its part, the Royal Society agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea gratuity in addition to his Naval pay.The expedition sailed aboard , departing England on 26 August 1768.Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the transit were made.", "However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped.", "Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders, which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of ''Terra Australis''.Cook then sailed to New Zealand where he mapped the complete coastline, making only some minor errors.", "With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to communicate with the Māori.", "However, at least eight Māori were killed in violent encounters.", "Cook then voyaged west, reaching the southeastern coast of Australia near today's Point Hicks on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.Cook landing at Botany Bay (Kamay)On 23 April, he made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal: \"... and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the Clothes they might have on I know not.\"", "''Endeavour'' continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight with Cook charting and naming landmarks as he went.", "On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the continent at a beach now known as Silver Beach on Botany Bay (Kamay Botany Bay National Park).", "Two Gweagal men of the Dharawal / Eora nation opposed their landing and in the confrontation one of them was shot and wounded.Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, collecting water, timber, fodder and botanical specimens and exploring the surrounding area.", "Cook sought to establish relations with the Indigenous population without success.", "At first Cook named the inlet \"Sting-Ray Harbour\" after the many stingrays found there.", "This was later changed to \"Botanist Bay\" and finally ''Botany Bay'' after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander.", "This first landing site was later to be promoted (particularly by Joseph Banks) as a suitable candidate for situating a settlement and British colonial outpost.", "''Endeavour'' replica in Cooktown, Queensland harbour – anchored where the original ''Endeavour'' was beached for seven weeks in 1770\|204x204pxAfter his departure from Botany Bay, he continued northwards.", "He stopped at Bustard Bay (now known as Seventeen Seventy) on 23 May 1770.On 24 May, Cook and Banks and others went ashore.", "Continuing north, on 11 June a mishap occurred when ''Endeavour'' ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef, and then \"nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770\".", "The ship was badly damaged, and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the docks of modern Cooktown, Queensland, at the mouth of the Endeavour River).", "The crew's encounters with the local Aboriginal people were mostly peaceful, although following a dispute over green turtles Cook ordered shots to be fired and one local was lightly wounded.The voyage then continued and at about midday on 22 August 1770, they reached the northernmost tip of the coast and, without leaving the ship, Cook named it York Cape (now Cape York).", "Leaving the east coast, Cook turned west and nursed his battered ship through the dangerously shallow waters of Torres Strait.", "Searching for a vantage point, Cook saw a steep hill on a nearby island from the top of which he hoped to see \"a passage into the Indian Seas\".", "Cook named the island Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory.", "=== Return to England ===Cook returned to England via Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where many in his crew succumbed to malaria, and then the Cape of Good Hope, arriving at the island of Saint Helena on 30 April 1771.The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in The Downs, with Cook going to Deal.=== Interlude ===Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community.", "Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero.", "Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage.", "Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage." ], [ "Second voyage (1772–1775)", "Portrait of James Cook by William Hodges, who accompanied Cook on his second voyageShortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted in August 1771 to the rank of commander.", "In 1772, he was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis.", "On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south.", "Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south.", "Despite this evidence to the contrary, Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist.Cook commanded on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, .", "Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773.In the Antarctic fog, ''Resolution'' and ''Adventure'' became separated.", "Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.Illustration from the 1815 edition of Cook's ''Voyages'', depicting Cook watching a human sacrifice in Tahiti c. 1773Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship.", "He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent.", "On this leg of the voyage, he brought a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage.", "On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed, mapped, and took possession for Britain of South Georgia, which had been explored by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675.Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands (\"Sandwich Land\").", "He then turned north to South Africa and from there continued back to England.", "His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.South Georgia, which he named after King George IIICook's second voyage marked a successful employment of Larcum Kendall's K1 copy of John Harrison's H4 marine chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy.", "Cook's log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century.Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital.", "He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise.", "His fame extended beyond the Admiralty; he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy.", "Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; he was described in the House of Lords as \"the first navigator in Europe\".", "But he could not be kept away from the sea.", "A third voyage was planned, and Cook volunteered to find the Northwest Passage.", "He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite route." ], [ "Third voyage (1776–1779)", "===Hawaii===On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS ''Resolution'', while Captain Charles Clerke commanded .", "The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander Omai to Tahiti, or so the public was led to believe.", "The trip's principal goal was to locate a Northwest Passage around the American continent.", "After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to begin formal contact with the Hawaiian Islands.", "After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the \"Sandwich Islands\" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.===North America===From the Sandwich Islands, Cook sailed north and then northeast to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California.", "He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude, naming Cape Foulweather, after the bad weather which forced his ships south to about 43° north before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward.", "He unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island.", "He anchored near the First Nations village of Yuquot.", "Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in what Cook called Ship Cove, now Resolution Cove, at the south end of Bligh Island.", "Relations between Cook's crew and the people of Yuquot were cordial but sometimes strained.", "In trading, the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had been acceptable in Hawaii.", "Metal objects were much desired, but the lead, pewter, and tin traded at first soon fell into disrepute.", "The most valuable items which the British received in trade were sea otter pelts.", "During the stay, the Yuquot \"hosts\" essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels; the natives usually visited the British vessels at Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove.After leaving Nootka Sound in search of the Northwest Passage, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska.", "In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American northwest coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the west) and Spanish (from the south) exploratory probes of the northern limits of the Pacific.HMS ''Resolution'' and ''Discovery'' in TahitiBy the second week of August 1778, Cook was through the Bering Strait, sailing into the Chukchi Sea.", "He headed northeast up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice at a latitude of 70°44′ north.", "Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then southeast down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait.", "By early September 1778 he was back in the Bering Sea to begin the trip to the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands.", "He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they had pronounced inedible.===Return to Hawaii===Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779.After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay on Hawai'i Island, largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago.", "Cook's arrival coincided with the ''Makahiki'', a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono.", "Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS ''Resolution'', or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.", "Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals.", "It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.", "Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992 by Gananath Obeyesekere in the so-called Sahlins–Obeyesekere debate.===Death===Marker at the shoreline of Kealakekua Bay, near the spot where Captain Cook was slainAfter a month's stay, Cook attempted to resume his exploration of the northern Pacific.", "Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, however, ''Resolution''s foremast broke, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs.Tensions rose, and quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay, including the theft of wood from a burial ground under Cook's orders.", "On 13 February 1779, an unknown group of Hawaiians stole one of Cook's longboats.", "By then the Hawaiian people had become \"insolent\", even with threats to fire upon them.", "Cook responded to the theft by attempting to kidnap and ransom the King of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.The following day, 14 February 1779, Cook marched through the village to retrieve the king.", "Cook took the king (aliʻi nui) by his own hand and led him away.", "One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, Kanekapolei, and two chiefs approached the group as they were heading to the boats.", "They pleaded with the king not to go.", "An old kahuna (priest), chanting rapidly while holding out a coconut, attempted to distract Cook and his men as a large crowd began to form at the shore.", "At this point, the king began to understand that Cook was his enemy.", "As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.", "He was first struck on the head with a club by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina (namesake of Charles Kana'ina) and then stabbed by one of the king's attendants, Nuaa.", "The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back of the town, still visible to the ship through their spyglass.", "Four marines, Corporal James Thomas, Private Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen, were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation.The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages.", "The first voyage is shown in '''red''', second voyage in '''green''', and third voyage in '''blue'''.", "The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line.===Aftermath===The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body.", "Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society.", "The body was disembowelled and baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages.", "Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea.Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition and made a final attempt to pass through the Bering Strait.", "He died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command of ''Resolution'' and of the expedition.", "James King replaced Gore in command of ''Discovery''.", "The expedition returned home, reaching England in October 1780.After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage." ], [ "Legacy", "===Ethnographic collections===Hawaiian ʻahuʻula (feather cloak) held by the Australian MuseumThe Australian Museum acquired its \"Cook Collection\" in 1894 from the Government of New South Wales.", "At that time the collection consisted of 115 artefacts collected on Cook's three voyages throughout the Pacific Ocean, during the period 1768–1780, along with documents and memorabilia related to these voyages.", "Many of the ethnographic artefacts were collected at a time of first contact between Pacific Peoples and Europeans.", "In 1935 most of the documents and memorabilia were transferred to the Mitchell Library in the State Library of New South Wales.", "The provenance of the collection shows that the objects remained in the hands of Cook's widow Elizabeth Cook, and her descendants, until 1886.In this year John Mackrell, the great-nephew of Isaac Smith, Elizabeth Cook's cousin, organised the display of this collection at the request of the NSW Government at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London.", "In 1887 the London-based Agent-General for the New South Wales Government, Saul Samuel, bought John Mackrell's items and also acquired items belonging to the other relatives Reverend Canon Frederick Bennett, Mrs Thomas Langton, H.M.C.", "Alexander, and William Adams.", "The collection remained with the Colonial Secretary of NSW until 1894, when it was transferred to the Australian Museum.===Navigation and science=== A 1775 chart of Newfoundland, made from James Cook's Seven Years' War surveyingsCook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to Europeans' knowledge of the area.", "Several islands, such as the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement.", "To create accurate maps, latitude and longitude must be accurately determined.", "Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant.", "Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the Earth.", "The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the Sun each day.", "Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes.", "Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage from his navigational skills, with the help of astronomer Charles Green, and by using the newly published ''Nautical Almanac'' tables, via the lunar distance method – measuring the angular distance from the Moon to either the Sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the Sun, Moon, or stars.On his second voyage, Cook used the K1 chronometer made by Larcum Kendall, which was the shape of a large pocket watch, in diameter.", "It was a copy of the H4 clock made by John Harrison, which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship ''Deptford''s journey to Jamaica in 1761–62.He succeeded in circumnavigating the world on his first voyage without losing a single man to scurvy, an unusual accomplishment at the time.", "He tested several preventive measures, most importantly the frequent replenishment of fresh food.", "For presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage to the Royal Society he was presented with the Copley Medal in 1776.Cook became the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific.", "He correctly postulated a link among all the Pacific peoples, despite their being separated by great ocean stretches (see Malayo-Polynesian languages).", "Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist Bryan Sykes later verified.", "In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of the colonisation.William Hodges' painting of HMS ''Resolution'' and HMS ''Adventure'' in Matavai Bay, TahitiCook carried several scientists on his voyages; they made significant observations and discoveries.", "Two botanists, Joseph Banks and the Swede Daniel Solander, sailed on the first voyage.", "The two collected over 3,000 plant species.", "Banks subsequently strongly promoted British settlement of Australia, leading to the establishment of New South Wales as a penal settlement in 1788.Artists also sailed on Cook's first voyage.", "Sydney Parkinson was heavily involved in documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage.", "They were of immense scientific value to British botanists.", "Cook's second expedition included William Hodges, who produced notable landscape paintings of Tahiti, Easter Island, and other locations.", "Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments.", "William Bligh, Cook's sailing master, was given command of in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with breadfruit.", "Bligh became known for the mutiny of his crew, which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789.He later became Governor of New South Wales, where he was the subject of another mutiny—the 1808 Rum Rebellion.", "George Vancouver, one of Cook's midshipmen, led a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America from 1791 to 1794.In honour of Vancouver's former commander, his ship was named .", "George Dixon, who sailed under Cook on his third expedition, later commanded his own.", "Cook's contributions to knowledge gained international recognition during his lifetime.", "In 1779, while the American colonies were fighting Britain for their independence, Benjamin Franklin wrote to captains of colonial warships at sea, recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, they were to \"not consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be made of the effects contained in her, nor obstruct her immediate return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; but that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness ... as common friends to mankind.", "\"===Memorials===Memorial to James Cook and family in the church of St Andrew the Great, CambridgeA U.S. coin, the 1928 Hawaii Sesquicentennial half-dollar, carries Cook's image.", "Minted for the 150th anniversary of his discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this example of an early United States commemorative coin both scarce and expensive.", "The site where he was killed in Hawaii was marked in 1874 by a white obelisk.", "This land, although in Hawaii, was deeded to the United Kingdom by Princess Likelike and her husband, Archibald Scott Cleghorn, to the British Consul to Hawaii, James Hay Wodehouse, in 1877.A nearby town is named Captain Cook, Hawaii; several Hawaiian businesses also carry his name.", "The Apollo 15 Command/Service Module ''Endeavour'' was named after Cook's ship, , as was the .", "In addition, the first Crew Dragon capsule flown by SpaceX was named for ''Endeavour.''", "Another shuttle, ''Discovery'', was named after Cook's .Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, Australia, having been moved from England at the behest of the Australian philanthropist Sir Russell Grimwade in 1934.The first institution of higher education in North Queensland, Australia, was named after him, with James Cook University opening in Townsville in 1970.Numerous institutions, landmarks and place names reflect the importance of Cook's contributions, including the Cook Islands, Cook Strait, Cook Inlet and the Cook crater on the Moon.", "Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest summit in New Zealand, is named for him.", "Another Mount Cook is on the border between the U.S. state of Alaska and the Canadian Yukon territory, and is designated Boundary Peak 182 as one of the official Boundary Peaks of the Hay–Herbert Treaty.There are statues of Cook in Hyde Park in Sydney, and at St Kilda in Melbourne.One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by Admiral Hugh Palliser, a contemporary of Cook and one-time owner of the estate.", "A large obelisk was built in 1827 as a monument to Cook on Easby Moor overlooking his boyhood village of Great Ayton, along with a smaller monument at the former location of Cook's cottage.", "There is also a monument to Cook in the church of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his sons Hugh, a student at Christ's College, and James were buried.", "Cook's widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church and in her will left money for the memorial's upkeep.", "The 250th anniversary of Cook's birth was marked at the site of his birthplace in Marton by the opening of the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, located within Stewart Park (1978).", "A granite vase just to the south of the museum marks the approximate spot where he was born.", "Tributes also abound in post-industrial Middlesbrough, including a primary school, shopping square and the ''Bottle 'O Notes'', a public artwork by Claes Oldenburg, that was erected in the town's Central Gardens in 1993.Also named after Cook is James Cook University Hospital, a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003 with a railway station serving it called James Cook opening in 2014.The Royal Research Ship RRS ''James Cook'' was built in 2006 to replace the RRS ''Charles Darwin'' in the UK's Royal Research Fleet, and Stepney Historical Trust placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London.", "A statue erected in his honour can be viewed near Admiralty Arch on the south side of The Mall in London.", "In 2002, Cook was placed at number 12 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.Cooktown, QueenslandIn 1959, the Cooktown Re-enactment Association first performed a re-enactment of Cook's 1770 landing at the site of modern Cooktown, Australia, and have continued the tradition each year, with the support and participation of many of the local Guugu Yimithirr people.", "They celebrate the first act of reconciliation between Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous people, when a Guugu Yimithirr elder stepped in after some of Cook's men had violated custom by taking green turtles from the river and not sharing with the local people.", "He presented Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering, thus preventing possible bloodshed.", "Cook recorded the incident in his journal.===Culture===Cook was a subject in many literary creations.", "Letitia Elizabeth Landon, a popular poet known for her sentimental romantic poetry, published a poetical illustration to a portrait of Captain Cook in 1837.In 1931, Kenneth Slessor's poem \"Five Visions of Captain Cook\" was the \"most dramatic break-through\" in Australian poetry of the 20th century according to poet Douglas Stewart.Cook appears as a symbolic and generic figure in several Aboriginal myths, often from regions where Cook did not encounter Aboriginal people.", "Maddock states that Cook is usually portrayed as the bringer of Western colonialism to Australia and is presented as a villain who brings immense social change.Cook has been depicted in numerous films, documentaries and dramas.", "The Australian slang phrase \"Have a Captain Cook\" means to have a look or conduct a brief inspection.=== Controversy ===Statue of James Cook, Hyde Park, Sydney.", "The rear inscription reads: \"Discovered this territory, 1770\".The period 2018 to 2021 marked the 250th anniversary of Cook's first voyage of exploration.", "Several countries, including Australia and New Zealand, arranged official events to commemorate the voyage, leading to widespread public debate about Cook's legacy and the violence associated with his contacts with Indigenous peoples.", "In the lead-up to the commemorations, various memorials to Cook in Australia and New Zealand were vandalised, and there were public calls for their removal or modification due to their alleged promotion of colonialist narratives.", "There were also campaigns for the return of Indigenous artefacts taken during Cook's voyages (see Gweagal shield).In July 2021, a statue of Cook in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, was torn down in protests about the deaths of Indigenous residential school children in Canada.", "In January 2024, a statue of Cook in St Kilda, Melbourne was cut down in a protest against colonialism; the premier of Victoria pledged to work with the local council to repair the statue.Alice Proctor argues that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the display of Indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over the decolonisation of museums and public spaces and resistance to colonialist narratives.", "While a number of commentators argue that Cook was an enabler of British colonialism in the Pacific, Geoffrey Blainey, among others, notes that it was Banks who promoted Botany Bay as a site for colonisation after Cook's death.", "Robert Tombs has defended Cook, arguing: \"He epitomized the Age of Enlightenment in which he lived\" and in conducting his first voyage \"was carrying out an enlightened mission, with instructions from the Royal Society to show ‘patience and forbearance’ towards native peoples\"." ], [ "Arms" ], [ "See also", "* New Zealand places named by James Cook* Australian places named by James Cook* European and American voyages of scientific exploration* Exploration of the Pacific* List of places named after Captain James Cook* List of sea captains* ''Death of Cook'' (paintings)* Port-Christmas" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * , Volume I, Volume II–III.", "* * * Richardson, Brian.", "(2005) ''Longitude and Empire: How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World'' (University of British Columbia Press.)", ".", "* Sydney Daily Telegraph (1970) ''Captain Cook: His Artists – His Voyages'' The Sydney Daily Telegraph Portfolio of Original Works by Artists who sailed with Captain Cook.", "Australian Consolidated Press, Sydney* Thomas, Nicholas ''The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook''.", "Walker & Co., New York.", "(2003)* Uglow, Jenny, \"Island Hopping\" (review of ''Captain James Cook: The Journals'', selected and edited by Philip Edwards, London, Folio Society, three volumes and a chart of the voyages, 1,309 pp.", "; and William Frame with Laura Walker, ''James Cook: The Voyages'', McGill-Queen University Press, 224 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVI, no.", "2 (7 February 2019), pp. 18–20.", "* * * Withey, Lynne.", "''Voyages of discovery: Captain Cook and the exploration of the Pacific'' (Univ of California Press, 1989)." ], [ "External links", "* Captain Cook Society* Captain Cook historic plaque, Halifax* * * , a poetical illustration to Sherwin's engraving of Nathaniel Dance's portrait by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838.===Biographical dictionaries===* * * ===Journals===* ''The Endeavour'' journal (1) and ''The Endeavour'' journal (2), as kept by James Cook – digitised and held by the National Library of Australia* The South Seas Project: maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook's First Pacific Voyage, 1768–1771.Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, as well as the complete text of John Hawkesworth's 1773 Account of Cook's first voyage.", "* Digitised copies of log books from James Cook's voyages at the British Atmospheric Data Centre* * * * Log book of Cook's second voyage: high-resolution digitised version in Cambridge Digital Library* Digitised Tapa cloth catalogue held at Auckland Libraries===Collections and museums===* Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Collection online Images and descriptions of more than 300 artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Cook.", "* Images and descriptions of items associated with James Cook at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa* * Captain Cook Birthplace Museum Marton * Captain Cook Memorial Museum Whitby* Cook's manuscript maps of the south-east coast of Australia, held at the American Geographical Society Library at UW Milwaukee.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Baskerville" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Baskerville''' (baptised 28 January 1707 – 8 January 1775) was an English businessman, in areas including japanning and papier-mâché, but he is best remembered as a printer and type designer.", "He was also responsible for inventing \"wove paper\", which was considerably smoother than \"laid paper\", allowing for sharper printing results." ], [ "Life", "A modern sample of the Baskerville typefaceBaskerville was born in the village of Wolverley, near Kidderminster in Worcestershire, and baptised on 28 January 1706OS(1707 NS) at Wolverley church.", "Baskerville established an early career teaching handwriting, and is known to have offered his services cutting gravestones (a demonstration slab by him survives in the Library of Birmingham) before making a considerable fortune from the manufacture of lacquerwork items (japanning).He practised as a printer in Birmingham, England.", "Baskerville was a member of the Royal Society of Arts, and an associate of some of the members of the Lunar Society.", "Baskerville directed his punchcutter, John Handy, in the design of many typefaces of broadly similar appearance.", "His typefaces were greatly admired by Benjamin Franklin, a fellow printer, but were criticised by jealous competitors and soon fell out of favour.", "He also pioneered a completely new style of typography, adding wide margins and leading between each line.In 1757, Baskerville published a remarkable quarto edition of Virgil on wove paper, using his own type.", "It took three years to complete, but it made such an impact that he was appointed printer to the University of Cambridge the following year.", "An atheist, he nonetheless printed ''The Book of Common Prayer'' in 1762 and a splendid folio Bible in 1763.Baskerville innovated in printing, paper, and ink production.", "He worked with paper maker James Whatman to produce a smoother whiter paper, sometimes called \"wove paper\", which showcased his strong black type." ], [ "Death and interments", "Baskerville died in January 1775 at his home, ''Easy Hill''.", "He requested that his body be placedHowever, in 1821 a canal was built through the land and his body was placed on show by the landowner until Baskerville's family and friends arranged to have it moved to the crypt of Christ Church, Birmingham.", "Christ Church was demolished in 1897 so his remains were then moved, with other bodies from the crypt, to consecrated catacombs at Warstone Lane Cemetery.", "In 1963 a petition was presented to Birmingham City Council requesting that he be reburied in unconsecrated ground, according to his wishes." ], [ "Legacy", "The 20th century renewed interest in and appreciation for Baskerville's typefaces.", "His most notable typeface, Baskerville, is held to represent the peak of transitional type face and a bridge between Old Style and Modern type design.", "Since the 1920s, many fonts based on his work—mostly called 'Baskerville'— have been released by Linotype, Monotype, and other type foundries.", "In 1996, Emigre released a popular revival of this typeface called Mrs Eaves after Baskerville's wife, Sarah Eaves." ], [ "Commemoration", "In the 1930s, Baskerville House was built on the grounds of ''Easy Hill''.In 1947, BBC radio broadcast a radio play about his burial, named ''Hic Jacet: or The Corpse in the Crescent'' by Neville Brandon Watts.", "The original recording was not preserved but a performance was staged by students at the Birmingham School of Acting in 2013 at the Typographic Hub Centre of Birmingham City University.", "A copy of the script is in the Norman Painting Archives at the University of Birmingham.", "''Industry and Genius'', 1990, by David Patten, sculpture in Centenary SquareA Portland stone sculpture of the Baskerville typeface, ''Industry and Genius'', in his honour stands in front of Baskerville House in Centenary Square, Birmingham.", "It was created by local artist David Patten in 1990." ], [ "Gallery", "Some examples of volumes published by Baskerville.Image:Publii Virgilii Maronis Bucolica, Georgica, et Æneis by John Baskerville 1757.jpg\|Title-page of the 1757 quarto edition of the works of VirgilImage:Milton Baskerville.jpg\|John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'' (1758)Image:Work-baskerville.jpg\|Volume One of ''The works of Joseph Addison'' (1761)Image:Baskerville bible.jpg\|Title-page of Baskerville's 1763 BibleImage:BaskervilleVirgil.JPG\|The 1766 translation of Virgil into English, by Robert Andrews" ], [ "See also", "* William Caslon, a contemporary type-founder and printer" ], [ "References", ";Citations;Bibliography* * ** * ARCHER-PARRÉ, Caroline & Malcom DICK (Editors), JOHN BASKERVILLE: Art and industry of the enlightenment.", "Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2017.8vo, (240x160mm), xviii,269p" ], [ "External links", "** Birmingham City Council page on ''Industry and Genius'' (includes picture)* Revolutionary Players website* Baskerville the Animated Movie * Some typographical studies on the use of the Baskerville font (in French)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Young" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Young''' most commonly refers to:John Young (astronaut) (1930–2018), American astronaut John Young, 1st Baron Lisgar (1807–1876), British diplomat and politician'''John Young''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Academics", "* John Young (professor of Greek) (1747–1820), Scottish professor of Greek at the University of Glasgow* John C. Young (pastor) (1803–1857), American educator, pastor, and president of Centre College* John Dragon Young (1949–1996), Chinese historian* John Lorenzo Young (1826–1881), English-Australian educationalist* John Richardson Young (1782–1804), American physiologist" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Performing arts===* Harry Anthony (a.k.a.", "John Young, 1870–1954), American singer* John Young (actor) (1916–1996), Scottish actor* John Young (jazz pianist) (1922–2008), American jazz pianist* John Sacret Young (1946–2021), American author, producer, director, and screenwriter* John Paul Young (born 1950), Australian singer* John Bell Young (1953–2017), American concert pianist, music critic and author* John Young (British musician) (born 1956), British keyboardist and vocalist* John Young (composer) (born 1962), New Zealand-born composer* John Lloyd Young (born 1975), American actor and singer* John G. Young (filmmaker) (fl.", "1990s–present), American director, producer and writer===Visual arts===* John Young (engraver) (1755–1825), British mezzotint engraver, keeper of the British Institution* John Henry Young (1880–1946), Australian art collector, art dealer and art gallery director* John Chin Young (1909–1997), American painter* John Zerunge Young (born 1956), Hong Kong-born Australian artist" ], [ "Business and industry", "* John Young (agricultural reformer) (1773–1837), Scottish merchant in Nova Scotia* John Young (architect) (1797–1877), English architect* John Young (Scottish architect) (1826–1895)* John Young (building contractor) (1827–1907), Australian building contractor* John Orr Young (1886–1976), American advertiser* John Young (brewer) (1921–2006), British chairman of Young's Brewery * John A.", "Young (born 1932), American business manager* John Young (businessman) (born ca 1948), Australian entrepreneur* John Hardin Young (a.k.a.", "Jack Young, fl.", "1985–present), American attorney" ], [ "Military", "* John Young (naval officer) (c. 1740–1781), American sailor* John Preston Young (1847–1934), American Confederate veteran, judge and historian* John Francis Young (1893–1929), Canadian soldier* John Darling Young (1910–1988), British Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire* Yang Kuo-chiang (a.k.a.", "John K. Young, born 1950) Chinese military leader, Director-General of National Security Bureau of the Republic of China* John J.", "Young Jr. (born 1962), U.S. Defense Department official" ], [ "Politics and law", "===Australia===* John Young (Australian politician) (1842–1893), New South Wales politician* John Young (jurist) (1919–2008), Australian jurist* John Young (judge) (born 1952), Australian jurist in the Federal Court of Australia===Canada===* John Young (seigneur) (c. 1759–1819), Scottish-born Canadian land entrepreneur, jurist, and politician* John Young (Canadian politician) (1811–1878), member of the Canadian House of Commons* John Young (Gloucester County, New Brunswick politician) (1841–1907), Canadian politician* John Young (York County, New Brunswick politician) (1854–1934), Canadian politician* John Allan Young (1895–1961), Canadian politician in Saskatchewan===U.K.===* John Young (died 1589) (by 1519–1589), English politician, MP* John Young (MP for Marlborough), (fl.", "1559), English politician, MP for Marlborough* John Young (MP for New Shoreham) (fl.", "1586–1597), English politician, MP for New Shoreham, Sussex* John Young (Scottish politician) (1930–2011), Scottish politician, Member of the Scottish Parliament===U.S.===* John Young (governor) (1802–1852), American politician, Governor of New York* John Duncan Young (1823–1910), US congressman from Kentucky* J. Smith Young (1834–1916), American politician* John Russell Young (DC Commissioner) (1882–1966), 18th president of the Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia* John Andrew Young (1916–2002), American politician from Texas* John M. Young (1926–2010), American politician from Wisconsin* John Young (Indiana politician), American politician from Indiana===Elsewhere===* John Young (advisor) (c. 1742–1835), British-born government advisor in the Kingdom of Hawaii" ], [ "Religion", "* John Young (suffragan bishop in London) (1463–1526), English Catholic churchman and academic* John Young (Regius Professor) (1514–1580), English Catholic clergyman and academic* John Young (bishop of Rochester) (1532–1605), English academic and Anglican bishop of Rochester* John Young (Dean of Winchester) (1585–1654), English Calvinist clergyman* John Young (Bishop of Argyll) (1624–1665), Scottish divine* John G. Young (bishop) (1746–1813), Irish Catholic bishop* John F. Young (1820–1885), American Episcopal bishop of Florida, translator of the hymn ''Silent Night''* John Willard Young (1844–1924), American religious leader* John Young (Dean of St George's Cathedral) (1914–1991), English Anglican clergyman" ], [ "Science and medicine", "* John Radford Young (1799–1885), English mathematician, professor and author* John Young (1823–1900), Scottish geologist* John Young (professor of natural history) (1835–1902), Scottish naturalist and geologist, professor of natural history at Glasgow University* John Stirling Young (1894–1971), Scottish physician, professor of pathology at Aberdeen University* John Wesley Young (1879–1932), American mathematician* John Zachary Young (1907–1997), English zoologist* John Young (naturalist) (born c. 1960s), Australian naturalist" ], [ "Sports", "===Association football (soccer)===* John Young (footballer, born 1888) (1888–1915), Scottish football player* John Young (footballer, born 1889) (1889–19??", "), Scottish association football player* John Young (footballer, born 1891) (1891–1947), Scottish footballer* John Young (footballer, born 1951), Scottish association football player and manager* John Young (footballer, born 1957), Scottish association football player (Denver Avalanche)===Cricket===* John Young (cricketer, born 1863) (1863–1933), English cricketer* John Young (cricketer, born 1876) (1876–1913), English cricketer* John Young (cricketer, born 1884) (1884–1960), English cricketer===Other sports===* John Young (pitcher) (fl.", "1920s), American Negro league baseball player* John Young (swimmer) (1917–2006), Bermudian swimmer* John Young (field hockey) (born 1934), Canadian Olympic field hockey player* John Young (cyclist) (1936–2013), Australian cyclist* John Young (rugby union) (1937–2020), English rugby union player* John Young (first baseman) (1949–2016), American baseball player* John Young (ice hockey) (born 1969), American ice hockey and roller hockey player" ], [ "Others", "* John Young (pioneer) (1764–1825), American surveyor* John Young (abolitionist), (fl.", "1800s), American abolitionist and Underground Railroad conductor* John Russell Young (1840–1899), American writer, diplomat, and Librarian of Congress* John Preston Young (1847–1934), American Confederate veteran, judge and historian* John P. Young (1849–1921), American writer and editor of the ''San Francisco Chronicle''* John Young (police officer) (1888–1952), New Zealand baker, policeman, unionist and police commissioner* John C. Young (1912–1987), Chinese-American civic leader, key figure in the development of Chinatown, San Francisco* John Young (Cryptome) (fl.", "2000s), American activist and architect" ], [ "Other uses", "* John Young Parkway, American roadway in Florida* John W. Young Round Barn, American historic building in Tama County, Iowa* USS ''John Young'', American warship" ], [ "See also", "* Jack Young (disambiguation) * John Yonge (disambiguation)* John Young Brown (disambiguation)* Johnny Young (disambiguation)* Jonathan Young (disambiguation)* John Youngs (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Joseph Stalin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin''' (born '''Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili'''; – 5 March 1953) was a Soviet revolutionary and politician who was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953.He held power as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–1952) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union (1941–1953).", "Initially governing the country as part of a collective leadership, he consolidated power to become a dictator by the 1930s.", "Ideologically adhering to the Leninist interpretation of Marxism, he formalised these ideas as Marxism–Leninism, while his own policies are called Stalinism.Born into a poor family in Gori in what was then the Russian Empire, Stalin attended the Tbilisi Spiritual Seminary before joining the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.", "He edited the party's newspaper, ''Pravda'', and raised funds for Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik faction via robberies, kidnappings and protection rackets.", "Repeatedly arrested, he underwent several internal exiles to Siberia.", "After the Bolsheviks seized power in the October Revolution and created a one-party state under the new Communist Party in 1917, Stalin joined its governing Politburo.", "Serving in the Russian Civil War before overseeing the Soviet Union's establishment in 1922, Stalin assumed leadership over the country following Lenin's death in 1924.Under Stalin, socialism in one country became a central tenet of the party's ideology.", "As a result of his Five-Year Plans, the country underwent agricultural collectivisation and rapid industrialisation, creating a centralised command economy.", "Severe disruptions to food production contributed to the famine of 1930–33, including the Asharshylyk in Kazakhstan and the Holodomor in Ukraine.", "To eradicate accused \"enemies of the working class\", Stalin instituted the Great Purge, in which over a million were imprisoned, largely in the Gulag system of forced labour camps, and at least 700,000 executed between 1934 and 1939.By 1937, he had absolute control over the party and government.Stalin promoted Marxism–Leninism abroad through the Communist International and supported European anti-fascist movements during the 1930s, particularly in the Spanish Civil War.", "In 1939, his regime signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany, resulting in the Soviet invasion of Poland.", "Germany ended the pact by invading the Soviet Union in 1941.Despite initial catastrophes, the Soviet Red Army repelled the German invasion and captured Berlin in 1945, ending World War II in Europe.", "Amid the war, the Soviets annexed the Baltic states and Bessarabia and North Bukovina, subsequently establishing Soviet-aligned governments throughout Central and Eastern Europe and in parts of East Asia.", "The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as global superpowers and entered a period of tension, the Cold War.", "Stalin presided over the Soviet post-war reconstruction and its development of an atomic bomb in 1949.During these years, the country experienced another major famine and an antisemitic campaign that culminated in the doctors' plot.", "After Stalin's death in 1953, he was eventually succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who subsequently denounced his rule and initiated the de-Stalinisation of Soviet society.Widely considered to be one of the 20th century's most significant figures, Stalin was the subject of a pervasive personality cult within the international Marxist–Leninist movement, which revered him as a champion of the working class and socialism.", "Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Stalin has retained popularity in Russia and Georgia as a victorious wartime leader who cemented the Soviet Union's status as a leading world power.", "Conversely, his totalitarian regime has been widely condemned for overseeing mass repression, ethnic cleansing, wide-scale deportation, hundreds of thousands of executions, and famines that killed millions." ], [ "Early life", "=== 1878–1899: Childhood to young adulthood ===Stalin was born in Georgia in the town of Gori, then part of the Tiflis Governorate of the Russian Empire and home to a mix of Georgians, Azerbaijanis, Armenians, Russians, and Jews.", "He was born on and baptised on 29 December.", "His birth name was Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, and he was nicknamed \"Soso\", a diminutive of \"Ioseb\".", "His parents were Besarion Jughashvili and Ekaterine Geladze.", "He was their only child to survive past infancy.Besarion was a cobbler who was employed in a workshop owned by another man; it was initially a financial success but later fell into decline, and the family found itself living in poverty.", "Besarion became an alcoholic and drunkenly beat his wife and son.", "Ekaterine and Stalin left the home by 1883 and began a wandering life, moving through nine different rented rooms over the next decade.", "In 1886, they moved into the house of a family friend, Father Christopher Charkviani.", "Ekaterine worked as a house cleaner and launderer and was determined to send her son to school.", "In September 1888, Stalin enrolled at the Orthodox Gori Church School, a place secured by Charkviani.", "Although he got into many fights, Stalin excelled academically, displaying talent in painting and drama classes, writing his own poetry, and singing as a choirboy.", "Stalin faced several severe health problems: An 1884 smallpox infection left him with facial scars; and at age 12 he was seriously injured when he was hit by a phaeton, probably the cause of a lifelong disability in his left arm.In 1894, Stalin began his studies at the Tiflis Theological Seminary (pictured here in the 1870s).In August 1894, Stalin enrolled in the Russian Orthodox Theological Seminary in Tiflis, enabled by a scholarship that allowed him to study at a reduced rate.", "He joined 600 trainee priests who boarded there, and he achieved high grades.", "He continued writing poetry; five of his poems, on themes such as nature, land and patriotism, were published under the pseudonym of \"Soselo\" in Ilia Chavchavadze's newspaper ''Iveria'' (''Georgia'').", "According to Stalin's biographer Simon Sebag Montefiore, they became \"minor Georgian classics\" and were included in various anthologies of Georgian poetry over the coming years.", "As he grew older, Stalin lost interest in priestly studies, his grades dropped, and he was repeatedly confined to a cell for his rebellious behaviour.", "The seminary's journal noted that he declared himself an atheist, stalked out of prayers and refused to doff his hat to monks.Stalin joined a forbidden book club at the school; he was particularly influenced by Nikolay Chernyshevsky's 1863 pro-revolutionary novel ''What Is To Be Done?''", "Another influential text was Alexander Kazbegi's ''The Patricide'', with Stalin adopting the nickname \"Koba\" from that of the book's bandit protagonist.", "The pseudonym may also have been a tribute to his wealthy benefactor, Yakobi \"Koba\" Egnatashvili, who paid for his schooling at the Tiflis seminary.", "(\"Koba\" is the Georgian diminutive of Yakobi, or Jacob, and Stalin later named his first-born son in Egnatashvili's honour.)", "He also read ''Das Kapital'', the 1867 book by German sociological theorist Karl Marx.", "Stalin devoted himself to Marx's socio-political theory, Marxism, which was then on the rise in Georgia, one of various forms of socialism opposed to the Tsarist empire's authorities.", "At night, he attended secret workers' meetings and was introduced to Silibistro \"Silva\" Jibladze, the Marxist founder of Mesame Dasi (\"Third Group\"), a Georgian socialist group.", "Stalin left the seminary in April 1899 and never returned.=== 1899–1904: Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party ===Police photograph of Stalin, taken in 1902In October 1899, Stalin began work as a meteorologist at the Tiflis observatory.", "He had a light workload and therefore had plenty of time for revolutionary activity.", "He attracted a group of supporters through his classes in socialist theory and co-organised a secret workers' mass meeting for May Day 1900, at which he successfully encouraged many of the men to take strike action.", "By this point, the empire's secret police, the Okhrana, were aware of Stalin's activities in Tiflis' revolutionary milieu.", "They attempted to arrest him in March 1901, but he escaped and went into hiding, living off the donations of friends and sympathisers.", "Remaining underground, he helped plan a demonstration for May Day 1901, in which 3,000 marchers clashed with the authorities.", "He continued to evade arrest by using aliases and sleeping in different apartments.", "In November 1901, he was elected to the Tiflis Committee of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), a Marxist party founded in 1898.That month, Stalin travelled to the port city of Batumi.", "His militant rhetoric proved divisive among the city's Marxists, some of whom suspected that he might be an ''agent provocateur'' working for the government.", "He found employment at the Rothschild refinery storehouse, where he co-organised two workers' strikes.", "After several strike leaders were arrested, he co-organised a mass public demonstration which led to the storming of the prison; troops fired upon the demonstrators, 13 of whom were killed.", "Stalin organised another mass demonstration on the day of their funeral, before being arrested in April 1902.Held first in Batumi Prison and then Kutaisi Prison, in mid-1903 he was sentenced to three years of exile in eastern Siberia.Stalin left Batumi in October, arriving at the small Siberian town of Novaya Uda in late November 1903.There, he lived in a two-room peasant's house, sleeping in the building's larder.", "He made two escape attempts: On the first, he made it to Balagansk before returning due to frostbite.", "His second attempt, in January 1904, was successful and he made it to Tiflis.", "There, he co-edited a Georgian Marxist newspaper, ''Proletariatis Brdzola'' (\"Proletarian Struggle\"), with Filipp Makharadze.", "He called for the Georgian Marxist movement to split from its Russian counterpart, resulting in several RSDLP members accusing him of holding views contrary to the ethos of Marxist internationalism and calling for his expulsion from the party; he soon recanted his opinions.", "During his exile, the RSDLP had split between Vladimir Lenin's \"Bolsheviks\" and Julius Martov's \"Mensheviks\".", "Stalin detested many of the Mensheviks in Georgia and aligned himself with the Bolsheviks.", "Although he established a Bolshevik stronghold in the mining town of Chiatura, Bolshevism remained a minority force in the Menshevik-dominated Georgian revolutionary scene.=== 1905–1912: Revolution of 1905 and its aftermath ===Stalin first met Vladimir Lenin at a 1905 conference in Tampere, in the Grand Duchy of Finland.", "Lenin became \"Stalin's indispensable mentor\".In January 1905, government troops massacred protesters in Saint Petersburg.", "Unrest soon spread across the Russian Empire in what came to be known as the Revolution of 1905.Georgia was particularly affected.", "Stalin was in Baku in February when ethnic violence broke out between Armenians and Azeris; at least 2,000 were killed.", "He publicly lambasted the \"pogroms against Jews and Armenians\" as being part of Tsar Nicholas II's attempts to \"buttress his despicable throne\".", "Stalin formed a Bolshevik Battle Squad which he used to try to keep Baku's warring ethnic factions apart; he also used the unrest as a cover for stealing printing equipment.", "Amid the growing violence throughout Georgia he formed further Battle Squads, with the Mensheviks doing the same.", "Stalin's squads disarmed local police and troops, raided government arsenals, and raised funds through protection rackets on large local businesses and mines.", "They launched attacks on the government's Cossack troops and pro-Tsarist Black Hundreds, co-ordinating some of their operations with the Menshevik militia.In November 1905, the Georgian Bolsheviks elected Stalin as one of their delegates to a Bolshevik conference in Saint Petersburg.", "On arrival, he met Lenin's wife Nadezhda Krupskaya, who informed him that the venue had been moved to Tampere in the Grand Duchy of Finland.", "At the conference Stalin met Lenin for the first time.", "Although Stalin held Lenin in deep respect, he was vocal in his disagreement with Lenin's view that the Bolsheviks should field candidates for the forthcoming election to the State Duma; Stalin saw the parliamentary process as a waste of time.", "In April 1906, Stalin attended the RSDLP Fourth Congress in Stockholm; this was his first trip outside the Russian Empire.", "At the conference, the RSDLP — then led by its Menshevik majority — agreed that it would not raise funds using armed robbery.", "Lenin and Stalin disagreed with this decision and later privately discussed how they could continue the robberies for the Bolshevik cause.Stalin married Kato Svanidze in an Orthodox church ceremony at Senaki in July 1906.In March 1907 she bore a son, Yakov.", "By that year — according to the historian Robert Service — Stalin had established himself as \"Georgia's leading Bolshevik\".", "He attended the Fifth RSDLP Congress, held at the Brotherhood Church in London in May–June 1907.After returning to Tiflis, Stalin organised the robbing of a large delivery of money to the Imperial Bank in June 1907.His gang ambushed the armed convoy in Erivansky Square with gunfire and home-made bombs.", "Around 40 people were killed, but all of his gang escaped alive.", "After the heist, Stalin settled in Baku with his wife and son.", "There, Mensheviks confronted Stalin about the robbery and voted to expel him from the RSDLP, but he took no notice of them.mugshot of Stalin made in 1911 by the Tsarist secret policeIn Baku, Stalin secured Bolshevik domination of the local RSDLP branch and edited two Bolshevik newspapers, ''Bakinsky Proletary'' and ''Gudok'' (\"Whistle\").", "In August 1907, he attended the Seventh Congress of the Second International — an international socialist organisation — in Stuttgart, German Empire.", "In November 1907, his wife died of typhus, and he left his son with her family in Tiflis.", "In Baku he had reassembled his gang, the Outfit, which continued to attack Black Hundreds and raised finances by running protection rackets, counterfeiting currency, and carrying out robberies.", "They also kidnapped the children of several wealthy figures to extract ransom money.", "In early 1908, he travelled to the Swiss city of Geneva to meet with Lenin and the prominent Russian Marxist Georgi Plekhanov, although the latter exasperated him.In March 1908, Stalin was arrested and interned in Bailov Prison in Baku.", "There he led the imprisoned Bolsheviks, organised discussion groups, and ordered the killing of suspected informants.", "He was eventually sentenced to two years exile in the village of Solvychegodsk, Vologda Province, arriving there in February 1909.In June, he escaped the village and made it to Kotlas disguised as a woman and from there to Saint Petersburg.", "In March 1910, he was arrested again and sent back to Solvychegodsk.", "There he had affairs with at least two women; his landlady, Maria Kuzakova, later gave birth to his second son, Konstantin.", "In June 1911, Stalin was given permission to move to Vologda, where he stayed for two months, having a relationship with Pelageya Onufrieva.", "He escaped to Saint Petersburg, where he was arrested in September 1911 and sentenced to a further three-year exile in Vologda.=== 1912–1917: Rise to the Central Committee and editorship of ''Pravda'' ===The first issue of ''Pravda'', the Bolshevik newspaper of which Stalin was editorIn January 1912, while Stalin was in exile, the first Bolshevik Central Committee was elected at the Prague Conference.", "Shortly after the conference, Lenin and Grigory Zinoviev decided to co-opt Stalin to the committee.", "Still in Vologda, Stalin agreed, remaining a Central Committee member for the rest of his life.", "Lenin believed that Stalin, as a Georgian, would help secure support for the Bolsheviks from the empire's minority ethnicities.", "In February 1912, Stalin again escaped to Saint Petersburg, tasked with converting the Bolshevik weekly newspaper, ''Zvezda'' (\"Star\") into a daily, ''Pravda'' (\"Truth\").", "The new newspaper was launched in April 1912, although Stalin's role as editor was kept secret.In May 1912, he was arrested again and imprisoned in the Shpalerhy Prison, before being sentenced to three years exile in Siberia.", "In July, he arrived at the Siberian village of Narym, where he shared a room with a fellow Bolshevik Yakov Sverdlov.", "After two months, Stalin and Sverdlov escaped back to Saint Petersburg.", "During a brief period back in Tiflis, Stalin and the Outfit planned the ambush of a mail coach, during which most of the group — although not Stalin — were apprehended by the authorities.", "Stalin returned to Saint Petersburg, where he continued editing and writing articles for ''Pravda''.Stalin in 1915After the October 1912 Duma elections, where six Bolsheviks and six Mensheviks were elected, Stalin wrote articles calling for reconciliation between the two Marxist factions, for which Lenin criticised him.", "In late 1912, Stalin twice crossed into Austria-Hungary to visit Lenin in Kraków, eventually bowing to Lenin's opposition to reunification with the Mensheviks.", "In January 1913, Stalin travelled to Vienna, where he researched the \"national question\" of how the Bolsheviks should deal with the Russian Empire's national and ethnic minorities.", "Lenin, who encouraged Stalin to write an article on the subject, wanted to attract those groups to the Bolshevik cause by offering them the right of secession from the Russian state, but also hoped they would remain part of a future Bolshevik-governed Russia.Stalin's article ''Marxism and the National Question'' was first published in the March, April, and May 1913 issues of the Bolshevik journal ''Prosveshcheniye''; Lenin was pleased with it.", "According to Montefiore, this was \"Stalin's most famous work\".", "The article was published under the pseudonym \"K. Stalin\", a name he had used since 1912.Derived from the Russian word for steel (''stal''), this has been translated as \"Man of Steel\"; Stalin may have intended it to imitate Lenin's pseudonym.", "Stalin retained the name for the rest of his life, possibly because it was used on the article that established his reputation among the Bolsheviks.In February 1913, Stalin was arrested while back in Saint Petersburg.", "He was sentenced to four years exile in Turukhansk, a remote part of Siberia from which escape was particularly difficult.", "In August, he arrived in the village of Monastyrskoe, although after four weeks was relocated to the hamlet of Kostino.", "In March 1914, concerned over a potential escape attempt, the authorities moved Stalin to the hamlet of Kureika on the edge of the Arctic Circle.", "In the hamlet, Stalin had a relationship with Lidia Pereprygina, who was fourteen at the time but within the legal age of consent in Tsarist Russia.", "In or about December 1914, their child was born but the infant soon died.", "Their second child, Alexander, was born circa April 1917.In Kureika, Stalin lived among the indigenous Tunguses and Ostyak peoples, and spent much of his time fishing.=== 1917: Russian Revolution ===While Stalin was in exile, Russia entered the First World War, and in October 1916 Stalin and other exiled Bolsheviks were conscripted into the Russian Army, leaving for Monastyrskoe.", "They arrived in Krasnoyarsk in February 1917, where a medical examiner ruled Stalin unfit for military service because of his crippled arm.", "Stalin was required to serve four more months of his exile, and he successfully requested that he serve it in nearby Achinsk.", "Stalin was in the city when the February Revolution took place; uprisings broke out in Petrograd — as Saint Petersburg had been renamed — and Tsar Nicholas II abdicated to escape being violently overthrown.", "The Russian Empire became a ''de facto'' republic, headed by a Provisional Government dominated by liberals.", "In a celebratory mood, Stalin travelled by train to Petrograd in March.", "There, Stalin and a fellow Bolshevik Lev Kamenev assumed control of ''Pravda'', and Stalin was appointed the Bolshevik representative to the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet, an influential council of the city's workers.", "In April, Stalin came third in the Bolshevik elections for the party's Central Committee; Lenin came first and Zinoviev came second.", "This reflected his senior standing in the party at the time.Stalin helped organise the July Days uprising, an armed display of strength by Bolshevik supporters.", "After the demonstration was suppressed, the Provisional Government initiated a crackdown on the Bolsheviks, raiding ''Pravda''.", "During this raid, Stalin smuggled Lenin out of the newspaper's office and took charge of the Bolshevik leader's safety, moving him between Petrograd safe houses before smuggling him to Razliv.", "In Lenin's absence, Stalin continued editing ''Pravda'' and served as acting leader of the Bolsheviks, overseeing the party's Sixth Congress, which was held covertly.", "Lenin began calling for the Bolsheviks to seize power by toppling the Provisional Government in a ''coup d'état''.", "Stalin and a fellow senior Bolshevik Leon Trotsky both endorsed Lenin's plan of action, but it was initially opposed by Kamenev and other party members.", "Lenin returned to Petrograd and secured a majority in favour of a ''coup'' at a meeting of the Central Committee on 10 October.On 24 October, police raided the Bolshevik newspaper offices, smashing machinery and presses; Stalin salvaged some of this equipment to continue his activities.", "In the early hours of 25 October, Stalin joined Lenin in a Central Committee meeting in the Smolny Institute, from where the Bolshevik ''coup'' — the October Revolution — was directed.", "Bolshevik militia seized Petrograd's electric power station, main post office, state bank, telephone exchange, and several bridges.", "A Bolshevik-controlled ship, the ''Aurora'', opened fire on the Winter Palace; the Provisional Government's assembled delegates surrendered and were arrested by the Bolsheviks.", "Although he had been tasked with briefing the Bolshevik delegates of the Second Congress of Soviets about the developing situation, Stalin's role in the coup had not been publicly visible.", "Trotsky and other later Bolshevik opponents of Stalin used this as evidence that his role in the coup had been insignificant, although later historians reject this.", "According to the historian Oleg Khlevniuk, Stalin \"filled an important role in the October Revolution... as a senior Bolshevik, member of the party's Central Committee, and editor of its main newspaper\"; the historian Stephen Kotkin similarly noted that Stalin had been \"in the thick of events\" in the build-up to the coup." ], [ "In Lenin's government", "=== 1917–1918: Consolidating power ===People's CommissarOn 26 October 1917, Lenin declared himself chairman of a new government, the Council of People's Commissars (\"Sovnarkom\").", "Stalin backed Lenin's decision not to form a coalition with the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionary Party, although they did form a coalition government with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries.", "Stalin became part of an informal foursome leading the government, alongside Lenin, Trotsky, and Sverdlov.", "Stalin's office was based near to Lenin's in the Smolny Institute, and he and Trotsky were the only individuals allowed access to Lenin's study without an appointment.", "Although not so publicly well known as Lenin or Trotsky, Stalin's importance among the Bolsheviks grew.", "He co-signed Lenin's decrees shutting down hostile newspapers, and along with Sverdlov, he chaired the sessions of the committee drafting a constitution for the new Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.", "He strongly supported Lenin's formation of the Cheka security service and the subsequent Red Terror that it initiated; noting that state violence had proved an effective tool for capitalist powers, he believed that it would prove the same for the Soviet government.", "Unlike senior Bolsheviks like Kamenev and Nikolai Bukharin, Stalin never expressed concern about the rapid growth and expansion of the Cheka and Red Terror.The Moscow Kremlin, which Stalin moved into in 1918Having dropped his editorship of ''Pravda'', Stalin was appointed the People's Commissar for Nationalities.", "He took Nadezhda Alliluyeva as his secretary and at some point, married her, although the wedding date is unknown.", "In November 1917, he signed the Decree on Nationality, according ethnic and national minorities living in Russia the right of secession and self-determination.", "The decree's purpose was primarily strategic; the Bolsheviks wanted to gain favour among ethnic minorities but hoped that the latter would not actually desire independence.", "That month, he travelled to Helsingfors to talk with the Finnish Social Democrats, granting Finland's request for independence in December.", "His department allocated funds for establishment of presses and schools in the languages of various ethnic minorities.", "Socialist revolutionaries accused Stalin's talk of federalism and national self-determination as a front for Sovnarkom's centralising and imperialist policies.Because of the ongoing First World War, in which Russia was fighting the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary, Lenin's government relocated from Petrograd to Moscow in March 1918.Stalin, Trotsky, Sverdlov, and Lenin lived at the Kremlin.", "Stalin supported Lenin's desire to sign an armistice with the Central Powers regardless of the cost in territory.", "Stalin thought it necessary because — unlike Lenin — he was unconvinced that Europe was on the verge of proletarian revolution.", "Lenin eventually convinced the other senior Bolsheviks of his viewpoint, resulting in the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.The treaty gave vast areas of land and resources to the Central Powers and angered many in Russia; the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries withdrew from the coalition government over the issue.", "The governing RSDLP party was soon renamed, becoming the Russian Communist Party.=== 1918–1921: Military command ===After the Bolsheviks seized power, both right and left-wing armies rallied against them, generating the Russian Civil War.", "In May 1918, amid a dwindling food supply, Sovnarkom sent Stalin to Tsaritsyn to take charge of food procurement in Southern Russia.", "Eager to prove himself as a commander, once there he took control of regional military operations.", "He befriended two military figures, Kliment Voroshilov and Semyon Budyonny, who would form the nucleus of his military and political support base.", "Believing that victory was assured by numerical superiority, he sent large numbers of Red Army troops into battle against the region's anti-Bolshevik White armies, resulting in heavy losses; Lenin was concerned by this costly tactic.", "In Tsaritsyn, Stalin commanded the local Cheka branch to execute suspected counterrevolutionaries, sometimes without trial and — in contravention of government orders — purged the military and food collection agencies of middle-class specialists, some of whom he also executed.", "His use of state violence and terror was at a greater scale than most Bolshevik leaders approved of; for instance, he ordered several villages to be torched to ensure compliance with his food procurement program.In December 1918, Stalin was sent to Perm to lead an inquiry into how Alexander Kolchak's White forces had been able to decimate Red troops based there.", "He returned to Moscow between January and March 1919, before being assigned to the Western Front at Petrograd.", "When the Red Third Regiment defected, he ordered the public execution of captured defectors.", "In September, he was returned to the Southern Front.", "During the war, he proved his worth to the Central Committee, displaying decisiveness, determination, and willingness to take on responsibility in conflict situations.", "At the same time, he disregarded orders and repeatedly threatened to resign when affronted.", "He was reprimanded by Lenin at the 8th Party Congress for employing tactics which resulted in far too many deaths of Red Army soldiers.", "In November 1919, the government nonetheless awarded him the Order of the Red Banner for his wartime service.The Bolsheviks won the Russian Civil War by the end of 1919.By that time, Sovnarkom had turned its attention to spreading proletarian revolution abroad, to this end forming the Communist International in March 1919; Stalin attended its inaugural ceremony.", "Although Stalin did not share Lenin's belief that Europe's proletariat were on the verge of revolution, he acknowledged that as long as it stood alone, Soviet Russia remained vulnerable.", "In December 1918, he drew up decrees recognising Marxist-governed Soviet republics in Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia; during the civil war these Marxist governments were overthrown and the Baltic countries became fully independent of Russia, an act Stalin regarded as illegitimate.", "In February 1920, he was appointed to head the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate; that same month he was also transferred to the Caucasian Front.Joseph Stalin in 1920Following earlier clashes between Polish and Russian troops, the Polish–Soviet War broke out in early 1920, with the Poles invading Ukraine and taking Kiev on 7 May.", "On 26 May, Stalin was moved to Ukraine, on the Southwest Front.", "The Red Army retook Kiev on 10 June and soon forced the Polish troops back into Poland.", "On 16 July, the Central Committee decided to take the war into Polish territory.", "Lenin believed that the Polish proletariat would rise up to support the Russians against Józef Piłsudski's Polish government.", "Stalin had cautioned against this; he believed that nationalism would lead the Polish working-classes to support their government's war effort.", "He also believed that the Red Army was ill-prepared to conduct an offensive war and that it would give White armies a chance to resurface in Crimea, potentially reigniting the civil war.", "Stalin lost the argument, after which he accepted Lenin's decision and supported it.", "Along the Southwest Front, he became determined to conquer Lvov; in focusing on this goal, he disobeyed orders in early August to transfer his troops to assist Mikhail Tukhachevsky's forces that were attacking Warsaw.In mid-August 1920, the Poles repulsed the Russian advance, and Stalin returned to Moscow to attend the Politburo meeting.", "Tukhachevsky blamed Stalin for his defeat at the Battle of Warsaw.", "In Moscow, Lenin and Trotsky also blamed him for his behaviour in the Polish–Soviet War.", "Stalin felt humiliated and under-appreciated; on 17 August, he demanded demission from the military, which was granted on 1 September.", "At the 9th Bolshevik Conference in late September, Trotsky accused Stalin of \"strategic mistakes\" in his handling of the war.", "Trotsky claimed that Stalin sabotaged the campaign by disobeying troop transfer orders.", "Lenin joined Trotsky in criticising him, and nobody spoke on his behalf at the conference.", "Stalin felt disgraced and his antipathy toward Trotsky increased.", "The Polish–Soviet War ended on 18 March 1921, when a peace treaty was signed in Riga.=== 1921–1923: Lenin's final years ===Stalin wearing an Order of the Red Banner in 1921The Soviet government sought to bring neighbouring states under its domination; in February 1921 it invaded the Menshevik-governed Georgia, while in April 1921, Stalin ordered the Red Army into Turkestan to reassert Russian state control.", "As People's Commissar for Nationalities, Stalin believed that each national and ethnic group should have the right to self-expression, facilitated through \"autonomous republics\" within the Russian state in which they could oversee various regional affairs.", "In taking this view, some Marxists accused him of bending too much to bourgeois nationalism, while others accused him of remaining too Russocentric by seeking to retain these nations within the Russian state.Stalin's native Caucasus posed a particular problem because of its highly multi-ethnic mix.", "Stalin opposed the idea of separate Georgian, Armenian, and Azeri autonomous republics, arguing that these would likely oppress ethnic minorities within their respective territories; instead, he called for a Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic.", "The Georgian Communist Party opposed the idea, resulting in the Georgian affair.", "In mid-1921, Stalin returned to the South Caucasus, there calling on Georgian communists to avoid the chauvinistic Georgian nationalism which marginalised the Abkhazian, Ossetian, and Adjarian minorities in Georgia.", "On this trip, Stalin met with his son Yakov, and brought him back to Moscow; Nadezhda had given birth to another of Stalin's sons, Vasily, in March 1921.After the civil war, workers' strikes and peasant uprisings broke out across Russia, largely in opposition to Sovnarkom's food requisitioning project; as an antidote, Lenin introduced market-oriented reforms: the New Economic Policy (NEP).", "There was also internal turmoil in the Communist Party, as Trotsky led a faction calling for abolition of trade unions; Lenin opposed this, and Stalin helped rally opposition to Trotsky's position.", "Stalin also agreed to supervise the Department of Agitation and Propaganda in the Central Committee Secretariat.", "At the 11th Party Congress in 1922, Lenin nominated Stalin as the party's new General Secretary.", "Although concerns were expressed that adopting this new post on top of his others would overstretch his workload and give him too much power, Stalin was appointed to the position.", "For Lenin, it was advantageous to have a key ally in this crucial post.In May 1922, a massive stroke left Lenin partially paralysed.", "Residing at his Gorki dacha, Lenin's main connection to Sovnarkom was through Stalin, who was a regular visitor.", "Lenin twice asked Stalin to procure poison so that he could commit suicide, but Stalin never did so.", "Despite this comradeship, Lenin disliked what he referred to as Stalin's \"Asiatic\" manner and told his sister Maria that Stalin was \"not intelligent\".", "Lenin and Stalin argued on the issue of foreign trade; Lenin believed that the Soviet state should have a monopoly on foreign trade, but Stalin supported Grigori Sokolnikov's view that doing so was impractical at that stage.", "Another disagreement came over the Georgian affair, with Lenin backing the Georgian Central Committee's desire for a Georgian Soviet Republic over Stalin's idea of a Transcaucasian one.They also disagreed on the nature of the Soviet state.", "Lenin called for establishment of a new federation named the \"Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia\", reflecting his desire for expansion across the two continents and insisted that the Russian state should join this union on equal terms with the other Soviet states.", "Stalin believed this would encourage independence sentiment among non-Russians, instead arguing that ethnic minorities would be content as \"autonomous republics\" within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.", "Lenin accused Stalin of \"Great Russian chauvinism\"; Stalin accused Lenin of \"national liberalism\".", "A compromise was reached, in which the federation would be renamed the \"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\" (USSR).", "The USSR's formation was ratified in December 1922; although officially a federal system, all major decisions were taken by the governing Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in Moscow.Their differences also became personal; Lenin was particularly angered when Stalin was rude to his wife Krupskaya during a telephone conversation.", "In the final years of his life, Krupskaya provided governing figures with Lenin's Testament, a series of increasingly disparaging notes about Stalin.", "These criticised Stalin's rude manners and excessive power, suggesting that Stalin should be removed from the position of general secretary.", "Some historians have questioned whether Lenin ever produced these, suggesting instead that they may have been written by Krupskaya, who had personal differences with Stalin; Stalin, however, never publicly voiced concerns about their authenticity.", "Most historians consider the document to be an accurate reflection of Lenin's views.", "According to Stalin's secretary, Boris Bazhanov, Lenin \"in general leaned towards a collegial leadership, with Trotsky in the first position\"." ], [ "Consolidation of power", "=== 1924–1927: Succeeding Lenin ===(From left to right) Stalin, Alexei Rykov, Lev Kamenev, and Grigori Zinoviev in 1925.The latter three later all fell out with Stalin and were executed during the Great PurgeLenin died in January 1924.Stalin took charge of the funeral and was one of its pallbearers; against the wishes of Lenin's widow, the Politburo embalmed his corpse and placed it within a mausoleum in Moscow's Red Square.", "It was incorporated into a growing personality cult devoted to Lenin, with Petrograd being renamed \"Leningrad\" that year.", "To bolster his image as a devoted Leninist, Stalin gave nine lectures at Sverdlov University on the ''Foundations of Leninism'', later published in book form.", "During the 13th Party Congress in May 1924, Lenin's Testament was read only to the leaders of the provincial delegations.", "Embarrassed by its contents, Stalin offered his resignation as General Secretary; this act of humility saved him, and he was retained in the position.", "According to Stalin's secretary, Boris Bazhanov, Stalin was jubilant over Lenin's death while \"publicly putting on the mask of grief\".As General Secretary, Stalin had a free hand in making appointments to his own staff, implanting his loyalists throughout the party and administration.", "Favouring new Communist Party members from proletarian backgrounds to the \"Old Bolsheviks\" who tended to be middle class university graduates, he ensured he had loyalists dispersed across the country's regions.", "Stalin had much contact with young party functionaries, and the desire for promotion led many provincial figures to seek to impress Stalin and gain his favour.", "Stalin also developed close relations with the trio at the heart of the secret police (first the Cheka and then its replacement, the State Political Directorate): Felix Dzerzhinsky, Genrikh Yagoda, and Vyacheslav Menzhinsky.", "In his private life, he divided his time between his Kremlin apartment and a dacha at Zubalova; his wife gave birth to a daughter, Svetlana, in February 1926.In the wake of Lenin's death, various protagonists emerged in the struggle to become his successor: alongside Stalin was Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, and Mikhail Tomsky.", "Stalin saw Trotsky — whom he personally despised — as the main obstacle to his dominance within the party.", "While Lenin had been ill Stalin with Kamenev and Zinoviev had formed an unofficial Triumvirate (also known by its Russian name ''Troika''), a political alliance aimed at Trotsky.", "Although Zinoviev was concerned about Stalin's growing authority, he rallied behind him at the 13th Congress as a counterweight to Trotsky, who now led a party faction known as the Left Opposition.", "The Left Opposition believed the NEP conceded too much to capitalism; Stalin was called a \"rightist\" for his support of the policy.", "Stalin built up a retinue of his supporters in the Central Committee, while the Left Opposition were gradually removed from their positions of influence.", "He was supported in this by Bukharin, who, like Stalin, believed that the Left Opposition's proposals would plunge the Soviet Union into instability.Stalin and his close associates Anastas Mikoyan and Sergo Ordzhonikidze in Tbilisi, 1925In late 1924, Stalin moved against Kamenev and Zinoviev, removing their supporters from key positions.", "In 1925, the two moved into open opposition to Stalin and Bukharin.", "At the 14th Party Congress in December, they launched an attack against Stalin's faction, but it was unsuccessful.", "Stalin in turn accused Kamenev and Zinoviev of reintroducing factionalism — and thus instability — into the party.", "In mid-1926, Kamenev and Zinoviev joined with Trotsky's supporters to form the United Opposition against Stalin; in October they agreed to stop factional activity under threat of expulsion, and later publicly recanted their views under Stalin's command.", "The factionalist arguments continued, with Stalin threatening to resign in October and then December 1926 and again in December 1927.In October 1927, Zinoviev and Trotsky were removed from the Central Committee; the latter was exiled to Kazakhstan and later deported from the country in 1929.Some of those United Opposition members who were repentant were later rehabilitated and returned to government.Stalin was now the party's supreme leader, although he was not the head of government, a task he entrusted to his key ally Vyacheslav Molotov.", "Other important supporters on the Politburo were Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, and Sergo Ordzhonikidze, with Stalin ensuring his allies ran the various state institutions.", "According to Montefiore, at this point \"Stalin was the leader of the oligarchs but he was far from a dictator\".", "His growing influence was reflected in naming of various locations after him; in June 1924 the Ukrainian mining town of Yuzovka became Stalino, and in April 1925, Tsaritsyn was renamed Stalingrad on the order of Mikhail Kalinin and Avel Enukidze.In 1926, Stalin published ''On Questions of Leninism''.", "Here, he argued for the concept of \"socialism in one country\", which he presented as an orthodox Leninist perspective.", "It nevertheless clashed with established Bolshevik views that socialism could not be established in one country but could only be achieved globally through the process of world revolution.", "=== 1927–1931: Dekulakisation, collectivisation, and industrialisation =======Economic policy====The Soviet Union lagged behind the industrial development of Western countries, and there had been a shortfall of grain; 1927 produced only 70% of grain produced in 1926.Stalin's government feared attack from Japan, France, the United Kingdom, Poland, and Romania.", "Many communists, including in Komsomol, OGPU, and the Red Army, were eager to be rid of the NEP and its market-oriented approach; they had concerns about those who profited from the policy: affluent peasants known as \"kulaks\" and small business owners or \"NEPmen\".", "At this point, Stalin turned against the NEP, which put him on a course to the \"left\" even of Trotsky or Zinoviev.In early 1928, Stalin travelled to Novosibirsk, where he alleged that kulaks were hoarding their grain and ordered that the kulaks be arrested and their grain confiscated, with Stalin bringing much of the area's grain back to Moscow with him in February.", "At his command, grain procurement squads surfaced across Western Siberia and the Urals, with violence breaking out between these squads and the peasantry.", "Stalin announced that both kulaks and the \"middle peasants\" must be coerced into releasing their harvest.", "Bukharin and several other Central Committee members were angry that they had not been consulted about this measure, which they deemed rash.", "In January 1930, the Politburo approved the liquidation of the kulak class; accused kulaks were rounded up and exiled to other parts of the country or to concentration camps.", "Large numbers died during the journey.", "By July 1930, over 320,000 households had been affected by the de-kulakisation policy.", "According to Stalin biographer Dmitri Volkogonov, de-kulakisation was \"the first mass terror applied by Stalin in his own country.", "\"Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov with a fellow miner; Stalin's government initiated the Stakhanovite movement to encourage hard work.In 1929, the Politburo announced the mass collectivisation of agriculture, establishing both ''kolkhozy'' collective farms and ''sovkhoz'' state farms.", "Stalin barred kulaks from joining these collectives.", "Although officially voluntary, many peasants joined the collectives out of fear they would face the fate of the kulaks; others joined amid intimidation and violence from party loyalists.", "By 1932, about 62% of households involved in agriculture were part of collectives, and by 1936 this had risen to 90%.", "Many of the collectivised peasants resented the loss of their private farmland, and productivity slumped.", "Famine broke out in many areas, with the Politburo frequently ordering distribution of emergency food relief to these regions.Armed peasant uprisings against dekulakisation and collectivisation broke out in Ukraine, the North Caucasus, Southern Russia, and Central Asia, reaching their apex in March 1930; these were suppressed by the Red Army.", "Stalin responded to the uprisings with an article insisting that collectivisation was voluntary and blaming any violence and other excesses on local officials.", "Although he and Stalin had been close for many years, Bukharin expressed concerns about these policies; he regarded them as a return to Lenin's old \"war communism\" policy and believed that it would fail.", "By mid-1928 he was unable to rally sufficient support in the party to oppose the reforms.", "In November 1929 Stalin removed him from the Politburo.Officially, the Soviet Union had replaced the \"irrationality\" and \"wastefulness\" of a market economy with a planned economy organised along a long-term, precise, and scientific framework; in reality, Soviet economics were based on ''ad hoc'' commandments issued from the centre, often to make short-term targets.", "In 1928, the first five-year plan was launched, its main focus on boosting heavy industry; it was finished a year ahead of schedule, in 1932.The USSR underwent a massive economic transformation.", "New mines were opened, new cities like Magnitogorsk constructed, and work on the White Sea–Baltic Canal began.", "Millions of peasants moved to the cities, although urban house building could not keep up with the demand.", "Large debts were accrued purchasing foreign-made machinery.Many of major construction projects, including the White Sea–Baltic Canal and the Moscow Metro, were constructed largely through forced labour.", "The last elements of workers' control over industry were removed, with factory managers increasing their authority and receiving privileges and perks; Stalin defended wage disparity by pointing to Marx's argument that it was necessary during the lower stages of socialism.", "To promote intensification of labour, a series of medals and awards as well as the Stakhanovite movement were introduced.", "Stalin's message was that socialism was being established in the USSR while capitalism was crumbling amid the Wall Street crash.", "His speeches and articles reflected his utopian vision of the Soviet Union rising to unparalleled heights of human development, creating a \"new Soviet person\".====Cultural and foreign policy====In 1928, Stalin declared that class war between the proletariat and their enemies would intensify as socialism developed.", "He warned of a \"danger from the right\", including in the Communist Party itself.", "The first major show trial in the USSR was the Shakhty Trial of 1928, in which several middle-class \"industrial specialists\" were convicted of sabotage.", "From 1929 to 1930, further show trials were held to intimidate opposition: these included the Industrial Party Trial, Menshevik Trial, and Metro-Vickers Trial.", "Aware that the ethnic Russian majority may have concerns about being ruled by a Georgian, he promoted ethnic Russians throughout the state hierarchy and made the Russian language compulsory throughout schools and offices, albeit to be used in tandem with local languages in areas with non-Russian majorities.", "Nationalist sentiment among ethnic minorities was suppressed.", "Conservative social policies were promoted to enhance social discipline and boost population growth; this included a focus on strong family units and motherhood, re-criminalisation of homosexuality, restrictions placed on abortion and divorce, and abolition of the ''Zhenotdel'' women's department.Photograph taken of the 1931 demolition of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow in order to make way for the planned Palace of the SovietsStalin desired a \"cultural revolution\", entailing both creation of a culture for the \"masses\" and wider dissemination of previously elite culture.", "He oversaw proliferation of schools, newspapers, and libraries, as well as advancement of literacy and numeracy.", "Socialist realism was promoted throughout arts, while Stalin personally wooed prominent writers, namely Maxim Gorky, Mikhail Sholokhov, and Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy.", "He also expressed patronage for scientists whose research fitted within his preconceived interpretation of Marxism; for instance, he endorsed research of an agrobiologist Trofim Lysenko despite the fact that it was rejected by the majority of Lysenko's scientific peers as pseudo-scientific.", "The government's anti-religious campaign was re-intensified, with increased funding given to the League of Militant Atheists.", "Priests, imams, and Buddhist monks faced persecution.", "Many religious buildings were demolished, most notably Moscow's Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, destroyed in 1931 to make way for the (never completed) Palace of the Soviets.", "Religion retained an influence over much of the population; in the 1937 census, 57% of respondents were willing to admit to being religious.Throughout the 1920s and beyond, Stalin placed a high priority on foreign policy.", "He personally met with a range of Western visitors, including George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells, both of whom were impressed with him.", "Through the Communist International, Stalin's government exerted a strong influence over Marxist parties elsewhere in the world; initially, Stalin left the running of the organisation largely to Bukharin.", "At its 6th Congress in July 1928, Stalin informed delegates that the main threat to socialism came not from the right but from non-Marxist socialists and social democrats, whom he called \"social fascists\"; Stalin recognised that in many countries, the social democrats were the Marxist-Leninists' main rivals for working-class support.", "This preoccupation with opposing rival leftists concerned Bukharin, who regarded the growth of fascism and the far right across Europe as a far greater threat.", "After Bukharin's departure, Stalin placed the Communist International under the administration of Dmitry Manuilsky and Osip Piatnitsky.Stalin faced problems in his family life.", "In 1929, his son Yakov unsuccessfully attempted suicide; his failure earned Stalin's contempt.", "His relationship with Nadezhda was also strained amid their arguments and her mental health problems.", "In November 1932, after a group dinner in the Kremlin in which Stalin flirted with other women, Nadezhda shot herself.Publicly, the cause of death was given as appendicitis; Stalin also concealed the real cause of death from his children.", "Stalin's friends noted that he underwent a significant change following her suicide, becoming emotionally harder.=== 1932–1939: Major crises =======Famine====Soviet famine of 1930–33.Areas of most disastrous famine marked with black.Within the Soviet Union, there was widespread civic disgruntlement against Stalin's government.", "Social unrest, previously restricted largely to the countryside, was increasingly evident in urban areas, prompting Stalin to ease on some of his economic policies in 1932.In May 1932, he introduced a system of kolkhoz markets where peasants could trade their surplus produce.", "At the same time, penal sanctions became more severe; at Stalin's instigation, in August 1932 a decree was introduced wherein the theft of even a handful of grain could be a capital offence.", "The second five-year plan had its production quotas reduced from that of the first, with the main emphasis now being on improving living conditions.", "It therefore emphasised the expansion of housing space and the production of consumer goods.", "Like its predecessor, this plan was repeatedly amended to meet changing situations; there was for instance an increasing emphasis placed on armament production after Adolf Hitler became German chancellor in 1933.The Soviet Union experienced a major famine which peaked in the winter of 1932–33; between five and seven million people died.", "The worst affected areas were Ukraine and the North Caucasus, although the famine also affected Kazakhstan and several Russian provinces.", "Historians have long debated whether Stalin's government had intended the famine to occur or not; there are no known documents in which Stalin or his government explicitly called for starvation to be used against the population.", "The 1931 and 1932 harvests had been poor ones because of weather conditions and had followed several years in which lower productivity had resulted in a gradual decline in output.", "Government policies—including the focus on rapid industrialisation, the socialisation of livestock, and the emphasis on sown areas over crop rotation—exacerbated the problem; the state had also failed to build reserve grain stocks for such an emergency.", "Stalin blamed the famine on hostile elements and sabotage within the peasantry; his government provided small amounts of food to famine-struck rural areas, although this was wholly insufficient to deal with the levels of starvation.", "The Soviet government believed that food supplies should be prioritised for the urban workforce; for Stalin, the fate of Soviet industrialisation was far more important than the lives of the peasantry.", "Grain exports, which were a major means of Soviet payment for machinery, declined heavily.", "Stalin would not acknowledge that his policies had contributed to the famine, the existence of which was kept secret from foreign observers.====Ideological and foreign affairs====In 1935–36, Stalin oversaw a new constitution; its dramatic liberal features were designed as propaganda weapons, for all power rested in the hands of Stalin and his Politburo.", "He declared that \"socialism, which is the first phase of communism, has basically been achieved in this country\".", "In 1938, ''The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)'', colloquially known as the ''Short Course'', was released; biographer Robert Conquest later referred to it as the \"central text of Stalinism\".", "A number of authorised Stalin biographies were also published, although Stalin generally wanted to be portrayed as the embodiment of the Communist Party rather than have his life story explored.", "During the later 1930s, Stalin placed \"a few limits on the worship of his own greatness\".", "By 1938, Stalin's inner circle had gained a degree of stability, containing the personalities who would remain there until Stalin's death.Review of Soviet armoured fighting vehicles used to equip the Republican People's Army during the Spanish Civil WarSeeking improved international relations, in 1934 the Soviet Union secured membership of the League of Nations, from which it had previously been excluded.", "Stalin initiated confidential communications with Hitler in October 1933, shortly after the latter came to power in Germany.", "Stalin admired Hitler, particularly his manoeuvres to remove rivals within the Nazi Party in the Night of the Long Knives.", "Stalin nevertheless recognised the threat posed by fascism and sought to establish better links with the liberal democracies of Western Europe; in May 1935, the Soviets signed a treaty of mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia.", "At the Communist International's 7th Congress, held in July–August 1935, the Soviet government encouraged Marxist-Leninists to unite with other leftists as part of a popular front against fascism.", "In turn, the anti-communist governments of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936.When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, the Soviets sent 648 aircraft and 407 tanks to the left-wing Republican faction; these were accompanied by 3,000 Soviet troops and 42,000 members of the International Brigades set up by the Communist International.", "Stalin took a strong personal involvement in the Spanish situation.", "Germany and Italy backed the Nationalist faction, which was ultimately victorious in March 1939.With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in July 1937, the Soviet Union and China signed a non-aggression pact the following August.", "Stalin aided the Chinese Communist Party as they had suspended their civil war with the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and formed the desired United Front against Japanese aggression.====The Great Terror====Exhumed mass grave of the Vinnitsia massacreStalin often gave conflicting signals regarding state repression.", "In May 1933, he released from prison many convicted of minor offences, ordering the security services not to enact further mass arrests and deportations.", "In September 1934, he launched a commission to investigate false imprisonments; that same month he called for the execution of workers at the Stalin Metallurgical Factory accused of spying for Japan.", "This mixed approach began to change in December 1934, after prominent party member Sergey Kirov was murdered.", "After the murder, Stalin became increasingly concerned by the threat of assassination, improved his personal security, and rarely went out in public.", "State repression intensified after Kirov's death; Stalin instigated this, reflecting his prioritisation of security above other considerations.", "Stalin issued a decree establishing NKVD troikas which could mete out rulings without involving the courts.", "In 1935, he ordered the NKVD to expel suspected counterrevolutionaries from urban areas; in early 1935, over 11,000 were expelled from Leningrad.", "In 1936, Nikolai Yezhov became head of the NKVD.Stalin orchestrated the arrest of many former opponents in the Communist Party as well as sitting members of the Central Committee: denounced as Western-backed mercenaries, many were imprisoned or exiled internally.", "The first Moscow Trial took place in August 1936; Kamenev and Zinoviev were among those accused of plotting assassinations, found guilty in a show trial, and executed.", "The second Moscow Show Trial took place in January 1937, and the third in March 1938, in which Bukharin and Rykov were accused of involvement in the alleged Trotskyite-Zinovievite terrorist plot and sentenced to death.", "By late 1937, all remnants of collective leadership were gone from the Politburo, which was controlled entirely by Stalin.", "There were mass expulsions from the party, with Stalin commanding foreign communist parties to also purge anti-Stalinist elements.Great Terror in the Bykivnia mass gravesRepressions further intensified in December 1936 and remained at a high level until November 1938, a period known as the Great Purge.", "In May 1937, this was followed by the arrest of most members of the military Supreme Command and mass arrests throughout the military, often on fabricated charges.", "By the latter part of 1937, the purges had moved beyond the party and were affecting the wider population.", "In July 1937, the Politburo ordered a purge of \"anti-Soviet elements\" in society, targeting anti-Stalin Bolsheviks, former Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, priests, ex-White Army soldiers, and common criminals.", "That month, Stalin and Yezhov signed Order No.", "00447, listing 268,950 people for arrest, of whom 75,950 were executed.", "He also initiated \"national operations\", the ethnic cleansing of non-Soviet ethnic groups—among them Poles, Germans, Latvians, Finns, Greeks, Koreans, and Chinese—through internal or external exile.", "During these years, approximately 1.6 million people were arrested, 700,000 were shot, and an unknown number died under NKVD torture.During the 1930s and 1940s, NKVD groups assassinated defectors and opponents abroad; in August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, eliminating the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.", "These purges replaced most of the party's old guard with younger officials who did not remember a time before Stalin's leadership and who were regarded as more personally loyal to him.", "Party functionaries readily carried out their commands and sought to ingratiate themselves with Stalin to avoid becoming the victim of the purge.", "Such functionaries often carried out a greater number of arrests and executions than their quotas set by Stalin's central government.Stalin initiated all key decisions during the Terror, personally directing many of its operations and taking an interest in their implementation.", "His motives in doing so have been much debated by historians.", "His personal writings from the period were — according to Khlevniuk — \"unusually convoluted and incoherent\", filled with claims about enemies encircling him.", "He was particularly concerned at the success that right-wing forces had in overthrowing the leftist Spanish government, fearing a domestic fifth column in the event of future war with Japan and Germany.", "The Great Terror ended when Yezhov was removed as the head of the NKVD, to be replaced by Lavrentiy Beria, a man totally devoted to Stalin.", "Yezhov was arrested in April 1939 and executed in 1940.The Terror damaged the Soviet Union's reputation abroad, particularly among sympathetic leftists.", "As it wound down, Stalin sought to deflect responsibility from himself, blaming its \"excesses\" and \"violations of law\" on Yezhov.", "According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research shows that the motivation behind the purges was not Stalin attempting to establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin.", "The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an excessive fear of counterrevolution." ], [ "World War II", "=== 1939–1941: Pact with Nazi Germany ===As a Marxist–Leninist, Stalin considered conflict between competing capitalist powers inevitable; after Nazi Germany annexed Austria and then part of Czechoslovakia in 1938, he recognised a war was looming.", "He sought to maintain Soviet neutrality, hoping that a German war against France and Britain would lead to Soviet dominance in Europe.", "Militarily, the Soviets also faced a threat from the east, with Soviet troops clashing with the expansionist Japanese in the latter part of the 1930s.", "Stalin initiated a military build-up, with the Red Army more than doubling between January 1939 and June 1941, although in its haste to expand many of its officers were poorly trained.", "Between 1940 and 1941 he also purged the military, leaving it with a severe shortage of trained officers when war broke out.Stalin greeting the German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop in the Kremlin, 1939As Britain and France seemed unwilling to commit to an alliance with the Soviet Union, Stalin saw a better deal with the Germans.", "On 3 May 1939, Stalin replaced his western-oriented foreign minister Maxim Litvinov with Vyacheslav Molotov.", "Germany began negotiations with the Soviets, proposing that Eastern Europe be divided between the two powers.", "Stalin saw this as an opportunity both for territorial expansion and temporary peace with Germany.", "In August 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact with Germany, a non-aggression pact negotiated by Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.", "A week later, Germany invaded Poland, sparking the UK and France to declare war on Germany.", "On 17 September, the Red Army entered eastern Poland, officially to restore order amid the collapse of the Polish state.", "On 28 September, Germany and the Soviet Union exchanged some of their newly conquered territories; Germany gained the linguistically Polish-dominated areas of Lublin Province and part of Warsaw Province while the Soviets gained Lithuania.", "A German–Soviet Frontier Treaty was signed shortly after, in Stalin's presence.", "The two states continued trading, undermining the British blockade of Germany.The Soviets further demanded parts of eastern Finland, but the Finnish government refused.", "The Soviets invaded Finland in November 1939, yet despite numerical inferiority, the Finns kept the Red Army at bay.", "International opinion backed Finland, with the Soviets being expelled from the League of Nations.", "Embarrassed by their inability to defeat the Finns, the Soviets signed an interim peace treaty, in which they received territorial concessions from Finland.", "In June 1940, the Red Army occupied the Baltic states, which were forcibly merged into the Soviet Union in August; they also invaded and annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, parts of Romania.", "The Soviets sought to forestall dissent in these new East European territories with mass repressions.", "One of the most noted instances was the Katyn massacre of April and May 1940, in which around 22,000 members of the Polish armed forces, police, and intelligentsia were executed.The speed of the German victory over and occupation of France in mid-1940 took Stalin by surprise.", "He increasingly focused on appeasement with the Germans to delay any conflict with them.", "After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan, and Italy in October 1940, Stalin proposed that the USSR also join the Axis alliance.", "To demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, in April 1941 the Soviets signed a neutrality pact with Japan.", "Although ''de facto'' head of government for a decade and a half, Stalin concluded that relations with Germany had deteriorated to such an extent that he needed to deal with the problem as ''de jure'' head of government as well: on 6 May, Stalin replaced Molotov as Premier of the Soviet Union.=== 1941–1942: German invasion ===With all the men at the front, women dig anti-tank trenches around Moscow in 1941.In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, initiating the war on the Eastern Front.", "Despite intelligence agencies repeatedly warning him of Germany's intentions, Stalin was taken by surprise.", "He formed a State Defense Committee, which he headed as Supreme Commander, as well as a military Supreme Command (Stavka), with Georgy Zhukov as its Chief of Staff.", "The German tactic of ''blitzkrieg'' was initially highly effective; the Soviet air force in the western borderlands was destroyed within two days.", "The German Wehrmacht pushed deep into Soviet territory; soon, Ukraine, Byelorussia, and the Baltic states were under German occupation, and Leningrad was under siege; and Soviet refugees were flooding into Moscow and surrounding cities.", "By July, Germany's Luftwaffe was bombing Moscow, and by October the Wehrmacht was amassing for a full assault on the capital.", "Plans were made for the Soviet government to evacuate to Kuibyshev, although Stalin decided to remain in Moscow, believing his flight would damage troop morale.", "The German advance on Moscow was halted after two months of battle in increasingly harsh weather conditions.Going against the advice of Zhukov and other generals, Stalin emphasised attack over defence.", "In June 1941, he ordered a scorched earth policy of destroying infrastructure and food supplies before the Germans could seize them, also commanding the NKVD to kill around 100,000 political prisoners in areas the Wehrmacht approached.", "He purged the military command; several high-ranking figures were demoted or reassigned and others were arrested and executed.", "With Order No.", "270, Stalin commanded soldiers risking capture to fight to the death describing the captured as traitors; among those taken as a prisoner of war by the Germans was Stalin's son Yakov, who died in their custody.", "Stalin issued Order No.", "227 in July 1942, which directed that those retreating unauthorised would be placed in \"penal battalions\" used as cannon fodder on the front lines.", "Amid the fighting, both the German and Soviet armies disregarded the law of war set forth in the Geneva Conventions; the Soviets heavily publicised Nazi massacres of communists, Jews, and Romani.", "Stalin exploited Nazi anti-Semitism, and in April 1942 he sponsored the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (JAC) to garner global Jewish support for the Soviet war effort.The centre of Stalingrad after liberation, 2 February 1943The Soviets allied with the United Kingdom and United States; although the U.S. joined the war against Germany in 1941, little direct American assistance reached the Soviets until late 1942.Responding to the invasion, the Soviets intensified their industrial enterprises in central Russia, focusing almost entirely on production for the military.", "They achieved high levels of industrial productivity, outstripping that of Germany.", "During the war, Stalin was more tolerant of the Russian Orthodox Church, allowing it to resume some of its activities and meeting with Patriarch Sergius in September 1943.He also permitted a wider range of cultural expression, notably permitting formerly suppressed writers and artists like Anna Akhmatova and Dmitri Shostakovich to disperse their work more widely.", "The Internationale was dropped as the country's national anthem, to be replaced with a more patriotic song.", "The government increasingly promoted Pan-Slavist sentiment, while encouraging increased criticism of cosmopolitanism, particularly the idea of \"rootless cosmopolitanism\", an approach with particular repercussions for Soviet Jews.", "Comintern was dissolved in 1943, and Stalin encouraged foreign Marxist–Leninist parties to emphasise nationalism over internationalism to broaden their domestic appeal.In April 1942, Stalin overrode Stavka by ordering the Soviets' first serious counter-attack, an attempt to seize German-held Kharkov in eastern Ukraine.", "This attack proved unsuccessful.", "That year, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an overall victory on the Eastern Front to the goal of securing the oil fields in the southern Soviet Union crucial to a long-term German war effort.", "While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking move in a renewed effort to take Moscow.", "In June 1942, the German Army began a major offensive in Southern Russia, threatening Stalingrad; Stalin ordered the Red Army to hold the city at all costs.", "This resulted in the protracted Battle of Stalingrad.", "In December 1942, he placed Konstantin Rokossovski in charge of holding the city.", "In February 1943, the German troops attacking Stalingrad surrendered.", "The Soviet victory there marked a major turning point in the war; in commemoration, Stalin declared himself Marshal of the Soviet Union.=== 1942–1945: Soviet counter-attack ===The Big Three: Stalin, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference, November 1943By November 1942, the Soviets had begun to repulse the important German strategic southern campaign and, although there were 2.5 million Soviet casualties in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.", "Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.", "By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941 to 1942.Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the east of the front, safe from German invasion and aerial assault.In Allied countries, Stalin was increasingly depicted in a positive light over the course of the war.", "In 1941, the London Philharmonic Orchestra performed a concert to celebrate his birthday, and in 1942, ''Time'' magazine named him \"Man of the Year\".", "When Stalin learned that people in Western countries affectionately called him \"Uncle Joe\" he was initially offended, regarding it as undignified.", "There remained mutual suspicions between Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who were together known as the \"Big Three\".", "Churchill flew to Moscow to visit Stalin in August 1942 and again in October 1944.Stalin scarcely left Moscow throughout the war, with Roosevelt and Churchill frustrated with his reluctance to travel to meet them.In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran, a location of Stalin's choosing.", "There, Stalin and Roosevelt got on well, with both desiring the post-war dismantling of the British Empire.", "At Tehran, the trio agreed that to prevent Germany rising to military prowess yet again, the German state should be broken up.", "Roosevelt and Churchill also agreed to Stalin's demand that the German city of Königsberg be declared Soviet territory.", "Stalin was impatient for the UK and U.S. to open up a Western Front to take the pressure off of the East; they eventually did so in mid-1944.Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill opposed.", "Discussing the fate of the Balkans, later in 1944 Churchill agreed to Stalin's suggestion that after the war, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and Yugoslavia would come under the Soviet sphere of influence while Greece would come under that of the West.Soviet soldiers in Polotsk, 4 July 1944In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany, including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in the Byelorussian SSR against the German Army Group Centre.", "In 1944, the German armies were pushed out of the Baltic states (with the exception of the Ostland), which were then re-annexed into the Soviet Union.", "As the Red Army reconquered the Caucasus and Crimea, various ethnic groups living in the region—the Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingushi, Karachai, Balkars, and Crimean Tatars—were accused of having collaborated with the Germans.", "Using the idea of collective responsibility as a basis, Stalin's government abolished their autonomous republics and between late 1943 and 1944 deported the majority of their populations to Central Asia and Siberia.", "Over one million people were deported as a result of the policy.In February 1945, the three leaders met at the Yalta Conference.", "Roosevelt and Churchill conceded to Stalin's demand that Germany pay the Soviet Union 20 billion dollars in reparations, and that his country be permitted to annex Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in exchange for entering the war against Japan.", "An agreement was also made that a post-war Polish government should be a coalition consisting of both communist and conservative elements.", "Privately, Stalin sought to ensure that Poland would come fully under Soviet influence.", "The Red Army withheld assistance to Polish resistance fighters battling the Germans in the Warsaw Uprising, with Stalin believing that any victorious Polish militants could interfere with his aspirations to dominate Poland through a future Marxist government.", "Although concealing his desires from the other Allied leaders, Stalin placed great emphasis on capturing Berlin first, believing that this would enable him to bring more of Europe under long-term Soviet control.", "Churchill was concerned that this was the case and unsuccessfully tried to convince the U.S. that the Western Allies should pursue the same goal.=== 1945: Victory ===British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945In April 1945, the Red Army seized Berlin, Hitler committed suicide, and Germany surrendered in May.", "Stalin had wanted Hitler captured alive; he had his remains brought to Moscow to prevent them becoming a relic for Nazi sympathisers.", "Many Soviet soldiers engaged in looting, pillaging, and rape, both in Germany and parts of Eastern Europe.", "Stalin refused to punish the offenders.With Germany defeated, Stalin switched focus to the war with Japan, transferring half a million troops to the Far East.", "Stalin was pressed by his allies to enter the war and wanted to cement the Soviet Union's strategic position in Asia.", "On 8 August, in between the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet army invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria and defeated the Kwantung Army.", "These events led to the Japanese surrender and the war's end.", "Soviet forces continued to expand until they occupied all their territorial concessions, but the U.S. rebuffed Stalin's desire for the Red Army to take a role in the Allied occupation of Japan.At the Potsdam Conference in July–August 1945, Stalin repeated previous promises that he would refrain from a \"Sovietization\" of Eastern Europe.", "Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Harry Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.", "He also pushed for \"war booty\", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.", "Germany was divided into four zones: Soviet, U.S., British, and French, with Berlin itself—located within the Soviet area—also subdivided thusly." ], [ "Post-war era", "=== 1945–1947: Post-war reconstruction and famine ===After the war, Stalin was—according to Service—at the \"apex of his career\".", "Within the Soviet Union he was widely regarded as the embodiment of victory and patriotism.", "His armies controlled Central and Eastern Europe up to the River Elbe.", "In June 1945, Stalin adopted the title of Generalissimus, and stood atop Lenin's Mausoleum to watch a celebratory parade led by Zhukov through Red Square.", "At a banquet held for army commanders, he described the Russian people as \"the outstanding nation\" and \"leading force\" within the Soviet Union, the first time that he had unequivocally endorsed the Russians over other Soviet nationalities.", "In 1946, the state published Stalin's ''Collected Works''.", "In 1947, it brought out a second edition of his official biography, which eulogised him to a greater extent than its predecessor.", "He was quoted in ''Pravda'' on a daily basis and pictures of him remained pervasive on the walls of workplaces and homes.Banner of Stalin in Budapest in 1949Despite his strengthened international position, Stalin was cautious about internal dissent and desire for change among the population.", "He was also concerned about his returning armies, who had been exposed to a wide range of consumer goods in Germany, much of which they had looted and brought back with them.", "In this he recalled the 1825 Decembrist Revolt by Russian soldiers returning from having defeated France in the Napoleonic Wars.", "He ensured that returning Soviet prisoners of war went through \"filtration\" camps as they arrived in the Soviet Union, in which 2,775,700 were interrogated to determine if they were traitors.", "About half were then imprisoned in labour camps.", "In the Baltic states, where there was much opposition to Soviet rule, de-kulakisation and de-clericalisation programs were initiated, resulting in 142,000 deportations between 1945 and 1949.The Gulag system of forced labour camps was expanded further.", "By January 1953, three per cent of the Soviet population was imprisoned or in internal exile, with 2.8 million in \"special settlements\" in isolated areas and another 2.5 million in camps, penal colonies, and prisons.The NKVD were ordered to catalogue the scale of destruction during the war.", "It was established that 1,710 Soviet towns and 70,000 villages had been destroyed.", "The NKVD recorded that between 26 and 27 million Soviet citizens had been killed, with millions more being wounded, malnourished, or orphaned.", "In the war's aftermath, some of Stalin's associates suggested modifications to government policy.", "Post-war Soviet society was more tolerant than its pre-war phase in various respects.", "Stalin allowed the Russian Orthodox Church to retain the churches it had opened during the war.", "Academia and the arts were also allowed greater freedom than they had prior to 1941.Recognising the need for drastic steps to be taken to combat inflation and promote economic regeneration, in December 1947 Stalin's government devalued the rouble and abolished the ration-book system.", "Capital punishment was abolished in 1947 but re-instituted in 1950.Stalin's health was deteriorating, and heart problems forced a two-month vacation in the latter part of 1945.He grew increasingly concerned that senior political and military figures might try to oust him; he prevented any of them from becoming powerful enough to rival him and had their apartments bugged with listening devices.", "He demoted Molotov, and increasingly favoured Beria and Malenkov for key positions.", "In 1949, he brought Nikita Khrushchev from Ukraine to Moscow, appointing him a Central Committee secretary and the head of the city's party branch.", "In the Leningrad Affair, the city's leadership was purged amid accusations of treachery; executions of many of the accused took place in 1950.In the post-war period there were often food shortages in Soviet cities, and the USSR experienced a major famine from 1946 to 1947.Sparked by a drought and ensuing bad harvest in 1946, it was exacerbated by government policy towards food procurement, including the state's decision to build up stocks and export food internationally rather than distributing it to famine-hit areas.", "Current estimates indicate that between one million and 1.5 million people died from malnutrition or disease as a result.", "While agricultural production stagnated, Stalin focused on a series of major infrastructure projects, including the construction of hydroelectric plants, canals, and railway lines running to the polar north.", "Much of this was constructed by prison labour.=== 1947–1950: Cold War policy ===Joseph Stalin at his 71st birthday celebration with (left to right) Mao Zedong, Nikolai Bulganin, Walter Ulbricht and Yumjaagiin TsedenbalIn the aftermath of the Second World War, the British Empire declined, leaving the U.S. and USSR as the dominant world powers.", "Tensions among these former Allies grew, resulting in the Cold War.", "Although Stalin publicly described the British and U.S. governments as aggressive, he thought it unlikely that a war with them would be imminent, believing that several decades of peace was likely.", "He nevertheless secretly intensified Soviet research into nuclear weaponry, intent on creating an atom bomb.", "Still, Stalin foresaw the undesirability of a nuclear conflict, saying in 1949 that \"atomic weapons can hardly be used without spelling the end of the world.\"", "He personally took a keen interest in the development of the weapon.", "In August 1949, the bomb was successfully tested in the deserts outside Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan.", "Stalin also initiated a new military build-up; the Soviet army was expanded from 2.9 million soldiers, as it stood in 1949, to 5.8 million by 1953.The U.S. began pushing its interests on every continent, acquiring air force bases in Africa and Asia and ensuring pro-U.S. regimes took power across Latin America.", "It launched the Marshall Plan in June 1947, with which it sought to undermine Soviet hegemony throughout Eastern Europe.", "The U.S. also offered financial assistance to countries as part of the Marshall Plan on the condition that they opened their markets to trade, aware that the Soviets would never agree.The Allies demanded that Stalin withdraw the Red Army from northern Iran.", "He initially refused, leading to an international crisis in 1946, but one year later Stalin finally relented and moved the Soviet troops out.", "Stalin also tried to maximise Soviet influence on the world stage, unsuccessfully pushing for Libya—recently liberated from Italian occupation—to become a Soviet protectorate.", "He sent Molotov as his representative to San Francisco to take part in negotiations to form the United Nations, insisting that the Soviets have a place on the Security Council.", "In April 1949, the Western powers established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), an international military alliance of capitalist countries.", "Within Western countries, Stalin was increasingly portrayed as the \"most evil dictator alive\" and compared to Hitler.", "According to his daughter, Svetlana Alliluyeva she \"remembered her father saying after the war: Together with the Germans we would have been invincible\" In 1948, Stalin edited and rewrote sections of ''Falsifiers of History'', published as a series of ''Pravda'' articles in February 1948 and then in book form.", "Written in response to public revelations of the 1939 Soviet alliance with Germany, it focused on blaming the Western powers for the war.", "He also erroneously claimed that the initial German advance in the early part of the war, during Operation Barbarossa, was not a result of Soviet military weakness, but rather a deliberate Soviet strategic retreat.", "In 1949, celebrations took place to mark Stalin's seventieth birthday (although he was 71 at the time,) at which Stalin attended an event in the Bolshoi Theatre alongside Marxist–Leninist leaders from across Europe and Asia.====Eastern Bloc====The Eastern Bloc until 1989After the war, Stalin sought to retain Soviet dominance across Eastern Europe while expanding its influence in Asia.", "Cautiously regarding the responses from the Western Allies, Stalin avoided immediately installing Communist Party governments across Eastern Europe, instead initially ensuring that Marxist-Leninists were placed in coalition ministries.", "In contrast to his approach to the Baltic states, he rejected the proposal of merging the new communist states into the Soviet Union, rather recognising them as independent nation-states.He was faced with the problem that there were few Marxists left in Eastern Europe, with most having been killed by the Nazis.", "He demanded that war reparations be paid by Germany and its Axis allies Hungary, Romania, and the Slovak Republic.", "Aware that these countries had been pushed toward socialism through invasion rather than by proletarian revolution, Stalin referred to them not as \"dictatorships of the proletariat\" but as \"people's democracies\", suggesting that in these countries there was a pro-socialist alliance combining the proletariat, peasantry, and lower middle-class.Churchill observed that an \"Iron Curtain\" had been drawn across Europe, separating the east from the west.", "In September 1947, a meeting of East European communist leaders was held in Szklarska Poręba, Poland, from which was formed Cominform to co-ordinate the Communist Parties across Eastern Europe and also in France and Italy.", "Stalin did not personally attend the meeting, sending Zhdanov in his place.", "Various East European communists also visited Stalin in Moscow.", "There, he offered advice on their ideas; for instance, he cautioned against the Yugoslav idea for a Balkan Federation incorporating Bulgaria and Albania.", "Stalin had a particularly strained relationship with Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito due to the latter's continued calls for a Balkan federation and for Soviet aid for the communist forces in the ongoing Greek Civil War.", "In March 1948, Stalin launched an anti-Tito campaign, accusing the Yugoslav communists of adventurism and deviating from Marxist–Leninist doctrine.", "At the second Cominform conference, held in Bucharest in June 1948, East European communist leaders all denounced Tito's government, accusing them of being fascists and agents of Western capitalism.", "Stalin ordered several assassination attempts on Tito's life and even contemplated an invasion of Yugoslavia itself.Stalin suggested that a unified, but demilitarised, German state be established, hoping that it would either come under Soviet influence or remain neutral.", "When the U.S. and UK remained opposed to this, Stalin sought to force their hand by blockading Berlin in June 1948.He gambled that the Western powers would not risk war, but they airlifted supplies into West Berlin until May 1949, when Stalin relented and ended the blockade.", "In September 1949 the Western powers transformed Western Germany into an independent Federal Republic of Germany; in response the Soviets formed East Germany into the German Democratic Republic in October.", "In accordance with their earlier agreements, the Western powers expected Poland to become an independent state with free democratic elections.", "In Poland, the Soviets merged various socialist parties into the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR), and vote rigging was used to ensure that the PZPR secured office.", "The 1947 Hungarian elections were also rigged by Stalin, with the Hungarian Working People's Party taking control.", "In Czechoslovakia, where the communists did have a level of popular support, they were elected the largest party in 1946.Monarchy was abolished in Bulgaria and Romania.", "Across Eastern Europe, the Soviet model was enforced, with a termination of political pluralism, agricultural collectivisation, and investment in heavy industry.", "It was aimed at establishing economic autarky within the Eastern Bloc.====Asia====Mao shaking hands, commemorating the signing of the new Sino-Soviet TreatyIn October 1949, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong took power in China.", "With this accomplished, Marxist governments now controlled a third of the world's land mass.", "Privately, Stalin revealed that he had underestimated the Chinese Communists and their ability to win the civil war, instead encouraging them to make another peace with the KMT.", "In December 1949, Mao visited Stalin.", "Initially Stalin refused to repeal the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1945, which significantly benefited the Soviet Union over China, although in January 1950 he relented and agreed to sign a new treaty between the two countries.", "Stalin was concerned that Mao might follow Tito's example by pursuing a course independent of Soviet influence, and made it known that if displeased he would withdraw assistance from China; the Chinese desperately needed said assistance after decades of civil war.At the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the United States divided up the Korean Peninsula, formerly a Japanese colonial possession, along the 38th parallel, setting up a communist government in the north and a pro-Western, anti-communist government in the south.", "North Korean leader Kim Il Sung visited Stalin in March 1949 and again in March 1950; he wanted to invade the south and although Stalin was initially reluctant to provide support, he eventually agreed by May 1950.The North Korean Army launched the Korean War by invading South Korea in June 1950, making swift gains and capturing Seoul.", "Both Stalin and Mao believed that a swift victory would ensue.", "The U.S. went to the UN Security Council—which the Soviets were boycotting over its refusal to recognise Mao's government—and secured international military support for the South Koreans.", "U.S. led forces pushed the North Koreans back.", "Stalin wanted to avoid direct Soviet conflict with the U.S., convincing the Chinese to aid the North.The Soviet Union was one of the first nations to extend diplomatic recognition to the newly created state of Israel in 1948, in hopes of obtaining an ally in the Middle East.", "When the Israeli ambassador Golda Meir arrived in the USSR, Stalin was angered by the Jewish crowds who gathered to greet her.", "He was further angered by Israel's growing alliance with the U.S. After Stalin fell out with Israel, he launched an anti-Jewish campaign within the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc.", "In November 1948, he abolished the JAC, and show trials took place for some of its members.", "The Soviet press engaged in vituperative attacks on Zionism, Jewish culture, and \"rootless cosmopolitanism\", with growing levels of anti-Semitism being expressed across Soviet society.", "Stalin's increasing tolerance of anti-Semitism may have stemmed from his increasing Russian nationalism or from the recognition that anti-Semitism had proved a useful mobilising tool for Hitler and that he could do the same; he may have increasingly viewed the Jewish people as a \"counter-revolutionary\" nation whose members were loyal to the U.S.", "There were rumours, although they have never been substantiated, that Stalin was planning on deporting all Soviet Jews to the Jewish Autonomous Region in Birobidzhan, eastern Siberia.20 January 1953.Soviet ukaz awarding Lydia Timashuk the Order of Lenin for \"unmasking doctors-killers.\"", "Revoked after Stalin's death later that year.=== 1950–1953: Final years ===In his later years, Stalin was in poor health.", "He took increasingly long holidays; in 1950 and again in 1951 he spent almost five months on holiday at his Abkhazian dacha.", "Stalin nevertheless mistrusted his doctors; in January 1952 he had one imprisoned after they suggested that he should retire to improve his health.", "In September 1952, several Kremlin doctors were arrested for allegedly plotting to kill senior politicians in what came to be known as the doctors' plot; the majority of the accused were Jewish.", "He instructed the arrested doctors to be tortured to ensure confession.", "In November, the Slánský trial took place in Czechoslovakia as 13 senior Communist Party figures, 11 of them Jewish, were accused and convicted of being part of a vast Zionist-American conspiracy to subvert Eastern Bloc governments.", "That same month, a much publicised trial of accused Jewish industrial wreckers took place in Ukraine.", "In 1951, he initiated the Mingrelian affair, a purge of the Georgian branch of the Communist Party which resulted in over 11,000 deportations.From 1946 until his death, Stalin only gave three public speeches, two of which lasted only a few minutes.", "The amount of written material that he produced also declined.", "In 1950, Stalin issued the article \"Marxism and Problems of Linguistics\", which reflected his interest in questions of Russian nationhood.In 1952, Stalin's last book, ''Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR'', was published.", "It sought to provide a guide to leading the country after his death.", "In October 1952, Stalin gave an hour and a half speech at the Central Committee plenum.", "There, he emphasised what he regarded as leadership qualities necessary in the future and highlighted the weaknesses of various potential successors, particularly Molotov and Mikoyan.", "In 1952, he also eliminated the Politburo and replaced it with a larger version which he called the Presidium.====Death, funeral and aftermath====Stalin's casket on howitzer carriage drawn by horses, caught on camera by U.S. assistant army attaché Major Martin Manhoff from the embassy balconyOn 1 March 1953, Stalin's staff found him semi-conscious on the bedroom floor of his Kuntsevo Dacha.", "He had suffered a cerebral haemorrhage.", "He was moved onto a couch and remained there for three days.", "He was hand-fed using a spoon, given various medicines and injections, and leeches were applied to him.", "Stalin died on 5 March 1953.According to Svetlana, it had been \"a difficult and terrible death\".", "An autopsy revealed that he had died of a cerebral haemorrhage and that his cerebral arteries were severely damaged by atherosclerosis.", "It has been conjectured that Stalin was murdered; Beria has been suspected of murdering him, but no firm evidence has appeared.", "According to a report published in ''The New York Times'', Stalin was poisoned with warfarin by his own Politburo members.Stalin's death was announced on 6 March.", "His body was embalmed, and then displayed in Moscow's House of Unions for three days.", "The crowds of people coming to view the body were so large and disorganised that many people were killed in a crowd crush.", "At the funeral on 9 March, Stalin's body was laid to rest in Lenin's Mausoleum in Red Square; hundreds of thousands attended.", "That month featured a surge in arrests for \"anti-Soviet agitation\", as those celebrating Stalin's death came to police attention.", "The Chinese government instituted a period of official mourning for Stalin's death.", "A memorial service in his honour was also held at St George the Martyr, Holborn in London.Stalin left neither a designated successor nor a framework within which a peaceful transfer of power could take place.", "The Central Committee met on the day of his death, after which Malenkov, Beria, and Khrushchev emerged as the party's dominant figures.", "The system of collective leadership was restored, and measures introduced to prevent any one member from attaining autocratic domination.", "The collective leadership included eight senior members of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.", "Reforms to the Soviet system were immediately implemented.", "Economic reform scaled back the mass construction projects, placed a new emphasis on house building, and eased the levels of taxation on the peasantry to stimulate production.", "The new leaders sought rapprochement with Yugoslavia and a less hostile relationship with the U.S., pursuing a negotiated end to the Korean War in July 1953.The doctors who had been imprisoned were released and the anti-Semitic purges ceased.", "A mass amnesty for certain categories of convicts was issued, halving the country's inmate population, while the state security and Gulag systems were reformed, with torture being banned in April 1953." ], [ "Political ideology", "A mourning parade in honour of Stalin in Dresden, East GermanyStalin claimed to have embraced Marxism at the age of fifteen, and it served as the guiding philosophy throughout his adult life; according to Kotkin, Stalin held \"zealous Marxist convictions\", while Montefiore suggested that Marxism held a \"quasi-religious\" value for Stalin.", "Although he never became a Georgian nationalist, during his early life elements from Georgian nationalist thought blended with Marxism in his outlook.", "The historian Alfred J. Rieber noted that he had been raised in \"a society where rebellion was deeply rooted in folklore and popular rituals\".", "Stalin believed in the need to adapt Marxism to changing circumstances; in 1917, he declared that \"there is dogmatic Marxism and there is creative Marxism.", "I stand on the ground of the latter\".", "Volkogonov believed that Stalin's Marxism was shaped by his \"dogmatic turn of mind\", suggesting that this had been instilled in the Soviet leader during his education in religious institutions.", "According to scholar Robert Service, Stalin's \"few innovations in ideology were crude, dubious developments of Marxism\".", "Some of these derived from political expediency rather than any sincere intellectual commitment; Stalin would often turn to ideology ''post hoc'' to justify his decisions.", "Stalin referred to himself as a ''praktik'', meaning that he was more of a practical revolutionary than a theoretician.As a Marxist and an anti-capitalist, Stalin believed in an inevitable \"class war\" between the world's proletariat and bourgeoisie.", "He believed that the working classes would prove successful in this struggle and would establish a dictatorship of the proletariat, regarding the Soviet Union as an example of such a state.", "He also believed that this proletarian state would need to introduce repressive measures against foreign and domestic \"enemies\" to ensure the full crushing of the propertied classes, and thus the class war would intensify with the advance of socialism.", "As a propaganda tool, the shaming of \"enemies\" explained all inadequate economic and political outcomes, the hardships endured by the populace, and military failures.", "The new state would then be able to ensure that all citizens had access to work, food, shelter, healthcare, and education, with the wastefulness of capitalism eliminated by a new, standardised economic system.", "According to Sandle, Stalin was \"committed to the creation of a society that was industrialised, collectivised, centrally planned and technologically advanced.", "\"Stalin adhered to the Leninist variant of Marxism.", "In his book, ''Foundations of Leninism'', he stated that \"Leninism is the Marxism of the epoch of imperialism and of the proletarian revolution\".", "He claimed to be a loyal Leninist, although was—according to Service—\"not a blindly obedient Leninist\".", "Stalin respected Lenin, but not uncritically, and spoke out when he believed that Lenin was wrong.", "During the period of his revolutionary activity, Stalin regarded some of Lenin's views and actions as being the self-indulgent activities of a spoiled émigré, deeming them counterproductive for those Bolshevik activists based within the Russian Empire itself.", "After the October Revolution, they continued to have differences.", "Whereas Lenin believed that all countries across Europe and Asia would readily unite as a single state following proletariat revolution, Stalin argued that national pride would prevent this, and that different socialist states would have to be formed; in his view, a country like Germany would not readily submit to being part of a Russian-dominated federal state.", "Khlevniuk nevertheless believed that the pair developed a \"strong bond\" over the years, while Kotkin suggested that Stalin's friendship with Lenin was \"the single most important relationship in Stalin's life\".", "After Lenin's death, Stalin relied heavily on Lenin's writings—far more so than those of Marx and Engels—to guide him in the affairs of state.", "Stalin adopted the Leninist view on the need for a revolutionary vanguard who could lead the proletariat rather than being led by them.", "Leading this vanguard, he believed that the Soviet peoples needed a strong, central figure—akin to a Tsar—whom they could rally around.", "In his words, \"the people need a Tsar, whom they can worship and for whom they can live and work\".", "He read about, and admired, two Tsars in particular: Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great.", "In the personality cult constructed around him, he was known as the ''vozhd'', an equivalent to the Italian ''duce'' and German ''führer''.A statue of Joseph Stalin in Grūtas Park near Druskininkai, Lithuania.", "It originally stood in Vilnius, Lithuania.Stalinism was a development of Leninism, and while Stalin avoided using the term \"Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism\", he allowed others to do so.", "Following Lenin's death, Stalin contributed to the theoretical debates within the Communist Party, namely by developing the idea of \"Socialism in One Country\".", "This concept was intricately linked to factional struggles within the party, particularly against Trotsky.", "He first developed the idea in December 1924 and elaborated upon in his writings of 1925–26.Stalin's doctrine held that socialism could be completed in Russia but that its final victory could not be guaranteed because of the threat from capitalist intervention.", "For this reason, he retained the Leninist view that world revolution was still a necessity to ensure the ultimate victory of socialism.", "Although retaining the Marxist belief that the state would wither away as socialism transformed into pure communism, he believed that the Soviet state would remain until the final defeat of international capitalism.", "This concept synthesised Marxist and Leninist ideas with nationalist ideals, and served to discredit Trotsky—who promoted the idea of \"permanent revolution\"—by presenting the latter as a defeatist with little faith in Russian workers' abilities to construct socialism.Stalin viewed nations as contingent entities which were formed by capitalism and could merge into others.", "Ultimately, he believed that all nations would merge into a single, global human community, and regarded all nations as inherently equal.", "In his work, he stated that \"the right of secession\" should be offered to the ethnic minorities of the Russian Empire, but that they should not be encouraged to take that option.", "He was of the view that if they became fully autonomous, then they would end up being controlled by the most reactionary elements of their community; as an example, he cited the largely illiterate Tatars, whom he claimed would end up dominated by their mullahs.", "Stalin argued that the Jews possessed a \"national character\" but were not a \"nation\" and were thus unassimilable.", "He argued that Jewish nationalism, particularly Zionism, was hostile to socialism.", "According to Khlevniuk, Stalin reconciled Marxism with great-power imperialism and therefore expansion of the empire makes him a worthy to the Russian tsars.", "Service argued that Stalin's Marxism was imbued with a great deal of Russian nationalism.", "According to Montefiore, Stalin's embrace of the Russian nation was pragmatic, as the Russians were the core of the population of the USSR; it was not a rejection of his Georgian origins.", "Stalin's push for Soviet westward expansion into eastern Europe resulted in accusations of Russian imperialism." ], [ "Personal life and characteristics", "Ethnically Georgian, Stalin grew up speaking the Georgian language, and did not begin learning Russian until the age of eight or nine.", "It has been argued that his ancestry was Ossetian, because his genetic haplotype (G2a-Z6653) is considered typical of the Ossetians, but he never acknowledged an Ossetian identity.", "He remained proud of his Georgian identity, and throughout his life retained a heavy Georgian accent when speaking Russian.", "According to Montefiore, despite Stalin's affinity for Russia and Russians, he remained profoundly Georgian in his lifestyle and personality.", "Some of Stalin's colleagues described him as \"Asiatic\", and he supposedly once told a Japanese journalist that \"I am not a European man, but an Asian, a Russified Georgian\".", "Service also noted that Stalin \"would never be Russian\", could not credibly pass as one, and never tried to pretend that he was.", "Montefiore was of the view that \"after 1917, Stalin became quadri-national: Georgian by nationality, Russian by loyalty, internationalist by ideology, Soviet by citizenship.", "\"Stalin had a soft voice, and when speaking Russian did so slowly, carefully choosing his phrasing.", "In private he often used coarse language and profanity, although avoided doing so in public.", "Described as a poor orator, according to Volkogonov, Stalin's speaking style was \"simple and clear, without flights of fancy, catchy phrases or platform histrionics\".", "He rarely spoke before large audiences and preferred to express himself in written form.", "His writing style was similar, being characterised by its simplicity, clarity, and conciseness.", "Throughout his life, he used various nicknames and pseudonyms, including \"Koba\", \"Soselo\", and \"Ivanov\", adopting \"Stalin\" in 1912; it was based on the Russian word for \"steel\" and has often been translated as \"Man of Steel\".Lavrenti Beria with Stalin's daughter, Svetlana, on his lap and Stalin with Nestor Lakoba seated in the background smoking a pipe.", "The photo was taken at Stalin's dacha near Sochi in the mid-1930s.In adulthood, Stalin measured .", "His mustached face was pock-marked from smallpox during childhood; this was airbrushed from published photographs.", "He was born with a webbed left foot, and his left arm had been permanently injured in childhood which left it shorter than his right and lacking in flexibility, which was probably the result of being hit, at the age of 12, by a horse-drawn carriage.During his youth, Stalin cultivated a scruffy appearance in rejection of middle-class aesthetic values.", "By 1907, he grew his hair long and often wore a beard; for clothing, he often wore a traditional Georgian ''chokha'' or a red satin shirt with a grey coat and black fedora.", "From mid-1918 until his death he favoured military-style clothing, in particular long black boots, light-coloured collarless tunics, and a gun.", "He was a lifelong smoker, who smoked both a pipe and cigarettes.", "Publicly at least, Stalin had a minimalist lust and lived relatively plainly, with simple and inexpensive clothing and furniture; his dominant interest was the accumulation of power.", "Stalin founded the Outfit, a criminal gang that were involved with armed robberies, racketeering, assassinations, arms procurement and child couriering.As leader of the Soviet Union, Stalin typically awoke around 11am, with lunch being served between 3 and 5pm and dinner no earlier than 9pm; he then worked late into the evening.", "He often dined with other Politburo members and their families.", "As leader, he rarely left Moscow unless to go to one of his dachas for holiday; he disliked travel, and refused to travel by plane.", "His choice of favoured holiday house changed over the years, although he holidayed in southern parts of the USSR every year from 1925 to 1936 and again from 1945 to 1951.Along with other senior figures, he had a dacha at Zubalova, 35 km outside Moscow, although ceased using it after Nadezhda's 1932 suicide.", "After 1932, he favoured holidays in Abkhazia, being a friend of its leader, Nestor Lakoba.", "In 1934, his new Kuntsevo Dacha was built; 9 km from the Kremlin, it became his primary residence.", "In 1935, he began using a new dacha provided for him by Lakoba at Novy Afon; in 1936, he had the Kholodnaya Rechka dacha built on the Abkhazian coast, designed by Miron Merzhanov.===Personality===Chinese Marxists celebrate Stalin's seventieth birthday in 1949.Trotsky and several other Soviet figures promoted the idea that Stalin was a mediocrity.", "This gained widespread acceptance outside the Soviet Union during his lifetime but was misleading.", "According to Montefiore, \"it is clear from hostile and friendly witnesses alike that Stalin was always exceptional, even from childhood\".", "Stalin had a complex mind, great self-control, and an excellent memory.", "He was a hard worker, and displayed a keen desire to learn; when in power, he scrutinised many details of Soviet life, from film scripts to architectural plans and military hardware.", "According to Volkogonov, \"Stalin's private life and working life were one and the same\"; he did not take days off from political activities.", "Although, Bazhanov described Stalin as having little education and making limited contributions to various matters of state which were discussed at Politburo sessions.", "Similarly, historian Robert William Davies viewed Stalin as being liable to fall under the sway of persuasive charlatans such as the pseudo-scientific, agronomist Trofim Lysenko due in part to his lack of education.", "According to Lenin's sister, Maria Ilyinichna Ulyanova, Lenin stated that \"Stalin is not intelligent at all\", but \"valued Stalin as a practical type\".Stalin could play different roles to different audiences, and was adept at deception, often deceiving others as to his true motives and aims.", "According to Bolshevik historian, Vladimir Nevsky, Stalin was appointed the General Secretary because he used false rumours to convince Lenin that the party faced a split.", "Nevsky also claimed that Lenin would later deeply regret trusting Stalin and strove to correct this mistake with his \"Testament\".", "Several historians have seen it as appropriate to follow Lazar Kaganovich's description of there being \"several Stalins\" as a means of understanding his multi-faceted personality.", "He was a good organiser, with a strategic mind, and judged others according to their inner strength, practicality, and cleverness.", "He acknowledged that he could be rude and insulting, but he rarely raised his voice in anger; as his health deteriorated in later life he became increasingly unpredictable and bad-tempered.", "Despite his tough-talking attitude, he could be very charming; when relaxed, he cracked jokes and mimicked others.", "Montefiore suggested that this charm was \"the foundation of Stalin's power in the Party\".", "According to Service he was \"decisive, competent, confident, and ambitious\".Stalin was ruthless, temperamentally cruel, and had a propensity for violence high even among the Bolsheviks.", "He lacked compassion, something Volkogonov suggested might have been accentuated by his many years in prison and exile, although he was capable of acts of kindness to strangers, even amid the Great Terror.", "He was capable of self-righteous indignation, and was resentful, and vindictive, holding on to grudges for many years.", "By the 1920s, he was also suspicious and conspiratorial, prone to believing that people were plotting against him and that there were vast international conspiracies behind acts of dissent.", "He never attended torture sessions or executions, although Service thought Stalin \"derived deep satisfaction\" from degrading and humiliating people and enjoyed keeping even close associates in a state of \"unrelieved fear\".", "Montefiore thought Stalin's brutality marked him out as a \"natural extremist\"; Service suggested he had tendencies toward a paranoid and sociopathic personality disorder.", "According to historian Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin was not a psychopath.", "He was instead an emotionally intelligent and feeling intellectual.", "Other historians linked his brutality not to any personality trait, but to his unwavering commitment to the survival of the Soviet Union and the international Marxist–Leninist cause.", "Conversely, historian E.A.", "Rees believed that there was a strong argument in the case of Stalin \"that it was psychopathy that breed tyranny\".", "Rees cited a diagnosis performed by neuropathologist Vladimir Bekhterev on Stalin in 1927 and who had described him as a \"typical case of severe paranoia\".Keenly interested in the arts, Stalin admired artistic talent.", "He protected several Soviet writers from arrest and prosecution, such as Mikhail Bulgakov, even when their work was labelled harmful to his regime.", "He enjoyed listening to classical music, owning around 2,700 records, and frequently attending the Bolshoi Theatre during the 1930s and 1940s.", "His taste in music and theatre was conservative, favouring classical drama, opera, and ballet over what he dismissed as experimental \"formalism\".", "He also favoured classical forms in the visual arts, disliking avant-garde styles like cubism and futurism.", "He was a voracious reader and kept a personal library of over 20,000 books.", "Little of this was fiction, although he could cite passages from Alexander Pushkin, Nikolay Nekrasov, and Walt Whitman by heart.", "Stalin's favourite subject was history, closely followed by Marxist theory and then fiction.", "Stalin knew Marxist theory well and according to Bullock was an \"effective debater\" who would quote Marx and Engels in his arguments.", "He favoured historical studies, keeping up with debates in the study of Russian, Mesopotamian, ancient Roman, and Byzantine history.", "He was very interested in the reigns of Ivan the Terrible, Peter the Great and Catherine the Great.", "An autodidact, he claimed to read as many as 500 pages a day, with Montefiore regarding him as an intellectual.", "Lenin was his favourite author but he also read, and sometimes appreciated, a great deal of writing by Leon Trotsky and other archenemies.", "Like all Bolshevik leaders, Stalin believed that reading could help transform not just people's ideas and consciousness, but human nature itself.", "Stalin also enjoyed watching films late at night at cinemas installed in the Kremlin and his dachas.", "He liked the Western genre, although his favourite films were ''Volga Volga'' and ''Circus'' (both directed by Grigori Alexandrov and starring Lyubov Orlova).Stalin was a keen and accomplished billiards player, and collected watches.", "He also enjoyed practical jokes; for instance, he would place a tomato on the chairs of Politburo members and wait for them to sit on it.", "When at social events, he encouraged singing, as well as alcohol consumption; he hoped that others would drunkenly reveal their secrets to him.", "As an infant, Stalin displayed a love of flowers, and later in life he became a keen gardener.", "His Volynskoe suburb had a park, with Stalin devoting much attention to its agricultural activities.Stalin publicly condemned anti-Semitism, although he was repeatedly accused of it.", "People who knew him, such as Khrushchev, suggested he long harboured negative sentiments toward Jews, and it has been argued that anti-Semitic trends in his policies were further fuelled by Stalin's struggle against Trotsky.", "After Stalin's death, Khrushchev claimed that Stalin encouraged him to incite anti-Semitism in Ukraine, allegedly telling him that \"the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews.\"", "In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that \"every Jew is a potential spy\".", "Conquest stated that although Stalin had Jewish associates, he promoted anti-Semitism.", "Service cautioned that there was \"no irrefutable evidence\" of anti-Semitism in Stalin's published work, although his private statements and public actions were \"undeniably reminiscent of crude antagonism towards Jews\"; he added that throughout Stalin's lifetime, the Georgian \"would be the friend, associate or leader of countless individual Jews\".", "Additionally, according to Beria, Stalin had affairs with several Jewish women.His ability to assume absolute power has remained a subject of historical debate.", "Some historians have attributed his success to his personal qualities.", "Contrarily, certain political theorists such as Trotsky have emphasised the role of external conditions in facilitating the growth of a Soviet bureaucracy which served as a power base for Stalin.", "Other historians have regarded the premature deaths of prominent Bolsheviks such as Vladimir Lenin and Yakov Sverdlov to have been key factors in his elevation to the position of leadership in the Soviet Union.", "In part, because Sverdlov served as the original chairman of the party secretariat and was considered a natural candidate for the position of General Secretary.", "Historian Peter Kenez believed that Trotsky could probably have removed Stalin with the use of Lenin's testament, but he acquiesced to the collective decision not to publish the document.===Relationships and family===Friendship was important to Stalin, and he used it to gain and maintain power.", "Kotkin observed that Stalin \"generally gravitated to people like himself: parvenu intelligentsia of humble background\".", "He gave nicknames to his favourites, for instance referring to Yezhov as \"my blackberry\".", "Stalin was sociable and enjoyed a joke.", "According to Montefiore, Stalin's friendships \"meandered between love, admiration, and venomous jealousy\".", "While head of the Soviet Union he remained in contact with many of his old friends in Georgia, sending them letters and gifts of money.Stalin was not a womaniser.", "According to Boris Bazhanov, Stalin's one-time secretary, \"Women didn't interest him.", "His own woman Alliluyeva was enough for him, and he paid scant attention to her.\"", "However, Montefiore noted that in his early life Stalin \"rarely seems to have been without a girlfriend\".", "Montefiore described Stalin's favoured types as \"young, malleable teenagers or buxom peasant women\", who would be supportive and unchallenging toward him.", "According to Service, Stalin \"regarded women as a resource for sexual gratification and domestic comfort\".", "Stalin married twice and had several children.Stalin married his first wife, Ekaterina Svanidze, in 1906.According to Montefiore, theirs was \"a true love match\"; Volkogonov suggested that she was \"probably the one human being he had really loved\".", "When she died, Stalin allegedly said: \"This creature softened my heart of stone.\"", "However, Russian historian Anton Antonov-Ovseenko wrote that Stalin was physically abusive to her in Baku.", "They had a son, Yakov, who often frustrated and annoyed Stalin.", "Yakov had a daughter, Galina, before fighting for the Red Army in the Second World War.", "He was captured by the German Army and then committed suicide.SvetlanaIn 1914, Stalin, circa age 35, had a relationship with Lidia Pereprygina, then 14-years-old, who subsequently became pregnant with Stalin's child.", "Circa December 1914, Pereprygia gave birth to Stalin's child, although the infant died soon after.", "In 1916, Lidia – now 15 years old – was pregnant again.", "She gave birth to a son, named Alexander Davydov, in around April 1917.Stalin, then absent, later came to know of the child's existence but showed no apparent interest in him.Stalin's second wife was Nadezhda Alliluyeva; theirs was not an easy relationship, and they often fought.", "They had two biological children—a son, Vasily, and a daughter, Svetlana, and adopted another son, Artyom Sergeev, in 1921.It is unclear if Stalin ever had a mistress during or after his marriage to Alliluyeva.", "In any event, she suspected that he was unfaithful with other women, and committed suicide in 1932.Stalin regarded Vasily as spoiled and often chastised his behaviour; as Stalin's son, Vasily nevertheless was swiftly promoted through the ranks of the Red Army and allowed a lavish lifestyle.", "Conversely, Stalin had an affectionate relationship with Svetlana during her childhood, and was also very fond of Artyom.", "In later life, he disapproved of Svetlana's various suitors and husbands, putting a strain on his relationship with her.", "After the Second World War, he made little time for his children and his family played a decreasingly important role in his life.", "After Stalin's death, Svetlana changed her surname from Stalin to Alliluyeva, and defected to the U.S.After Nadezhda's death, Stalin became increasingly close to his sister-in-law Zhenya Alliluyeva; Montefiore believed that they were lovers.", "There are unproven rumours that from 1934 onward he had a relationship with his housekeeper Valentina Istomina.", "Montefiore also claimed that Stalin had at least two illegitimate children, although he never recognised them as being his.", "One of them, Konstantin Kuzakov, later taught philosophy at the Leningrad Military Mechanical Institute, but never met Stalin.", "The other, Alexander, was the son of Lidia Pereprygina; he was raised as the son of a peasant fisherman and the Soviet authorities made him swear never to reveal that Stalin was his biological father.", "Stalin was also complicit with the persecution of several relatives of his former wives such as Maria and Alexander Svanidze who were arrested and eliminated during the Great Purge." ], [ "Legacy", "A poster of Stalin at the 3rd World Festival of Youth and Students in East Berlin, East Germany, 1951The historian Robert Conquest stated that Stalin perhaps \"determined the course of the twentieth century\" more than any other individual.", "Biographers like Service and Volkogonov have considered him an outstanding and exceptional politician; Montefiore labelled Stalin as \"that rare combination: both 'intellectual' and killer\", a man who was \"the ultimate politician\" and \"the most elusive and fascinating of the twentieth-century titans\".", "According to historian Kevin McDermott, interpretations of Stalin range from \"the sycophantic and adulatory to the vitriolic and condemnatory.\"", "For most Westerners and anti-communist Russians, he is viewed overwhelmingly negatively as a mass murderer; for significant numbers of Russians and Georgians, he is regarded as a great statesman and state-builder.According to Service, Stalin strengthened and stabilised the Soviet Union.", "Service suggested that the country might have collapsed long before 1991 without Stalin.", "In under three decades, Stalin transformed the Soviet Union into a major industrial world power, one which could \"claim impressive achievements\" in terms of urbanisation, military strength, education and Soviet pride.", "Under his rule, the average Soviet life expectancy grew due to improved living conditions, nutrition and medical care as mortality rates also declined.", "Although millions of Soviet citizens despised him, support for Stalin was nevertheless widespread throughout Soviet society.", "Conversely, the historian Vadim Rogovin argued that the Great Terror which had gained traction in 1937 \"caused losses to the communist movement both in the USSR and throughout the world from which the movement has not recovered to this very day\".", "Similarly, Khrushchev believed his widespread purges of the \"most advanced nucleus of people\" among the Old Bolsheviks and leading figures in the military and scientific fields had \"undoubtedly\" weakened the nation.Joseph Stalin Museum in Gori, GeorgiaStalin's necessity for the Soviet Union's economic development has been questioned, and it has been argued that Stalin's policies from 1928 onwards may have only been a limiting factor.", "Stalin's Soviet Union has been characterised as a totalitarian state, with Stalin its authoritarian leader.", "Various biographers have described him as a dictator, an autocrat, or accused him of practising Caesarism.", "Montefiore argued that while Stalin initially ruled as part of a Communist Party oligarchy, the Soviet government transformed from this oligarchy into a personal dictatorship in 1934, with Stalin only becoming \"absolute dictator\" between March and June 1937, when senior military and NKVD figures were eliminated.", "According to Kotkin, Stalin \"built a personal dictatorship within the Bolshevik dictatorship.\"", "In both the Soviet Union and elsewhere he came to be portrayed as an \"Oriental despot\".", "Dmitri Volkogonov characterised him as \"one of the most powerful figures in human history.\"", "McDermott stated that Stalin had \"concentrated unprecedented political authority in his hands.\"", "Service stated that Stalin \"had come closer to personal despotism than almost any monarch in history\" by the late 1930s.A contingent from the Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist–Leninist) carrying a banner of Stalin at a May Day march through London in 2008McDermott nevertheless cautioned against \"over-simplistic stereotypes\"—promoted in the fiction of writers like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vasily Grossman, and Anatoly Rybakov—that portrayed Stalin as an omnipotent and omnipresent tyrant who controlled every aspect of Soviet life through repression and totalitarianism.", "Service similarly warned of the portrayal of Stalin as an \"unimpeded despot\", noting that \"powerful though he was, his powers were not limitless\", and his rule depended on his willingness to conserve the Soviet structure he had inherited.", "Kotkin observed that Stalin's ability to remain in power relied on him having a majority in the Politburo at all times.", "Khlevniuk noted that at various points, particularly when Stalin was old and frail, there were \"periodic manifestations\" in which the party oligarchy threatened his autocratic control.", "Stalin denied to foreign visitors that he was a dictator, stating that those who labelled him such did not understand the Soviet governance structure.A vast literature devoted to Stalin has been produced.", "During Stalin's lifetime, his approved biographies were largely hagiographic in content.", "Stalin ensured that these works gave very little attention to his early life, particularly because he did not wish to emphasise his Georgian origins in a state numerically dominated by Russians.", "Since his death many more biographies have been written, although until the 1980s these relied largely on the same sources of information.", "Under Mikhail Gorbachev's Soviet administration various previously classified files on Stalin's life were made available to historians, at which point Stalin became \"one of the most urgent and vital issues on the public agenda\" in the Soviet Union.", "After the dissolution of the Union in 1991, the rest of the archives were opened to historians, resulting in much new information about Stalin coming to light, and producing a flood of new research.Leninists remain divided in their views on Stalin; some view him as Lenin's authentic successor, while others believe he betrayed Lenin's ideas by deviating from them.", "The socio-economic nature of Stalin's Soviet Union has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of state socialism, state capitalism, bureaucratic collectivism, or a totally unique mode of production.", "Socialist writers like Volkogonov have acknowledged that Stalin's actions damaged \"the enormous appeal of socialism generated by the October Revolution\".===Death toll===With a high number of excess deaths occurring under his rule, Stalin has been labelled \"one of the most notorious figures in history\".", "These deaths occurred as a result of collectivisation, famine, terror campaigns, disease, war and mortality rates in the Gulag.", "As the majority of excess deaths under Stalin were not direct killings, the exact number of victims of Stalinism is difficult to calculate due to lack of consensus among scholars on which deaths can be attributed to the regime.", "Stalin has also been accused of genocide in the cases of forced population transfer of ethnic minorities in the Soviet Union and the famine in Ukraine.Interior of the Gulag Museum in MoscowOfficial records reveal 799,455 documented executions in the Soviet Union between 1921 and 1953; 681,692 of these were carried out between 1937 and 1938, the years of the Great Purge.", "According to Michael Ellman, the best modern estimate for the number of repression deaths during the Great Purge is 950,000–1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention, or soon after their release.", "In addition, while archival data shows that 1,053,829 perished in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953, the current historical consensus is that of the 18 million people who passed through the Gulag system from 1930 to 1953, between 1.5 and 1.7 million died as a result of their incarceration.", "Historian and archival researcher Stephen G. Wheatcroft and Michael Ellman attribute roughly 3 million deaths to the Stalinist regime, including executions and deaths from criminal negligence.", "Wheatcroft and historian R. W. Davies estimate famine deaths at 5.5–6.5 million while scholar Steven Rosefielde gives a number of 8.7 million.In 2011, historian Timothy D. Snyder summarised modern data made after the opening of the Soviet archives in the 1990s and states that Stalin's regime was responsible for 9 million deaths, with 6 million of these being deliberate killings.", "He further states that estimates of 20 million or above, which were made before access to the archives, are not credible.", "According to Rogovin, 80–90% of the members of the Central Committee elected at the Sixth through to the Seventeenth Congresses were physically annihilated.===In the Soviet Union and post-Soviet states===Shortly after his death, the Soviet Union went through a period of de-Stalinization.", "Malenkov denounced the Stalin personality cult, which was subsequently criticised in ''Pravda''.", "In 1956, Khrushchev gave his \"Secret Speech\", titled \"On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences\", to a closed session of the Party's 20th Congress.", "There, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for both his mass repression and his personality cult.", "He repeated these denunciations at the 22nd Party Congress in October 1962.In October 1961, Stalin's body was removed from the mausoleum and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, the location marked by a bust.", "Stalingrad was renamed Volgograd.Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation process in Soviet society ended when he was replaced as leader by Leonid Brezhnev in 1964; the latter introduced a level of re-Stalinisation within the Soviet Union.", "In 1969 and again in 1979, plans were proposed for a full rehabilitation of Stalin's legacy but on both occasions were halted due to fears of damaging the USSR's public image.", "Gorbachev saw the total denunciation of Stalin as necessary for the regeneration of Soviet society.", "After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the first president of the new Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin, continued Gorbachev's denunciation of Stalin but added to it a denunciation of Lenin.", "His successor Vladimir Putin did not seek to rehabilitate Stalin but emphasised the celebration of Soviet achievements under Stalin's leadership rather than the Stalinist repressions.", "In October 2017, Putin opened the Wall of Grief memorial in Moscow, noting that the \"terrible past\" would neither be \"justified by anything\" nor \"erased from the national memory\".", "In a 2017 interview, Putin added that while \"we should not forget the horrors of Stalinism\", the excessive demonization of Stalin \"is a means to attack the Soviet Union and Russia\".", "In recent years, the government and general public of Russia has been accused of rehabilitating Stalin.Marxist–Leninist activists from the Communist Party of the Russian Federation laying wreaths at Stalin's Moscow grave in 2009Amid the social and economic turmoil of the post-Soviet period, many Russians viewed Stalin as having overseen an era of order, predictability, and pride.", "He remains a revered figure among many Russian nationalists, who feel nostalgic about the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany in World War II, and he is regularly invoked approvingly within both Russia's far-left and far-right.Polling by the Levada Center suggest Stalin's popularity has grown since 2015, with 46% of Russians expressing a favourable view of him in 2017 and 51% in 2019.In a 2021 poll, a record 70% of Russians indicated they had a mostly/very favourable view of Stalin.", "The same year, a survey by the Center showed that Joseph Stalin was named by 39% of Russians as the \"most outstanding national figure of all time\" and, while nobody received an absolute majority, Stalin was very clearly in first place, followed by another Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin with 30% and Russian poet Alexander Pushkin with 23%.", "At the same time, there was a growth in pro-Stalinist literature in Russia, much relying upon the misrepresentation or fabrication of source material.", "In this literature, Stalin's repressions are regarded either as a necessary measure to defeat \"enemies of the people\" or the result of lower-level officials acting without Stalin's knowledge.The only other part of the former Soviet Union other than Russia where admiration for Stalin has remained consistently widespread is Georgia, although Georgian attitudes have been very divided.", "A number of Georgians resent criticism of Stalin, the most famous figure from their nation's modern history.", "A 2013 survey by Tbilisi State University found 45% of Georgians expressing \"a positive attitude\" to him.", "A 2017 Pew Research survey had 57% of Georgians saying he played a positive role in history, compared to 18% of those expressing the same for Mikhail Gorbachev.Some positive sentiment can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union.", "A 2012 survey commissioned by the Carnegie Endowment found 38% of Armenians concurring that their country \"will always have need of a leader like Stalin\".", "In early 2010, a new monument to Stalin was erected in Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine.", "In December 2010, unknown persons decapitated it and it was destroyed in a bomb attack in 2011.In a 2016 Kyiv International Institute of Sociology poll, 38% of respondents had a negative attitude to Stalin, 26% a neutral one and 17% a positive, with 19% refusing to answer." ], [ "See also", "* European interwar dictatorships* List of places named after Joseph Stalin* List of statues of Joseph Stalin" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography======= Academic books and journals ====** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * excerpt * * * * ==== Magazines, newspapers and websites ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Stalin Library (with all 13 volumes of Stalin's ''works'' and \"volume 14\")* Library of Congress: Revelations from the Russian Archives* Electronic archive of Stalin's letters and presentations* Stalin digital archive* Joseph Stalin Newsreels // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive* Stalin Biography from Spartacus Educational* A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin* '' Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "January" ], [ "Introduction", "'''January''' is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.", "Its length is 31 days.", "The first day of the month is known as New Year's Day.", "It is, on average, the coldest month of the year within most of the Northern Hemisphere (where it is the second month of winter) and the warmest month of the year within most of the Southern Hemisphere (where it is the second month of summer).", "In the Southern hemisphere, January is the seasonal equivalent of July in the Northern hemisphere and vice versa.Ancient Roman observances during this month include Cervula and Juvenalia, celebrated January 1, as well as one of three Agonalia, celebrated January 9, and Carmentalia, celebrated January 11.These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar." ], [ "History", "Adoration of the Magi, Epiphany, January 6January, from the January (in Latin, ''Ianuarius'') is named after Janus, the god of beginnings and transitions in Roman mythology.Traditionally, the original Roman calendar consisted of 10 months totaling 304 days, winter being considered a month-less period.", "Around 713 BC, the semi-mythical successor of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius, is supposed to have added the months of January and February, so that the calendar covered a standard lunar year (354 days).", "Although March was originally the first month in the old Roman calendar, January became the first month of the calendar year either under Numa or under the Decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers differ).", "In contrast, each specific calendar year was identified by the names of the two consuls, who entered office on March 15 until 153 BC, at which point they started entering office on January 1.Various Christian feast dates were used for the New Year in Europe during the Middle Ages, including March 25 (Feast of the Annunciation) and December 25.However, medieval calendars were still displayed in the Roman fashion with twelve columns from January to December.", "Beginning in the 16th century, European countries began officially making January 1 the start of the New Year once again—sometimes called ''Circumcision Style'' because this was the date of the Feast of the Circumcision, being the seventh day after December 25.Historical names for January include its original Roman designation, Ianuarius, the Saxon term ''Wulf-monath'' (meaning \"wolf month\") and Charlemagne's designation Wintarmanoth (\"winter / cold month\").", "In Slovene, it is traditionally called ''prosinec''; the name, associated with millet bread and the act of asking for something, was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript.According to Theodor Mommsen, 1 January became the first day of the year in 600 AUC of the Roman calendar (153 BC), due to disasters in the Lusitanian War.", "A Lusitanian chief called Punicus invaded the Roman territory, defeated two Roman governors, and killed their troops.", "The Romans resolved to send a consul to Hispania, and in order to accelerate the dispatch of aid, \"they even made the new consuls enter into office two months and a half before the legal time\" (March 15)." ], [ "Symbols", "Snow in the Northern Hemisphere in the month of JanuaryGarnet gemstoneSnowdrop (''Galanthus'') flowerJanuary's birthstone is the garnet, which represents constancy.", "Pink dianthusIts birth flower is the cottage pink ''Dianthus caryophyllus'', galanthus or traditional carnation.", "The zodiac signs are Capricorn (until January 19) and Aquarius (January 20 onward)." ], [ "Observances", "''This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.", "''=== Month-long ===''January'', painting by Leandro Bassano* Alzheimer's Awareness Month (Canada)* Dry January (United Kingdom)* National Codependency Awareness Month (United States)* National Mentoring Month (United States)* National Healthy Weight Awareness Month (United States)* Slavery and Human Trafficking Prevention Month (United States)* Stalking Awareness Month (United States)* Veganuary=== Food months in the United States ===''This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.", "''* Be Kind to Food Servers Month (by proclamation, State of Tennessee)* California Dried Plum Digestive Health Month* Hot Tea Month* National Soup Month* Oatmeal Month=== Non-Gregorian ===''All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown on the date in question.", "''* List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar* List of observances set by the Chinese calendar* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar* List of observances set by the Islamic calendar* List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar=== Moveable ===''This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.", "''* See: List of movable Western Christian observances* See: List of movable Eastern Christian observances'''January 2 unless that day is a Sunday, in which case January 3'''* New Year Holiday (Scotland)'''First Friday'''* Children's Day (Bahamas)'''Second Saturday'''* Children's Day (Thailand)'''Second Monday'''* Birthday of Eugenio María de Hostos (Puerto Rico, United States)* Coming of Age Day (Japan)'''Friday before third Monday'''* Lee–Jackson Day (Virginia, United States, defunct)'''Third Friday'''* International Fetish Day'''Sunday closest to January 22'''* National Sanctity of Human Life Day (United States)'''Third full week of January'''* Hunt for Happiness Week (International observance)* National Non-Smoking Week (Canada)'''Last full week of January'''* National School Choice Week (United States)'''Third Monday'''* Martin Luther King, Jr. Day (United States)** Idaho Human Rights Day (Idaho, United States)'''Wednesday of the third full week of January'''* Weedless Wednesday (Canada)'''Friday between January 19–25'''* Husband's Day (Iceland)'''Last Saturday'''* National Seed Swap Day (United States)'''Last Sunday'''* Liberation of Auschwitz Memorial Day (Netherlands)'''January 30 or the nearest Sunday'''* World Leprosy Day'''Last Monday in January'''* Bubble Wrap Appreciation Day'''Fourth Monday'''* Community Manager Appreciation Day (International observance)* National Heroes' Day (Cayman Islands)'''Monday Closest to January 29'''* Auckland Anniversary Day=== Fixed ===* December 25 – January 5: Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)* December 26 – January 1: Kwanzaa (African Americans)* December 31 – January 1, in some cases until January 2: Hogmanay (Scotland)* January 1 Feast of the Circumcision of Christ* Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus (Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church)* Feast of Fools (Medieval Europe) Constitution Day (Italy) Dissolution of Czechoslovakia-related observances:* Day of the Establishment of the Slovak Republic (Slovakia)* Restoration Day of the Independent Czech State (Czech Republic) Euro Day (European Union) Flag Day (Lithuania) Founding Day (Taiwan) Global Family Day Independence Day (Brunei, Cameroon, Haiti, Sudan) International Nepali Dhoti and Nepali Topi Day Jump-up Day (Montserrat, British Overseas Territories) Kalpataru Day (Ramakrishna Movement) National Bloody Mary Day (United States) National Tree Planting Day (Tanzania) New Year's Day* Japanese New Year* Novy God Day (Russia)* Sjoogwachi (Okinawa Islands) Polar Bear Swim Day (Canada and United States) Public Domain Day (multiple countries) Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God (Catholic Church)* World Day of Peace Triumph of the Revolution (Cuba)* January 2 Ancestry Day (Haiti) Berchtold's Day (Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and the Alsace) Carnival Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis) Kakizome (Japan) National Creampuff Day (United States) National Science Fiction Day (United States) The second day of New Year (a holiday in Armenia, Kazakhstan, North Macedonia, Mauritius, Montenegro, New Zealand, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, and Ukraine) Nyinlong (Bhutan)** Victory of Armed Forces Day (Cuba)* January 3 Anniversary of the 1966 Coup d’état (Burkina Faso) Nakhatsenendyan toner (Armenia): January 3–5 Ministry of Religious Affairs Day (Indonesia) National Chocolate Covered Cherry Day (United States)** Tamaseseri Festival (Hakozaki Shrine, Fukuoka, Japan)* January 4 Day of the Fallen against the Colonial Repression (Angola) Day of the Martyrs (Democratic Republic of the Congo) Hwinukan mukee (Okinawa Islands, Japan) Independence Day (Myanmar) Ogoni Day (Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People) World Braille Day* January 5 National Bird Day (United States) National Whipped Cream Day (United States) Sausage Day (United Kingdom) Strawberry day (Japan) Take Our Daughters and Sons to Work Day (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane, Australia) Tucindan (Serbia, Montenegro)* January 6 Armed Forces Day (Iraq) Epiphany or Three Kings' Day (Western Christianity) or Theophany (Eastern Christianity), and its related observances:* Befana Day (Italy)* Christmas (Armenian Apostolic Church)* Christmas Eve (Russia)* Christmas Eve (Ukraine)* Christmas Eve (Bosnia and Herzegovina)* Christmas Eve (North Macedonia)* Little Christmas (Ireland)* Þrettándinn (Iceland)* Three Wise Men Day Pathet Lao Day (Laos)* January 7 Christmas (Eastern Orthodox Churches and Oriental Orthodox Churches using the Julian Calendar, Rastafari)* Christmas in Russia* Christmas in Ukraine* Christmas (Bosnia and Herzegovina)* Remembrance Day of the Dead (Armenia) Distaff Day (Medieval Europe) Nanakusa no sekku (Japan) Pioneer's Day (Liberia) Tricolour day (Italy) Victory from Genocide Day (Cambodia)* January 8 The Eighth (United States) (defunct observance) Typing Day (international observance)* January 9 Start of Hōonkō (Nishi Honganji) January 9–16 (Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism) Martyrs' Day (Panama) National Cassoulet Day (United States) Non-Resident Indian Day (India) Republic Day (Republika Srpska) (defunct, declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina) St. Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox)* January 10 Fête du Vodoun (Benin) Majority Rule Day (Bahamas)* January 11 Children's Day (Tunisia) Eugenio María de Hostos Day (Puerto Rico) German Apples Day (Germany) Independence Manifesto Day (Morocco) Kagami biraki (Japan) National Human Trafficking Awareness Day (United States)** Republic Day (Albania)* January 12 Memorial Day (Turkmenistan) Prosecutor General's Day (Russia) National Youth Day (India) Zanzibar Revolution Day (Tanzania)* January 13 Constitution Day (Mongolia) Democracy Day (Cape Verde) Liberation Day (Togo) Old New Year's Eve (Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Serbia, Montenegro, Republic of Srpska, North Macedonia), and its related observances:* Malanka (Ukraine, Russia, Belarus) St. Knut's Day (Sweden and Finland)** Stephen Foster Memorial Day (United States)* January 14 Azhyrnykhua (Abkhazia) Day of Defenders of the Motherland (Uzbekistan) Feast of Divina Pastora (Barquisimeto) Feast of the Ass (Medieval Christianity) Flag Day (Georgia) National Forest Conservation Day (Thailand) Ratification Day (United States) Revolution and Youth Day (Tunisia)** Yennayer (Berbers)* January 15 Arbor Day (Egypt) Armed Forces Day (Nigeria) Indian Army Day (India) John Chilembwe Day (Malawi) Korean Alphabet Day (North Korea) Sagichō at Tsurugaoka Hachimangū (Kamakura, Japan) Teacher's Day (Venezuela) Wikipedia Day (international observance)* January 16 National Nothing Day National Religious Freedom Day (United States) Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God (Coptic Church) Teacher's Day (Myanmar) Teachers' Day (Thailand) Zuuruku Nichi (Okinawa Islands, Japan)** Thiruvalluvar Day (Tamil Nadu, India)* January 17 Hardware Freedom Day (international observance) National Day (Menorca)** The opening ceremony of Patras Carnival, celebrated until Clean Monday (Patras)* January 18 Revolution and Youth Day (Tunisia) Royal Thai Armed Forces Day (Thailand)** Week of Prayer for Christian Unity (January 18–25) (Christianity)* January 19 Confederate Heroes Day (Texas), and its related observance:* Robert E. Lee Day (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia and Mississippi)* Lee–Jackson–King Day (Virginia, United States, defunct) Husband's Day (Iceland) Kokborok Day (Tripura, India) National Popcorn Day (United States) Theophany / Epiphany (Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy), and its related observances:* Timkat, (on 20th during Leap Year) (Ethiopian Orthodox)*** ''Vodici'' or Baptism of Jesus (North Macedonia)* January 20 Armed Forces Day (Mali) Cheese Day (United States) Heroes' Day (Cape Verde) Inauguration Day, held every four years in odd-numbered years, except when January 20 falls on a Sunday (United States)** Martyrs' Day (Azerbaijan)* January 21 Babinden (Bulgaria, Serbia) Birthday of Princess Ingrid Alexandra (Norway) Errol Barrow Day (Barbados) Flag Day (Quebec) Grandmother's Day (Poland) Lady of Altagracia Day (Dominican Republic) Lincoln Alexander Day (Canada) National Hug Day (United States)* January 22 Day of Unity of Ukraine (Ukraine) Grandfather's Day (Poland)** National Hot Sauce Day (United States)* January 23 Bounty Day (Pitcairn Island) Espousals of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic Church) National Pie Day (United States) Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose's Jayanti (Orissa, Tripura, and West Bengal, India)** World Freedom Day (Taiwan and South Korea)* January 24 Feast of Our Lady of Peace (Roman Catholic Church), and its related observances:* ''Feria de Alasitas'' (La Paz) Moebius Syndrome Awareness Day (international observance) National Peanut Butter Day (United States)** Unification Day (Romania)* January 25 2011 Revolution Day (Egypt) Burns night (Scotland, Scottish community) Dydd Santes Dwynwen (Wales) Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches, which concludes the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity) National Police Day (Egypt) National Voters' Day (India)** Tatiana Day (Russia, Eastern Orthodox)* January 26 Australia Day (Australia) Duarte Day (Dominican Republic) Engineer's Day (Panama) International Customs Day Liberation Day (Uganda) Republic Day (India)* January 27 Day of the lifting of the siege of Leningrad (Russia) Liberation of the remaining inmates of Auschwitz-related observances:* Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)* Holocaust Remembrance Day (Sweden)* International Holocaust Remembrance Day* Memorial Day (Italy)* Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust and Prevention of Crimes against Humanity (Czech Republic)* Memorial Day for the Victims of National Socialism (Germany)* National Holocaust Memorial Day (Greece) Family Literacy Day (Canada) Feast of Saint Slava (Serbia) National Chocolate Cake Day (United States)** Saint Devota's Day (Monaco)* January 28 Army Day (Armenia) Data Privacy Day (international observance)* January 29** Kansas Day (Kansas, United States)* January 30 Day of Azerbaijani customs (Azerbaijan) Day of ''Saudade'' (Brazil) Fred Korematsu Day (California, United States) Martyrdom of Mahatma Gandhi-related observances:* Martyrs' Day (India)* School Day of Non-violence and Peace (Spain)* Start of the Season for Nonviolence January 30 – April 4 Teacher's Day (Greece)* January 31 Amartithi (Meherabad, India, followers of Meher Baba) Independence Day (Nauru) Me-Dam-Me-Phi (Ahom people) Street Children's Day (Austria)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johnny Unitas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Constantine Unitas''' (; May 7, 1933 – September 11, 2002) was an American football quarterback who played 18 seasons in the National Football League (NFL), primarily with the Baltimore Colts.", "Following a career that spanned from 1956 to 1973, he has been listed as one of the greatest NFL players of all time.Unitas played college football for the Louisville Cardinals.", "He set many NFL records and was named Most Valuable Player three times in 1959, 1964, and 1967, in addition to receiving 10 Pro Bowl and five first-team All-Pro honors.", "He helped lead the Colts to four championship titles; three in the pre-merger era in 1958, 1959, and 1968, and one in the Super Bowl era in Super Bowl V. His first championship victory is regarded as one of the league's greatest games and is credited with helping popularize the NFL.", "Between 1956 and 1960, he set the record for most consecutive games with a touchdown pass at 47, which held for 52 years.Nicknamed \"'''Johnny U'''\" and \"'''the Golden Arm'''\", Unitas was considered the prototype of the modern era marquee quarterback.", "He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1979." ], [ "Early life", "John Constantine Unitas was born in Pittsburgh in 1933 to Francis J. Unitas and Helen Superfisky, both of Lithuanian descent; his surname was a result of a phonetic transliteration of a common Lithuanian last name ''Jonaitis''.", "He grew up in the Mount Washington neighborhood in a Roman Catholic upbringing.", "When Unitas was five years old, his father died of cardiovascular renal disease complicated by pneumonia, leaving the young boy to be raised by his mother, who worked two jobs to support the family.", "At St. Justin's High School in Pittsburgh, Unitas played halfback and quarterback." ], [ "College career", "In his younger years, Unitas dreamed about being part of the Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team, but when he tried out for the team, coach Frank Leahy said that he was just too skinny and he would \"get murdered\" if he was put on the field.Instead, he attended the University of Louisville.", "In his four-year career as a Louisville Cardinal, Unitas completed 245 passes for 3,139 yards and 27 touchdowns.", "Reportedly, the Unitas weighed on his first day of practice.", "His first start was in the fifth game of the 1951 season against St. Bonaventure, where he threw 11 consecutive passes and three touchdowns to give the Cardinals a 21–19 lead.", "Louisville ended up losing the game 22–21 on a disputed field goal, but found a new starting quarterback.", "Unitas completed 12 of 19 passes for 240 yards and four touchdowns in a 35–28 victory over Houston.", "The team finished the season 5–5 overall and 4–1 with Unitas starting.", "He completed 46 of 99 passes for 602 yards and nine touchdowns (44).By the 1952 season, the university had decided to de-emphasize sports.", "The new president at Louisville, Dr. Philip Grant Davidson, reduced the amount of athletic aid and tightened academic standards for athletes.", "As a result, 15 returning players could not meet the new standards and lost their scholarships.", "Unitas maintained his by taking on a new elective: square dancing.", "In 1952, coach Frank Camp switched the team to two-way football.", "Unitas not only played safety or linebacker on defense and quarterback on offense, but also returned kicks and punts on special teams.", "The Cardinals won their first game against Wayne State, and then Florida State in the second game.", "Unitas completed 16 of 21 passes for 198 yards and three touchdowns.", "It was said that Unitas put on such a show at the Florida State game that he threw a pass under his legs for 15 yards.", "The rest of the season was a struggle for the Cardinals, who finished 3–5.Unitas completed 106 of 198 passes for 1,540 yards and 12 touchdowns.The team won their first game in 1953, against Murray State, and lost the rest for a record of 1–7.One of the most memorable games of the season came in a 59–6 loss against Tennessee.", "Unitas completed 9 out of 19 passes for 73 yards, rushed 9 times for 52 yards, returned six kickoffs for 85 yards, punted once for three yards, and had 86 percent of the team's tackles.", "The only touchdown the team scored was in the fourth quarter when Unitas made a fake pitch to the running back and ran the ball 23 yards for a touchdown.", "Unitas was hurt later in the fourth quarter while trying to run the ball.", "On his way off the field, he received a standing ovation.", "When he got to the locker room he was so tired that his jersey and shoulder pads had to be cut off because he could not lift his arms.", "Louisville ended the season with a 20–13 loss to Eastern Kentucky.", "Unitas completed 49 of 95 passes for 470 yards and three touchdowns.Unitas was elected captain for the 1954 season, but due to an early injury did not see much playing time.", "His first start was the third game of the season, against Florida State.", "Of the 34-man team, 21 were freshmen.", "The 1954 Cardinals went 3–6, with their last win at home against Morehead State.", "Unitas was slowed by so many injuries his senior year his 527 passing yards ended second to Jim Houser's 560." ], [ "Professional career", "===Pittsburgh Steelers===After his collegiate career, the Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL drafted Unitas in the ninth round.", "However, he was released before the season began as the odd man out among four quarterbacks trying to fill three spots.", "Steelers' head coach Walt Kiesling had made up his mind about Unitas; he thought he was not smart enough to quarterback an NFL team, and he was not given any snaps in practice with the Steelers.", "Among those edging out Unitas was Ted Marchibroda, future longtime NFL head coach.", "Out of pro football, Unitas—by this time married—worked in construction in Pittsburgh to support his family.", "On the weekends, he played quarterback, safety and punter on a local semi-professional team called the Bloomfield Rams for $6 a game.===Baltimore Colts===In 1956, Unitas joined the Baltimore Colts of the NFL under legendary coach Weeb Ewbank, after being asked at the last minute to join Bloomfield Rams lineman Jim Deglau, a Croatian steelworker with a life much like Unitas, at the latter's scheduled Colts tryout.", "The pair borrowed money from friends to pay for the gas to make the trip.", "Deglau later told a reporter after Unitas's death, \"His uncle told him not to come.", "He was worried that if he came down and the Colts passed on him, it would look bad (to other NFL teams).\"", "The Colts signed Unitas, much to the chagrin of the Cleveland Browns, who had hoped to claim the former Steeler quarterback.Unitas made his NFL debut with an inauspicious \"mop-up\" appearance against Detroit, going 0–2 with one interception.", "Two weeks later, starting quarterback George Shaw suffered a broken leg against the Chicago Bears.", "In his first serious action, Unitas's initial pass was intercepted and returned for a touchdown.", "Then he botched a hand-off on his next play, resulting in a fumble recovered by the Bears.", "Unitas rebounded quickly from that 58–27 loss, leading the Colts to an upset of Green Bay and their first win over Cleveland.", "He threw nine touchdown passes that year, including one in the season finale that started his record 47-game streak.", "His 55.6-percent completion mark was a rookie record.In 1957, his first season as the Colts full-time starter at quarterback, Unitas finished first in the NFL in passing yards (2,550) and touchdown passes (24) as he helped lead the Colts to a 7–5 record, the first winning record in franchise history.", "At season's end, Unitas received the Jim Thorpe Trophy as the NFL's Most Valuable Player by the Newspaper Enterprise Association (NEA).====1958: \"The Greatest Game Ever Played\"====Unitas continued his prowess in 1958 passing for 2,007 yards and 19 touchdowns as the Colts won the Western Conference title.", "The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership on December 28, 1958, by defeating the New York Giants 23–17 in sudden death overtime on a touchdown by fullback Alan Ameche.", "It was the first overtime game in NFL history, and is often referred to as the \"greatest game ever played\".", "The game, nationally televised by NBC, has been credited for sparking the rise in popularity of professional football during the 1960s.====1959 MVP season====In 1959, Unitas was named the NFL's MVP by the Associated Press (AP) for the first time, as well as United Press International's player of the year, after leading the NFL in passing yards (2,899), touchdown passes (32), and completions (193).", "He then led the Colts to a repeat championship, sparking a fourth quarter comeback to beat the Giants again 31–16 in the title game.With the Colts fresh off back-to-back championships, Unitas was lauded by rookie head coach of the Green Bay Packers, Vince Lombardi, who said of the 26-year-old signal caller: \"Without him, they're just ordinary.", "With him, they're great.", "He's the best quarterback I've ever seen.", "\"====Beginning of the 1960s====As the 1960s began, the Colts' fortunes (and win totals) declined.", "Injuries to key players such as Alan Ameche, Raymond Berry, and Lenny Moore were a contributing factor.", "Unitas's streak of 47 straight games with at least one touchdown pass ended against the Los Angeles Rams in week 11 of the 1960 season.", "In spite of this, he topped the 3,000-yard passing mark for the first time and led the league in touchdown passes for the fourth consecutive season.Unitas signing an autograph in 1964After three middle-of-the-pack seasons, Colts owner Carroll Rosenbloom fired Weeb Ewbank and replaced him with Don Shula, who at the time was the youngest head coach in NFL history (33 years of age when he was hired).", "The Colts finished 8–6 in Shula's first season at the helm, good enough for only third place in the NFL's Western Conference, but they did end the season on a strong note by winning their final three games.", "The season was very successful for Unitas personally, as he led the NFL in passing yards with a career-best total of 3,481 and also led in completions with 237.====1964 MVP season====In the 1964 season the Colts returned to the top of the Western Conference.", "After dropping their season opener to the Minnesota Vikings, the Colts ran off 10 straight victories to finish with a 12–2 record.", "The season was one of Unitas's best as he finished with 2,824 yards passing, a league-best 9.26 yards per pass attempt, 19 touchdown passes and only 6 interceptions.", "He was named the NFL's Most Valuable Player by the AP and UPI for a second time.", "However, the season ended on a disappointing note for the Colts, as they were upset by the Cleveland Browns in the 1964 NFL Championship Game, losing 27–0.Unitas resumed his torrid passing in 1965, throwing for 2,530 yards, 23 touchdowns and finishing with a league-high and career-best 97.1 passer rating.", "But he was lost for the balance of the season due to a knee injury in a week 12 loss to the Bears.", "Backup quarterback Gary Cuozzo also suffered a season-ending injury the following week, and running back Tom Matte filled in as the emergency quarterback for the regular season finale and in a playoff loss to the Packers.", "The Colts and Packers finished in a tie for first place in the Western Conference, and a one-game playoff was played in Green Bay to decide who would be the conference representative in the 1965 NFL Championship Game.", "The Colts lost in overtime 13–10 due in large part to a game-tying field goal by Don Chandler that many say was incorrectly ruled good.Unitas, healthy once more, threw for 2,748 yards and 22 touchdowns in 1966 in a return to Pro Bowl form.", "However, he posted a league-high 24 interceptions.====1967 MVP season====After once again finishing second in the Western Conference in 1966, the Colts rebounded to finish 11–1–2 in 1967 tying the Los Angeles Rams for the NFL's best record.", "In winning his third MVP award from the AP and UPI in 1967 (and his second from the NEA), Unitas had a league-high 58.5 completion percentage and passed for 3,428 yards and 20 touchdowns.", "He openly complained about having tennis elbow and he threw eight interceptions and only three touchdown passes in the final five games.", "Once again, the season ended in loss for the Colts, as they were shut out of the newly instituted four-team NFL playoff after losing the divisional tiebreaker to the Rams, a 34–10 rout in the regular season finale.====Super Bowls and final Colt years====In the final game of the 1968 preseason, the muscles in Unitas's arm were torn when he was hit by a member of the Dallas Cowboys defense.", "Unitas wrote in his autobiography that he felt his arm was initially injured by the use of the \"night ball\" that the NFL was testing for better TV visibility during night games.", "In a post-game interview the previous year, he noted having constant pain in his elbow for several years prior.", "He would spend most of the season sitting on the bench.", "The Colts still marched to a league-best 13–1 record behind backup quarterback and ultimate 1968 NFL MVP Earl Morrall.", "Although he was injured through most of the season, Unitas came off the bench to play in Super Bowl III, the famous game where Joe Namath guaranteed a New York Jets win despite conventional wisdom.", "Unitas's insertion was a desperation move in an attempt to retrieve dominance of the NFL over the upstart AFL.", "Although the Colts won an NFL Championship in 1968, they lost the Super Bowl to the AFL Champion New York Jets, thus becoming the first-ever NFL champions that were not also deemed world champions.", "Unitas helped put together the Colts' only score, a touchdown late in the game.", "Unitas also drove the Colts into scoring position following the touchdown and successful onside kick, but head coach Don Shula eschewed a field goal attempt, which (if successful) would have cut the Jets' lead to 16–10.Despite not playing until late in the third quarter, he still finished the game with more passing yards than the team's starter, Earl Morrall.After an off-season of rehabilitation on his elbow, Unitas rebounded in 1969, passing for 2,342 yards and 12 touchdowns with 20 interceptions.", "But the Colts finished with a disappointing 8–5–1 record and missed the playoffs.In 1970, the NFL and AFL had merged into one league, and the Colts moved to the new American Football Conference, along with the Cleveland Browns and the Pittsburgh Steelers.", "He threw for 2,213 yards and 14 touchdowns while leading the Colts to an 11–2–1 season.", "In their first rematch with the Jets, Unitas and Namath threw a combined nine interceptions in a 29–22 Colts win.", "Namath threw 62 passes and broke his hand on the final play of the game, ending his season.Unitas threw for 390 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions in AFC playoff victories over the Cincinnati Bengals and the Oakland Raiders.", "In Super Bowl V against the Dallas Cowboys, he was knocked out of the game with a rib injury in the second quarter, soon after throwing a 75-yard touchdown pass (setting a then-Super Bowl record) to John Mackey.", "However, he had also thrown two interceptions before his departure from the game.", "Earl Morrall came in to lead the team to a last-second, 16–13 victory.In 1971, Unitas split playing time with Morrall, throwing only three touchdown passes.", "He started both playoff games, a win over the Cleveland Browns that sent the Colts to the AFC Championship game against the Miami Dolphins, which they lost by a score of 21–0.Unitas threw three interceptions in the game, one of which was returned for a touchdown by safety Dick Anderson.The 1972 season saw the Colts declining.", "After losing the season opener, Unitas was involved in the second and final regular season head-to-head meeting with \"Broadway\" Joe Namath.", "The first was in 1970 (won by the Colts, 29–22).", "The last meeting took place on September 24, 1972, at Memorial Stadium.", "He threw for 376 yards and three touchdowns, but Namath upstaged him again, bombing the Colts for 496 yards and six touchdowns in a 44–34 Jets victory – their first over Baltimore since the 1970 merger.", "After losing four of their first five games, the Colts fired head coach Don McCafferty, and benched Unitas.One of the more memorable moments in football history came on Unitas's last game in a Colts uniform at Memorial Stadium, in a game against the Buffalo Bills.", "He was not the starter for this game, but the Colts were blowing the Bills out by a score of 28–0 behind Marty Domres; Unitas entered the game due to the fans chanting, \"We want Unitas\", and a plan devised by head coach John Sandusky to convince Unitas that the starting quarterback was injured.", "Unitas came onto the field and threw two passes, one of which was a long touchdown to wide receiver Eddie Hinton which would be his last pass as a Colt.", "The Colts won the game by a score of 35–7.===San Diego and records===Unitas was traded from the Colts to the San Diego Chargers on January 20, 1973, in a transaction that originally had future considerations returning to Baltimore.", "The deal's only obstacle was the personal services contract he had signed with the Colts in 1970 which would have kept him employed within the organization on an annual salary of $30,000 over ten years once his career as an active player ended.", "The pact had been signed when the ballclub was owned by Carroll Rosenbloom who subsequently acquired the Los Angeles Rams on July 13, 1972, in a franchise swap with Robert Irsay.", "The deal was completed when the Chargers purchased that contract.", "Eager to sever all ties with the Colts, Unitas signed a new two-year contract with the Chargers on June 8, 1973.He succeeded John Hadl who had requested and was granted a trade to the Rams.Unitas started the season with a 38–0 loss to the Washington Redskins.", "He threw for just 55 yards and 3 interceptions and was sacked 8 times.", "His final victory as a starter came against the Buffalo Bills in Week 2.Unitas was 10–18 for 175 yards, two touchdown passes, and no interceptions in a 34–7 Chargers rout.", "Many questioned his role as a starter after a loss to the Bengals in Week 3.Two weeks later, he threw two first-half interceptions, passed for only 19 yards, and went 2-for-9 against the Pittsburgh Steelers.", "He was then replaced by rookie quarterback and future Hall of Famer Dan Fouts.", "After posting a 1–3 record as a starter, Unitas retired in the preseason of 1974.Unitas finished his 18 NFL seasons with 2,830 completions in 5,186 attempts for 40,239 yards and 290 touchdowns, with 253 interceptions.", "He also rushed for 1,777 yards and 13 touchdowns.", "Plagued by arm trouble in his later seasons, he threw more interceptions (64) than touchdowns (38) in 1968–1973.After averaging 215.8 yards per game in his first 12 seasons, his production fell to 124.4 in his final six.", "His passer rating plummeted from 82.9 to 60.4 for the same periods.", "Even so, Unitas set many passing records during his career.", "He was the first quarterback to throw for more than 40,000 yards, despite playing during an era when NFL teams played shorter seasons of 12 or 14 games (as opposed to today's 17-game seasons) and prior to modern passing-friendly rules implemented in 1978.His 32 touchdown passes in 1959 were a record at the time, making Unitas the first quarterback to hit the 30 touchdown mark in a season.", "His 47-game consecutive touchdown streak between 1956 and 1960 was a record considered by many to be unbreakable.", "The streak stood for 52 years before being broken by New Orleans Saints quarterback Drew Brees in a game against the San Diego Chargers on October 7, 2012." ], [ "Post-playing years", "A signed photograph of Unitas in his later yearsAfter his playing days were finished, Unitas settled in Baltimore where he raised his family while also pursuing a career in broadcasting, doing color commentary for NFL games on CBS in the 1970s.", "He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1979.After Robert Irsay moved the Colts franchise to Indianapolis in 1984, a move known to this day in Baltimore as \"Bob Irsay's Midnight Ride,\" he was so outraged that he cut all ties to the relocated team (though his No.", "19 jersey is still retired by the Colts), declaring himself strictly a ''Baltimore'' Colt for the remainder of his life.", "Some other prominent old-time Colts followed his lead, although many attended the 1975 team's reunion at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis in 2009.A total of 39 Colts players from that 1975 team attended said reunion in Indianapolis, including Bert Jones and Lydell Mitchell.", "Unitas asked the Pro Football Hall of Fame on numerous occasions (including on Roy Firestone's film ''Up Close'') to remove his display unless it was listed as belonging to the Baltimore Colts.", "The Hall of Fame has never complied with the request.", "Unitas donated his Colts memorabilia to the Babe Ruth Museum in Baltimore.", "They were on display at the Sports Legends Museum at Camden Yards until its closure in 2015.Unitas was inducted into the American Football Association's Semi Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1987.Unitas actively lobbied for another NFL team to come to Baltimore.", "After the football organization that made up the original Cleveland Browns moved to Baltimore in 1996 and established the Baltimore Ravens, he and some of the other old-time Colts attended the Ravens' first game ever against the Raiders on Opening Day at Memorial Stadium.", "He was frequently seen on the Ravens' sidelines at home games (most prominently in 1998 when the now-Indianapolis Colts played the Ravens in Baltimore) and received a thunderous ovation every time he was pictured on each of the huge widescreens at M&T Bank Stadium.", "He was often seen on the 30-yard line on the Ravens side.", "When the NFL celebrated its first 50 years, Unitas was voted the league's best player.", "Retired Bears quarterback Sid Luckman said of Unitas, \"He was better than me, better than Sammy Baugh, better than anyone.\"" ], [ "NFL career statistics", " Legend AP NFL MVP Won the NFL championship Won the Super Bowl Led the league'''Bold''' Career highUnderline Incomplete data===Regular season=== Year Team Games Passing Rushing Sacked 1956 BAL 12 7 3−4 110 198 55.6 1,498 7.6 54 9 10 74.0 28 155 '''5.5''' '''34''' 1 — — 4 1 3 1957 BAL 12 12 7−5 172 301 57.1 2,550 8.5 82 24 17 88.0 42 171 4.1 24 1 — — 7 3 3 1958 BAL 10 9 8−1 136 263 51.7 2,007 7.6 77 19 7 90.0 33 139 4.2 28 '''3''' — — 5 3 21959 BAL 12 12 9−3 193 367 52.6 2,899 7.9 71 '''32''' 14 92.0 29 145 5.0 21 2 — — 6 2 3 1960 BAL 12 12 6−6 190 378 50.3 3,099 8.2 80 25 24 73.7 36 195 5.4 27 0 18 190 8 1 2 1961 BAL '''14''' '''14''' 8−6 229 420 54.5 2,990 7.1 72 16 '''24''' 66.1 '''54''' 190 3.5 18 2 28 216 9 3 '''4''' 1962 BAL '''14''' '''14''' 7−7 222 389 57.1 2,967 7.6 80 23 23 76.5 50 137 2.7 25 0 31 255 5 3 3 1963 BAL '''14''' '''14''' 8−6 237 410 57.8 '''3,481''' 8.5 64 20 12 89.7 47 '''224''' 4.8 26 0 '''42''' '''298''' '''13''' 3 31964 BAL '''14''' '''14''' '''12−2''' 158 305 51.8 2,824 '''9.3''' 74 19 6 96.4 37 162 4.4 20 2 37 254 6 2 2 1965 BAL 11 11 8−2−1 164 282 58.2 2,530 9.0 61 23 12 '''97.4''' 17 68 4.0 18 1 29 221 7 3 2 1966 BAL '''14''' 13 9−4 195 348 56.0 2,748 7.9 '''89''' 22 '''24''' 74.0 20 44 2.2 16 1 21 146 5 1 11967 BAL '''14''' '''14''' 11−1−2 '''255''' '''436''' '''58.5''' 3,428 7.9 88 20 16 83.6 22 89 4.0 13 0 25 198 4 '''4''' 3 1968 BAL 5 0 — 11 32 34.4 139 4.3 37 2 4 30.1 3 –1 –0.3 5 0 2 15 3 0 1 1969 BAL 13 12 7−5 178 327 54.4 2,342 7.2 52 12 20 64.0 11 23 2.1 13 0 12 93 2 2 3 1970 BAL '''14''' 13 10−2−1 166 321 51.7 2,213 6.9 55 14 18 65.1 9 16 1.8 9 0 19 158 2 3 3 1971 BAL 13 5 3−2 92 176 52.3 942 5.4 35 3 9 52.3 9 5 0.6 3 0 15 129 3 — — 1972 BAL 8 5 1−4 88 157 56.1 1,111 7.1 63 4 6 70.8 3 15 5.0 8 0 14 114 3 — — 1973 SD 5 4 1−3 34 76 44.7 471 6.2 51 3 7 40.0 0 0 — 0 0 14 96 3 — — Career 211 185 118−63−4 2,830 5,186 54.6 40,239 7.8 89 290 253 78.2 450 1,777 3.9 34 13 307 2,383 95 34 38* In 1957, Unitas was named MVP by the Newspaper Enterprise Association.===Postseason=== Year Team Games Passing Rushing Sacked 1958 BAL 1 1 1–0 26 40 '''65.0''' 349 8.7 60 1 1 90.5 '''6''' 20 3.3 15 0 — — '''1''' '''1''' '''1''' 1959 BAL 1 1 1–0 18 29 62.1 264 '''9.1''' 59 2 0 '''114.7''' 2 6 3.0 4 '''1''' — — 0 '''1''' '''1''' 1964 BAL 1 1 0–1 12 20 60.0 95 4.8 23 0 2 32.3 '''6''' 30 5.0 16 0 2 6 0 — — 1968 BAL 1 0 — 11 24 45.8 110 4.6 21 0 1 42.0 1 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 — — 1970 BAL '''3''' '''3''' '''3–0''' 20 56 35.7 '''478''' 8.5 '''75''' '''4''' 2 76.3 5 '''31''' '''6.2''' '''17''' 0 '''5''' '''24''' '''1''' — — 1971 BAL 2 2 1–1 '''33''' '''57''' 57.9 367 6.4 27 0 '''4''' 47.9 1 5 5.0 5 0 3 15 '''1''' — — Career 9 8 6–2 120 226 53.1 1,663 7.4 75 7 10 68.9 21 92 4.4 17 1 10 45 3 2 2" ], [ "Personal life", "The gravesite of Unitas in Timonium, MarylandOn November 20, 1954, Unitas, at age 21, married his high school sweetheart Dorothy Hoelle.", "They lived in Towson and had five children before divorcing.", "Unitas's second wife was Sandra Lemon, whom he married on June 26, 1972.They had three children, lived in Baldwin, and remained married until his death.Towson University, where Unitas was a major fund-raiser and which his children attended, named its football and lacrosse complex Johnny Unitas Stadium in recognition of both his football career and service to the university.Toward the end of his life, Unitas brought media attention to the many permanent physical disabilities that he and his fellow players suffered during their careers before heavy padding and other safety features became popular.", "Unitas himself lost almost total use of his right hand, with the middle finger and thumb noticeably disfigured from being repeatedly broken during games.", "Unitas lived most of the final years of his life severely hobbled.", "Due to an elbow injury suffered during his playing career, he had only very limited use of his right hand, and could not perform any physical activity more strenuous than golf due to his artificial knees.In 1991, Unitas and his wife filed for bankruptcy protection under Chapter 11.Their court filings showed that the couple owed creditors as much as $3.2 million but had assets of about $1.4 million.", "His financial problems arose in part from a business venture in which he and two partners took out loans to buy National Circuits Inc., a maker of printed circuit boards, and the firm subsequently failed.On September 11, 2002, Unitas died from a heart attack while exercising at the Kernan Physical Therapy Center (now The University of Maryland Rehabilitation & Orthopaedic Institute) in Baltimore.", "His funeral was held at Cathedral of Mary Our Queen in Baltimore.", "Unitas was buried at Dulaney Valley Memorial Gardens in Timonium, Maryland.", "Between his death and October 4, 2002, 56,934 people signed an online petition urging the Baltimore Ravens to rename the Ravens' home stadium (owned by the State of Maryland) after Unitas.", "These requests were unsuccessful since the lucrative naming rights had already been leased by the Ravens to Buffalo-based M&T Bank.", "However, on October 20, 2002, the Ravens dedicated the front area of the stadium's main entrance as Unitas Plaza and unveiled a statue of Unitas as the centerpiece of the plaza." ], [ "Legacy", "Unitas jersey exhibited at the Pro Football Hall of FameUnitas held the record for most Pro Bowl appearances (10) by a quarterback until Brett Favre broke his record in 2009.", "Unitas set the original standard for most wins as a starting quarterback with 118 regular season victories (since surpassed by multiple quarterbacks).", "Unitas was voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1979.", "Unitas is 11th in all-time number of regular season games won by an NFL starting quarterback with 118 wins.", "Unitas is 16th in all-time percentage of regular season games won by an NFL starting quarterback with a percentage of 64.5.", " 1987 American Football Association Semi Pro Hall of FameUnitas's no.", "16 is the first number retired by the football program at the University of Louisville.", "Unitas Tower, a dormitory at the University of Louisville, is named for Johnny Unitas.", "A statue of Unitas sits in the north end zone of Cardinal Stadium at the University of Louisville.", "It is a tradition for each Cardinal player to touch the statue as he enters the field.", "Since 1987, the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award has been awarded to the top senior quarterback of the current year in college football.", "The award is presented annually in Louisville.", "In 1999, he was ranked No.", "5 on ''The Sporting News'' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players, behind only Joe Montana among quarterbacks.", "In 2004, ''The Sporting News'' ranked Unitas No.", "1 among the NFL's 50 Greatest Quarterbacks, with Joe Montana at No.", "2.", "In 1999, ESPN's ''Sportscentury: 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century'' ranked Unitas No.", "32.", "Just before his death, Johnny Unitas became the community liaison for athletics in Towson, Maryland.", "The football stadium at Towson University was renamed Johnny Unitas Stadium in 2002.Unitas died less than a week after throwing his last pass in the grand opening of the stadium.", "Set the record for consecutive games with at least one touchdown pass at 47 games.", "This record was surpassed by Drew Brees in 2012.", "Set the record for consecutive games with at least two touchdown passes at 12 games.", "This record was surpassed by Don Meredith, Peyton Manning (twice), Tom Brady, Aaron Rodgers, Philip Rivers, and Patrick Mahomes.", "Set the record for most consecutive games with at least a 120 passer rating (4); this record was later matched by Kurt Warner For the game following his death, Indianapolis Colts quarterback Peyton Manning asked to wear a pair of black cleats as a tribute to Johnny's signature black boots.", "The league denied his request and threatened Manning with a US$25,000 fine; Manning decided not to wear them.", "Despite the threatened fine, Chris Redman, a Louisville alum like Unitas, and then quarterback of the Baltimore Ravens, decided to pay homage by wearing the signature cleats during a game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.", "* In 2013, a movie project was announced by ''The Baltimore Sun'' called ''Unitas We Stand'', which will feature Ravens quarterback Joe Flacco as Unitas during the 1958 NFL Championship.", "19th Street in Ocean City, Maryland, is named \"Johnny Unitas Way\" in his honor.", " Johnny Unitas Stadium on the campus of Towson University in Towson, Maryland, home of the Towson Tigers football and Towson Tigers men's lacrosse teams is named in his honor.", "Unitas was posthumously inducted into the National Lithuanian American Hall of Fame on August 24, 2013.", " Readers of NFL.com voted Unitas the Greatest Quarterback of All Time in 2014.Unitas scored 72 percent of the vote over Joe Montana, after the two quarterbacks were the final ones remaining out of a bracket of players over the history of the NFL.", "* Unitas was featured twice on The Simpsons, first in the episode \"Homie the Clown\", in which Unitas (voiced by himself) encourages the usage of the Krusty Moustache Removal System in a non-stop infomercial.", "In \"Mother Simpson\", Homer's father admires Unitas' short hair in contrast to Joe Namath's controversial sideburns, calling it \"a haircut you could set your watch to\".", "* Unitas is referenced in the 1991 movie ''Point Break''.", "One of the characters in the movie said \"They got me babysitting some quarterback punk, named Johnny Unitas or something\", when they get a new partner.", "* Unitas is referenced in a 1992 episode of the Nickelodeon television show The Adventures of Pete & Pete titled \"Space, Geeks and Johnny Unitas.\"" ], [ "See also", "* List of most consecutive starts by a National Football League quarterback* Most wins by a starting quarterback (NFL)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bolus, Jim, and Billy Reed.", "''Cardinal Football''.", "Champaign, IL: Sports Pub Inc., 1999.", "* Callahan, Tom.", "''Johnny U: the life and times of John Unitas''.", "New York: Crown Publishers, 2006.", "* Lazenby, Roland.", "''Johnny Unitas: the best there ever was''.", "Chicago: Triumph Books, 2002.", "* Schaap, Dick (1999).", "\"Johnny Unitas: Sunday's Best\".", "In ''ESPN SportsCentury''.", "Michael MacCambridge, Editor.", "New York: ESPN-Hyperion Books.", "pp. 154–65.", "* Cavanaugh, Jack (2008), ''Giants Among Men''.", "New York:Random House.", "MacCambridge, Michael (2005), ''America's Game''.", "New York:Anchor Books." ], [ "External links", " * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Jacob Astor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Jacob Astor''' (born '''Johann Jakob Astor'''; July 17, 1763 – March 29, 1848) was a German-born American businessman, merchant, real estate mogul, and investor.", "Astor made his fortune mainly in a fur trade monopoly, by smuggling opium into China, and by investing in real estate in or around New York City.", "He was the first prominent member of the Astor family and the first multi-millionaire in the United States.Born in Germany, Astor immigrated to England as a teenager and worked as a musical instrument manufacturer.", "He moved to the United States after the American Revolutionary War.", "Seeing the expansion of population to the west, Astor entered the fur trade and built a monopoly, managing a business empire that extended to the Great Lakes region and Canada, and later expanded into the American West and Pacific coast.", "Following a decline in demand due to changing European tastes, he got out of the fur trade in 1830, diversifying by investing in New York City real estate.", "Astor was highly wealthy and became a prominent patron of the arts.", "In proportion to GDP, he was one of the richest people in modern history." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Johann Jakob Astor was born in 1763 in Walldorf, a town near Heidelberg in the Electoral Palatinate, which is in the present-day German state of Baden-Württemberg.", "He was the youngest son of Johann Jacob Astor and Maria Magdalena vom Berg.", "His three older brothers were George, Henry, and Melchior.", "In his childhood, Johann worked in his father's butcher shop and as a dairy salesman.", "In 1779, at the age of 16, he moved to London to join his brother George in working for an uncle's piano and flute manufacturer, Astor & Broadwood.", "While there, he learned English and anglicized his name to John Jacob Astor.===Migration to the United States===In November of 1783, just after the end of the American Revolutionary War, Astor boarded a ship for the United States, arriving in Baltimore around March of the following year.", "There, he rented a room from Sarah Cox Todd, a widow, and began a flirtation with his landlady's daughter, also named Sarah Cox Todd.", "The young couple married in 1785.His intent had been to join his brother Henry, who had established a butcher shop in New York City.", "A chance meeting with a fur trader on his voyage had inspired him to join the North American fur trade as well.", "After working at his brother's shop for a time, Astor began to purchase raw hides from Native Americans, prepare them himself, and resell them in London and elsewhere at great profit.", "He opened his own fur goods shop in New York in the late 1780s and also served as the New York agent of his uncle's musical instrument business.===Fortune from fur trade===John Jacob Astor, by Gilbert Stuart, Astor took advantage of the 1794 Jay Treaty between Great Britain and the United States, which opened new markets in Canada and the Great Lakes region.", "In London, Astor at once made a contract with the North West Company, which from Montreal rivaled the trade interests of the Hudson's Bay Company, then based in London.Astor imported furs from Montreal to New York and shipped them to Europe.", "By 1800, he had amassed over a quarter of a million dollars (the equivalent of six million dollars in 2023) and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.", "His agents worked throughout the western areas and were ruthless in competition.", "In 1800, following the example of the ''Empress of China'', the first American trading vessel to China, Astor traded mostly opium, but also, furs, teas, and sandalwood at the port of Canton in China, and greatly benefited from it.The U.S. Embargo Act of 1807 disrupted Astor's import/export business because it closed off trade with Canada.", "With the permission of President Thomas Jefferson, Astor established the American Fur Company on April 6, 1808.He later formed subsidiaries: the Pacific Fur Company, and the Southwest Fur Company (in which Canadians had a part), in order to control fur trading in the Great Lakes areas and Columbia River region.", "His Columbia River trading post at Fort Astoria (established in April 1811) was the first United States community on the Pacific coast.", "He financed the overland Astor Expedition in 1810–1812 to reach the outpost.", "Members of the expedition were to discover South Pass, through which hundreds of thousands of settlers on the Oregon, Mormon, and California Trails used to later pass through the Rocky Mountains.Astor's fur trading ventures were disrupted during the War of 1812, when the British captured his trading posts.", "In 1816, he joined the opium smuggling trade.", "His American Fur Company purchased ten tons of Ottoman-produced opium, and shipped the contraband to Canton onboard the packet ship ''Macedonian''.", "Astor later left the Chinese opium trade and sold opium solely in Britain.Astor's business rebounded in 1817 after the U.S. Congress passed a protectionist law that barred foreign fur traders from U.S. territories.", "The American Fur Company came to dominate trading in the area around the Great Lakes, absorbing competitors in a monopoly.", "Astor had a townhouse at 233 Broadway in Manhattan and a country estate, Hellgate, in Northern New York City.In 1822, Astor established the Robert Stuart House on Mackinac Island in Michigan as headquarters for the reorganized American Fur Company, making the island a metropolis of the fur trade.", "Washington Irving described this at length, based on contemporary documents, diaries, etc., in his travelogue ''Astoria''.", "Astor's commercial connections extended over the entire globe, and his ships were found in every sea.", "He and Sarah moved to a townhouse on Prince Street in Manhattan, New York.===Real estate and retirement===Astor began buying land in New York City in 1799 and acquired sizable holdings along the waterfront.", "After the start of the 19th century, flush with China trade profits, he became more systematic, ambitious, and calculating by investing in New York real estate.", "In 1803, he bought a 70-acre farm on which he built the Astor Mansion at Hellgate.", "The property ran west of Broadway to the Hudson River between 42nd and 46th streets.", "That same year, and the following year, he bought considerable holdings from the disgraced Aaron Burr.", "In the 1830s, Astor foresaw that the next big boom would be the build-up of New York, which would soon emerge as one of the world's greatest cities.", "Astor sold his interests in the American Fur Company, as well as all his other ventures, and used the money to buy and develop large tracts of Manhattan real estate.", "Astor correctly predicted the city's rapid growth northward on Manhattan Island, and he purchased more and more land beyond the then-existing city limits.", "Astor rarely built on his land, but leased it to others for rent and their use.", "After retiring from his business, Astor spent the rest of his life as a patron of culture.", "He supported the ornithologist John James Audubon in his studies, artwork, and travels, and the presidential campaign of Henry Clay." ], [ "Marriage and family", "Sarah Cox ToddOn September 19, 1785, Astor married Sarah Cox Todd (April 9, 1762 – August 3, 1842).", "Her parents were Scottish immigrants Adam Todd and Sarah Cox.", "Although she brought him a dowry of only $300, she possessed a frugal mind and a business judgment that he declared better than that of most merchants.", "She assisted him in the practical details of his business, and managed Astor's affairs when he was away from New York.They had eight children:* Magdalena Astor (1788–1832), who married first Adrian Benjamin Bentzon in 1807, secondly John Bristed in 1820.She was the mother of Charles Astor Bristed.", "* Sarah Todd Astor (1790–1790), who was stillborn.", "* John Jacob Astor Jr. (1791–1869), sickly and mentally unstable.", "* William Backhouse Astor Sr. (1792–1875), who married Margaret Alida Rebecca Armstrong, daughter of Senator John Armstrong Jr., in 1818.", "* Dorothea Astor (1795–1874), who married Walter Langdon.", "They owned the Langdon Estate Gatehouse.", "* Henry Astor II (1797–1799), who died as a child.", "* Eliza Astor (1801–1838), married Vincent Rumpff* Unnamed son (1802–1802), who died within a few days of his birth." ], [ "Fraternal organizations", "Astor belonged to the Freemasons, a fraternal order, and served as Master of Holland Lodge #8, New York City in 1788.Later he served as Grand Treasurer for the Grand Lodge of New York.", "He was president of the German Society of the City of New York from 1837 to 1841." ], [ "Legacy", "At the time of his death in 1848, Astor was the wealthiest person in the United States, leaving an estate estimated to be worth at least $20 million, or 0.9% of estimated US GDP at the time, which is equivalent to $ million in 2020.By comparison, the fortune of Jeff Bezos was worth approximately $200 billion in 2020, similar to Astor at approximately 0.9% of US GDP.In his will, Astor bequeathed $400,000 to build the Astor Library for the New York public, which was later consolidated with other libraries to form the New York Public Library.", "He also left $50,000 for a poorhouse and orphanage in his German hometown of Walldorf.", "The ''Astorhaus'' is now operated as a museum honoring Astor.", "It is a renowned and popular fest hall for marriages.", "Astor donated gifts totaling $20,000 to the German Society of the City of New York, during his term as president, from 1837 until 1841.Astor left the bulk of his fortune to his second son William, because his eldest son, John Jr., was sickly and mentally unstable.", "Astor left enough money to care for John Jr. for the rest of his life.", "William continued building the family fortune, and was an ancestor of John Jacob Astor III, John Jacob Astor IV, and John Jacob Astor VI.Astor is buried in Trinity Church Cemetery in Manhattan.", "Many members of his family had joined its congregation, but Astor remained a member of the local German Reformed congregation to his death.", "In the short story ''Bartleby, the Scrivener,'' Herman Melville used Astor as a symbol of men who made the earliest fortunes in New York.The pair of marble lions that sit by the entrance of the New York Public Library Main Branch at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street were originally named Leo Astor and Leo Lenox, after Astor and James Lenox, who founded the library from his own collection.", "Next, they were called Lord Astor and Lady Lenox (both lions are males).", "Mayor Fiorello La Guardia renamed them \"Patience\" and \"Fortitude\" during the Great Depression.The neighborhood of Astoria in Queens, New York City, is named after Astor.The one-block Astor Place street in Manhattan, New York City, was named after Astor, soon after his death.The coastal town of Astoria, Oregon, is named after Astor, as well as an elementary school named in his honor.", "The background to the founding of this town is described in Washington Irving’s ''Astoria,'' a book whose writing was financed by Astor.The historic Astor Street in Green Bay, Wisconsin, is named after Astor.", "In 1835, John Jacob Astor founded the Town of Astor in Wisconsin.", "After the Town of Astor was united with the Town of Navarino to form the Borough of Green Bay, one neighborhood was named after him.In 1908, when the association football club FC Astoria Walldorf was formed in Astor's birthplace in Germany, the group added \"Astoria\" to its name in his, and the family's, honor." ], [ "See also", "Russian-American CompanyAstor familyAstoria (book)Astor PlaceAstor RowList of richest Americans in historyList of FreemasonsWaldorf-Astoria Hotel* Joseph LaBarge – Steamboat captain hired by Astor and the American Fur Company, his primary shipper." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * ..", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "===Books===* Brands, H. W. '' Masters of Enterprise: Giants of American Business from John Jacob Astor and J. P. Morgan to Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey'' (1999).", "* Ebeling, Herbert C.; Horn, W. O.", "''Johann Jacob Astor – Ein Lebensbild aus dem Volke, für das Volk und seine Jugend'' (in German).", "Walldorf: Astor-Stiftung (2004).", "* Emmerich, Alexander.", "''John Jacob Astor and the First Great American Fortune'' (2013).", "* * * excerpt* * * Waldrup, Carole Chandler.", "''More Colonial Women: 25 Pioneers of Early America''.", "McFarland, 2004===Articles===* .", "* Youngman, Anna.", "\"The Fortune of John Jacob Astor,\" ''Journal of Political Economy,'' Part 1: vol.", "16, no.", "6 (June 1908), pp.", "345–368 Part 2: vol.", "16, no.", "7 (July 1908), pp.", "436–441 Part 3: vol.", "16, no.", "8 (Oct. 1908), pp.", "514–530" ], [ "External links", " Astor family papers, 1792–1916 at the New York Public Library* John Jacob Astor Business Records at Baker Library Historical Collections, Harvard Business School* The Waldorf Astoria Hotel* The \"Astorhaus\" in Germany, now a museum* ''Astoria'', Author Washington Irving full text (pdf)* Frontline show* National Portrait Gallery*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Julian calendar" ], [ "Introduction", " Calendar Today Gregorian Julian The '''Julian calendar''' is a solar calendar of 365 days in every year with an additional leap day every fourth year (without exception).", "The Julian calendar is still used as a religious calendar in parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church and in parts of Oriental Orthodoxy as well as by the Amazigh people (also known as the Berbers).", "The Julian calendar was proposed in 46 BC by (and takes its name from) Julius Caesar, as a reform of the earlier Roman calendar, which was largely a lunisolar one.", "It took effect on , by his edict.", "Caesar's calendar became the predominant calendar in the Roman Empire and subsequently most of the Western world for more than 1,600 years, until 1582 when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated a revised calendar.", "The Julian calendar has two types of years: a normal year of 365 days and a leap year of 366 days.", "They follow a simple cycle of three normal years and one leap year, giving an average year that is 365.25 days long.", "That is more than the actual solar year value of approximately 365.2422 days (the current value, which varies), which means the Julian calendar gains one day every 129 years.", "In other words, the Julian calendar gains 3.1 days every 400 years.", "Gregory's calendar reform modified the Julian rule, to reduce the average length of the calendar year from 365.25 days to 365.2425 days and thus corrected the Julian calendar's drift against the solar year: the Gregorian calendar gains just 0.1 day over 400 years.", "For any given event during the years from 1901 through 2099, its date according to the Julian calendar is 13 days behind its corresponding Gregorian date (for instance Julian 1 January falls on Gregorian 14 January).", "Most Catholic countries adopted the new calendar immediately; Protestant countries did so slowly in the course of the following two centuries or so; most Orthodox countries retain the Julian calendar for religious purposes but adopted the Gregorian as their civil calendar in the early part of the twentieth century." ], [ "Table of months", " Months (Roman) Lengths before 45 BC Lengths as of 45 BC Months (English)Ianuarius 29 31 JanuaryFebruarius 28 (in common years)In intercalary years:23 if Intercalaris is variable23–24 if Intercalaris is fixed 28 (leap years: 29) FebruaryIntercalaris (Mercedonius) (only in intercalary years) 27 (or possibly 27–28) — —Martius 31 31 MarchAprilis 29 30 AprilMaius 31 31 MayIunius 29 30 JuneQuintilis (Iulius) 31 31 JulySextilis (Augustus) 29 31 AugustSeptember 29 30 SeptemberOctober 31 31 OctoberNovember 29 30 NovemberDecember 29 31 December'''Total''' 355 or 377–378 365–366" ], [ "{{anchor\|Motivation}}History", "===Motivation===The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days.", "In addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March.", "This intercalary month was formed by inserting 22 or 23 days after the first 23 days of February; the last five days of February, which counted down toward the start of March, became the last five days of Intercalaris.", "The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, forming an intercalary year of 377 or 378 days.", "Some say the ''mensis intercalaris'' always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia (23 February).If managed correctly this system could have allowed the Roman year to stay roughly aligned to a tropical year.", "However, since the pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power.Caesar's reform was intended to solve this problem permanently, by creating a calendar that remained aligned to the sun without any human intervention.", "This proved useful very soon after the new calendar came into effect.", "Varro used it in 37 BC to fix calendar dates for the start of the four seasons, which would have been impossible only 8 years earlier.", "A century later, when Pliny dated the winter solstice to 25 December because the sun entered the 8th degree of Capricorn on that date, this stability had become an ordinary fact of life.=== Context of the reform ===Although the approximation of days for the tropical year had been known for a long time, ancient solar calendars had used less precise periods, resulting in gradual misalignment of the calendar with the seasons.The octaeteris, a cycle of eight lunar years popularised by Cleostratus (and also commonly attributed to Eudoxus) which was used in some early Greek calendars, notably in Athens, is 1.53 days longer than eight mean Julian years.", "The length of nineteen years in the cycle of Meton was 6,940 days, six hours longer than the mean Julian year.", "The mean Julian year was the basis of the 76-year cycle devised by Callippus (a student under Eudoxus) to improve the Metonic cycle.In Persia (Iran) after the reform in the Persian calendar by introduction of the Persian Zoroastrian (i. e. Young Avestan) calendar in 503 BC and afterwards, the first day of the year (1 Farvardin=Nowruz) slipped against the vernal equinox at the rate of approximately one day every four years.Likewise in the Egyptian calendar, a fixed year of 365 days was in use, drifting by one day against the sun in four years.", "An unsuccessful attempt to add an extra day every fourth year was made in 238 BC (Decree of Canopus).", "Caesar probably experienced this \"wandering\" or \"vague\" calendar in that country.", "He landed in the Nile delta in October 48 BC and soon became embroiled in the Ptolemaic dynastic war, especially after Cleopatra managed to be \"introduced\" to him in Alexandria.Caesar imposed a peace, and a banquet was held to celebrate the event.", "Lucan depicted Caesar talking to a wise man called Acoreus during the feast, stating his intention to create a calendar more perfect than that of Eudoxus (Eudoxus was popularly credited with having determined the length of the year to be days).", "But the war soon resumed and Caesar was attacked by the Egyptian army for several months until he achieved victory.", "He then enjoyed a long cruise on the Nile with Cleopatra before leaving the country in June 47 BC.Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BC and, according to Plutarch, called in the best philosophers and mathematicians of his time to solve the problem of the calendar.", "Pliny says that Caesar was aided in his reform by the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria who is generally considered the principal designer of the reform.", "Sosigenes may also have been the author of the astronomical almanac published by Caesar to facilitate the reform.", "Eventually, it was decided to establish a calendar that would be a combination between the old Roman months, the fixed length of the Egyptian calendar, and the days of Greek astronomy.", "According to Macrobius, Caesar was assisted in this by a certain Marcus Flavius.=== Adoption of the Julian calendar ===Caesar's reform only applied to the Roman calendar.", "However, in the following decades many of the local civic and provincial calendars of the empire and neighbouring client kingdoms were aligned to the Julian calendar by transforming them into calendars with years of 365 days with an extra day intercalated every four years.", "The reformed calendars typically retained many features of the unreformed calendars.", "In many cases, the New Year was not on 1 January, the leap day was not on the traditional bissextile day, the old month names were retained, the lengths of the reformed months did not match the lengths of Julian months, and, even if they did, their first days did not match the first day of the corresponding Julian month.", "Nevertheless, since the reformed calendars had fixed relationships to each other and to the Julian calendar, the process of converting dates between them became quite straightforward, through the use of conversion tables known as \"hemerologia\".The three most important of these calendars are the Alexandrian calendar and the Ancient Macedonian calendar─which had two forms: the Syro-Macedonian and the 'Asian' calendars.", "Other reformed calendars are known from Cappadocia, Cyprus and the cities of (Roman) Syria and Palestine.", "Unreformed calendars continued to be used in Gaul (the Coligny calendar), Greece, Macedon, the Balkans and parts of Palestine, most notably in Judea.The Asian calendar was an adaptation of the Ancient Macedonian calendar used in the Roman province of Asia and, with minor variations, in nearby cities and provinces.", "It is known in detail through the survival of decrees promulgating it issued in 8BC by the proconsul Paullus Fabius Maximus.", "It renamed the first month Dios as , and arranged the months such that each month started on the ninth day before the kalends of the corresponding Roman month; thus the year began on 23 September, Augustus's birthday." ], [ "Julian reform", "=== Realignment of the year ===The Tusculum portrait of Julius CaesarThe first step of the reform was to realign the start of the calendar year (1 January) to the tropical year by making 46 BC 445 days long, compensating for the intercalations which had been missed during Caesar's pontificate.", "This year had already been extended from 355 to 378 days by the insertion of a regular intercalary month in February.", "When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the African campaign in late Quintilis (July), he added 67 more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December.These months are called ''Intercalaris Prior'' and ''Intercalaris Posterior'' in letters of Cicero written at the time; there is no basis for the statement sometimes seen that they were called \"Undecimber\" and \"Duodecimber\", terms that arose in the 18th century over a millennium after the Roman Empire's collapse.", "Their individual lengths are unknown, as is the position of the Nones and Ides within them.Because 46 BC was the last of a series of irregular years, this extra-long year was, and is, referred to as the \"last year of confusion\".", "The new calendar began operation after the realignment had been completed, in 45 BC.The new moon was on 2 January 45 BC (in the Proleptic Julian calendar) at 00:21 UTC, according to IMCCE (a branch of the Paris Observatory): ''Phases of the moon (between −4000 and +2500)'' .", "This is in agreement with the historical moon phase tables by Fred Espenak in which the new moon was on 2 January 45 BC at 00:43 UTC.", "Espenek's table assumes that the first Julian year of 45 BC was a leap year.", "If the first year of 45 BC was not a leap year, there would be a day offset, and the new moon would have been on 1 January 45 BC at 00:43 UTC.Espnek's historical moon phase tables also indicate that there was a new moon on 1 March 45 BC at 08:39 UTC (Kalends of March), quarter moon on 8 March 45 BC at 09:00 UTC (a day after Nones of March), and full moon on 15 March 45 BC at 07:19 UTC (Ides of March).", "Espenak's tables of the phases of the moon are based on computational procedures described in ''Astronomical Algorithms'' by Jean Meeus (Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, 1998).", "More recent studies of the Macrobius manuscripts have shown that the word on which Idler's supposition is based, which was read as ''lunam'', should be read as ''linam'', meaning that Macrobius was simply stating that Caesar published an edict giving the revised calendar – see e.g., p.99 in the translation of Macrobius by P. Davies.", "Smith gives no source or justification for his other speculation that Caesar originally intended to commence the year precisely with the winter solstice.=== Months ===The Julian months were formed by adding ten days to a regular pre-Julian Roman year of 355 days, creating a regular Julian year of 365 days.", "Two extra days were added to January, Sextilis (August) and December, and one extra day was added to April, June, September, and November.", "February was not changed in ordinary years, and so continued to be the traditional 28 days.", "Thus, the ordinary (i.e., non-leap year) lengths of all of the months were set by the Julian calendar to the same values they still hold today.", "(See #Sacrobosco's incorrect theory on month lengths\|Sacrobosco's incorrect theory on month lengths below for stories purporting otherwise.", ")The Julian reform did not change the method used to account days of the month in the pre-Julian calendar, based on the Kalends, Nones and Ides, nor did it change the positions of these three dates within the months.", "Macrobius states that the extra days were added immediately before the last day of each month to avoid disturbing the position of the established religious ceremonies relative to the Nones and Ides of the month.The inserted days were all initially characterised as ''dies fasti'' ('''F''' – see Roman calendar).", "The character of a few festival days was changed.", "In the early Julio-Claudian period a large number of festivals were decreed to celebrate events of dynastic importance, which caused the character of the associated dates to be changed to '''NP'''.", "However, this practice was discontinued around the reign of Claudius, and the practice of characterising days fell into disuse around the end of the first century AD: the Antonine jurist Gaius speaks of ''dies nefasti'' as a thing of the past.=== Intercalation ===The old intercalary month was abolished.", "The new leap day was dated as ''ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias'' ('the sixth doubled day before the Kalends of March'), usually abbreviated as ''a.d.", "bis VI Kal.", "Mart.", "''; hence it is called in English the bissextile day.", "The year in which it occurred was termed ''annus bissextus'', in English the bissextile year.There is debate about the exact position of the bissextile day in the early Julian calendar.", "The earliest direct evidence is a statement of the 2nd century jurist Celsus, who states that there were two-halves of a 48-hour day, and that the intercalated day was the \"posterior\" half.", "An inscription from AD 168 states that ''a.d.", "V Kal.", "Mart.''", "was the day after the bissextile day.", "The 19th century chronologist Ideler argued that Celsus used the term \"posterior\" in a technical fashion to refer to the earlier of the two days, which requires the inscription to refer to the whole 48-hour day as the bissextile.", "Some later historians share this view.", "Others, following Mommsen, take the view that Celsus was using the ordinary Latin (and English) meaning of \"posterior\".", "A third view is that neither half of the 48-hour \"bis sextum\" was originally formally designated as intercalated, but that the need to do so arose as the concept of a 48-hour day became obsolete.There is no doubt that the bissextile day eventually became the earlier of the two days for most purposes.", "In 238 Censorinus stated that it was inserted after the Terminalia (23 February) and was followed by the last five days of February, i.e., a.d. VI, V, IV, III and prid.", "Kal.", "Mart.", "(which would be 24 to 28 February in a common year and the 25th to 29th in a leap year).", "Hence he regarded the bissextum as the first half of the doubled day.", "All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter) followed this rule, as does the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church.", "However, Celsus' definition continued to be used for legal purposes.", "It was incorporated into Justinian's Digest, and in the English statute ''De anno et die bissextili'' of 1236, which was not formally repealed until 1879.The effect of the bissextile day on the nundinal cycle is not discussed in the sources.", "According to Dio Cassius, a leap day was inserted in 41 BC to ensure that the first market day of 40 BC did not fall on 1 January, which implies that the old 8-day cycle was not immediately affected by the Julian reform.", "However, he also reports that in AD 44, and on some previous occasions, the market day was changed to avoid a conflict with a religious festival.", "This may indicate that a single nundinal letter was assigned to both halves of the 48-hour bissextile day by this time, so that the Regifugium and the market day might fall on the same date but on different days.", "In any case, the 8-day nundinal cycle began to be displaced by the 7-day week in the first century AD, and dominical letters began to appear alongside nundinal letters in the fasti.=== Sacrobosco's incorrect theory on month lengths ===The Julian reform set the lengths of the months to their modern values.", "However, there is a different explanation for the lengths of Julian months that is still widely repeated but is certainly wrong.", "It is a theory usually attributed to the 13th century scholar Sacrobosco, but also attested in 12th century works.", "The model is explicitly contradicted by the 3rd and 5th century authors Censorinus and Macrobius, and it is inconsistent with seasonal lengths given by Varro, writing in 37 BCE, before Sextilis was renamed for Augustus in 8 BCE, with the 31 day Sextilis given by an Egyptian papyrus from 24 BCE, and with the 28 day Februarius shown in the ''Fasti Caeretani'', which is dated before 12 BCE.Also, the Julian reform did not change the dates of the Nones and Ides.", "In particular, the Ides were late (on the 15th rather than 13th) in March, May, July, and October, showing that these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar, whereas Sacrobosco's theory requires that March, May, and July were originally 30 days long and that the length of October was changed from 29 to 30 days by Caesar and to 31 days by Augustus.===Year length; leap years===The Julian calendar has two types of year: \"normal\" years of 365 days and \"leap\" years of 366 days.", "There is a simple cycle of three \"normal\" years followed by a leap year and this pattern repeats forever without exception.", "The Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long.", "Consequently, the Julian year drifts over time with respect to the tropical (solar) year (365.24217 days).Although Greek astronomers had known, at least since Hipparchus, a century before the Julian reform, that the tropical year was slightly shorter than 365.25 days, the calendar did not compensate for this difference.", "As a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons.", "This discrepancy was largely corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582.The Gregorian calendar has the same months and month lengths as the Julian calendar, but, in the Gregorian calendar, year numbers evenly divisible by 100 are not leap years, except that those evenly divisible by 400 remain leap years (even then, the Gregorian calendar diverges from astronomical observations by one day in 3,030 years)." ], [ "Leap year error", "Although the new calendar was much simpler than the pre-Julian calendar, the pontifices initially added a leap day every three years, instead of every four.", "There are accounts of this in Solinus, Pliny, Ammianus, Suetonius, and Censorinus.Macrobius gives the following account of the introduction of the Julian calendar:So, according to Macrobius,# the year was considered to begin after the Terminalia (23 February),# the calendar was operated correctly from its introduction on 1 January 45 BC until the beginning of the fourth year (February 42 BC) at which point the priests inserted the first intercalation,# Caesar's intention was to make the first intercalation at the beginning of the fifth year (February 41 BC),# the priests made a further eleven intercalations after 42 BC at three-year intervals so that the twelfth intercalation fell in 9 BC,# had Caesar's intention been followed there would have been intercalations every four years after 41 BC, so that the ninth intercalation would have been in 9 BC,# after 9 BC, there were twelve years without leap years, so that the leap days Caesar would have had in 5 BC, 1 BC and AD 4 were omitted and# after AD 4 the calendar was operated as Caesar intended, so that the next leap year was AD 8 and then leap years followed every fourth year thereafter.Some people have had different ideas as to how the leap years went.", "The above scheme is that of Scaliger (1583) in the table below.", "He established that the Augustan reform was instituted in 8 BC.", "The table below shows for each reconstruction the implied proleptic Julian date for the first day of Caesar's reformed calendar and the first Julian date on which the Roman calendar date matches the Julian calendar after the completion of Augustus' reform.", "Scholar Date Triennial leap years (BC) First Julian day First aligned day Quadriennial leap year resumes Bennett 2003 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11, 8 31 December 46 BC 25 February 1 BC AD 4 Soltau 1889 45, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11 2 January 45 BC 25 February AD 4 AD 8 Matzat 1883 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11 1 January 45 BC 25 February 1 BC AD 4 Ideler 1825 45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9 1 January 45 BC 25 February AD 4 AD 8 Kepler 1614 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 2 January 45 BC 25 February AD 4 AD 8 Harriot After 1610 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 1 January 45 BC 25 February 1 BC AD 4 Bünting 1590 45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12 1 January 45 BC 25 February 1 BC AD 4 Christmann 1590 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 2 January 45 BC 25 February AD 4 AD 7 Scaliger 1583 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9 2 January 45 BC 25 February AD 4 AD 8By the systems of Scaliger, Ideler and Bünting, the leap years prior to the suspension happen to be BC years that are divisible by 3, just as, after leap year resumption, they are the AD years divisible by 4.Pierre Brind'Amour argued that \"only one day was intercalated between 1/1/45 and 1/1/40 (disregarding a momentary 'fiddling' in December of 41) to avoid the nundinum falling on Kal.", "Ian.", "\"Alexander Jones says that the correct Julian calendar was in use in Egypt in 24 BC, implying that the first day of the reform in both Egypt and Rome, , was the Julian date 1 January if 45 BC was a leap year and 2 January if it was not.", "This necessitates fourteen leap days up to and including AD 8 if 45 BC was a leap year and thirteen if it was not.In 1999, a papyrus was discovered which gives the dates of astronomical phenomena in 24 BC in both the Egyptian and Roman calendars.", "From , Egypt had two calendars: the old Egyptian in which every year had 365 days and the new Alexandrian in which every fourth year had 366 days.", "Up to the date in both calendars was the same.", "The dates in the Alexandrian and Julian calendars are in one-to-one correspondence except for the period from 29 August in the year preceding a Julian leap year to the following 24 February.", "From a comparison of the astronomical data with the Egyptian and Roman dates, Alexander Jones concluded that the Egyptian astronomers (as opposed to travellers from Rome) used the correct Julian calendar.Due to the confusion about this period, we cannot be sure exactly what day (e.g.", "Julian day number) any particular Roman date refers to before March of 8 BC, except for those used in Egypt in 24BC which are secured by astronomy.An inscription has been discovered which orders a new calendar to be used in the Province of Asia to replace the previous Greek lunar calendar.", "According to one translationThis is historically correct.", "It was decreed by the proconsul that the first day of the year in the new calendar shall be Augustus' birthday, a.d. IX Kal.", "Oct. Every month begins on the ninth day before the kalends.", "The date of introduction, the day after 14 Peritius, was 1 Dystrus, the next month.", "The month after that was Xanthicus.", "Thus Xanthicus began on a.d. IX Kal.", "Mart., and normally contained 31 days.", "In leap year, however, it contained an extra \"Sebaste day\", the Roman leap day, and thus had 32 days.", "From the lunar nature of the old calendar we can fix the starting date of the new one as 24 January, in the Julian calendar, which was a leap year.", "Thus from inception the dates of the reformed Asian calendar are in one-to-one correspondence with the Julian.Another translation of this inscription isThis would move the starting date back three years to 8 BC, and from the lunar synchronism back to 26 January (Julian).", "But since the corresponding Roman date in the inscription is 24 January, this must be according to the incorrect calendar which in 8 BC Augustus had ordered to be corrected by the omission of leap days.", "As the authors of the previous paper point out, with the correct four-year cycle being used in Egypt and the three-year cycle abolished in Rome, it is unlikely that Augustus would have ordered the three-year cycle to be introduced in Asia." ], [ "Month names", "The Julian reform did not immediately cause the names of any months to be changed.", "The old intercalary month was abolished and replaced with a single intercalary day at the same point (i.e., five days before the end of February).===Roman===The Romans later renamed months after Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintilis as \"Iulius\" (July) in 44 BC and Sextilis as \"Augustus\" (August) in 8 BC.", "Quintilis was renamed to honour Caesar because it was the month of his birth.", "According to a quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honour Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred in that month.Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the later changes survived their deaths.", "In AD 37, Caligula renamed September as \"Germanicus\" after his father; in AD 65, Nero renamed April as \"Neroneus\", May as \"Claudius\" and June as \"Germanicus\"; and in AD 84 Domitian renamed September as \"Germanicus\" and October as \"Domitianus\".", "Commodus was unique in renaming all twelve months after his own adopted names (January to December): \"Amazonius\", \"Invictus\", \"Felix\", \"Pius\", \"Lucius\", \"Aelius\", \"Aurelius\", \"Commodus\", \"Augustus\", \"Herculeus\", \"Romanus\", and \"Exsuperatorius\".", "The emperor Tacitus is said to have ordered that September, the month of his birth and accession, be renamed after him, but the story is doubtful since he did not become emperor before November 275.Similar honorific month names were implemented in many of the provincial calendars that were aligned to the Julian calendar.Other name changes were proposed but were never implemented.", "Tiberius rejected a senatorial proposal to rename September as \"Tiberius\" and October as \"Livius\", after his mother Livia.", "Antoninus Pius rejected a senatorial decree renaming September as \"Antoninus\" and November as \"Faustina\", after his empress.===Charlemagne===Much more lasting than the ephemeral month names of the post-Augustan Roman emperors were the Old High German names introduced by Charlemagne.", "According to his biographer, Charlemagne renamed all of the months agriculturally into German.", "These names were used until the 15th century, over 700 years after his rule, and continued, with some modifications, to see some use as \"traditional\" month names until the late 18th century.", "The names (January to December) were: ''Wintarmanoth'' (\"winter month\"), ''Hornung'', ''Lentzinmanoth'' (\"spring month\", \"Lent month\"), ''Ostarmanoth'' (\"Easter month\"), ''Wonnemanoth'' (\"joy-month\", a corruption of ''Winnimanoth'' \"pasture-month\"), ''Brachmanoth'' (\"fallow-month\"), ''Heuuimanoth'' (\"hay month\"), ''Aranmanoth'' (\"reaping month\"), ''Witumanoth'' (\"wood month\"), ''Windumemanoth'' (\"vintage month\"), ''Herbistmanoth'' (\"harvest month\"), and ''Heilagmanoth'' (\"holy month\").===Eastern Europe===The calendar month names used in western and northern Europe, in Byzantium, and by the Amazigh (Berbers), were derived from the Latin names.", "However, in eastern Europe older seasonal month names continued to be used into the 19th century, and in some cases are still in use, in many languages, including: Belarusian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Finnish, Georgian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Slovene, Ukrainian.", "When the Ottoman Empire adopted the Julian calendar, in the form of the Rumi calendar, the month names reflected Ottoman tradition." ], [ "Year numbering", "The principal method used by the Romans to identify a year for dating purposes was to name it after the two consuls who took office in it, the eponymous period in question being the consular year.", "Beginning in 153 BC, consuls began to take office on 1 January, thus synchronizing the commencement of the consular and calendar years.", "The calendar year has begun in January and ended in December since about 450 BC according to Ovid or since about 713 BC according to Macrobius and Plutarch (see Roman calendar).", "Julius Caesar did not change the beginning of either the consular year or the calendar year.", "In addition to consular years, the Romans sometimes used the regnal year of the emperor, and by the late 4th century documents were also being dated according to the 15-year cycle of the indiction.", "In 537, Justinian required that henceforth the date must include the name of the emperor and his regnal year, in addition to the indiction and the consul, while also allowing the use of local eras.In 309 and 310, and from time to time thereafter, no consuls were appointed.", "When this happened, the consular date was given a count of years since the last consul (called \"post-consular\" dating).", "After 541, only the reigning emperor held the consulate, typically for only one year in his reign, and so post-consular dating became the norm.", "Similar post-consular dates were also known in the west in the early 6th century.", "The system of consular dating, long obsolete, was formally abolished in the law code of Leo VI, issued in 888.Only rarely did the Romans number the year from the founding of the city (of Rome), (AUC).", "This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another, not to date a year.", "Different historians had several different dates for the founding.", "The , an inscription containing an official list of the consuls which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC.", "The epoch used by Varro, 753 BC, has been adopted by modern historians.", "Indeed, Renaissance editors often added it to the manuscripts that they published, giving the false impression that the Romans numbered their years.", "Most modern historians tacitly assume that it began on the day the consuls took office, and ancient documents such as the which use other AUC systems do so in the same way.", "However, Censorinus, writing in the 3rd century AD, states that, in his time, the AUC year began with the Parilia, celebrated on 21 April, which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the foundation of Rome.Many local eras, such as the Era of Actium and the Spanish Era, were adopted for the Julian calendar or its local equivalent in the provinces and cities of the Roman Empire.", "Some of these were used for a considerable time.", "Perhaps the best known is the Era of Martyrs, sometimes also called (after Diocletian), which was associated with the Alexandrian calendar and often used by the Alexandrian Christians to number their Easters during the 4th and 5th centuries, and continues to be used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches.In the eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of Christian chronographers such as Annianus of Alexandria to date the Biblical creation of the world led to the introduction of Anno Mundi eras based on this event.", "The most important of these was the Etos Kosmou, used throughout the Byzantine world from the 10th century and in Russia until 1700.In the west, the kingdoms succeeding the empire initially used indictions and regnal years, alone or in combination.", "The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine, in the fifth century, used an era dated from the Passion of Christ, but this era was not widely adopted.", "Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini in 525.This era gradually spread through the western Christian world, once the system was adopted by Bede in the eighth century.The Julian calendar was also used in some Muslim countries.", "The Rumi calendar, the Julian calendar used in the later years of the Ottoman Empire, adopted an era derived from the lunar AH year equivalent to AD 1840, i.e., the effective Rumi epoch was AD 585.In recent years, some users of the Berber calendar have adopted an era starting in 950 BC, the approximate date that the Libyan pharaoh came to power in Egypt." ], [ "New Year's Day", "The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform.", "However, even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar, they started the new year on different dates.", "The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August (30 August after an Alexandrian leap year).", "Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus, 23 September.", "The indiction caused the Byzantine year, which used the Julian calendar, to begin on 1 September; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year.", "When the Julian calendar was adopted in AD 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496, beginning on 1 March, six months after the start of the Byzantine Anno Mundi year with the same number.", "In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, realigned the start of the year to 1 September, so that AM 7000 only lasted for six months in Russia, from 1 March to 31 August 1492.In Anglo-Saxon England, the year most commonly began on 25 December, which, as (approximately) the winter solstice, had marked the start of the year in pagan times, though 25 March (the equinox) is occasionally documented in the 11th century.", "Sometimes the start of the year was reckoned as 24 September, the start of the so-called \"western indiction\" introduced by Bede.", "These practices changed after the Norman conquest.", "From 1087 to 1155 the English year began on 1 January, and from 1155 to 1751 it began on 25 March.", "In 1752 it was moved back to 1 January.", "(See Calendar (New Style) Act 1750\|Calendar New Style Act 1750).Even before 1752, 1 January was sometimes treated as the start of the new year – for example by Pepys – while the \"year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year\".", "To reduce misunderstandings on the date, it was not uncommon for a date between 1 January and 24 March to be written as \"1661/62\".", "This was to explain to the reader that the year was 1661 counting from March and 1662 counting from January as the start of the year.", "(For more detail, see Dual dating).", "Country Year starting1 January Adoption of new calendar Holy Roman Empire 1544 1582 Spain, Portugal 1556 1582 Prussia, Denmark–Norway 1559 1700 Sweden 1559 1753France 1567 1582Southern Netherlands 1576 1582 Lorraine 1579 1760 Holland, Zeeland 1583 1582 Dutch Republic except Holland and Zeeland 1583 1700 Scotland 1600 1752 Russia 1700 1918 Tuscany 1750 1582 British Empire excluding Scotland 1752 1752 Republic of Venice 1522 1582 Serbia 1804 1918 Ottoman Empire 1918 1917" ], [ "Replacement by the Gregorian calendar", "The Julian calendar has been replaced as the civil calendar by the Gregorian calendar in all countries which officially used it.", "Turkey switched (for fiscal purposes) on 16 February/1 March 1917.Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918.Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923, but the national day (25 March) was to remain on the old calendar.", "Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have made the change to Gregorian for their liturgical calendars to align with the civil calendar.A calendar similar to the Julian one, the Alexandrian calendar, is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, which is still the civil calendar of Ethiopia.", "Egypt converted from the Alexandrian calendar to Gregorian on 1 Thaut 1592/11 September 1875.During the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems.", "In contemporary as well as modern texts that describe events during the period of change, it is customary to clarify to which calendar a given date refers by using an O.S.", "or N.S.", "suffix (denoting Old Style, Julian or New Style, Gregorian).=== Transition history ===In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar.", "Reform was required because too many leap days were added with respect to the astronomical seasons under the Julian scheme.", "On average, the astronomical solstices and the equinoxes advance by 10.8 minutes per year against the Julian year.", "As a result, 21 March (which is the base date for calculating the date of Easter) gradually moved out of alignment with the March equinox.This is a visual example of the official date change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian.While Hipparchus and presumably Sosigenes were aware of the discrepancy, although not of its correct value, it was evidently felt to be of little importance at the time of the Julian reform (46 BC).", "However, it accumulated significantly over time: the Julian calendar gained a day every 128 years.", "By 1582, 21 March was ten days out of alignment with the March equinox, the date where it was reckoned to have been in 325, the year of the Council of Nicaea.Since the Julian and Gregorian calendars were long used simultaneously, although in different places, calendar dates in the transition period are often ambiguous, unless it is specified which calendar was being used.", "In some circumstances, double dates might be used, one in each calendar.", "The notation \"Old Style\" (O.S.)", "is sometimes used to indicate a date in the Julian calendar, as opposed to \"New Style\" (N.S.", "), which either represents the Julian date with the start of the year as 1 January or a full mapping onto the Gregorian calendar.", "This notation is used to clarify dates from countries that continued to use the Julian calendar after the Gregorian reform, such as Great Britain, which did not switch to the reformed calendar until 1752, or Russia, which did not switch until 1918 (see Soviet calendar).", "This is why the Russian Revolution of 7 November 1917 N.S.", "is known as the October Revolution, because it began on 25 October O.S." ], [ "Modern usage", "=== Eastern Orthodox ===Russian icon of the Theophany (the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist) (6 January), the highest-ranked feast which occurs on the fixed cycle of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendarAlthough most Eastern Orthodox countries (most of them in eastern or southeastern Europe) had adopted the Gregorian calendar by 1924, their national churches had not.", "The \"Revised Julian calendar\" was endorsed by a synod in Constantinople in May 1923, consisting of a solar part which was and will be identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800, and a lunar part which calculated Easter astronomically at Jerusalem.", "All Eastern Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part, so all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter according to the Julian calendar, with the exception of the Finnish Orthodox Church (the Estonian Orthodox Church was also an exception from 1923 to 1945).The Orthodox Churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Montenegro, Poland (from 15 June 2014), North Macedonia, Georgia, and the Greek Old Calendarists and other groups continue to use the Julian calendar, thus they celebrate the Nativity on 25 December ''Julian'' (which is 7 January ''Gregorian'' until 2100).", "The Russian Orthodox Church has some parishes in the West that celebrate the Nativity on 25 December ''Gregorian'' until 2799.The Orthodox Church of Ukraine announced in late May 2023 that they would use the Gregorian calendar to celebrate Christmas on December 25, 2023, partly in reflection to Russia's deadly invasion of the country in early 2022.==== Date of Easter ====Most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, upon which the timing of all the other moveable feasts depends.", "Some such churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while such Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes.===Syriac Christianity===The Ancient Assyrian Church of the East, an East Syriac rite that is commonly miscategorised under \"eastern Orthodox\", uses the Julian calendar, where its participants celebrate Christmas on 7 January ''Gregorian'' (which is 25 December ''Julian'').", "The Assyrian Church of the East, the church it split from in 1968 (the replacement of traditional Julian calendar with Gregorian calendar being among the reasons), uses the Gregorian calendar ever since the year of the schism.=== Oriental Orthodox ===The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem of Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church uses Julian calendar, while the rest of Armenian Church uses Gregorian calendar.", "Both celebrate the Nativity as part of the Feast of Theophany according to their respective calendar.=== Berbers ===The Julian calendar is still used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar.=== Foula ===Foula in Shetland, Scotland, a small settlement on a remote island of the archipelago, still celebrates festivities according to the Julian calendar." ], [ "See also", "* Byzantine calendar* Conversion between Julian and Gregorian calendars* Julian day* Julian year (astronomy)* List of adoption dates of the Gregorian calendar per country* Mixed-style date* Old New Year* Proleptic Gregorian calendar* Proleptic Julian calendar* Revised Julian calendar* Roman timekeeping* Week" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "General and cited references", "* Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens, ''The Oxford Companion to the Year'', Oxford University Press, reprinted with corrections 2003.", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Calendars through the ages on WebExhibits* The Roman Calendar" ], [ "External links", "* Calendar Converter – converts between several calendars, for example Gregorian, Julian, Mayan, Persian, Hebrew* Orthodox Calendar" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Quincy Adams" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John Quincy Adams''' (; July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, politician, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829.He previously served as the eighth United States secretary of state from 1817 to 1825.During his long diplomatic and political career, Adams served as an ambassador and also as a member of the United States Congress representing Massachusetts in both chambers.", "He was the eldest son of John Adams, who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801, and First Lady Abigail Adams.", "Initially a Federalist like his father, he won election to the presidency as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and later, in the mid-1830s, became affiliated with the Whig Party.Born in Braintree, Massachusetts, Adams spent much of his youth in Europe, where his father served as a diplomat.", "After returning to the United States, Adams established a successful legal practice in Boston.", "In 1794, President George Washington appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to the Netherlands, and Adams would serve in high-ranking diplomatic posts until 1801, when Thomas Jefferson took office as president.", "Federalist leaders in Massachusetts arranged for Adams's election to the United States Senate in 1802, but Adams broke with the Federalist Party over foreign policy and was denied re-election.", "In 1809, President James Madison, a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to Russia.", "Multilingual, Adams held diplomatic posts for the duration of Madison's presidency, and he served as part of the American delegation that negotiated an end to the War of 1812.In 1817, President James Monroe selected Adams as his secretary of state.", "In that role, Adams negotiated the Adams–Onís Treaty, which provided for the American acquisition of Florida.", "He also helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine, which became a key tenet of U.S. foreign policy.", "In 1818, Adams was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.Adams, Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay—all members of the Democratic-Republican Party—competed in the 1824 presidential election.", "Because no candidate won a majority of electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election, which Adams won with the support of Speaker of the House Henry Clay, whom Adams would controversially appoint as his secretary of state.", "As president, Adams called for an ambitious agenda that included federally funded infrastructure projects, the establishment of a national university, and engagement with the countries of Latin America, but Congress refused to pass many of his initiatives.", "During Adams's presidency, the Democratic-Republican Party split into two major camps: the National Republican Party, which supported Adams, and Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party.", "The Democrats proved to be more effective political organizers than Adams and his National Republican supporters, and Jackson soundly defeated Adams in the 1828 presidential election, making Adams the second president to fail to win re-election (his father being the first).Rather than retiring from public service, Adams won election to the House of Representatives, where he would serve from 1831 until his death in 1848.He remains the only former president to be elected to the chamber.", "After narrowly losing his bids for Governor of Massachusetts and Senate re-election, Adams joined the Anti-Masonic Party in the early 1830s before joining the Whig Party, which united those opposed to President Jackson.", "During his time in Congress, Adams became increasingly critical of slavery and of the Southern leaders whom he believed controlled the Democratic Party.", "He was particularly opposed to the annexation of Texas and the Mexican–American War, which he saw as a war to extend slavery and its political grip on Congress.", "He also led the repeal of the \"gag rule\", which had prevented the House of Representatives from debating petitions to abolish slavery.", "Historians concur that Adams was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history; they typically rank him as an average president, as he had an ambitious agenda but could not get it passed by Congress.", "By contrast, historians also view Adams in a more positive light during his post-presidency because of his vehement stance against slavery, as well as his fight for the rights of women and Native Americans." ], [ "Early life, education, and early career", "John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767, to John and Abigail Adams (née Smith) in a part of Braintree, Massachusetts, that is now Quincy.", "He was named after his mother's maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts, is also named.", "Colonel Quincy died two days after his great-grandson's birth.", "Young Adams was educated by private tutors – his cousin James Thaxter and his father's law clerk, Nathan Rice.", "He soon exhibited literary skills, and in 1779 he started a diary that he kept until just before he died in 1848.Until the age of ten, Adams grew up on the family farm in Braintree, largely in the care of his mother.", "Though frequently absent because of his participation in the American Revolution, John Adams maintained a correspondence with his son, encouraging him to read works by authors such as Thucydides and Hugo Grotius.", "With his father's encouragement, Adams would also translate classical authors such as Virgil, Horace, Plutarch, and Aristotle.In 1778, Adams and his father departed for Europe, where John Adams would serve as part of American diplomatic missions in France and the Netherlands.", "During this period, Adams studied law, French, Greek, and Latin, and attended several schools, including Leiden University.", "In 1781, Adams traveled to Saint Petersburg, Russia, where he served as the secretary to the American diplomat, Francis Dana.", "He returned to the Netherlands in 1783 and accompanied his father to Great Britain in 1784.Though Adams enjoyed Europe, he and his family decided he needed to return to the United States to complete his education and eventually launch a political career.Adams returned to the United States in 1785 and earned admission as a member of the junior class of Harvard College the following year.", "He joined Phi Beta Kappa and excelled academically, graduating second in his class in 1787.After graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts, from 1787 to 1789.Adams initially opposed the ratification of the United States Constitution, but he ultimately came to accept the document, and in 1789 his father was elected as the first vice president of the United States.", "In 1790, Adams opened his own legal practice in Boston.", "Despite some early struggles, he was successful as an attorney and established financial independence from his parents." ], [ "Early political career (1793–1817)", "=== Early diplomatic career and marriage ===Adams initially avoided becoming involved in politics, instead focusing on building his legal career.", "In 1791, he wrote a series of pseudonymously published essays arguing that Britain provided a better governmental model than France.", "Two years later, he published another series of essays attacking Edmond-Charles Genêt, a French diplomat who sought to undermine President George Washington's policy of neutrality in the French Revolutionary Wars.", "In 1794, Washington appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to the Netherlands.", "Adams considered declining the role, but ultimately took the position on the advice of his father.", "While abroad, Adams continued to urge neutrality, arguing that the United States would benefit economically by staying out of the ongoing French Revolutionary Wars.", "His chief duty as the ambassador to the Netherlands was to secure and maintain loans essential to U.S. finances.", "On his way to the Netherlands, he met with John Jay, who was then negotiating the Jay Treaty with Great Britain.", "Adams supported the Jay Treaty, but it proved unpopular with many in the United States, contributing to a growing partisan split between the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic-Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson.", "In 1794 he supported John Skey Eustace who wanted to return to the United States via the Netherlands.Adams spent the winter of 1795–1796 in London, where he met Louisa Catherine Johnson, the second daughter of American merchant Joshua Johnson.", "In April 1796, Louisa accepted Adams's proposal of marriage.", "Adams's parents disapproved of his decision to marry a woman who had grown up in England, but he informed his parents that he would not reconsider his decision.", "Adams initially wanted to delay his wedding to Louisa until he returned to the United States, but they married in All Hallows-by-the-Tower on July 26, 1797.Shortly after the wedding, Joshua Johnson fled England to escape his creditors, and Adams did not receive the dowry that Johnson had promised him, much to the embarrassment of Louisa.", "Adams noted in his own diary that he had no regrets about his decision to marry Louisa.In 1796, Washington appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to Portugal.", "Later that year, John Adams defeated Jefferson in the 1796 presidential election.", "When the elder Adams became president, he appointed his son as the U.S. ambassador to Prussia.", "Though concerned that his appointment would be criticized as nepotistic, Adams accepted the position and traveled to the Prussian capital of Berlin with his wife and his younger brother, Thomas Boylston Adams.", "The State Department tasked Adams with developing commercial relations with Prussia and Sweden, but President Adams also asked his son to write to him frequently about affairs in Europe.", "In 1799, Adams negotiated a new trade agreement between the United States and Prussia, though he could never complete an agreement with Sweden.", "He frequently wrote to family members in the United States, and in 1801 his letters about the Prussian region of Silesia were published in a book titled ''Letters on Silesia''.", "During his time in Prussia, Adams befriended the German diplomat and writer Friedrich von Gentz, whose work, ''The Origins and Principles of the American Revolution, Compared with the Origins and Principles of the French Revolution,'' Adams would translate into English in 1800.In the 1800 presidential election, Jefferson defeated John Adams, and both Adams and his son left office in early 1801.=== U.S. senator from Massachusetts ===On his return to the United States, Adams re-established a legal practice in Boston, and in April 1802 he was elected to the Massachusetts Senate.", "In November of that year, he ran unsuccessfully for the United States House of Representatives.", "In February 1803, the Massachusetts legislature elected Adams to the United States Senate.", "Though somewhat reluctant to affiliate with any political party, Adams joined the Federalist minority in Congress.", "Like his Federalist colleagues, he opposed the impeachment of Associate Justice Samuel Chase, an outspoken supporter of the Federalist Party.Adams had strongly opposed Jefferson's 1800 presidential candidacy, but he gradually became alienated from the Federalist Party.", "His disaffection was driven by the party's declining popularity, disagreements over foreign policy, and Adams's hostility to Timothy Pickering, a Federalist Party leader whom Adams viewed as overly favorable to Britain.", "Unlike other New England Federalists, Adams supported the Jefferson administration's Louisiana Purchase and expansionist policies.", "Adams was the lone Federalist in Congress to vote for the Non-importation Act of 1806 that punished Britain for its attacks on American shipping during the ongoing Napoleonic Wars.", "Adams became increasingly frustrated with the unwillingness of other Federalists to condemn British actions, including impressment, and he moved closer to the Jefferson administration.", "After Adams supported the Embargo Act of 1807, the Federalist-controlled Massachusetts legislature elected Adams's successor several months before the end of his term, and Adams resigned from the Senate shortly thereafter.While a member of the Senate, Adams served as a professor of logic at Brown University and as the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard University.", "Adams's devotion to classical rhetoric shaped his response to public issues, and he would remain inspired by those rhetorical ideals long after the neo-classicalism and deferential politics of the founding generation were eclipsed by the commercial ethos and mass democracy of the Jacksonian Era.", "Many of Adams's idiosyncratic positions were rooted in his abiding devotion to the Ciceronian ideal of the citizen-orator \"speaking well\" to promote the welfare of the polis.", "He was also influenced by the classical republican ideal of civic eloquence espoused by British philosopher David Hume.", "Adams adapted these classical republican ideals of public oratory to the American debate, viewing its multilevel political structure as ripe for \"the renaissance of Demosthenic eloquence\".", "His ''Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory'' (1810) looks at the fate of ancient oratory, the necessity of liberty for it to flourish, and its importance as a unifying element for a new nation of diverse cultures and beliefs.", "Just as civic eloquence failed to gain popularity in Britain, in the United States interest faded in the second decade of the 19th century, as the \"public spheres of heated oratory\" disappeared in favor of the private sphere.=== Minister to Russia ===1815 US passport issued by John Quincy Adams at London.After resigning from the Senate, Adams was ostracized by Massachusetts Federalist leaders, but he declined Democratic-Republican entreaties to seek office.", "In 1809, he argued before the Supreme Court of the United States in ''Fletcher v. Peck'', and the Supreme Court ultimately agreed with Adams's argument that the Constitution's Contract Clause prevented the state of Georgia from invalidating a land sale to out-of-state companies.", "Later that year, President James Madison appointed Adams as the first United States Minister to Russia in 1809.Though Adams had only recently broken with the Federalist Party, his support of Jefferson's foreign policy had earned him goodwill with the Madison Administration.", "Adams was well-qualified for the role after his experiences in Europe generally and Russia specifically.After a difficult passage through the Baltic Sea, Adams arrived in the Russian capital of St. Petersburg in October 1809.He quickly established a productive working relationship with Russian official Nikolay Rumyantsev and eventually befriended Tsar Alexander I of Russia.", "Adams continued to favor American neutrality between France and Britain during the Napoleonic War.", "Louisa was initially distraught at the prospect of living in Russia, but she became a popular figure at the Russian court.", "From his diplomatic post, Adams observed the French Emperor Napoleon's invasion of Russia, which ended in defeat for the French.", "In February 1811, President Madison nominated Adams as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court.", "The nomination was unanimously confirmed by the Senate, but Adams declined the seat, preferring a career in politics and diplomacy, so Joseph Story took the seat instead.=== Treaty of Ghent and ambassador to Britain ===Adams portrait – Gilbert Stuart, 1818Adams had long feared that the United States would enter a war it could not win against Britain, and by early 1812, he saw such a war as inevitable due to the constant British attacks on American shipping and the British practice of impressment.", "In mid-1812, the United States declared war against Britain, beginning the War of 1812.Tsar Alexander attempted to mediate the conflict between Britain and the United States, and President Madison appointed Adams, Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, and Federalist Senator James A. Bayard to a delegation charged with negotiating an end to the war.", "Gallatin and Bayard arrived in St. Petersburg in July 1813, but the British declined Tsar Alexander's offer of mediation.", "Hoping to start negotiations at another venue, Adams left Russia in April 1814.Negotiations finally began in mid-1814 in Ghent, where Adams, Gallatin, and Bayard were joined by two additional American delegates, Jonathan Russell and former Speaker of the House Henry Clay.", "Adams, the nominal head of the delegation, got along well with Gallatin, Bayard, and Russell, but he occasionally clashed with Clay.The British delegation initially treated the United States as a defeated power, demanding the creation of an Indian barrier state from American territory near the Great Lakes.", "The American delegation unanimously rejected this offer, and their negotiating position was bolstered by the American victory in the Battle of Plattsburgh.", "By November 1814, the government of Lord Liverpool decided to seek an end to hostilities with the U.S. on the basis of ''status quo ante bellum''.", "Even though a return to the status quo would mean the continuation of the British practice of impressment, Adams and his fellow commissioners had hoped for similar terms.", "The treaty was signed on December 24, 1814.The United States did not gain any concessions from the treaty but could boast that it had survived a war against the strongest power in the world.", "Following the signing of the treaty, Adams traveled to Paris, where he witnessed first-hand the Hundred Days of Napoleon's restoration.In May 1815, Adams learned that President Madison had appointed him as the U.S. ambassador to Britain.", "With the aid of Clay and Gallatin, Adams negotiated a limited trade agreement with Britain.", "Following the conclusion of the trade agreement, much of Adams's time as ambassador was spent helping stranded American sailors and prisoners of war.", "In pursuit of national unity, newly elected president James Monroe decided a Northerner would be optimal for the position of Secretary of State, and he chose the respected and experienced Adams for the role.", "Having spent several years in Europe, Adams returned to the United States in August 1817." ], [ "Secretary of State (1817–1825)", "Adams served as Secretary of State during Monroe's eight-year presidency, from 1817 to 1825.Many of his successes as secretary, such as the convention of 1818 with the United Kingdom, the Transcontinental Treaty with Spain, and the Monroe Doctrine, were not preplanned strategies but responses to unexpected events.", "Adams wanted to delay American recognition of the newly independent republics of Latin America to avoid the risk of war with Spain and its European allies.", "However, Andrew Jackson's military campaign in Florida and Henry Clay's threats in Congress forced Spain to cut a deal, which Adams negotiated successfully.", "Biographer James Lewis says, \"He managed to play the cards that he had been dealt – cards that he very clearly had not wanted – in ways that forced the Spanish cabinet to recognize the weakness of its own hand\".", "Apart from the Monroe doctrine, his last four years as Secretary of State were less successful because he was preoccupied with his presidential campaign and refused to make compromises with other countries that might have weakened his candidacy; the result was a small-scale trade war but a successful election to the White House.Painting of John Quincy Adams by Thomas Sully, 1824Taking office in the aftermath of the War of 1812, Adams thought that the country had been fortunate in avoiding territorial losses, and he prioritized avoiding another war with a European power, particularly Britain.", "He also sought to avoid exacerbating sectional tensions, which had been a major issue for the country during the War of 1812.One of the major challenges confronting Adams was how to respond to the power vacuum in Latin America that arose from Spain's weakness following the Peninsular War.", "In addition to his foreign policy role, Adams held several domestic duties, including overseeing the 1820 United States census and writing an extensive report on weights and measures.", "The weights and measures report, a particular passion of Adams', provided an extensive historical perspective on the topic and advocated for adoption of the metric system.Monroe and Adams agreed on most major foreign policy issues: both favored neutrality in Latin American independence wars, peace with the United Kingdom, rejection of a trade agreement with the French, and peaceful expansion into the Spanish Empire's North American territories.", "The president and his secretary of state developed a strong working relationship, and while Adams often influenced Monroe's policies, he respected that Monroe made the final decisions on major issues.", "Monroe met regularly with his five-person cabinet, which initially consisted of Adams, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Crowninshield, and Attorney General William Wirt.", "Adams developed a strong respect for Calhoun but believed that Crawford was unduly focused on succeeding Monroe in 1824.During his time as ambassador to Britain, Adams had begun negotiations over several contentious issues that had not been solved by the War of 1812 or the Treaty of Ghent.", "In 1817, the two countries agreed to the Rush–Bagot Treaty, which limited naval armaments on the Great Lakes.", "Negotiations between the two powers continued, resulting in the Treaty of 1818, which defined the Canada–United States border west of the Great Lakes.", "The boundary was set at the 49th parallel to the Rocky Mountains, while the territory to the west of the mountains, known as Oregon Country, would be jointly occupied.", "The agreement marked a watershed moment in United Kingdom–United States relations, as the United States focused on its southern and western borders and British concerns about American expansionism subsided.=== Adams–Onís Treaty ===In the Adams–Onís Treaty, the United States acquired Florida and set the western border of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.When Adams took office, Spanish possessions bordered the United States to the south and west.", "To the south, Spain retained control of Florida, which the U.S. had long sought to purchase.", "Spain struggled to control the Indian tribes active in Florida, and some of those tribes raided United States territory.", "To the west, New Spain bordered the territory acquired by the United States in the Louisiana Purchase, but no clear boundary had been established between United States and Spanish territory.", "After taking office, Adams began negotiations with Luis de Onís, the Spanish minister to the United States, for the purchase of Florida and the settlement of a border between the United States and New Spain.", "The negotiations were interrupted by an escalation of the Seminole War, and in December 1818, Monroe ordered General Andrew Jackson to enter Florida and retaliate against Seminoles that had raided Georgia.", "Exceeding his orders, Jackson captured the Spanish outposts of St. Marks and Pensacola and executed two Englishmen.", "While Jackson's actions outraged the rest of the cabinet, Adams defended them as necessary to the country's self-defense, and he eventually convinced Monroe and most of the cabinet to support Jackson.", "Adams informed Spain that its failure to police its own territory had compelled Jackson to act, and he advised Spain to either secure the region or sell it to the United States.", "The British, meanwhile, declined to risk their recent rapprochement with the United States, and did not make a major diplomatic issue out of Jackson's execution of two British nationals.Negotiations between Spain and the United States continued, and Spain agreed to cede Florida.", "The determination of the western boundary of the United States proved more difficult.", "American expansionists favored setting the border at the Rio Grande, but Spain, intent on protecting its colony of Mexico from American encroachment, insisted on setting the boundary at the Sabine River.", "At Monroe's direction, Adams agreed to the Sabine River boundary, but he insisted that Spain cede its claims on Oregon Country.", "Adams was deeply interested in establishing American control over the Oregon Country, partly because he believed that control of that region would spur trade with Asia.", "The acquisition of Spanish claims to the Pacific Northwest also allowed the Monroe administration to pair the acquisition of Florida, which was chiefly sought by Southerners, with territorial gains favored primarily by those in the North.", "After extended negotiations, Spain and the United States agreed to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which was ratified in February 1821.Adams was deeply proud of the treaty, though he privately was concerned by the potential expansion of slavery into the newly acquired territories.", "In 1824, the Monroe administration would strengthen US claims to Oregon by ratifying the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, which established Russian Alaska's southern border at 54°40′ north.=== Monroe Doctrine ===As the Spanish Empire continued to fracture during Monroe's second term, Adams, Monroe and Clay became increasingly concerned that the \"Holy Alliance\" of Prussia, Austria, and Russia would seek to bring Spain's erstwhile colonies under their control, to the point of even contemplating a Holy Alliance of their own to defend democracy.", "In his 1821 Fourth of July address, Adams addressed this issue, noting a shared \"chain of sympathy\" between the U.S. and Latin America, but arguing for neutrality rather than a Holy Alliance.", "In 1822, following the conclusion of the Adams–Onís Treaty, the Monroe administration recognized the independence of several Latin American countries, including Argentina and Mexico.", "In 1823, British Foreign Secretary George Canning suggested that the United States and Britain should work together to preserve the independence of these fledgling republics.", "The cabinet debated whether to accept the offer, but Adams opposed it.", "Instead, Adams urged Monroe to publicly declare the United States' opposition to any European attempt to colonize or re-take control of territory in the Americas, while also committing the United States to neutrality in European affairs.", "In his December 1823 annual message to Congress, Monroe laid out the Monroe Doctrine, which was largely built upon Adams's ideas.", "In issuing the Monroe Doctrine, the United States displayed a new level of assertiveness in international relations, as the doctrine represented the country's first claim to a sphere of influence.", "It also marked the country's shift in psychological orientation away from Europe and towards the Americas.", "Debates over foreign policy would no longer center on relations with Britain and France, but instead focus on western expansion and relations with Native Americans.", "The doctrine became one of the foundational principles of U.S. foreign policy." ], [ "1824 presidential election", "1824 presidential election resultsImmediately upon becoming Secretary of State, Adams emerged as one of Monroe's most likely successors, as the last three presidents had all served in the role before taking office.", "As the 1824 election approached, Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun (who later dropped out of the race), and William H. Crawford appeared to be Adams's primary competition to succeed Monroe.", "Crawford favored state sovereignty and a strict constructionist view of the Constitution, while Clay, Calhoun, and Adams embraced federally funded internal improvements, high tariffs, and the Second Bank of the United States, which was also known as the national bank.", "Because the Federalist Party had all but collapsed after the War of 1812, all the major presidential candidates were members of the Democratic-Republican Party.", "Adams felt that his own election as president would vindicate his father, while also allowing him to pursue an ambitious domestic policy.", "Though he lacked the charisma of his competitors, Adams was widely respected and benefited from the lack of other prominent Northern political leaders.Adams's top choice for the role of vice president was General Andrew Jackson; Adams noted that \"the Vice-Presidency was a station in which Jackson could hang no one, and in which he would need to quarrel with no one\".", "However, as the 1824 election approached, Jackson jumped into the race for president, and Calhoun ended up receiving the Vice-presidential support of Adams supporters.", "While the other candidates based their candidacies on their long tenure as congressmen, ambassadors, or members of the cabinet, Jackson's appeal rested on his military service, especially in the Battle of New Orleans.", "The congressional nominating caucus had decided upon previous Democratic-Republican presidential nominees, but it had become largely discredited by 1824.Candidates were instead nominated by state legislatures or nominating conventions, and Adams received the endorsement of the New England legislatures.", "The regional strength of each candidate played an important role in the election; Adams was popular in New England, Clay and Jackson were strong in the West, and Jackson and Crawford competed for the South.", "1825 contingent presidential election vote distribution States for Adams States for Jackson States for Crawford* Connecticut* Illinois* Kentucky* Louisiana* Maine* Maryland* Massachusetts* Missouri* New Hampshire* New York* Ohio* Rhode Island* Vermont* Alabama* Indiana* Mississippi* New Jersey* Pennsylvania* South Carolina* Tennessee* Delaware* Georgia* North Carolina* Virginia'''Total: 13 (54%)''''''Total: 7 (29%)''''''Total: 4 (17%)'''In the 1824 presidential election, Jackson won a plurality in the Electoral College, taking 99 of the 261 electoral votes, while Adams won 84, Crawford won 41, and Clay took 37.Calhoun, meanwhile, won a majority of the electoral votes for vice president.", "Adams nearly swept the electoral votes of New England and won a majority of the electoral votes in New York, but he won just six electoral votes from the slave states.", "Most of Jackson's support came from slave-holding states, but he also won New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and some electoral votes from the Northwest.", "As no candidate won a majority of the electoral votes, the House was required to hold a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment.", "The House would decide among the top three electoral vote winners, with each state's delegation having one vote; thus, unlike his three rivals, Clay was not eligible to be elected by the House.Adams knew that his own victory in the contingent election would require the support of Clay, who wielded immense influence in the House of Representatives.", "Though they were quite different in temperament and had clashed in the past, Adams and Clay shared similar views on national issues.", "By contrast, Clay viewed Jackson as a dangerous demagogue, and he was unwilling to support Crawford due to the latter's health issues.", "Adams and Clay met before the contingent election, and Clay agreed to support Adams in the election.", "Adams also met with Federalists such as Daniel Webster, promising that he would not deny governmental positions to members of their party.", "On February 9, 1825, Adams won the contingent election on the first ballot, taking 13 of the 24 state delegations.", "Adams won the House delegations of all the states in which he or Clay had won a majority of the electoral votes, as well as the delegations of Illinois, Louisiana, and Maryland.", "Adams's victory made him the first child of a president to serve as president himself.", "After the election, many of Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had reached a \"Corrupt bargain\" whereby Adams promised Clay the position of Secretary of State in return for Clay's support." ], [ "Presidency (1825–1829)", "=== Inauguration ===Adams was inaugurated on March 4, 1825, becoming the first son of a former United States president to himself become president, a feat only repeated 176 years later by George W. Bush, son of George H. W. Bush.", "As Adams took the oath of office, he departed from tradition by placing his hand on a book of constitutional law instead of on a Bible.", "In his inaugural address, he adopted a post-partisan tone, promising to avoid party-building and politically motivated appointments.", "He also proposed an elaborate program of \"internal improvements\": roads, ports, and canals.", "Though some were worried about the constitutionality of such federal projects, Adams argued that the General Welfare Clause provided for broad constitutional authority.", "He promised that he would ask Congress to authorize many such projects.=== Administration ===Adams presided over a harmonious and productive cabinet that he met with on a weekly basis.", "Like Monroe, Adams sought a geographically balanced cabinet that would represent the various party factions, and he asked the members of the Monroe cabinet to remain in place for his own administration.", "Samuel L. Southard of New Jersey stayed on as Secretary of the Navy, William Wirt kept his post of Attorney General, and John McLean of Ohio continued to serve as the Postmaster General, an important position that was not part of the cabinet at that time.", "Adams's first choices for Secretary of War and Secretary of the Treasury were Andrew Jackson and William Crawford, but each declined to serve in the administration.", "Adams instead selected James Barbour of Virginia, a prominent supporter of Crawford, to lead the War Department.", "Leadership of the Treasury Department went to Richard Rush of Pennsylvania, who would become a prominent advocate of internal improvements and protective tariffs within the administration.", "Adams chose Henry Clay as Secretary of State, angering those who believed Clay had offered Adams his support in the 1824 election in exchange for the most prestigious position in the cabinet.", "Clay would later regret accepting the job since it reinforced the \"Corrupt Bargain\" accusation.", "However, Clay's strength in the West and interest in foreign policy made him a natural choice for the position.=== Domestic affairs ======= Ambitious agenda ====Medal of John Quincy AdamsIn his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda.", "He called for major investments in internal improvements as well as the creation of a national university, a naval academy, and a national astronomical observatory.", "Noting the healthy status of the treasury and the possibility for more revenue via land sales, Adams argued for the completion of several projects that were in various stages of construction or planning, including a road from Washington, D.C. to New Orleans.", "He also proposed the establishment of a Department of the Interior as a new cabinet-level department that would preside over these internal improvements.", "Adams hoped to fund these measures primarily through Western land sales, rather than increased taxes or public debt.", "The domestic agenda of Adams and Clay, which would come to be known as the American System, was designed to unite disparate regional interests in the promotion of a thriving national economy.Adams's programs faced opposition from various quarters.", "Many disagreed with his broad interpretation of the constitution and preferred that power be concentrated in state governments rather than the federal government.", "Others disliked interference from any level of government and were opposed to central planning.", "Some in the South feared that Adams was secretly an abolitionist and that he sought to subordinate the states to the federal government.", "Most of the president's proposals were defeated in Congress.", "Adams's ideas for a national university, a national observatory, and the establishment of a uniform system of weights and measures never received congressional votes.", "His proposal for the creation of a naval academy won the approval of the Senate but was defeated in the House; opponents objected to the naval academy's cost and worried that the establishment of such an institution would \"produce degeneracy and corruption of the public morality\".", "Adams's proposal to establish a national bankruptcy law was also defeated.Unlike other aspects of his domestic agenda, Adams won congressional approval for several ambitious infrastructure projects.", "Between 1824 and 1828, the United States Army Corps of Engineers conducted surveys for a bevy of potential roads, canals, railroads, and improvements in river navigation.", "Adams presided over major repairs and further construction on the National Road, and shortly after he left office the National Road extended from Cumberland, Maryland, to Zanesville, Ohio.", "The Adams administration also saw the beginning of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal; the construction of the Chesapeake & Delaware Canal and the Louisville and Portland Canal around the Falls of the Ohio; the connection of the Great Lakes to the Ohio River system in Ohio and Indiana; and the enlargement and rebuilding of the Dismal Swamp Canal in North Carolina.", "Additionally, the first passenger railroad in the United States, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, was constructed during Adams's presidency.", "Though many of these projects were undertaken by private actors, the government often provided money or land to aid the completion of such projects.=== Formation of political parties ===General Andrew Jackson, Adams's opponent in the 1824 and 1828 United States presidential electionsIn the immediate aftermath of the 1825 contingent election, Jackson was gracious to Adams.", "Nevertheless, Adams's appointment of Clay rankled Jackson, who received a flood of letters encouraging him to run.", "In 1825, Jackson accepted the presidential nomination of the Tennessee legislature for the 1828 election.", "Though he had been close to Adams during Monroe's presidency, Vice President Calhoun was also politically alienated from the president by the appointment of Clay, since that appointment established Clay as the natural heir to Adams.", "Adams's ambitious December 1825 annual message to Congress further galvanized the opposition, with important figures such as Francis Preston Blair of Kentucky and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri breaking with the Adams administration.", "By the end of the first session of the 19th United States Congress, an anti-Adams congressional coalition consisting of Jacksonians (led by Benton and Hugh Lawson White), Crawfordites (led by Martin Van Buren and Nathaniel Macon), and Calhounites (led by Robert Y. Hayne and George McDuffie) had emerged.", "Aside from Clay, Adams lacked strong supporters outside of the North, and Edward Everett, John Taylor, and Daniel Webster served as his strongest advocates in Congress.", "Supporters of Adams began calling themselves National Republicans, while supporters of Jackson began calling themselves Democrats.", "In the press, they were often described as \"Adams Men\" and \"Jackson Men\".In the 1826 elections, Adams's opponents picked up seats throughout the country, as allies of Adams failed to coordinate among themselves.", "Andrew Stevenson, a Jackson supporter, replaced John Taylor, an Adams supporter, as Speaker of the House.", "As Adams himself noted, the United States had never seen a Congress that was firmly under the control of political opponents of the president.", "After the elections, Van Buren and Calhoun agreed to throw their support behind Jackson in 1828, with Van Buren bringing along many of Crawford's supporters.", "Though Jackson did not articulate a detailed political platform in the same way that Adams did, his coalition united in opposition to Adams's reliance on government planning.", "Adams, meanwhile, clung to the hope of a non-partisan nation, and he refused to make full use of the power of patronage to build up his own party structure.==== Tariff of 1828 ====Painting of Quincy Adams by Charles Osgood, 1828During the first half of his administration, Adams avoided taking a strong stand on tariffs, partly because he wanted to avoid alienating his allies in the South and New England.", "After Jacksonians took power in 1827, they devised a tariff bill designed to appeal to Western states while instituting high rates on imported materials important to the economy of New England.", "It is unclear whether Van Buren, who shepherded the bill through Congress, meant for the bill to pass, or if he had deliberately designed it to force Adams and his allies to oppose it.", "Regardless, Adams signed the Tariff of 1828, which became known as the \"Tariff of Abominations\" by opponents.", "Adams was denounced in the South, and he received little credit for the tariff in the North.==== Indian policy ====Adams sought the gradual assimilation of Native Americans via consensual agreements, a priority shared by few whites in the 1820s.", "Yet Adams was also deeply committed to the westward expansion of the United States.", "Settlers on the frontier, constantly seeking to move westward, cried for a more expansionist policy that disregarded the concerns of Native Americans.", "Early in his term, Adams suspended the Treaty of Indian Springs after learning that the Governor of Georgia, George Troup, had forced the treaty on the Muscogee.", "Adams signed a new treaty with the Muscogee in January 1826 that allowed the Muscogee to stay but ceded most of their land to Georgia.", "Troup refused to accept its terms and authorized all Georgian citizens to evict the Muscogee.", "A showdown between Georgia and the federal government was only averted after the Muscogee agreed to a third treaty.", "Though many saw Troup as unreasonable in his dealings with the federal government and the Native Americans, the administration's handling of the incident alienated those in the Deep South who favored immediate Indian removal.=== Foreign affairs ===Adams famously said \"America goes not abroad, in search of monsters to destroy\".==== Trade and claims ====Quincy Adams appointed Henry Clay as Secretary of StateOne of the major foreign policy goals of the Adams administration was the expansion of American trade.", "His administration reached reciprocity treaties with a number of nations, including Denmark, Prussia, and the Federal Republic of Central America.", "The administration also reached commercial agreements with the Kingdom of Hawaii and the Kingdom of Tahiti.", "Agreements with Denmark and Sweden opened their colonies to American trade, but Adams was especially focused on opening trade with the British West Indies.", "The United States had reached a commercial agreement with Britain in 1815, but that agreement excluded British possessions in the Western Hemisphere.", "In response to United States pressure, the British had begun to allow a limited amount of American imports to the West Indies in 1823, but United States leaders continued to seek an end to Britain's protective Imperial Preference system.", "In 1825, Britain banned United States trade with the British West Indies, dealing a blow to Adams's prestige.", "The Adams administration negotiated extensively with the British to lift this ban, but the two sides could not reach an agreement.", "Despite the loss of trade with the British West Indies, the other commercial agreements secured by Adams helped expand the overall volume of United States exports.==== Latin America ====Aside from an unsuccessful attempt to purchase Texas from Mexico, President Adams did not seek to expand into Latin America or North America.", "Adams and Clay instead sought engagement with Latin America to prevent it from falling under the British Empire's economic influence.", "As part of this goal, the administration favored sending a United States delegation to the Congress of Panama, an 1826 conference of New World republics organized by Simón Bolívar.", "Clay and Adams hoped that the conference would inaugurate a \"Good Neighborhood Policy\" among the independent states of the Americas.", "However, the funding for a delegation and the confirmation of delegation nominees became entangled in a political battle over Adams's domestic policies, with opponents such as Van Buren impeding the confirmation of a delegation.", "While Van Buren saw the Panama Congress as an unwelcome deviation from the more isolationist foreign policy established by President Washington, many Southerners opposed involvement with any conference attended by delegates from Haiti, a republic that had been established through a slave revolt.", "Though the United States delegation finally won confirmation from the Senate, it never reached the Congress of Panama due to the Senate's delay.=== 1828 presidential election ===1828 presidential election resultsThe Jacksonians formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques.", "Rather than focusing on issues, they emphasized Jackson's popularity and the supposed corruption of Adams and the federal government.", "Jackson himself described the campaign as a \"struggle between the virtue of the people and executive patronage\".", "Adams, meanwhile, refused to adapt to the new reality of political campaigns, and he avoided public functions and refused to invest in pro-administration tools such as newspapers.", "In early 1827, Jackson was publicly accused of having encouraged his wife, Rachel, to desert her first husband.", "In response, followers of Jackson attacked Adams's personal life, and the campaign turned increasingly nasty.", "The Jacksonian press portrayed Adams as an out-of-touch elitist, while pro-Adams newspapers attacked Jackson's past involvement in various duels and scuffles, portraying him as too emotional and impetuous for the presidency.", "Though Adams and Clay had hoped that the campaign would focus on the American System, it was instead dominated by the personalities of Jackson and Adams.Vice President Calhoun joined Jackson's ticket, while Adams turned to Secretary of the Treasury Richard Rush as his running mate.", "The 1828 election thus marked the first time in United States history that a presidential ticket composed of two Northerners faced off against a presidential ticket composed of two Southerners.", "In the election, Jackson won 178 of the 261 electoral votes and just under 56% of the popular vote.", "Jackson won 50.3% of the popular vote in the free states, but 72.6% of the vote in the slave states.", "No future presidential candidate would match Jackson's proportion of the popular vote until Theodore Roosevelt's 1904 campaign, while Adams's loss made him the second one-term president, after his own father.", "By 1828, only two states did not hold a popular vote for president, and the number of votes in the 1828 election was triple that in the 1824 election.", "This increase in votes was due not only to the recent wave of democratization, but also because of increased interest in elections and the growing ability of the parties to mobilize voters.", "Adams did not attend Jackson's inauguration, making him one of only four presidents who finished their terms but skipped the event." ], [ "Later congressional career (1830–1848)", "=== Jackson administration, 1830–1836 ===alt=Wrinkled, elderly man with spectaclesAdams considered permanently retiring from public life after his 1828 defeat, and he was deeply hurt by the suicide of his son, George Washington Adams, in 1829.He was appalled by many of the Jackson administration's actions, including its embrace of the spoils system and the prosecution of his close friend, Treasury Auditor Tobias Watkins, for embezzlement.", "Though they had once maintained a cordial relationship, Adams and Jackson each came to loathe the other in the decades after the 1828 election.", "Adams grew bored with his retirement and still felt that his career was unfinished, so he ran for and won a seat in the United States House of Representatives in the 1830 elections.", "His election went against the generally held opinion, shared by his own wife and youngest son, that former presidents should not run for public office.", "Nonetheless, he would win election to nine terms, serving from 1831 until his death in 1848.Adams and Andrew Johnson are the only former presidents to serve in Congress.", "After winning election, Adams became affiliated with the Anti-Masonic Party, partly because the National Republican Party's leadership in Massachusetts included many of the former Federalists that Adams had clashed with earlier in his career.", "The Anti-Masonic Party originated as a movement against Freemasonry, but it developed into the country's first third party and embraced a general program of anti-elitism.Adams expected a light workload when he returned to Washington at 64 years old, but Speaker Andrew Stevenson selected Adams chair of the Committee on Commerce and Manufactures.", "Though he identified as a member of the Anti-Masonic Party, Congress was broadly polarized into allies of Jackson and opponents of Jackson, and Adams generally aligned with the latter camp.", "Stevenson, an ally of Jackson, expected that the committee chairmanship would keep Adams busy defending the tariff even while the Jacksonian majority on the committee would prevent Adams from accruing any real power.", "As chair of the committee charged with writing tariff laws, Adams became an important player in the nullification crisis, which stemmed largely from Southern objections to the high rates imposed by the Tariff of 1828.South Carolina leaders argued that states could nullify federal laws, and they announced that they would bar the federal government from enforcing the tariff in their state.", "Adams helped pass the Tariff of 1832, which lowered rates, but not enough to mollify the South Carolina nullifiers.", "The crisis ended when Clay and Calhoun agreed to another tariff bill, the Tariff of 1833, that furthered lower tariff rates.", "Adams was appalled by the Nullification Crisis's outcome, as he felt that the Southern states had unfairly benefited from challenging federal law.", "After the crisis, Adams was convinced that Southerners exercised undue influence over the federal government through their control of Jackson's Democratic Party.In the 1833 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, the Anti-Masonic Party nominated Adams in a four-way race between Adams, the National Republican candidate, the Democratic candidate, and a candidate of the Working Men's Party.", "The National Republican candidate, John Davis, won 40% of the vote, while Adams finished in second place with 29%.", "Because no candidate won a majority of the vote, the state legislature decided the election.", "Rather than seek election by the legislature, Adams withdrew his name from contention, and the legislature selected Davis.", "Adams was nearly elected to the Senate in 1835 by a coalition of Anti-Masons and National Republicans, but his support for Jackson in a minor foreign policy matter annoyed National Republican leaders enough that they dropped their support for his candidacy.", "After 1835, Adams never again sought higher office, focusing instead on his service in the House of Representatives.=== Van Buren, Harrison and Tyler administrations, 1837–1843 ===Portrait of Quincy Adams by William Hudson, 1844In the mid-1830s, the Anti-Masonic Party, the National Republicans, and other groups opposed to Jackson coalesced into the Whig Party.", "In the 1836 presidential election Democrats put forward Martin Van Buren, while the Whigs fielded multiple presidential candidates.", "Because he disdained all the major party contenders for president, Adams did not take part in the campaign; Van Buren won the election.", "Nonetheless, Adams became aligned with the Whig Party in Congress.", "Adams generally opposed the initiatives of President Van Buren, long a political adversary, though they maintained a cordial public relationship.The Republic of Texas won its independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution of 1835–1836.Texas had largely been settled by Americans from the Southern United States, and many of those settlers owned slaves despite an 1829 Mexican law that abolished slavery.", "Many in the United States and Texas thus favored the admission of Texas into the union as a slave state.", "Adams considered the issue of Texas to be \"a question of far deeper root and more overshadowing branches than any or all others that agitate the country\", and he emerged as one of the leading congressional opponents of annexation.", "When he served as secretary of state, Adams had sought to acquire Texas, but he argued that, because Mexico had abolished slavery, the acquisition of Texas would transform the region from a free territory into a slave state.", "He also feared that the annexation of Texas would encourage Southern expansionists to pursue other potential slave states, including Cuba.", "Adams's firm stance may have played a role in discouraging Van Buren from pushing for the annexation of Texas during his presidency.Whig nominee William Henry Harrison defeated Van Buren in the 1840 presidential election, and the Whigs gained control of both houses of Congress for the first time.", "Despite his low regard for Harrison as a person, Adams was enthusiastic about the new Whig administration and the end of the long-standing Democratic dominance of the federal government.", "However, Harrison died in April 1841 and was succeeded by Vice President John Tyler, a Southerner who, unlike Adams, Henry Clay, and many other prominent Whigs, did not embrace the American System.", "Adams saw Tyler as an agent of \"the slave-driving, Virginia, Jeffersonian school, principled against all improvement\".", "After Tyler vetoed a bill to restore the national bank, Whig congressmen expelled Tyler from the party.", "Adams was appointed chairman of a special committee that explored impeaching Tyler, and Adams presented a scathing report of Tyler that argued that his actions warranted impeachment.", "The impeachment process did not move forward, though, because the Whigs did not believe that the Senate would vote to remove Tyler from office.=== Opposition to the Mexican-American War, 1844–1848 ===John Quincy Adams, , Unknown authorTyler made the annexation of Texas the main foreign policy priority of the later stages of his administration.", "He attempted to win ratification of an annexation treaty in 1844, but, to Adams's surprise and relief, the Senate rejected the treaty.", "The annexation of Texas became the central issue of the 1844 presidential election, and Southerners blocked the nomination of Van Buren at the 1844 Democratic National Convention due to the latter's opposition to annexation; the party instead nominated James K. Polk, an acolyte of Andrew Jackson.", "Though he once again did not take part in the campaigning, Adams was deeply disappointed that Polk defeated his old ally, Henry Clay, in the 1844 election.", "He attributed the outcome of the election partly to the Liberty Party, a small, abolitionist third party that may have siphoned votes from Clay in the crucial state of New York.", "After the election, Tyler, whose term would end in March 1845, once again submitted an annexation treaty to Congress.", "Adams strongly attacked the treaty, arguing that the annexation of Texas would involve the United States in \"a war for slavery\".", "Despite Adams's opposition, both houses of Congress approved the treaty, with most Democrats voting for annexation and most Whigs voting against it.", "Texas thus joined the United States as a slave state in 1845.Adams had served with James K. Polk in the House of Representatives, and Adams loathed the new president, seeing him as another expansionist, pro-slavery Southern Democrat.", "Adams favored the annexation of the entirety of Oregon Country, a disputed region occupied by both the United States and Britain, and was disappointed when President Polk signed the Oregon Treaty, which divided the land between the two claimants at the 49th parallel.", "Polk's expansionist aims centered instead on the Mexican province of Alta California, and he attempted to buy the province from Mexico.", "The Mexican government refused to sell California or recognize the independence and subsequent American annexation of Texas.", "Polk deployed a military detachment led by General Zachary Taylor to back up his assertion that the Rio Grande constituted the Southern border of both Texas and the United States.", "After Taylor's forces clashed with Mexican soldiers north of the Rio Grande, Polk asked for a declaration of war in early 1846, asserting that Mexico had invaded American territory.", "Though some Whigs questioned whether Mexico had started an aggressive war, both houses of Congress declared war, with the House voting 174-to-14 to approve the declaration.", "One of the 14 dissenting votes was Adams, who believed that Polk was seeking to wage an offensive to expand slavery.", "After the start of the war, he supported the Wilmot Proviso, an unsuccessful legislative proposal that would have banned slavery in any territory ceded by Mexico.", "After 1846, ill health increasingly affected Adams, but he continued to oppose the Mexican–American War until his death in 1848.=== Anti-slavery movement ===BEP engraved portrait of Adams as presidentIn the 1830s, slavery emerged as an increasingly polarizing issue in the United States.", "A longtime opponent of slavery, Adams used his new role in Congress to fight it, and he became the most prominent national leader opposing slavery.", "After one of his reelection victories, he said that he must \"bring about a day prophesied when slavery and war shall be banished from the face of the Earth\".", "He wrote in his private journal in 1820:In 1836, partially in response to Adams's consistent presentation of citizen petitions requesting the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, the U.S. House of Representatives imposed a gag rule that immediately tabled any petitions about slavery.", "Democrats and Southern Whigs favored the rule, but Northern Whigs, like Adams, opposed it.", "In late 1836, Adams began a campaign to ridicule slave owners and the gag rule.", "He frequently attempted to present anti-slavery petitions, often in ways that provoked strong reactions from Southern representatives.", "Though the gag rule remained in place, the discussion ignited by his actions and the attempts of others to quiet him raised questions of the right to petition, the right to legislative debate, and the morality of slavery.", "Adams fought actively against the gag rule for another seven years, eventually moving the resolution that led to its repeal in 1844.In 1841, at the request of Lewis Tappan and Ellis Gray Loring, Adams joined the case of ''United States v. The Amistad''.", "Adams went before the Supreme Court on behalf of African slaves who had revolted and seized the Spanish ship ''Amistad''.", "Adams appeared on February 24, 1841, and spoke for four hours.", "His argument succeeded: the Court ruled that the Africans were free and they returned to their homes.=== Smithsonian Institution ===U.S.", "National Portrait Gallery by George Bingham c. 1850 copy of an 1844 originalAdams also became a leading force for the promotion of science.", "In 1829, British scientist James Smithson died, and he left his fortune for the \"increase and diffusion of knowledge\".", "In Smithson's will, he stated that should his nephew, Henry James Hungerford, die without heirs, the Smithson estate would go to the government of the United States to create an \"Establishment for the increase and diffusion of Knowledge among men\".", "After the nephew died without heirs in 1835, President Andrew Jackson informed Congress of the bequest, which amounted to about US$500,000 (US$18 million in 2024 dollars after inflation).", "Adams realized that this might allow the United States to realize his dream of building a national institution of science and learning.", "Adams thus became Congress's primary supporter of the future Smithsonian Institution.The money was invested in shaky state bonds, which quickly defaulted.", "After heated debate in Congress, Adams successfully argued to restore the lost funds with interest.", "Though Congress wanted to use the money for other purposes, Adams successfully persuaded Congress to preserve the money for an institution of science and learning.", "Congress also debated whether the federal government had the authority to accept the gift, though with Adams leading the initiative, Congress accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1, 1836.Partly due to Adams's efforts, Congress voted to establish the Smithsonian Institution in 1846.A nonpolitical board of regents was established to lead the institution, which included a museum, art gallery, library, and laboratory.=== Death ===Adams's cenotaph at the Congressional CemeteryIn 1846, the 78-year-old former president suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed.", "After a few months of rest, he made a full recovery and resumed his duties in Congress.", "When Adams entered the House chamber on February 13, 1847, everyone \"stood up and applauded\".John Quincy Adams during his final hours of life after his collapse in the Capitol.", "Drawing in pencil by Arthur Joseph Stansbury, digitally restored.On February 21, 1848, the House of Representatives was discussing the matter of honoring United States Army officers who served in the Mexican–American War.", "Adams had been a vehement critic of the war, and as Congressmen rose up to say, \"Aye!\"", "in favor of the measure, he instead yelled, \"No!\"", "He rose to answer a question put forth by Speaker of the House Robert Charles Winthrop.", "Immediately thereafter, Adams collapsed, having suffered a massive cerebral hemorrhage.", "Two days later, on February 23, he died at 7:20 p.m. with his wife at his side in the Speaker's Room inside the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C.; his only living child, Charles Francis, did not arrive in time to see his father alive.", "His last words were \"This is the last of Earth.", "I am content\".", "Among those present for his death was future president Abraham Lincoln, then a freshman representative from Illinois.John Quincy Adams's original tomb at Hancock Cemetery, across the street from United First Parish ChurchHis original interment was temporary, in the public vault at the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C. Later, he was interred in the family burial ground in Quincy, Massachusetts, across from the (Unitarian) United First Parish Church, called Hancock Cemetery.", "After Louisa's death in 1852, his son had his parents re-interred in the expanded family crypt in the United First Parish Church across the street, next to John and Abigail.", "Both tombs are viewable by the public.", "Adams's original tomb at Hancock Cemetery is still there and marked simply \"J.Q.", "Adams\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Adams and Louisa had three sons and a daughter.", "Their daughter, Louisa, was born in 1811 but died in 1812.They named their first son George Washington Adams (1801–1829) after the first president.", "This decision upset Adams's mother, and, by her account, his father as well.", "Both George and their second son, John (1803–1834), led troubled lives and died in early adulthood.", "George, who had long suffered from alcoholism, died in 1829 after going overboard on a steamboat; it is not clear whether he fell or purposely jumped from the boat.", "John, who ran an unprofitable flour and grist mill owned by his father, died of an unknown illness in 1834.Adams's youngest son, Charles Francis Adams Sr., was an important leader of the \"Conscience Whigs\", a Northern, anti-slavery faction of the Whig Party.", "Charles served as the Free Soil Party's vice presidential candidate in the 1848 presidential election and later became a prominent member of the Republican Party, serving as United States Minister to England during the American Civil War.=== Personality ===Presidential Dollar of John Quincy AdamsAdams's personality and political beliefs were much like his father's.", "He always preferred solitary reading to social engagements, and he was repeatedly persuaded to stay in public service by others.", "Historian Paul Nagel states that, like Abraham Lincoln after him, Adams often suffered from depression, for which he sought treatment in early years.", "Adams thought his depression was due to the high expectations demanded of him by his father and mother.", "Throughout his life, he felt inadequate and socially awkward because of his depression, and was constantly bothered by his physical appearance.", "He was closer to his father, with whom he spent much of his early life while abroad, than he was to his mother.", "In his youth, while the American Revolution raged on, Adams heard from his mother about his father's work and the substantial risks he took to support it.", "As a result, he developed a deep respect for his father.", "In contrast, Adams had a rocky relationship with his mother, due to her high expectations of him, and her fear that her children would follow in the footsteps of her brother, who died of alcoholism.", "His biographer, Nagel, concludes that his mother's disapproval of Louisa Johnson motivated him to marry Johnson in 1797, despite Adams's reservations that Johnson, like his mother, had a forceful personality.Though Adams wore a powdered wig tied in a queue in his youth, he abandoned this fashion while serving as the U.S. Minister to Russia (1809–1814) and became the first president to adopt a short haircut instead of long hair tied in a queue and to regularly wear long trousers instead of knee breeches according to the fashion of the 19th century.", "It has been suggested that John Quincy Adams had the highest I.Q.", "of any U.S. president.", "Dean Simonton, a professor of psychology at UC Davis, estimated his I.Q.", "score at 165.He reportedly spoke eight foreign languages (Dutch, French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, Russian, and Spanish), more than any other U.S. president.", "He remains the only U.S. president who could converse in Russian." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Historical reputation ===Official portrait of Adams by George Peter Alexander Healy, Adams is widely regarded as one of the most effective diplomats and secretaries of state in American history, but scholars generally rank him as an average president.", "Adams is remembered as a man eminently qualified for the presidency, yet hopelessly weakened in his presidential leadership potential because of the 1824 election.", "Most importantly, Adams is remembered as a poor politician in an era when politics had begun to matter more.", "He spoke of trying to serve as a man above the \"baneful weed of party strife\" at the precise moment in history when the Second Party System was emerging with nearly revolutionary force.", "Biographer and historian William J. Cooper Jr. comments that Adams \"does not loom large in the American imagination\", but that he has received more public attention since the late 20th century due to his anti-slavery stances.", "Cooper writes that Adams was the first \"major public figure\" to publicly question whether the United States could remain united so long as the institution of slavery persisted.", "Historian Daniel Walker Howe writes that Adams's \"intellectual ability and courage were above reproach, and his wisdom in perceiving the national interest has stood the test of time\".", "He has also been praised as a strong prose stylist, with James Parker describing him as one of the \"three authentically muddy-eyed and pained-by-subjectivity ''writers''\" that the White House has harbored, along with Abraham Lincoln and Barack Obama.=== Memorials ===Peacefield – John Quincy Adams's HomeJohn Quincy Adams Birthplace is now part of Adams National Historical Park and open to the public.", "Adams House, one of twelve undergraduate residential Houses at Harvard University, is named for John Adams, John Quincy Adams, and other members of the Adams family associated with Harvard.", "John Quincy Adams tower, located in the Southwest residential area of the University of Massachusetts Amherst, is named for the president.", "In 1870, Charles Francis built the first presidential library in the United States, to honor his father.", "The Stone Library includes over 14,000 books written in twelve languages.", "The library is located at Peacefield (the \"Old House\") at Adams National Historical Park in Quincy, Massachusetts.Tombs of Presidents John Adams (far left) and John Quincy Adams (right) and their wives Abigail and Louisa, in a family crypt beneath the United First Parish Church.An Adams Memorial has been proposed in Washington, D.C., honoring Adams and his wife, son, father, mother, and other members of their family.Adams's middle name of Quincy has been used by several locations in the United States, including the town of Quincy, Illinois.", "Adams County, Illinois and Adams County, Indiana are also named after Adams.", "Adams County, Iowa, and Adams County, Wisconsin, were each named for either John Adams or John Quincy Adams.Some sources contend that in 1843 Adams sat for the earliest confirmed photograph of a United States president, although others maintain that William Henry Harrison had posed even earlier for his portrait, in 1841.The original daguerreotype is in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution.=== Film and television ===Adams occasionally is featured in the mass media.", "In the PBS miniseries ''The Adams Chronicles'' (1976), he was portrayed by David Birney, William Daniels, Marcel Trenchard, Steven Grover and Mark Winkworth.", "He was also portrayed by Anthony Hopkins in the 1997 film ''Amistad'', and again by Ebon Moss-Bachrach and Steven Hinkle in the 2008 HBO television miniseries ''John Adams''." ], [ "See also", "* Adams's method for apportionment* List of abolitionists* List of United States political appointments across party lines* List of presidents of the United States by previous experience* List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)* Mendi Bible* Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * Georgini, Sara.", "''Household Gods: The Religious Lives of the Adams Family'' (Oxford University Press, 2019).", "* * * * Lewis Jr, James E. ''John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union'' (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001).", "* * * * * * excerpt and text search* * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "=== Secondary sources === * * Morgan, William G. \"Henry Clay's Biographers and the 'Corrupt Bargain' Charge.\"", "''Register of the Kentucky Historical Society'' 66#3 (1968), pp.", "242–58.online* Morgan, William G. \"John Quincy Adams Versus Andrew Jackson: Their Biographers And The 'Corrupt Bargain' Charge.\"", "''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' 26#1 (1967), pp.", "43–58.online* * * Pessen, Edward.", "\"John Quincy Adams\" in Henry Graff, ed.", "''The Presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed.", "2002) online* * excerpt and text search* === Primary sources ===* Waldstreicher, David, ed.", "''The Diaries of John Quincy Adams, 1779–1821'' (Library of America, 20170.xiv, 727 pp.", ")* * * Founders Online, searchable edition" ], [ "External links", "* Scholarly coverage of Adams at Miller Center, U of Virginia* The Diaries of John Quincy Adams: A Digital Collection at the Massachusetts Historical Society* \"Life Portrait of John Quincy Adams\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', April 18, 1999* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jurassic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Jurassic''' ( ) is a geologic period and stratigraphic system that spanned from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period, approximately Mya.", "The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era and is named after the Jura Mountains, where limestone strata from the period were first identified.The start of the Jurassic was marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, associated with the eruption of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP).", "The beginning of the Toarcian Stage started around 183 million years ago and is marked by the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event, a global episode of oceanic anoxia, ocean acidification, and elevated global temperatures associated with extinctions, likely caused by the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous provinces.", "The end of the Jurassic, however, has no clear, definitive boundary with the Cretaceous and is the only boundary between geological periods to remain formally undefined.By the beginning of the Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea had begun rifting into two landmasses: Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south.", "The climate of the Jurassic was warmer than the present, and there were no ice caps.", "Forests grew close to the poles, with large arid expanses in the lower latitudes.On land, the fauna transitioned from the Triassic fauna, dominated jointly by dinosauromorph and pseudosuchian archosaurs, to one dominated by dinosaurs alone.", "The first birds appeared during the Jurassic, evolving from a branch of theropod dinosaurs.", "Other major events include the appearance of the earliest crabs and modern lizards, and the diversification of early mammals.", "Crocodylomorphs made the transition from a terrestrial to an aquatic life.", "The oceans were inhabited by marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, while pterosaurs were the dominant flying vertebrates.", "Modern sharks and rays first appeared and diversified during the period.", "The flora was dominated by ferns and gymnosperms, including conifers, of which many modern groups made their first appearance during the period, as well as other groups the extinct Bennettitales." ], [ "Etymology and history", "Portrait of alt=alt=A realistic black-and-white portrait of Brongniart, who is clean shaven with a full head of hair.", "He is dressed in a formal jacketThe chronostratigraphic term \"Jurassic\" is linked to the Jura Mountains, a forested mountain range that mainly follows the France–Switzerland border.", "The name \"Jura\" is derived from the Celtic root ''jor'' via Gaulish ''iuris'' \"wooded mountain\", which was borrowed into Latin as a name of a place and evolved into ''Juria'' and finally ''Jura''.During a tour of the region in 1795, German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt recognized carbonate deposits within the Jura Mountains as geologically distinct from the Triassic aged Muschelkalk of southern Germany, but he erroneously concluded that they were older.", "He then named them ('Jura limestone') in 1799.In 1829, the French naturalist Alexandre Brongniart published a book entitled ''Description of the Terrains that Constitute the Crust of the Earth or Essay on the Structure of the Known Lands of the Earth.''", "In this book, Brongniart used the phrase ''terrains jurassiques'' when correlating the \"Jura-Kalkstein\" of Humboldt with similarly aged oolitic limestones in Britain, thus coining and publishing the term \"Jurassic\".The German geologist Leopold von Buch in 1839 established the three-fold division of the Jurassic, originally named from oldest to the youngest: the Black Jurassic, Brown Jurassic, and White Jurassic.", "The term \"Lias\" had previously been used for strata of equivalent age to the Black Jurassic in England by William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822.The French palaeontologist Alcide d'Orbigny in papers between 1842 and 1852 divided the Jurassic into ten stages based on ammonite and other fossil assemblages in England and France, of which seven are still used, but none has retained its original definition.", "The German geologist and palaeontologist Friedrich August von Quenstedt in 1858 divided the three series of von Buch in the Swabian Jura into six subdivisions defined by ammonites and other fossils.The German palaeontologist Albert Oppel in his studies between 1856 and 1858 altered d'Orbigny's original scheme and further subdivided the stages into biostratigraphic zones, based primarily on ammonites.", "Most of the modern stages of the Jurassic were formalized at the Colloque du Jurassique à Luxembourg in 1962." ], [ "Geology", "The Jurassic Period is divided into three epochs: Early, Middle, and Late.", "Similarly, in stratigraphy, the Jurassic is divided into the Lower Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, and Upper Jurassic series.", "Geologists divide the rocks of the Jurassic into a stratigraphic set of units called stages, each formed during corresponding time intervals called ages.Stages can be defined globally or regionally.", "For global stratigraphic correlation, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) ratify global stages based on a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) from a single formation (a stratotype) identifying the lower boundary of the stage.", "The ages of the Jurassic from youngest to oldest are as follows:Series/epochStage/ageLower boundary Early Cretaceous Berriasian~145 Mya '''Upper/Late Jurassic''' Tithonian 149.2 ±0.7 Mya Kimmeridgian 154.8 ±0.8 Mya Oxfordian 161.5 ±1.0 Mya'''Middle Jurassic''' Callovian 165.3 ±1.1 Mya Bathonian 168.2 ±1.2 Mya Bajocian 170.9 ±0.8 Mya Aalenian 174.7 ±0.8 Mya'''Lower/Early Jurassic''' Toarcian 184.2 ±0.3 Mya Pliensbachian 192.9 ±0.3 Mya Sinemurian 199.5 ±0.3 Mya Hettangian 201.4 ±0.2 Mya=== Stratigraphy ===Folded Lower Jurassic limestone layers of the Doldenhorn nappe at Gasteretal, SwitzerlandMiddle Jurassic strata in Neuquén Province, ArgentinaTidwell Member of the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic), ColoradoJurassic stratigraphy is primarily based on the use of ammonites as index fossils.", "The first appearance datum of specific ammonite taxa is used to mark the beginnings of stages, as well as smaller timespans within stages, referred to as \"ammonite zones\"; these, in turn, are also sometimes subdivided further into subzones.", "Global stratigraphy is based on standard European ammonite zones, with other regions being calibrated to the European successions.", "Base Aalenian GSSP at Fuentelsaz==== Early Jurassic ====The oldest part of the Jurassic Period has historically been referred to as the Lias or Liassic, roughly equivalent in extent to the Early Jurassic, but also including part of the preceding Rhaetian.", "The Hettangian Stage was named by Swiss palaeontologist Eugène Renevier in 1864 after Hettange-Grande in north-eastern France.", "The GSSP for the base of the Hettangian is located at the Kuhjoch Pass, Karwendel Mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria; it was ratified in 2010.The beginning of the Hettangian, and thus the Jurassic as a whole, is marked by the first appearance of the ammonite ''Psiloceras spelae tirolicum'' in the Kendlbach Formation exposed at Kuhjoch.", "The base of the Jurassic was previously defined as the first appearance of ''Psiloceras planorbis'' by Albert Oppel in 1856–58, but this was changed as the appearance was seen as too localised an event for an international boundary.The Sinemurian Stage was first defined and introduced into scientific literature by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842.It takes its name from the French town of Semur-en-Auxois, near Dijon.", "The original definition of Sinemurian included what is now the Hettangian.", "The GSSP of the Sinemurian is located at a cliff face north of the hamlet of East Quantoxhead, 6 kilometres east of Watchet, Somerset, England, within the Blue Lias, and was ratified in 2000.The beginning of the Sinemurian is defined by the first appearance of the ammonite ''Vermiceras quantoxense.", "''Albert Oppel in 1858 named the Pliensbachian Stage after the hamlet of Pliensbach in the community of Zell unter Aichelberg in the Swabian Alb, near Stuttgart, Germany.", "The GSSP for the base of the Pliensbachian is found at the Wine Haven locality in Robin Hood's Bay, Yorkshire, England, in the Redcar Mudstone Formation, and was ratified in 2005.The beginning of the Pliensbachian is defined by the first appearance of the ammonite ''Bifericeras donovani''.The village Thouars (Latin: ''Toarcium''), just south of Saumur in the Loire Valley of France, lends its name to the Toarcian Stage.", "The Toarcian was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842, with the original locality being Vrines quarry around 2 km northwest of Thouars.", "The GSSP for the base of the Toarcian is located at Peniche, Portugal, and was ratified in 2014.The boundary is defined by the first appearance of ammonites belonging to the subgenus ''Dactylioceras'' (''Eodactylites'')''.", "''==== Middle Jurassic ====The Aalenian is named after the city of Aalen in Germany.", "The Aalenian was defined by Swiss geologist Karl Mayer-Eymar in 1864.The lower boundary was originally between the dark clays of the Black Jurassic and the overlying clayey sandstone and ferruginous oolite of the Brown Jurassic sequences of southwestern Germany.", "The GSSP for the base of the Aalenian is located at Fuentelsaz in the Iberian range near Guadalajara, Spain, and was ratified in 2000.The base of the Aalenian is defined by the first appearance of the ammonite ''Leioceras opalinum''.Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842 named the Bajocian Stage after the town of Bayeux (Latin: ''Bajoce'') in Normandy, France.", "The GSSP for the base of the Bajocian is located in the Murtinheira section at Cabo Mondego, Portugal; it was ratified in 1997.The base of the Bajocian is defined by the first appearance of the ammonite ''Hyperlioceras mundum.", "''The Bathonian is named after the city of Bath, England, introduced by Belgian geologist d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1843, after an incomplete section of oolitic limestones in several quarries in the region.", "The GSSP for the base of the Bathonian is Ravin du Bès, Bas-Auran area, Alpes de Haute Provence, France; it was ratified in 2009.The base of the Bathonian is defined by the first appearance of the ammonite ''Gonolkites convergens'', at the base of the ''Zigzagiceras zigzag'' ammonite zone''.", "''The Callovian is derived from the Latinized name of the village of Kellaways in Wiltshire, England, and was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1852, originally the base at the contact between the Forest Marble Formation and the Cornbrash Formation.", "However, this boundary was later found to be within the upper part of the Bathonian.", "The base of the Callovian does not yet have a certified GSSP.", "The working definition for the base of the Callovian is the first appearance of ammonites belonging to the genus ''Kepplerites.", "''==== Late Jurassic ====The Oxfordian is named after the city of Oxford in England and was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1844 in reference to the Oxford Clay.", "The base of the Oxfordian lacks a defined GSSP.", "W. J. Arkell in studies in 1939 and 1946 placed the lower boundary of the Oxfordian as the first appearance of the ammonite ''Quenstedtoceras mariae'' (then placed in the genus ''Vertumniceras'').", "Subsequent proposals have suggested the first appearance of ''Cardioceras redcliffense'' as the lower boundary.The village of Kimmeridge on the coast of Dorset, England, is the origin of the name of the Kimmeridgian.", "The stage was named by Alcide d'Orbigny in 1842 in reference to the Kimmeridge Clay.", "The GSSP for the base of the Kimmeridgian is the Flodigarry section at Staffin Bay on the Isle of Skye, Scotland, which was ratified in 2021.The boundary is defined by the first appearance of ammonites marking the boreal Bauhini Zone and the subboreal Baylei Zone.The Tithonian was introduced in scientific literature by Albert Oppel in 1865.The name Tithonian is unusual in geological stage names because it is derived from Greek mythology rather than a place name.", "Tithonus was the son of Laomedon of Troy and fell in love with Eos, the Greek goddess of dawn.", "His name was chosen by Albert Oppel for this stratigraphical stage because the Tithonian finds itself hand in hand with the dawn of the Cretaceous.", "The base of the Tithonian currently lacks a GSSP.", "The working definition for the base of the Tithonian is the first appearance of the ammonite genus ''Gravesia''.The upper boundary of the Jurassic is currently undefined, and the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined GSSP.", "Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and lack of any chemostratigraphic events, such as isotope excursions (large sudden changes in ratios of isotopes), that could be used to define or correlate a boundary.", "Calpionellids, an enigmatic group of planktonic protists with urn-shaped calcitic tests briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested to represent the most promising candidates for fixing the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary In particular, the first appearance ''Calpionella alpina,'' co-inciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous.", "The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite ''Strambergella jacobi,'' formerly placed in the genus ''Berriasella'', but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that of ''C.", "alpina''.=== Mineral and hydrocarbon deposits ===The Kimmeridge Clay and equivalents are the major source rock for the North Sea oil.", "The Arabian Intrashelf Basin, deposited during the Middle and Late Jurassic, is the setting of the world's largest oil reserves, including the Ghawar Field, the world's largest oil field.", "The Jurassic-aged Sargelu and Naokelekan formations are major source rocks for oil in Iraq.", "Over 1500 gigatons of Jurassic coal reserves are found in north-west China, primarily in the Turpan-Hami Basin and the Ordos Basin.=== Impact structures ===Major impact structures include the Morokweng impact structure, a 70 km diameter impact structure buried beneath the Kalahari desert in northern South Africa.", "The impact is dated to the Tithonian, approximately 146.06 ± 0.16 Mya.", "Another major structure is the Puchezh-Katunki crater, 40 kilometres in diameter, buried beneath Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in western Russia.", "The impact has been dated to the Sinemurian, 195.9 ± 1.0 Ma." ], [ "Paleogeography and tectonics", "Pangaea at the start of JurassicThe breakup of Gondwanaland took place during the Late Jurassic, the Indian Ocean opened up as a resultAt the beginning of the Jurassic, all of the world's major landmasses were coalesced into the supercontinent Pangaea, which during the Early Jurassic began to break up into northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana.", "The rifting between North America and Africa was the first to initiate, beginning in the early Jurassic, associated with the emplacement of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province.During the Jurassic, the North Atlantic Ocean remained relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous.", "The continents were surrounded by Panthalassa, with the Tethys Ocean between Gondwana and Asia.", "At the end of the Triassic, there was a marine transgression in Europe, flooding most parts of central and western Europe transforming it into an archipelago of islands surrounded by shallow seas.", "During the Jurassic, both the North and South Pole were covered by oceans.", "Beginning in the Early Jurassic, the Boreal Ocean was connected to the proto-Atlantic by the \"Viking corridor\" or Transcontinental Laurasian Seaway, a passage between the Baltic Shield and Greenland several hundred kilometers wide.", "During the Callovian, the Turgai Epicontinental Sea formed, creating a marine barrier between Europe and Asia.Madagascar and Antarctica began to rift away from Africa during the late Early Jurassic in association with the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous provinces, opening the western Indian Ocean and beginning the fragmentation of Gondwana.", "At the beginning of the Jurassic, North and South America remained connected, but by the beginning of the Late Jurassic they had rifted apart to form the Caribbean Seaway, also known as the Hispanic Corridor, which connected the North Atlantic Ocean with eastern Panthalassa.", "Palaeontological data suggest that the seaway had been open since the Early Jurassic.As part of the Nevadan orogeny, which began during the Triassic, the Cache Creek Ocean closed, and various terranes including the large Wrangellia Terrane accreted onto the western margin of North America.", "By the Middle Jurassic the Siberian plate and the North China-Amuria block had collided, resulting in the closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean.Formation of the Pacific Plate during the Early JurassicDuring the Early Jurassic, around 190 million years ago, the Pacific Plate originated at the triple junction of the Farallon, Phoenix, and Izanagi tectonic plates, the three main oceanic plates of Panthalassa.", "The previously stable triple junction had converted to an unstable arrangement surrounded on all sides by transform faults because of a kink in one of the plate boundaries, resulting in the formation of the Pacific Plate at the centre of the junction.", "During the Middle to early Late Jurassic, the Sundance Seaway, a shallow epicontinental sea, covered much of northwest North America.Grainstone with calcitic ooids and sparry calcite cement; Carmel Formation, Middle Jurassic, of southern Utah, USThe eustatic sea level is estimated to have been close to present levels during the Hettangian and Sinemurian, rising several tens of metres during the late Sinemurian–Pliensbachian before regressing to near present levels by the late Pliensbachian.", "There seems to have been a gradual rise to a peak of ~75 m above present sea level during the Toarcian.", "During the latest part of the Toarcian, the sea level again dropped by several tens of metres.", "It progressively rose from the Aalenian onwards, aside from dips of a few tens of metres in the Bajocian and around the Callovian–Oxfordian boundary, peaking possibly as high as 140 metres above present sea level at the Kimmeridgian–Tithonian boundary.", "The sea levels falls in the late Tithonian, perhaps to around 100 metres, before rebounding to around 110 metres at the Tithonian–Berriasian boundary.The sea level within the long-term trends across the Jurassic was cyclical, with 64 fluctuations, 15 of which were over 75 metres.", "The most noted cyclicity in Jurassic rocks is fourth order, with a periodicity of approximately 410,000 years.During the Early Jurassic the world's oceans transitioned from an aragonite sea to a calcite sea chemistry, favouring the dissolution of aragonite and precipitation of calcite.", "The rise of calcareous plankton during the Middle Jurassic profoundly altered ocean chemistry, with the deposition of biomineralized plankton on the ocean floor acting as a buffer against large CO2 emissions." ], [ "Climate", "The climate of the Jurassic was generally warmer than that of present, by around 5 °C to 10 °C, with atmospheric carbon dioxide likely about four times higher.", "Intermittent \"cold snap\" intervals are known to have occurred during this time period, however, interrupting the otherwise warm greenhouse climate.", "Forests likely grew near the poles, where they experienced warm summers and cold, sometimes snowy winters; there were unlikely to have been ice sheets given the high summer temperatures that prevented the accumulation of snow, though there may have been mountain glaciers.", "Dropstones and glendonites in northeastern Siberia during the Early to Middle Jurassic indicate cold winters.", "The ocean depths were likely 8 °C warmer than present, and coral reefs grew 10° of latitude further north and south.", "The Intertropical Convergence Zone likely existed over the oceans, resulting in large areas of desert and scrubland in the lower latitudes between 40° N and S of the equator.", "Tropical rainforest and tundra biomes are likely to have been rare or absent.", "The Jurassic also witnessed the decline of the Pangaean megamonsoon that had characterised the preceding Permian and Triassic periods.", "Variation in the frequency of wildfire activity in the Jurassic was governed by the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle.", "Thanks to the breakup of Pangaea, the hydrological cycle during the Jurassic was significantly enhanced.The beginning of the Jurassic was likely marked by a thermal spike corresponding to the Triassic–Jurassic extinction and eruption of the Central Atlantic magmatic province.", "The first part of the Jurassic was marked by the Early Jurassic Cool Interval between 199 and 183 million years ago.", "It has been proposed that glaciation was present in the Northern Hemisphere during both the early Pliensbachian and the latest Pliensbachian.", "There was a spike in global temperatures of around 4–8 °C during the early part of the Toarcian corresponding to the Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event and the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous provinces in southern Gondwana, with the warm interval extending to the end of the Toarcian around 174 million years ago.", "During the Toarcian Warm Interval, ocean surface temperatures likely exceeded 30 °C, and equatorial and subtropical (30°N–30°S) regions are likely to have been extremely arid, with temperatures in the interior of Pangea likely in excess of 40 °C.", "The Toarcian Warm Interval is followed by the Middle Jurassic Cool Interval (MJCI) between 174 and 164 million years ago, which may have been punctuated by brief, ephemeral icehouse intervals.", "A transient ice age possibly occurred in the late Bajocian.", "The Callovian-Oxfordian boundary at the end of the MJCI witnessed particularly notable global cooling, potentially even an ice age.", "This is followed by the Kimmeridgian Warm Interval (KWI) between 164 and 150 million years ago.", "Based on fossil wood distribution, this was one of the wettest intervals of the Jurassic.", "The Pangaean interior had less severe seasonal swings than in previous warm periods as the expansion of the Central Atlantic and Western Indian Ocean provided new sources of moisture.", "A prominent drop in temperatures occurred during the Tithonian, known as the Early Tithonian Cooling Event (ETCE).", "The end of the Jurassic was marked by the Tithonian–early Barremian Cool Interval (TBCI), beginning 150 million years ago and continuing into the Early Cretaceous.=== Climatic events ======= Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event ====The Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event (TOAE), also known as the Jenkyns Event, was an episode of widespread oceanic anoxia during the early part of the Toarcian Age, c. 183 Mya.", "It is marked by a globally documented high amplitude negative carbon isotope excursion, as well as the deposition of black shales and the extinction and collapse of carbonate-producing marine organisms, associated with a major rise in global temperatures.The TOAE is often attributed to the eruption of the Karoo-Ferrar large igneous provinces and the associated increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere, as well as the possible associated release of methane clathrates.", "This likely accelerated the hydrological cycle and increased silicate weathering, as evidenced by an increased amount of organic matter of terrestrial origin found in marine deposits during the TOAE.", "Groups affected include ammonites, ostracods, foraminifera, bivalves, cnidarians, and especially brachiopods, for which the TOAE represented one of the most severe extinctions in their evolutionary history.", "While the event had significant impact on marine invertebrates, it had little effect on marine reptiles.", "During the TOAE, the Sichuan Basin was transformed into a giant lake, probably three times the size of modern-day Lake Superior, represented by the Da’anzhai Member of the Ziliujing Formation.", "The lake likely sequestered ~460 gigatons (Gt) of organic carbon and ~1,200 Gt of inorganic carbon during the event.", "Seawater pH, which had already substantially decreased prior to the event, increased slightly during the early stages of the TOAE, before dropping to its lowest point around the middle of the event.", "This ocean acidification is the probable cause of the collapse of carbonate production.", "Additionally, anoxic conditions were exacerbated by enhanced recycling of phosphorus back into ocean water as a result of high ocean acidity and temperature inhibiting its mineralisation into apatite; the abundance of phosphorus in marine environments caused further eutrophication and consequent anoxia in a positive feedback loop.==== End-Jurassic transition ====The end-Jurassic transition was originally considered one of eight mass extinctions, but is now considered to be a complex interval of faunal turnover, with the increase in diversity of some groups and decline in others, though the evidence for this is primarily European, probably controlled by changes in eustatic sea level." ], [ "Flora", "=== End-Triassic extinction ===There is no evidence of a mass extinction of plants at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.", "At the Triassic–Jurassic boundary in Greenland, the sporomorph (pollen and spores) record suggests a complete floral turnover.", "An analysis of macrofossil floral communities in Europe suggests that changes were mainly due to local ecological succession.", "At the end of the Triassic, the Peltaspermaceae became extinct in most parts of the world, with ''Lepidopteris'' persisting into the Early Jurassic in Patagonia.", "''Dicroidium'', a corystosperm seed fern that was a dominant part of Gondwanan floral communities during the Triassic, also declined at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, surviving as a relict in Antarctica into the Early Jurassic.=== Floral composition ======= Conifers ====Petrified ''alt=Two images of a round conifer cone, the left one is in cross-sectionConifers formed a dominant component of Jurassic floras.", "The Late Triassic and Jurassic was a major time of diversification of conifers, with most modern conifer groups appearing in the fossil record by the end of the Jurassic, having evolved from voltzialean ancestors.Araucarian conifers have their first unambiguous records during the Early Jurassic, and members of the modern genus ''Araucaria'' were widespread across both hemispheres by the Middle Jurassic.Also abundant during the Jurassic is the extinct family Cheirolepidiaceae, often recognised through their highly distinctive ''Classopolis'' pollen.", "Jurassic representatives include the pollen cone ''Classostrobus'' and the seed cone ''Pararaucaria''.", "Araucarian and Cheirolepidiaceae conifers often occur in association.The oldest definitive record of the cypress family (Cupressaceae) is ''Austrohamia minuta'' from the Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian) of Patagonia, known from many parts of the plant.", "The reproductive structures of ''Austrohamia'' have strong similarities to those of the primitive living cypress genera ''Taiwania'' and ''Cunninghamia.''", "By the Middle to Late Jurassic Cupressaceae were abundant in warm temperate–tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, most abundantly represented by the genus ''Elatides''.", "The Jurassic also saw the first appearances of some modern genera of cypresses, such as ''Sequoia''.Members of the extinct genus ''Schizolepidopsis'' which likely represent a stem-group to the pine family (Pinaceae), were widely distributed across Eurasia during the Jurassic.", "The oldest unambiguous record of Pinaceae is the pine cone ''Eathiestrobus'', known from the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) of Scotland, which remains the only known unequivocal fossil of the group before the Cretaceous.", "Despite being the earliest known member of the Pinaceae, ''Eathiestrobus'' appears to be a member of the pinoid clade of the family, suggesting that the initial diversification of Pinaceae occurred earlier than has been found in the fossil record.The earliest record of the yew family (Taxaceae) is ''Palaeotaxus rediviva'', from the Hettangian of Sweden, suggested to be closely related to the living ''Austrotaxus'', while ''Marskea jurassica'' from the Middle Jurassic of Yorkshire, England and material from the Callovian–Oxfordian Daohugou Bed in China are thought to be closely related to ''Amentotaxus,'' with the latter material assigned to the modern genus, indicating that Taxaceae had substantially diversified by the end of the Jurassic.The oldest unambiguous members of Podocarpaceae are known from the Jurassic, found across both hemispheres, including ''Scarburgia'' and ''Harrisiocarpus'' from the Middle Jurassic of England, as well as unnamed species from the Middle-Late Jurassic of Patagonia.During the Early Jurassic, the flora of the mid-latitudes of Eastern Asia were dominated by the extinct deciduous broad leafed conifer ''Podozamites,'' which appears to not be closely related to any living family of conifer.", "Its range extended northwards into polar latitudes of Siberia and then contracted northward in the Middle to Late Jurassic, corresponding to the increasing aridity of the region.==== Ginkgoales ====Leaves of ''leftGinkgoales, of which the sole living species is ''Ginkgo biloba'', were more diverse during the Jurassic: they were among the most important components of Eurasian Jurassic floras and were adapted to a wide variety of climatic conditions.", "The earliest representatives of the genus ''Ginkgo,'' represented by ovulate and pollen organs similar to those of the modern species, are known from the Middle Jurassic in the Northern Hemisphere.", "Several other lineages of ginkgoaleans are known from Jurassic rocks, including ''Yimaia'', ''Grenana'', ''Nagrenia'' and ''Karkenia''.", "These lineages are associated with ''Ginkgo-''like leaves, but are distinguished from living and fossil representatives of ''Ginkgo'' by having differently arranged reproductive structures.", "''Umaltolepis'' from the Jurassic of Asia has strap-shaped ginkgo-like leaves with highly distinct reproductive structures with similarities to those of peltasperm and corystosperm seed ferns, has been suggested to be a member of Ginkgoales ''sensu lato.", "''==== Bennettitales ====Restoration of a member of 250x250pxBennettitales, having first become widespread during the preceding Triassic, were diverse and abundant members of Jurassic floras across both hemispheres.", "The foliage of Bennettitales bears strong similarities to those of cycads, to such a degree that they cannot be reliably distinguished on the basis of morphology alone.", "Leaves of Bennettitales can be distinguished from those of cycads their different arrangement of stomata, and the two groups are not thought to be closely related.", "Jurassic Bennettitales predominantly belong to the group Williamsoniaceae, which grew as shrubs and small trees.", "The Williamsoniaceae are thought to have had a divaricate branching habit, similar to that of living ''Banksia'', and adapted to growing in open habitats with poor soil nutrient conditions.", "Bennettitales exhibit complex, flower-like reproductive structures some of which are thought to have been pollinated by insects.", "Several groups of insects that bear long proboscis, including extinct families such as kalligrammatid lacewings and extant ones such as acrocerid flies, are suggested to have been pollinators of bennettitales, feeding on nectar produced by bennettitalean cones.==== Cycads ====Cycads reached their apex of diversity during the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.", "Despite the Mesozoic sometimes being called the \"Age of Cycads\", cycads are thought to have been a relatively minor component of mid-Mesozoic floras, with the Bennettitales and Nilssoniales, which have cycad-like foliage, being dominant.", "The Nilssoniales have often been considered cycads or cycad relatives, but have been found to be distinct on chemical grounds, and perhaps more closely allied with Bennettitales.''''", "The relationships of most Mesozoic cycads to living groups are ambiguous, with no Jurassic cycads belonging to either of the two modern groups of cycads, though some Jurassic cycads possibly represent stem-group relatives of modern Cycadaceae, like the leaf genus ''Paracycas'' known Europe, and Zamiaceae, like some European species of the leaf genus ''Pseudoctenis''.", "Also widespread during the Jurassic was the extinct ''Ctenis'' lineage, which appears to be distantly related to modern cycads.", "Modern cycads are pollinated by beetles, and such an association is thought to have formed by the Early Jurassic.==== Other seed plants ====Although there have been several claimed records, there are no widely accepted Jurassic fossil records of flowering plants, which make up 90% of living plant species, and fossil evidence suggests that the group diversified during the following Cretaceous.The earliest known gnetophytes, one of the four main living groups of gymnosperms, appeared by the end of the Jurassic, with the oldest unequivocal gnetophyte being the seed ''Dayvaultia'' from the Late Jurassic of North America.Sagenopteris phillipsi'' (Caytoniales) from the Middle Jurassic of Yorkshire, England\|alt=A fossil leaf, four elongate leaves branch off from the same point on the stem\"Seed ferns\" (Pteridospermatophyta) is a collective term to refer to disparate lineages of fern like plants that produce seeds but have uncertain affinities to living seed plant groups.", "A prominent group of Jurassic seed ferns is the Caytoniales, which reached their zenith during the Jurassic, with widespread records in the Northern Hemisphere, though records in the Southern Hemisphere remain rare.", "Due to their berry-like seed-bearing capsules, they have often been suggested to have been closely related or perhaps ancestral to flowering plants, but the evidence for this is inconclusive.", "Corystosperm-aligned seed ferns, such as ''Pachypteris'' and ''Komlopteris'' were widespread across both hemispheres during the Jurassic.Czekanowskiales, also known as Leptostrobales, are a group of seed plants uncertain affinities with persistent heavily dissected leaves borne on deciduous short shoots, subtended by scale-like leaves, known from the Late Triassic (possibly Late Permian) to Cretaceous.", "They are thought to have had a tree- or shrub-like habit and formed a conspicuous component of Northern Hemisphere Mesozoic temperate and warm-temperate floras.", "The genus ''Phoenicopsis'' was widespread in Early-Middle Jurassic floras of Eastern Asia and Siberia.The Pentoxylales, a small but clearly distinct group of liana-like seed plants of obscure affinities, first appeared during the Jurassic.", "Their distribution appears to have been confined to Eastern Gondwana.==== Ferns and allies ====Living families of ferns widespread during the Jurassic include Dipteridaceae, Matoniaceae, Gleicheniaceae, Osmundaceae and Marattiaceae.", "Polypodiales, which make up 80% of living fern diversity, have no record from the Jurassic and are thought to have diversified in the Cretaceous, though the widespread Jurassic herbaceous fern genus ''Coniopteris,'' historically interpreted as a close relative of tree ferns of the family Dicksoniaceae, has recently been reinterpreted as an early relative of the group.The Cyatheales, the group containing most modern tree ferns, appeared during the Late Jurassic, represented by members of the genus ''Cyathocaulis'', which are suggested to be early members of Cyatheaceae on the basis of cladistic analysis.", "Only a handful of possible records exist of the Hymenophyllaceae from the Jurassic, including ''Hymenophyllites macrosporangiatus'' from the Russian Jurassic.The oldest remains of modern horsetails of the genus ''Equisetum'' first appear in the Early Jurassic, represented by ''Equisetum dimorphum'' from the Early Jurassic of Patagonia and ''Equisetum laterale'' from the Early to Middle Jurassic of Australia.", "Silicified remains of ''Equisetum thermale'' from the Late Jurassic of Argentina exhibit all the morphological characters of modern members of the genus.", "The estimated split between ''Equisetum bogotense'' and all other living ''Equisetum'' is estimated to have occurred no later than the Early Jurassic.==== Lower plants ====Quillworts virtually identical to modern species are known from the Jurassic onwards.", "''Isoetites rolandii'' from the Middle Jurassic of Oregon is the earliest known species to represent all major morphological features of modern ''Isoetes''.", "More primitive forms such as ''Nathorstiana,'' which retain an elongated stem, persisted into the Early Cretaceous.The moss ''Kulindobryum'' from the Middle Jurassic of Russia, which was found associated with dinosaur bones, is thought to be related to the Splachnaceae, which grow on animal caracasses.", "''Bryokhutuliinia'' from the same region is thought to be related to Dicranales.", "''Heinrichsiella'' from the Jurassic of Patagonia is thought to belong to either Polytrichaceae or Timmiellaceae.The liverwort ''Pellites hamiensis'' from the Middle Jurassic Xishanyao Formation of China is the oldest record of the family Pelliaceae.", "''Pallaviciniites sandaolingensis'' from the same deposit is thought to belong to the subclass Pallaviciniineae within the Pallaviciniales.", "''Ricciopsis sandaolingensis'', also from the same deposit, is the only Jurassic record of Ricciaceae." ], [ "Fauna", "=== Reptiles ======= Crocodylomorphs ====Holotype specimen of ''Platysuchus,'' a telosaurid thalattosuchianThe Triassic–Jurassic extinction decimated pseudosuchian diversity, with crocodylomorphs, which originated during the early Late Triassic, being the only group of pseudosuchians to survive.", "All other pseudosuchians, including the herbivorous aetosaurs and carnivorous \"rauisuchians\", became extinct.", "The morphological diversity of crocodylomorphs during the Early Jurassic was around the same as that of Late Triassic pseudosuchians, but they occupied different areas of morphospace, suggesting that they occupied different ecological niches to their Triassic counterparts and that there was an extensive and rapid radiation of crocodylomorphs during this interval.", "While living crocodilians are mostly confined to an aquatic ambush predator lifestyle, Jurassic crocodylomorphs exhibited a wide variety of life habits.", "An unnamed protosuchid known from teeth from the Early Jurassic of Arizona represents the earliest known herbivorous crocodylomorph, an adaptation that appeared several times during the Mesozoic.The Thalattosuchia, a clade of predominantly marine crocodylomorphs, first appeared during the Early Jurassic and became a prominent part of marine ecosystems.", "Within Thalattosuchia, the Metriorhynchidae became highly adapted for life in the open ocean, including the transformation of limbs into flippers, the development of a tail fluke, and smooth, scaleless skin.", "The morphological diversity of crocodylomorphs during the Early and Middle Jurassic was relatively low compared to that in later time periods and was dominated by terrestrial small-bodied, long-legged sphenosuchians, early crocodyliforms and thalattosuchians.", "The Neosuchia, a major group of crocodylomorphs, first appeared during the Early to Middle Jurassic.", "The Neosuchia represents the transition from an ancestrally terrestrial lifestyle to a freshwater aquatic ecology similar to that occupied by modern crocodilians.", "The timing of the origin of Neosuchia is disputed.", "The oldest record of Neosuchians has been suggested to be ''Calsoyasuchus,'' from the Early Jurassic of Arizona, which in many analyses has been recovered as the earliest branching member of the neosuchian family Goniopholididae, which radically alters times of diversification for crocodylomorphs.", "However, this placement has been disputed, with some analyses finding it outside Neosuchia, which would place the oldest records of Neosuchia in the Middle Jurassic.", "''Razanandrongobe'' from the Middle Jurassic of Madagascar has been suggested the represent the oldest record of Notosuchia, a primarily Gondwanan clade of mostly terrestrial crocodylomorphs, otherwise known from the Cretaceous and Cenozoic.==== Turtles ====''Thalassemys,'' a thalassochelydian sea turtle known from the Late Jurassic of Germany Stem-group turtles (Testudinata) diversified during the Jurassic.", "Jurassic stem-turtles belong to two progressively more advanced clades, the Mesochelydia and Perichelydia.", "It is thought that the ancestral condition for mesochelydians is aquatic, as opposed to terrestrial for testudinates.", "The two modern groups of turtles (Testudines), Pleurodira and Cryptodira, diverged by the beginning of the Late Jurassic.", "The oldest known pleurodires, the Platychelyidae, are known from the Late Jurassic of Europe and the Americas, while the oldest unambiguous cryptodire, ''Sinaspideretes,'' an early relative of softshell turtles, is known from the Late Jurassic of China.", "The Thalassochelydia, a diverse lineage of marine turtles unrelated to modern sea turtles, are known from the Late Jurassic of Europe and South America.==== Lepidosaurs ====Rhynchocephalians (the sole living representative being the tuatara) had achieved a global distribution by the beginning of the Jurassic.", "Rhynchocephalians reached their highest morphological diversity in their evolutionary history during the Jurassic, occupying a wide range of lifestyles, including the aquatic pleurosaurs with long snake-like bodies and reduced limbs, the specialized herbivorous eilenodontines, as well as the sapheosaurs which had broad tooth plates indicative of durophagy.", "Rhynchocephalians disappeared from Asia after the Early Jurassic.", "The last common ancestor of living squamates (which includes lizards and snakes) is estimated to have lived around 190 million years ago during the Early Jurassic, with the major divergences between modern squamate lineages estimated to have occurred during the Early to Middle Jurassic.", "Squamates first appear in the fossil record during the Middle Jurassic including members of modern clades such as Scincomorpha, though many Jurassic squamates have unclear relationships to living groups.", "''Eichstaettisaurus'' from the Late Jurassic of Germany has been suggested to be an early relative of geckos and displays adaptations for climbing.", "''Dorsetisaurus'' from the Late Jurassic of North America and Europe represents the oldest widely accepted record of Anguimorpha.", "''Marmoretta'' from the Middle Jurassic of Britain has been suggested to represent a late surviving lepidosauromorph outside both Rhynchocephalia and Squamata, though some studies have recovered it as a stem-squamate.File:Vadasaurus herzogi holotype (fossil).jpg\|''Vadasaurus herzogi'', a rynchocephalian from the Upper Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone of GermanyFile:Homeosaurus maximiliani, lizard, Jurassic, Solnhofen Limestone, Eichstatt, Bavaria, Germany - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01988.JPG\|''Homeosaurus maximiliani'', a rynchocephalian from the Solnhofen LimestoneFile:Pleurosaurus 783534.jpg\|''Pleurosaurus,'', an aquatic rhynchocephalian from the Late Jurassic of EuropeFile:Eichstaettisaurus schroederi.JPG\|''Eichstaettisaurus schroederi,'', an extinct lizard from the Solnhofen Limestone ==== Choristoderes ====Skeleton of ''Coeruleodraco''The earliest known remains of Choristodera, a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles with uncertain affinities to other reptile groups, are found in the Middle Jurassic.", "Only two genera of choristodere are known from the Jurassic.", "One is the small lizard-like ''Cteniogenys'', thought to be the most basal known choristodere; it is known from the Middle to Late Jurassic of Europe and Late Jurassic of North America, with similar remains also known from the upper Middle Jurassic of Kyrgyzstan and western Siberia.", "The other is ''Coeruleodraco'' from the Late Jurassic of China, which is a more advanced choristodere, though still small and lizard-like in morphology.==== Ichthyosaurs ====Fossil of ''Ichthyosaurus somersetensis'' at the Natural History Museum, London\|alt=Skeleton of an icthyosaur in side viewIchthyosaurs suffered an evolutionary bottleneck during the end-Triassic extinction, with all non-neoichthyosaurians becoming extinct.", "Ichthyosaurs reached their apex of species diversity during the Early Jurassic, with an array of morphologies including the huge apex predator ''Temnodontosaurus'' and swordfish-like ''Eurhinosaurus,'' though Early Jurassic ichthyosaurs were significantly less morphologically diverse than their Triassic counterparts.", "At the Early–Middle Jurassic boundary, between the end of the Toarcian and the beginning of the Bajocian, most lineages of ichythosaur appear to have become extinct, with the first appearance of the Ophthalmosauridae, the clade that would encompass almost all ichthyosaurs from then on, during the early Bajocian.", "Ophthalmosaurids were diverse by the Late Jurassic, but failed to fill many of the niches that had been occupied by ichthyosaurs during the Early Jurassic.==== Plesiosaurs ====Rhomaleosaurus cramptoni'' at the Natural History Museum, LondonPlesiosaurs originated at the end of the Triassic (Rhaetian).", "By the end of the Triassic, all other sauropterygians, including placodonts and nothosaurs, had become extinct.", "At least six lineages of plesiosaur crossed the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.", "Plesiosaurs were already diverse in the earliest Jurassic, with the majority of plesiosaurs in the Hettangian-aged Blue Lias belonging to the Rhomaleosauridae.", "Early plesiosaurs were generally small-bodied, with body size increasing into the Toarcian.", "There appears to have been a strong turnover around the Early–Middle Jurassic boundary, with microcleidids and rhomaleosaurids becoming extinct and nearly extinct respectively after the end of the Toarcian with the first appearance of the dominant clade of plesiosaurs of the latter half of the Jurassic, the Cryptoclididae during the Bajocian.", "The Middle Jurassic saw the evolution of short-necked and large-headed thalassophonean pliosaurs from ancestrally small-headed, long-necked forms''.''", "Some thalassophonean pliosaurs, such as some species of ''Pliosaurus'', had skulls up to two metres in length with body lengths estimated around 10–12 metres, making them the apex predators of Late Jurassic oceans.", "Plesiosaurs invaded freshwater environments during the Jurassic, with indeterminate remains of small-bodied pleisosaurs known from freshwater sediments from the Jurassic of China and Australia.==== Pterosaurs ====Rhamphorhynchus muensteri'' at Teylers Museum, Haarlem\|leftPterosaurs first appeared in the Late Triassic.", "A major radiation of Jurassic pterosaurs is the Rhamphorhynchidae, which first appeared in the late Early Jurassic (Toarcian); they are thought to been piscivorous.", "Anurognathids, which first appeared in the Middle Jurassic, possessed short heads and densely furred bodies, and are thought to have been insectivores.", "Derived monofenestratan pterosaurs such as wukongopterids appeared in the late Middle Jurassic.", "Advanced short-tailed pterodactyloids first appeared at the Middle–Late Jurassic boundary.", "Jurassic pterodactyloids include the ctenochasmatids, like ''Ctenochasma'', which have closely spaced needle-like teeth that were presumably used for filter feeding.", "The bizarre Late Jurassic ctenochasmatoid ''Cycnorhamphus'' had a jaw with teeth only at the tips, with bent jaws like those of living openbill storks that may have been used to hold and crush hard invertebrates.=== Dinosaurs ===Dinosaurs, which had morphologically diversified in the Late Triassic, experienced a major increase in diversity and abundance during the Early Jurassic in the aftermath of the end-Triassic extinction and the extinction of other reptile groups, becoming the dominant vertebrates in terrestrial ecosystems.", "''Chilesaurus'', a morphologically aberrant herbivorous dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of South America, has uncertain relationships to the three main groups of dinosaurs, having been recovered as a member of all three in different analyses.==== Theropods ====Advanced theropods belonging to Neotheropoda first appeared in the Late Triassic.", "Basal neotheropods, such as coelophysoids and dilophosaurs, persisted into the Early Jurassic, but became extinct by the Middle Jurassic.", "The earliest averostrans appear during the Early Jurassic, with the earliest known member of Ceratosauria being ''Saltriovenator'' from the early Sinemurian (199.3–197.5 million years ago) of Italy.", "The unusual ceratosaur ''Limusaurus'' from the Late Jurassic of China had a herbivorous diet, with adults having edentulous beaked jaws, making it the earliest known theropod to have converted from an ancestrally carnivorous diet.", "The earliest members of the Tetanurae appeared during the late Early Jurassic or early Middle Jurassic.", "The Megalosauridae represent the oldest radiation of the Tetanurae, first appearing in Europe during the Bajocian.", "The oldest member of Allosauroidea has been suggested to be ''Asfaltovenator'' from the Middle Jurassic of South America.", "Coelurosaurs first appeared during the Middle Jurassic, including early tyrannosaurs such as ''Proceratosaurus'' from the Bathonian of Britain.", "Some coelurosaurs from the Late Jurassic of China including ''Shishugounykus'' and ''Haplocheirus'' are suggested to represent early alvarezsaurs, however, this has been questioned.", "Scansoriopterygids, a group of small feathered coelurosaurs with membraneous, bat-like wings for gliding, are known from the Middle to Late Jurassic of China.", "The oldest record of troodontids is suggested to be ''Hesperornithoides'' from the Late Jurassic of North America.", "Tooth remains suggested to represent those of dromaeosaurs are known from the Jurassic, but no body remains are known until the Cretaceous.File:Ceratosaurus mounted white background.jpg\|Skeleton of ''Ceratosaurus'', a ceratosaurid from the Late Jurassic of North AmericaFile:Monolophosaurus jiangi.jpg\|Skeleton of ''Monolophosaurus'', a basal tetanuran from the Middle Jurassic of ChinaFile:Yi qi restoration.jpg\|Restoration of ''Yi qi'', a scansoriopterygid from the Middle to Late Jurassic of China===== Birds =====Archaeopteryx lithographica'' from the Late Jurassic (Tithonian) of Germany\|243x243px\|alt=Fossil of complete Archaeopteryx, including indentations of feathers on wings and tailThe earliest avialans, which include birds and their ancestors, appear during the Middle to Late Jurassic, definitively represented by ''Archaeopteryx'' from the Late Jurassic of Germany.", "Avialans belong to the clade Paraves within Coelurosauria, which also includes dromaeosaurs and troodontids.", "The Anchiornithidae from the Middle-Late Jurassic of Eurasia have frequently suggested to be avialans, but have also alternatively found as a separate lineage of paravians.Skeleton of ''Heterodontosaurus,'' a primitive ornithischian from the Early Jurassic of South Africa==== Ornithischians ====The earliest definitive ornithischians appear during the Early Jurassic, represented by basal ornithischians like ''Lesothosaurus'', heterodontosaurids, and early members of Thyreophora.", "The earliest members of Ankylosauria and Stegosauria appear during the Middle Jurassic.", "The basal neornithischian ''Kulindadromeus'' from the Middle Jurassic of Russia indicates that at least some ornithischians were covered in protofeathers.", "The earliest members of Ankylopollexia, which become prominent in the Cretaceous, appeared during the Late Jurassic, represented by bipedal forms such as ''Camptosaurus''.", "Ceratopsians first appeared in the Late Jurassic of China, represented by members of Chaoyangsauridae.==== Sauropodomorphs ====Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum'' from the Middle-Late Jurassic of ChinaSauropods became the dominant large herbivores in terrestrial ecosystems during the Jurassic.", "Some Jurassic sauropods reached gigantic sizes, becoming the largest organisms to have ever lived on land.Basal bipedal sauropodomorphs, such as massospondylids, continued to exist into the Early Jurassic, but became extinct by the beginning of the Middle Jurassic.", "Quadrupedal sauropomorphs appeared during the Late Triassic.", "The quadrupedal ''Ledumahadi'' from the earliest Jurassic of South Africa reached an estimated weight of 12 tons, far in excess of other known basal sauropodomorphs.", "Gravisaurian sauropods first appeared during the Early Jurassic, with the oldest definitive record being ''Vulcanodon'' from Zimbabwe, likely of Sinemurian age.", "Eusauropods first appeared during the late Early Jurassic (Toarcian) and diversified during the Middle Jurassic; these included cetiosaurids, turiasaurs, and mamenchisaurs.", "Neosauropods such as macronarians and diplodocoids first appeared during the Middle Jurassic, before becoming abundant and globally distributed during the Late Jurassic.=== Amphibians ===Karaurus sharovi,'' a stem-group salamander from the Middle to Late Jurassic of Kazakhstan\|239x239px\|alt=Topside view of a salamander skeletonThe diversity of temnospondyls had progressively declined through the Late Triassic, with only brachyopoids surviving into the Jurassic and beyond.", "Members of the family Brachyopidae are known from Jurassic deposits in Asia, while the chigutisaurid ''Siderops'' is known from the Early Jurassic of Australia.", "Modern lissamphibians began to diversify during the Jurassic.", "The Early Jurassic ''Prosalirus'' thought to represent the first frog relative with a morphology capable of hopping like living frogs.", "Morphologically recognisable stem-frogs like the South American ''Notobatrachus'' are known from the Middle Jurassic, with modern crown-group frogs like ''Enneabatrachus'' and ''Rhadinosteus'' appearing by the Late Jurassic.", "While the earliest salamander-line amphibians are known from the Triassic, crown group salamanders first appear during the Middle to Late Jurassic in Eurasia, alongside stem-group relatives.", "Many Jurassic stem-group salamanders, such as ''Marmorerpeton'' and ''Kokartus'', are thought to have been neotenic.", "Early representatives of crown group salamanders include ''Chunerpeton, Pangerpeton'' and ''Linglongtriton'' from the Middle to Late Jurassic Yanliao Biota of China.", "These belong to the Cryptobranchoidea, which contains living Asiatic and giant salamanders.", "''Beiyanerpeton'', and ''Qinglongtriton'' from the same biota are thought to be early members of Salamandroidea, the group which contains all other living salamanders.", "Salamanders dispersed into North America by the end of the Jurassic, as evidenced by ''Iridotriton'', found in the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation.", "The stem-caecilian ''Eocaecilia'' is known from the Early Jurassic of Arizona.", "The fourth group of lissamphibians, the extinct albanerpetontids, first appeared in the Middle Jurassic, represented by ''Anoualerpeton priscus'' from the Bathonian of Britain, as well as indeterminate remains from equivalently aged sediments in France and the Anoual Formation of Morocco.", "''Henkelotherium,'' a likely arboreal dyolestoid from the Late Jurassic of Portugal=== Mammaliaformes ===Mammaliaformes, including mammals, having originated from cynodonts at the end of the Triassic, diversified extensively during the Jurassic.", "While most Jurassic mammalaliaforms are solely known from isolated teeth and jaw fragments, exceptionally preserved remains have revealed a variety of lifestyles.", "The docodontan ''Castorocauda'' was adapted to aquatic life, similarly to the platypus and otters.", "Some members of Haramiyida and the eutriconodontan tribe Volaticotherini had a patagium akin to those of flying squirrels, allowing them to glide through the air.", "The aardvark-like mammal ''Fruitafossor'', of uncertain taxonomy, was likely a specialist on colonial insects, similarly to living anteaters.", "Australosphenida, a group of mammals possibly related to living monotremes, first appeared in the Middle Jurassic of Gondwana.", "The earliest records of multituberculates, of the longest lasting and most successful orders of mammals, are known from the Middle Jurassic.", "Therian mammals, represented today by living placentals and marsupials, have their earliest records during the early Late Jurassic, represented by ''Juramaia,'' a eutherian mammal closer to the ancestry of placentals than marsupials.", "''Juramaia'' is much more advanced than expected for its age, as other therian mammals are not known until the Early Cretaceous, and it has been suggested that ''Juramaia'' may also originate from the Early Cretaceous instead.", "Two groups of non-mammaliaform cynodonts persisted beyond the end of the Triassic.", "The insectiviorous Tritheledontidae has a few records from the Early Jurassic.", "The Tritylodontidae, a herbiviorous group of cynodonts that first appeared during the Rhaetian, has abundant records from the Jurassic, overwhelmingly from the Northern Hemisphere.=== Fish ======= Jawless fish ====Fossils and life restorations of the two species of ''Yanliaomyzon ,'' a lamprey known from the Middle Jurassic of ChinaThe last known species of conodont, a class of jawless fish whose hard, tooth-like elements are key index fossils, finally became extinct during the earliest Jurassic after over 300 million years of evolutionary history, with an asynchronous extinction occurring first in the Tethys and eastern Panthalassa and survivors persisting into the earliest Hettangian of Hungary and central Panthalassa.", "End-Triassic conodonts were represented by only a handful of species and had been progressively declining through the Middle and Late Triassic.", "''Yanliaomyzon'' from the Middle Jurassic of China represents the oldest post Paleozoic lamprey, and the oldest lamprey to have the toothed feeding apparatus and likely the three stage life cycle typical of modern members of the group.==== Sarcopterygii ====leftLungfish (Dipnoi) were present in freshwater environments of both hemispheres during the Jurassic.", "Some studies have proposed that the last common ancestor of all living lungfish lived during the Jurassic.", "Mawsoniids, a marine and freshwater/brackish group of coelacanths, which first appeared in North America during the Triassic, expanded into Europe and South America by the end of the Jurassic.", "The marine Latimeriidae, which contains the living coelacanths of the genus ''Latimeria'', were also present in the Jurassic, having originated in the Triassic, with a number of records from the Jurassic of Europe.==== Actinopterygii ====Fossil of ''Thrissops,'' an ichthyodectid stem-group teleost from the Late Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone of Germany, showing preserved colourationRay-finned fish (Actinopterygii) were major components of Jurassic freshwater and marine ecosystems.", "Archaic \"palaeoniscoid\" fish, which were common in both marine and freshwater habitats during the preceding Triassic declined during the Jurassic, being largely replaced by more derived actinopterygian lineages.", "The oldest known Acipenseriformes, the group that contains living sturgeon and paddlefish, are from the Early Jurassic.", "Amiiform fish (which today only includes the bowfin) first appeared during the Early Jurassic, represented by ''Caturus'' from the Pliensbachian of Britain; after their appearance in the western Tethys, they expanded to Africa, North America and Southeast and East Asia by the end of the Jurassic, with the modern family Amiidae appearing during the Late Jurassic.", "Pycnodontiformes, which first appeared in the western Tethys during the Late Triassic, expanded to South America and Southeast Asia by the end of the Jurassic, having a high diversity in Europe during the Late Jurassic.", "During the Jurassic, the Ginglymodi, the only living representatives being gars (Lepisosteidae) were diverse in both freshwater and marine environments.", "The oldest known representatives of anatomically modern gars appeared during the Late Jurassic.", "Stem-group teleosts, which make up over 99% of living Actinopterygii, had first appeared during the Triassic in the western Tethys; they underwent a major diversification beginning in the Late Jurassic, with early representatives of modern teleost clades such as Elopomorpha and Osteoglossoidei appearing during this time.", "The Pachycormiformes, a group of marine stem-teleosts, first appeared in the Early Jurassic and included both tuna-like predatory and filter-feeding forms, the latter included the largest bony fish known to have existed: ''Leedsichthys'', with an estimated maximum length of over 15 metres, known from the late Middle to Late Jurassic.==== Chondrichthyes ====Fossil of ''alt=Fossil of a shark preserved in bottom-up viewDuring the Early Jurassic, the shark-like hybodonts, which represented the dominant group of chondrichthyans during the preceding Triassic, were common in both marine and freshwater settings; however, by the Late Jurassic, hybodonts had become minor components of most marine communities, having been largely replaced by modern neoselachians, but remained common in freshwater and restricted marine environments.", "The Neoselachii, which contains all living sharks and rays, radiated beginning in the Early Jurassic.", "The oldest known ray (Batoidea) is ''Antiquaobatis'' from the Pliensbachian of Germany.", "Jurassic batoids known from complete remains retain a conservative, guitarfish-like morphology.", "The oldest known Hexanchiformes and carpet sharks (Orectolobiformes) are from the Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian & Toarcian, respectively) of Europe.", "The oldest known members of the Heterodontiformes, the only living members of which are the bullhead shark (''Heterodontus''), first appeared in the Early Jurassic, with representatives of the living genus appearing during the Late Jurassic.", "The oldest known mackerel sharks (Lamniformes) are from the Middle Jurassic, represented by the genus ''Palaeocarcharias'', which has an orectolobiform-like body but shares key similarities in tooth histology with lamniformes, including the absence of orthodentine.", "The oldest record of angelsharks (Squatiniformes) is ''Pseudorhina'' from the Late Jurassic (Oxfordian–Tithonian) of Europe, which already has a bodyform similar to living members of the order.", "The oldest known remains of Carcharhiniformes, the largest order of living sharks, first appear in the late Middle Jurassic (Bathonian) of the western Tethys (England and Morocco).", "Known dental and exceptionally preserved body remains of Jurassic Carchariniformes are similar to those of living catsharks.", "Synechodontiformes, an extinct group of sharks closely related to Neoselachii, were also widespread during the Jurassic.", "The oldest remains of modern chimaeras are from the Early Jurassic of Europe, with members of the living family Callorhinchidae appearing during the Middle Jurassic.", "Unlike most living chimaeras, Jurassic chimeras are often found in shallow water environments.", "The closely related ''Squaloraja'' and myriacanthoids are also known from the Jurassic of Europe.=== Insects and arachnids ===Lichnomesopsyche daohugouensis'' , an extinct mesopsychid scorpionfly from the Late Jurassic of ChinaThere appears to have been no major extinction of insects at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary.", "Many important insect fossil localities are known from the Jurassic of Eurasia, the most important being the Karabastau Formation of Kazakhstan and the various Yanliao Biota deposits in Inner Mongolia, China, such as the Daohugou Bed, dating to the Callovian–Oxfordian.", "The diversity of insects stagnated throughout the Early and Middle Jurassic, but during the latter third of the Jurassic origination rates increased substantially while extinction rates remained flat.", "The increasing diversity of insects in the Middle–Late Jurassic corresponds with a substantial increase in the diversity of insect mouthparts.", "The Middle to Late Jurassic was a time of major diversification for beetles.", "Weevils first appear in the fossil record during the Middle to Late Jurassic, but are suspected to have originated during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic.", "The oldest known lepidopterans (the group containing butterflies and moths) are known from the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, with wing scales belonging to the suborder Glossata and Micropterigidae-grade moths from the deposits of this age in Germany.", "Modern representatives of both dragonflies and damselflies also first appeared during the Jurassic.", "Although modern representatives are not known until the Cenozoic, ectoparasitic insects thought to represent primitive fleas, belonging to the family Pseudopulicidae, are known from the Middle Jurassic of Asia.", "These insects are substantially different from modern fleas, lacking the specialised morphology of the latter and being larger.", "Parasitoid wasps (Apocrita) first appeared during the Early Jurassic and subsequently became widespread, reshaping terrestrial food webs.", "The Jurassic saw also saw the first appearances of several other groups of insects, including Phasmatodea (stick insects), Mantophasmatidae, Embioptera (webspinners), and Raphidioptera (snakeflies).", "''Mongolarachne'' from the Late Jurassic of ChinaOnly a handful of records of mites are known from the Jurassic, including ''Jureremus'', an oribatid mite belonging to the family Cymbaeremaeidae known from the Late Jurassic of Britain and Russia, and a member of the still living orbatid genus ''Hydrozetes'' from the Early Jurassic of Sweden.", "Spiders diversified through the Jurassic.", "The Early Jurassic ''Seppo koponeni'' may represent a stem group to Palpimanoidea.", "''Eoplectreurys'' from the Middle Jurassic of China is considered a stem lineage of Synspermiata.", "The oldest member of the family Archaeidae, ''Patarchaea'', is known from the Middle Jurassic of China.", "''Mongolarachne'' from the Middle Jurassic of China is among the largest known fossil spiders, with legs over 5 centimetres long.", "The only scorpion known from the Jurassic is ''Liassoscorpionides'' from the Early Jurassic of Germany, of uncertain placement.", "Eupnoi harvestmen (Opiliones) are known from the Middle Jurassic of China, including members of the family Sclerosomatidae.=== Marine invertebrates ======= End-Triassic extinction ====During the end-Triassic extinction, 46%–72% of all marine genera became extinct.", "The effects of the end Triassic extinction were greatest at tropical latitudes and were more severe in Panthalassa than the Tethys or Boreal oceans.", "Tropical reef ecosystems collapsed during the event, and would not fully recover until much later in the Jurassic.", "Sessile filter feeders and photosymbiotic organisms were among those most severely affected.==== Marine ecosystems ====Having declined at the Triassic–Jurassic boundary, reefs substantially expanded during the Late Jurassic, including both sponge reefs and scleractinian coral reefs.", "Late Jurassic reefs were similar in form to modern reefs but had more microbial carbonates and hypercalcified sponges, and had weak biogenic binding.", "Reefs sharply declined at the close of the Jurassic, which caused an associated drop in diversity in decapod crustaceans.", "The earliest planktonic foraminifera, which constitute the suborder Globigerinina, are known from the late Early Jurassic (mid-Toarcian) of the western Tethys, expanding across the whole Tethys by the Middle Jurassic and becoming globally distributed in tropical latitudes by the Late Jurassic.", "Coccolithophores and dinoflagellates, which had first appeared during the Triassic, radiated during the Early to Middle Jurassic, becoming prominent members of the phytoplankton.", "Microconchid tube worms, the last remaining order of Tentaculita, a group of animals of uncertain affinities that were convergent on ''Spirorbis'' tube worms, were rare after the Triassic and had become reduced to the single genus ''Punctaconchus,'' which became extinct in the late Bathonian.", "The oldest known diatom is from Late Jurassic–aged amber from Thailand, assigned to the living genus ''Hemiaulus.", "''==== Echinoderms ====Crinoids diversified throughout the Jurassic, reaching their peak Mesozoic diversity during the Late Jurassic, primarily due to the radiation of sessile forms belonging to the orders Cyrtocrinida and Millericrinida.", "Echinoids (sea urchins) underwent substantial diversification beginning in the Early Jurassic, primarily driven by the radiation of irregular (asymmetrical) forms, which were adapting to deposit feeding.", "Rates of diversification sharply dropped during the Late Jurassic.==== Crustaceans ====''Eryon,'' a polychelidan decapod crustacean from the Late Jurassic of Germany.The Jurassic was a significant time for the evolution of decapods.", "The first true crabs (Brachyura) are known from the Early Jurassic, with the earliest being ''Eocarcinus praecursor'' from the early Pliensbachian of England, which lacked the crab-like morphology (carcinisation) of modern crabs, and ''Eoprosopon klugi'' from the late Pliensbachian of Germany, which may belong to the living family Homolodromiidae.", "Most Jurassic crabs are known only from carapace pieces, which makes it difficult to determine their relationships.", "While rare in the Early and Middle Jurassic, crabs became abundant during the Late Jurassic as they expanded from their ancestral silty sea floor habitat into hard substrate habitats like reefs, with crevices in reefs providing refuge from predators.", "Hermit crabs also first appeared during the Jurassic, with the earliest known being ''Schobertella hoelderi'' from the late Hettangian of Germany.", "Early hermit crabs are associated with ammonite shells rather than those of gastropods.", "Glypheids, which today are only known from two species, reached their peak diversity during the Jurassic, with around 150 species out of a total fossil record of 250 known from the period.", "Jurassic barnacles were of low diversity compared to present, but several important evolutionary innovations are known, including the first appearances of calcite shelled forms and species with an epiplanktonic mode of life.==== Brachiopods ====Brachiopod diversity declined during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction.", "Spire-bearing brachiopods (Spiriferinida and Athyridida) did not recover their biodiversity, becoming extinct in the TOAE.", "Rhynchonellida and Terebratulida also declined during the Triassic–Jurassic extinction but rebounded during the Early Jurassic; neither clade underwent much morphological variation.", "Brachiopods substantially declined in the Late Jurassic; the causes are poorly understood.", "Proposed reasons include increased predation, competition with bivalves, enhanced bioturbation or increased grazing pressure.==== Bryozoans ====Like the preceding Triassic, bryozoan diversity was relatively low compared to the Paleozoic.", "The vast majority of Jurassic bryozoans are members of Cyclostomatida, which experienced a radiation during the Middle Jurassic, with all Jurassic representatives belonging to the suborders Tubuliporina and Cerioporina.", "Cheilostomata, the dominant group of modern bryozoans, first appeared during the Late Jurassic.==== Molluscs ========= Bivalves =====The end-Triassic extinction had a severe impact on bivalve diversity, though it had little impact on bivalve ecological diversity.", "The extinction was selective, having less of an impact on deep burrowers, but there is no evidence of a differential impact between surface-living (epifaunal) and burrowing (infaunal) bivalves.", "Bivalve family level diversity after the Early Jurassic was static, though genus diversity experienced a gradual increase throughout the period.", "Rudists, the dominant reef-building organisms of the Cretaceous, first appeared in the Late Jurassic (mid-Oxfordian) in the northern margin of the western Tethys, expanding to the eastern Tethys by the end of the Jurassic.===== Cephalopods =====Fossil specimen of ''Proteroctopus'' from the Middle Jurassic of France, formerly thought to be world's oldest known octopusAmmonites were devastated by the end-Triassic extinction, with only a handful of genera belonging to the family Psiloceratidae of the suborder Phylloceratina surviving and becoming ancestral to all later Jurassic and Cretaceous ammonites.", "Ammonites explosively diversified during the Early Jurassic, with the orders Psiloceratina, Ammonitina, Lytoceratina, Haploceratina, Perisphinctina and Ancyloceratina all appearing during the Jurassic.", "Ammonite faunas during the Jurassic were regional, being divided into around 20 distinguishable provinces and subprovinces in two realms, the northern high latitude Pan-Boreal realm, consisting of the Arctic, northern Panthalassa and northern Atlantic regions, and the equatorial–southern Pan-Tethyan realm, which included the Tethys and most of Panthalassa.", "Ammonite diversifications occurred coevally with marine transgressions, while their diversity nadirs occurred during marine regressions.The oldest definitive records of the squid-like belemnites are from the earliest Jurassic (Hettangian–Sinemurian) of Europe and Japan; they expanded worldwide during the Jurassic.", "Belemnites were shallow-water dwellers, inhabiting the upper 200 metres of the water column on the continental shelves and in the littoral zone.", "They were key components of Jurassic ecosystems, both as predators and prey, as evidenced by the abundance of belemnite guards in Jurassic rocks.The earliest vampyromorphs, of which the only living member is the vampire squid, first appeared during the Early Jurassic.", "The earliest octopuses appeared during the Middle Jurassic, having split from their closest living relatives, the vampyromorphs, during the Triassic to Early Jurassic.", "All Jurassic octopuses are solely known from the hard gladius.", "Octopuses likely originated from bottom-dwelling (benthic) ancestors which lived in shallow environments.", "''Proteroctopus'' from the late Middle Jurassic La Voulte-sur-Rhône lagerstätte, previously interpreted as an early octopus, is now thought to be a basal taxon outside the clade containing vampyromorphs and octopuses." ], [ "References", "===Citations===" ], [ "External links", "* Examples of Jurassic Fossils* Jurassic (chronostratigraphy scale)* Jurassic fossils in Harbury, Warwickshire* Jurassic Microfossils: 65+ images of Foraminifera* With map and table." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John Wyndham" ], [ "Introduction", "Wyndham's first published sf story, \"Worlds to Barter\", was published in the May 1931 issue of ''Wonder Stories'', under his pen name John Beynon Harris.Wyndham/Harris as pictured in the May 1931 ''Wonder Stories''Wyndham's second story, \"The Lost Machine\", was cover-featured on the April 1932 issue of ''Amazing Stories'', also under his Harris pen nameWyndham's 1934 novelette \"The Moon Devils\" was the cover story for the April issue of ''Wonder Stories'', also under the Harris pen name.Wyndham's 1951 novelette \"Tyrant and Slave-Girl on Planet Venus\" was the cover story for the first and only issue of ''Ten Story Fantasy'', under his pen name John Beynon.", "'''John Wyndham Parkes Lucas Beynon Harris''' (; 10 July 1903 – 11 March 1969) was an English science fiction writer best known for his works published under the pen name '''John Wyndham''', although he also used other combinations of his names, such as '''John Beynon''' and '''Lucas Parkes'''.", "Some of his works were set in post-apocalyptic landscapes.", "His best known works include ''The Day of the Triffids'' (1951), filmed in 1962, and ''The Midwich Cuckoos'' (1957), which was filmed in 1960 as ''Village of the Damned'', in 1995 under the same title, and again in 2022 in Sky Max under its original title." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Wyndham was born in the village of Dorridge near Knowle, Warwickshire (now West Midlands), England, the son of Gertrude Parkes, the daughter of the Birmingham ironmaster John Israel Parkes, and her second husband (after widowhood), George Beynon Harris, a barrister.From 1909 to 1911 the Harris family lived at 239 Hagley Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, but when he was 8 years old his parents separated.", "His father then attempted to sue the Parkes family for \"the custody, control and society\" of his wife and two sons (including Wyndham's younger brother, the writer Vivian Beynon Harris), in an unusual and high-profile 1913 court case, which he lost.", "The case, which re-exposed previous allegations of sexual impropriety, pre-dating his marriage, left Wyndham's father a broken man.", "Gertrude moved with the children to a smaller house in Edgbaston and the brothers became estranged from their father.", "Wyndham subsequently attended a private school in Edgbaston run by a Miss Mabel Woodward, and from 1914 to 1915 was at Edgbaston High School for Boys (he later said that while there he was bullied), and Blundell's School in Tiverton, Devon, during the First World War.", "His longest and final stay was at Bedales School, near Petersfield in Hampshire (1918–1921), which he left at the age of 18.His mother left Birmingham to live in a series of boarding houses and spa hotels.", "In Wyndham's self-penned biographical notes for his early Penguin Books publications, he said he lived in Birmingham only from 1904 to 1911.===Early career===After leaving school, Wyndham tried several careers, including farming, law, commercial art and advertising; however, he mostly relied on an allowance from his family to survive.", "He eventually turned to writing for money in 1925.In 1927 he published a detective novel, ''The Curse of the Burdens'', as by John B. Harris, and by 1931 he was selling short stories and serial fiction to American science fiction magazines.", "His debut short story, \"Worlds to Barter\", appeared under the pen name John B. Harris in 1931.Subsequent stories were credited to 'John Beynon Harris' until mid-1935, when he began to use the pen name John Beynon.", "Three novels as by Beynon were published in 1935/36, two of them works of science fiction, the other a detective story.", "He also used the pen name Wyndham Parkes for one short story in the British ''Fantasy Magazine'' in 1939, as John Beynon had already been credited for another story in the same issue.During these years he lived at the Penn Club, London, which had been opened in 1920 by the remaining members of the Friends Ambulance Unit, and which had been partly funded by the Quakers.", "The intellectual and political mixture of pacifists, socialists and communists continued to inform his views on social engineering and feminism.", "At the Penn Club he met his future wife, Grace Wilson, a teacher.", "They embarked on a long-lasting love affair, and obtained adjacent rooms in the club, but for many years did not marry, partly because of the marriage bar under which Wilson would have lost her position.===Second World War===During the Second World War, Wyndham first served as a censor in the Ministry of Information.", "He drew on his experiences as a firewatcher during the London Blitz and as a member of the Home Guard in ''The Day of the Triffids''.He then joined the British Army, serving as a corporal cipher operator in the Royal Corps of Signals.", "He participated in the Normandy landings, landing a few days after D-Day.", "He was attached to XXX Corps, which took part in some of the heaviest fighting, including surrounding the trapped German army in the Falaise Pocket.His wartime letters to his long-time partner, Grace Wilson, are now held in the Archives of the University of Liverpool.", "He wrote at length of his struggles with his conscience, his doubts about humanity and his fears of the inevitability of further war.", "He also wrote passionately about his love for her and his fears that he would be so tainted she would not be able to love him when he returned.===Postwar===After the war Wyndham returned to writing, still using the pen name John Beynon.", "Inspired by the success of his younger brother Vivian Beynon Harris, who had four novels published starting in 1948, he altered his writing style and by 1951, using the John Wyndham pen name for the first time, he wrote the novel ''The Day of the Triffids''.", "His pre-war writing career was not mentioned in the book's publicity and people were allowed to assume that this was a first novel from an unknown writer.", "The book had an enormous success and established Wyndham as an important exponent of science fiction.He wrote and published six more novels under the name John Wyndham, the name he used professionally from 1951.His novel ''The Outward Urge'' (1959) was credited to John Wyndham and Lucas Parkes but Lucas Parkes was another pseudonym for Wyndham.", "Two story collections, ''Jizzle'' and ''The Seeds of Time'', were published in the 1950s under Wyndham's name but included several stories originally published as by John Beynon before 1951.===Marriage===In 1963, he married Grace Isobel Wilson, whom he had known for more than thirty years, in a civil ceremony.", "They lived near Petersfield, Hampshire, just outside the grounds of Bedales School, until his death there in 1969, aged 65.The couple were childless, as was his brother, who also outlived him." ], [ "Critical reception", "Wyndham's reputation rests mainly on the first four of the novels published in his life under that name.", "''The Day of the Triffids'' remains his best-known work, but some readers consider that ''The Chrysalids'' was really his best.", "This is set in the far future of a post-nuclear dystopia where genetic stability is compromised and women are severely oppressed if they give birth to \"mutants\".", "David Mitchell, author of ''Cloud Atlas'', wrote of it: \"One of the most thoughtful post-apocalypse novels ever written.", "Wyndham was a true English visionary, a William Blake with a science doctorate.\"", "''The Guardian'' states his \"innocuously English backdrops are central to the power of his novels, implying that apocalypse could occur at any time — or, indeed, be happening in the next village at this moment\", while ''The Times''s reviewer of ''The Day of the Triffids'' described it as possessing \"all the reality of a vividly realised nightmare.\"", "The ideas in ''The Chrysalids'' are echoed in ''The Handmaid's Tale'', whose author, Margaret Atwood, has acknowledged Wyndham's work as an influence.", "She wrote an introduction to a new edition of ''Chocky'' in which she states that the intelligent alien babies in ''The Midwich Cuckoos'' entered her dreams.Wyndham also wrote several short stories, ranging from hard science fiction to whimsical fantasy.", "Several have been filmed: \"Consider Her Ways\", \"Random Quest\", \"Dumb Martian\", \"A Long Spoon\", \"Jizzle\" (filmed as \"Maria\") and \"Time to Rest\" (filmed as ''No Place Like Earth'').", "There is also a radio version of \"Survival\".Brian Aldiss, another British science fiction writer, disparaged some of Wyndham's novels as \"cosy catastrophes\", especially ''The Day of the Triffids''.", "This became a cliche about his work, but it has been rebutted by many more recent critics.", "L.J.", "Hurst commented that in ''Triffids'' the main character witnesses several murders, suicides and misadventures, and is frequently in mortal danger.", "Atwood wrote: \"...one might as well call World War II—of which Wyndham was a veteran—a 'cozy' war because not everyone died in it.", "\"Many other writers have acknowledged Wyndham's work as an influence, including Alex Garland, whose screenplay for ''28 Days Later'' draws heavily on ''The Day of the Triffids''." ], [ "Legacy", "After his death, some of Wyndham's unsold work was published and his earlier work was republished.", "His archive was acquired by the University of Liverpool.On 24 May 2015, an alley in Hampstead that appears in ''The Day of the Triffids'' was formally named Triffid Alley as a memorial to him." ], [ "Works", "===Novels=======Early pseudonymous novels====* ''The Curse of the Burdens'' (1927), as by John B. Harris: Aldine Mystery Novels No.", "17 (London: Aldine Publishing Co. Ltd)* ''The Secret People'' (1935), as by John Beynon* ''Foul Play Suspected'' (1935), as by John Beynon* ''Planet Plane'' (1936), as by John Beynon; republished as ''The Space Machine'' and as ''Stowaway to Mars''====Published in his lifetime as by John Wyndham====* ''The Day of the Triffids'' (1951), also known as ''Revolt of the Triffids''* ''The Kraken Wakes'' (1953), published in the U.S. as ''Out of the Deeps'', also known as ''The Things from the Deep''* ''The Chrysalids'' (1955), published in the U.S. as ''Re-Birth''* ''The Midwich Cuckoos'' (1957)* ''The Outward Urge'' (1959), fix-up novel of 4 novelettes and 1 short story, as by John Wyndham and Lucas Parkes:: \"The Space Station: A.D. 1994\" (novelette), \"The Moon: A.D. 2044\" (novelette), \"Mars: A.D. 2094\" (novelette), \"Venus: A.D. 2144\" (novelette), \"The Emptiness of Space: The Asteroids A.D. 2194\" (added in 1961) ''Trouble with Lichen'' (1960)* ''Chocky'' (1968)====Posthumously published====* ''Web'' (1979)* ''Plan for Chaos'' (2009)===Short stories=======Short story collections published in his lifetime====* ''Jizzle'' (1954), collection of 13 short stories and 2 novelettes:: \"Jizzle\", \"Technical Slip\" (as by John Beynon), \"A Present from Brunswick\", \"Chinese Puzzle\" (novelette), \"Esmeralda\", \"How Do I Do?", "\", \"Una\" (novelette), \"Affair of the Heart\", \"Confidence Trick\", \"The Wheel\", \"Look Natural, Please!", "\", \"Perforce to Dream\", \"Reservation Deferred\", \"Heaven Scent\", \"More Spinned Against\" ''The Seeds of Time'' (1956), collection of 5 short stories and 5 novelettes:: \"The Chronoclasm\" (novelette), \"Pillar to Post\" (novelette), \"Dumb Martian\" (novelette), \"Compassion Circuit\", \"Survival\" (novelette), \"Pawley's Peepholes\", \"Opposite Number\", \"Wild Flower\", \"Time to Rest\" (as by John Beynon, ''Bert'' #1 series), \"Meteor\" (novelette, as by John Beynon) ''Tales of Gooseflesh and Laughter'' (1956), United States edition featuring stories from the ''Jizzle'' and ''The Seeds of Time'' collections, collection of 9 short stories and 2 novelettes:: \"Chinese Puzzle\" (novelette), \"Una\" (novelette), \"The Wheel\", \"Jizzle\", \"Heaven Scent\", \"Compassion Circuit\", \"More Spinned Against...\", \"A Present from Brunswick\", \"Confidence Trick\", \"Opposite Number\", \"Wild Flower\" ''Consider Her Ways and Others'' (1961), collection of 3 short stories and 3 novelettes/novellas:: \"Consider Her Ways\" (novella), \"Odd\", \"Oh, Where, Now, is Peggy MacRaffery?\"", "(novelette), \"A Stitch in Time\", \"Random Quest\" (novelette), \"A Long Spoon\" ''The Infinite Moment'' (1961), United States edition of ''Consider Her Ways and Others'' with two stories dropped and two others added, collection of 3 short stories and 3 novelettes/novellas:: \"Consider Her Ways\" (novella), \"Odd\", \"How Do I Do\", \"Stitch in Time\", \"Random Quest\" (novelette), \"Time Out\" (novelette)====Posthumously published collections==== ''Sleepers of Mars'' (1973), collection of 1 short story, 3 novelettes and 1 novella, originally published in magazines in the 1930s:: \"Sleepers of Mars\" (novella), \"Worlds to Barter\" (novelette), \"Invisible Monster\" (novelette), \"The Man from Earth\" (novelette), \"The Third Vibrator\" ''The Best of John Wyndham'' (1973), collection of 6 short stories and 6 novelettes:: \"The Lost Machine\" (novelette), \"The Man from Beyond\" (novelette), \"The Perfect Creature\" (novelette), \"The Trojan Beam\" (novelette), \"Vengeance by Proxy\" (as by John Beynon), \"Adaptation\", \"Pawley's Peepholes\", \"The Red Stuff\" (novelette), \"And the Walls Came Tumbling Down\", \"Dumb Martian\" (novelette), \"Close Behind Him\", \"The Emptiness of Space\" '' Wanderers of Time'' (1973), collection of 1 short story and 4 novelettes, originally published in magazines in the 1930s:: \"Wanderers of Time\" (novelette), \"Derelict of Space\" (novelette), \"Child of Power\" (novelette), \"The Last Lunarians\", \"The Puff-ball Menace\" (novelette) ''The Man from Beyond and Other Stories'' (1975), hardback with the same contents as ''The Best of John Wyndham''* ''Exiles on Asperus'' (1979), collection of 2 novelettes and 1 novella, as by John Beynon:: \"Exiles on Asperus\" (novelette, as by John Beynon Harris), \"No Place Like Earth\" (novelette, ''Bert'' #2 series), \"The Venus Adventure\" (novella) ''No Place Like Earth'' (2003), collection of 10 short stories and 6 novelettes:: \"Derelict of Space\" (novelette, as by John Beynon), \"Time to Rest\" (''Bert'' #1 series), \"No Place Like Earth\" (novelette, as by John Beynon, ''Bert'' #2 series), \"In Outer Space There Shone a Star\", \"But a Kind of Ghost\", \"The Cathedral Crypt\" (as by John Beynon Harris), \"A Life Postponed\" (novelette), \"Technical Slip\" (as by John Beynon Harris), \"Una\" (novelette), \"It's a Wise Child\", \"Pillar to Post\" (novelette), \"The Stare\", \"Time Stops Today\" (novelette), \"The Meddler\", \"Blackmoil\", \"A Long Spoon\"====Uncollected short stories==== \"Vivisection\" (1919), as by J. W. B. Harris* \"Judson's Annihilator\", or \"Beyond the Screen\" (1938), novelette, as by John Beynon* \"The Living Lies\" (1946), novelette, as by John Beynon* \"The Eternal Eve\" (1950)* \"Never on Mars\" (1954), as by John Beynon* \"Den överlevande\" (1955)* \"Brief to Counsel\" (1959)* \"Chocky\" (1963), novella, developed into novel ''Chocky''* \"Flöjten\" (1963)====All short stories====* \"Vivisection\" (1919), as by J. W. B. Harris* \"Worlds to Barter\" (1931), novelette* \"Exiles on Asperus\" (1932), novelette, as by John Beynon Harris* \"The Lost Machine\" (1932), novelette* \"The Stare\" (1932)* \"The Venus Adventure\" (1932), novella, as by John Beynon* \"Invisible Monster\", or \"Invisible Monsters\" (1933), novelette* \"The Puff-ball Menace\", or \"Spheres of Hell\" (1933), novelette* \"The Third Vibrator\" (1933)* \"Wanderers of Time\" (1933), novelette* \"The Last Lunarians\", or \"The Moon Devils\" (1934)* \"The Man from Earth\", or \"The Man from Beyond\" (1934), novelette* \"The Cathedral Crypt\" (1935), as by John Beynon Harris* \"Una\", or \"The Perfect Creature\", or \"Perfect Creature\", or \"Female of the Species\" (1937), novelette* \"Judson's Annihilator\", or \"Beyond the Screen\" (1938), novelette, as by John Beynon* \"Child of Power\" (1939), novelette* \"Derelict of Space\" (1939), novelette* \"Sleepers of Mars\" (1939), novella, a sequel to the novel ''Stowaway to Mars''* \"The Trojan Beam\" (1939), novelette* \"Vengeance by Proxy\" (1940), as by John Beynon* \"Meteor\", or \"Phoney Meteor\" (1941), novelette, as by John Beynon* \"The Living Lies\" (1946), novelette, as by John Beynon* \"Adaptation\" (1949)* \"Jizzle\" (1949)* \"Technical Slip\" (1949), as by John Beynon* \"Time to Rest\" (1949), as by John Beynon, ''Bert'' #1 series* \"The Eternal Eve\" (1950)* \"A Present from Brunswick\", or \"Bargain from Brunswick\" (1951)* \"And the Walls Came Tumbling Down\", or \"And the Walls Came Tumbling Down...\", or \"...And the Walls Came Tumbling Down...\" (1951)* \"No Place Like Earth\", or \"Tyrant and Slave-Girl on Planet Venus\" (1951), novelette, as by John Beynon, ''Bert'' #2 series* \"Pawley's Peepholes\", or \"Operation Peep\", or \"A New Kind of Pink Elephant\" (1951)* \"Pillar to Post\", or \"Body and Soul\" (1951), novelette* \"The Red Stuff\" (1951), novelette* \"Affair of the Heart\" (1952)* \"Dumb Martian\", or \"Out of This World\" (1952), novelette* \"Survival\" (1952), novelette* \"The Wheel\" (1952)* \"Chinese Puzzle\", or \"A Stray from Cathay\" (1953), novelette* \"Close Behind Him\" (1953)* \"Confidence Trick\" (1953)* \"How Do I Do?\"", "(1953)* \"More Spinned Against\", or \"More Spinned Against...\" (1953)* \"Reservation Deferred\" (1953)* \"The Chronoclasm\", or \"Chronoclasm\" (1953), novelette* \"Time Out\", or \"Time Stops Today\" (1953), novelette* \"Compassion Circuit\", or \"Compassion-Circuit\" (1954)* \"Esmeralda\" (1954)* \"Heaven Scent\" (1954)* \"Look Natural, Please!\"", "(1954)* \"Never on Mars\" (1954), as by John Beynon* \"Opposite Number\" (1954)* \"Perforce to Dream\" (1954)* \"Den överlevande\" (1955)* \"Wild Flower\" (1955)* \"Consider Her Ways\" (1956), novella* \"But a Kind of Ghost\" (1957)* \"The Meddler\" (1958)* \"Brief to Counsel\" (1959)* \"A Long Spoon\" (1960)* \"A Stitch in Time\", or \"Stitch in Time\" (1961)* \"Odd\" (1961)* \"Oh, Where, Now, Is Peggy MacRafferty?\"", "(1961), novelette* \"Random Quest\" (1961), novelette* \"It's a Wise Child\", or \"Wise Child\" (1962)* \"Chocky\" (1963), novella, developed into novel ''Chocky''* \"Flöjten\" (1963)* \"In Outer Space There Shone a Star\" (1965)* \"A Life Postponed\" (1968), novelette* \"Blackmoil\" (2003)=== Poems ===* \"Hiroshima\" (1974), as by John Beynon=== Non-fiction ===* ''The Ultimate Freedom'' (1994), memoirs," ], [ "Adaptations", "* ''Village of the Damned'' (1960), film directed by Wolf Rilla, based on novel ''The Midwich Cuckoos''* \"The Long Spoon\" (1961), episode of the series ''Storyboard'', directed by James MacTaggart, based on short story \"A Long Spoon\"* \"Maria\" (1961), episode of the series ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'', directed by Boris Sagal, based on short story \"Jizzle\"* \"Dumb Martian\" (1962), episode of the series ''Armchair Theatre'' and ''Out of This World'', directed by Charles Jarrott, based on novelette \"Dumb Martian\"* ''The Day of the Triffids'' (1963), film directed by Steve Sekely and Freddie Francis, based on novel ''The Day of the Triffids''* ''Children of the Damned'' (1964), film directed by Anton Leader, based on novel ''The Midwich Cuckoos''* \"Consider Her Ways\" (1964), episode of the series ''The Alfred Hitchcock Hour'', directed by Robert Stevens, based on novella \"Consider Her Ways\"* \"No Place Like Earth\" (1965), episode of the series ''Out of the Unknown'', directed by Peter Potter, based on short story \"Time to Rest\" and novelette \"No Place on Earth\"* \"Random Quest\" (1969), episode of the series ''Out of the Unknown'', directed by Christopher Barry, based on novelette \"Random Quest\"* ''Quest for Love'' (1971), film directed by Ralph Thomas, based on novelette \"Random Quest\"* ''Ördögi szerencse'' (1978), TV movie directed by Vilmos Dobai, based on short story \"A Long Spoon\"* \"More Spinned Against\" (1980), episode of the series ''Spine Chillers'', based on short story \"More Spinned Against\"* ''The Day of the Triffids'' (1981), miniseries directed by Ken Hannam, based on novel ''The Day of the Triffids''* ''Chocky'' (1984), series directed by Vic Hughes and Christopher Hodson, based on novel ''Chocky''* ''Chocky's Children'' (1985), series directed by Vic Hughes and Peter Duguid, based on characters from the novel ''Chocky''* ''Chocky's Challenge'' (1986), series directed by Bob Blagden, based on characters from the novel ''Chocky''* ''Village of the Damned'' (1995), film directed by John Carpenter, based on novel ''The Midwich Cuckoos''* ''Random Quest'' (1986), TV movie directed by Luke Watson, based on novelette \"Random Quest\"* ''The Day of the Triffids'' (2009), miniseries directed by Nick Copus, based on novel ''The Day of the Triffids''* ''The Midwich Cuckoos'' (2022), miniseries directed by Alice Troughton, Jennifer Perrott and Börkur Sigþórsson, based on novel ''The Midwich Cuckoos''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * Harris, Vivian Beynon, \"My Brother, John Wyndham: A Memoir\" transcribed and edited by David Ketterer, in ''Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction'' 28 (Spring 1999) pp.", "5–50* * Ketterer David, \"Questions and Answers: The Life and Fiction of John Wyndham\" in ''The New York Review of Science Fiction'' 16 (March 2004) pp.", "1, 6–10* Ketterer, David, \"The Genesis of the Triffids\" in ''The New York Review of Science Fiction'' 16 (March 2004) pp.", "11–14* Ketterer, David, \"John Wyndham and the Sins of His Father: Damaging Disclosures in Court\" in ''Extrapolation'' 46 (Summer 2005) pp.", "163–188* .", "* Ketterer, David, A Part of the ... Family': John Wyndham's ''The Midwich Cuckoos'' as Estranged Autobiography in ''Learning from Other Worlds: Estrangement, Cognition and the Politics of Science Fiction and Utopia'' edited by Patrick Parrinder (Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press, 2001) pp.", "146–177* Ketterer, David, \"When and Where Was John Wyndham Born?\"", "in ''Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction'' 42 (Summer 2012/13) pp.", "22–39* Ketterer, David, \"John Wyndham (1903?–1969)\" in ''The Literary Encyclopedia'' (online, 7 November 2006)* Ketterer, David, \"John Wyndham: The Facts of Life Sextet\" in ''A Companion to Science Fiction'' edited by David Seed (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003) pp.", "375–388* Ketterer, David, \"John Wyndham's World War III and His Abandoned ''Fury of Creation'' Trilogy\" in ''Future Wars: The Anticipations and the Fears'' edited by David Seed (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012) pp.", "103–129* Ketterer, David, \"John B. Harris's Mars Rover on Earth\" in ''Science Fiction Studies'' 41 (July 2014) pp.", "474–475" ], [ "External links", "* * * The Complete Short Fiction of John Wyndham at The Internet Time Travel Database* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jerzy Kosiński" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jerzy Kosiński''' (born '''Józef Lewinkopf'''; ; June 14, 1933 – May 3, 1991) was a Polish-American novelist and two-time president of the American Chapter of P.E.N., who wrote primarily in English.", "Born in Poland, he survived World War II and, as a young man, emigrated to the U.S., where he became a citizen.He was known for various novels, among them ''Being There'' (1971) and ''The Painted Bird'' (1965), which were adapted as films in 1979 and 2019 respectively." ], [ "Biography", "Kosiński was born Józef Lewinkopf to Jewish parents in Łódź, Poland.", "As a child during World War II, he lived in central Poland under a false identity, Jerzy Kosiński, which his father gave to him.", "Eugeniusz Okoń, a Catholic priest, issued him a forged baptismal certificate, and the Lewinkopf family survived the Holocaust thanks to local villagers who offered assistance to Polish Jews, often at great risk.", "Kosiński's father was assisted not only by town leaders and clergymen, but also by individuals such as Marianna Pasiowa, a member of an underground network that helped Jews evade capture.", "The family lived openly in Dąbrowa Rzeczycka, near Stalowa Wola, and attended church in nearby Wola Rzeczycka, with the support of villagers in Kępa Rzeczycka.", "For a time, they were sheltered by a Catholic family in Rzeczyca Okrągła.", "Jerzy even served as an altar boy in the local church.After the war ended, Kosiński and his parents moved to Jelenia Góra.", "By age 22, he had earned graduate degrees in history and sociology at the University of Łódź.", "He then became a teaching assistant at the Polish Academy of Sciences.", "Kosiński also studied in the Soviet Union, and served as a sharpshooter in the Polish Army.To migrate to the United States in 1957, he created a fake foundation, which supposedly sponsored him.", "He later claimed he forged the letters from prominent communist authorities guaranteeing his loyal return to Poland, as were then required for anyone leaving the country.Kosiński first worked at odd jobs to get by, including driving a truck, and he managed to graduate from Columbia University.", "He became an American citizen in 1965.He also received grants from the Guggenheim Fellowship in 1967 and the Ford Foundation in 1968.In 1970, he won the American Academy of Arts and Letters award for literature.", "The grants allowed him to write a political non-fiction book that opened new doors of opportunity.", "He became a lecturer at Yale, Princeton, Davenport, and Wesleyan universities.Kosiński practiced the photographic arts, with one-man exhibitions to his credit in Warsaw's Crooked Circle Gallery (1957) and in the Andre Zarre Gallery in New York (1988).In 1962, Kosiński married an American steel heiress Mary Hayward Weir.", "They divorced four years later.", "Weir died in 1968 from brain cancer, leaving Kosiński out of her will.", "He fictionalized his marriage in his novel ''Blind Date'', speaking of Weir under the pseudonym Mary-Jane Kirkland.", "Kosiński later, in 1968, married Katherina \"Kiki\" von Fraunhofer (1933–2007), a marketing consultant and a descendant of Bavarian nobility.=== Death ===Toward the end of his life, Kosiński suffered from multiple illnesses and was under attack from journalists who accused him of plagiarism.", "By his late 50s, he was suffering from an irregular heartbeat.He committed suicide on May 3, 1991, by ingesting a lethal amount of alcohol and drugs and wrapping a plastic bag around his head, suffocating himself to death.", "His suicide note read: \"I am going to put myself to sleep now for a bit longer than usual.", "Call it Eternity.\"", "Kosinski's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered off a small cove in Casa de Campo in the Dominican Republic." ], [ "Notable novels", "Kosiński's novels have appeared on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list, and have been translated into over 30 languages, with total sales estimated at 70 million in 1991.=== ''The Painted Bird'' ===''The Painted Bird'', Kosiński's controversial 1965 novel, is a fictional account that depicts the personal experiences of a boy of unknown religious and ethnic background who wanders around unidentified areas of Eastern Europe during World War II and takes refuge among a series of people, many of whom are brutally cruel and abusive, either to him or to others.Soon after the book was published in the US, Kosiński was accused by the then-Communist Polish government of being anti-Polish, especially following the regime's 1968 anti-Semitic campaign.", "The book was banned in Poland from its initial publication until the fall of the Communist government in 1989.When it was finally printed, thousands of Poles in Warsaw lined up for as long as eight hours to purchase copies of the work autographed by Kosiński.", "Polish literary critic and University of Warsaw professor Paweł Dudziak remarked that \"in spite of the unclear role of its author,''The Painted Bird'' is an achievement in English literature.\"", "He stressed that, because the book is a work of fiction and does not document real-world events, accusations of anti-Polish sentiment may result only from taking it too literally.The book received recommendations from Elie Wiesel who wrote in ''The New York Times Book Review'' that it was \"one of the best ...", "Written with deep sincerity and sensitivity.\"", "Richard Kluger, reviewing it for ''Harper's Magazine'' wrote: \"Extraordinary ... literally staggering ... one of the most powerful books I have ever read.\"", "Jonathan Yardley, reviewing it for ''The Miami Herald'', wrote: \"Of all the remarkable fiction that emerged from World War II, nothing stands higher than Jerzy Kosiński's ''The Painted Bird''.", "A magnificent work of art, and a celebration of the individual will.", "No one who reads it will forget it; no one who reads it will be unmoved by it.", "\"However, reception of the book was not uniformly positive.", "Several claims that Kosiński committed plagiarism in writing ''The Painted Bird'' were leveled against him.", "(See 'Criticism' section, below.", ")=== ''Steps'' ===''Steps'' (1968), a novel comprising scores of loosely connected vignettes, won the U.S. National Book Award for Fiction.American novelist David Foster Wallace described ''Steps'' as a \"collection of unbelievably creepy little allegorical tableaux done in a terse elegant voice that's like nothing else anywhere ever\".", "Wallace continued in praise: \"Only Kafka's fragments get anywhere close to where Kosiński goes in this book, which is better than everything else he ever did combined.\"", "Samuel Coale, in a 1974 discussion of Kosiński's fiction, wrote that \"the narrator of ''Steps'' for instance, seems to be nothing more than a disembodied voice howling in some surrealistic wilderness.", "\"=== ''Being There'' ===Jerzy Kosiński (1973)One of Kosiński's more significant works is ''Being There'' (1971), a satirical view of the absurd reality of America's media culture.", "It is the story of Chance the gardener, a man with few distinctive qualities who emerges from nowhere and suddenly becomes the heir to the throne of a Wall Street tycoon and a presidential policy adviser.", "His simple and straightforward responses to popular concerns are praised as visionary despite the fact that no one actually understands what he is really saying.", "Many questions surround his mysterious origins, and filling in the blanks in his background proves impossible.The novel was made into a 1979 movie directed by Hal Ashby, and starring Peter Sellers, who was nominated for an Academy Award for the role, and Melvyn Douglas, who won the award for Best Supporting Actor.", "The screenplay was co-written by award-winning screenwriter Robert C. Jones and Kosiński.", "The film won the 1981 British Academy of Film and Television Arts (Film) Best Screenplay Award, as well as the 1980 Writers Guild of America Award (Screen) for Best Comedy Adapted from Another Medium.", "It was nominated for the 1980 Golden Globe Best Screenplay Award (Motion Picture)." ], [ "Criticism", "According to Eliot Weinberger, an American writer, essayist, editor and translator, Kosiński was not the author of ''The Painted Bird''.", "Weinberger alleged in his 2000 book ''Karmic Traces'' that Kosiński was not fluent in English at the time of its writing.In a review of ''Jerzy Kosiński: A Biography'' by James Park Sloan, D.G.", "Myers, associate professor of English at Texas A&M University wrote \"For years Kosinski passed off ''The Painted Bird'' as the true story of his own experience during the Holocaust.", "Long before writing it he regaled friends and dinner parties with macabre tales of a childhood spent in hiding among the Polish peasantry.", "Among those who were fascinated was Dorothy de Santillana, a senior editor at Houghton Mifflin, to whom Kosiński confided that he had a manuscript based on his experiences.", "Upon accepting the book for publication, Santillana said 'It is my understanding that, fictional as the material may sound, it is straight autobiography'.", "Although he backed away from this claim, Kosiński never wholly disavowed it.\"M.A.", "Orthofer addressed Weinberger's assertion: \"Kosinski was, in many respects, a fake – possibly near as genuine a one as Weinberger could want.", "(One aspect of the best fakes is the lingering doubt that, possibly, there is some authenticity behind them – as is the case with Kosinski.)", "Kosinski famously liked to pretend he was someone he wasn't (as do many of the characters in his books), he occasionally published under a pseudonym, and, apparently, he plagiarized and forged left and right.", "\"Kosiński addressed these claims in the introduction to the 1976 reissue of ''The Painted Bird'', saying that \"Well-intentioned writers, critics, and readers sought facts to back up their claims that the novel was autobiographical.", "They wanted to cast me in the role of spokesman for my generation, especially for those who had survived the war; but for me, survival was an individual action that earned the survivor the right to speak only for himself.", "Facts about my life and my origins, I felt, should not be used to test the book's authenticity, any more than they should be used to encourage readers to read ''The Painted Bird''.", "Furthermore, I felt then, as I do now, that fiction and autobiography are very different modes.", "\"=== Plagiarism allegations ===In June 1982, a ''Village Voice'' report by Geoffrey Stokes and Eliot Fremont-Smith accused Kosiński of plagiarism, claiming that much of his work was derivative of prewar books unfamiliar to English-speaking readers, and that ''Being There'' was a plagiarism of ''Kariera Nikodema Dyzmy'' — ''The Career of Nicodemus Dyzma'' — a 1932 Polish bestseller by Tadeusz Dołęga-Mostowicz.", "They also alleged Kosiński wrote ''The Painted Bird'' in Polish, and had it secretly translated into English.", "The report claimed that Kosiński's books had been ghost-written by \"assistant editors\", finding stylistic differences among Kosiński's novels.", "Kosiński, according to them, had depended upon his freelance editors for \"the sort of composition that we usually call writing.\"", "American biographer James Sloan notes that New York poet, publisher and translator George Reavey claimed to have written ''The Painted Bird'' for Kosiński.The article found a more realistic picture of Kosiński's life during the Holocaust – a view which was supported by biographers Joanna Siedlecka and Sloan.", "The article asserted that ''The Painted Bird,'' assumed to be semi-autobiographical, was largely a work of fiction.", "The information showed that rather than wandering the Polish countryside, as his fictional character did, Kosiński spent the war years in hiding with Polish Catholics.Terence Blacker, an English publisher (who helped publish Kosiński's books) and author of children's books and mysteries for adults, wrote an article published in ''The Independent'' in 2002:The significant point about Jerzy Kosiński was that...his books...had a vision and a voice consistent with one another and with the man himself.", "The problem was perhaps that he was a successful, worldly author who played polo, moved in fashionable circles and even appeared as an actor in Warren Beatty's ''Reds''.", "He seemed to have had an adventurous and rather kinky sexuality which, to many, made him all the more suspect.", "All in all, he was a perfect candidate for the snarling pack of literary hangers-on to turn on.", "There is something about a storyteller becoming rich and having a reasonably full private life that has a powerful potential to irritate so that, when things go wrong, it causes a very special kind of joy.Journalist John Corry wrote a 6,000-word feature article in ''The New York Times'' in November 1982, responding and defending Kosiński, which appeared on the front page of the Arts and Leisure section.", "Among other things, Corry alleged that reports claiming that \"Kosinski was a plagiarist in the pay of the C.I.A.", "were the product of a Polish Communist disinformation campaign.", "\"In an essay published in ''New York'' in 1999, Kosiński's sometime lover, Laurie Stieber, wrote that he incorporated passages from her letters into the revised and expanded 1981 edition of his 1973 novel ''The Devil Tree'', without asking her.", "\"The allegations in the ''Voice'',\" wrote Stieber, \"combined with what I knew to be true about the revised edition of ''The Devil Tree'', left me with a gnawing mistrust in all aspects of our relationship.", "I hadn’t wavered, however, from my opinion that he was an extraordinary intellectual and philosopher, a brilliant storyteller and, yes, writer.", "But ego, and the fear of having his credibility strip-searched by erudite Polish or Russian editors, were behind his insistence on writing in English rather than using translators.", "By borrowing too greedily, Jerzy inadvertently wrote the ''Village Voice'' article himself.", "\"In 1988, Kosiński wrote ''The Hermit of 69th Street'', in which he sought to demonstrate the absurdity of investigating prior work by inserting footnotes for practically every term in the book.", "\"Ironically,\" wrote theatre critic Lucy Komisar, \"possibly his only true book ... about a successful author who is shown to be a fraud.", "\"Despite repudiation of the ''Village Voice'' allegations in detailed articles in ''The New York Times'', ''The Los Angeles Times'', and other publications, Kosiński remained tainted.", "\"I think it contributed to his death,\" said Zbigniew Brzezinski, a friend and fellow Polish emigrant." ], [ "Television, radio, film, and newspaper appearances", "Kosiński appeared 12 times on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' during 1971–1973, and ''The Dick Cavett Show'' in 1974, was a guest on the talk radio show of Long John Nebel, posed half-naked for a cover photograph by Annie Leibovitz for ''The New York Times Magazine'' in 1982, and presented the Oscar for screenwriting in 1982.He also played the role of Bolshevik revolutionary and Politburo member Grigory Zinoviev in Warren Beatty's film ''Reds''.", "The ''Time'' magazine critic wrote: \"As Reed's Soviet nemesis, novelist Jerzy Kosinski acquits himself nicely–a tundra of ice against Reed's all-American fire.\"", "''Newsweek'' complimented Kosiński's \"delightfully abrasive\" performance." ], [ "Friendships", "Kosiński was friends with Roman Polanski, with whom he attended the National Film School in Łódź, and said he narrowly missed being at Polanski and Sharon Tate's house on the night Tate was murdered by Charles Manson's followers in 1969, due to lost luggage.", "His novel ''Blind Date'' portrayed the Manson murders.", "In 1984, Polanski denied Kosiński's story in his autobiography.", "Journalist John Taylor of ''New York Magazine'' believes Polanski was mistaken.", "\"Although it was a single sentence in a 461-page book, reviewers focused on it.", "But the accusation was untrue: Jerzy and Kiki had been invited to stay with Tate the night of the Manson murders, and they missed being killed as well only because they stopped in New York en route from Paris because their luggage had been misdirected.\"", "The reason why Taylor believes this is that \"a friend of Kosiński wrote a letter to the ''Times'', which was published in the ''Book Review'', describing the detailed plans he and Jerzy had made to meet that weekend at Polanski's house on Cielo Drive.\"", "The letter referenced was written by Clement Biddle Wood.Svetlana Alliluyeva, who had a friendship with Kosiński, is introduced as a character in his novel ''Blind Date''.Kosiński wrote his novel ''Pinball'' (1982) for his friend George Harrison, having conceived of the idea for the book at least 10 years before writing it." ], [ "Bibliography", "''The Future Is Ours, Comrade: Conversations with the Russians'' (1960), published under the pseudonym \"Joseph Novak\"''No Third Path'' (1962), published under the pseudonym \"Joseph Novak\"''The Painted Bird'' (1965, revised 1976)''The Art of the Self: Essays à propos Steps'' (1968)''Steps'' (1968)''Being There'' (1971)''By Jerzy Kosinski: Packaged Passion.''", "(1973)''The Devil Tree'' (1973, revised & expanded 1982)''Cockpit'' (1975)''Blind Date'' (1977)''Passion Play'' (1979)''Pinball'' (1982)''The Hermit of 69th Street'' (1988, revised 1991)''Passing By: Selected Essays, 1962–1991'' (1992)''Oral Pleasure: Kosinski as Storyteller'' (2012)" ], [ "Filmography", "''Being There'' (novel and screenplay, cameo in gala scene, 1979)''Reds'' (actor, 1981) – Grigory Zinoviev''The Statue of Liberty'' (1985) – Himself''Łódź Ghetto'' (1989) – Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski (voice)''Religion, Inc.'' (actor, 1989) – Beggar (final film role)''Nabarvené ptáče (film)'' (2019, orig.", "The Painted Bird)" ], [ "Awards and honors", "1966 – ''Prix du Meilleur Livre Étranger'' (essay category) for ''The Painted Bird''1969 – National Book Award for ''Steps''.", "(with essay by Harold Augenbraum from the Awards 60-year anniversary blog)1970 – Award in Literature, National Institute of Arts and Letters and American Academy of Arts and Letters1973–75 – President of the American Chapter of P.E.N.", "Re-elected 1974, serving the maximum permitted two terms1974 – B'rith Shalom Humanitarian Freedom Award1977 – American Civil Liberties Union First Amendment Award1979 – Writers Guild of America, East Best Screenplay Award for ''Being There'' (shared with screenwriter Robert C. Jones)1980 – Polonia Media Perspectives Achievement Award1981 – British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Best Screenplay of the Year Award for ''Being There''International House Harry Edmonds Life Achievement AwardReceived PhD Honoris Causa in Hebrew Letters from Spertus College of Judaica1988 – Received PhD Honoris Causa in Humane Letters from Albion College, Michigan1989 – Received PhD Honoris Causa in Humane Letters from State University of New York at Potsdam" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Books ===* Eliot Weinberger ''Genuine Fakes'' in his collection ''Karmic Traces''; New Directions, 2000, ; .", "* Sepp L. Tiefenthaler, ''Jerzy Kosinski: Eine Einfuhrung in Sein Werk'', 1980, * Norman Lavers, ''Jerzy Kosinski'', 1982, * Byron L. Sherwin, ''Jerzy Kosinski: Literary Alarm Clock'', 1982, * Barbara Ozieblo Rajkowska, ''Protagonista De Jerzy Kosinski: Personaje unico'', 1986, * Paul R. Lilly, Jr., ''Words in Search of Victims: The Achievement of Jerzy Kosinski'', Kent, Ohio, Kent State University Press, 1988, * Welch D. Everman, ''Jerzy Kosinski: the Literature of Violation'', Borgo Press, 1991, .", "* Tom Teicholz, ed.", "''Conversations with Jerzy Kosinski'', Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993, * Joanna Siedlecka, ''Czarny ptasior'' (The Black Bird), CIS, 1994, * Joanna Siedlecka, ''The Ugly Black Bird'', Leopolis Press, 2018 * James Park Sloan, ''Jerzy Kosinski: a Biography'', Diane Pub.", "Co., 1996, .", "* Agnieszka Salska, Marek Jedlinski, ''Jerzy Kosinski : Man and Work at the Crossroads of Cultures'', 1997, * Barbara Tepa Lupack, ed.", "''Critical Essays on Jerzy Kosinski'', New York: G.K. Hall, 1998, * Barbara Tepa Lupack, ''Being There in the Age of Trump'', Lexington Books, 2020, === Articles ===Oleg Ivsky, Review of ''The Painted Bird'' in ''Library Journal'', Vol.", "90, October 1, 1965, p. 4109Irving Howe, Review of ''The Painted Bird'' in ''Harper's Magazine'', October 1965Andrew Feld, Review in ''Book Week'', October 17, 1965, p. 2Anne Halley, Review of ''The Painted Bird'' in ''Nation'', Vol.", "201, November 29, 1965, p. 424D.A.N.", "Jones, Review of ''Steps'' in ''The New York Review of Books'', Volume 12, Number 4, February 27, 1969Irving Howe, Review of ''Being There'' in ''Harper's Magazine'', July 1971, p. 89.", "David H. Richter, The Three Denouements of Jerzy Kosinski's \"The Painted Bird\", ''Contemporary Literature'', Vol.", "15, No.", "3, Summer 1974, pp.", "370–85Gail Sheehy, \"The Psychological Novelist as Portable Man\", ''Psychology Today'', December 11, 1977, pp.", "126–30Margaret Kupcinskas Keshawarz, \"Simas Kidirka: A Literary Symbol of Democratic Individualism in Jerzy Kosinski's Cockpit\", ''Lituanus'' (Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences), Vol.", "25, No.4, Winter 1979Roger Copeland, \"An Interview with Jerzy Kosinski\", ''New York Art Journal'', Vol.", "21, pp.", "10–12, 1980Robert E. Ziegler, \"Identity and Anonymity in the Novels of Jerzy Kosinski\", ''Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature'', Vol.", "35, No.", "2, 1981, pp.", "99–109Barbara Gelb, \"Being Jerzy Kosinski\", ''New York Times Magazine'', February 21, 1982, pp.", "42–46Stephen Schiff, \"The Kosinski Conundrum\", ''Vanity Fair,'' June 1988, pp 114–19Thomas S. Gladsky, \"Jerzy Kosinski's East European Self\", ''Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction'', Vol.", "XXIX, No.", "2, Winter 1988, pp.", "121–32Michael Schumacher, \"Jerzy Kosinski\", ''Writer's Yearbook'', 1990, Vol.", "60, pp. 82–87.", "John Corry, \"The Most Considerate of Men\", ''American Spectator'', Vol.", "24, No.", "7, July 1991, pp.", "17–18Phillip Routh, \"The Rise and Fall of Jerzy Kosinski\", ''Arts & Opinion'', Vol.", "6, No.", "6, 2007.", "Timothy Neale, \"'... the credentials that would rescue me': Trauma and the Fraudulent Survivor\", ''Holocaust & Genocide Studies'', Vol.", "24, No.", "3, 2010.=== Biographical accounts ===He is the subject of the off-Broadway play ''More Lies About Jerzy'' (2001), written by Davey Holmes and originally starring Jared Harris as Kosinski-inspired character \"Jerzy Lesnewski\".", "The most recent production being produced at the New End Theatre in London starring George Layton.He also appears as one of the 'literary golems' (ghosts) in Thane Rosenbaum's novel ''The Golems of Gotham''.One of the songs of the Polish band NeLL, entitled \"Frisco Lights\", was inspired by Kosinski." ], [ "External links", "* * Katherina von Fraunhofer-Kosinski Collection of Jerzy Kosinski.", "General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.", "* Designing for Jerzy Kosinski* Jerzy Kosiński at Culture.pl*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jeep" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jeep''' is an American automobile marque, now owned by multi-national corporation Stellantis.", "Jeep has been part of Chrysler since 1987, when Chrysler acquired the Jeep brand, along with other assets, from their previous owner American Motors Corporation (AMC).Jeep's current product range consists solely of sport utility vehicles—both crossovers and fully off-road worthy SUVs and models, including one pickup truck.", "Previously, Jeep's range included other pick-ups, as well as small vans, and a few roadsters.", "Some of Jeep's vehicles—such as the Grand Cherokee—reach into the luxury SUV segment, a market segment the 1963 Wagoneer is considered to have started.", "Jeep sold 1.4 million SUVs globally in 2016, up from 500,000 in 2008, two-thirds of which in North America, and was Fiat-Chrysler's best selling brand in the U.S. during the first half of 2017.In the U.S. alone, over 2400 dealerships hold franchise rights to sell Jeep-branded vehicles, and if Jeep were spun off into a separate company, it is estimated to be worth between $22 and $33.5 billion—slightly ''more'' than all of FCA (US).", "Christian Meunier is the current President of the Jeep brand worldwide.Prior to 1940 the term \"jeep\" had been used as U.S. Army slang for new recruits or vehicles, but the World War II \"jeep\" that went into production in 1941 specifically tied the name to this light military 4×4, arguably making them the oldest four-wheel drive mass-production vehicles now known as SUVs.", "The Jeep became the primary light four-wheel-drive vehicle of the United States Armed Forces and the Allies during World War II, as well as the postwar period.", "The term became common worldwide in the wake of the war.", "Doug Stewart noted: \"The spartan, cramped, and unstintingly functional jeep became the ubiquitous World War II four-wheeled personification of Yankee ingenuity and cocky, can-do determination.\"", "It is the precursor of subsequent generations of military light utility vehicles such as the Humvee, and inspired the creation of civilian analogs such as the original Series I Land Rover.", "Many Jeep variants serving similar military and civilian roles have since been designed in other nations.The Jeep marque has been headquartered in Toledo, Ohio, ever since Willys–Overland launched production of the first CJ or Civilian Jeep branded models there in 1945.Its replacement, the conceptually consistent Jeep Wrangler series, has remained in production since 1986.With its solid axles and open top, the Wrangler has been called the Jeep model that is as central to the brand's identity as the 911 is to Porsche.At least two Jeep models (the CJ-5 and the SJ Wagoneer) enjoyed extraordinary three-decade production runs of a single body generation.In lowercase, the term \"jeep\" continues to be used as a generic term for vehicles inspired by the Jeep that are suitable for use on rough terrain.In Iceland, the word Jeppi (derived from Jeep) has been used since World War II and is still used for any type of SUV." ], [ "World War II", "===Development – 1.Bantam Reconnaissance Car===Bantam's BRC 40, pictured in 1941When it became clear that the United States would be involved in the European theater of World War II, the Army contacted 135 companies to create working prototypes of a four-wheel drive reconnaissance car.", "Only two companies responded: the American Bantam Car Company and Willys-Overland.", "The Army set a seemingly impossible deadline of 49 days to supply a working prototype.", "Willys asked for more time, but was refused.", "American Bantam had only a small staff with nobody to draft the vehicle plans, so chief engineer Harold Crist hired Karl Probst, a talented freelance designer from Detroit.", "After turning down Bantam's initial request, Probst responded to an Army request and began work on July 17, 1940, initially without salary.Probst drafted the full plans in just two days for the Bantam prototype known as the BRC or Bantam Reconnaissance Car, working up a cost estimate the next day.", "Bantam's bid was submitted on July 22, complete with blueprints.", "Much of the vehicle could be assembled from off-the-shelf automotive parts, and custom four-wheel drivetrain components were to be supplied by Spicer.", "The hand-built prototype was completed in Butler, Pennsylvania and driven to Camp Holabird, Maryland on September 23 for Army testing.", "The vehicle met all the Army's criteria except engine torque.===Development – 2.Willys and Ford===The Army thought that the Bantam company lacked the production capacity to manufacture and deliver the required number of vehicles, so it supplied the Bantam design to Willys and Ford, and encouraged them to enhance the design.", "The resulting Ford \"Pygmy\" and Willys \"Quad\" prototypes looked very similar to the Bantam BRC prototype, and Spicer supplied very similar four-wheel drivetrain components to all three manufacturers.50 cal.", "Browning machine gun (2008)1,500 of each model (Bantam BRC-40, Ford GP, and Willys MA) were built and extensively field-tested.", "After the weight specification was revised from to a maximum of including oil and water, Willys-Overland's chief engineer Delmar \"Barney\" Roos modified the design in order to use Willys's heavy but powerful \"Go Devil\" engine, and won the initial production contract.", "The Willys version became the standard jeep design, designated the model MB, and was built at their plant in Toledo, Ohio.", "The familiar pressed-metal Jeep grille was a Ford design feature and incorporated in the final design by the Army.Because the US War Department required a large number of vehicles in a short time, Willys-Overland granted the US Government a non-exclusive license to allow another company to manufacture vehicles using Willys' specifications.", "The Army chose Ford as a second supplier, building Jeeps to the Willys' design.", "Willys supplied Ford with a complete set of plans and specifications.", "American Bantam, the creators of the first Jeep, built approximately 2,700 of them to the BRC-40 design, but spent the rest of the war building heavy-duty trailers for the Army.===Full production – Willys MB and Ford GPW===1943 Willys JeepFinal production version jeeps built by Willys-Overland were the '''Model MB''', while those built by Ford were the '''Model GPW''' (''G'' = government vehicle, ''P'' = 80\" wheelbase, ''W'' = Willys engine design).", "There were subtle differences between the two.", "The versions produced by Ford had every component (including bolt heads) marked with an \"F\", and early on Ford also stamped their name in large letters in their trademark script, embossed in the rear panel of their jeeps.", "Willys followed the Ford pattern by stamping 'Willys' into several body parts, but the U.S. government objected to this practice, and both parties stopped this in 1942.In spite of persistent advertising by both car and component manufacturers of contributions to the production of successful jeeps during the war, no \"Jeep\"-branded vehicles were built until the 1945 Willys CJ-2A.The cost per vehicle trended upwards as the war continued from the price under the first contract from Willys at US$648.74 (Ford's was $782.59 per unit; these figures are equivalent to $ and $ in , respectively).", "Willys-Overland and Ford, under the direction of Charles E. Sorensen (vice-president of Ford during World War II), produced about 640,000 Jeeps towards the war effort, which accounted for approximately 18% of all the wheeled military vehicles built in the U.S. during the war.Jeeps were used by every service of the U.S. military.", "An average of 145 were supplied to every Army infantry regiment.", "Jeeps were used for many purposes, including cable laying, sawmilling, as firefighting pumpers, field ambulances, tractors, and, with suitable wheels, would run on railway tracks.", "An amphibious jeep, the model GPA, or \"seep\" (Sea Jeep) was built for Ford in modest numbers, but it could not be considered a success as it was neither a good off-road vehicle nor a good boat.", "As part of the war effort, nearly 30% of all Jeep production was supplied to Great Britain and to the Soviet Red Army." ], [ "Post-war military", "The Jeep has been widely imitated around the world, including in France by Delahaye and by Hotchkiss et Cie (after 1954, Hotchkiss manufactured Jeeps under license from Willys), and in Japan by Mitsubishi Motors and Toyota.", "The Land Rover was inspired by the Jeep.", "The utilitarian good looks of the original Jeep have been hailed by industrial designers and museum curators alike.", "The Museum of Modern Art described the Jeep as a masterpiece of functionalist design and has periodically exhibited the Jeep as part of its collection.", "Pulitzer Prize-winning war correspondent Ernie Pyle called the jeep, along with the Coleman G.I.", "Pocket Stove, \"the two most important pieces of noncombat equipment ever developed.\"", "Jeeps became even more famous following the war, as they became available on the surplus market.", "Some ads claimed to offer \"Jeeps still in the factory crate.\"", "This legend persisted for decades, despite the fact that Jeeps were never shipped from the factory in crates (although Ford did \"knock down\" Jeeps for easier shipping, which may have perpetuated the myth).The ''Jeepney'' is a unique type of taxi or bus created in the Philippines.", "The first Jeepneys were military-surplus MBs and GPWs, left behind in the war-ravaged country following World War II and Filipino independence.", "Jeepneys were built from Jeeps by lengthening and widening the rear \"tub\" of the vehicle, allowing them to carry more passengers.", "Over the years, Jeepneys have become the most ubiquitous symbol of the modern Philippines, even as they have been decorated in more elaborate and flamboyant styles by their owners.", "Most Jeepneys today are scratch-built by local manufacturers, using different powertrains.Aside from Jeepneys, backyard assemblers in the Philippines construct replica Jeeps with stainless steel bodies and surplus parts, and are called \"owner-type jeeps\" (as jeepneys are also called \"passenger-type jeeps\").In the United States military, the Jeep has been supplanted by a number of vehicles (e.g.", "Ford's M151) of which the latest is the Humvee.===CJ-V35/U===After World War II, Jeep began to experiment with new designs, including a model that could drive underwater.", "On February 1, 1950, contract N8ss-2660 was approved for 1,000 units \"especially adapted for general reconnaissance or command communications\" and \"constructed for short period underwater operation such as encountered in landing and fording operations.\"", "The engine was modified with a snorkel system so that the engine could properly breathe underwater.===M715===Jeep M715, developed in 1965In 1965, Jeep developed the M715 army truck, a militarized version of the civilian J-series Jeep truck, which served extensively in the Vietnam War.", "It had heavier full-floating axles and a foldable, vertical, flat windshield.", "Today, it serves other countries and is still being produced by Kia under license." ], [ "Etymology", "Many explanations of the origin of the word ''jeep'' have proven difficult to verify.", "The most widely held theory is that the military designation ''GP'' (for ''Government Purposes'' or ''General Purpose'') was slurred into the word ''Jeep'' in the same way that the contemporary ''HMMWV'' (for ''High-Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle'') has become known as the Humvee.", "Joe Frazer, Willys-Overland President from 1939 to 1944, claimed to have coined the word ''jeep'' by slurring the initials G.P.", "There are no contemporaneous uses of \"GP\" before later attempts to create a backronym.A more detailed view, popularized by R. Lee Ermey on his television series ''Mail Call'', disputes this \"slurred GP\" origin, saying that the vehicle was designed for specific duties, and was never referred to as \"General Purpose\" and it is highly unlikely that the average jeep-driving GI would have been familiar with this designation.", "The Ford GPW abbreviation actually meant G for government use, P to designate its wheelbase and W to indicate its Willys-Overland designed engine.", "Ermey suggests that soldiers at the time were so impressed with the new vehicles that they informally named it after Eugene the Jeep, a character in the ''Thimble Theatre'' comic strip and cartoons created by E. C. Segar, as early as mid-March 1936.Eugene the Jeep was Popeye's \"jungle pet\" and was \"small, able to move between dimensions and could solve seemingly impossible problems\".The word \"jeep\", however, was used as early as World War I, as U.S. Army slang for new uninitiated recruits, or by mechanics to refer to new, unproven vehicles.", "In 1937, tractors which were supplied by Minneapolis Moline to the US Army were called jeeps.", "A precursor of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress was also referred to as the jeep.", "''Words of the Fighting Forces'' by Clinton A. Sanders, a dictionary of military slang, published in 1942, in the library at The Pentagon gives this definition:This definition is supported by the use of the term \"jeep carrier\" to refer to the Navy's small escort carriers.Early in 1941, Willys-Overland demonstrated the vehicle's off-road capability by having it drive up the steps of the United States Capitol, driven by Willys test driver Irving \"Red\" Hausmann, who had recently heard soldiers at Fort Holabird calling it a \"jeep\".", "When asked by syndicated columnist Katharine Hillyer for the ''Washington Daily News'' (or by a bystander, according to another account) what it was called, Hausmann answered, \"It's a jeep.", "\"Katharine Hillyer's article was published nationally on February 19, 1941, and included a picture of the vehicle with the caption:Although the term was also military slang for vehicles that were untried or untested, this exposure caused all other jeep references to fade, leaving the 4×4 with the name." ], [ "Brand, trademarks and image", "Willys wartime advertisement promoting its Jeeps' contribution to the war effortThe \"Jeep\" brand has gone through many owners, starting with Willys-Overland, which filed the original trademark application for the \"Jeep\" brand-name in February 1943.To help establish the term as a Willys brand, the firm campaigned with advertisements emphasizing Willys' prominent contribution to the Jeep that helped win the war.", "Willys' application initially met with years of opposition, primarily from Bantam, but also from Minneapolis-Moline.", "The Federal Trade Commission initially ruled in favor of Bantam in May 1943, largely ignoring Minneapolis-Moline's claim, and continued to scold Willys-Overland after the war for its advertising.", "The FTC even slapped the company with a formal complaint, to cease and desist any claims that it \"created or designed\" the Jeep – Willys was only allowed to advertise its contribution to the Jeep's development.", "Willys however proceeded to produce the first Civilian Jeep (CJ) branded vehicles in 1945.Being the only company that continually produced \"Jeep\" vehicles after the war, Willys-Overland was eventually granted the name \"Jeep\" as a registered trademark in June 1950.Aside from Willys, King Features Syndicate has held a trademark on the name \"Jeep\" for their comics since August 1936.Willys had also seriously considered the brand name ''AGRIJEEP'', and was granted the trademark for it in December 1944, but instead the civilian production models as of 1945 were marketed as the \"Universal Jeep\", which reflected a wider range of uses outside of farming.FCA US LLC, the most recent successor company to the Jeep brand, now holds trademark status on the name \"Jeep\" and the distinctive 7-slot front grille design.", "The original 9-slot grille associated with all World War II jeeps was designed by Ford for their GPW, and because it weighed less than the original \"Slat Grille\" of Willys (an arrangement of flat bars), was incorporated into the \"standardized jeep\" design.The history of the HMMWV (Humvee) has ties with Jeep.", "In 1971, Jeep's Defense and Government Products Division was turned into AM General, a wholly-owned subsidiary of American Motors Corporation, which also owned Jeep.", "In 1979, while still owned by American Motors, AM General began the first steps toward designing the Humvee.", "AM General also continued manufacturing the two-wheel-drive DJ, which Jeep created in 1953.The General Motors Hummer and Chrysler Jeep have been waging battle in U.S. courts over the right to use seven slots in their respective radiator grilles.", "Chrysler Jeep claims it has the exclusive rights to use the seven vertical slits since it is the sole remaining assignee of the various companies since Willys gave their postwar jeeps seven slots instead of Ford's nine-slot design for the Jeep.===Off-road abilities===Jeep Wrangler off-roadingJeep advertising has always emphasized the brand's vehicles' off-road capabilities.", "Today, the Wrangler is one of the few remaining four-wheel-drive vehicles with solid front and rear axles.", "These axles are known for their durability, strength, and articulation.", "New Wranglers come with a Dana 44 rear differential and a Dana 30 front differential.", "The upgraded Rubicon model of the JK Wrangler is equipped with electronically activated locking differentials, Dana 44 axles front and rear with 4.10 gears, a 4:1 transfer case, electronic sway bar disconnect, and heavy-duty suspension.Another benefit of solid axle vehicles is they tend to be easier and cheaper to \"lift\" with aftermarket suspension systems.", "This increases the distance between the axle and chassis of the vehicle.", "By increasing this distance, larger tires can be installed, which will increase the ground clearance, allowing it to traverse even larger and more difficult obstacles.", "In addition to higher ground clearance, many owners aim to increase suspension articulation or \"flex\" to give their Jeeps greatly improved off-road capabilities.", "Good suspension articulation keeps all four wheels in contact with the ground and maintains traction.Useful features of the smaller Jeeps are their short wheelbases, narrow frames, ample approach, breakover, and departure angles, thus enabling them to traverse through places where full-size four-wheel drives have difficulty." ], [ "Company history and ownership", "After the war, Willys did not resume production of its passenger-car models, choosing instead to concentrate on Jeeps and Jeep-branded vehicles, launching the Jeep Station Wagon in 1946, the Jeep Truck in 1947, and the Jeepster in 1948.An attempt to re-enter the passenger-car market in 1952 with the Willys Aero sedan proved unsuccessful, and ended with the company's acquisition by Kaiser Motors in 1953, for $60 million.", "Kaiser initially called the merged company \"Willys Motors\", but renamed itself Kaiser-Jeep in 1963.By the end of 1955, Kaiser-Frazer had dropped the Willys Aero, as well as its own passenger cars to sell Jeeps exclusively.American Motors Corporation (AMC) in turn purchased Kaiser's money-losing Jeep operations in 1970.This time $70 million changed hands.", "The utility vehicles complemented AMC's passenger car business by sharing components, achieving volume efficiencies, as well as capitalizing on Jeep's international and government markets.", "In 1971, AMC spun off Jeep's commercial, postal, and military vehicle lines into a separate subsidiary, AM General – the company that later developed the M998 Humvee.", "In 1976 Jeep introduced the CJ-7, replacing the CJ-6 in North America, as well as crossing 100,000 civilian units in annual global sales for the first time.The French automaker Renault began investing in AMC in 1979.Renault began selling Jeeps through their European dealerships soon thereafter, beginning in Belgium and France, gradually supplanting a number of independent importers.", "During this period Jeep introduced the XJ Cherokee, its first unibody SUV; and global sales topped 200,000 for the first time in 1985.However, the replacement of the CJ Jeeps by the new Wrangler line in 1986 marked the start of a different era.", "By 1987, the automobile markets had changed and Renault itself was experiencing financial troubles, stemming from their heavy investment into AMC while simultaneously laying workers off in France; this led to the assassination of then-Renault CEO Georges Besse in 1986 by the French extremist group Action Directe.", "Renault's upper management quickly moved to sell off AMC.Chrysler Corporation bought out AMC in 1987, shortly after the Jeep CJ-7 had been replaced with the AMC-designed Wrangler YJ; the acquisition was primarily for Jeep.", "After more than 40 years, the four-wheel drive utility vehicles brand that had been a profitable niche for smaller automakers fell into the hands of one of the Big Three; Jeep was the only AMC brand continued by Chrysler after the acquisition, partnered with the new Eagle marque (created for legal reasons involving Renault's sale of the AMC assets to Chrysler) as the Jeep-Eagle division.", "Chrysler subsequently merged with Daimler-Benz in 1998 (by which point Eagle was discontinued) and folded into DaimlerChrysler.", "During this time, the Chrysler and Jeep sales channels were combined, primarily to complement Chrysler's luxury automobiles with Jeep's popular SUVs.", "DaimlerChrysler eventually sold most of its interest in Chrysler to a private equity company in 2007.Chrysler and the Jeep division operated under Chrysler Group LLC, until December 15, 2014, when Chrysler folded into Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, with the stateside subsidiary operating under 'FCA US LLC'.Jeeps have been built under licence by various manufacturers around the world, including Mahindra in India, EBRO in Spain, and several in South America.", "Mitsubishi built more than 30 models in Japan between 1953 and 1998; Most were based on the CJ-3B model of the original Willys-Kaiser design.Toledo, Ohio has been the headquarters of the Jeep brand since its inception, and the city has always been proud of this heritage.", "Although no longer produced in the same Toledo Complex as the World War II originals, two streets in the vicinity of the old plant are named Willys Parkway and Jeep Parkway.", "The Jeep Wrangler is built in the city currently, not far from the site of the original Willys-Overland plant.American Motors set up the first automobile-manufacturing joint venture in the People's Republic of China on January 15, 1984.The result was Beijing Jeep Corporation, Ltd., in partnership with Beijing Automobile Industry Corporation, to produce the Jeep Cherokee (XJ) in Beijing.", "Manufacture continued after Chrysler's buyout of AMC.", "This joint venture is now part of DaimlerChrysler and DaimlerChrysler China Invest Corporation.", "The original 1984 XJ model was updated and called the \"Jeep 2500\" toward the end of its production that ended after 2005.In October 2022, the joint venture between Stellantis and Chinese company Guangzhou Automobile Group filed for bankruptcy, although Stellantis said it intends to continue servicing Jeep brand customers in China.While Jeeps have been built in India under license by Mahindra & Mahindra since the 1960s, Jeep has entered the Indian market directly in 2016, starting with the release of the Wrangler and Grand Cherokee in the country.===Ownership chronology===* 1944–1953: Willys-Overland* 1953–1964: Kaiser Jeep (calling themselves \"Willys Motors\")* 1964–1970: Kaiser Jeep* 1970–1987: AMC (w/ Renault controlling production in 1986)* 1987–1998: Chrysler Corporation* 1998–2007: DaimlerChrysler AG* 2007–2009: Chrysler LLC* 2009–2013: Chrysler Group LLC - Fiat Group Automobiles* 2014–2021: Fiat Chrysler Automobiles* 2021–present: Stellantis" ], [ "Military model list", "Willys MA on the assembly line, 19411942 Willys MB slat grilleWillys / Kaiser MDJeep M715 truck* 1940 Willys Quad — Willys' first prototype, competing for the U.S. Army contract for a reconnaissance vehicle* 1941 Willys MA — Willys' low-volume preproduction model, preceding the standardized World War II jeep* 1941–1944 Willys MT \"Super Jeep\" — 6x6, prototype — a small number were built in various configurations * 1942 Willys MB – slat grille* 1942–1945 Willys MB – stamped grille* 1943 Willys WAC (for 'Willys Air Cooled') \"Jeeplet\" — prototype for a super light-weight, full-time 4WD with front and rear independent suspension * 1944 Willys MLW-1 (for 'Military Long Wheelbase') — prototype (never finished)* 1944 Willys MLW-2 (for 'Military Long Wheelbase') or \"Jungle Jeep\" — prototype for a ''half''-ton, jungle-suited jeep * 1948 Willys Jungle Burden Carrier — a medical litter, personnel and cargo carrier, built in small numbers for testing in jungle warfare and with airborne forces.", "* 1949–1952 Willys MC / M38* 1950 CJ V-35(/U) – deep water fording CJ-3A; 1000 units built for the USMC * 1952–1971 Willys / Kaiser MD / M38A1 1952–1957 Willys M38A1C – fitted with 105/106mm anti-tank recoilless rifle 1950s/1960s Willys M38A1D – a small number of M38A1s carried the M28 or M29 \"Davy Crockett Weapon System\", the US' smallest tactical nuclear weapon, fired from a 120mm or 155mm recoilless rifle** M170 Ambulance* 1953 Willys BC Bobcat aka \"Aero Jeep\" — prototype for a very small, lightweight () jeep, for easier lifting by helicopters of the day.", "* 1958–1960 Willys XM443 / M443E1 \"Super Mule\" – prototypes for , underfloor mid-engined platform-trucks, comparable to, but larger than the M274 \"Mechanical Mule\"* 1959–1982 M151 jeep — ''Although the M151 was developed and initially produced by Ford, production contracts for the M151A2 were later also awarded to Kaiser Jeep and AM General Corp, a Jeep sister company, once Jeep had become part of AMC.", "'' 1970–1982 M151A2* M718A1 Ambulance*** M825 Weapons Platform* 1960–1968 Jeep M606* 1964 US Navy and USMC variants of the Forward Control FC-170, labeled \"Truck, Diesel engine, GVW, 4x4\": M676 Truck, Cargo Pickup M677 Truck, Cargo Pickup w/4 Dr. Cab M678 Truck, Carry All M679 Truck, Ambulance* 1967–1969 Kaiser Jeep M715 truck — based on the civilian Jeep Gladiator" ], [ "Civilian model list", "===Jeep CJ===1982 Jeep ScramblerThe CJ (for \"Civilian Jeep\") series were literally the first \"Jeep\" branded vehicles sold commercially to the civilian public, beginning in 1945 with the CJ-2A, followed by the CJ-3A in 1949 and the CJ-3B in 1953.These early Jeeps are frequently referred to as \"flat-fenders\" because their front fenders were completely flat and straight, just as on the original WW II model (the Willys MB and identical Ford GPW).The CJ-4 exists only as a single 1951 prototype and constitutes the \"missing link\" between the flat-fendered CJ-2A and CJ-3A/B, and the subsequent Jeeps with new bodies, featuring rounded fenders and hoods, beginning with the 1955 CJ-5, first introduced as the military Willys MD (or M38A1).", "The restyled body was mostly prompted to clear the taller new overhead-valve Hurricane engine.", "* 1944–1945 CJ-2 – pre-production units* 1945–1949 CJ-2A* 1949–1953 CJ-3A* 1953–1968 CJ-3B* 1954–1983 CJ-5* 1955–1975 CJ-6* 1964–1967 CJ-5A/CJ-6A Tuxedo Park* 1976–1986 CJ-7* 1981–1985 CJ-8 Scrambler* 1981–1985 CJ-10===Willys Jeep Station Wagon and Truck===* The 1946–1965 Willys Jeep Station Wagon and the* 1947–1965 Willys Jeep Truck shared much in terms of styling and engineering.With over 300,000 wagons and variants built in the U.S., it was one of Willys' most successful post-World War II models.", "Its production coincided with consumers moving to the suburbs.===Willys / Jeep Jeepster & (Jeepster) Commando===The Jeepster introduced in 1948 was directly based on the rear-wheel-drive Jeep Station Wagon chassis, and shared many of the same parts.", "* 1948–1950 Willys VJ Jeepster* 1948–1949 VJ2 Jeepster* 1949–1951 VJ3 Jeepster'''(Jeepster) Commando'''* 1966–1971 C101—Jeepster Commando Hurst Jeepster (only 100 produced) Hurst Half Cab Revival Jeepster Commando convertible** open body roadster* 1972–1973 C104—Jeep Commando** Commando Half CabWillys Jeep FC-170 (1957–1965)===Jeep Forward Control===* The 1956–1965 Jeep Forward Control was built in both civilian and military models.", "The civilian versions were: FC-150 FC-160—Spain, India** FC-170===Jeep DJ and Fleetvan===A USPS mail delivery vehicle made by JeepFrom 1955 onwards Willys offered two-wheel drive versions of their CJ Jeeps for commercial use, called DJ models (for 'Dispatcher Jeep'), in both open and closed body styles.", "A well-known version was the right-hand drive model with sliding side-doors, used by the US Postal service.In 1961 the range was expanded with the 'Fleetvan' delivery van, based on DJ Jeeps.", "* 1955 USAF DJ* 1955–1964 DJ-3A* 1965–1975 DJ-5* 1965–1973 DJ-6* 1967–1975 DJ-5A* 1970–1972 DJ-5B* 1973–1974 DJ-5C* 1975–1976 DJ-5D* 1976 DJ-5E ''Electruck''* 1977–1978 DJ-5F* 1979 DJ-5G* 1982 DJ-5L'''Fleetvan Jeep'''* 1961–1975 Fleetvan FJ-3 FJ-3A FJ-6 FJ-6A FJ-8 FJ-9===SJ Wagoneer, Cherokee and pickups==='''SUV models''' (1962–1991)* 1962–1983 SJ Wagoneer* 1966–1969 SJ Super Wagoneer* 1974–1983 SJ Cherokee* 1984–1991 SJ Grand Wagoneer'''Pickup models''' (1962–1988)* 1962–1971 Jeep Gladiator (SJ)* 1971–1988 Jeep pickup truck (J-)===Jeep Cherokee (XJ) and Comanche===1988 Jeep Cherokee 2.5* 1984–2001 XJ Cherokee* 1984–1990 XJ Wagoneer 1984–1985 Broughwood 1984–1990 Limited* 1986–1992 Jeep Comanche (MJ)===Jeep Wrangler===* 1987–1995 Jeep Wrangler YJ 1991–1993 Renegade 1988–1995 Wrangler Long—Venezuela** 1995 Wrangler Rio Grande* 1997–2006 Wrangler TJ 2002 TJ Se, X, Sport, Sahara models 2003 TJ Rubicon, Rubicon Tomb Raider Edition, Sahara, Sport, X, Se models, Freedom Edition 2004–2006 TJ Long Wheel Base (LJ) Unlimited ( longer than a standard TJ) Rubicon, Sport, X, Se models 2004–2005 Willys Edition (2004–1997 made, 2005–2001 made) 2004 Columbia Edition 2005 Rubicon Sahara Unlimited TJ LWB (LJ) (1000 made) 2006 Golden Eagle Edition, 65 Year Anniversary Edition (1,675 Black 65th Anniversary Editions made) 2007–2011 TJL AEV Brute: Compact pickup truck, 2-door version; produced by AEV with the Jeep logo.", "* 2007–2018 Wrangler JK 2007–2009 JK Rubicon, Sahara, X 2010 JK Rubicon, Sahara, Mountain, Islander, and Sport Editions 2011 70th Anniversary, ''Call of Duty: Black Ops'', Mojave, and Oscar Mike Military (200 made) Editions 2011 JK-8 Independence – a MOPAR JK pick-up conversion kit, mirroring the 1980s CJ-8 Scrambler pick-up 2013 Rubicon 10th Anniversary Edition 2013–2017 Brute Double Cab: Pickup truck, 4-door version, produced by American Expedition Vehicles** 2014 Willys Wheeler Edition* 2017 – Jeep Wrangler JL* 2019 – Jeep Gladiator JT===Grand Cherokee===1st generation Grand Cherokee ZJ2008–2010 WK Grand Cherokee* 1993–1998 Grand Cherokee ZJ 1993–1995 Base SE 1993–1998 Laredo 1993–1998 Limited 1995–1997 Orvis \"Limited Edition\" 1997–1998 TSi 1998 5.9 Limited* 1993 ZJ Jeep Grand Wagoneer* 1999–2004 Grand Cherokee WJ Grand Cherokee 2002–2003 Sport 2002–2004 Special edition 2002–2004 Overland 2004 Columbia Edition* 2005–2010 Grand Cherokee WK: Five-passenger family-oriented SUV – \"WK\" is the designator for the 2005–2010 Grand Cherokee, marks the beginning of the -K designation compared to the -J designation* 2011–2022 Jeep Grand Cherokee WK2* 2021–Present Jeep Grand Cherokee WL===Jeep Liberty / Cherokee===2008–2009 Jeep Liberty* 2002–2007 Jeep Liberty KJ or Jeep Cherokee (KJ) outside North America Sport Limited Renegade 2003 Freedom Edition 2004–05 Rocky Mountain Edition 2004 Columbia Edition 2006 65th Anniversary Edition 2007 Latitude Edition (replaced Renegade)* 2008–2012 Jeep Liberty KK or Jeep Cherokee (KK) outside North America===Jeep Commander===* 2006–2010 Jeep Commander (XK) 2006 Base 2007–2010 Sport 2006–2010 Limited 2007–2009 Overland===Jeep Compass and Patriot platform===* 2007–2017 Jeep Compass MK49* 2017–present Jeep Compass MP/552* 2006–2017 Jeep Patriot (MK74): Compact sport utility vehicle===Concepts and prototypes===* 1944 CJ-1 prototype* 1949 Alcoa Aluminum-bodied Jeepster Coupe (prototype)* 1949–1950 X-98 prototype; with flat fenders, but a rounded hood and grille like the CJ-5, it may have been the first F-head-powered Jeep* 1950 CJ-4 prototype* 1950 CJ-4M prototype* 1950 CJ-4MA prototype* 1952 CJ Coiler: experimental design for an all independent suspension, with portal-hub swing-axles and coil-springs* 1958 DJ-3A Pickup: Prototype pickup truck version of the DJ-3A* 1958 Jeep Creep: prototype utility vehicle; several versions built for tests, including a Postal rig and an aircraft tug* 1959 Jeep J-100 Malibu and Berkeley: Later developed into the Wagoneer* 1960 Jeep Wide-Trac: Concept for developing a low-cost vehicle for third-world countries* 1962 The Brazilian Jeepster (prototype)* 1963 Jeep XM-200: J200-based concept for developing a low-cost vehicle for third-world countries* 1965 Jeep/Renault Model H: A light 4x4 prototype based on the Renault 16* 1966 FWD Concept Jeepvair: Similar to the Model H but with a Chevrolet Corvair powertrain* 1970 XJ001* 1970 XJ002* 1971 Jeep Cowboy: A design study using AMC's \"compact\" automobile platform* 1977 Jeep II* 1979 Jeep Jeepster II* 1986 Cherokee Targa: A two-door Cherokee convertible (later revised as Jeep Freedom show car)* 1987 Comanche Thunderchief: This vehicle was put into production later as the Comanche Eliminator* 1989 Jeep Concept 1: Evolved into the ZJ Grand Cherokee* 1989 Jeep Rubicon Wrangler: This vehicle was later put in production* 1990 Jeep JJ: Essentially what would later be called the Icon* 1990 Jeep Freedom: A revised Cherokee Targa* 1991 Jeep Wagoneer 2000: A large design concept* 1993 Jeep Ecco* 1997 Jeep Cherokee Casablanca: A special edition of Cherokee, never produced* 1997 Jeep Wrangler Ultimate Res: A tuned version of a regular TJ Wrangler developed for SEMA show* 1997 Fender Jeep Wrangler* 1997 Jeep Dakar: A fused version of a XJ Cherokee and TJ Wrangler* 1997 Jeep Icon: A design study for the next-generation Wrangler* 1999 Jeep Commander: methanol fuel cell drive train with electric motors* 1999 Jeep Journey* 1999 Jeep Jeepster Concept* 2000 Jeep Cherokee Total Exposure* 2000 Jeep Varsity: Later put into production as the Compass* 2000 Jeep Commander Concept: Later put into production as the XK* 2000 Jeep Willys* 2001 Jeep Willys2* 2002 Jeep Wrangler Tabasco* 2002 Jeep Wrangler Patriot: A special decal package for the Wrangler X/Sport* 2002 Jeep Wrangler Mountain Biker* 2004 Jeep Grand Cherokee (WJ) Concierge* 2004 Jeep Treo* 2004 Jeep Res * 2004 Jeep Liberator CRD* 2005 Jeep Hurricane: The 4-wheel steering system allows the vehicle to have both a zero turning circle, and \"crab\" sideways.", "Its engine was later put in the Grand Cherokee (WK) SRT-8* 2005 Jeep Gladiator Concept* 2005 Jeep Aggressor (the Rezo)* 2007 Jeep Trailhawk* 2008 Jeep Renegade* 2010 Jeep J8* 2010 Jeep Nukizer: Design study inspired by the Military Kaiser M-715* 2011 Jeep Wrangler Pork Chop* 2011 Jeep Compass Canyon: uses a lift* 2011 Jeep Cherokee Overland* 2012 Jeep Mighty FC: inspired by the 1956 to 1965 Forward Control vehicles Jeep sold* 2012 Jeep J-12 Concept: recalling the 1962–1971 Gladiator pickups* 2013 Jeep Wrangler Mopar Recon* 2013 Jeep Grand Cherokee Trailhawk EcoDiesel* 2013 Jeep Wrangler Stitch* 2013 Jeep Wrangler Flattop: featuring a one-piece, windowless hardtop* 2014 Jeep Wrangler Level Red* 2014 Jeep Cherokee Dakar* 2014 Jeep Wrangler MOJO* 2015 Jeep Chief* 2015 Jeep Wrangler Africa* 2015 Jeep Wrangler Red Rock Responder* 2015 Jeep Staff Car: a tribute to Jeep's military history starting with WWII" ], [ "Current models", "Jeep Renegade: Subcompact Sport Utility VehicleJeep WranglerJK: Standard wheelbase Compact Sport utility vehicle, 2-door versionJK Unlimited: Long wheelbase Mid-Size sport utility vehicle, 4-door versionJ8: Mid-Size military utility vehicle; Produced by AIL, AAV, and AEV.", "TJL: Compact pickup truck, 2-door version; Produced by AAV.", "JL: Short (2-door) and long (4-door) wheelbase SUV; in production since November 2017Jeep Gladiator (JT): mid-size pickup truck, went on sale in early 2019 as a 2020 model.", "Jeep Grand Cherokee: Mid-size sport utility vehicleJeep Compass: Compact sport utility vehicleJeep Commander: Mid-size sport utility vehicle, mainly for emerging markets Jeep Wagoneer/Jeep Grand Wagoneer (WS): Full-Size SUVs* Jeep Avenger'''Upcoming'''* 2024 Jeep Wagoneer S: coupe style EV SUV* 2024 Jeep Recon: mid-size EV SUV inspired by the Jeep Wrangler" ], [ "Jeeps built outside the USA", "The Troller T4Mahindra & Mahindra Limited Indian JeepJeeps have been built and/or assembled around the world by various companies.", "* Argentina – IKA Jeeps 1956–current; now owned by Chrysler* Australia – Willys Motors Australia – 1940s–1980s* Brazil – Willys Overland do Brasil, purchased by Ford to become Ford do Brasil – 1957–1985 built the Jeep Rural from 1960 to 1977, and the Troller T4 is a fiberglass bodied Jeep version built in Brazil.", "Troller was purchased by Ford do Brasil in 2007.", "* Burma/Myanmar – Two Burmese companies produce unlicensed copies of jeeps; Myanmar Jeeps and Chin Dwin Star Jeeps.", "* Canada – Kaiser Jeep – 1959–1969* China – Beijing Jeep Corporation – 1983 to 2009 as Beijing-Benz DaimlerChrysler Automotive.", "Since the 2014 sale of Chrysler and Jeep to FIAT jeeplike and other similar vehicles are now produced by BAIC subsidiary Beijing Automobile Works Co., Ltd. (BAW).", "Fiat-Chrysler plans to re-open Jeep production in China through a joint venture with Guangzhou Automobile Industry Group (GAIG).", "* Colombia – Willys Colombia – at least until 1999* Egypt – Arab Organization for Industrialization subsidiary Arab American Vehicles based in Cairo produces the Jeep Cherokee; the open-top, Wrangler-based Jeep AAV TJL.", "* France – Licence produced jeeps: Hotchkiss M201 and by Cournil (now Auverland) – 1952–1962* India – Mahindra & Mahindra Limited – 1960s-current* Iran – Pars Khodro, ShahBaaz, Sahra, and Ahoo – ShahBaaz based on DJ series, Sahra based on Jeep Wrangler and CJ series, and Ahoo based on Wagoneer* Israel – Automotive Industries which produces the AIL Storm (Sufa) series of Jeep Wrangler-derivatives* Italy – 1950s* Japan – Mitsubishi Jeeps – 1953–1998* Korea – Asia Motors, Ltd, Dong A Motors (SsangYong Motor Company), Keowha, and Kia.", "(None use Jeep name) – 1980s-current* Mexico – VAM Jeeps – 1946–1987* Netherlands – Nekaf Jeep, NEKAF and Kemper & Van Twist – 1954–1962* Philippines – Jeepneys; MD Juan Willys MB; \"E-jeepneys\" or minibuses, LSV (low-speed vehicles) which uses electricity.Spanish-built long-wheelbase CJ-3B* Portugal – Bravia Sarl – 1960s to 1980s This Lisbon company assembled a number of Kaiser Jeep M-201 models from several Spanish EBRO and VIASA parts built to order for the USAF airfields & the US Army based at the time in Portugal, of the 500 vehicles made, most had American running gear.", "* Russia – Russian company APAL produces the Jeep-like Stalker which utilizes a space frame covered with plastic panels, using Lada Niva chassis and mechanicals.", "* Spain – Vehículos Industriales y Agrícolas, S.A (VIASA), absorbed by Ebro trucks, and later sold to Nissan – 1960–1990s For instance built a long-wheelbase version of the CJ-3B from 1955 to 1968.", "* Turkey – Tuzla – 1954–1970s* Venezuela – Valencia Carabobo 1962–2011, 1962 Tejerias Edo Aragua Willys de Venezuela, S.A, 1979–2011 Ensambladora Carabobo C.A.", "Valencia Edo Carabobo" ], [ "Apparel and sponsorships", "Jeep is also a brand of apparel of outdoor lifestyle sold under license.", "It is reported that there are between 600 and 1,500 such outlets in China, vastly outnumbering the number of Jeep auto dealers in the country.In April 2012 Jeep signed a shirt sponsorship deal worth €35 m (US$45.8 m) with Italian football club Juventus.In August 2014, Jeep signed a sponsorship deal with the Greek football club AEK Athens F.C.Jeep has been the title sponsor of France's top men's professional basketball league, LNB Pro A, since 2018.Under the deal, the league markets itself as Jeep Élite.===Sponsorships===* Dewa United* Juventus* Al-Nasr* Balestier Khalsa" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Inline references ====== General references ===* * * " ], [ "External links", " * \"Leeping Lena Joins the Army\", October 1941—First detailed article on what became known as the Jeep* ''Autobiography of a Jeep'' (1943).", "United Films, Prelinger Archives, historical public domain video.", "* * Meet the Postwar Jeep (), ''Popular Science'', August 1945* Story of the Jeep and the American Story are Intertwined—A visual history" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jamaica''' (; , ) is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies.", "At , it is the third largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean.", "Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the island containing Haiti and the Dominican Republic), and south-east of the Cayman Islands (a British protectorate).First inhabited by the indigenous Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule after the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494.Many of the indigenous people either were killed or died of diseases, after which the Spanish brought large numbers of Africans to Jamaica as slaves.", "The island remained a possession of Spain, under the name Santiago, until 1655, when England (part of what would become the Kingdom of Great Britain) conquered it and named it ''Jamaica''.", "It became an important part of the colonial British West Indies.", "Under Britain's colonial rule, Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with a plantation economy dependent on continued importation of African slaves and their descendants.", "The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many freedmen chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations.", "Beginning in the 1840s, the British began using Chinese and Indian indentured labourers for plantation work.", "Jamaicans achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962.With million people, Jamaica is the third most populous Anglophone country in the Americas (after the United States and Canada), and the fourth most populous country in the Caribbean.", "Kingston is the country's capital and largest city.", "Most Jamaicans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, with significant European, East Asian (primarily Chinese), Indian, Lebanese, and mixed-race minorities.", "Because of a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, there is a large Jamaican diaspora, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States.", "The country has a global influence that belies its small size; it was the birthplace of the Rastafari religion, reggae music (and such associated genres as dub, ska and dancehall), and it is internationally prominent in sports, including cricket, sprinting, and athletics.", "Jamaica has sometimes been considered the world's least populous cultural superpower.Jamaica is an upper-middle-income country with an economy heavily dependent on tourism; it has an average of 4.3 million tourists a year.", "The country performs favourably in measures of press freedom, democratic governance and sustainable well-being.", "Jamaica is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with power vested in the bicameral Parliament of Jamaica, consisting of an appointed Senate and a directly elected House of Representatives.", "Andrew Holness has served as Prime Minister of Jamaica since March 2016.As a Commonwealth realm, with Charles III as its king, the appointed representative of the Crown is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Patrick Allen since 2009." ], [ "Etymology", "The indigenous people, the Taíno, called the island ''Xaymaca'' in their language, meaning the \"Land of Wood and Water\" or the \"Land of Springs\".", "''Yamaye'' has been suggested as an early Taino name for the island as recorded by Christopher Columbus.Colloquially, Jamaicans refer to their home island as the \"Rock\".", "Slang names such as \"Jamrock\", \"Jamdown\" (\"Jamdung\" in Jamaican Patois), or briefly \"Ja\", have derived from this." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Humans inhabited Jamaica from as early as 4000–1000 BC.", "Little is known of these early peoples.", "A group known as the \"Redware people\" after their pottery arrived circa 600 AD, followed by the Taíno circa 800 AD, who most likely came from South America.", "They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, and at their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped into around 200 villages headed by ''caciques'' (chiefs).", "The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.Though often thought to have become extinct following contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655.Some fled into interior regions, merging with African Maroon communities.", "The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remaining evidence of the Taíno.===Spanish rule (1509–1655)===Statue of Cristobal Columbus St. Ann's Bay, JamaicaChristopher Columbus was the first European to see Jamaica, claiming the island for Spain after landing there in 1494 on his second voyage to the Americas.", "His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, called Discovery Bay, and St. Ann's Bay was named \"Saint Gloria\" by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land.", "He later returned in 1503; however, he was shipwrecked and he and his crew were forced to live on Jamaica for a year while waiting to be rescued.One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla, which was established in 1509 by Juan de Esquivel but abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy.", "The capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called ''St.", "Jago de la Vega'', around 1534.Meanwhile, the Taínos began dying in large numbers, both from introduced diseases and from enslavement by the Spanish.", "As a result, the Spanish began importing slaves from Africa to the island.Many slaves managed to escape, forming autonomous communities in remote and easily defended areas in the interior of Jamaica, mixing with the remaining Taino; these communities became known as Maroons.", "Many Jews fled the Spanish Inquisition to live on the island.", "They lived as conversos and were often persecuted by the Spanish rulers, and some turned to piracy against the Spanish Empire's shipping.By the early 17th century it is estimated that no more than 2,500–3,000 people lived on Jamaica.===Early British period===Henry Morgan was a famous Caribbean pirate, privateer, plantation owner and slaveholder; he had first come to the West Indies as an indentured servant, like most of the early English colonists.The English began taking an interest in the island and, following a failed attempt to conquer Santo Domingo on Hispaniola, Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables led an invasion of Jamaica in 1655.Battles at Ocho Rios in 1657 and the Rio Nuevo in 1658 resulted in Spanish defeats; in 1660 the Maroon community under the leadership of Juan de Bolas switched sides from the Spanish, and began supporting the English.", "With their help, the Spanish defeat was secured.", "In 1661 English civil government was formed and Roundhead soldiers turned their attention to governance and agricultural responsibilities.When the English captured Jamaica, most Spanish colonists fled, with the exception of Spanish Jews, who chose to remain.", "Spanish slave holders freed their slaves before leaving.", "Many slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the already established maroon communities.", "During the centuries of slavery, Jamaican Maroons established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations, under the leadership of Maroon leaders such as Juan de Serras.Meanwhile, the Spanish made several attempts to re-capture the island, prompting the British to support pirates attacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean; as a result piracy became rampant on Jamaica, with the city of Port Royal becoming notorious for its lawlessness.", "Spain later recognised English possession of the island with the Treaty of Madrid (1670).", "After that, the English authorities sought to rein in the worst excesses of the pirates.In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black.", "By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations worked by large numbers of slaves, black Africans formed a majority of the population.", "The Irish in Jamaica also formed a large part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of the white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population.", "They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of 1655.The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoing Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "Migration of large numbers of Irish to the island continued into the 18th century.A limited form of local government was introduced with the creation of the House of Assembly of Jamaica in 1664; however, it represented only a tiny number of rich plantation owners.", "In 1692, the colony was rocked by an earthquake that resulted in several thousand deaths and the almost complete destruction of Port Royal.===18th–19th centuries===A plantation set alight during the Baptist War of 1831–32During the 1700s the economy boomed, based largely on sugar and other crops for export such as coffee, cotton and indigo.", "All these crops were worked by black slaves, who lived short and often brutal lives with no rights, being the property of a small planter-class.", "In the 18th century, slaves ran away and joined the Maroons in increasing numbers, and resulted in The First Maroon War (1728 – 1739/40), which ended in stalemate.", "The British government sued for peace, and signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons led by Cudjoe and Accompong in 1739, and the Windward Maroons led by Quao and Queen Nanny in 1740.A large slave rebellion, known as Tacky's War, broke out in 1760 but was defeated by the British and their Maroon allies.", "After the second conflict in 1795–96, many Maroons from the Maroon town of Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) were expelled to Nova Scotia and, later, Sierra Leone.By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumbering white people by a ratio of almost 20 to 1.Although the British had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly from Africa.", "While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves.", "They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce, prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church.", "The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted the new laws.", "Members, with membership then restricted to European-descended Jamaicans, claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs.", "Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened.Harbour Street, Kingston, c. 1820The British abolished the slave trade in 1807, but not the institution itself.", "In 1831 a huge slave rebellion, known as the Baptist War, broke out, led by the Baptist preacher Samuel Sharpe.", "The rebellion resulted in hundreds of deaths and the destruction of many plantations, and led to ferocious reprisals by the plantocracy class.", "As a result of rebellions such as these, as well as the efforts of abolitionists, Britain outlawed slavery in its empire in 1834, with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838.The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 \"coloured\" or free people of colour (mixed race); and 311,070 were slaves.", "The resulting labour shortage prompted the British to begin to \"import\" indentured servants to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations.", "Workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854.Many South Asian and Chinese descendants continue to reside in Jamaica today.Over the next 20 years, several epidemics of cholera, scarlet fever, and smallpox hit the island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 10 per day).", "Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded a population of 506,154 people, 246,573 of which were males, and 259,581 females.", "Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (mixed black and white), and 392,707 black.", "This period was marked by an economic slump, with many Jamaicans living in poverty.", "Dissatisfaction with this, and continued racial discrimination and marginalisation of the black majority, led to the outbreak of the Morant Bay rebellion in 1865 led by Paul Bogle, which was put down by Governor John Eyre with such brutality that he was recalled from his position.", "His successor, John Peter Grant, enacted a series of social, financial and political reforms whilst aiming to uphold firm British rule over the island, which became a Crown Colony in 1866.In 1872 the capital was transferred from Spanish Town to Kingston.===Early 20th century===Marcus Garvey, father of the Back to Africa Movement and Jamaica's first National HeroIn 1907 Jamaica was struck by an earthquake—this, and the subsequent fire, caused immense destruction in Kingston and the deaths of 800–1,000 people.Unemployment and poverty remained a problem for many Jamaicans.", "Various movements seeking political change arose as a result, most notably the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League founded by Marcus Garvey in 1917.As well as seeking greater political rights and an improvement for the condition of workers, Garvey was also a prominent Pan-Africanist and proponent of the Back-to-Africa movement.", "He was also one of the chief inspirations behind Rastafari, a religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s that combined Christianity with an Afrocentric theology focused on the figure of Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia.", "Despite occasional persecution, Rastafari grew to become an established faith on the island, later spreading abroad.The Great Depression of the 1930s hit Jamaica hard.", "As part of the British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–39, Jamaica saw numerous strikes, culminating in a strike in 1938 that turned into a riot.As a result, the British government instituted a commission to look into the causes of the disturbances; their report recommended political and economic reforms in Britain's Caribbean colonies.", "A new House of Representatives was established in 1944, elected by universal adult suffrage.", "During this period Jamaica's two-party system emerged, with the creation of the Jamaican Labour Party (JLP) under Alexander Bustamante and the People's National Party (PNP) under Norman Manley.Jamaica slowly gained increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom.", "In 1958 it became a province in the Federation of the West Indies, a federation of several of Britain's Caribbean colonies.", "Membership of the Federation proved to be divisive, however, and a referendum on the issue saw a slight majority voting to leave.", "After leaving the Federation, Jamaica attained full independence on 6 August 1962.The new state retained, however, its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations (with the British monarch as head of state) and adopted a Westminster-style parliamentary system.", "Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the country's first prime minister.===Post-independence era===Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6% per year, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative JLP governments; these were led by successive Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster (who died of natural causes within two months of taking office) and Hugh Shearer.", "The growth was fuelled by high levels of private investment in bauxite/alumina, tourism, the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector.", "In the 1967 Jamaican general election, the JLP were victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20 seats.In terms of foreign policy Jamaica became a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, seeking to retain strong ties with Britain and the United States whilst also developing links with Communist states such as Cuba.Michael Manley, Prime Minister 1972–1980 and 1989–1992The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor, many of whom ended up living in crime-ridden shanty towns in Kingston.", "This led to the voters electing the PNP under Michael Manley in 1972.The PNP won 37 seats to the JLP's 16.Manley's government enacted various social reforms, such as a higher minimum wage, land reform, legislation for women's equality, greater housing construction and an increase in educational provision.", "Internationally he improved ties with the Communist bloc and vigorously opposed the apartheid regime in South Africa.In 1976, the PNP won another landslide, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13.The turnout was a very high 85 percent.", "However, the economy faltered in this period due to a combination of internal and external factors (such as the oil shocks).", "The rivalry between the JLP and PNP became intense, and political and gang-related violence grew significantly in this period.By 1980, Jamaica's gross national product had declined to some 25% below its 1972 level.", "Seeking change, Jamaicans voted the JLP back in in 1980 under Edward Seaga, the JLP winning 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats.", "Firmly anti-Communist, Seaga cut ties with Cuba and sent troops to support the US invasion of Grenada in 1983.The economic deterioration, however, continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors.", "The largest and third-largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa, closed; and there was a significant reduction in production by the second-largest producer, Alcan.", "Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry.", "There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy.", "Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government sought International Monetary Fund (IMF) financing, which was dependent on implementing various austerity measures.", "These resulted in strikes in 1985 and a decline in support for the Seaga government, exacerbated by criticism of the government's response to the devastation caused by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988.Having now de-emphasised socialism and adopting a more centrist position, Michael Manley and the PNP were re-elected in 1989, winning 45 seats to the JLP's 15.The PNP went on to win a string of elections, under Prime Ministers Michael Manley (1989–1992), P. J. Patterson (1992–2005) and Portia Simpson-Miller (2005–2007).", "In the 1993 Jamaican general election, Patterson led the PNP to victory, winning 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats.", "Patterson also won the 1997 Jamaican general election, by another landslide margin of 50 seats to the JLP's 10 seats.", "Patterson's third consecutive victory came in the 2002 Jamaican general election, when the PNP retained power, but with a reduced seat majority of 34 seats to 26.Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced by Portia Simpson-Miller, Jamaica's first female Prime Minister.", "The turnout slowly declined during this period of time, from 67.4% in 1993 to 59.1% in 2002.During this period various economic reforms were introduced, such as deregulating the finance sector and floating the Jamaican dollar, as well as greater investment in infrastructure, whilst also retaining a strong social safety net.", "Political violence, so prevalent in the previous two decades, declined significantly.In 2007 the PNP was defeated by the JLP by a narrow margin of 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%.", "This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, and Bruce Golding became the new prime minister.", "Golding's tenure (2007–2010) was dominated by the effects of the global recession, as well as the fallout from an attempt by Jamaican police and military to arrest drug lord Christopher Coke in 2010 which erupted in violence, resulting in over 70 deaths.", "As a result of this incident Golding resigned and was replaced by Andrew Holness in 2011.Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century.", "In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would have been better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing it would have been worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in the country.", "Holness and the JLP were defeated in the 2011 Jamaican general election, which saw Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP return to power.", "The number of seats had been increased to 63, and the PNP swept to power with a landslide 42 seats to the JLP's 21.The voter turnout was 53.17%.Holness's JLP won the 2016 general election narrowly, defeating Simpson-Miller's PNP, on 25 February.", "The PNP won 31 seats to the JLP's 32.As a result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time.", "The voter turnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%.In the 2020 general election, Andrew Holness made history for the JLP by accomplishing a second consecutive win for the Jamaica Labour Party, winning 49 seats to 14 won by the PNP, led this time by Peter Phillips.", "The last time a consecutive win occurred for the JLP was in 1980.However, the turnout at this election was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic." ], [ "Government and politics", "King Charles IIIJamaican Parliament Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy.", "The head of state is the King of Jamaica (currently King Charles III), represented locally by the Governor-General of Jamaica.", "The governor-general is nominated by the Prime Minister of Jamaica and the entire Cabinet and then formally appointed by the monarch.", "All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister.", "The monarch and the governor-general serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from their reserve powers for use in certain constitutional crisis situations.", "The position of the monarch has been a matter of continuing debate in Jamaica for many years; currently both major political parties are committed to transitioning to a republic with a president.Jamaica's current constitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature.", "It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962, which was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which gave Jamaica independence.The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House).", "Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or ''MPs'') are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor-general's best judgement, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the governor-general to be the prime minister.", "Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and the parliamentary Leader of the Opposition and are then appointed by the governor-general.The Judiciary of Jamaica operates on a common law system derived from English law and Commonwealth of Nations precedents.", "The court of final appeal is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, though during the 2000s Parliament attempted to replace it with the Caribbean Court of Justice.===Political parties and elections===Jamaica has traditionally had a two-party system, with power often alternating between the People's National Party (PNP) and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP).", "The party with current administrative and legislative power is the Jamaica Labour Party, after its 2020 victory.", "There are also several minor parties who have yet to gain a seat in parliament; the largest of these is the National Democratic Movement (NDM).===Military===Jamaican soldiers training to fire the L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle in 2002The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the small but professional military force of Jamaica.", "The JDF is based on the British military model with similar organisation, training, weapons and traditions.", "Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on the arm of service.", "Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at Up Park Camp or JDF Training Depot, Newcastle, both in St. Andrew.", "As with the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks.", "Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom.The JDF is directly descended from the British Army's West India Regiment, which was formed during the colonial era.", "The West India Regiment was used extensively throughout the British Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926.Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II.", "The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation, after dissolution of the Federation the JDF was established.The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit.", "The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions.", "The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve).", "The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews who conduct maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations.The role of the support battalion is to provide support to boost numbers in combat and issue competency training in order to allow for the readiness of the force.", "The 1st Engineer Regiment was formed due to an increased demand for military engineers and their role is to provide engineering services whenever and wherever they are needed.", "The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections.In recent years the JDF has been called on to assist the nation's police, the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF), in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world.", "JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods.", "There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role.", "In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF.", "This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens.", "In 2017, Jamaica signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.===Administrative divisions===Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes, which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance.In the context of local government the parishes are designated \"Local Authorities\".", "These local authorities are further styled as \"Municipal Corporations\", which are either city municipalities or town municipalities.", "Any new city municipality must have a population of at least 50,000, and a town municipality a number set by the Minister of Local Government.", "There are currently no town municipalities.The local governments of the parishes of Kingston and St. Andrews are consolidated as the city municipality of Kingston & St. Andrew Municipal Corporation.", "The newest city municipality is the Municipality of Portmore, created 2003.While it is geographically located within the parish of St. Catherine, it is governed independently.", "'''Cornwall County'''Capitalkm2'''Middlesex County'''Capitalkm2'''Surrey County'''Capitalkm2 1 HanoverLucea 450 6 ClarendonMay Pen1,196 11 KingstonKingston25 2 Saint ElizabethBlack River1,212 7 ManchesterMandeville 830 12 PortlandPort Antonio814 3 Saint JamesMontego Bay 595 8 Saint AnnSt.", "Ann's Bay1,213 13 Saint AndrewHalf Way Tree453 4 TrelawnyFalmouth 875 9 Saint CatherineSpanish Town1,192 14 Saint ThomasMorant Bay743 5 WestmorelandSavanna-la-Mar 807 10 Saint MaryPort Maria 611" ], [ "Geography and environment", "Doctor's Cave Beach Club is a popular destination in Montego Bay.Blue MountainsThe picturesque Dunn's River Falls in Ocho RíosKöppen climate classification of Jamaica.Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean.", "It lies between latitudes 17° and 19°N, and longitudes 76° and 79°W.", "Mountains dominate the interior: the Don Figuerero, Santa Cruz, and May Day mountains in the west, the Dry Harbour Mountains in the centre, and the John Crow Mountains and Blue Mountains in the east, the latter containing Blue Mountain Peak, Jamaica's tallest mountain at 2,256 m. They are surrounded by a narrow coastal plain.", "Jamaica has two cities, the first being Kingston, the capital city and centre of business, located on the south coast and the second being Montego Bay, one of the best known cities in the Caribbean for tourism, located on the north coast.", "Kingston Harbour is the seventh-largest natural harbour in the world, which contributed to the city being designated as the capital in 1872.Other towns of note include Portmore, Spanish Town, Savanna la Mar, Mandeville and the resort towns of Ocho Ríos, Port Antonio and Negril.Tourist attractions include Dunn's River Falls in St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the Blue Lagoon in Portland, a dormant volcano's crater, and Port Royal, site of a major earthquake in 1692 that helped form the island's Palisadoes tombolo.Among the variety of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems are dry and wet limestone forests, rainforest, riparian woodland, wetlands, caves, rivers, seagrass beds and coral reefs.", "The authorities have recognised the tremendous significance and potential of the environment and have designated some of the more \"fertile\" areas as \"protected\".", "Among the island's protected areas are the Cockpit Country, Hellshire Hills, and Litchfield forest reserves.", "In 1992, Jamaica's first marine park, covering nearly , was established in Montego Bay.", "Portland Bight Protected Area was designated in 1999.The following year Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park was created, covering roughly of a wilderness area which supports thousands of tree and fern species and rare animals.Part Maria bay and Cabarita island from Fort HaldaneThere are several small islands off Jamaica's coast, most notably those in Portland Bight such as Pigeon Island, Salt Island, Dolphin Island, Long Island, Great Goat Island and Little Goat Island, and also Lime Cay located further east.", "Much further out – some 50–80 km off the south coast – lie the very small Morant Cays and Pedro Cays.===Climate===The climate in Jamaica is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although higher inland regions are more temperate.", "Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively dry rain-shadow areas.Jamaica lies in the hurricane belt of the Atlantic Ocean and because of this, the island sometimes suffers significant storm damage.", "Hurricanes Charlie and Gilbert hit Jamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage and many deaths.", "In the 2000s (decade), hurricanes Ivan, Dean, and Gustav also brought severe weather to the island.===Flora and fauna===Jamaica's national bird, a red-billed streamertailJamaican boaJamaican parrotfishJamaica's climate is tropical, supporting diverse ecosystems with a wealth of plants and animals.", "Its plant life has changed considerably over the centuries; when the Spanish arrived in 1494, except for small agricultural clearings, the country was deeply forested.", "The European settlers cut down the great timber trees for building and ships' supplies, and cleared the plains, savannas, and mountain slopes for intense agricultural cultivation.", "Many new plants were introduced including sugarcane, bananas, and citrus trees.Jamaica is home to about 3,000 species of native flowering plants (of which over 1,000 are endemic and 200 are species of orchid), thousands of species of non-flowering flora, and about 20 botanical gardens, some of which are several hundred years old.", "Areas of heavy rainfall also contain stands of bamboo, ferns, ebony, mahogany, and rosewood.", "Cactus and similar dry-area plants are found along the south and southwest coastal area.", "Parts of the west and southwest consist of large grasslands, with scattered stands of trees.", "Jamaica is home to three terrestrial ecoregions, the Jamaican moist forests, Jamaican dry forests, and Greater Antilles mangroves.", "It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.01/10, ranking it 110th globally out of 172 countries.Jamaica's fauna, typical of the Caribbean, includes highly diversified wildlife with many endemic species.", "As with other oceanic islands, land mammals are mostly several species of bats of which at least three endemic species are found only in Cockpit Country, one of which is at-risk.", "Other species of bat include the fig-eating and hairy-tailed bats.", "The only non-bat native mammal extant in Jamaica is the Jamaican hutia, locally known as the coney.", "Introduced mammals such as wild boar and the small Asian mongoose are also common.", "Jamaica is also home to about 50 species of reptiles, the largest of which is the American crocodile; however, it is only present within the Black River and a few other areas.", "Lizards such as anoles, iguanas and snakes such as racers and the Jamaican boa (the largest snake on the island), are common in areas such as the Cockpit Country.", "None of Jamaica's eight species of native snakes is venomous.Jamaica is home to about 289 species of birds of which 27 are endemic including the endangered black-Billed parrots and the Jamaican blackbird, both of which are only found in Cockpit Country.", "It is also the indigenous home to four species of hummingbirds (three of which are found nowhere else in the world): the black-billed streamertail, the Jamaican mango, the Vervain hummingbird, and red-billed streamertails.", "The red-billed streamertail, known locally as the \"doctor bird\", is Jamaica's National Symbol.", "Other notable species include the Jamaican tody and the Greater flamingo,One species of freshwater turtle is native to Jamaica, the Jamaican slider.", "It is found only on Jamaica and on a few islands in the Bahamas.", "In addition, many types of frogs are common on the island, especially treefrogs.Jamaican waters contain considerable resources of fresh and saltwater fish.", "The chief varieties of saltwater fish are kingfish, jack, mackerel, whiting, bonito, and tuna.", "Fish that occasionally enter freshwater and estuarine environments include snook, jewfish, mangrove snapper, and mullets.", "Fish that spend the majority of their lives in Jamaica's fresh waters include many species of livebearers, killifish, freshwater gobies, the mountain mullet, and the American eel.", "Tilapia have been introduced from Africa for aquaculture, and are very common.", "Also visible in the waters surrounding Jamaica are dolphins, parrotfish, and the endangered manatee.Insects and other invertebrates are abundant, including the world's largest centipede, the Amazonian giant centipede.", "Jamaica is the home to about 150 species of butterflies and moths, including 35 indigenous species and 22 subspecies.", "It is also the native home to the Jamaican swallowtail, the western hemisphere's largest butterfly.=== Aquatic life ===Coral reef ecosystems are important because they provide people with a source of livelihood, food, recreation, and medicinal compounds and protect the land on which they live.", "Jamaica relies on the ocean and its ecosystem for its development.", "However, the marine life in Jamaica is also being affected.", "There could be many factors that contribute to marine life not having the best health.", "Jamaica's geological origin, topographical features and seasonal high rainfall make it susceptible to a range of natural hazards that can affect the coastal and oceanic environments.", "These include storm surge, slope failures (landslides), earthquakes, floods and hurricanes.", "Coral reefs in the Negril Marine Park (NMP), Jamaica, have been increasingly impacted by nutrient pollution and macroalgal blooms following decades of intensive development as a major tourist destination.", "White River RaftingAnother one of those factors could include tourism: being that Jamaica is a very touristy place, the island draws numerous people traveling here from all over the world.", "The Jamaican tourism industry accounts for 32% of total employment and 36% of the country's GDP and is largely based on the sun, sea and sand, the last two of these attributes being dependent on healthy coral reef ecosystems.", "Because of Jamaica's tourism, they have developed a study to see if the tourist would be willing to help financially to manage their marine ecosystem because Jamaica alone is unable to.", "The ocean connects all the countries all over the world, however, everyone and everything is affecting the flow and life in the ocean.", "Jamaica is a very touristy place specifically because of their beaches.", "If their oceans are not functioning at their best then the well-being of Jamaica and the people who live there will start to deteriorate.", "According to the OECD, oceans contribute $1.5 trillion annually in value-added to the overall economy.", "A developing country on an island will get the majority of their revenue from their ocean.=== Pollution ===Pollution comes from run-off, sewage systems, and garbage.", "However, this typically all ends up in the ocean after there is rain or floods.", "Everything that ends up in the water changes the quality and balance of the ocean.", "Poor coastal water quality has adversely affected fisheries, tourism and mariculture, as well as undermining biological sustainability of the living resources of ocean and coastal habitats.", "Jamaica imports and exports many goods through their waters.", "Some of the imports that go into Jamaica include petroleum and petroleum products.", "Issues include accidents at sea; risk of spills through local and international transport of petroleum and petroleum products.", "Oil spills can disrupt the marine life with chemicals that are not normally found in the ocean.", "Other forms of pollution also occur in Jamaica.", "Solid waste disposal mechanisms in Jamaica are currently inadequate.", "The solid waste gets into the water through rainfall forces.", "Solid waste is also harmful to wildlife, particularly birds, fish and turtles that feed at the surface of the water and mistake floating debris for food.", "For example, plastic can be caught around birds' and turtles' necks, making it difficult to eat and breath as they begin to grow, causing the plastic to get tighter around their necks.", "Pieces of plastic, metal, and glass can be mistaken for the food fish eat.", "Each Jamaican generates 1 kg (2 lbs) of waste per day; only 70% of this is collected by National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA)—the remaining 30% is either burnt or disposed of in gullies/waterways.=== Environmental policies ===There are policies that are being put into place to help preserve the ocean and the life below water.", "The goal of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.", "Developing an underdeveloped country can impact the oceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to develop the country.", "Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as poverty among some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contribute to the decline of ocean and coastal resources.", "Developing practices that will contribute to the lives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem.", "Some of these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensure sustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management of shipping, and promote sustainable tourism practices." ], [ "Demographics", "===Ethnic origins===Jamaica's population, 1800–2019Montego Bay, Jamaica's second-largest cityC.I.A.", "World Fact Book 2015 Ethnic group % Population '''Black or Black Mixed''' 92.1% 2,661,965 '''Mixed non-Black''' 6.1% 176,308 '''Asian''' 0.8% 23,122 '''Other''' 0.4% 11,561 '''Unspecified''' 0.7% 20,232Jamaica's diverse ethnic roots are reflected in the national motto \"Out of Many One People\".", "Most of the population of 2,812,000 (July 2018 est.)", "are of African or partially African descent, with many being able to trace their origins to the West African countries of Ghana and Nigeria.", "Other major ancestral areas are Europe, South Asia, and East Asia.", "It is uncommon for Jamaicans to identify themselves by race as is prominent in other countries such as the United States, with most Jamaicans seeing Jamaican nationality as an identity in and of itself, identifying as simply being \"Jamaican\" regardless of ethnicity.", "A study found that the average admixture on the island was 78.3% Sub-Saharan African, 16.0% European, and 5.7% East Asian.", "Another study in 2020 showed that Jamaicans of African descent represent 76.3% of the population, followed by 15.1% Afro-European, 3.4% East Indian and Afro-East Indian, 3.2% Caucasian, 1.2% Chinese and 0.8% other.The Jamaican Maroons of Accompong and other settlements are the descendants of African slaves who fled the plantations for the interior where they set up their own autonomous communities.", "Many Maroons continue to have their own traditions and speak their own language, known locally as Kromanti.Asians form the second-largest group and include Indo-Jamaicans and Chinese Jamaicans.", "Most are descended from indentured workers brought by the British colonial government to fill labour shortages following the abolition of slavery in 1838.Prominent Indian Jamaicans include jockey Shaun Bridgmohan, who was the first Jamaican in the Kentucky Derby, NBC Nightly News journalist Lester Holt, and Miss Jamaica World and Miss Universe winner Yendi Phillips.", "The southwestern parish of Westmoreland is famous for its large population of Indo-Jamaicans.", "Along with their Indian counterparts, Chinese Jamaicans have also played an integral part in Jamaica's community and history.", "Prominent descendants of this group include Canadian billionaire investor Michael Lee-Chin, supermodels Naomi Campbell and Tyson Beckford, reggae producer Leslie Kong, and VP Records founder Vincent \"Randy\" Chin.There are about 20,000 Jamaicans who have Lebanese and Syrian ancestry.", "Most were Christian immigrants who fled the Ottoman occupation of Lebanon in the early 19th century.", "Eventually their descendants became very successful politicians and businessmen.", "Notable Jamaicans from this group include former Jamaican Prime Minister Edward Seaga, Jamaican politician and former Miss World Lisa Hanna, Jamaican politicians Edward Zacca and Shahine Robinson, and hotelier Abraham Elias Issa.The first wave of English immigrants arrived to the island 1655 after conquering the Spanish, and they have historically been the dominant group.", "Prominent descendants from this group include former American Governor of New York David Paterson, Sandals Hotels owner Gordon Butch Stewart, United States Presidential Advisor and \"mother\" of the Pell Grant Lois Rice, and former United States National Security Advisor and Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice.", "The first Irish immigrants came to Jamaica in the 1600s as war prisoners and later, indentured labour.", "Their descendants include two of Jamaica's National Heroes: Prime Ministers Michael Manley and Alexander Bustamante.", "Along with the English and the Irish, the Scots are another group that has made a significant impact on the island.", "According to the Scotland Herald newspaper, Jamaica has more people using the Campbell surnames than the population of Scotland itself, and it also has the highest percentage of Scottish surnames outside of Scotland.", "Scottish surnames account to about 60% of the surnames in the Jamaican phone books.", "The first Jamaican inhabitants from Scotland were exiled \"rebels\".", "Later, they would be followed by ambitious businessmen who spent time between their great country estates in Scotland and the island.", "As a result, many of the slave owning plantations on the island were owned by Scottish men, and thus a large number of mixed-race Jamaicans can claim Scottish ancestry.", "High immigration from Scotland continued until well after independence.", "Today, notable Scottish-Jamaicans include the businessman John Pringle, former American Secretary of State Colin Powell, and American actress Kerry Washington.Kingston, Jamaica's capital and largest cityThere is also a significant Portuguese Jamaican population that is predominantly of Sephardic Jewish heritage.", "The first Jews arrived as explorers from Spain in the 15th century after being forced to convert to Christianity or face death.", "A small number of them became slave owners and even famous pirates.", "Judaism eventually became very influential in Jamaica and can be seen today with many Jewish cemeteries around the country.", "During the Holocaust Jamaica became a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution in Europe.", "Famous Jewish descendants include the dancehall artist Sean Paul, former record producer and founder of Island Records Chris Blackwell, and Jacob De Cordova who was the founder of the ''Daily Gleaner'' newspaper.In recent years immigration has increased, coming mainly from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and Latin America; 20,000 Latin Americans reside in Jamaica.", "In 2016, the Prime Minister Andrew Holness suggested making Spanish Jamaica's second official language.", "About 7,000 Americans also reside in Jamaica.", "Notable American with connection to the island include fashion icon Ralph Lauren, philanthropist Daisy Soros, Blackstone's Schwarzman family, the family of the late Lieutenant Governor of Delaware John W. Rollins, fashion designer Vanessa Noel, investor Guy Stuart, Edward and Patricia Falkenberg, and iHeart Media CEO Bob Pittman, all of whom hold annual charity events to support the island.===Languages===Jamaica is regarded as a bilingual country, with two major languages in use by the population.", "The official language is English, which is \"used in all domains of public life\", including the government, the legal system, the media, and education.", "However, the primary spoken language is an English-based creole called Jamaican Patois (or Patwa).", "The two exist in a dialect continuum, with speakers using a different register of speech depending on context and whom they are speaking to.", "\"Pure\" Patois, though sometimes seen as merely a particularly aberrant dialect of English, is essentially mutually unintelligible with standard English and is best thought of as a separate language.", "A 2007 survey by the Jamaican Language Unit found that 17.1 percent of the population were monolingual in Jamaican Standard English (JSE), 36.5 percent were monolingual in Patois, and 46.4 percent were bilingual, although earlier surveys had pointed to a greater degree of bilinguality (up to 90 percent).", "The Jamaican education system has only recently begun to offer formal instruction in Patois, while retaining JSE as the \"official language of instruction\".Additionally, some Jamaicans use one or more of Jamaican Sign Language (JSL), American Sign Language (ASL) or the declining indigenous Jamaican Country Sign Language (Konchri Sain).", "Both JSL and ASL are rapidly replacing Konchri Sain for a variety of reasons.===Emigration===Many Jamaicans have emigrated to other countries, especially to the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada.", "In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence.", "There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to other Caribbeans countries such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guyana, and The Bahamas.", "It was estimated in 2004 that up to 2.5 million Jamaicans and Jamaican descendants live abroad.Jamaicans in the United Kingdom number an estimated 800,000 making them by far the country's largest African-Caribbean group.", "Large-scale migration from Jamaica to the UK occurred primarily in the 1950s and 1960s when the country was still under British rule.", "Jamaican communities exist in most large UK cities.", "Concentrations of expatriate Jamaicans are quite considerable in numerous cities in the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, the Miami metro area, Atlanta, Chicago, Orlando, Tampa, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Hartford, Providence and Los Angeles.", "In Canada, the Jamaican population is centred in Toronto, with smaller communities in cities such as Hamilton, Montreal, Winnipeg, Vancouver and Ottawa.", "Jamaican Canadians comprise about 30% of the entire Black Canadian population.A notable though much smaller group of emigrants are Jamaicans in Ethiopia.", "These are mostly Rastafarians, in whose theological worldview Africa is the promised land, or \"Zion\", or more specifically Ethiopia, due to reverence in which former Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie is held.", "Most live in the small town of Shashamane about 150 miles (240 km) south of the capital Addis Ababa.===Crime===When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, the murder rate was 3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the lowest in the world.", "By 2009, the rate was 62 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest in the world.", "Gang violence became a serious problem, with organised crime being centred around Jamaican posses or \"Yardies\".", "Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years, according to UN estimates.", "Some areas of Jamaica, particularly poor areas in Kingston, Montego Bay and elsewhere experience high levels of crime and violence.However, there were 1,683 reported murders in 2009 and 1,447 in 2010.After 2011 the murder rate continued to fall, following the downward trend in 2010, after a strategic programme was launched.", "In 2012, the Ministry of National Security reported a 30 percent decrease in murders.", "Nevertheless, in 2017 murders rose by 22% over the previous year.Many Jamaicans are hostile towards LGBT and intersex people, and mob attacks against gay people have been reported.", "Numerous high-profile dancehall and ragga artists have produced songs featuring explicitly homophobic lyrics.", "This has prompted the formations of LGBT rights organizations such as Stop Murder Music.", "Male homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment.===Major cities===" ], [ "Religion", "Mandeville Church (est.", "1816), an Anglican church in Manchester Parish.", "Christianity is the largest religion in Jamaica.Christianity is the largest religion practised in Jamaica.", "About 70% are Protestants; Roman Catholics are just 2% of the population.", "According to the 2001 census, the country's largest Protestant denominations are the Church of God (24%), Seventh-day Adventist Church (11%), Pentecostal (10%), Baptist (7%), Anglican (4%), United Church (2%), Methodist (2%), Moravian (1%) and Plymouth Brethren (1%).", "Bedwardism is a form of Christianity native to the island, sometimes viewed as a separate faith.", "The Christian faith gained acceptance as British Christian abolitionists and Baptist missionaries joined educated former slaves in the struggle against slavery.The Rastafari movement has 29,026 adherents, according to the 2011 census, with 25,325 Rastafarian males and 3,701 Rastafarian females.", "The faith originated in Jamaica in the 1930s and though rooted in Christianity it is heavily Afrocentric in its focus, revering figures such as the Jamaican black nationalist Marcus Garvey and Haile Selassie, the former Emperor of Ethiopia.", "Rastafari has since spread across the globe, especially to areas with large black or African diasporas.Various faiths and traditional religious practices derived from Africa are practised on the island, notably Kumina, Convince, Myal and Obeah.Other religions in Jamaica include Jehovah's Witnesses (2% population), the Bahá'í faith, which counts perhaps 8,000 adherents and 21 Local Spiritual Assemblies, Mormonism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.", "The Hindu Diwali festival is celebrated yearly among the Indo-Jamaican community.There is also a small population of about 200 Jews, who describe themselves as Liberal-Conservative.", "The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th-century Spain and Portugal.", "Kahal Kadosh Shaare Shalom, also known as the United Congregation of Israelites, is a historic synagogue located in the city of Kingston.", "Originally built in 1912, it is the official and only Jewish place of worship left on the island.", "The once abundant Jewish population has voluntarily converted to Christianity over time.", "Shaare Shalom is one of the few synagogues in the world that contains sand covered floors and is a popular tourist destination.A historic Ashura celebration in Jamaica, which is known locally as Hussay or HosayOther small groups include Muslims, who claim 5,000 adherents.", "The Muslim holidays of Ashura (known locally as Hussay or Hosay) and Eid have been celebrated throughout the island for hundreds of years.", "In the past, every plantation in each parish celebrated Hosay.", "Today it has been called an Indian carnival and is perhaps most well known in Clarendon where it is celebrated each August.", "People of all religions attend the event, showing mutual respect." ], [ "Culture", "Bob Marley, one of the most famous reggae artists from Jamaica===Music===Jamaican culture has a strong global presence.", "The musical genres reggae, ska, mento, rocksteady, dub, and, more recently, dancehall and ragga all originated in the island's vibrant, popular urban recording industry.", "These have themselves gone on to influence numerous other genres, such as punk rock (through reggae and ska), dub poetry, New Wave, two-tone, lovers rock, reggaeton, jungle, drum and bass, dubstep, grime and American rap music.", "Some rappers, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Busta Rhymes, and Heavy D, are of Jamaican descent.Bob Marley is probably the best known Jamaican musician; with his band the Wailers he had a string of hits in 1960s–70s, popularising reggae internationally and going on to sell millions of records.", "Many other internationally known artists were born in Jamaica, including Toots Hibbert, Millie Small, Lee \"Scratch\" Perry, Gregory Isaacs, Half Pint, Protoje, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Big Youth, Jimmy Cliff, Dennis Brown, Desmond Dekker, Beres Hammond, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Grace Jones, Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, I Wayne, Bounty Killer and many others.", "Bands that came from Jamaica include Black Uhuru, Third World Band, Inner Circle, Chalice Reggae Band, Culture, Fab Five and Morgan Heritage.===Literature===The journalist and author H. G. de Lisser used his native country as the setting for his many novels.", "Born in Falmouth, Jamaica, de Lisser worked as a reporter for the ''Jamaica Times'' at a young age and in 1920 began publishing the magazine ''Planters' Punch''.", "''The White Witch of Rosehall'' is one of his better-known novels.", "He was named Honorary President of the Jamaican Press Association; he worked throughout his professional career to promote the Jamaican sugar industry.Roger Mais, a journalist, poet, and playwright wrote many short stories, plays, and novels, including ''The Hills Were Joyful Together'' (1953), ''Brother Man'' (1954), and ''Black Lightning'' (1955).Ian Fleming, who had a home in Jamaica where he spent considerable time, repeatedly used the island as a setting in his James Bond novels, including ''Live and Let Die'', ''Doctor No'', \"For Your Eyes Only\", ''The Man with the Golden Gun'', and ''Octopussy and The Living Daylights''.Marlon James (1970), novelist has published three novels: ''John Crow's Devil'' (2005), ''The Book of Night Women'' (2009) and ''A Brief History of Seven Killings'' (2014), winner of the 2015 Man Booker Prize.===Film===Jamaica has a history in the film industry dating from the early 1960s.", "A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presented in the 1970s musical crime film ''The Harder They Come'', starring Jimmy Cliff as a frustrated (and psychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crime spree.", "Other notable Jamaican films include ''Countryman'', ''Rockers'', ''Dancehall Queen'', ''One Love'', ''Shottas'', ''Out the Gate'', ''Third World Cop'' and ''Kingston Paradise''.", "Jamaica is also often used as a filming location, such as the James Bond film ''Dr.", "No'' (1962), ''Papillon'' (1973) starring Steve McQueen, ''Cocktail'' (1988) starring Tom Cruise, and the 1993 Disney comedy ''Cool Runnings'', which is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica's first bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics.===Cuisine===Jamaican curry goat with rice and peasThe island is famous for its Jamaican jerk spice, curries and rice and peas which is integral to Jamaican cuisine.", "Jamaica is also home to Red Stripe beer and Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee.===National symbols===(''From the Jamaica Information Service'')* National bird: red-billed streamertail (also called doctor bird) (a hummingbird, ''Trochilus polytmus'')* National flower – lignum vitae (''Guiacum officinale'')* National tree: blue mahoe (''Hibiscus talipariti elatum'')* National fruit: ackee (''Blighia sapida'')* National motto: \"Out of Many, One People.", "\"Jamaica motto on a building at Papine High School in Kingston, Jamaica===Sport===Sport is an integral part of national life in Jamaica and the island's athletes tend to perform to a standard well above what might ordinarily be expected of such a small country.", "While the most popular local sport is cricket, on the international stage Jamaicans have tended to do particularly well at track and field athletics.The country was one of the venues of 2007 Cricket World Cup and the West Indies cricket team is one of 12 ICC full member teams that participate in international Test cricket.", "The Jamaica national cricket team competes regionally, and also provides players for the West Indies team.", "Sabina Park is the only Test venue in the island, but the Greenfield Stadium is also used for cricket.Usain Bolt is one of the most prominent sprinters in the world.Since independence Jamaica has consistently produced world class athletes in track and field.", "Over the past six decades Jamaica has produced dozens of world class sprinters including Olympic and World Champion Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.58s, and 200m for men at 19.19s.", "Other noteworthy Jamaican sprinters include Arthur Wint, the first Jamaican Olympic gold medalist; Donald Quarrie, Elaine Thompson double Olympic champion from Rio 2016 in the 100m and 200m, Olympic Champion and former 200m world record holder; Roy Anthony Bridge, part of the International Olympic Committee; Merlene Ottey; Delloreen Ennis-London; Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, the former World and two time Olympic 100m Champion; Kerron Stewart; Aleen Bailey; Juliet Cuthbert; three-time Olympic gold medalist; Veronica Campbell-Brown; Sherone Simpson; Brigitte Foster-Hylton; Yohan Blake; Herb McKenley; George Rhoden, Olympic gold medalist; Deon Hemmings, Olympic gold medalist; as well as Asafa Powell, former 100m world record holder and two-time 100m Olympic finalist and gold medal winner in the men's 2008 Olympic .", "American Olympic winner Sanya Richards-Ross was also born in Jamaica.Association football and horse-racing are other popular sports in Jamaica.", "The national football team qualified for the 1998 FIFA World Cup.", "Horse racing was Jamaica's first sport.", "Today, horse racing provides jobs for about 20,000 people including horse breeders, groomers, and trainers.", "Also, several Jamaicans are known internationally for their success in horse racing including Richard DePass, who once held the Guinness Book of World Records for the most wins in a day, Canadian awards winner George HoSang, and American award winners Charlie Hussey, Andrew Ramgeet, and Barrington Harvey.Race car driving is also a popular sport in Jamaica with several car racing tracks and racing associations across the country.The Jamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well-established teams.", "Chess and basketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF), respectively.", "Netball is also very popular on the island, with the Jamaica national netball team called The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world.Rugby league has been played in Jamaica since 2006.The Jamaica national rugby league team is made up of players who play in Jamaica and from UK based professional and semi professional clubs (notably in the Super League and Championship).", "In November 2018 for the first time ever, the Jamaican rugby league team qualified for the Rugby League World Cup after defeating the USA & Canada.", "Jamaica will play in the 2021 Rugby League World Cup in England.According to ESPN, the highest paid Jamaican professional athlete in 2011 was Justin Masterson, starting pitcher for the baseball team Cleveland Indians in the United States." ], [ "Education", "The emancipation of the slaves heralded the establishment of an education system for the masses.", "Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals and many sent their children off to England to access quality education.", "After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known as ''All Age Schools''.", "Most of these schools were established by the churches.", "This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system.Presently the following categories of schools exist:* '''Early childhood''' – Basic, infant and privately operated pre-school.", "Age cohort: 2 – 5 years.", "* '''Primary''' – Publicly and privately owned (privately owned being called preparatory schools).", "Ages 3 – 12 years.", "* '''Secondary''' – Publicly and privately owned.", "Ages 10 – 19 years.", "The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educational institutions, and many schools follow the traditional English grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies.", "* '''Tertiary''' – Community colleges; teachers' colleges, with the Mico Teachers' College (now The MICO University College) being the oldest, founded in 1836; the Shortwood Teachers' College (which was once an all-female teacher training institution); vocational training centres, colleges and universities, publicly and privately owned.", "There are five local universities: the University of the West Indies (Mona Campus); the University of Technology, Jamaica, formerly The College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); the Northern Caribbean University, formerly West Indies College; the University of the Commonwealth Caribbean, formerly the University College of The Caribbean; and the International University of the Caribbean.Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges.Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels.", "There are also opportunities for those who cannot afford further education in the vocational arena, through the Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme, which is opened to all working age national population and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities.Students are taught Spanish in school from the primary level upwards; about 40–45% of educated people in Jamaica knows some form of Spanish." ], [ "Economy", "A beach in Negril with a hotel and restaurantJames Bond Beach in OracabessaJamaica is a mixed economy with both state enterprises and private sector businesses.", "Major sectors of the Jamaican economy include agriculture, mining, manufacturing, tourism, petroleum refining, financial and insurance services.", "Tourism and mining are the leading earners of foreign exchange.", "Half the Jamaican economy relies on services, with half of its income coming from services such as tourism.", "An estimated 4.3 million foreign tourists visit Jamaica every year.", "According to the World Bank, Jamaica is an upper-middle income country that, like its Caribbean neighbours, is vulnerable to the effects of climate change, flooding, and hurricanes.", "In 2018, Jamaica represented the CARICOM Caribbean Community at the G20 and the G7 annual meetings.", "In 2019 Jamaica reported its lowest unemployment rate in 50 years.Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation Since 1991, the government has followed a programme of economic liberalisation and stabilisation by removing exchange controls, floating the exchange rate, cutting tariffs, stabilising the Jamaican dollar, reducing inflation and removing restrictions on foreign investment.", "Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government.", "During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership through divestment and privatisation programmes.", "The free-trade zones at Kingston, Montego Bay and Spanish Town allow duty-free importation, tax-free profits, and free repatriation of export earnings.Jamaica's economy grew strongly after the years of independence, but then stagnated in the 1980s, due to the heavy falls in price of bauxite and fluctuations in the price of agriculture.", "The financial sector was troubled in 1994, with many banks and insurance companies suffering heavy losses and liquidity problems.", "According to the Commonwealth Secretariat, \"The government set up the Financial Sector Adjustment Company (Finsac) in January 1997 to assist these banks and companies, providing funds in return for equity, and acquired substantial holdings in banks and insurance companies and related companies...\" but it only exasperated the problem, and brought the country into large external debt.", "From 2001, once it had restored these banks and companies to financial health, Finsac divested them.\"", "The Government of Jamaica remains committed to lowering inflation, with a long-term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners.In 1996 and 1997 there was a decrease in GDP largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island-wide drought (the worst in 70 years) and hurricane that drastically reduced agricultural production.", "In 1997 and 1998, nominal GDP was approximately a high of about 8 percent of GDP and then lowered to 4½ percent of GDP in 1999 and 2000.The economy in 1997 was marked by low levels of import growth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in the foreign exchange market.Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering.", "Agricultural production, an important engine of growth increased to 5.5% in 2001 compared to the corresponding period in 2000, signalling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997.In 2018, Jamaica reported a 7.9% increase in corn, 6.1% increase in plantains, 10.4% increase in bananas, 2.2% increase in pineapples, 13.3% increase in dasheen, 24.9% increase in coconuts, and a 10.6% increase in whole milk production.", "Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5% from January to December 1998, compared to the corresponding period in 1997.January's bauxite production recorded a 7.1% increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa.", "Jamaica is the fifth-largest exporter of bauxite in the world, after Australia, China, Brazil and Guinea.", "The country also exports limestone, of which it holds large deposits.", "The government is currently implementing plans to increase its extraction.A Canadian company, Carube Copper Corp, has found and confirmed, \"...the existence of at least seven significant Cu/Au porphyry systems (in St.", "Catherine).\"", "They have estimated that, \"The porphyry distribution found at Bellas Gate is similar to that found in the Northparkes mining district of New South Wales, Australia (which was) sold to China in 2013 for US$820 million.\"", "Carube noted that Jamaica's geology, \"... is similar to that of Chile, Argentina and the Dominican Republic – all productive mining jurisdictions.\"", "Mining on the sites began in 2017.Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well.", "In 1999 the total visitor arrivals was 2 million, an increase of 100,000 from the previous year.", "Since 2017, Jamaica's tourism has risen exponentially, rising to 4.3 million average tourists per year.", "Jamaica's largest tourist markets are from North America, South America, and Europe.", "In 2017, Jamaica recorded a 91.3% increase in stopover visitors from Southern and Western Europe (and a 41% increase in stopover arrivals from January to September 2017 over the same period from the previous year) with Germany, Portugal and Spain registering the highest percentage gains.", "In 2018, Jamaica won several World Travel Awards in Portugal winning the \"Chairman's Award for Global Tourism Innovation\", \"Best Tourist Board in the Caribbean\" \"Best Honeymoon Destination\", \"Best Culinary Destination\", \"World's Leading Beach Destination\" and \"World's Leading Cruise Destination\".", "Two months later, the Travvy Tourism Awards held in New York City, awarded Jamaica's Tourism Minister Edmund Bartlett, with the inaugural Chairman's Award for, \"Global Tourism Innovation for the Development of the Global Tourism Resilience and Crisis Management Centre (GTRCM)\".", "Bartlett has also won the Pacific Travel Writer's Association's award in Germany for the, \"2018 Best Tourism Minister of the Year\".Petrojam, Jamaica's national and only petroleum refinery, is co-owned by the Government of Venezuela.", "Petrojam, \"..operates a 35,000 barrel per day hydro-skimming refinery, to produce Automotive Diesel Oil; Heavy Fuel Oil; Kerosene/Jet Fuel, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), Asphalt and Gasoline.\"", "Customers include the Power industry, Aircraft refuellers, and Local Marketing companies.", "On 20 February 2019, the Jamaican Government voted to retake ownership of Venezuela's 49% share.Jamaica's agricultural exports are sugar, bananas, cocoa, coconut, molasses oranges, limes, grapefruit, rum, yams, allspice (of which it is the world's largest and \"most exceptional quality\" exporter), and Blue Mountain Coffee which is considered a world renowned gourmet brand.Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities.", "The aviation industry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs.", "There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation.", "Jamaica has a considerable amount of industrial engineering, light manufacturing, including metal fabrication, metal roofing, and furniture manufacturing.", "Food and beverage processing, glassware manufacturing, software and data processing, printing and publishing, insurance underwriting, music and recording, and advanced education activities can be found in the larger urban areas.", "The Jamaican construction industry is entirely self-sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance.Since the first quarter of 2006, the economy of Jamaica has undergone a period of staunch growth.", "With inflation for the 2006 calendar year down to 6.0% and unemployment down to 8.9%, the nominal GDP grew by an unprecedented 2.9%.", "An investment programme in island transportation and utility infrastructure and gains in the tourism, mining, and service sectors all contributed this figure.", "All projections for 2007 show an even higher potential for economic growth with all estimates over 3.0% and hampered only by urban crime and public policies.", "Jamaica was ranked 78th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.In 2006, Jamaica became part of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) as one of the pioneering members.The global economic downturn had a significant impact on the Jamaican economy for the years 2007 to 2009, resulting in negative economic growth.", "The government implemented a new Debt Management Initiative, the Jamaica Debt Exchange (JDX) on 14 January 2010.The initiative would see holders of Government of Jamaica (GOJ) bonds returning the high interest earning instruments for bonds with lower yields and longer maturities.", "The offer was taken up by over 95% of local financial institutions and was deemed a success by the government.Owing to the success of the JDX program, the Bruce Golding-led government was successful in entering into a borrowing arrangement with the IMF on 4 February 2010 for the amount of US$1.27b.", "The loan agreement is for a period of three years.In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) – the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas.", "The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country's heavy debt-to-GDP ratio.", "Strict adherence to the IMF's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies.", "In 2018, both Moody's and Standard and Poor Credit ratings upgraded Jamaica's ratings to both \"stable and positive\" respectively." ], [ "Science and technology", "''Main articles: Science and technology in Jamaica and List of Jamaican inventions and discoveries''The Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) sector is guided by the National Commission on Science and Technology (NCST) and the Scientific Research Council (SRC).", "Both are under the direction of the Ministry of Science, Energy, and Technology.Since the 1990s, the government has set an agenda to push the development of science and technology in Jamaica.", "Despite some successes, such as the growth of the nutraceutical industry, it has been difficult to translate the results into domestic technologies, products and services - largely because of national budgetary constraints.", "However, with Jamaica's improved fiscal space, coming out of its recent IMF programme, the government has pledged to increase expenditure on research and development.Jamaicans have made some noteworthy scientific and medical contributions.", "Amongst these include the discovery of kwashiorkor, the pioneer of treatments for pediatric sickle cell anemia and the invention of various spacecraft support systems." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transport===Halfway Tree Transport Centre, KingstonThe transport infrastructure in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system.====Roadways====The Jamaican road network consists of almost of roads, of which over is paved.", "The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island.", "This project has so far seen the completion of of freeway.====Railways====Railways in Jamaica no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport.", "Of the of railway found in Jamaica, only remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.", "On 13 April 2011, a limited passenger service was resumed between May Pen, Spanish Town and Linstead.====Air transport====A US Airways aircraft landing at Montego Bay (2013)Norman Manley International AirportThere are three international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern and air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston; Ian Fleming International Airport in Boscobel, Saint Mary Parish; and the island's largest and busiest airport, Sir Donald Sangster International Airport in the resort city of Montego Bay.", "Manley and Sangster International airports are home to the country's national airline, Air Jamaica.", "In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, and Negril, which cater to internal flights only.", "Many other small, rural centres are served by private airstrips on sugar estates or bauxite mines.====Ports, shipping and lighthouses====Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives much traffic of shipping containers.", "The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years.", "Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products.There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon, Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth, Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios, and Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio.To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses.", "They are maintained by the <Port Authority of Jamaica, an agency of the Ministry of Transport and Works.===Energy===Jamaica electricity production by sourceJamaica renewable electricity production by sourceJamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs.", "Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found.", "The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are from Mexico and Venezuela.Jamaica's electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located in Old Harbour.", "This facility has been further equipped with liquid natural gas capability and storage.", "Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company, the island's electricity provider) support the island's electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power Station Saint James, the Rockfort Power Station Saint Andrew and small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River.", "A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton, Manchester.Jamaica has successfully operated a SLOWPOKE-2 nuclear reactor of 20 kW capacity since the early 1980s, but there are no plans to expand nuclear power at present.Jamaica imports approximately of oil energy products per day, including asphalt and lubrication products.", "Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation.", "30,000 barrels/day of crude imports are processed into various motor fuels and asphalt by the Petrojam Refinery in Kingston.Jamaica produces enormous quantities of drinking alcohol (at least 5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none used as motor fuel.", "Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock into anhydrous ethanol (0% water content), but as of 2007, the process appeared to be uneconomic and the production plant was idle.", "The facility has since been purchased by West Indies Petroleum Ltd. and repurposed for petroleum distillates.===Communication===Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system with a mobile penetration of over 95%.The country's two mobile operators – FLOW Jamaica (formerly LIME, bMobile and Cable and Wireless Jamaica) and Digicel Jamaica have spent millions in network upgrades and expansion.", "The newest operator, Digicel was granted a licence in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent FLOW (then Cable and Wireless Jamaica) monopoly.", "Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while a past operator, Oceanic (which became Claro Jamaica and later merged with Digicel Jamaica in 2011) opted for the CDMA standard.", "FLOW (formerly \"LIME\" – pre-Columbus Communications merger) which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM in 2002, decommissioned TDMA in 2006 and only utilised that standard until 2009 when LIME launched its 3G network.", "Both operators currently provide islandwide coverage with HSPA+ (3G) technology.", "Currently, only Digicel offers LTE to its customers whereas FLOW Jamaica has committed to launching LTE in the cities of Kingston and Montego Bay, places where Digicel's LTE network is currently only found in, in short order.A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market, Flow Jamaica, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States.", "This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four.", "Cable and Wireless Communications (parent company of LIME) acquired the company in late 2014 and replaced their brand LIME with FLOW.", "FLOW Jamaica currently has the most broadband and cable subscribers on the island and also has 1 million mobile subscribers, second to Digicel (which had, at its peak, over 2 million mobile subscriptions on its network).Digicel entered the broadband market in 2010 by offering WiMAX broadband, capable of up to 6 Mbit/s per subscriber.", "To further their broadband share post-LIME/FLOW merger in 2014, the company introduced a new broadband service called Digicel Play, which is Jamaica's second FTTH offering (after LIME's deployment in selected communities in 2011).", "It is currently only available in the parishes of Kingston, Portmore and St. Andrew.", "It offers speeds of up to 200 Mbit/s down, 100 Mbit/s up via a pure fibre optic network.", "Digicel's competitor, FLOW Jamaica, has a network consisting of ADSL, Coaxial and Fibre to the Home (inherited from LIME) and only offers speeds up to 100 Mbit/s.", "FLOW has committed to expanding its Fibre offering to more areas in order to combat Digicel's entrance into the market.It was announced that the Office and Utilities Regulations (OUR), Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining (MSTEM) and the Spectrum Management Authority (SMA) have given approval for another mobile operator licence in January 2016.The identity of this entrant was ascertained on 20 May 2016, when the Jamaican Government named the new carrier as Symbiote Investments Limited operating under the name Caricel.", "The company will focus on 4G LTE data offerings and will first go live in the Kingston Metropolitan Area and will expand to the rest of Jamaica thereafter." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Jamaica-related articles* List of Jamaicans* Outline of Jamaica" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (pp.", "45–83)* * Ammar, N. \"From Whence they came\".", "''Jamaica Journal''.", "* Bahadur, Gaiutra.", "''Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture''.", "The University of Chicago (2014), * * * * Hall, D. \"Bounties European Immigration with Special Reference of the German Settlement at Seaford Town, Parts 1 and 2\".", "''Jamaica Journal'', 8, (4), 48–54 and 9 (1), 2–9.", "* * Jacobs, H. P. (2003).", "Germany in Jamaica.", "Indian heritage in Jamaica.", "''Jamaica Journal'', 10, (2,3,4), 10–19,* * * * * * * ''The Gleaner''.", "Seaford Town Advertising Feature.", "14 August 2003, D7 - D8 ." ], [ "External links", "; Governmental details* Government of Jamaica (archived 20 February 2009)* Jamaica at the Royal Family website* Official website of the Jamaica Information Service* The Cabinet Office of the Government of Jamaica * Chief of State and Cabinet Members (archived 10 December 2008); General information* Jamaica.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Jamaica from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 7 June 2008)* * Jamaica from the BBC News* * * National Library of Jamaica materials in the Digital Library of the Caribbean* JAMAICA VIRTUAL TOUR IN HD – many locations around the island (archived 22 January 2010)* Key Development Forecasts for Jamaica from International Futures" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "The Caribbean Island of Jamaica was initially inhabited in approximately 600 AD or 650 AD by the Redware people, often associated with redware pottery.", "By roughly 800 AD, a second wave of inhabitance occurred by the Arawak tribes, including the Tainos, prior to the arrival of Columbus in 1494.Early inhabitants of Jamaica named the land \"Xaymaca\", meaning \"land of wood and water\".", "The Spanish enslaved the Arawak, who were ravaged further by diseases that the Spanish brought with them.", "Early historians believe that by 1602, the Arawak-speaking Taino tribes were extinct.", "However, some of the Taino escaped into the forested mountains of the interior, where they mixed with runaway African slaves, and survived free from first Spanish, and then English, rule.The Spanish also captured and transported hundreds of West African people to the island for the purpose of slavery.", "However, the majority of Africans were brought into Jamaica by the English.In 1655, the English invaded Jamaica, and defeated the Spanish.", "Some African enslaved people took advantage of the political turmoil and escaped to the island's interior mountains, forming independent communities which became known as the Maroons.", "Meanwhile, on the coast, the English built the settlement of Port Royal, a base of operations where piracy flourished as so many European rebels had been rejected from their countries to serve sentences on the seas.", "Captain Henry Morgan, a Welsh plantation owner and privateer, raided settlements and shipping bases from Port Royal, earning him his reputation as one of the richest pirates in the Caribbean.In the 18th century, sugar cane replaced piracy as British Jamaica's main source of income.", "The sugar industry was labour-intensive and the British brought hundreds of thousands of enslaved black Africans to the island.", "By 1850, the black and mulatto Jamaican population outnumbered the white population by a ratio of twenty to one.", "Enslaved Jamaicans mounted over a dozen major uprisings during the 18th century, including Tacky's Revolt in 1760.There were also periodic skirmishes between the British and the mountain communities of the Jamaican Maroons, culminating in the First Maroon War of the 1730s and the Second Maroon War of 1795–1796.The aftermath of the Baptist War shone a light on the conditions of slaves which contributed greatly to the abolition movement and the passage of The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, which formally ended slavery in Jamaica in 1834.However, relations between the white and black community remained tense coming into the mid-19th century, with the most notable event being the Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865.The latter half of the 19th century saw economic decline, low crop prices, droughts, and disease.", "When sugar lost its importance, many former plantations went bankrupt, and land was sold to Jamaican peasants and cane fields were consolidated by dominant British producers.Jamaica's first political parties emerged in the late 1920s, while workers association and trade unions emerged in the 1930s.", "The development of a new Constitution in 1944, universal male suffrage, and limited self-government eventually led to Jamaican Independence in 1962 with Alexander Bustamante serving as its first prime minister.", "The country saw an extensive period of postwar growth and a smaller reliance on the agricultural sector and a larger reliance on bauxite and mining in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Political power changed hands between the two dominant parties, the JLP and PNP, from the 1970s to the present day.", "While Jamaica's murder rate fell by nearly half after the 2010 Tivoli Incursion, the country's murder rate remains one of the highest in the world.", "Economic troubles hit the country in 2013, the IMF agreed to a $1 billion loan to help Jamaica meet large debt payments, making Jamaica a highly indebted country that spends around half of its annual budget on debt repayments." ], [ "Pre-Columbian Jamaica", "The first inhabitants of Jamaica probably came from islands to the east in two waves of migration.", "About 600 CE the culture known as the “Redware people” arrived.", "Little is known of these people, however, beyond the red pottery they left behind.", "Alligator Pond in Manchester Parish and Little River in St. Ann Parish are among the earliest known sites of this Ostionoid person, who lived near the coast and extensively hunted turtles and fish.Around 800 CE, the Arawak tribes of the Tainos arrived, eventually settling throughout the island.", "Living in villages ruled by tribal chiefs called the caciques, they sustained themselves on fishing and the cultivation of maize and cassava.", "At the height of their civilization, their population is estimated to have numbered as much as 60,000.The Arawak brought a South America system of raising yuca known as \"conuco\" to the island.", "To add nutrients to the soil, the Arawak burned local bushes and trees and heaped the ash into large mounds, into which they then planted yuca cuttings.", "Most Arawak lived in large circular buildings (''bohios''), constructed with wooden poles, woven straw, and palm leaves.", "The Arawak spoke an Arawakan language and did not have writing.", "Some of the words used by them, such as ''barbacoa'' (\"barbecue\"), ''hamaca'' (\"hammock\"), ''kanoa'' (\"canoe\"), ''tabaco'' (\"tobacco\"), ''yuca'', ''batata'' (\"sweet potato\"), and ''juracán'' (\"hurricane\"), have been incorporated into Spanish and English.File:Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg\|Cassava (''yuca'') roots, the Taínos' main cropFile:Duho.jpg\|''Dujo'', a wooden chair crafted by Taínos.File:Reconstruction of Taino village, Cuba.JPG\|Reconstruction of a Taíno village in CubaFile:Parco Cerimoniale Indigeno di Caguana.jpg\|Caguana Ceremonial Ball Courts Site (''batey''), outlined with stones in Utuado, Puerto Rico" ], [ "The Spanish period (1494–1655)", "The Genoan20231003 115238Christopher Columbus is believed to be the first European to reach Jamaica.", "He landed on the island on 5 May 1494, during his second voyage to the Americas.", "Columbus returned to Jamaica during his fourth voyage to the Americas.", "He had been sailing around the Caribbean for nearly a year when a storm beached his ships in St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica, on 25 June 1503.Columbus and his men remained stranded on the island for one year, finally departing on June 1504.The Spanish crown granted the island to the Columbus family, but for decades it was something of a backwater, valued chiefly as a supply base for food and animal hides.", "In 1509 Juan de Esquivel founded the first permanent European settlement, the town of Sevilla la Nueva (New Seville), on the north coast of the island.", "A decade later, Friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote to Spanish authorities about Esquivel's conduct during the Higüey massacre of 1503.In 1534 the capital was moved to Villa de la Vega (later Santiago de la Vega), now called Spanish Town.", "This settlement served as the capital of both Spanish and English Jamaica, from its founding until 1872, after which the capital was moved to Kingston.The Spanish enslaved many of the Arawak.", "Some escaped to the mountains to join the Maroons.", "However, most died from European diseases as well as from being overworked.", "The Spaniards also introduced the first African slaves into the island.", "By the early 17th century, when most of the Taino had died out, the population of the island was about 3,000, including a small number of African slaves.", "Disappointed in the lack of gold on the island, Jamaica was mainly used as a military base to supply colonization efforts in the mainland Americas.The Spanish colonists did not bring women in the first expeditions and took Taíno women for their common-law wives, resulting in mestizo children.Although the Taino referred to the island as \"Xaymaca\", the Spanish gradually changed the name to \"Jamaica\".", "In the so-called Admiral's map of 1507 the island was labeled as \"Jamaiqua\" and in Peter Martyr's work ''Decades'' of 1511, he referred to it as both \"Jamaica\" and \"Jamica\"." ], [ "British rule (1655–1962)", "=== 17th century =======English conquest====An illustration of pre-1692 Port RoyalIn late 1654, English leader Oliver Cromwell launched the ''Western Design'' armada against Spain's colonies in the Caribbean.", "In April 1655, General Robert Venables led the armada in an attack on Spain's fort at Santo Domingo, Hispaniola.", "After the Spanish repelled this poorly executed attack, the English force then sailed for Jamaica, the only Spanish West Indies island that did not have new defensive works.", "In May 1655, around 7,000 English soldiers landed near Jamaica's capital, named Spanish Town and soon overwhelmed the small number of Spanish troops (at the time, Jamaica's entire population only numbered around 2,500).Spain never recaptured Jamaica, losing the Battle of Ocho Rios in 1657 and the Battle of Rio Nuevo in 1658.In 1660, the turning point was when some Spanish runaway slaves, who settled in the interior mountainous regions of Jamaica, became known as the Jamaican Maroons, under the leadership of Juan de Bolas switched sides from the Spanish to the English.", "For England, Jamaica was to be the \"dagger pointed at the heart of the Spanish Empire,\" but in fact, it was a possession of little economic value then.", "England gained formal possession of Jamaica from Spain in 1670 through the Treaty of Madrid.", "Removing the pressing need for constant defence against a Spanish attack, this change served as an incentive to planting.====British Colonization====English map from the 1600sCromwell increased the island's European population by sending indentured servants and prisoners to Jamaica.", "Due to Irish emigration resulting from the wars in Ireland at this time two-thirds of this 17th-century European population was Irish.", "But tropical diseases kept the number of Europeans under 10,000 until about 1740.Although the African slave population in the 1670s and 1680s never exceeded 10,000, by the end of the 17th century imports of slaves increased the black population to at least five times greater than the white population.", "Thereafter, Jamaica's African population did not increase significantly in number until well into the 18th century, in part because ships coming from the west coast of Africa preferred to unload at the islands of the Eastern Caribbean.", "At the beginning of the 18th century, the number of slaves in Jamaica did not exceed 45,000, but by 1800 it had increased to over 300,000.====Maroons====When the English captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled, leaving a large number of African slaves.", "These former Spanish slaves organised under the leadership of rival captains Juan de Serras and Juan de Bolas.", "These Jamaican Maroons intermarried with the Arawak people, and established distinct independent communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica.", "They survived by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations.", "Over time, the Maroons came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior.In the second half of the seventeenth century, de Serras fought regular campaigns against English colonial forces, even attacking the capital of Spanish Town, and he was never defeated by the English.", "Throughout the seventeenth century, and in the first few decades of the eighteenth century, Maroon forces frequently defeated the British in small-scale skirmishes.", "The British colonial authorities dispatched numerous expeditions in an attempt to subdue them, but the Maroons successfully fought a guerrilla campaign against the British in the mountainous interior, and forced the British government to seek peace terms to end the expensive conflict.In the early eighteenth century, English-speaking escaped Akan slaves were at the forefront of the Maroon fighting against the British.====The House of Assembly====Beginning with the Stuart monarchy's appointment of a civil governor to Jamaica in 1661, political patterns were established that lasted well into the 20th century.", "The second governor, Lord Windsor, brought with him in 1662 a proclamation from the king giving Jamaica's non-slave populace the same rights as those of English citizens, including the right to make their own laws.", "Although he spent only ten weeks in Jamaica, Lord Windsor laid the foundations of a governing system that was to last for two centuries — a crown-appointed governor acting with the advice of a nominated council in the legislature.", "The legislature consisted of the governor and an elected but highly unrepresentative House of Assembly.", "For years, the planter-dominated Assembly was in continual conflict with the various governors and the Stuart kings; there were also contentious factions within the assembly itself.", "For much of the 1670s and 1680s, Charles II and James II and the assembly feuded over such matters as the purchase of slaves from ships not run by the royal English trading company.", "The last Stuart governor, Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle, who was more interested in treasure hunting than in planting, turned the planter oligarchy out of office.", "After the duke's death in 1688, the planters, who had fled Jamaica to London, succeeded in lobbying James II to order a return to the pre-Albemarle political arrangement (the local control of Jamaican planters belonging to the assembly).====Jamaica's pirates====Following the 1655 conquest, Spain repeatedly attempted to recapture Jamaica.", "In response, in 1657, Governor Edward D'Oyley invited the Brethren of the Coast to come to Port Royal and make it their home port.", "The Brethren was made up of a group of pirates who were descendants of cattle-hunting ''boucaniers'' (later Anglicised to buccaneers), who had turned to piracy after being robbed by the Spanish (and subsequently thrown out of Hispaniola).", "These pirates concentrated their attacks on Spanish shipping, whose interests were considered the major threat to the town.", "These pirates later became legal English privateers who were given letters of marque by Jamaica's governor.", "Around the same time that pirates were invited to Port Royal, England launched a series of attacks against Spanish shipping vessels and coastal towns.", "By sending the newly appointed privateers after Spanish ships and settlements, England had successfully set up a system of defense for Port Royal.", "Jamaica became a haven of privateers, buccaneers, and occasionally outright pirates: Christopher Myngs, Edward Mansvelt, and most famously, Henry Morgan.England gained formal possession of Jamaica from Spain in 1670 through the Treaty of Madrid.", "Removing the pressing need for constant defense against a Spanish attack, this change served as an incentive to planting.", "This settlement also improved the supply of slaves and resulted in more protection, including military support, for the planters against foreign competition.", "As a result, the sugar monoculture and slave-worked plantation society spread across Jamaica throughout the 18th century, decreasing Jamaica's dependence on privateers for protection and funds.However, the English colonial authorities continued to have difficulties suppressing the Spanish Maroons, who made their homes in the mountainous interior and mounted periodic raids on estates and towns, such as Spanish Town.", "The Karmahaly Maroons, led by Juan de Serras, continued to stay in the forested mountains, and periodically fought the English.", "In the 1670s and 1680s, in his capacity as an owner of a large slave plantation, Morgan led three campaigns against the Jamaican Maroons of Juan de Serras.", "Morgan achieved some success against the Maroons, who withdrew further into the Blue Mountains, where they were able to stay out of the reach of Morgan and his forces.Another blow to Jamaica's partnership with privateers was the violent earthquake which destroyed much of Port Royal on 7 June 1692.Two-thirds of the town sank into the sea immediately after the main shock.", "After the earthquake, the town was partially rebuilt but the colonial government was relocated to Spanish Town, which had been the capital under Spanish rule.", "Port Royal was further devastated by a fire in 1703 and a hurricane in 1722.Most of the sea trade moved to Kingston.", "By the late 18th century, Port Royal was largely abandoned.=== 18th century =======Jamaica's sugar boom====European colonies in the 18th-century CaribbeanIn the mid-17th century, sugarcane was introduced to the British West Indies by the Dutch, from Brazil.", "Upon landing in Jamaica and other islands, they quickly urged local growers to change their main crops from cotton and tobacco to sugarcane.", "With depressed prices of cotton and tobacco, due mainly to stiff competition from the North American colonies, the farmers switched, leading to a boom in the Caribbean economies.", "Sugarcane was quickly snapped up by the British, who used it in cakes and to sweeten tea.", "In the 18th century, sugar replaced piracy as Jamaica's main source of income.", "The sugar industry was labor-intensive and the British brought hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans to Jamaica.", "By 1832, the median-size plantation in Jamaica had about 150 slaves, and nearly one of every four bondsmen lived on units that had at least 250 slaves.", "In ''The Book of Night Women'', author Marlon James indicates that the ratio of slave owners to enslaved Africans is 1:33.James also depicts atrocities that slave owners subjected slaves to along with violent resistance from the slaves as well as numerous slaves who died in pursuit of freedom.", "After slavery was abolished in 1834, sugarcane plantations used a variety of forms of labour including workers imported from India under contracts of indenture.The 18th century saw thousands of slaves imported into Jamaica into the now profitable sugar plantations.", "From 1740 to 1834, the estimated slave population continued to grow, reaching into the three hundred thousands by the end of the century.", "The sugar boom of Jamaica would change the dynamics of the slave market and the economics of the West Indies.", "Towards the end of the 18th century, Jamaica became the leader of sugar production for the British empire, producing up to 66% of the empire's sugar in 1796.The price of sugar would rise tremendously as the market for sugar in Great Britain was large, especially with the rich.", "From 1748 to 1755, the value of sugar exportations from Jamaica increased by nearly three times, going from £688,000 to £1,618,000 over the period.", "With the high demand for sugar out of Jamaica, the demand for slaves increased, leading to an increase in prices for slaves.", "From 1750 to 1807, the average price for a slave in the Caribbean would continue to steadily rise, reaching a high of £73 in 1805.Prices soared towards the dawn of the new century as a result of the plantation system in Saint-Domingue falling due to the Haitian revolution, putting more emphasis on Jamaica.", "Interestingly, the most efficient plantations employed fewer slaves per acre of land, which was observed in St. Andrews parish.", "This created a higher demand for slaves that were efficient and in good health and shape, inflating the prices of those individuals and creating a quality over quantity dynamic.", "Internal markets would also develop, namely in Kingston, that allowed for plantations to reallocate labor and to disuade or break-up bonds and families made by slaves.With an increase in traffic of ships, sugar, and slaves, British merchants implemented the guarantee system, in which a merchant would be appointed to guarantee payment upon the delivery of the enslaved.", "This system served as a safety net for merchants as they had no influence over the price of the enslaved sold as age, weight, and vitality effected price range.", "With a safe system of commerce and the rising prices of sugar, the opportunity to make riches presented itself and attracted thousands of merchants and sailors looking to gain riches.", "Most of the slaves and their sales would be ran through middlemen known as \"Guinea Factors\" who served as \"the indespensible nexus between the transatlantic slave trade and the plantation complex,\" according to Radburn.", "These factors were instrumental in keeping the slave trade and economy running smoothly, as everything went in and out through them.", "Records of some of the factors and how many slaves they sold show just how much their work perpetuated the slave economy.", "From 1785 to 1796, five factors sold 78,258 slaves combined, with a Alexandre Lindo accounting for 25,706 of them a 17% share of the entire Jamaican slave trade.", "Such a large amount of slaves sold by one man in a little over ten years shows just how popular and profitable the slave market had become.====First Maroon War====Starting in the late seventeenth century, there were periodic skirmishes between the English colonial militia and the Windward Maroons, alongside occasional slave revolts.", "In 1673 one such revolt in St. Ann's Parish of 200 slaves created the separate group of Leeward Maroons.", "These Maroons united with a group of Madagascars who had survived the shipwreck of a slave ship and formed their own maroon community in St. George's parish.", "Several more rebellions strengthened the numbers of this Leeward group.", "Notably, in 1690 a revolt at Sutton's plantation in Clarendon Parish of 400 slaves considerably strengthened the Leeward Maroons.", "The Leeward Maroons inhabited \"cockpits,\" caves, or deep ravines that were easily defended, even against troops with superior firepower.", "Such guerrilla warfare and the use of scouts who blew the abeng (the cow horn, which was used as a trumpet) to warn of approaching enemies allowed the Maroons to evade, thwart, frustrate, and defeat the British.Early in the 18th century, the Maroons took a heavy toll on British colonial militiamen who sent against them in the interior, in what came to be known as the First Maroon War.", "In 1728, the British authorities sent Robert Hunter to assume the office of governor of Jamaica; Hunter's arrival led to an intensification of the conflict.", "However, despite increased numbers, the British colonial authorities were unable to defeat the Windward Maroons.In 1739–40, the British government in Jamaica recognised that it could not defeat the Maroons, so they offered them treaties of peace instead.", "In 1739, the British, led by Governor Edward Trelawny, sued for peace with the Leeward Maroon leader, Cudjoe, described by British planters as a short, almost dwarf-like man who for years fought skilfully and bravely to maintain his people's independence.", "Some writers maintain that during the conflict, Cudjoe became increasingly disillusioned, and quarrelled with his lieutenants and with other Maroon groups.", "He felt that the only hope for the future was a peace treaty with the enemy which recognized the independence of the Leeward Maroons.", "In 1742, Cudjoe had to suppress a rebellion of Leeward Maroons against the treaty.The First Maroon War came to an end with a 1739–1740 agreement between the Maroons and the British government.", "In exchange, they were asked to agree not to harbour new runaway slaves, but rather to help catch them.", "This last clause in the treaty naturally caused a split between the Maroons and the mainly mulatto population, although from time to time runaways from the plantations still found their way into maroon settlements, such as those led by Three Fingered Jack (Jamaica).", "Another provision of the agreement was that the Maroons would serve to protect the island from invaders.", "The latter was because the Maroons were revered by the British as skilled warriors.A year later, the even more rebellious Windward Maroons led by Quao also agreed to sign a treaty under pressure from both white Jamaican militias and the Leeward Maroons.", "Eventually, Queen Nanny agreed to a land patent which meant that her Maroons also accepted peace terms.The Maroons were to remain in their five main towns (Accompong; Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town); Nanny Town, later known as Moore Town; Scott's Hall (Jamaica); and Charles Town, Jamaica), living under their own rulers and a British supervisor.====Tacky's revolt====Easter Rebellion memorial 20231007 Claude Stuart ParkIn May 1760, Tacky, a slave overseer on the Frontier plantation in Saint Mary Parish, led a group of enslaved Africans in taking over the Frontier and Trinity plantations while killing their enslavers.", "They then marched to the storeroom at Fort Haldane, where the munitions to defend the town of Port Maria were kept.", "After killing the storekeeper, Tacky and his men stole nearly 4 barrels of gunpowder and 40 firearms with shot, before marching on to overrun the plantations at Heywood Hall and Esher.", "Fort Haldane Turntable Cannon 20231007 By dawn, hundreds of other slaves had joined Tacky and his followers.", "At Ballard's Valley, the rebels stopped to rejoice in their success.", "One slave from Esher decided to slip away and sound the alarm.", "Obeahmen (Caribbean witch doctors) quickly circulated around the camp dispensing a powder that they claimed would protect the men from injury in battle and loudly proclaimed that an Obeahman could not be killed.", "The confidence was high.", "Soon there were 70 to 80 mounted militia on their way along with some Maroons from Scott's Hall, who were bound by treaty to suppress such rebellions.", "When the militia learned of the Obeahman's boast of not being able to be killed, an Obeahman was captured, killed, and hung with his mask, ornaments of teeth and bone and feather trimmings at a prominent place visible from the encampment of rebels.", "Many of the rebels, confidence shaken, returned to their plantations.", "Tacky and 25 or so men decided to fight on.", "Tacky and his men went running through the woods being chased by the Maroons and their legendary marksman, Davy the Maroon.Fort Haldane, Jamaica heritage trail, While running at full speed, Davy shot Tacky and cut off his head as evidence of his feat, for which he would be richly rewarded.", "Tacky's head was later displayed on a pole in Spanish Town until a follower took it down in the middle of the night.", "The rest of Tacky's men were found in a cave near Tacky Falls, having committed suicide rather than going back to slavery.====Second Maroon War====In 1795, the Second Maroon War was instigated when two Maroons were flogged by a black slave for allegedly stealing two pigs.", "When six Maroon leaders came to the British to present their grievances, the British took them as prisoners.", "This sparked an eight-month conflict, spurred by the fact that Maroons felt that they were being mistreated under the terms of Cudjoe's Treaty of 1739, which ended the First Maroon War.", "The war lasted for five months as a bloody stalemate.", "The British colonial authorities could muster 5,000 men, outnumbering the Maroons ten to one, but the mountainous and forested topography of Jamaica proved ideal for guerrilla warfare.", "The Maroons surrendered in December 1795.A treaty signed in December between Major General George Walpole and the Maroon leaders established that the Maroons would beg on their knees for the King's forgiveness, return all runaway slaves, and be relocated elsewhere in Jamaica.", "The governor of Jamaica ratified the treaty but gave the Maroons only three days to present themselves to beg forgiveness on 1 January 1796.Suspicious of British intentions, most of the Maroons did not surrender until mid-March.", "The British used the contrived breach of the treaty as a pretext to deport the entire Trelawny Town Maroons to Nova Scotia.", "After a few years, the Maroons were again deported to the new British settlement of Sierra Leone in West Africa.=== 19th century =======Slave resistance====Hundreds of runaway slaves secured their freedom by escaping and fighting alongside the Maroons of Trelawny Town.", "About half of these runaways surrendered with the Maroons, and many were executed or re-sold in slavery to Cuba.", "However, a few hundred stayed out in the forests of the Cockpit Country, and they joined other runaway communities.", "In 1798, a slave named Cuffee ran away from a western estate, and established a runaway community which was able to resist attempts by the colonial forces and the Maroons remaining in Jamaica to subdue them.", "In the early nineteenth century, colonial records describe hundreds of runaway slaves escaping to \"Healthshire\" where they flourished for several years before they were captured by a party of Maroons.In 1812, a community of runaways started when a dozen men and some women escaped from the sugar plantations of Trelawny into the Cockpit Country, and they created a village with the curious name of Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come.", "By the 1820s, Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come housed between 50 and 60 runaways.", "The headmen of the community were escaped slaves named Warren and Forbes.", "Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come also conducted a thriving trade with slaves from the north coast, who exchanged their salt provisions with the runaways for their ground provisions.", "In October 1824, the colonial militias tried to destroy this community.", "However, the community of Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come continued to thrive in the Cockpit Country until Emancipation in the 1830s.====The Baptist War====In 1831, enslaved Baptist preacher Samuel Sharpe led a strike among demanding more freedom and a working wage of \"half the going wage rate.\"", "Upon refusal of their demands, the strike escalated into a full rebellion, in part because Sharpe had also made military preparations with a rebel military group known as the Black Regiment led by a slave known as Colonel Johnson of Retrieve Estate, about 150 strong with 50 guns among them.", "Colonel Johnson's Black Regiment clashed with a local militia led by Colonel Grignon at old Montpelier on December 28.The militia retreated to Montego Bay while the Black Regiment advanced an invasion of estates in the hills, inviting more slaves to join while burning houses, fields, and other properties, setting off a trail of fires through the Great River Valley in Westmoreland and St. Elizabeth to St James.The Baptist War, as it was known, became the largest slave uprising in the British West Indies, lasting 10 days and mobilised as many as 60,000 of Jamaica's 300,000 slaves.", "The rebellion was suppressed by colonial forces under the control of Sir Willoughby Cotton.", "The reaction of the Jamaican Government and plantocracy was far more brutal.", "Approximately five hundred slaves were killed in total: 207 during the revolt and somewhere in the range between 310 and 340 slaves were killed through \"various forms of judicial executions\" after the rebellion was concluded, at times, for quite minor offenses (one recorded execution indicates the crime being the theft of a pig; another, a cow).", "An 1853 account by Henry Bleby described how three or four simultaneous executions were commonly observed; bodies would be allowed to pile up until workhouse slaves carted the bodies away at night and buried them in mass graves outside town.", "The brutality of the plantocracy during the revolt is thought to have accelerated the process of emancipation, with initial measures beginning in 1833.====Emancipation====The British Parliament held two inquires as a result of the loss of property and life in the 1831 Baptist War rebellion.", "Their reports of the conditions of the slaves contributed greatly to the abolition movement and helped lead to the passage of The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, formally ending slavery in Jamaica on August 1, 1834.However, the act stipulated that all slaves above the age of 6 on the date abolition took effect, were bound (indentured) in service to their former owners', albeit with a guarantee of rights, under what was called the \"Apprenticeship System\".", "The length of servitude that was required varied based on the former slaves’ responsibilities with \"domestic slaves\" owing 4 years of service and \"agriculture slaves\" owing 6.In addition to the apprentice system, former slave owners were to be compensated for the loss of their \"property.\"", "By 1839, \"Twenty Million Pounds Sterling\" was paid out to the owners of slaves freed in the Caribbean and Africa under the 1833 Abolition Act, half of whom were absentee landlords residing in Great Britain.The apprentice system was unpopular amongst Jamaica's \"former\" slaves — especially elderly slaves — who unlike slave owners were not provided any compensation.", "This led to protests.", "In the face of mounting pressure, a resolution was passed on August 1, 1838, releasing all \"apprentices\" regardless of position from all obligations to their former masters.With the abolition of the slave trade in 1808 and slavery itself in 1834, the island's sugar- and slave-based economy faltered.", "The period after emancipation in 1834 initially was marked by a conflict between the plantocracy and elements in the Colonial Office over the extent to which individual freedom should be coupled with political participation for blacks.", "In 1840 the assembly changed the voting qualifications in a way that enabled a majority of blacks and people of mixed race (browns or mulattos) to vote.", "But neither change in the political system, nor abolition of slavery, changed the planter's chief interest — which lay in the continued profitability of their estates — and they continued to dominate the elitist assembly.", "Nevertheless, at the end of the 19th century and in the early years of the 20th century, the crown began to allow some Jamaicans – mostly local merchants, urban professionals, and artisans—to hold seats on appointed councils.Rumblings of emancipation movements had begun as early as the 1780s which scared many planters.", "With the fear of being unable to purchase a sufficient labor force through the slave trade, the value of women increased.", "From 1788 to 1807, some planters began to buy women at a higher rate, trying to balance the gender ratio to 50-50.The reason for buying women in higher amounts was so that they could give birth to more slaves.", "This served two purposes, one was to supply their labor force even in the eventual passing of emancipation, and secondly to cut down on future spending by instead having your slave be born instead of purchased.", "Minimizing spending became a large priority following emancipation and the decline of the sugar based economy of Jamaica, making running a plantation very expensive.", "Merchants still found a way to stay wealthy in the wake of emancipation through the importation of British goods into Spanish America, enabling communities such as Kingston that were built on the economy of the slave trade to see continued economic prosperity.====The Morant Bay Rebellion====Tensions between blacks and whites resulted in the October 1865 Morant Bay rebellion led by Paul Bogle.", "The rebellion was sparked on 7 October, when a black man was put on trial and imprisoned for allegedly trespassing on a long-abandoned plantation.", "During the proceedings, James Geoghegon, a black spectator, disrupted the trial, and in the police's attempts to seize him to remove him from the courthouse, a fight broke out between the police and other spectators.", "While pursuing Geoghegon, two policemen were beaten with sticks and stones.", "The following Monday, arrest warrants were issued for several men for rioting, resisting arrest, and assaulting the police.", "Among them was Baptist preacher Paul Bogle.", "A few days later on 11 October, Mr. Paul Bogle marched with a group of protesters to Morant Bay.", "When the group arrived at the courthouse they were met by a small and inexperienced volunteer militia.", "The crowd began pelting the militia with rocks and sticks, and the militia opened fire on the group, killing seven black protesters before retreating.Governor John Eyre sent government troops, under Brigadier-General Alexander Nelson, to hunt down the poorly armed rebels and bring Paul Bogle back to Morant Bay for trial.", "The troops met with no organized resistance, yet they killed blacks indiscriminately, most of whom had not been involved in the riot or rebellion.", "According to one soldier, \"We slaughtered all before us... man or woman or child.” In the end, 439 black Jamaicans were killed directly by soldiers, and 354 more (including Paul Bogle) were arrested and later executed, some without proper trials.", "Paul Bogle was executed \"either the same evening he was tried or the next morning.\"", "Other punishments included the flogging of over 600 men and women (including some pregnant women), and long prison sentences.", "Thousands of homes belonging to black Jamaicans were burned down without any justifiable reason.George William Gordon, Jamaican-born plantation owner, businessman and politician, who was the mixed-race son of Scottish-born plantation owner of Cherry Gardens in St. Andrew, Joseph Gordon, and his black enslaved mistress.", "Gordon, had been critical of Governor John Eyre and his policies, and was later arrested by the Governor who believed he had been behind the rebellion.", "Despite having very little to do with the rebellion, Gordon was eventually executed.", "Though he was arrested in Kingston, he was transferred by Eyre to Morant Bay, where he could be tried under martial law.", "The execution and trial of Gordon via martial law raised some constitutional issues back in Britain, where concerns emerged about whether British dependencies should be ruled under the government of law, or through a military license.", "Gordon hanged on 23 October, after a speedy trial — just two days after his trial had begun.", "He and William Bogle, Paul's brother, \"were both tried together, and executed at the same time.”====Decline of the sugar industry====Sugar cane cutters in Jamaica, 1880During most of the 18th century, the monocrop economy based on sugarcane production for export flourished.", "In the last quarter of the century, however, the Jamaican sugar economy declined as famines, hurricanes, colonial wars, and wars of independence disrupted trade.", "By the 1820s, Jamaican sugar became less competitive with the high-volume producers like Cuba, and production subsequently declined.", "By 1882 sugar output was less than half what it was in 1828.A major reason for the decline was the British Parliament's 1807 abolition of the slave trade, under which the transportation of slaves to Jamaica after 1 March 1808 was forbidden.", "The abolition of the slave trade was followed by the abolition of slavery in 1834 and full emancipation of slaves within four years.", "Unable to convert the ex-slaves into a sharecropping tenant class similar to the one established in the post-Civil War South of the United States, planters became increasingly dependent on wage labour and began recruiting workers abroad, primarily from India, China, and Sierra Leone.", "Many of the former slaves settled in peasant or small farm communities in the interior of the island like the \"yam belt,\" where they engaged in subsistence and some cash crop farming.The second half of the 19th century was a period of severe economic decline for Jamaica.", "Low crop prices, droughts, and disease led to serious social unrest, culminating in the Morant Bay rebellions of 1865.However, renewed British administration after the 1865 rebellion, in the form of crown colony status, resulted in some social and economic progress as well as investment in the physical infrastructure.", "Agricultural development was the centrepiece of restored British rule in Jamaica.", "In 1868 the first large-scale irrigation project was launched.", "In 1895 the Jamaica Agricultural Society was founded to promote more scientific and profitable methods of farming.", "Also in the 1890s, the Crown Lands Settlement Scheme was introduced, a land reform program of sorts, which allowed small farmers to purchase two hectares or more of land on favorable terms.Sugar cane cutters in Jamaica, 1891Between 1865 and 1930, the character of landholding in Jamaica changed substantially, as sugar declined in importance.", "As many former plantations went bankrupt, some land was sold to Jamaican peasants under the Crown Lands Settlement whereas other cane fields were consolidated by dominant British producers, most notably by the British firm Tate and Lyle.", "Although the concentration of land and wealth in Jamaica was not as drastic as in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, by the 1920s the typical sugar plantation on the island had increased to an average of 266 hectares.", "But, as noted, smallscale agriculture in Jamaica survived the consolidation of land by sugar powers.", "The number of small holdings in fact tripled between 1865 and 1930, thus retaining a large portion of the population as peasantry.", "Most of the expansion in small holdings took place before 1910, with farms averaging between two and twenty hectares.The rise of the banana trade during the second half of the 19th century also changed production and trade patterns on the island.", "Bananas were first exported in 1867, and banana farming grew rapidly thereafter.", "By 1890, bananas had replaced sugar as Jamaica's principal export.", "Production rose from 5 million stems (32 percent of exports) in 1897 to an average of 20 million stems a year in the 1920s and 1930s, or over half of domestic exports.", "As with sugar, the presence of American companies, like the well-known United Fruit Company in Jamaica, was a driving force behind renewed agricultural exports.", "Competition was introduced by the Jamaican-Italian firm Lanasa & Goffe raising the price paid for bananas in 1906.The British also became more interested in Jamaican bananas than in the country's sugar.", "Expansion of banana production, however, was hampered by serious labour shortages.", "The rise of the banana economy took place amidst a general exodus of up to 11,000 Jamaicans a year.Coffee plantations also suffered as a result of emancipation.", "Even with paid labor becoming a fixture on these coffee plantations, the newfound wages that ex-slaves were paid and lower profits made it difficult to effectively run the plantation financially.", "One planter found that running his plantation cost about £2400 per year, which was about double of what it had cost in the years before 1839.Some planters attempted to tie the now free laborers to the land by making them have to pay rent if they worked and lived on the plantation.", "Many labororers of course rejected these arrangments, as with a declining plantation economy they sought to separate themselves from the plantation.", "Following these trends, the market for many of these workers declined on the plantation and shifted to the more urban centers such as Kingston, leaving the plantation economy of Jamaica behind.====Jamaica as a Crown Colony====In 1846 Jamaican planters — adversely affected by the loss of slave labour — suffered a crushing blow when Britain passed the Sugar Duties Act, eliminating Jamaica's traditionally favoured status as its primary supplier of sugar.", "The Jamaica House of Assembly stumbled from one crisis to another until the collapse of the sugar trade, when racial and religious tensions came to a head during the Morant Bay rebellion of 1865.Although suppressed ruthlessly, the severe rioting so alarmed the planters that the two-centuries-old assembly voted to abolish itself and asked for the establishment of direct British rule.", "In 1866 the new governor John Peter Grant arrived to implement a series of reforms that accompanied the transition to a crown colony.", "The government consisted of the Legislative Council and the executive Privy Council containing members of both chambers of the House of Assembly, but the Colonial Office exercised effective power through a presiding British governor.", "The council included a few handpicked prominent Jamaicans for the sake of appearance only.", "In the late 19th century, crown colony rule was modified; representation and limited self-rule were reintroduced gradually into Jamaica after 1884.The colony's legal structure was reformed along the lines of English common law and county courts, and a constabulary force was established.", "The smooth working of the crown colony system depended on a good understanding and an identity of interests between the governing officials, who were British, and most of the nonofficial, nominated members of the Legislative Council, who were Jamaicans.", "The elected members of this body were in a permanent minority and without any influence or administrative power.", "The unstated alliance – based on shared color, attitudes, and interest – between the British officials and the Jamaican upper class was reinforced in London, where the West India Committee lobbied for Jamaican interests.", "Jamaica's white or near-white propertied class continued to hold the dominant position in every respect; the vast majority of the black population remained poor and disenfranchised.====Religion====Until it was disestablished in 1870, the Church of England in Jamaica was the established church.", "It represented the white English community.", "It received funding from the colonial government and was given responsibility for providing religious instruction to the slaves.", "It was challenged by Methodist missionaries from England, and the Methodists in turn were denounced as troublemakers.", "The Church of England in Jamaica established the Jamaica Home and Foreign Missionary Society in 1861; its mission stations multiplied, with financial help from religious organizations in London.", "The Society sent its own missionaries to West Africa.", "Baptist missions grew rapidly, thanks to missionaries from England and the United States, and became the largest denomination by 1900.Baptist missionaries denounced the apprentice system as a form of slavery.", "In the 1870s and 1880s, the Methodists opened a high school and a theological college.", "Other Protestant groups included the Moravians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Seventh-day Adventist, Church of God, and others.", "There were several thousand Roman Catholics.", "The population was largely Christian by 1900, and most families were linked with the church or a Sunday School.", "Traditional pagan practices persisted in an unorganized fashion, such as witchcraft.====Kingston, the new capital====In 1872, the government passed an act to transfer government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston.", "Kingston had been founded as a refuge for survivors of the 1692 earthquake that destroyed Port Royal.", "The town did not begin to grow until after the further destruction of Port Royal by fire in 1703.Surveyor John Goffe drew up a plan for the town based on a grid bounded by North, East, West, and Harbour Streets.", "By 1716 it had become the largest town and the center of trade for Jamaica.", "The government sold the land to people with the regulation that they purchase no more than the amount of the land that they owned in Port Royal, and the only land on the sea front.", "Gradually wealthy merchants began to move their residences from above their businesses to the farm lands north on the plains of Liguanea.", "In 1755 the governor, Sir Charles Knowles, had decided to transfer the government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston.", "It was thought by some to be an unsuitable location for the Assembly in proximity to the moral distractions of Kingston, and the next governor rescinded the Act.", "However, by 1780 the population of Kingston was 11,000, and the merchants began lobbying for the administrative capital to be transferred from Spanish Town, which was by then eclipsed by the commercial activity in Kingston.", "The 1907 Kingston earthquake destroyed much of the city.", "Considered by many writers of that time one of the world's deadliest earthquakes, it resulted in the death of over eight hundred Jamaicans and destroyed the homes of over ten thousand more.File:Valentine and Sons - Street View 3, Kingston, Jamaica, 1891.tiff\|Kingston in 1891File:Valentine and Sons - Street View 1, Kingston, Jamaica, 1891.jpg\|Horse-drawn carriages in Kingston, 1891File:Map Kingston 1897.jpg\|Map of Kingston in 1897File:Kingston (1907).jpg\|View of Kingston in 1907 showing damage caused by the earthquake.=== Early 20th century =======Bananas====Port Maria Harbor, St Mary ParishThe earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related Western Caribbean Zone, including most of Central America.", "It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening.", "North American shippers like Lorenzo Dow Baker and Andrew Preston, the founders of the Boston Fruit Company started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like Minor C. Keith also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's Chiquita Brands International and Dole.", "These companies were monopolistic, vertically integrated (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build enclave economies (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very little to the host economy).", "Alfred Constantine Goffe was a Jamaican Businessman whose St. Mary Banana co-op was the first in Jamaica, opposed the larger export companies and by 1909 had the largest Jamaican owned Banana export company.", "The resurgence of the Baltimore docks and newer, faster boats, refrigeration on board steamships and rail-cars enabled bananas to travel further to meet the demand for the yellow fruit, for which the firm of Lanasa and Goffe excelled .====Marcus Garvey====Marcus Garvey Marcus Mosiah Garvey, a black activist, Trade Unionist, and husband to Amy Jacques Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League in 1914, one of Jamaica's first political parties in 1929, and a workers association in the early 1930s.", "Garvey also promoted the Back-to-Africa movement, which called for those of African descent to return to the homelands of their ancestors.", "Garvey, a controversial figure, had been the target of a four-year investigation by the United States government.", "He was convicted of mail fraud in 1923 and had served most of a five-year term in an Atlanta penitentiary when he was deported to Jamaica in 1927.Garvey left the colony in 1935 to live in the United Kingdom, where he died heavily in debt five years later.", "He was proclaimed Jamaica's first national hero in the 1960s after Edward P.G.", "Seaga, then a government minister arranged the return of his remains to Jamaica.", "In 1987 Jamaica petitioned the United States Congress to pardon Garvey on the basis that the federal charges brought against him were unsubstantiated and unjust.====Rastafari movement====The Rastafari movement, a new religion, emerged among impoverished and socially disenfranchised Afro-Jamaican communities in 1930s Jamaica.", "Its Afrocentric ideology was largely a reaction against Jamaica's then-dominant British colonial culture.", "It was influenced by both Ethiopianism and the Back-to-Africa movement promoted by black nationalist figures like Marcus Garvey.", "The movement developed after several Christian clergymen, most notably Leonard Howell, proclaimed that the crowning of Haile Selassie as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930 fulfilled a Biblical prophecy.", "By the 1950s, Rastafari's counter-cultural stance had brought the movement into conflict with wider Jamaican society, including violent clashes with law enforcement.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, it gained increased respectability within Jamaica and greater visibility abroad through the popularity of Rasta-inspired reggae musicians like Bob Marley and Peter Tosh.", "Enthusiasm for Rastafari declined in the 1980s, following the deaths of Haile Selassie and Marley.====The Great Depression and worker protests====The Great Depression caused sugar prices to slump in 1929 and led to the return of many Jamaicans.", "Economic stagnation, discontent with unemployment, low wages, high prices, and poor living conditions caused social unrest in the 1930s.", "Uprisings in Jamaica began on the Frome Sugar Estate in the western parish of Westmoreland and quickly spread east to Kingston.", "Jamaica, in particular, set the pace for the region in its demands for economic development from British colonial rule.Because of disturbances in Jamaica and the rest of the region, the British in 1938 appointed the Moyne Commission.", "An immediate result of the commission was the Colonial Development Welfare Act, which provided for the expenditure of approximately Ł1 million a year for twenty years on coordinated development in the British West Indies.", "Concrete actions, however, were not implemented to deal with Jamaica's massive structural problems.====New unions and parties====The rise of nationalism, as distinct from island identification or desire for self-determination, is generally dated to the 1938 labor riots that affected both Jamaica and the islands of the Eastern Caribbean.", "William Alexander Bustamante (formerly William Alexander Clarke), a moneylender in the capital city of Kingston who had formed the Jamaica Trade Workers and Tradesmen Union (JTWTU) three years earlier, captured the imagination of the black masses with his messianic personality, even though he himself was light-skinned, affluent, and aristocratic.", "Bustamante emerged from the 1938 strikes and other disturbances as a populist leader and the principal spokesperson for the militant urban working class, and in that year, using the JTWTU as a stepping stone, he founded the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union (BITU), which inaugurated Jamaica's worker's movement.A first cousin of Bustamante, Norman W. Manley, concluded as a result of the 1938 riots that the real basis for national unity in Jamaica lay in the masses.", "Unlike the union-oriented Bustamante, however, Manley was more interested in access to control over state power and political rights for the masses.", "On 18 September 1938, he inaugurated the People's National Party (PNP), which had begun as a nationalist movement supported by Bustamante and the mixed-race middle class (which included the intelligentsia) and the liberal sector of the business community with leaders who were highly educated members of the upper middle class.", "The 1938 riots spurred the PNP to unionize labor, although it would be several years before the PNP formed major labor unions.", "The party concentrated its earliest efforts on establishing a network both in urban areas and in banana-growing rural parishes, later working on building support among small farmers and in areas of bauxite mining.The PNP adopted a socialist ideology in 1940 and later joined the Socialist International, allying itself formally with the social democratic parties of Western Europe.", "Guided by socialist principles, Manley was not a doctrinaire socialist.", "PNP socialism during the 1940s was similar to British Labour Party ideas on state control of the factors of production, equality of opportunity, and a welfare state, although a left-wing element in the PNP held more orthodox Marxist views and worked for the internationalization of the trade union movement through the Caribbean Labour Congress.", "In those formative years of Jamaican political and union activity, relations between Manley and Bustamante were cordial.", "Manley defended Bustamante in court against charges brought by the British for his labor activism in the 1938 riots and looked after the BITU during Bustamante's imprisonment.Bustamante had political ambitions of his own, however.", "In 1942, while still incarcerated, he founded a political party to rival the PNP, called the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP).", "The new party, whose leaders were of a lower class than those of the PNP, was supported by conservative businessmen and 60,000 dues-paying BITU members, who encompassed dock and sugar plantation workers and other unskilled urban laborers.", "On his release in 1943, Bustamante began building up the JLP.", "Meanwhile, several PNP leaders organized the leftist-oriented Trade Union Congress (TUC).", "Thus, from an early stage in modern Jamaica, unionized labor was an integral part of organized political life.For the next quarter-century, Bustamante and Manley competed for center stage in Jamaican political affairs, the former espousing the cause of the \"barefoot man\"; the latter, \"democratic socialism,\" a loosely defined political and economic theory aimed at achieving a classless system of government.", "Jamaica's two founding fathers projected quite different popular images.", "Bustamante, lacking even a high school diploma, was an autocratic, charismatic, and highly adept politician; Manley was an athletic, Oxford-trained lawyer, Rhodes scholar, humanist, and liberal intellectual.", "Although considerably more reserved than Bustamante, Manley was well-liked and widely respected.", "He was also a visionary nationalist who became the driving force behind the crown colony's quest for independence.Following the 1938 disturbances in the West Indies, London sent the Moyne Commission to study conditions in the British Caribbean territories.", "Its findings led in the early 1940s to better wages and a new constitution.", "Issued on 20 November 1944, the Constitution modified the crown colony system and inaugurated limited self-government based on the Westminster model of government and universal adult suffrage.", "It also embodied the island's principles of ministerial responsibility and the rule of law.", "Thirty-one percent of the population participated in the 1944 elections.", "The JLP – helped by its promises to create jobs, its practice of dispensing public funds in pro-JLP parishes, and the PNP's relatively radical platform – won an 18 percent majority of the votes over the PNP, as well as 22 seats in the 32-member House of Representatives, with 5 going to the PNP and 5 to other short-lived parties.", "In 1945 Bustamante took office as Jamaica's first premier (the pre-independence title for head of government).Under the new charter, the British governor, assisted by the six-member Privy Council and 10-member Executive Council, remained responsible solely to the crown.", "The Jamaican Legislative Council became the upper house, or Senate, of the bicameral Parliament.", "House members were elected by adult suffrage from single-member electoral districts called constituencies.", "Despite these changes, ultimate power remained concentrated in the hands of the governor and other high officials." ], [ "{{anchor\|Independent Jamaica (1962-)}}Independent Jamaica (1962–present)", "===1960s=======The road to independence====After World War II, Jamaica began a relatively long transition to full political independence.", "Jamaicans preferred British culture over American, but they had a tumultuous relationship with the British and resented British domination, racism, and the dictatorial Colonial Office.", "Britain gradually granted the colony more self-government under periodic constitutional changes.", "Jamaica's political patterns and governmental structure were shaped during two decades of what was called \"constitutional decolonisation,\" the period between 1944 and independence in 1962.Having seen how little popular appeal the PNP's 1944 campaign position had, the party shifted toward the centre in 1949 and remained there until 1974.The PNP actually won a 0.8-percent majority of the votes over the JLP in the 1949 election, but the JLP won a majority of the House seats.", "In the 1950s, the PNP and JLP became increasingly similar in their sociological composition and ideological outlook.", "During the cold war years, socialism became an explosive domestic issue.", "The JLP exploited it among property owners and churchgoers, attracting more middle-class support.", "As a result, PNP leaders diluted their socialist rhetoric, and in 1952 the PNP moderated its image by expelling four prominent leftists who had controlled the TUC.", "The PNP then formed the more conservative National Workers Union (NWU).", "Henceforth, PNP socialism meant little more than national planning within a framework of private property and foreign capital.", "The PNP retained, however, a basic commitment to socialist precepts, such as public control of resources and more equitable income distribution.", "Manley's PNP came to the office for the first time after winning the 1955 elections with an 11-percent majority over the JLP and 50.5 percent of the popular vote.Amendments to the constitution that took effect in May 1953 reconstituted the Executive Council and provided for eight ministers to be selected from among House members.", "The first ministries were subsequently established.", "These amendments also enlarged the limited powers of the House of Representatives and made elected members of the governor's executive council responsible to the legislature.", "Manley, elected chief minister beginning in January 1955, accelerated the process of decolonisation during his able stewardship.", "Further progress toward self-government was achieved under constitutional amendments in 1955 and 1956, and cabinet government was established on 11 November 1957.Assured by British declarations that independence would be granted to a collective West Indian state rather than to individual colonies, Manley supported Jamaica's joining nine other British territories in the West Indies Federation, established on 3 January 1958.Manley became the island's premier after the PNP again won a decisive victory in the general election in July 1959, securing 30 out of 45 House seats.Membership in the federation remained an issue in Jamaican politics.", "Bustamante, reversing his previously supportive position on the issue, warned of the financial implications of membership – Jamaica was responsible for 43 percent of its own financing – and inequity in Jamaica's proportional representation in the federation's House of Assembly.", "Manley's PNP favoured staying in the federation, but he agreed to hold a referendum in September 1961 to decide on the issue.", "When 54 percent of the electorate voted to withdraw, Jamaica left the federation, which dissolved in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago also pulled out.", "Manley believed that the rejection of his pro-federation policy in the 1961 referendum called for a renewed mandate from the electorate, but the JLP won the election of early 1962 by a fraction.", "Bustamante assumed the premiership that April and Manley spent his remaining few years in politics as leader of the opposition.Jamaica received its independence on 6 August 1962.The new nation retained, however, its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and adopted a Westminster-style parliamentary system.", "Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the nation's first prime minister.====Jamaica under Bustamante====Bustamante subsequently became the first Prime Minister of Jamaica.", "The island country joined the Commonwealth of Nations, an organisation of ex-British territories.", "Jamaica continues to be a Commonwealth realm, with the British monarch as King of Jamaica and head of state.An extensive period of postwar growth transformed Jamaica into an increasingly industrial society.", "This pattern was accelerated with the export of bauxite beginning in the 1950s.", "The economic structure shifted from a dependence on agriculture that in 1950 accounted for 30.8 percent of GDP to an agricultural contribution of 12.9 percent in 1960 and 6.7 percent in 1970.During the same period, the contribution to the GDP of mining increased from less than 1 percent in 1950 to 9.3 percent in 1960 and 12.6 percent in 1970.Bustamante's government also continued the government's repression of Rastafarians.", "During the Coral Gardens incident, one prominent example of state violence against Rastafarians, where following a violent confrontation between Rastafarians and police forces at a gas station, Bustamante issued the police and military an order to \"bring in all Rastas, dead or alive.\"", "54 years later, following a government investigation into the incident, the government of Jamaica issued an apology, taking unequivocal responsibility for the Bustamante government's actions and making significant financial reparations to remaining survivors of the incident.====Jamaica under Donald Sangster and Hugh Shearer====Bustamante was succeeded as the prime minister in February 1967 by Donald Sangster, who in the same year died in office.", "Hugh Shearer, a protégé of Bustamante, succeeded Sangster and served from 1967 to 1972.Investments in tourism, bauxite mining, and light manufacturing industries fueled economic growth.In October 1968 when the Shearer government banned Dr. Walter Rodney from returning to his teaching position at the University of the West Indies, so-called Rodney riots started.", "They were a part of an emerging black consciousness movement in the Caribbean.====Reggae====Jamaica's reggae music developed from Ska and rocksteady in the 1960s.", "The shift from rocksteady to reggae was illustrated by the organ shuffle pioneered by Jamaican musicians like Jackie Mittoo and Winston Wright and featured in transitional singles \"Say What You're Saying\" (1967) by Clancy Eccles and \"People Funny Boy\" (1968) by Lee \"Scratch\" Perry.", "The Pioneers' 1968 track \"Long Shot (Bus' Me Bet)\" has been identified as the earliest recorded example of the new rhythm sound that became known as reggae.Early 1968 was when the first ''bona fide'' reggae records were released: \"Nanny Goat\" by Larry Marshall and \"No More Heartaches\" by The Beltones.", "That same year, the newest Jamaican sound began to spawn big-name imitators in other countries.", "American artist Johnny Nash's 1968 hit \"Hold Me Tight\" has been credited with first putting reggae in the American listener charts.", "Around the same time, reggae influences were starting to surface in rock and pop music, one example being 1968's \"Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da\" by The Beatles.", "Other significant reggae pioneers include Prince Buster, Desmond Dekker and Ken Boothe.File:Prince Buster.jpg\|Prince BusterFile:Desmond Dekker in 2005.jpg\|Desmond DekkerFile:Ras Tingle and Ken Boothe on the set of 'Touch you\".JPG\|Ken BootheFile:Lee Scratch Perry @ Band On The Wall, Manchester 19-2-2013 (8493373312).jpg\|Lee \"Scratch\" Perry====Bob Marley====The Wailers, a band started by Bob Marley, Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer in 1963, is perhaps the most recognised band that made the transition through all three stages of early Jamaican popular music: ska, rocksteady and reggae.", "The Wailers would go on to release some of the earliest reggae records with producer Lee Scratch Perry.", "After the Wailers disbanded in 1974, Marley then went on to pursue a solo career that culminated in the release of the album ''Exodus'' in 1977, which established his worldwide reputation and produced his status as one of the world's best-selling artists of all time, with sales of more than 75 million records.", "He was a committed Rastafari who infused his music with a sense of spirituality.File:Bob-Marley.jpg\|Bob MarleyFile:PeterToshWithRobbieShakespeare1978.jpg\|Peter ToshFile:Bunny-Wailer-Smile-Jamaica-2008.jpg\|Bunny Wailer===1970s and 1980s=======Michael Manley====Michael Manley, Prime Minister of Jamaica from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992In the election of 1972, the PNP's Michael Manley defeated the JLP's unpopular incumbent Prime Minister Hugh Shearer.", "Under Manley, Jamaica established a minimum wage for all workers, including domestic workers.", "In 1974, Manley proposed free education from primary school to university.", "The introduction of universally free secondary education was a major step in removing the institutional barriers to the private sector and preferred government jobs that required secondary diplomas.", "The PNP government in 1974 also formed the Jamaica Movement for the Advancement of Literacy (JAMAL), which administered adult education programs with the goal of involving 100,000 adults a year.Land reform expanded under his administration.", "Historically, land tenure in Jamaica has been rather inequitable.", "Project Land Lease (introduced in 1973), attempted an integrated rural development approach, providing tens of thousands of small farmers with land, technical advice, inputs such as fertilisers, and access to credit.", "An estimated 14 percent of idle land was redistributed through this program, much of which had been abandoned during the post-war urban migration and/or purchased by large bauxite companies.The minimum voting age was lowered to 18 years, while equal pay for women was introduced.", "Maternity leave was also introduced, while the government outlawed the stigma of illegitimacy.", "The Masters and Servants Act was abolished, and a Labour Relations and Industrial Disputes Act provided workers and their trade unions with enhanced rights.", "The National Housing Trust was established, providing \"the means for most employed people to own their own homes,\" and greatly stimulated housing construction, with more than 40,000 houses built between 1974 and 1980.Subsidised meals, transportation and uniforms for schoolchildren from disadvantaged backgrounds were introduced, together with free education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.", "Special employment programmes were also launched, together with programmes designed to combat illiteracy.", "Increases in pensions and poor relief were carried out, along with a reform of local government taxation, an increase in youth training, an expansion of day care centres.", "and an upgrading of hospitals.A worker's participation program was introduced, together with a new mental health law and the family court.", "Free health care for all Jamaicans was introduced, while health clinics and a paramedical system in rural areas were established.", "Various clinics were also set up to facilitate access to medical drugs.", "Spending on education was significantly increased, while the number of doctors and dentists in the country rose.====One Love Peace Concert====The One Love Peace Concert was a large concert held in Kingston on April 22, 1978, during a time of political civil war in Jamaica between opposing parties Jamaican Labour Party and the People's National Party.", "The concert came to its peak during Bob Marley & The Wailers' performance of \"Jammin'\", when Marley joined the hands of political rivals Michael Manley (PNP) and Edward Seaga (JLP).====Edward Seaga====In the 1980 election, Edward Seaga and the JLP won by an overwhelming majority – 57 percent of the popular vote and 51 of the 60 seats in the House of Representatives.", "Seaga immediately began to reverse the policies of his predecessor by privatising the industry and seeking closer ties with the USA.", "Seaga was one of the first foreign heads of government to visit newly elected US president Ronald Reagan early the next year and was one of the architects of the Caribbean Basin Initiative, which was sponsored by Reagan.", "He delayed his promise to cut diplomatic relations with Cuba until a year later when he accused the Cuban government of giving asylum to Jamaican criminals.Seaga supported the collapse of the Marxist regime in Grenada and the subsequent US-led invasion of that island in October 1983.On the back of the Grenada invasion, Seaga called snap elections at the end of 1983, which Manley's PNP boycotted.", "His party thus controlled all seats in parliament.", "In an unusual move, because the Jamaican constitution required an opposition in the appointed Senate, Seaga appointed eight independent senators to form an official opposition.Seaga lost much of his US support when he was unable to deliver on his early promises of removing the bauxite levy, and his domestic support also plummeted.", "Articles attacking Seaga appeared in the US media and foreign investors left the country.", "Rioting in 1987 and 1988, the continued high popularity of Michael Manley, and complaints of governmental incompetence in the wake of the devastation of the island by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988, also contributed to his defeat in the 1989 elections.====Hurricane Gilbert====In 1988, Hurricane Gilbert produced a storm surge and brought up to of rain in the mountainous areas of Jamaica, causing inland flash flooding.", "49 people died.", "Prime Minister Edward Seaga stated that the hardest hit areas near where Gilbert made landfall looked \"like Hiroshima after the atom bomb.\"", "The storm left US$4 billion (in 1988 dollars) in damage from destroyed crops, buildings, houses, roads, and small aircraft.", "Two people eventually had to be rescued because of mudslides triggered by Gilbert and were sent to the hospital.", "The two people were reported to be fine.", "No planes were going in and out of Kingston, and telephone lines were jammed from Jamaica to Florida.As Gilbert lashed Kingston, its winds knocked down power lines, uprooted trees, and flattened fences.", "On the north coast, waves hit Ocho Rios, a popular tourist resort where hotels were evacuated.", "Kingston's airport reported severe damage to its aircraft, and all Jamaica-bound flights were cancelled at Miami International Airport.", "Unofficial estimates state that at least 30 people were killed around the island.", "Estimated property damage reached more than $200 million.", "More than 100,000 houses were destroyed or damaged and the country's banana crop was largely destroyed.", "Hundreds of miles of roads and highways were also heavily damaged.", "Reconnaissance flights over remote parts of Jamaica reported that 80 percent of the homes on the island had lost their roofs.", "The poultry industry was also wiped out; the damage from agricultural loss reached $500 million (1988 USD).", "Hurricane Gilbert was the most destructive storm in the history of Jamaica and the most severe storm since Hurricane Charlie in 1951.File:Gilbert 1988-09-12 1303Z.jpg\|Hurricane Gilbert approaching Jamaica on 12 SeptemberFile:Hurricane Gilbert - destroyed buildings.JPEG\|Buildings destroyed by Hurricane GilbertFile:Getting water from a broken pipe in Kingston Jamaica, after Gilbert.jpg\|People lined up to get water in the wake of Hurricane Gilbert====Birth of Jamaica's film industry====Jamaica's film industry was born in 1972 with the release of ''The Harder They Come'', the first feature-length film made by Jamaicans.", "It starred reggae singer Jimmy Cliff, was directed by Perry Henzell, and was produced by Island Records founder Chris Blackwell.", "The film is famous for its reggae soundtrack that is said to have \"brought reggae to the world\".", "Jamaica's other popular films include 1976's ''Smile Orange'', 1982's ''Countryman'', 1991's ''The Lunatic'', 1997's ''Dancehall Queen'', and 1999's ''Third World Cop''.", "Major figures in the Jamaican film industry include actors Paul Campbell and Carl Bradshaw, actress Audrey Reid, and producer Chris Blackwell.===1990s and 2000s=======18 years of PNP rule====File:Michael Manley.jpg\|Michael Manley, Prime Minister from 1989 to 1992 (his second term)File:PJPatterson.jpg\|P.", "J. Patterson, Prime Minister from 1992 to 2006File:Portia Miller Shoot.Jpeg\|Portia Simpson-Miller, Prime Minister from 2006 to 2007 (her first term) and from 2012 to 2016The 1989 election.", "was the first election contested by the People's National Party since 1980, as they had boycotted the 1983 snap election.", "Prime Minister Edward Seaga announced the election date on January 15, 1989, at a rally in Kingston.", "He cited emergency conditions caused by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 as the reason for extending the parliamentary term beyond its normal five-year mandate.The date and tone of the election were shaped in part by Hurricane Gilbert, which made landfall in September 1988 and decimated the island.", "The hurricane caused almost $1 billion worth of damage to the island, with banana and coffee crops wiped out and thousands of homes destroyed.", "Both parties engaged in campaigning through the distribution of relief supplies, a hallmark of the Jamaican patronage system.", "Political commentators noted that prior to the hurricane, Edward Seaga and the JLP trailed Michael Manley and the PNP by twenty points in opinion polls.", "The ability to provide relief as the party in charge allowed Seaga to improve his standing among voters and erode the inevitability of Manley's victory.", "However, scandals related to the relief effort cost Seaga and the JLP some of the gains made immediately following the hurricane.", "Scandals that emerged included National Security Minister Errol Anderson personally controlling a warehouse full of disaster relief supplies and candidate Joan Gordon-Webley distributing American-donated flour in sacks with her picture on them.The election was characterised by a narrower ideological difference between the two parties on economic issues.", "Michael Manley facilitated his comeback campaign by moderating his leftist positions and admitting mistakes made as Prime Minister, saying he erred when he involved government in economic production and had abandoned all thoughts of nationalising industry.", "He cited the PNP's desire to continue the market-oriented policies of the JLP government, but with a more participatory approach.", "Prime Minister Edward Seaga ran on his record of economic growth and the reduction of unemployment in Jamaica, using the campaign slogan \"Don't Let Them Wreck It Again\" to refer to Manley's tenure as Prime Minister.", "Seaga during his tenure as Prime Minister emphasised the need to tighten public sector spending and cut close to 27,000 public sector jobs in 1983 and 1984.He shifted his plans as elections neared with a promise to spend J$1 billion on a five-year Social Well-Being Programme, which would build new hospitals and schools in Jamaica.", "Foreign policy also played a role in the 1989 election.", "Prime Minister Edward Seaga emphasised his relations with the United States, a relationship that saw Jamaica receiving considerable economic aid from the U.S. and additional loans from international institutions.", "Manley pledged better relations with the United States while at the same time pledging to restore diplomatic relations with Cuba that had been cut under Seaga.", "With Manley as Prime Minister, Jamaican-American relations had significantly frayed as a result of Manley's economic policies and close relations with Cuba.The PNP was ultimately victorious and Manley's second term focused on liberalising Jamaica's economy, with the pursuit of a free-market programme that stood in marked contrast to the interventionist economic policies pursued by Manley's first government.", "Various measures were, however, undertaken to cushion the negative effects of liberalisation.", "A Social Support Programme was introduced to provide welfare assistance for poor Jamaicans.", "In addition, the programme focused on creating direct employment, training, and credit for much of the population.", "The government also announced a 50% increase in the number of food stamps for the most vulnerable groups (including pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children) was announced.", "A small number of community councils were also created.", "In addition, a limited land reform programme was carried out that leased and sold the land to small farmers, and land plots were granted to hundreds of farmers.", "The government also had an admirable record in housing provision, while measures were also taken to protect consumers from illegal and unfair business practices.In 1992, citing health reasons, Manley stepped down as Prime Minister and PNP leader.", "His former Deputy Prime Minister, Percival Patterson, assumed both offices.", "Patterson led efforts to strengthen the country's social protection and security systems—a critical element of his economic and social policy agenda to mitigate, reduce poverty and social deprivation.", "His massive investments in modernisation of Jamaica's infrastructure and restructuring of the country's financial sector are widely credited with having led to Jamaica's greatest period of investment in tourism, mining, ICT and energy since the 1960s.", "He also ended Jamaica's 18-year borrowing relationship with the International Monetary Fund, allowing the country greater latitude in pursuit of its economic policies.Patterson led the PNP to resounding victories in the 1993 and 1997 elections.", "Patterson called the 1997 election in November 1997, when his People's National Party was ahead in the opinion polls, inflation had fallen substantially and the national football team had just qualified for the 1998 World Cup.", "The previous election in 1993 had seen the People's National Party win 52 of the 60 seats.A record 197 candidates contested the election, with a new political party, the National Democratic Movement, standing in most of the seats.", "The National Democratic Movement had been founded in 1995 by a former Labour Party chairman, Bruce Golding, after a dispute over the leadership of the Jamaica Labour Party.The 1997 election was mainly free of violence as compared to previous elections, although it began with an incident where rival motorcades from the main parties were fired on.", "The election was the first in Jamaica where a team of international election monitors attended.", "The monitors were from the Carter Center and included Jimmy Carter, Colin Powell and former heavyweight boxing world champion Evander Holyfield.", "Just before the election the two main party leaders made a joint appeal for people to avoid marring the election with violence.", "Election day itself saw one death and four injuries relating to the election, but the 1980 election had seen over 800 deaths.In winning the election the People's National Party became the first party to win three consecutive terms.", "The opposition Jamaica Labour Party only had two more seats in Parliament after the election but their leader Edward Seaga held his seat for a ninth time in a row.", "The National Democratic Movement failed to win any seats despite a pre-election prediction that they would manage to win a seat.The 2002 election.", "was a victory for the People's National Party, but their number of seats fell from 50 to 34 (out of 60 total).", "PNP leader P. J. Patterson retained his position as Prime Minister, becoming the first political leader to win three successive elections.", "Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced by Portia Simpson-Miller, Jamaica's first female Prime Minister.The 2007 elections.", "had originally been scheduled for August 27, 2007 but were delayed to September 3 due to Hurricane Dean.", "The preliminary results indicated a slim victory for the opposition Jamaican Labour Party led by Bruce Golding, which grew by two seats from 31–29 to 33–27 after official recounts.", "The JLP defeated the People's National Party after 18 years of unbroken governance.====Economic challenges====In the 1990s, Jamaica and other Caribbean banana producers argued for the continuation of their preferential access to EU markets, notably the United Kingdom.", "They feared that otherwise the EU would be flooded with cheap bananas from the Central American plantations, with devastating effects on several Caribbean economies.", "Negotiations led in 1993 to the EU agreeing to maintain the Caribbean producers' preferential access until the end of Lomé IV, pending possible negotiation on an extension.", "In 1995, the United States government petitioned to the World Trade Organization to investigate whether the Lomé IV convention had violated WTO rules.", "Then later in 1996, the WTO Dispute Settlement Body ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, effectively ending the cross-subsidies that had benefited ACP countries for many years.", "But the US remained unsatisfied and insisted that all preferential trade agreements between the EU and ACP should cease.", "The WTO Dispute Settlement Body established another panel to discuss the issue and concluded that agreements between the EU and ACP were indeed not compatible with WTO regulations.", "Finally, the EU negotiated with the US through WTO to reach an agreement.In tourism, after a decrease in volume following the 11 September attacks in the U.S., the number of tourists going to Jamaica eventually rebounded, with the island now receiving over a million tourists each year.", "Services now account for over 60 percent of Jamaica's GDP and one of every four workers in Jamaica works in tourism or services.", "However, according to the World Bank, around 80% of the money tourism makes in Jamaica does not stay on the island, but goes instead to the multinational resorts.====2007 Cricket World Cup and 2008 Olympics====File:Powell 2010-06-04 Bislett Games 06.jpg\|Asafa PowellFile:Usain Bolt by Augustas Didzgalvis (cropped).jpg\|Usain BoltFile:Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce Moscow 2013 cropped.jpg\|Shelly-Ann Fraser-PryceThe 2007 Cricket World Cup was the first time the ICC Cricket World Cup had been held in the Caribbean.", "The Jamaican Government spent US$81 million for \"on the pitch\" expenses.", "This included refurbishing Sabina Park and constructing the new multi-purpose facility in Trelawny – through a loan from China.", "Another US$20 million is budgeted for \"off-the-pitch\" expenses, putting the tally at more than US$100 million or JM$7 billion.", "This put the reconstruction cost of Sabina Park at US$46 million whilst the Trelawny Stadium will cost US$35 million.", "The total amount of money spent on stadiums was at least US$301 million.", "The 2007 World Cup organisers were criticised for restrictions on outside food, signs, replica kits and musical instruments, despite Caribbean cricketing customs, with authorities being accused of \"running cricket and cricketing traditions out of town, then sanitising it out of existence\".", "Sir Viv Richards echoed the concerns.", "The ICC were also condemned for high prices for tickets and concessions, which were considered unaffordable for the local population in many of the locations.", "In a tragic turn of events, Pakistan coach Bob Woolmer was found dead on 18 March 2007, one day after his team's defeat to Ireland put them out of the running for the World Cup.", "Jamaican police performed an autopsy which was deemed inconclusive.", "The following day police announced that the death was suspicious and ordered a full investigation.", "Further investigation revealed the cause of death was \"manual strangulation\", and that the investigation would be handled as a murder.", "After a lengthy investigation the Jamaican police rescinded the comments that he was not murdered, and confirmed that he died from natural causes.In sprinting, Jamaicans had begun their domination of the 100 metres world record in 2005.Jamaica's Asafa Powell set the record in June 2005 and held it until May 2008, with times of 9.77 and 9.74 seconds respectively.", "However, at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Jamaica's athletes reached heights by nearly doubling the country's total gold medal count and breaking the nation's record for the number of medals earned in a single game.", "Usain Bolt won three of Jamaica's six gold medals at Beijing, breaking an Olympic and world record in all three of the events in which he participated.", "Shelly-Ann Fraser led an unprecedented Jamaican sweep of the medals in the Women's 100 m.====Dancehall goes global====Although Jamaican dancehall music originated in the late 1970s, it greatly increased in popularity in the late 1980s and 1990s.", "Initially dancehall was a more sparse version of reggae than the roots style, which had dominated much of the 1970s.", "Two of the biggest stars of the early dancehall era were Yellowman and Eek-a-Mouse.", "Dancehall brought a new generation of producers, including Linval Thompson, Gussie Clarke and Jah Thomas.", "In the mid-1980s, digital instrumentation became more prevalent, changing the sound considerably, with digital dancehall (or \"ragga\") becoming increasingly characterised by faster rhythms.File:Yellowman backed by Sagittarius Band, Bersenbrueck 2007 -1 (cropped).jpg\|YellowmanFile:Eek-A-Mouse (Swea reggae festival 2006).jpg\|Eek-A-MouseIn the early 1990s songs by Dawn Penn, Shabba Ranks, Patra and Chaka Demus and Pliers were the first dancehall megahits in the US and abroad.", "Other varieties of dancehall achieved crossover success outside of Jamaica during the mid-to-late 1990s.", "In the 1990s, dancehall came under increasing criticism for anti-gay lyrics such as those found in Buju Banton's 1988 hit \"Boom Bye Bye,\" which is about shooting a gay man in the head: \"It's like boom bye bye / Inna batty boy head / Rude boy nah promote no nasty man / Dem haffi dead.", "\"The early 2000s saw the success of newer charting acts such as Elephant Man, Tanya Stephens, and Sean Paul.", "Dancehall made a resurgence within the pop market in the late 2000s, with songs by Konshens, Mr. Vegas, Popcaan, Mavado, Vybz Kartel, Beenie Man among others.", "In 2011, Vybz Kartel—at the time, one of dancehall's biggest stars—was arrested for the murder of Clive \"Lizard\" William.", "In 2014 he was sentenced to life in prison after a 65-day trial, the longest in Jamaican history.File:Elephant Man Live.JPG\|Elephant ManFile:Ruhr Reggae Summer Mülheim 2014 Tanya Stephens 03.jpg\|Tanya StephensFile:Sean-Paul 2012-06-16 photo-by-Adam-Bielawski.jpg\|Sean Paul===2010s=======Tivoli Incursion====Politically and socially, the 2010s in Jamaica have been shaped by the Tivoli Incursion—a 2010 gun-battle between police and the gang of Christopher \"Dudus\" Coke.", "Over seventy Jamaicans were killed during the gun battle and the inquiry into police actions during the incursion continues today.Coke took over the \"Shower Posse\" gang of Tivoli Gardens from his father, Lester “Jim Brown” Coke, in the 1990s.", "Under Christopher Coke's leadership, the gang trafficked drugs and dabbled in visa fraud (using a high-school athletics team) and extortion, charging small traders in the nearby market for “protection money”.", "The gang had close political ties.", "Tivoli Gardens is part of the Kingston Western parliamentary district, a seat was held for years by Edward Seaga, long-time leader of the JLP.", "That helped Coke expand into construction, with his company winning numerous government contracts.", "Within Tivoli Gardens, the gang operated as a government unto itself.On 23 May 2010, Jamaica security forces began searching for Coke after the United States requested his extradition, and the leader of the criminal gang that attacked several police stations.", "The violence, which largely took place over 24–25 May, killed at least 73 civilians and wounded at least 35 others.", "Four soldiers/police were also killed and more than 500 arrests were made, as Jamaican police and soldiers fought gunmen in the Tivoli Gardens district of Kingston.Coke was eventually captured on 23 June, after initial rumours that he was attempting to surrender to the United States.", "Kingston police arrested Coke on the outskirts of the city, apparently while a local reverend, Reverend Al Miller, was helping negotiate his surrender to the United States Embassy.", "In 2011, Coke pleaded guilty to racketeering and drug-related charges in a New York Federal court, and was sentenced to 23 years in prison on 8 June 2012.Christopher CokeIn the four years following Coke's capture, Jamaica's murder rate decreased by nearly half.", "However, the murder rate remains one of the highest in the world and Jamaica's morgues have not been able to keep up.", "The lack of facilities to store and study murder victims has been one of the reasons that few murders are solved, with the conviction rate for homicides standing at around five percent.", "In 2007, following the botched investigation into the death of Pakistan cricket coach Bob Woolmer, who died unexpectedly while the island hosted the sport's world cup, Jamaican politicians debated the need for a modern public morgue.====2011 election====The Tivoli Incursion and LGBT rights were both major issues in the 2011 election.Although the JLP survived an election called shortly after the 2010 Tivoli Gardens incident, the following year the date of the 2011 election was set as 29 December, and major local media outlets viewed the election as \"too close to call\", though as Simpson-Miller campaigned in key constituencies the gap widened to favour the PNP.", "Days before the election, Simpson-Miller came out fully in favor of LGBT rights in a televised debate, saying that she \"has no problem giving certain positions of authority to a homosexual as long as they show the necessary level of competence for the post.\"", "However, since taking power her government has not attempted to repeal the laws which criminalise homosexuality.In 2012, Dane Lewis launched a legal challenge to Jamaica's Offenses Against Persons Act of 1864, commonly known as the \"buggery\" laws, on the grounds that they are unconstitutional and promote homophobia throughout the Caribbean.", "The legal challenge was taken to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.", "The Offenses Against Persons Act does not formally ban homosexuality, but clause 76 provides for up to 10 years' imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for anyone convicted of the \"abominable crime of buggery committed either with mankind or any animal\".", "Two further clauses outlaw attempted buggery and gross indecency between two men.LGBT rights returned to Jamaican headlines the next year, following the violent murder in July 2013 of a 16-year-old boy who showed up at a party in women's clothing.", "Advocates called for the repeal of a nearly 150-year-old anti-sodomy law that bans anal sex, legislation which is accused of helping spur anti-LGBT violence.====Further economic troubles====In 2013, the International Monetary Fund announced a $1 billion loan to help Jamaica meet large debt payments.", "The loan required the Jamaican government to institute a pay freeze amounting to a 20% real-terms cut in wages.", "Jamaica is one of the most indebted countries and spends around half of its annual federal budget on debt repayments.The 2010s look to be a bad time for Jamaica's sugarcane industry.", "After a brief increase sugar prices, the outlook for Jamaican sugar took a hit in 2015 when the EU began moving towards ending a cap on European sugar beet production.", "Jamaica exports 25% of the sugar it produces to Britain and prices for Jamaican sugar are expected to fall in the wake of the end of the cap on the EU's subsidised sugar beet industry.However, marijuana may become a new cash crop and tourist-draw for Jamaica, depending on future legislation.", "On 25 February 2015, the Jamaican House of Representatives passed a law decriminalizing possession of up to 2 ounces of cannabis.", "The new law includes provisions legalizing the cultivation for the personal use of up to five plants, as well as setting up regulations for the cultivation and distribution of cannabis for medical and religious purposes==== 2016 election ====In February 2016, opposition Labour Party won a narrow victory in the general election.", "Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller of the People's National Party was replaced by Andrew Holness, the leader of the Labour Party.=== 2020s ======= 2020 election ====In September 2020, the ruling centre-right Labour Party won a landslide victory in the general election.", "It took 49 of 63 parliamentary seats, meaning the incumbent Prime Minister Andrew Holness will serve a second term." ], [ "See also", "* Colony of Jamaica* Colony of Santiago* Horses in Jamaica" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources and further reading", "** Bahadur, Gaiutra.", "''Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture''.", "The University of Chicago (2014) * Barringer, Tim., Forrester, Gillian, and Martinez-Ruiz, Barbaro.", "2007.", "''Art and Emancipation in Jamaica: Isaac Mendes Belisario and His Worlds''.", "New Haven and London: Yale University Press.", ".", "* Bennett, Hazel.", "1968.“Private and Subscription Libraries in Jamaica before 1879.” ''The Journal of Library History'' (1966–1972), vol.", "3, no.", "3, (1968) pp.", "242–49.online* Black, Clinton V.", "1983.", "''History of Jamaica''.", "London: Collins Educational.", "* Burnard, Trevor.", "2012.", "\"Harvest Years?", "Reconfigurations of Empire in Jamaica, 1756–1807.\"", "''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 40.4 (2012): 533–555.", "* Burnard, Trevor, and John Garrigus.", "2016.", "''The Plantation Machine: Atlantic Capitalism in French Saint-Domingue and British Jamaica'' (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).", "* Burnard, Trevor.", "''Jamaica in the Age of Revolution'' (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2020).", "* Cargill, Morris.", "(1956) \"Jamaica and Britain\" ''History Today'' (October 1956), 6#10 pp. 655–663.", "* * Dawson, Andrew.", "2013.", "\"The social determinants of the rule of law: a comparison of Jamaica and Barbados.\"", "''World Development'' 45 (2013): 314–324 online.", "* Dunkley, Daive A.", "2011.", "\"Hegemony in Post-Independence Jamaica.\"", "''Caribbean Quarterly'' 57.2 (2011): 1–23.", "* Graham, Aaron.", "2019.", "\"Slavery, capitalism, incorporation and the Close Harbour Company of Jamaica, circa 1800.\"", "''Business History'' (2019): 1–24.", "* Henke, Holger.", "2000.", "''Between Self-Determination and Dependency.", "Jamaica's Foreign Relations 1972–1989'', Kingston: University of the West Indies Press.", ".", "* Johnson, Amy M.", "2012.", "\"Slavery on the Gold Coast and African Resistance to Slavery in Jamaica during the Early Colonial Period.\"", "''LIMINA: A Journal of Cultural and Historical Studies'' 18 (2012) online.", "* Kurlansky, Mark.", "1992.", "''A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny''.", "Addison-Wesley Publishing.", ".", "* Ledgister, F. S. J.", "1998.", "''Class Alliances and the Liberal-Authoritarian State: The Roots of Post-Colonial Democracy in Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Surinam''.", "Trenton: Africa World Press.", "** Leigh, Devin.", "2019.", "\"The origins of a source: Edward Long, Coromantee slave revolts and The History of Jamaica.\"", "''Slavery & Abolition'' 40.2 (2019): 295–320.", "* Leslie, Charles.", "(2015) ''A new history of Jamaica'' (Cambridge University Press, 2015).", "* Lewes, Diana, \"A Year in Jamaica: Memoirs of a girl in Arcadia in 1889\" (Eland 2013) * Livesay, Daniel.", "2012.", "\"The decline of Jamaica's interracial households and the fall of the planter class, 1733–1823.\"", "''Atlantic Studies'' 9.1 (2012): 107–123.", "* Michener, James, A.", "1989.", "''Caribbean'' (especially Chap.", "XI.", "\"Martial Law in Jamaica\", pp.", "403–442.Semi-fictional but mainly accurate).", "London: Secker & Warburg.", ".", "* Morales Padrón, Francisco.", "1953 2003.", "''Spanish Jamaica''.", "Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers.", "* Nelson, Charmaine A.", "2017.", "''Slavery, geography and empire in nineteenth-century marine landscapes of Montreal and Jamaica'' (Routledge, 2017).", "* * Pestana, Carla Gardina.", "(2017) ''The English Conquest of Jamaica'' (Harvard University Press, 2017).", "* Sawh, Gobin, ed.", "1992.", "''The Canadian Caribbean Connection: Bridging North and South: History, Influences, Lifestyles''.", "Halifax: Carindo Cultural Assoc.", "* Smalligan, Laura M.", "2011.", "\"An Effigy for the Enslaved: Jonkonnu in Jamaica and Belisario's Sketches of Character.\"", "''Slavery & Abolition'' 32.4 (2011): 561–581.", "* * Williams, Eric.", "1964.", "''British Historians and the West Indies''.", "Port of Spain: P.N.M.", "Publishing Company." ], [ "External links", "* Jamaica – Entry from the 1907 ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' on Jamaica.", "* Historic Jamaica.", "A pictorial guide to historic Jamaica" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "Jamaica's parishes, rivers and population centres and other featuresJamaica lies 140 km (87 mi) south of Cuba and west of Haiti.", "At its greatest extent, Jamaica is long, and its width varies between .", "Jamaica has a small area of .", "However, Jamaica is the largest island of the Commonwealth Caribbean and the third largest of the Greater Antilles, after Cuba and Hispaniola.", "Many small islands are located along the south coast of Jamaica, such as the Port Royal Cays.", "Southwest of mainland Jamaica lies Pedro Bank, an area of shallow seas, with a number of cays (low islands or reefs), extending generally east to west for over .", "To the southeast lies Morant Bank, with the Morant Cays, from Morant Point, the easternmost point of mainland Jamaica.", "Alice Shoal, southwest of the main island of Jamaica, falls within the Jamaica–Colombia Joint Regime.", "It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of ." ], [ "Geology and landforms", "Jamaica(which is a very mountainous country) and the other islands of the Antilles evolved from an arc of ancient volcanoes that rose from the sea millions of years ago.", "During periods of submersion, thick layers of limestone were laid down over the old igneous and metamorphic rock.", "In many places, the limestone is thousands of feet thick.", "The country can be divided into three landform regions: the eastern mountains, the central valleys and plateaus, and the coastal plains.The highest area is the Blue Mountains range.", "These eastern mountains are formed by a central ridge of metamorphic rock running northwest to southeast from which many long spurs jut to the north and south.", "For a distance of over , the crest of the ridge exceeds .", "The highest point is Blue Mountain Peak at .", "The Blue Mountains rise to these elevations from the coastal plain in the space of about , thus producing one of the steepest general gradients in the world.", "In this part of the country, the old metamorphic rock reveals itself through the surrounding limestone.", "To the north of the Blue Mountains lies the strongly tilted limestone plateau forming the John Crow Mountains.", "This range rises to elevations of over .", "To the west, in the central part of the country, are two high rolling plateaus: the Dry Harbour Mountains to the north and the Manchester Plateau to the south.", "Between the two, the land is rugged and here, also, the limestone layers are broken by the older rocks.", "Streams that rise in the region flow outward and sink soon after reaching the limestone layers.The limestone plateau covers two-thirds of the country, so that karst formations dominate the island.", "Karst is formed by the erosion of the limestone in solution.", "Sinkholes, caves and caverns, disappearing streams, hummocky hills, and terra rosa (residual red) soils in the valleys are distinguishing features of a karst landscape; all these are present in Jamaica.", "To the west of the mountains is the rugged terrain of the Cockpit Country, one of the world's most dramatic examples of karst topography.The Cockpit Country is pockmarked with steep-sided hollows, as much as deep in places, which are separated by conical hills and ridges.", "On the north, the main defining feature is the fault-based \"Escarpment\", a long ridge that extends from Flagstaff in the west, through Windsor in the centre, to Campbells and the start of the Barbecue Bottom Road (B10).", "The Barbecue Bottom Road, which runs north-south, high along the side of a deep, fault-based valley in the east, is the only drivable route across the Cockpit Country.", "However, there are two old, historical trails that cross further west, the Troy Trail, and the Quick Step Trail, both of which are seldom used and difficult to find.", "In the southwest, near Quick Step, is the district known as the \"Land of Look Behind,\" so named because Spanish horsemen venturing into this region of hostile runaway slaves were said to have ridden two to a mount, one rider facing to the rear to keep a precautionary watch.", "Where the ridges between sinkholes in the plateau area have dissolved, flat-bottomed basins or valleys have been formed that are filled with terra rosa soils, some of the most productive on the island.", "The largest basin is the Vale of Clarendon, long and wide.", "Queen of Spains Valley, Nassau Valley, and Cave Valley were formed by the same process." ], [ "Coasts", "The coastline of Jamaica is one of many contrasts.", "The northeast shore is severely eroded by the ocean.", "There are many small inlets in the rugged coastline, but no coastal plain of any extent.", "A narrow strip of plains along the northern coast offers calm seas and white sand beaches.", "Behind the beaches is a flat raised plain of uplifted coral reef.The southern coast has small stretches of plains lined by black sand beaches.", "These are backed by cliffs of limestone where the plateaus end.", "In many stretches with no coastal plain, the cliffs drop straight to the sea.", "In the southwest, broad plains stretch inland for a number of kilometres.", "The Black River courses through the largest of these plains.", "The Rio Minho is 92.8 km long and is the longest river in Jamaica (previously, the Black River was thought to be the longest).", "The swamplands of the Great Morass and the Upper Morass fill much of the plains.", "The western coastline contains the island's finest beaches." ], [ "Climate", "354x354pxTwo types of climate are found in Jamaica.", "An upland tropical climate prevails on the windward side of the mountains, whereas a semiarid climate predominates on the leeward side.", "Warm trade winds from the east and northeast bring rainfall throughout the year.", "The rainfall is heaviest from May to October, with peaks in those two months.", "The average rainfall is per year.", "Rainfall is much greater in the mountain areas facing the north and east, however.", "Where the higher elevations of the John Crow Mountains and the Blue Mountains catch the rain from the moisture-laden winds, rainfall exceeds per year.", "Since the southwestern half of the island lies in the rain shadow of the mountains, it has a semiarid climate and receives fewer than of rainfall annually.Temperatures in Jamaica are fairly constant throughout the year, averaging in the lowlands and at higher elevations.", "Temperatures may dip to below at the peaks of the Blue Mountains.", "The island receives, in addition to the northeast trade winds, refreshing onshore breezes during the day and cooling offshore breezes at night.", "These are known on Jamaica as the \"Doctor Breeze\" and the \"Undertaker's Breeze,\" respectively.Jamaica lies in the Atlantic hurricane belt; as a result, the island sometimes experiences significant storm damage.", "Powerful hurricanes which have hit the island directly causing death and destruction include Hurricane Charlie in 1951 and Hurricane Gilbert in 1988.Several other powerful hurricanes have passed near to the island with damaging effects.", "In 1980, for example, Hurricane Allen destroyed nearly all Jamaica's banana crop.", "Hurricane Ivan (2004) swept past the island causing heavy damage and a number of deaths; in 2005, Hurricanes Dennis and Emily brought heavy rains to the island.", "A Category 4 hurricane, Hurricane Dean, caused some deaths and heavy damage to Jamaica in August 2007.The first recorded hurricane to hit Jamaica was in 1519.The island has been struck by tropical cyclones regularly.", "During two of the coldest periods in the last 250 years (1780s and 1810s), the frequency of hurricanes in the Jamaica region was unusually high.", "Another peak of activity occurred in the 1910s, the coldest decade of the 20th century.", "On the other hand, hurricane formation was greatly diminished from 1968 to 1994, which for some reason coincides with the great Sahel drought." ], [ "Vegetation and wildlife", "Although most of Jamaica's native vegetation has been stripped in order to make room for cultivation, some areas have been left virtually undisturbed since the time of European colonization.", "Indigenous vegetation can be found along the northern coast, from Rio Bueno to Discovery Bay, in the highest parts of the Blue Mountains, and in the heart of the Cockpit Country.As in the case of vegetation, considerable loss of wildlife has occurred, beginning with the settlement of the Taíno in the region millennia ago.", "For example, the Caribbean monk seal (''Neomonachus tropicalis'') once occurred in Jamaican waters, and has now been driven to extinction.", "Mongooses (''Urva auropunctata''), introduced to Jamaica in 1872 to reduce rat populations that damaged commercial sugarcane (''Saccharum officinarum'') crops, prey on several Jamaican species, including the critically endangered Jamaican iguana (''Cyclura collei''), and have been implicated in the historical population declines and extinctions of many others.Other wildlife species inhabiting the island include the West Indian manatee (''Trichechus manatus''), the American crocodile (''Crocodylus acutus''), and the endemic and endangered Homerus swallowtail butterfly (''Papilio homerus''), which is the largest butterfly species in the Western Hemisphere." ], [ "Extreme points", "* Northernmost point: Half Moon Point, Saint James Parish* Southernmost point: Portland Point, Clarendon Parish* Westernmost point: South Negril Point, Westmoreland Parish* Easternmost point: Morant Point, Saint Thomas Parish" ], [ "Environmental policy", "There are policies that are being put into place to help preserve the ocean and the life below water.", "The goal of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.", "Developing an underdeveloped country can impact the oceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to develop the country.", "Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as poverty among some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contribute to the decline of ocean and coastal resources.", "Developing practices that will contribute to the lives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem.", "Some of these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensure sustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management of shipping, and promote sustainable tourism practices.", "As for tourism, tourism is the number one source of foreign exchange earnings in Jamaica and, as such is vital to the national economy.", "Tourist typically go to countries unaware of issues and how they impact those issues.", "Tourist are not going to be used to living in a different style compared to their own country.", "Practices such as: provide sewage treatment facilities for all tourist areas, determine carrying capacity of the environment prior to planning tourism activities, provide alternative types of tourist activities can help to get desired results such as the development of alternative tourism which will reduce the current pressure on resources that support traditional tourism activities.", "A study was conducted to see how tourist could help with sustainable financing for ocean and coastal management in Jamaica.", "Instead of using tourist fees they would call them environmental fees.", "This study aims to inform the relevant stakeholders of the feasibility of implementing environmental fees as well as the likely impact of such revenue generating instruments on the current tourist visitation rates to the island.", "The development of a user fee system would help fund environmental management and protection.", "The results show that tourists have a high consumer surplus associated with a vacation in Jamaica, and have a significantly lower willingness to pay for a tourism tax when compared to an environmental tax.", "The findings of the study show that the \"label\" of the tax and as well as the respondent's awareness of the institutional mechanisms for environmental protection and tourism are important to their decision framework.", "Tourist are more willing to pay for environmental fees rather than tourist tax fees.", "A tax high enough to fund for environmental management and protection but low enough to continue to bring tourist to Jamaica.", "It has been shown that if an environmental tax of $1 per person were introduced it would not cause a significant decline in visitation rates and would generate revenues of US$1.7M per year." ], [ "See also", "* List of cities and towns in Jamaica" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean.", "The country had a population of 2,825,352 in 2023, the fourth largest in the region.Jamaica's annual population growth rate stood at 0.08% in 2022.As of 2023, Jamaicans of African descent represent 76.3% of the population, followed by 15.1% Afro-European, 3.4% East Indian and Afro-East Indian, 3.2% Caucasian, 1.2% Chinese and 0.8% other.", "68.9% of Jamaicans were Christians in 2011, predominantly Protestant." ], [ "Population", "According to the total population was in , compared to only 1,403,000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 29%, 63.1% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 7.8% was 65 years or older.Total population (x 1000)Proportionaged 0–14(%)Proportionaged 15–64(%)Proportionaged 65+(%) 19501 40336.060.13.9 19551 54237.158.84.1 19601 62941.853.94.3 19651 76043.551.15.4 19701 86947.047.45.6 19752 01245.348.95.8 19802 13240.353.06.8 19852 29737.355.77.1 19902 36535.157.57.4 19952 46233.858.77.5 20002 58232.559.67.9 20052 68230.461.58.1 20102 74127.164.58.4 20152 79323.667.39.1 20192 73420.869.59.7=== Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 334 533 1 363 450 2 697 983 100 0–4 106 107 103 764 209 871 7.78 5–9 114 792 111 586 226 378 8.39 10–14 136 183 130 403 266 586 9.88 15–19 139 777 134 881 274 658 10.18 20–24 125 243 125 468 250 711 9.29 25–29 109 919 116 201 226 120 8.38 30–34 87 810 97 685 185 495 6.88 35–39 86 647 97 109 183 756 6.81 40–44 85 656 88 268 173 924 6.45 45–49 79 201 76 188 155 389 5.76 50–54 67 297 70 598 137 895 5.11 55–59 50 717 50 081 100 798 3.74 60–64 44 407 43 650 88 057 3.26 65–69 32 543 32 621 65 164 2.42 70–74 24 627 26 649 51 276 1.90 75–79 19 847 22 915 42 762 1.58 80–84 13 258 17 480 30 738 1.14 85–89 7 267 11 190 18 457 0.68 90–94 2 303 4 618 6 921 0.26 95–99 808 1 695 2 503 0.09 100+ 124 400 524 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 357 082 345 753 702 835 26.05 15–64 876 674 900 129 1 776 803 65.86 65+ 100 777 117 568 218 345 8.09Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 351 515 1 381 024 2 732 539 100 0–4 88 769 85 290 174 059 6.37 5–9 97 299 93 948 191 247 7.00 10–14 106 720 104 712 211 432 7.74 15–19 118 895 113 888 232 783 8.52 20–24 130 614 127 184 257 798 9.43 25–29 126 322 123 540 249 862 9.14 30–34 109 010 112 958 221 968 8.12 35–39 95 108 103 970 199 078 7.29 40–44 77 021 89 154 166 175 6.08 45–49 78 742 87 344 166 086 6.08 50–54 75 767 77 096 152 863 5.59 55–59 69 089 67 139 136 228 4.99 60–64 54 822 56 388 111 210 4.07 65-69 41 595 41 171 82 766 3.03 70-74 32 319 33 155 65 474 2.40 75-79 21 380 23 690 45 070 1.65 80+ 28 043 40 397 68 440 2.50Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 292 788 283 950 576 738 21.11 15–64 935 390 958 661 1 894 051 69.31 65+ 123 337 138 413 261 750 9.58" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)TFR 1900 750,00026,80016,20010,60035.721.614.1 1901 756,00032,10017,20014,90042.522.819.7 1902 760,00029,90015,00014,90039.319.819.5 1903 770,00030,90019,10011,80040.124.815.3 1904 780,00028,50019,4009,10036.524.911.6 1905 790,00031,10017,50013,60039.422.217.2 1906 790,00030,70021,2009,50038.926.812.1 1907 800,00028,80023,4005,40036.029.26.8 1908 810,00031,30018,70012,60038.723.115.6 1909 820,00032,30018,60013,70039.422.716.7 1910 820,00031,60018,90012,70038.523.115.4 1911 831,00032,50018,50014,00039.122.316.8 1912 830,00032,50021,10011,40039.225.413.8 1913 840,00030,20018,60011,60036.022.113.9 1914 840,00033,40018,40015,00039.821.917.9 1915 840,00029,80018,60011,20035.522.113.4 1916 840,00028,70019,4009,30034.223.111.1 1917 850,00029,90023,6006,30035.227.87.4 1918 850,00030,10029,1001,00035.434.21.2 1919 850,00029,70019,50010,20034.922.912.0 1920 860,00036,20022,50013,70042.126.215.9 1921 858,00029,90024,3005,60034.928.36.6 1922 870,00032,50020,00012,50037.423.014.4 1923 890,00034,40020,50013,90038.723.015.7 1924 910,00033,70019,90013,80037.021.915.1 1925 930,00032,50020,10012,40034.921.613.3 1926 950,00036,50019,50017,00038.420.517.9 1927 960,00033,30020,30013,00034.721.113.6 1928 980,00035,10019,30015,80035.819.716.1 19291,000,00034,20018,40015,80034.218.415.8 19301,020,00038,30017,60020,70037.517.320.2 19311,030,00036,40019,50016,90035.318.916.4 19321,047,00034,20018,20016,00032.717.415.3 19331,067,00035,60021,00014,60033.419.713.7 19341,081,00034,24718,73115,51631.717.314.4 19351,096,00037,37919,70617,67334.118.016.1 19361,111,00036,56119,62916,93232.917.715.2 19371,123,00035,35217,48117,87131.515.615.9 19381,142,00037,97019,12418,84633.316.816.5 19391,162,00037,47417,53619,93832.315.117.2 19401,183,00036,46218,24318,21930.815.415.4 19411,205,00037,82917,31720,51231.414.417.0 19421,227,00040,16517,54522,62032.714.318.4 19431,248,00039,37117,55821,81331.514.117.4 19441,260,00041,77218,97622,79633.215.118.1 19451,266,00037,95418,87419,08030.014.915.1 19461,292,00039,91817,27222,64630.913.417.5 19471,321,00043,26718,77024,49732.814.218.5 19481,345,00041,46317,86923,59430.813.317.5 19491,365,00044,37716,85927,51832.512.420.2 19501,403,00046,45916,67729,78233.111.921.2 19511,437,00048,56117,25031,31134.012.121.9 19521,468,00048,90216,69532,20733.611.522.1 19531,496,00051,13115,44235,68934.410.424.0 19541,521,00053,63016,30237,32836.511.125.4 19551,542,00055,76715,32840,43937.510.327.2 19561,560,00058,17714,67043,50738.59.728.8 19571,576,00060,44514,12946,31639.49.230.2 19581,592,00063,51714,81348,70440.69.531.1 19591,609,00063,87416,54947,32539.910.329.6 19601,629,00068,41314,32154,09242.58.933.6 19611,652,00066,12814,19351,93540.58.731.8 19621,679,00064,91314,16750,74639.18.530.6 19631,707,00066,18915,15951,03039.08.930.1 19641,735,00068,35913,26755,09239.37.631.7 19651,760,00069,76814,08455,68439.68.031.6 19661,783,00071,36414,28857,07640.08.032.0 19671,804,00067,43813,29554,14337.47.430.0 19681,824,00065,40214,55750,84535.98.027.9 19691,845,00064,66814,09450,57435.17.627.4 19701,869,00064,37514,35250,02334.47.726.8 19711,896,00066,27714,07852,19934.97.427.5 19721,925,00066,21913,97052,24934.37.227.1 19731,955,00061,85714,15747,70031.67.224.3 19741,984,00061,50614,37447,13230.97.223.7 19752,012,00061,46214,00447,45830.36.923.4 19762,037,00060,65814,67145,98729.67.222.4 19772,059,00060,42314,24546,17829.16.922.3 19782,081,00058,18912,14846,04127.95.822.1 19792,105,00059,12613,29745,82928.06.321.7 19802,132,00058,58912,70645,88327.56.021.53.56 19812,165,00059,43513,31546,12027.56.221.33.50 19822,200,00061,47712,69848,77927.95.822.23.40 19832,237,00061,41712,58848,82927.45.621.83.21 19842,270,00057,53313,40544,12825.25.919.42.73 19852,297,00056,21013,91842,29224.36.018.32.56 19862,317,00054,06713,34140,72623.15.717.42.40 19872,332,00052,27012,35239,91822.25.317.02.27 19882,342,00053,62312,16741,45622.75.217.62.31 19892,353,00059,10414,31544,78924.76.018.72.43 19902,365,00059,60612,17447,43225.25.120.12.45 19912,381,00059,87913,31946,56025.25.619.62.44 19922,399,00056,27613,22543,05123.55.517.92.34 19932,419,00058,62713,92744,70024.25.818.52.44 19942,440,00057,40413,50343,90123.55.518.02.38 19952,462,00057,60712,77644,83123.45.218.22.37 19962,485,00057,37014,85442,51623.16.017.12.33 19972,509,00059,38515,96743,41823.76.417.32.42 19982,534,00056,93716,15040,78722.56.416.12.29 19992,559,00056,91117,55039,36122.26.915.42.29 20002,582,00054,03516,40037,63520.96.414.62.13 20012,605,00049,29116,61532,67618.96.412.51.92 20022,620,00047,46416,72830,73618.26.411.81.84 20032,629,00045,55917,26728,29217.46.610.81.77 20042,639,00044,84316,33228,51117.06.210.81.73 20052,644,00046,37017,41328,95717.56.611.01.81 20062,653,00043,24318,96024,28316.37.29.21.70 20072,662,00043,38520,55022,83516.37.78.61.71 20082,672,00043,11219,96623,14616.17.58.71.70 20092,681,00042,78218,55524,22716.07.08.91.68 20102,691,00040,50821,50319,00515.18.07.11.57 20112,700,00039,67316,92622,74714.76.38.41.54 20122,708,00039,55316,99822,55514.56.38.31.55 20132,715,00036,74615,42721,31913.55.77.81.52 20142,721,00036,99618,32018,67613.66.76.91.51 20152,723,00037,90019,24918,65113.97.16.81.5320162,727,00036,16019,76116,39913.37.26.11.5020172,728,00034,42319,66114,76212.67.25.41.4620182,731,00034,20919,76214,44712.57.25.31.4220192,734,00034,63220,93713,69512.77.75.0 20202,735,00033,94120,23813,70312.47.45.0 20212,737,00033,12626,9746,15212.19.82.3 20222,738,00031,27621,3909,88611.47.83.6===Life expectancy at birth===PeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195558.61985–199072.11955–196062.71990–199572.01960–196565.71995–200072.11965–197067.22000–200572.81970–197569.02005–201074.21975–198070.72010–201575.51980–198572.0Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''" ], [ "Other sources of demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics below are based on the 2022 World Population Review.", "One birth every 12 minutes\tOne death every 23 minutes\tOne net migrant every 46 minutes\tNet gain of one person every 45 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from ''The World Factbook'' by the CIA, unless otherwise referenced.===Population===:2,818,596 (2022 est.", "):2,990,561 (July 2017)Population Pyramid of Jamaica in 2020===Age structure===:''0-14 years:'' 25.2% (male 360,199/female 347,436):''15-24 years:'' 17.95% (male 255,102/female 248,927):''25-54 years:'' 38.06% (male 518,583/female 550,410):''55-64 years:'' 9.63% (male 133,890/female 136,442):''65 years and over:'' 9.17% (2020 est.)", "(male 121,969/female 135,612)===Birth rate===11.4 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 103rd===Death rate===:7.43 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 108th===Total fertility rate===:1.31 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 98th=== Population growth rate ===:0.08% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 189th:0.68% (2017)===Net migration rate===:-7.7 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 219th:-4.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population===Median age===:total: 29.4 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 131st:male: 28.6 years:female: 30.1 years (2020 est.", ")===Mother's mean age at first birth===:21.2 years (2008 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 25–29===Urbanization===:urban population: 57% of total population (2022):rate of urbanisation: 0.79% annual rate of change (2020–25 est.", ")===Education expenditures===:5.4% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 43rd===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 75.75 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 116th:male: 73.98 years:female: 77.6 years (2022 est.", ")===Infant mortality rate===Total: 13.37 deaths/1,000 live birthsMale: 13.93 deaths/1,000 live birthsFemale: 12.78 deaths/1,000 live births (2015 est.", ")===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school:total population: 88.7%:male: 84%:female: 93.1% (2015)===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 12 years:male: 11 years:female: 13 years (2015)===Unemployment, youth ages 15–24===:total: 20.6%:male: 16.8%:female: 25.4% (2019 est.", ")===Languages===English, Jamaican Patois===Religion===Protestant 64.8% (includes Seventh Day Adventist 12.0%, Pentecostal 11.0%, Other Church of God 9.2%, New Testament Church of God 7.2%, Baptist 6.7%, Church of God in Jamaica 4.8%, Church of God of Prophecy 4.5%, Anglican 2.8%, United Church 2.1%, Methodist 1.6%, Revived 1.4%, Brethren 0.9%, and Moravian 0.7%), Roman Catholic 2.2%, Jehovah's Witness 1.9%, Rastafarian 1.1%, other 6.5%, none 21.3%, unspecified 2.3% (2011 est.", ")===Ethnic groups===Black 92.1%, mixed 6.1%, East Indian 0.8%, other 0.4%, unspecified 0.7% (2011 est.", ")===Nationality===Noun: Jamaican(s)Adjective: Jamaican" ], [ "See also", " Afro-Jamaican* List of cities and towns in Jamaica" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* CIA World Factbook – Jamaica* Statistics Institute of Jamaica – Government agency responsible for census and statistical mapping" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", " Politics in Jamaica takes place in the framework of a representative parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy.", "The 1962 Constitution of Jamaica established a parliamentary system whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom.", "As the head of state, King Charles III - on the advice of the Prime Minister of Jamaica - appoints a governor-general as his representative in Jamaica.", "The governor-general has a largely ceremonial role.", "Jamaica constitutes an independent Commonwealth realm.The Constitution vests executive power in the cabinet, led by the Prime Minister.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested both in the government and in the Parliament of Jamaica.A bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature drafted Jamaica's current Constitution in 1962.That Constitution came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which gave Jamaica political independence.", "Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, freedom of movement, and freedom of association.The judiciary operates independently of the executive and the legislature, with jurisprudence based on English common law." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The House of Representatives of Jamaica.Parliament is composed of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives.", "Thirteen Senators are nominated on the advice of the prime minister and eight on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition; a two-thirds super-majority of both chambers is needed for major constitutional amendments.", "General elections must be held within five years of the forming of a new government.The prime minister may ask the governor-general to call elections sooner, however.", "The Senate may submit bills, and it also reviews legislation submitted by the House.", "It may not delay budget bills for more than one month or other bills for more than seven months.", "The prime minister and the Cabinet are selected from the Parliament.", "No fewer than two nor more than four members of the Cabinet must be selected from the Senate." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "* Jamaica Labour Party* Marcus Garvey People's Political Party* National Democratic Movement* New Nation Coalition * People's National Party" ], [ "Executive branch", "The 1962 Constitution established a parliamentary system based on the United Kingdom's Westminster model.", "As head of state, King Charles III appoints a governor-general, on the advice of the prime minister, as his representative in Jamaica.", "The governor-general's role is largely ceremonial.", "Executive power is vested in the King, but exercised mostly by the Cabinet of Jamaica; led by the prime minister, currently Andrew Holness." ], [ "Current composition", "General Elections February 25, 2016PartyVotes%Seats+/–Jamaica Labour Party408,37657.149+16People's National Party305,95042.814–16Marcus Garvey People's Progressive Party2600.0300National Democratic Movement2230.0300People's Progressive Party910.010NewIndependents A2120.0100Independents B1,0210.1300Invalid/Rejected Ballots9,875–––'''Total''''''882,489''''''100''''''63''''''0'''Registered voters/turnout1,824,412 48.37%––Source: Electoral Commission (100% of vote counted)" ], [ "Judicial branch", "The judiciary also is modelled on the British system.", "The Court of Appeal is the highest appellate court in Jamaica.", "Under certain circumstances, cases may be appealed to Britain's Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.", "Jamaica's parishes have elected councils that exercise limited powers of local government.Firearms offences, including possession of unlicensed guns and ammunition, are tried before a dedicated Gun Court established in 1974.The Gun Court hears cases ''in camera'' and practices jury trial only for cases of treason or murder.", "All other cases are tried by resident magistrates or justices of the Supreme Court of Jamaica." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Jamaica is divided in 14 parishes: Clarendon, Hanover, Kingston, Manchester, Portland, Saint Andrew, Saint Ann, Saint Catherine, Saint Elizabeth, Saint James, Saint Mary, Saint Thomas, Trelawny, Westmoreland." ], [ "Regulatory services", "Responsibility for water and sanitation policies within the government rests with the Ministry of Water and Housing, and the main service provider is the National Water Commission.", "An autonomous regulatory agency, the Office of Utilities Regulation (OUR), approves tariffs and establishes targets for efficiency increases, and also oversees the telecommunications industry." ], [ "Foreign relations", "Jamaica has diplomatic relations with most nations and is a member of the United Nations, The Commonwealth and the Organization of American States.", "Historically, Jamaica has had close ties with the UK.", "Trade, financial, and cultural relations with the United States are now predominant.", "Jamaica is linked with the other countries of the English-speaking Caribbean through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and more broadly through the Association of Caribbean States (ACS)." ], [ "See also", "List of Jamaican ministers of stateRepublicanism in Jamaica" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Jamaica''' is heavily reliant on services, accounting for 71% of the country's GDP.", "Jamaica has natural resources and a climate conducive to agriculture and tourism.", "The discovery of bauxite in the 1940s and the subsequent establishment of the bauxite-alumina industry shifted Jamaica's economy from sugar, and bananas.Weakness in the financial sector, speculation, and lower levels of investment erode confidence in the productive sector.", "The government continues its efforts to raise new sovereign debt in local and international financial markets in order to meet its U.S. dollar debt obligations, to mop up liquidity to maintain the exchange rate and to help fund the current budget deficit.The Jamaican government's economic policies encourage foreign investment in areas that earn or save foreign exchange, generate employment, and use local raw materials.", "The government also provides a wide range of incentives to investors.Free trade zones have stimulated investment in garment assembly, light manufacturing, and data entry by foreign firms.", "However, over the last 5 years, the garment industry has suffered from reduced export earnings, continued factory closures, and rising unemployment.", "The Government of Jamaica hopes to encourage economic activity through a combination of privatization, financial sector restructuring, reduced interest rates, and by boosting tourism and related productive activities." ], [ "Economic history", "Before independence, Jamaica's economy was largely focused on agriculture with the vast majority of the labor force engaged in the production of sugar, bananas, and tobacco.", "According to one study, 18th century Jamaica had the highest wealth inequality in the world, as a very small, slave-owning elite was extremely wealthy while the rest of the population lived on the edge of subsistence.These products were mainly exported to the United Kingdom, Canada, and to the United States of America.", "Jamaica's trade relationships expanded substantially from 1938 to 1946, with total imports almost doubling from £6,485,000 to £12,452,000.After 1962, the Jamaican government pushed for economic growth and all sectors excluding bauxite/alumina, energy, and tourism had shrunk between 1998 and 1999.In 2000, Jamaica experienced its first year of positive growth since 1995 due to continued tight macroeconomic policies.Inflation fell from 25% in 1995 to single digits in 2000, reaching a multidecade low of 4.3% in 2004.Through periodic intervention in the market, the central bank also has prevented any abrupt drop in the exchange rate.", "The Jamaican dollar has been slipping, despite intervention, resulting in an average exchange rate of J$73.40 per US$1.00 and J136.2 per €1.00 (February 2011).", "In addition, inflation has been trending upward since 2004 and is projected to once again reach a double digit rate of 12-13% through the year 2008 due to a combination of unfavorable weather damaging crops and increasing agricultural imports and high energy prices.Over the last 30 years, real per capita GDP increased at an average of just one percent per year, making Jamaica one of the slowest growing developing countries in the world.To reverse this trajectory, the Government of Jamaica embarked on a comprehensive and ambitious program of reforms for which it has garnered national and international support: a four-year Extended Fund Facility (EFF) by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) providing a support package of US$932 million; World Bank Group and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) programs providing US$510 million each to facilitate the GoJ's economic reform agenda to stabilize the economy, reduce debt and create the conditions for growth and resilience..", "In addition, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) will continue to support private sector development.The reform program is beginning to bear fruit: Institutional reforms and measures to improve the environment for the private sector have started to restore confidence in the Jamaican economy.", "Jamaica jumped 27 places to 58 among 189 economies worldwide in the 2015 Doing Business ranking, the country's credit rating has improved and the Government has successfully raised more than US$2 billion in the international capital in the markets in 2014 and 2015..Despite some revival, economic growth is still low: the Jamaican Government is forecasting real gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 1.9 per cent for the fiscal year 2015/2016 and the country continues to be confronted by serious social issues that predominantly affect youth, such as high levels of crime and violence and high unemployment.", "Jamaica, which had seen its poverty rate drop almost 20 percent over two decades, saw it increase by eight percent in a few years.The unemployment rate in Jamaica is approximately 6.0% (April 2022, Statistical Institute of Jamaica), with youth unemployment more than twice the national rate, albeit trending downwards (15%).", "However, among Jamaica's assets are its skilled labor force and strong social and governance indicators." ], [ "Primary industries", "===Agriculture===Agricultural production is an important contributor to Jamaica's economy.", "However, it is vulnerable to extreme weather, such as hurricanes and to competition from neighbouring countries such as the USA.", "Other difficulties faced by farmers include thefts from the farm, known as praedial larceny.", "Agricultural production accounted for 7.4% of GDP in 1997, providing employment for nearly a quarter of the country.", "Jamaica's agriculture, together with forestry and fishing, accounted for about 6.6% of GDP in 1999.Sugar has been produced in Jamaica for centuries, it is the nation's dominant agricultural export.", "Sugar is produced in nearly every parish.", "The production of raw sugar in the year 2000 was estimated at 175,000 tons, a decrease from 290,000 tons in 1978.Jamaican agriculture has been less prominent in GDP in the 2000s than other industries, hitting an all-time low between 2004 and 2008.This may have been due to a reaction to increased competition as international trade policies were enacted.", "For example, as NAFTA was enacted in 1993, a significant amount of Caribbean exports to the United States diminished, being out competed by Latin American exports.", "Another example is the Banana Import Regime's 3rd phase, in which EU nations had first given priority in banana imports to previously colonized nations.", "Under pressure by the World Trade Organization, the EU policy was altered to provide a non-discriminatory trade agreement.", "Jamaica's banana industry was easily outpriced by American companies exporting Latin American goods.", "Jamaica's agriculture industry is now bouncing back, growing from being 6.6% of GDP to 7.2%.Sugar formed 7.1% of the exports in 1999 and Jamaica made up about 4.8% of the total production of sugar in the Caribbean.", "Sugar is also used for the production of by-products such as molasses, rum and some wallboard is made from bagasse.Banana production in 1999 was 130,000 tons.", "Bananas formed 2.4% of the exports in 1999 and Jamaica formed around 7.5% of the total production of banana in the Caribbean.", "Jamaica stopped exporting banana in 2008 after suffering from several years of hurricanes that devastated the plantations.Coffee is mainly grown around the Blue Mountains and in hilly areas.", "One type in particular, Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee, is considered among the best in the world because at those heights in the Blue Mountains, the cooler climate causes the berries to take longer to ripen and the beans develop more of the substances which on roasting give coffee its flavor.", "Coffee formed 1.9% of exports in 1999.The picking season lasts from August to March.", "The coffee is exported from Kingston.Cocoa is grown throughout Jamaica and local sales absorb about 1/3 of the output to be made into instant drinks and confectionery.", "Citrus fruit is mainly grown in the central parts of Jamaica, particularly between the elevations of 1,000-2,500 feet.", "The picking season lasts from November to April.", "Two factories in Bog Walk produce fruit juices, canned fruit, essential oils and marmalade.", "Coconuts are grown on the northern and eastern coasts, which provide enough copra to supply factories to make butterine, margarine, lard, edible oil and laundry soap.Vanilla is also grown.Other export crops are pimento, ginger, tobacco, sisal and other fruit are exported.", "Rice is grown around swampy areas around the Black River & around Long Bay in Hanover and Westmoreland parishes for local consumption.As tastes have changed in Jamaica in favor of more meat and packaged food the national food import bill has grown to the point that it threatens the health of the economy.", "The government has responded by encouraging gardening and farming, a response which has had limited success.", "For example, the percentage of potatoes grown locally has increased, but imports of french fries have continued at a high level.===Animal husbandry===Cows Grazing, Saint Ann Parish 2023Pastures form a good percentage of the land in Jamaica.", "Many properties specialize in cattle rearing.", "Livestock holdings were 400,000 head of cattle, 440,000 goats, 180,000 hogs & 30,rs of livestock are increasing, this isn't enough for local requirements for a growing population.", "Dairying has increased since the erection of a condensed milk factory at Bog Walk in 1940.Even so, the supply of dairy products is not enough for local requirements and there are large imports of powdered milk, butter and cheese.===Fishing===White River Fishing Village is in Ocho Rios, St. AnnThe fishing industry grew during the 1900s, primarily from the focus on inland fishing.", "Several thousand fishermen make a living from fishing.", "The shallow waters and cays off the south coast are richer than the northern waters.", "Other fishermen live on the Pedro Cays, to the south of Jamaica.Jamaica supplies about half of its fish requirements; major imports of frozen and salted fish are imported from the United States and Canada.The total catch in 2000 was 5,676 tons, a decrease from 11,458 tons in 1997; the catch was mainly marine, with freshwater carp, barbel, etc., crustaceans & molluscs.===Forestry===By the late 1890, only of Jamaica's original of forest remained.", "Roundwood production was 881,000 cu m (31.1 million cu ft) in 2000.About 68% of the timber cut in 2000 was used as fuel wood while 32% was used for industrial use.", "The forests that once covered Jamaica now exist only in mountainous areas.", "They only supply 20% of the island timber requirements.", "The remaining forest is protected from further exploitation.", "Other accessible mountain areas are being reforested, mainly with pines, mahoe and mahogany.===Mining===Windalco, Alumina plant in the background (Kirkvine, Manchester)Jamaica was the third-leading producer of bauxite and alumina in 1998, producing 12.6 million tons of bauxite, accounting for 10.4% of world production, and 3.46 million tons of alumina, accounting for 7.4% of world production.", "8,540 million tons of bauxite was mined in 2012 and 10,200 million tons of bauxite in 2011.Mining and quarrying made up 4.1% of the nation's gross domestic product in 1999.Bauxite and alumina formed 55.2% of exports in 1999 and are the second-leading money earner after tourism.", "Jamaica has reserves of over 2 billion tonnes, which are expected to last 100 years.", "Bauxite is found in the central parishes of St. Elizabeth, Manchester, Clarendon, St. Catherine, St. Ann, and Trelawny.", "There are four alumina plants and six mines.Jamaica has deposits of several million tons of gypsum on the southern slopes of the Blue Mountains.", "Jamaica produced 330,441 tons of gypsum in the year 2000, some of which was used in the local cement industry and in the manufacturing of building materials.Other minerals present in Jamaica include marble, limestone, and silica, as well as ores of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and iron.", "Some of these are worked in small quantities.", "Petroleum has been sought, but so far none has been found." ], [ "Secondary Industries", "===Manufacturing===The manufacturing sector is an essential contributor to the Jamaican economy.", "Though manufacturing accounted for 13.9% of GDP in 1999.Jamaican companies contribute many manufactures such as food processing; oil refining; produced chemicals, construction materials, plastic goods, paints, pharmaceuticals, cartons, leather goods and cigars & assembled electronics, textiles and apparel.", "The garment industry is a major job employer for thousands of hundreds of locals and they formed 12.9% of exports in 1999 earning US$159 million.", "Chemicals formed 3.3% of the exports in 1999 earning US$40 million.A portion of the bauxite mined on the island is processed into alumina before export.An oil refinery is located near Kingston converts crude petroleum obtained from Venezuela into gasoline and other products.", "These are mainly for local use.", "The construction industry is growing due to new hotels and attractions being built for tourism.", "Construction and installation formed 10.4% of the GDP in 1999.Manufactured goods were imported and formed 30.3% of the imports and cost US$877 million in 1999.Since the launch of the Jamaican Logistics Hub initiative, various economic zones have been proposed throughout the country to assemble goods from other parts of the world for distribution to the Americas." ], [ "Tertiary industries", "===Tourism===Tourism is tied with remittances as Jamaica's top source of revenue.", "The tourism industry earns over 50 percent of the country's total foreign exchange earnings and provides about one-fourth of all jobs in Jamaica.", "Most tourist activity is centered on the island's northern coast, including the communities of Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, and Port Antonio, as well as in Negril on the island's western tip.KFC DraxhallSome destinations include Ocho Rios, Green Grotto Caves, Y.S.", "Falls and Appleton Estate.", "Most of the tourist sites are landmarks as well as homes for many Jamaicans.", "Many of the most frequented tourist sites are located mainly by water such as rivers and beaches where fishermen make a living from seafood.", "One of the most famous beach towns in Jamaica is Ocho Rios, a located in the parish of Saint Ann on the north coast of Jamaica.", "It was once a fishing village but now attracts millions of tourists yearly.", "The site is popular today because of the food and culture that can be found there.Another famous location in Jamaica that attracts millions yearly is Dunn's River Falls, located in Ocho Rios; this waterfall is approximately 600 feet long and runs off into the sea.", "Around the location many hotels and restaurants are available and many street vendors sell food around the clock.", "Another well-known beach town is Negril, the party capital of the country.", "This beach town has many different factors to add to the night life.===Logistics===In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) - the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas.", "The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country's heavy debt-to-GDP ratio.", "Strict adherence to the IMF's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies.===ICT/BPO===Jamaica has made strides in developing its Information and Communications Technology (ICT) infrastructure.", "As the largest English speaking territory in the Caribbean, Jamaica is the region's leading contact centre location with over 87 information communications technology/business process outsourcing (ICT/BPO) companies operating in the country employing 44,000 full-time agents." ], [ "Taxation/Tax Rates", "Jamaican tax rates are extremely favourable in world standards, the brackets are as follows: Band Personal Allowance (J$) Tax Rate 1 (Lower) -Up to J$1,500,000 0% 2 (Middle) - J$1,500,001-J$6,000,000 J$1,500,000 25% 3 (Upper) - J$6,000,000+ J$0 30%Separate Tax Rates apply for foreign nationals." ], [ "Economic Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2018.Inflation below 5% is in green.YearGDP (in bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)GDP (in bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth (real)Inflation rate (in Percent)Unemployment (in Percent)Government debt (in % of GDP)19806.12,8972.6−4.0 %18.0 %27.3 %n/a19817.03,2532.84.4 %9.2 %25.9 %n/a19827.73,5013.23.1 %6.8 %27.6 %n/a19838.33,7152.94.2 %16.7 %26.4 %n/a19848.73,8772.11.0 %31.3 %25.5 %n/a19858.93,9042.0−0.9 %29.7 %25.0 %n/a19869.74,2242.47.0 %24.4 %23.7 %n/a198710.74,6282.77.7 %11.2 %21.0 %n/a198810.64,5733.2−4.0 %8.2 %19.1 %n/a198911.54,9663.74.7 %16.1 %15.2 %n/a199012.65,3094.74.9 %24.8 %15.7 %n/a199113.15,4984.30.8 %51.1 %15.4 %n/a199213.85,7374.32.8 %77.3 %15.7 %n/a199314.45,9535.42.2 %22.1 %16.3 %n/a199415.06,1405.51.9 %35.1 %15.4 %n/a199515.76,3696.52.5 %19.9 %16.2 %n/a199616.06,4407.40.2 %26.4 %16.0 %n/a199716.0 6,3818.4−1.6 %9.7 %16.5 %n/a199816.0 6,3138.8−1.2 %8.6 %15.5 %n/a199916.46,4068.91.0 %6.0 %15.7 %82.7 %200016.96,5399.10.8 %4.6 %15.5 %91.8 %200117.56,7099.21.3 %9.5 %15.0 %108.0 %200217.96,8049.70.7 %8.2 %14.2 %118.4 %200318.87,1309.43.7 %9.9 %11.8 %123.2 %200419.67,36710.21.3 %14.8 %12.2 %119.8 %200520.47,61711.20.9 %13.4 %11.2 %124.7 %200621.78,03311.92.9 %8.9 %10.3 %117.1 %200722.68,33112.91.4 %9.2 %9.9 %114.5 %200822.88,39013.7−0.8 %22.0 %10.6 %127.0 %200922.28,13512.1−3.4 %9.6 %11.4 %141.9 %201022.18,07613.2−1.4 %12.6 %12.4 %141.9 % 201122.98,32214.41.4 %7.5 %13.0 %140.5 %201223.28,39514.8−0.5 %6.9 %13.9 %145.1 %201323.78,51514.20.2 %9.4 %15.3 %138.7 %201424.38,67913.90.6 %8.3 %14.2 %137.9 %201524.88,79814.20.9 %3.7 %13.5 %121.3 %201625.48,98014.11.5 %2.3 %12.8 %113.6 %201726.19,16114.80.7 %4.4 %12.2 %101.1 %201827.09,44715.61.4 %3.7 %11.6 %99.4 %" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bahl, R., & Wallace, S. (2007).", "From income tax to consumption tax?", "The case of Jamaica.", "''FinanzArchiv/Public Finance Analysis'', 396-414." ], [ "External links", "* World Bank Trade Summary Statistics Jamaica 2012* Partners in Austerity: Jamaica, the United States and the International Monetary Fund, from the Center for Economic and Policy Research, April 2015" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in Jamaica''' include the fixed and mobile telephone networks, radio, television, and the Internet." ], [ "Telecommunications", "Jamaica is a member of the North American Numbering Plan (NANP).", "The NANP Administrator (NANPA) has allocated the area codes 876 and 658 for use in the country, which is a single numbering plan area (NPA) with an overlay numbering plan.", "The national telephone number format is NPA-NXX-XXXX, where N is one of the digits 2 through 9, and X is any digit.For international dialing to Jamaica, the country code is ''1''.For accessing international destinations from within Jamaica, the international call prefix is ''011''.Calls from Jamaica to other NANP nations, such as the U.S. and Canada, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number.Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system.", "* Main lines: 265,000 lines in use, 123rd in the world (2011).", "* Mobile cellular: 2.7 million, 135th in the world (2012).", "* Telephone system: Fully automatic domestic telephone network; the 1999 agreement to open the market for telecommunications services resulted in rapid growth in mobile-cellular telephone usage while the number of fixed-lines in use declined (2011).", "* Teledensity: 110 per 100 persons (combined) (2011).", "* Satellite earth stations: 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2010).", "* Communication cables: Fibralink submarine cable links to the Americas Region Caribbean Ring System (ARCOS-1) submarine cable in the Dominican Republic and on to the US, parts of the Caribbean, Central and South America; the ALBA-1 fiber-optic submarine cable links Jamaica, Cuba, and Venezuela (2010).===Mobile telephony===The country's three mobile operators – Cable and Wireless (once marketed as LIME – Landline, Internet, Mobile and Entertainment now named FLOW), Digicel, and at one point Oceanic Digital (operating as MiPhone and now known as Claro since late 2008) until the carrier was acquired and the relevant spectrum sold to Digicel – have spent millions in network upgrade and expansion.", "Both Digicel and Oceanic Digital were granted licences in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent Cable and Wireless monopoly.", "Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while Oceanic opted for the CDMA standard.", "Cable and Wireless, which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM, and currently utilises both standards on its network.With wireless usage increasing, landlines supplied by Cable and Wireless have declined from just over half a million to roughly three hundred thousand as of 2006.In a bid to grab more market share, Cable and Wireless recently launched a new land line service called HomeFone Prepaid that would allow customers to pay for minutes they use rather than pay a set monthly fee for service, much like prepaid wireless service.Two more licenses were auctioned by the Jamaican government to provide mobile services on the island, including one that was previously owned by AT&T Wireless but never utilized, and one new license.Another entrant to the Jamaican communications market, FLOW, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States.", "This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica internationally to four.", "The company's parent was acquired by Cable and Wireless Communications in November 2014 and finalized in March 2015.The new FLOW was re-launched as a successor to LIME and the old Flow on August 31, 2015; offering mobile, fixed voice, fixed broadband and TV services to the market.", "It has now become the first quad-play provider in Jamaica.", "The company runs a vast copper network (inherited from LIME) islandwide as well as a Hybrid Fiber and Coaxial network (from the old Flow) in the metropolitan areas of Kingston and Montego Bay.", "They also have small Fiber-to-the-home operations in certain sections of St. James that began in 2011 (under LIME).", "On the mobile side, the company had completed its 4G HSPA+ rollout (capable of speeds up to 21 Mbit/s) across the island in November 2015 and has announced plans to move to LTE within the year 2016.However, Digicel has become the first LTE network operator in Jamaica, going live with their network on June 9, 2016." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations: Privately owned Radio Jamaica Limited and its subsidiaries operate multiple radio stations; there are roughly 70 other privately owned radio stations (2007).", "* Radios: 1.215 million (1997).", "* Television stations: Privately owned Radio Jamaica Limited and its subsidiaries operate multiple TV stations as well as subscription cable services; there are 2 other privately owned television stations (2007).", "* Television sets: 460,000 (1997)." ], [ "Internet", "* Internet top-level domain: .jm, registration of .jm domains is handled by MITS at the University of the West Indies, registration is free, although there has been some discussion about MITS making the service commercial in the coming years.", "* Internet users: 1.3 million users, 108th in the world; 46.5% of the population, 94th in the world (2012).", "* Fixed broadband: 125,188 subscriptions, 96th in the world; 4.3% of population, 109th in the world (2012).", "* Wireless broadband: 45,505 subscriptions, 127th in the world; 1.6% of the population, 128th in the world (2012).", "* Internet hosts: 3,906 hosts, 149th in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 202,752 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 70.1 addresses per 1000 people (2012).===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.The law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.", "An independent press, generally effective judicial protection, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and press.", "The independent media are active and express a wide variety of views without restriction.", "Broadcast media were largely state owned, but open to pluralistic points of view.", "Although the constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, in practice the police conduct searches without warrants.A law decriminalizing defamation was passed by the Jamaican House of Representatives in November 2013 after being approved unanimously by the Senate the previous July.", "It took six years to amend the libel and slander laws, which – although little used – made media offences punishable by imprisonment." ], [ "See also", "* Area codes in the Caribbean* Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation, former public broadcaster of Jamaica.", "* Television Jamaica, commercial television station." ], [ "References", "* " ], [ "External links", " Mona Information Technology Services (MITS), University of the West Indies, Jamaica domain names registrar.", "* Television Jamaica" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in Jamaica''' consists of roadways, railways, ship and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system." ], [ "Roadways", "The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres are paved.", "The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island.", "This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres of freeway.The Highway 2000 project, which seeks ultimately to link Kingston with Montego Bay and the north coast, is currently undergoing a series of phases/legs.", "Phase 1 is the highway network between Kingston and Mandeville, which itself has been divided into sub-phases: Phase 1a (Kingston-Bushy Park (in actuality, Kingston-Sandy Bay) highway and the upgrade of the Portmore Causeway), which was completed June 2006, and Phase 1b (Sandy Bay-Williamsfield).", "Phase 2a is the highway between Old Harbour and Ocho Rios, and Phase 2b is the highway between Mandeville and Montego Bay.", "''total:'' .", "''paved:'' .", "''unpaved:'' (1997 est.", ")." ], [ "Buses", "The Jamaica Omnibus Service (JOS) was a municipal bus system that served the Kingston metropolitan area that ran from 1953 to 1983.After being run by British Electric Traction, the JOS was nationalised by the Jamaican government in 1974.It was replaced by a hodgepodge of privately operated buses, and a national bus system called the Jamaica Urban Transit Company (JUTC) was established in 1998 after complaints.", "The JUTC presently oversees more than 70 routes in areas including Kingston and Spanish Town.Coaches are a notable means of travel in Jamaica; a popular privately operated coach service is the Knutsford Express.", "The JUTC also provides charter buses.", "As for minibuses and route taxis, PPV number plates indicate licensed public transport, whereas JUTA plates indicate tourist routes.Having been proposed in 2019, the JUTC began testing floating solar electric buses in 2022, hoping to gradually introduce electric buses into the fleet and eventually phase out diesel buses.Jamaica Urban Transit Company Golden Dragon XML 6897J13 - Flickr - JLaw45.jpg\|JUTC bus, 2016Knutsford Express Kinglong (50818902882).jpg\|Knutford Express, 2018Jamaica-Toyota Coaster (6373832871).jpg\|Minibus in Ocho Rios, 2009" ], [ "Railways", "A motorized railcar leaving Buff Bay station, in 1960Railways in Jamaica, as in many other countries, no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport.", "Of the 272 kilometres of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.In 2008, with increasing traffic congestion, moves are being made to reconstruct old railway lines.", "''total:'' 370 km''standard gauge:'' 370 km gauge.", "Of these, 207 km belong to the Jamaica Railway Corporation in common carrier service but are no longer operational.", "The other 163 km is privately owned and used to transport bauxite." ], [ "Air Transport", "There are two international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in the capital, Kingston and Sangster International Airport in the resort city of Montego Bay.", "Both airports were once home to the country's (now defunct) national airline, Air Jamaica.", "In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, Ocho Rios, Mandeville, and Negril that cater to internal flights only.", "The Ian Fleming International Airport opened in February 2011 to serve the Ocho Rios - Port Antonio area.", "Many other small, rural centres are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines." ], [ "Ports and Shipping", "Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic.", "The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as what is projected in coming years.", "There are several other ports positioned around the island, including the alumina ports, Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon and Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth.", "Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay is responsible for transporting bauxite dried at the adjacent Kaiser plant.", "Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios is responsible for exporting sugar.", "Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products.", "Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio exports bananas.", "There are also three cruise ship piers along the island, in Ocho Rios, Montego Bay and Port Antonio.The Kingston port is situated in the Kingston Harbour, which is the 7th largest natural (i.e.", "not man made) harbour in the world." ], [ "Merchant marine", "''Total:'' 1 ship of over 1,000 GT: /.", "''Ships by type:'' petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.", ")." ], [ "Lighthouses", "As the island is a large exporter of bauxite, there is considerable freighter traffic.", "To aid navigation, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses''Onshore:'' 7.", "''Offshore:'' 2." ], [ "Pipelines", "Petroleum products: ." ], [ "References", "* Annual Transport Statistics Report: Jamaica in Figures 2003-2004, Ministry of Transport and Works, July 2005." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jamaica''' has diplomatic relations with many nations and is a member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States.", "Jamaica chairs the Working Group on smaller Economies.Jamaica is an active member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement (G-77).", "Jamaica is a beneficiary of the Lome Conventions, through which the European Union (EU) grants trade preferences to selected states in Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, and has played a leading role in the negotiations of the successor agreement in Fiji in 2000.", "'''Disputes - international:'''none'''Illicit drugs:'''Transshipment point for cocaine from Central and South America to North America and Europe; illicit cultivation of cannabis; government has an active manual cannabis eradication programThe Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade is the government ministry responsible for handling Jamaica's external relations and foreign trade." ], [ "History", "Historically, Jamaica has had close ties with the UK.", "Trade, financial, and cultural relations with the United States are now predominant.", "Jamaica is linked with the other countries of the English-speaking Caribbean through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and more broadly through the Association of Caribbean States (ACS).", "Jamaica has served two 2-year terms on the United Nations Security Council, in 1979-80 and 2000-2001.In the follow-on meetings to the December 1994 Summit of the Americas, Jamaica—together with Uruguay—was given the responsibility of coordinating discussions on invigorating society." ], [ "Diplomatic Relations", "List of countries which Jamaica maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272839 30 31 323334353637383940414243 44 4546 474849505152 53 5455565758596061626364656667686970717273747576777879808182 –838485868788899091929394 9596979899 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139 –140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172Unknown date" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes3 November 1982Belize and Jamaica are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Association of Caribbean States, the Caribbean Community, the Belt & Road Initiative, the Caribbean Development Bank, the Commonwealth of Nations, ECLAC, EU-CARIFORUM, the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States, the Organization of American States, the Small Island Developing States, and the United Nations.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on November 3, 1982.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community.14 October 1962See Jamaica–Brazil relationsJamaica and Brazil established diplomatic relations on October 14, 1962.Both countries are full members of the Group of 15.1962See Canada–Jamaica relationsCanada and Jamaica are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1962.Since March 4, 1963, Canada has a high commission in Kingston.", "Jamaica has a high commission in Ottawa.", "On April 15, 2009, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper became the first Canadian head of government to address the Jamaican parliament.", "There are 231,000 people of Jamaican descent living in Canada.", "Jamaican-Canadians celebrate their island heritage through festivals held in major cities across Canada, the most recognized of which is Caribana.", "Caribana is held in Toronto, Ontario every year and attracts over one million visitors to the region, many of whom fly all the way from Jamaica.", "* See also Jamaican Canadian* Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Jamaica* Canadian high commission in Kingston* Jamaican high commission in Ottawa1972See Cuba–Jamaica relationsPrime Minister Percival James Patterson visited Cuba at the end of May 1997.In the fall of 1997, Jamaica upgraded its consulate in Havana to an embassy, and the nonresident Jamaican ambassador to Cuba was replaced by a resident ambassador.21 November 1972See China–Jamaica relationsRelations from November 21, 1972.China has an embassy in Kingston, Jamaica.", "Jamaica has an embassy in Beijing.See Ghana-Jamaica relationsGhana, as the former Gold Coast, and Jamaica share historical links through the slave trade and forced Ashanti/Akan emigration to the Caribbean.", "Ghana and Jamaica have a Joint Permanent Commission, and there are plans for Ghanaian investment in Jamaica.26 May 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations on May 26, 1966.", "Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States, of the Caribbean Community, and of the Commonwealth of Nations.Haiti has an embassy in Kingston and Jamaica has an honorary consul in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.In January, 2007, Haitian President René Préval, made a four-day working visit to Jamaica.", "At a press conference, Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller announced that a Joint Jamaica/Haiti Commission would be convened later that year.See India–Jamaica relationsBoth nations inherited many cultural and political connections from British colonisation, such as membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, parliamentary democracy, the English language and cricket.India has a High Commission in Kingston, whilst Jamaica has a consulate in New Delhi.See Jamaica–Malaysia relations18 March 1966See Jamaica–Mexico relationsBoth nations established diplomatic relations on 18 March 1966.", "* Jamaica has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Kingston.13 October 1962The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Jamaica started on October 13, 1962 .", "* Jamaica has an embassy in Seoul, South Korea.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Kingston Jamaica.1970See Jamaica–Turkey relationsTurkish Embassy in Havana is accredited to Jamaica.", "Trade volume between the two countries was 90.5 million USD in 2019 (Jamaican exports/imports: 0.5/90 million USD).See Jamaica–United States relationsEmbassy of Jamaica in Washington, D.C.The United States maintains close and productive relations with the Government of Jamaica.", "Former Prime Minister Patterson visited Washington, DC, several times after assuming office in 1992.In April 2001, Prime Minister Patterson and other Caribbean leaders met with President George W. Bush during the Summit of the Americas in Quebec, Canada, at which a \"Third Border Initiative\" was launched to deepen U.S. cooperation with Caribbean nations and enhance economic development and integration of the Caribbean nations.", "Then-Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller attended the \"Conference on the Caribbean--A 20/20 Vision\" in Washington in June 2007.President Barack Obama visited the island on April 9.2015.President Obama managed to squeeze in some fun in between meetings with Jamaican and Caribbean leaders on his trip to Jamaica this week—from paying homage to reggae star Bob Marley to practising his own Jamaican accent.The United States is Jamaica's most important trading partner: bilateral trade in goods in 2005 was over $2 billion.", "Jamaica is a popular destination for American tourists; more than 1.2 million Americans visited in 2006.Also, some 10,000 American citizens, including many dual-nationals born on the island, permanently reside in Jamaica.Jamaica maintains economic and cultural relations with Taiwan via Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Canada." ], [ "Jamaica and the Commonwealth", "Jamaica has been a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1962 when it became an independent Commonwealth realm." ], [ "Multilateral membership", "African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of StatesCaricomCCCCaribbean Development BankUnited Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the CaribbeanFood and Agriculture OrganizationG-15G-33G-77Inter-American Development BankInternational Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentInternational Civil Aviation OrganizationInternational Red Cross and Red Crescent MovementInternational Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentInternational Finance CorporationInternational Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent SocietiesInternational Hydrographic Organization (pending member)International Labour OrganizationInternational Monetary FundInternational Telecommunication UnionIntelsatInterpolInternational Olympic CommitteeInternational Organization for MigrationInternational Organization for StandardizationInternational Telecommunication UnionLatin American Economic SystemNon-Aligned MovementOrganization of American StatesOPANALOrganisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsUnited NationsUN Security Council (temporary)United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNESCOUnited Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUniversal Postal UnionWorld Health OrganizationWorld Intellectual Property OrganizationWorld Meteorological OrganizationWorld Tourism OrganizationWorld Trade Organization" ], [ "See also", "List of diplomatic missions in Jamaica*List of diplomatic missions of Jamaica" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Science and technology in Jamaica" ], [ "Introduction", "Jamaica Coat of Arms'''The Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) sector in Jamaica''' is guided by two primary institutions, the National Commission on Science and Technology (NCST) and the Scientific Research Council (SRC).", "Both are under the direction of the Ministry of Science, Energy, and Technology." ], [ "History", "Sir Anthony Musgrave, founder of the Institute of JamaicaScience and technology in Jamaica has a long history.", "In 1879, the Governor of Jamaica created the Institute of Jamaica \"For the Encouragement of Literature, Science and Art in Jamaica\".", "Jamaica was among the earliest developing countries to craft a scientific law to guide the use of science and technology for the exploitation of domestic natural resources.", "It was one of the first countries in the western hemisphere to gain electricity, build a railway and to use research results to boost sugar cane production.", "In 1960, the Scientific Research Council (SRC) was established, with a mandate to \"collect, collate and review information concerning scientific research schemes or programmes relevant to the development of the resources of Jamaica (and) to establish and maintain a scientific information centre for collection and dissemination of scientific and technical information\"." ], [ "Science and technology policy", "Since the 1990s, the Jamaican government has set an agenda to push the development of science and technology in Jamaica.", "Acknowledging the pivotal role of ST&I in national development, the Government of Jamaica formulated a national science and technology policy.", "The Jamaican Science and Technology Policy (1990) has two missions: 1) to improve science, technology and engineering and 2) to leverage its use to enhance societal needs.", "The overall goal is to make Jamaica a significant player in the arena of information technology.In 2009, Jamaica launched Vision 2030, a national development plan that aims to put Jamaica in a position to achieve developed country status by 2030.National Outcome 11 is a \"Technology-Enabled Society\", to create a more prosperous economy.Efforts to develop its Science and Technology educative system, through institutions such as The University of Technology, has been successful but it has been difficult to translate the results into domestic technologies, products and services because of national budgetary constraints.", "Expenditure on research and development (R&D) amounted to just 0.06 per cent of GDP in 2002.For comparison, the world average was 2.044 per cent.", "In 2018, Jamaica spent just 0.7 per cent.", "For comparison, the world average was over 2.2 per cent.", "However, recent improvements in the country's fiscal position, has enabled the government to introduce various policies to boost research expenditure and to encourage innovation.", "In 2019, the Jamaican government indicated that it would provide funding for research and development as of financial year 2019–20, and that effective from September 2020, it will take research and development spending into account in the calculation of the country's gross domestic product.", "Concerning counting R&D as a share of GDP, Finance Minister Dr Nigel Clarke said the move will stimulate greater investment in the sector, which will, in turn, drive innovation.According to the International Property Rights Index, Jamaica has one of the stronger intellectual property (IP) protection regimes in Latin America and the Caribbean (ranked 4th in 2020).", "In January 2020, the Jamaican Parliament passed the Patents and Designs Act (the \"New Act\").", "The New Act will enable local industrial designers to secure international protection for their work in multiple jurisdictions by means of a single application, filed in one language, with one set of fees.", "A more efficient and streamlined patents application process will hope to foster innovation and development.", "The Hon.", "Pearnel Charles Jr, who piloted the legislation, stated \"It will allow us to raise our standards and to have international compliance in several aspects and safeguard the inventors in our country.", "Through this Bill, inventors will receive much more protection, and hence there will be greater promotion of creativity and efforts to find solutions to our challenges\".Jamaica has successfully operated a SLOWPOKE-2 nuclear reactor of 20 kW capacity since the early 1980s.", "It's the Caribbean's only nuclear reactor.", "In late 2020, Jamaica launched its Hazardous Substances Regulatory Authority (HSRA), becoming the first country in the English-speaking Caribbean to establish an independent regulatory body to ensure safety and security in the operation of facilities involving ionizing radiation and nuclear technology in the country, including the 20 kW SLOWPOKE research reactor.", "Minister of Industry, Investment and Commerce, Audley Shaw stated that Jamaica could now \"confidently forge ahead with engaging nuclear science and technology in all aspects of national development and wealth creation strategies\".Jamaica has a moderate ranking on the Global Innovation Index.", "It was ranked 78th in 2023.In 2021, it was ranked 9th among the 18 economies in Latin America and the Caribbean and 74th out of 132 countries overall.", "The report highlights E-participation and Government's online service as an area of weakness to greater innovation.", "Broadband penetration in Jamaica stood at 77.7'''%''' in March 2021.Via the National Broadband Initiative, the Jamaican government seeks to provide Internet connection to every household by 2025." ], [ "Scientific publications", "Caricom scientists have a modest output in terms of scientific research papers.", "UNESCO reports that between 2011 and 2019, output has fluctuated for most member states.", "Between 2017 and 2019, Caricom researchers continued to publish mostly in areas related to health sciences with Jamaica contributing over 20% of articles in this field.", "In terms of research density, Jamaica produced 114 publications per million inhabitants in 2019.Between 2014 and 2016, Jamaica ranked 4th in terms of average of relative citations (1.36).", "In terms of scientific co-authorship, between 2017 and 2019, Jamaica produced 379 publications in collaboration with the US, 118 with UK, 95 with Canada, 52 with France and 51 with Mexico." ], [ "Science activities", "Notable activities that are geared towards promoting science and innovation:The Coding in Schools Programme: Launched in 2021, the aim is promote the teaching and learning of coding in public educational institutions across Jamaica.STEM Ambassador Programme: Launched in early 2021, the programme allows industry experts to encourage STEM students to achieve academic and career goals through consistent mentorship and interactive support.The Science Resource Centre & Innovation Laboratory: Opened in 2018, the lab is focused on the nurturing and development of revenue-generating clean technology companies within the region.", "It's the first facility of its kind within the Caribbean.The Public Wi-Fi Hotspot Programme: Jamaica has thirteen Wi-Fi-hotspots (as of September 2021), providing free public access to Internet services.", "Seven new locations are planned by March 2022.Science and Technology Fairs." ], [ "Institutions", "There are several institutions involved in undertaking research:The Medical Association of Jamaica, whose origins date back to 1877, provides a wide range of services including medical education seminars and workshops.", "The Institute of Jamaica, founded in 1879 \"For the Encouragement of Literature, Science and Art in Jamaica\".", "The Jamaica Institution of Engineers, founded in the 1940s to promote and encourage the general advancement of engineering.", "The University of the West Indies, founded in 1948, has faculties of medical sciences and natural sciences.", "* The Geological Society of Jamaica, established in 1955, seeks to provide for the professional growth of earth scientists at all levels of expertise and from all sectorsThe University of Technology, founded as the Jamaica Institute of Technology in 1958.", " The Scientific Research Council, located in Kingston and founded in 1960, coordinates scientific research efforts in Jamaica.", "Sugar Industry Research Institute, founded in 1973, aims to research and develop methods to improve agriculture technology as it relates to sugar cane production.", "The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, founded in 1975, carries out research and development for agriculture in the Caribbean region." ], [ "Achievements", "Evan Dale AbelIn 2021, two Jamaican scientists won the prestigious International Network for Government Science Advice (INGSA) 2020 awards, making Jamaica the first country to take home prizes in the organisation's two award categories in any one year.Jamaica has produced many internationally awarded scientists.", "Examples include:* Henry Lowe, honoured by the United States Government for his contributions to the sciences, science education and exemplary public service.", "Lowe was presented with a proclamation from the United States House of Representatives.", "* Thomas Lecky''',''' made an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire for meritorious and devoted service to agriculture.", "* Patricia DeLeon, awarded the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Mentoring by Barack Obama.", "* Geoff Palmer, Knighted by Queen Elizabeth ll for his services to human rights, science and charity.", "Palmer also became the fourth person to be honoured with the American Society of Brewing Chemists Award of Distinction.", "* Evan Dale Abel''',''' named by ''Cell Press'' as one of the most inspirational Black scientists in the United States.", "* Cicely Delphine Williams, made a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, awarded the James Spence Gold Medal of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health for the discovery of Kwashiorkor.", "She was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Science from the University of Ghana, for her \"love, care and devotion to sick children\".", "* Manley West, received the Certificate of Merit from the Government of Canada.", "* Maydianne Andrade''',''' named one of the Brilliant 10 by ''Popular Science'' magazine.", "* Simone Anne Marie Badal-McCreath, awarded the Elsevier Foundation Award for Early Career Scientists in the Developing World for her creation of a lab at the Natural Products Institute to research the anti-cancer properties of natural Jamaican products.", "* Patricia Daley, announced as one of the United Kingdom's 100 most influential people of African or African Caribbean heritage, in recognition of her contribution to education.", "* Karen E. Nelson, received the Helmholtz International Fellow Award.", "Walt W. Braithwaite, the Walt E. Braithwaite Legacy Award is named in his honour.", "Bertram Fraser-Reid received numerous awards worldwide.", "These include the 1977 Merck, Sharp & Dohme Award from the Chemical Institute of Canada; the Claude S. Hudson Award in carbohydrate chemistry from the American Chemical Society in 1989; recognition as the Senior Distinguished U.S.", "Scientist by Germany’s Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in 1990; the Percy Julian Award from the National Organization of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers in 1991; North Carolina Chemist of the Year by the American Institute of Chemistry in 1995 and the Haworth Memorial Medal and Lectureship from the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1995." ], [ "Notable scientific and technological contributions", "The JaipurKneeChildren with Kwashiorkor=== Medicine ===* Discovery of the antibiotic Monamycin, by Kenneth E. Magnus in 1959.", "Discovery of the child malnutrition syndrome, kwashiorkor, by Cicely Williams.", "She was the first to recognise and conduct research on kwashiorkor and differentiate it from other dietary deficiencies.", "Williams also developed a treatment regime to combat the disease – this saved many lives.", "The pioneer of treatments for paediatric sickle cell anaemia, by Yvette Francis-McBarnette.", "She was the first to use prophylactic antibiotics in the treatment of children with sickle cell.", "* Canasol, a medicated eye-drop for the treatment of glaucoma, created by West and Lockhart.", "Canasol reduces late stage glaucoma fluid eye pressure and is still one of the most popular drugs for treating glaucoma.", "* The JaipurKnee, a budget-friendly prosthetic knee joint, co-created by Joel Sadler.", "The knee was listed at number 18 in ''Time Magazine's'' “50 Best Inventions of 2009”.", "The JaipurKnee is made of self-lubricating, oil-filled nylon and is both flexible and stable, even on irregular terrain.", "It was further developed by Stanford University in collaboration with the Jaipur Foot Group, a charity that provides prostheses to Indian amputees.", "The JaipurKnee has since been exported to many countries, impacting the lives of amputees around the world.", "The (Ramphal) Cardiac Surgery Simulator, invented by Dr Paul Ramphal and Dr Daniel Coore.", "The model is used in the training of many cardiothoracic surgery residents in the United StatesRashford's invention was used in the maintenance of the Hubble Space Telescope=== Space exploration ===Co-invention of the world's first portable 3D non-destructive evaluation (NDE) system, by Robert Rashford.", "The NDE system detects flaws in materials used to construct aircraft, spacecraft and industrial pipelines without having to take these materials apart.", "The system was used in the maintenance of the United States Government's Hubble Space Telescope.", "Invention of a protective enclosure for use transporting orbital replacement units (orus) within a space craft, by Robert Rashford.", "Robert Rashford also designed and developed unique spacecraft support systems for the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) Airborne Support Equipment (UASE) at the Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC).", "At General Electric, he designed and tested a variety of spacecraft for both commercial and military applications.", "At Bechtel Corporation, he designed a nuclear reactor support structure.", "He has designed numerous highly complex engineering systems that successfully flew on board NASA's Manned Space Flight Programs.Mercedes Richards was a pioneer in the field of interacting binary stars=== Astronomy and astrophysics ===* Mercedes Richards was a pioneer in the fields of computational astrophysics, stellar astrophysics, exoplanets and the physical dynamics of interacting binary star systems.", "* Richards was the first astronomer to make images of the gravitational flow of gas between the stars in any interacting binary.", "* She was the first to image the chromospheres and accretion disks in Algol binaries.", "* She was the first in astronomy to apply the technique of tomography.", "* She was the first astrophysicist to make theoretical hydrodynamic simulations of the Algol binary stars.", "* She was the first astronomer to discover starspots on the cool star in an Algol binary.", "* She was the first astrophysicist to apply novel distance correlation statistical methods to large astronomical databases.Braithwaite's common data format from Boeing was used as a basis for developing the IGES protocol.=== Aviation/computer science ===* Invention of the Lingo programming language used in Adobe Director, by John Henry Thompson.", "The language is used for animation, web design, graphics, sound and video games.", "Co-invention of methods and apparatus for managing mobile content, by John Henry Thompson.", " Walt W. Braithwaite helped transform the field of aerospace design.", "Prior to the 1970s, the aerospace industry developed new airplane models using manual drafting techniques.", "Braithwaite led the development of computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems for Boeing.", "Airplane models could now be designed and manufactured digitally.", "Braithwaite also played a critical part in developing the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES).", "As the lead engineer responsible for technical direction in developing an information network to integrate computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing, he led development of Boeing's common data format and translators.", "These were subsequently used as the basis for developing the IGES protocol.=== Chemistry === Development of the \"armed-disarmed\" principle in glycosylation chemistry, by Bertram Fraser-Reid.", "Construction of the largest ever synthetic hetero-oligosaccharide without the use of automated methods, by Bertram Fraser-Reid.", "Isolation of dibenzyl trisulphide (DTS) from the guinea hen weed and identification of anti-proliferation and/or cytotoxic activity on a wide range of cancer cell lines, by Williams and Levy.", "Identification of DTS derivatives (e.g.", "DTS-albumin complexes) for providing anti-proliferation and/or cytotoxic activity on a wide range of cancer cell lines, by Williams and Levy.", " Development of methods of isolating and/or providing DTS and/or its derivatives in an effective amount for providing an anti-proliferation and/or cytotoxic activity on cancer cell lines, by Williams and Levy.", "Isolation of chemical compounds from the ball moss plant and identification of anti-cancer activity, by Henry Lowe.", "Developed into Alpha Prostate, a supplement used in the management of prostate health.", "Isolation of eryngial from eryngium foetidum and Identification as an anti-threadworm agent, by Reese, Robinson and Forbes.=== Industrial processes ===* Invention of the Barley Abrasion Process, by Sir Geoff Palmer.", "A patented technique that speeds up the production of malt from grain and which is used by the British brewing industry.", "Sir Geoff Palmer was also the first person to utilise the scanning electron microscope to study malt production in detail.", "Development of a commercial process to extract quassinoids from Bitterwood, by Yee and Jacobs.The Ortanique=== Agricultural science ===* Creation of disease resistant papaya, by Dr Paula Tennant.", "She manipulated the genetic make-up of the ''local'' papaya and created a new bioengineered variety that was resistant to papaya ringspot Virus (PRSV).", "This variant was named ''Jamaica Solo Sunrise'' and helped fortify the papaya sector.", "Creation of new cattle breeds suited to tropical climates and terrain, by Thomas Lecky.", "He successfully created a new breed of dairy cattle –‘Jamaica Hope’ which is a combination of the British Jersey (a small, light-feeding cow), the Holstein (a heavy milk producer cow) and the Indian Sahiwal.", "The Jamaica Hope has a high heat tolerance, high resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases and can produce much milk, even in the poor pasture land typical of tropical climates.", "It is extensively exported to other countries in the Caribbean, as well as Latin America.", "Dr. Lecky followed his Jamaica Hope success with the creation of two other cattle breeds – Jamaica Red and Jamaica Black.", "Lecky's work impacted on the development of cattle in many tropical countries.", "Discovery of a new and distinct variety of the Zingiberaceae family, by Errol McGhie.", "This has been developed into a nutraceutical.", "Creation of the Ortanique, a citrus fruit hybrid of the mandarin orange and the tangerine.", "In 1939, Dr Phillips was recognised by the Jamaica Agricultural Society (JAS) as the creator.", "The fruit is exported to many countries including Panama, London, New Zealand and Australia.=== Mathematics === Creation of a mathematical cost capability trade-off model for ''HMS Queen Elizabeth,'' by Nira Chamberlain (who is predominately of Jamaican heritage).", "* Invention of a long multiplication method, used in some UK schools, by Nira Chamberlain.=== Technology ===* Patented Compact Design H2 Energy Storage and Generation system.", "* Patented magnetic gearbox system.=== Miscellaneous ===Discovery of previously unknown historical human migration patterns, by Neil Hanchard and his team.", "They also identified more than 3 million genetic variants that had not been previously observed which could contribute to making genetic tests more accurate for people with African ancestry.", "Co-development of a new type of polyhexahydrotriazine (PHT).", "For his contribution, Gavin Jones became the first Jamaican named among Foreign Policy magazine's FP Top 100 Global Thinkers.", "* The first comprehensive human microbiome study, by Karen Nelson and team.", "* Identified the link between adipose tissue glucose transporter (GLUT4) and insulin resistance, by Evan Dale Abel and Barbara Kahn." ], [ "See also", "* List of Jamaicans - Science and medicineList of Jamaican inventions and discoveries" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " National Commission on Science and Technology" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jan Mayen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jan Mayen''' () is a Norwegian volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean with no permanent population.", "It is long (southwest-northeast) and in area, partly covered by glaciers (an area of around the Beerenberg volcano).", "It has two parts: larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by a wide isthmus.", "It lies northeast of Iceland (495 km 305 mi NE of Kolbeinsey), east of central Greenland, and northwest of Vesterålen, Norway.", "The island is mountainous, the highest summit being the Beerenberg volcano in the north.", "The isthmus is the location of the two largest lakes of the island, Sørlaguna (South Lagoon) and Nordlaguna (North Lagoon).", "A third lake is called Ullerenglaguna (Ullereng Lagoon).", "Jan Mayen was formed by the Jan Mayen hotspot and is defined by geologists as a microcontinent.Although administered separately, in the ISO 3166-1 standard, Jan Mayen and Svalbard are collectively designated as ''Svalbard and Jan Mayen'', with the two-letter country code \"SJ\".Jan Mayen is home to Beerenberg, which is the northernmost active volcano in the world." ], [ "Natural resources", "Kármán vortex street created by Beerenberg volcano in the westerly winds.Jan Mayen Island has one exploitable natural resource, gravel, from a site located at Trongskaret.", "Other than this, economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norway's radio communications and meteorological stations located on the island.", "Jan Mayen has one unpaved airstrip, Jan Mayensfield, which is about long.", "The coast has no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorages.There are important fishing resources, and the existence of Jan Mayen establishes a large exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around it.", "Norway has asserted a EEZ around the island since 1980 encompassing more than a quarter of a million square kilometers.", "The Norwegian Coast Guard is responsible for conducting fishery and other maritime surveillance and enforcement in these waters.", "Norway has found large deposits of minerals along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between Jan Mayen and southern Svalbard/Bear Island, including copper, zinc, cobalt, gold and silver.", "The expeditions have also discovered high concentrations of lithium and rare earth metal scandium.", "In total, it is estimated that the amount of copper could amount to 21.7 million tonnes, but other estimates are around 7 million tonnes.", "License for deep sea mining is now under consideration.", "A dispute between Norway and Denmark regarding the fishing exclusion zone between Jan Mayen and Greenland was settled in 1988 granting Denmark the greater area of sovereignty.", "Geologists suspect significant deposits of petroleum and natural gas lie below Jan Mayen's surrounding seafloors." ], [ "Status", "The snow-covered Beerenberg volcano beyond the coastal hillsJan Mayen Island is an integral part of the Kingdom of Norway.", "Since 1995, Jan Mayen has been administered by the County Governor (''statsforvalter'') of the northern Norwegian county of Nordland, to which it is closest.", "However, some authority over Jan Mayen has been assigned to the station commander of the Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation, a branch of the Norwegian Armed Forces." ], [ "Society", "=== Demography ===Olonkinbyen in AugustThe only inhabitants on the island are personnel working for the Norwegian Armed Forces and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute.", "Eighteen people spend the winter on the island, but the population may roughly double (35) during the summer, when heavy maintenance is performed.", "Personnel serve either six months or one year and are exchanged twice a year in April and October.", "The support crew, including mechanics, cooks, and a nurse, are among the military personnel.", "The military personnel operated a Loran-C base until it closed at the end of 2015.Both the LORAN transmitter and the meteorological station are located a few kilometres away from the settlement Olonkinbyen (Olonkin Town), where all personnel live.===Transport===Transport to the island is provided by C-130 Hercules military transport planes operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force which land at Jan Mayensfield's gravel runway.", "The planes fly in from Bodø Main Air Station eight times a year.", "Since the airport does not have any instrument landing capabilities, good visibility is required, and it is not uncommon for the planes to have to return to Bodø, two hours away, without landing.", "For heavy goods, freight ships visit during the summer, but since there are no harbours, the ships must anchor.", "Tourists arrive with cruise ships which are allowed to bring passengers onshore if weather permits.===Communication===The island has no indigenous population but is assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ (together with Svalbard).", "It uses the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) .no (.sj is allocated but not used) and data code JN.", "Jan Mayen has telephone and internet connection over satellite, using Norwegian telephone numbers (country code 47).", "Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX.", "It has a postal code, NO-8099 JAN MAYEN, but delivery time varies, especially during the winter.=== Business ===There are no exploitable resources on Jan Mayen, except fish in the surrounding waters of the Island and gravel.", "The economic activity is limited to the operation of the station that is staffed by the Norwegian '''Cyberdefence''' and the '''Meteorological Agency of Norway'''.", "There has also been established a reference station for EGNOS.", "There is also a reference station for the satellite navigation system Galileo on Jan Mayen.", "There was also an earlier Jan Mayen LORAN-C Transmitter, but the transmitter is now decommissioned and demolished.=== Jan Mayen Radio ===Jan Mayen Radio was a Norwegian coastal radio station on Jan Mayen.", "The first radiostation was built in 1921 on a part of the island called \"Eldsmetten - Norwegian\" on the eastern side of the Island.", "The radiostation consisted of a 3 kW Telefunken spark-gap transmitter and a wooden radiomast.", "The station was destroyed by Norwegian forces in September 1940, and the crew was sent to Iceland.In 1941 a new radiostation was constructed on the western side of the island, it was moved to a plateau above.", "In 1962 this station was again moved to \"Helenesanden - Norwegian\" about north from the Norwegian army's LORAN-station.In 1984 the station was moved to the Norwegian army's station.", "In 1989 there was an VHF-receiver installed, and later in October 1994 the local control of the radio station was terminated.", "Before the local control was terminated a MF-Digital-Selcall-receiver was installed and controlled remotely from Bodø-Radio.", "The station is still (Jan 2024) controlled remotely via satellite, but can be taken in local control by a disconnection against Eik Satellite Earth Station in Rogaland Norway." ], [ "History", "Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s), Dutch navigators were the first non-natives to undisputedly explore and map many largely unknown isolated areas of the world, including Jan Mayen and the Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean.===Unverified \"discoveries\" of a ''terra nullius''===A beach on Jan MayenBetween the fifth and ninth centuries (400–900 AD), numerous communities of monks originating in Ireland (Papar) navigated throughout the north Atlantic in leather boats, exploring and sometimes settling in distant islands where their monastic communities could be separated from close contact with others.", "Strong indicators exist of their presence in the Faroe Islands and Iceland before the arrival of the Vikings, and medieval Gaelic chronicles such as the famous ''Voyage of Saint Brendan the Abbot'' testify to the extensive interest in exploration at the time.", "A modern-day trans-Atlantic journey proved the ability of the early navigators to reach all lands of the north Atlantic even further from Ireland than Jan Mayen – and, given favourable winds, at a speed roughly equal to that of modern yachts.", "Though quite feasible, there is nevertheless no direct physical trace of medieval landings or settlement on Jan Mayen.The land named ''Svalbarð'' (\"cold coast\") by the Vikings in the early medieval book Landnámabók may have been Jan Mayen (instead of Spitsbergen, renamed Svalbard by the Norwegians in modern times); the distance from Iceland to ''Svalbarð'' mentioned in this book is two days' sailing (with favorable winds), consistent with the approximate to Jan Mayen and not with the minimum to Spitsbergen.", "However much Jan Mayen may have been known in Europe at that time, it was subsequently forgotten for some centuries.In the 17th century, many claims of the island's rediscovery were made, spurred by the rivalry on the Arctic whaling grounds, and the island received many names.", "According to Thomas Edge, an early 17th-century whaling captain who was often inaccurate, \"William Hudson\" discovered the island in 1608 and named it \"Hudson's Touches\" (or \"Tutches\").", "However, the well-known explorer Henry Hudson could only have come by on his voyage in 1607 (if he had made an illogical detour) and he made no mention of it in his journal.According to William Scoresby (1820: p. 154), referring to the mistaken belief that the Dutch had discovered the island in 1611, Hull whalers discovered the island \"about the same time\" and named it \"Trinity Island\".", "Muller (1874: pp.", "190–191) took this to mean they had come upon Jan Mayen in 1611 or 1612, which was repeated by many subsequent authors.", "There were, in fact, no Hull whalers in either of these years, the first Hull whaling expedition having been sent to the island only in 1616 (see below).", "As with the previous claim made by Edge, there is no cartographical or written proof for this supposed discovery.===During the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s)=======First verified discoveries: mapping and naming====Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography.The first verified discoveries of Jan Mayen, by three separate expeditions, occurred in the summer of 1614, probably within one month of each other.", "The Dutchman Fopp Gerritsz, whilst in command of a whaling expedition sent out by the Englishman John Clarke, of Dunkirk, claimed (in 1631) to have discovered the island on 28 June and named it \"Isabella\".", "In January the ''Noordsche Compagnie'' (Northern Company), modelled on the Dutch East India Company, had been established to support Dutch whaling in the Arctic.", "Two of its ships, financed by merchants from Amsterdam and Enkhuizen, reached Jan Mayen in July 1614.The captains of these ships—Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout (after whom the island was ultimately named) on the ''Gouden Cath'' (Golden Cat), and Jacob de Gouwenaer on the ''Orangienboom'' (Orange Tree)—named it ''Mr.", "Joris Eylant'' after the Dutch cartographer Joris Carolus who was on board and mapped the island.", "The captains acknowledged that a third Dutch ship, the ''Cleyn Swaentgen'' (Little Swan) captained by Jan Jansz Kerckhoff and financed by ''Noordsche Compagnie'' shareholders from Delft, had already been at the island when they arrived.", "They had assumed the latter, who named the island ''Maurits Eylandt'' (or Mauritius) after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, would report their discovery to the States General.", "However, the Delft merchants had decided to keep the discovery secret and returned in 1615 to hunt for their own profit.", "The ensuing dispute was only settled in 1617, though both companies were allowed to whale at Jan Mayen in the meantime.In 1615, the English whaler Robert Fotherby went ashore.", "Apparently thinking he had made a new discovery, he named the island \"Sir Thomas Smith's Island\" and the volcano \"Mount Hakluyt\".", "On a map of c. 1634, Jean Vrolicq renamed the island ''Île de Richelieu''.Jan Mayen first appeared on Willem Jansz Blaeu's 1620 edition map of Europe, originally published by Cornelis Doedz in 1606.Blaeu, who lived in Amsterdam, named it \"Jan Mayen\" after captain Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout of the Amsterdam-financed ''Gouden Cath''.", "Blaeu made the first detailed map of the island in his famous \"Zeespiegel\" atlas of 1623, establishing its current name.====Dutch whaling base====Road along the west coast, about off the station.\"HOLLENDERHAUGEN.", "HER HVILER TAPRE HOLLANDSKE MENN.\"", "Old cross on the grave of seven Dutchmen, reading \"The Dutch men's hill.", "Here rest brave Dutch men\".From 1615 to 1638, Jan Mayen was used as a whaling base by the Dutch ''Noordsche Compagnie'', which had been given a monopoly on whaling in the Arctic regions by the States General in 1614.Only two ships, one from the ''Noordsche Compagnie'', and the other from the Delft merchants, were off Jan Mayen in 1615.The following year a score of vessels were sent to the island.", "The ''Noordsche Compagnie'' sent eight ships escorted by three warships under Jan Jacobsz.", "Schrobop; while the Delft merchants sent up five ships under Adriaen Dircksz.", "Leversteyn, son of one of the above merchants.", "There were also two ships from Dunkirk sent by John Clarke, as well as a ship each from London and Hull.Heertje Jansz, master of the ''Hope'', of Enkhuizen, wrote a day-by-day account of the season.", "The ships took two weeks to reach Jan Mayen, arriving early in June.", "On 15 June they met the two English ships, which Schrobop allowed to remain, on condition they gave half their catch to the Dutch.", "The ships from Dunkirk were given the same conditions.", "By late July the first ship had left with a full cargo of whale oil; the rest left early in August, several filled with oil.That year 200 men were seasonally living and working on the island at six temporary whaling stations (spread along the northwest coast).", "During the first decade of whaling, more than ten ships visited Jan Mayen each year, while in the second period (1624 and later) five to ten ships were sent.", "With the exception of a few ships from Dunkirk, which came to the island in 1617 and were either driven away or forced to give a third of their catch to the Dutch, only the Dutch and merchants from Hull sent up ships to Jan Mayen from 1616 onward.", "In 1624 ten wooden houses were built in South Bay.", "About this time the Dutch appear to have abandoned the temporary stations consisting of tents of sail and crude furnaces, replacing them with two semi-permanent stations with wooden storehouses and dwellings and large brick furnaces, one in the above-mentioned South Bay and the other in the North Bay.", "In 1628 two forts were built to protect the stations.", "Among the sailors active at Jan Mayen was the later admiral Michiel Adriaensz de Ruyter.", "In 1633, at the age of 26, he was for the first time listed as an officer aboard ''de Groene Leeuw'' (The Green Lion).", "He again went to Jan Mayen in 1635, aboard the same ship.In 1632 the ''Noordsche Compagnie'' expelled the Danish-employed Basque whalers from Spitsbergen.", "In revenge, the latter sailed to Jan Mayen, where the Dutch had left for the winter, to plunder the Dutch equipment and burn down the settlements and factories.", "Captain Outger Jacobsz of Grootebroek was asked to stay the next winter (1633/34) on Jan Mayen with six shipmates to defend the island.", "While a group with the same task survived the winter on Spitsbergen, all seven on Jan Mayen died of scurvy or trichinosis (from eating raw polar bear meat) combined with the harsh conditions.During the first phase of whaling the hauls were generally good, some exceptional.", "For example, Mathijs Jansz.", "Hoepstock caught 44 whales in Hoepstockbukta in 1619, which produced 2,300 casks of whale oil.", "During the second phase the hauls were much lower.", "While 1631 turned out to be a very good season, the following year, due to the weather and ice, only eight whales were caught.", "In 1633 eleven ships managed to catch just 47 whales; while a meager 42 were caught by the same number in 1635.The bowhead whale was locally hunted to near-extinction around 1640 (approximately 1000 had been killed and processed on the island), at which time Jan Mayen was abandoned and stayed uninhabited for two and a half centuries.===19th and 20th century expeditions===Map of settlements on Jan MayenTraditional signpost with directions to civilization on Jan Mayen stationDuring the International Polar Year 1882–1883 the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition stayed one year at Jan Mayen.", "The expedition performed extensive mapping of the area, their maps being of such quality that they were used until the 1950s.", "The Austrian polar station on Jan Mayen Island was built and equipped in 1882 fully at Count Wilczek's own expense.Polar bears appear on Jan Mayen, although in diminished numbers compared with earlier times.", "Between 1900 and 1920, there were a number of Norwegian trappers spending winters on Jan Mayen, hunting Arctic foxes in addition to some polar bears.", "But the exploitation soon made the profits decline, and the hunting ended.", "Polar bears in this region of the Arctic are genetically distinguishable from those living elsewhere.The League of Nations gave Norway jurisdiction over the island, and in 1921 Norway opened the first meteorological station.", "The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the middle part of the island for Norway in 1922 and the whole island in 1926 when Hallvard Devold was head of the weather observations base on the island.", "On 27 February 1930, the island was made ''de jure'' a part of the Kingdom of Norway.===Second World War===During World War II, continental Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany in spring 1940.The four-man team on Jan Mayen stayed at their posts and in an act of defiance began sending their weather reports to the United Kingdom instead of Norway.", "The British codenamed Jan Mayen 'Island X' and attempted to reinforce it with troops to counteract any German attack.", "The Norwegian patrol boat ran aground on Nansenflua, one of the islands' many uncharted lava reefs, and the 68-man crew abandoned ship and joined the Norwegian team on shore.", "The British expedition commander, prompted by the loss of the gunboat, decided to abandon Jan Mayen until the following spring and radioed for a rescue ship.", "Within a few days a ship arrived and evacuated the four Norwegians and their would-be reinforcements, after demolishing the weather station to prevent it from falling into German hands.", "The Germans attempted to land a weather team on the island on 16 November 1940; the German naval trawler carrying the team crashed on the rocks just off Jan Mayen after a patrolling British destroyer had picked them up on radar.", "The detection was not by chance, as the German plan had been compromised from the beginning with British wireless interceptors of the Radio Security Service following the communications of the Abwehr (the German Intelligence service) concerning the operation, and the destroyer had been waiting.", "Most of the crew struggled ashore and were taken prisoner by a landing party from the destroyer.The Allies returned to the island on 10 March 1941, when the Norwegian ship ''Veslekari'', escorted by the patrol boat ''Honningsvaag'', dropped 12 Norwegian weathermen on the island.", "The team's radio transmissions soon betrayed its presence to the Axis, and German planes from Norway began to bomb and strafe Jan Mayen whenever weather permitted, but did little damage.", "Soon supplies and reinforcements arrived, and even some anti-aircraft guns, giving the island a garrison of a few dozen weathermen and soldiers.", "By 1941, Germany had given up hope of evicting the Allies from the island and the constant air raids stopped.On 7 August 1942, a German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 \"Condor\", probably on a mission to bomb the station, crashed into the nearby mountainside of Danielssenkrateret in fog, killing its crew of nine, and at an unknown date another German plane with four crew members crashed on the southwest side of the island, this crash only becoming public knowledge when the crash site was discovered in 1950.In 1943, the Americans established a radio locating station named Atlantic City in the north to try to locate German radio bases in Greenland.===Cold War===After the war, the meteorological station was located at Atlantic City, but moved in 1949 to a new location.", "Radio Jan Mayen also served as an important radio station for ship traffic in the Arctic Ocean.", "In 1959 NATO started building the LORAN-C network in sites on the Atlantic Ocean; one of the transmitters was to be on Jan Mayen.", "By 1961 the new military installations, including a new airfield, were operational.For some time scientists doubted that the Beerenberg volcano would become active, but in 1970 it erupted for about three weeks, adding another of land mass to the island.", "It also erupted in 1973 and 1985.During an eruption, the sea temperature around the island may increase from just above freezing to about .Historic stations and huts on the island are Hoyberg, Vera, Olsbu, Puppebu (cabin), Gamlemetten or Gamlestasjonen (the old weather station), Jan Mayen Radio, Helenehytta, Margarethhytta, and Ulla (a cabin at the foot of the Beerenberg)." ], [ "Environment", "===Nature reserve===A regulation dating from 2010 renders the island a nature reserve under Norwegian jurisdiction.", "The aim of this regulation is to ensure the preservation of a pristine Arctic island and the marine life nearby, including the ocean floor.", "Landings at Jan Mayen can be done by boat.", "However, this is permitted only at a small part of the island, named Båtvika (Boat Bay).", "As there is no commercial airline operating at the island, one cannot get there by plane except by chartering one.", "Permission for landings by a charter plane has to be obtained in advance.", "Permission to stay on the island has to be obtained in advance, and is generally limited to a few days (or even hours).", "Putting up a tent or setting up camp is prohibited.", "There is a separate regulation for the stay of foreigners.===Geography and geology===Soviet topographic mapJan Mayen consists of two geographically distinct parts.", "Nord-Jan has a round shape and is dominated by the high Beerenberg volcano with its large ice cap (), which can be divided into twenty individual outlet glaciers.", "The largest of those is Sørbreen, with an area of and a length of .", "South-Jan is narrow, comparatively flat and unglaciated.", "Its highest elevation is Rudolftoppen at .", "The station and living quarters are located on South-Jan.", "The island lies at the northern end of the Jan Mayen Microcontinent.", "The microcontinent was originally part of the Greenland Plate, but now forms part of the Eurasian Plate.===Important Bird Area===The island was identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for large numbers of seabirds, supporting populations of northern fulmars (78,000–160,000 pairs), little auks (10,000–100,000 pairs), thick-billed guillemot (74,000–147,000 pairs) and black guillemots (100–1,000 pairs).===Climate===Jan Mayen has an oceanic polar climate with a Köppen classification of ''ET'', sometimes reckoned as ''EM'' (maritime polar).", "Jan Mayen is situated in between the cold East Greenland Current to the west and the warm Gulf Stream to the east of the island, and is the only landmass in the northern hemisphere where warm and cold ocean currents meet.", "The surrounding seas makes seasonal temperature variations very small considering the latitude of the island, with ranges from around in August to in March, but also makes the island extremely cloudy with little sunshine even during the continuous polar day.", "The deep snow cover prevents any permafrost from developing.", "As a result of warming, the 1991-2020 temperature normal shows a mean annual temperature warmer than during 1961-1990, pushing the annual temperature above freezing." ], [ "In popular culture", "Jan Mayen is featured as an easter egg in several grand strategy video games published by Paradox Interactive, such as ''Europa Universalis IV''.", "In ''Europa Universalis IV'', typing \"bearhaslanded\" into the command console will spawn Jan Mayen as a country in a random location.", "Players can also specify where Jan Mayen will spawn by including a province ID in the command.The island is mentioned by the captain of K-19 The Widowmaker just before the ship's nuclear reactor malfunctions.", "The captain is concerned that the reactor will explode and cause a nuclear explosion in the vicinity of the NATO base on the island triggering a nuclear war." ], [ "See also", "* List of islands of Norway* List of islands of Norway by area* Svalbard* Svalbard and Jan Mayen" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* Ledgard, J. M. (2011).", "''Submergence''.", "Coffee House Press.", "* Umbreit, Andreas (2005).", "''Spitsbergen: Svalbard – Franz Josef Land – Jan Mayen'', 3rd ed.", "Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides.", "." ], [ "External links", "* \"Jan Mayen\".", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* * www.jan-mayen.no * Jan.Mayen.no* Jan Mayen year round webcam * Jan Mayen at Norwegian Polar Institute* TopoJanMayen – Interactive map of Jan Mayen by the Norwegian Polar Institute* Photographs and information on Jan Mayen* Satellite Radar image of Jan Mayen* Glaciers of Jan Mayen* www.janmayen2011.org - a site about JX5O - international ham radio expedition to Jan Mayen island in 2011* * Weather forecasts for Jan Mayen at yr.no (Norwegian Meteorological institute and NRK)* USCG ''Spar'' 403 1966" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jarvis Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jarvis Island''' (; formerly known as '''Bunker Island''' or '''Bunker's Shoal''') is an uninhabited coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean, about halfway between Hawaii and the Cook Islands.", "It is an unincorporated, unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system.", "Unlike most coral atolls, the lagoon on Jarvis is wholly dry.Jarvis is one of the Line Islands and for statistical purposes is also grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands.", "Jarvis Island is the largest of three U.S. equatorial possessions, which include Baker Island and Howland Island.It was claimed by the US in the 19th century and mined for guano, in the 20th century it was the subject of a small settlement.", "It was attacked during WW2 and evacuated, leaving some buildings and a day beacon.", "In modern times it is managed as a nature reserve." ], [ "Geography and ecology", "Orthographic projection over Jarvis IslandWhile a few offshore anchorage spots are marked on maps, Jarvis island has no ports or harbors, and swift currents are a hazard.", "There is a boat landing area in the middle of the western shoreline near a crumbling day beacon, and another near the southwest corner of the island.", "The center of Jarvis island is a dried lagoon where deep guano deposits accumulated, which were mined for about 20 years during the nineteenth century.", "The island has a tropical desert climate, with high daytime temperatures, constant wind, and strong sun.", "Nights, however, are quite cool.", "The ground is mostly sandy and reaches at its highest point.", "The low-lying coral island has long been noted as hard to sight from small ships and is surrounded by a narrow fringing reef.Jarvis Island is one of two United States territories that are in the southern hemisphere (the other is American Samoa).", "Located only south of the equator, Jarvis has no known natural freshwater lens and scant rainfall.", "This creates a very bleak, flat landscape without any plants larger than shrubs.", "There is no evidence that the island has ever supported a self-sustaining human population.", "Its sparse bunch grass, prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs are primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife.Jarvis Island was submerged underwater during the latest interglacial period, roughly 125,000 years ago, when sea levels were higher than today.", "As the sea level declined, the horseshoe-shaped lagoon was formed in the center of Jarvis Island.=== Topographic isolation ===Jarvis Island's highest point has a topographic isolation of , with Joe's Hill on Kiritimati being the nearest higher neighbor.=== Time zone ===Jarvis Island is located in the Samoa Time Zone (UTC -11:00), the same time zone as American Samoa, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, and Palmyra Atoll.===Birds===Jarvis Island once held some of the largest seabird breeding colonies in the tropical ocean, but guano mining and the introduction of rodents have ruined much of the island's native wildlife.", "Just eight breeding species were recorded in 1982, compared to thirteen in 1996, and fourteen species in 2004.The Polynesian storm petrel had made its return after over 40 years absence from Jarvis Island, and the number of Brown noddies multiplied from just a few birds in 1982 to nearly 10,000.Just twelve Gray-backed terns were recorded in 1982, but by 2004, over 200 nests were found on there.", "The island, with its surrounding marine waters, has been recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports colonies of lesser frigatebirds, brown and masked boobies, red-tailed tropicbirds, Polynesian storm petrels, blue noddies and sooty terns, as well as serving as a migratory stopover for bristle-thighed curlews." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Jarvis Island is unlikely to have hosted permanent human occupation prior to its use for guano mining.", "However, it is possible the island was utilized as a waypoint or stopover island by Polynesian voyagers.", "The remoteness of the island and a lack of freshwater resources have prevented large scale archaeological survey from taking place.Remains of a guano tramway on Jarvis Island, looking west with 125-year-old heaps of mined but never-shipped guano in the background near the day beacon===Discovery===The island's first known sighting by the British on August 21, 1821, by the British ship ''Eliza Francis'' (or ''Eliza Frances'') owned by Edward, Thomas and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown.", "The island was visited by whaling vessels until the 1870s.The U.S.", "Exploring Expedition surveyed the island in 1841.In March 1857 the island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on February 27, 1858.===Nineteenth-century guano mining===The American Guano Company, which was incorporated in 1857, established claims in respect of Baker Island and Jarvis Island which was recognized under the U.S.", "Guano Islands Act of 1856.Beginning in 1858, several support structures were built on Jarvis Island, along with a two-story, eight-room \"superintendent's house\" featuring an observation cupola and wide verandahs.", "Tram tracks were laid down for bringing mined guano to the western shore.", "One of the first loads was taken by Samuel Gardner Wilder.Laborers for the mining operations came from around the Pacific, including from Hawaii; the Hawaiian laborers named Baker Island \"\", meaning 'out of breath' or 'exhausted', which is indicative of the hard work needed.For the following 21 years, Jarvis was commercially mined for guano, sent to the United States as fertilizer, but the island was abruptly abandoned in 1879, leaving behind about a dozen buildings and of mined guano.News story of Squire Flockton's death on Jarvis.", "The name ''Juror's Island'' in the article is a typographical error for Jarvis Island.New Zealand entrepreneurs, including photographer Henry Winkelmann, then made unsuccessful attempts to continue guano extraction on Jarvis, and the two-story house was sporadically inhabited during the early 1880s.", "Squire Flockton was left alone on the island as caretaker for several months and committed suicide there in 1883, apparently from gin-fueled despair.", "His wooden grave marker was a carved plank which could be seen in the island's tiny four-grave cemetery for decades.John T. Arundel & Co. resumed mining guano from 1886 to 1899.The United Kingdom annexed the island on June 3, 1889.Phosphate and copra entrepreneur John T. Arundel visited the island in 1909 on maiden voyage of the ''S.S.", "Ocean Queen'' and near the beach landing on the western shore members of the crew built a pyramidal day beacon made from slats of wood, which was painted white.", "The beacon was standing in 1935, and remained until at least 1942.===Wreck of barquentine ''Amaranth''===The ''Amaranth'' before it was wreckedOn August 30, 1913, the barquentine ''Amaranth'' (C. W. Nielson, captain) was carrying a cargo of coal from Newcastle, New South Wales, to San Francisco when it wrecked on Jarvis' southern shore.", "Ruins of ten wooden guano-mining buildings, the two-story house among them, could still be seen by the ''Amaranth'' crew, who left Jarvis aboard two lifeboats.", "One reached Pago Pago, American Samoa, and the other made Apia in Samoa.", "The ship's scattered remains were noted and scavenged for many years, and rounded fragments of coal from the ''Amaranth'''s hold were still being found on the south beach in the late 1930s.===Millersville (1935–1942)===Four residents wave goodbye.Jarvis Island was reclaimed by the United States government and colonized from March 26, 1935, onwards, under the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project.", "President Franklin D. Roosevelt assigned administration of the island to the U.S. Department of the Interior on May 13, 1936.Starting out as a cluster of large, open tents pitched next to the still-standing white wooden day beacon, the Millersville settlement on the island's western shore was named after a bureaucrat with the United States Department of Air Commerce.", "The settlement grew into a group of shacks built mostly with wreckage from the ''Amaranth'' (lumber from which was also used by the young Hawaiian colonists to build surfboards), but later, stone and wood dwellings were built and equipped with refrigeration, radio equipment, and a weather station.", "A crude aircraft landing area was cleared on the northeast side of the island, and a T-shaped marker which was intended to be seen from the air was made from gathered stones, but no airplane is known to have ever landed there.", "According to the 1940 U.S. Census, Jarvis Island had a population of three people.At the beginning of World War II, an Imperial Japanese Navy submarine surfaced off the west coast of the island.", "Believing that it was a U.S. Navy submarine which had come to fetch them, the four young colonists rushed down the steep western beach in front of Millersville towards the shore.", "The submarine answered their waves with fire from its deck gun, but no one was hurt in the attack.", "On February 7, 1942, the USCGC ''Taney'' evacuated the colonists, then shelled and burned the dwellings.", "The roughly cleared landing area on the island's northeast end was later shelled by the Japanese, leaving crater holes.Map of the central Pacific Ocean showing Jarvis and neighboring islands.===International Geophysical Year===Jarvis was visited by scientists during the International Geophysical Year from July 1957 until November 1958.In January 1958 all scattered building ruins from both the nineteenth century guano diggings and the 1935–1942 colonization attempt were swept away without a trace by a severe storm which lasted several days and was witnessed by the scientists.", "When the IGY research project ended the island was abandoned again.", "By the early 1960s a few sheds, a century of accumulated trash, the scientists' house from the late 1950s and a solid, short lighthouse-like day beacon built two decades before were the only signs of human habitation on Jarvis." ], [ "National Wildlife Refuge", "Coral at Jarvis Island National Wildlife RefugeOn June 27, 1974, Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton created Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge which was expanded in 2009 to add submerged lands within of the island.", "The refuge now includes of land and of water.", "Along with six other islands, the island was administered by the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex.", "In January 2009, that entity was upgraded to the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush.A feral cat population, descendants of cats likely brought by colonists in the 1930s, wrought disruption to the island's wildlife and vegetation.", "These cats were removed through efforts which began in the mid-1960s and lasted until 1990 when they were completely eradicated.", "Since cats were removed, seabird numbers and diversity have increased.Nineteenth-century tram track remains can be seen in the dried lagoon bed at the island's center and the late 1930s-era lighthouse-shaped day beacon still stands on the western shore at the site of Millersville.Public entry to anyone, including U.S. citizens, on Jarvis Island requires a special-use permit and is generally restricted to scientists and educators.", "The U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service and the United States Coast Guard periodically visit Jarvis." ], [ "Transportation", "There is no airport on the island, nor does the island contain any large terminal or port.", "There is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast which is poor condition and no longer painted.", "Some offshore anchorage is available." ], [ "Military", "As a U.S. territory, the defense of Jarvis Island is the responsibility of the United States.", "All laws of the United States are applicable on the island." ], [ "See also", "* Howland and Baker islands* List of Guano Island claims* ''Under a Jarvis Moon'', an 88-minute 2010 documentary" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jarvis Island Home Page Website with photos, weather, and more.", "* Jarvis Island information website Has several photos of the old Millersville settlement, together with more modern photos of the island.", "* WorldStatesmen Offers brief data on Jarvis island.", "* U.S.", "Fish & Wildlife Service Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge The Jarvis Island refuge site." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jersey''' ( ; ), officially known as the '''Bailiwick of Jersey''', is an island country and self-governing British Crown Dependency near the coast of north-west France.", "It is the largest of the Channel Islands and is from the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy.", "The Bailiwick consists of the main island of Jersey and some surrounding uninhabited islands and rocks including Les Dirouilles, Les Écréhous, Les Minquiers, and Les Pierres de Lecq.Jersey was part of the Duchy of Normandy, whose dukes became kings of England from 1066.After Normandy was lost by the kings of England in the 13th century, and the ducal title surrendered to France, Jersey remained loyal to the English Crown, though it never became part of the Kingdom of England.", "Between then and the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Jersey was at the frontline of Anglo-French wars and was invaded a number of times, leading to the construction of fortifications such as Mont Orgueil Castle and a thriving smuggling industry.", "During the Second World War, the island was invaded and occupied for five years by Nazi Germany.", "The island was liberated on 9 May 1945, which is now celebrated as the island's national day.Jersey is a self-governing parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy, with its own financial, legal and judicial systems, and the power of self-determination.", "Jersey's constitutional relationship is with the Crown; it is not part of the United Kingdom.", "The bailiff is the civil head, president of the states and head of the judiciary; the lieutenant governor represents the head of state, the British monarch; and the chief minister is the head of government.", "Jersey's defence and international representation – as well as certain policy areas, such as nationality law – are the responsibility of the UK government, but Jersey still has a separate international identity.The island has a large financial services industry, which generates 40% of its GVA.", "British cultural influence on the island is evident in its use of English as the main language and pound sterling as its primary currency.", "Additional British cultural similarities include: driving on the left, access to British television and newspapers, a school curriculum following that of England, and the popularity of British sports, including cricket.", "The island also has a strong Norman-French culture, such as its historic dialect of the Norman language, Jèrriais, being one of only two places in Normandy with government status for the language (the other being Guernsey), as well as the use of standard French in legal matters and officially in use as a government language, strong cultural ties to mainland Normandy as a part of the Normandy region, and place names with French or Norman origins.", "The island has very close cultural links with its neighbouring islands in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, and they share a good-natured rivalry.", "Jersey and its people have been described as a nation." ], [ "Name", "The Channel Islands are mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary as the following: ''Sarnia'', ''Caesarea'', ''Barsa'', ''Silia'' and ''Andium'', but Jersey cannot be identified specifically because none corresponds directly to the present names.", "The name has been used as the Latin name for Jersey (also in its French version ) since William Camden's ''Britannia'', and is used in titles of associations and institutions today.", "The Latin name was also applied to the colony of New Jersey as .", "''Andium'', ''Agna'' and ''Augia'' were used in antiquity.Scholars variously surmise that ''Jersey'' and ''Jèrri'' derive from (Old Norse for 'earth') or ('earl'), or perhaps the Norse personal name (thus , 'Geirr's Island').", "The ending denotes an island (as in Guernsey or Surtsey)." ], [ "History", "An 1893 painting of the ''Assize d'Heritage'' by John St Helier LanderHumans have lived on the island since at least 12000 BCE, with evidence of habitation in the Palaeolithic period (La Cotte de St Brelade) and Neolithic dolmens, such as La Hougue Bie.", "Evidence of Bronze Age and early Iron Age settlements can be found in many locations around the island.Archaeological evidence of Roman influence has been found, in particular at Les Landes.", "Christianity was brought to the island by migrants from Brittany in c. fifth - sixth century CE.", "In the sixth century, the island's patron saint Helier lived at the Hermitage on L'Islet (now Elizabeth Castle).", "Legend states that Helier was beheaded by raiders and subsequently lifted his head and walked to shore.In the ninth century the island was raided by Vikings and in 933 it was annexed to Normandy by William Longsword.", "When Duke William the Conqueror became King of England in 1066, the island remained part of the Norman possessions.", "However, in 1204, when Normandy was returned to the French king, the island remained a possession of the English crown, though never incorporated into England.Traditionally it is said that Jersey's self-governance originates from the ''Constitutions of King John'', however this is disputed.", "Nevertheless, the island continued to follow Norman customs and laws.", "The King also appointed a Bailiff and a Warden (now Lieutenant-Governor).", "The period of English rule was marked by wars between England and France, as such a military fortress was built at Mont Orgueil.During the Tudor period, the split between the Church of England and the Vatican led to islanders adopting the Protestant religion.", "During the reign of Elizabeth, French refugees brought strict Calvinism to the island, which remained the common religion until 1617.In the late 16th century, islanders travelled across the North Atlantic to participate in the Newfoundland fisheries.", "In recognition for help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, King Charles II of England gave Vice Admiral Sir George Carteret, bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies in between the Hudson and Delaware rivers, which he promptly named New Jersey.", "It is now a state in the United States.Liberation Day celebrations in Jersey, 9 May 2012In 1769, the island suffered food supply shortages, leading to an insurrection on 28 September known as the Corn Riots.", "The States met at Elizabeth Castle and decided to request help from the King.", "However, in 1771 the Crown demanded reforms to the island's governance, leading to the Code of 1771 and removed the powers of the Royal Court to make laws without the States.", "In 1781, during the American Wars of Independence, the island was invaded by a French force which captured St Helier, but was defeated by Major Peirson's army at the Battle of Jersey.The 19th century saw the improvement of the road network under General Don, the construction of two railway lines, the improvement of transport links to England, and the construction of new piers and harbours in St Helier.", "This grew a tourism industry in the island and led to the immigration of thousands of English residents, leading to a cultural shift towards a more anglicised island culture.", "Island politics was divisively split between the conservative Laurel party and the progressive Rose party, as the lie of power shifted increasingly to the States from the Crown.", "In the 1850s, the French author Victor Hugo lived in Jersey, but was expelled for insulting the Queen, so he moved on to Guernsey.During the Second World War, 6,500 Jersey residents were evacuated by their own choice to the UK out of a total population of 50,000.Jersey was occupied by Germany from 1 July 1940 until 9 May 1945, when Germany surrendered.", "During this time the Germans constructed many fortifications using slave labour imported onto the island from many different countries occupied or at war with Germany.", "After 1944, supplies from France were interrupted by the D-Day landings, and food on the island became scarce.", "The SS ''Vega'' was sent to the island carrying Red Cross supplies and news of the success of the Allied advance in Europe.", "During the Nazi occupation, a resistance cell was created by communist activist Norman Le Brocq and the Jersey Communist Party, whose communist ideology of forming a 'United Front' led to the creation of the Jersey Democratic Movement.", "The Channel Islands had to wait for the German surrender to be liberated.", "9 May is celebrated as the island's Liberation Day, where there are celebrations in Liberation Square.", "After Liberation, the States was reformed, becoming wholly democratically elected, and universal franchise was implemented.", "Since liberation, the island has grown in population and adopted new industries, especially the finance industry." ], [ "Politics", "The States building in St. HelierJersey is a Crown Dependency and is not part of the United Kingdom – it is officially part of the British Islands.", "As one of the Crown Dependencies, Jersey is autonomous and self-governing, with its own independent legal, administrative and fiscal systems.", "Jersey's government has described Jersey as a \"self-governing, democratic country with the power of self-determination\".Because Jersey is a dependency of the British Crown, King Charles III reigns in Jersey.", "\"The Crown\" is defined by the Law Officers of the Crown as the \"Crown in right of Jersey\".", "The King's representative and adviser in the island is the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey – Vice-Admiral Jerry Kyd since 8 October 2022.He is a point of contact between Jersey ministers and the UK Government and carries out some functions in relation to immigration control, deportation, naturalisation and the issue of passports.Sir John Chalmers McColl as Lieutenant Governor of JerseyIn 1973, the Royal Commission on the Constitution set out the duties of the Crown as including: ultimate responsibility for the 'good government' of the Crown Dependencies; ratification of island legislation by Order-in-Council (royal assent); international representation, subject to consultation with the island authorities before concluding any agreement which would apply to them; ensuring the islands meet their international obligations; and defence.=== Legislature and government ===Jersey's unicameral legislature is the States Assembly.", "It includes 49 elected members: 12 ''connétables'' (often called \"constables\", heads of parishes) and 37 deputies (representing constituencies), all elected for four-year terms as from the October 2011 elections.", "Jersey has one of the lowest voter turnouts internationally, with just 33% of the electorate voting in 2005, putting it well below the 77% European average for that year.From the 2022 elections, the role of senators was abolished and the eight senators were replaced with an increased number of deputies.", "The 37 deputies are now elected from nine super constituencies, rather than in individual parishes.", "Although efforts were made the remove the ''connétables'', they will continue their historic role as states members.There are also five non-voting members appointed by the Crown: the bailiff, the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, the Dean of Jersey, the attorney general and solicitor general.", "The Bailiff is President (presiding officer) of the States Assembly, head of the judiciary and as civic head of the island carries out various ceremonial roles.The Council of Ministers, consisting of a chief minister and nine ministers, makes up the leading body of the government of Jersey.", "Each minister may appoint up to two assistant ministers.", "A chief executive is head of the civil service.", "Some governmental functions are carried out in the island's parishes.=== Law ===Jersey is a distinct jurisdiction for the purposes of conflict of laws, separate from the other Channel Islands, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.Jersey law has been influenced by several different legal traditions, in particular Norman customary law, English common law and modern French civil law.", "Jersey's legal system is therefore described as 'mixed' or 'pluralistic', and sources of law are in French and English languages, although since the 1950s the main working language of the legal system is English.The principal court is the Royal Court, with appeals to the Jersey Court of Appeal and, ultimately, to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.", "The Bailiff is head of the judiciary; the Bailiff and the Deputy Bailiff are appointed by the Crown.", "Other members of the island's judiciary are appointed by the Bailiff.=== External relations ===Jersey Airport greets travellers with \"Welcome to Jersey\" sign in JèrriaisThe external relations of Jersey are overseen by the External Relations Minister of the Government of Jersey.", "In 2007, the chief minister and the UK Lord Chancellor signed an agreement that established a framework for the development of the international identity of Jersey.Although diplomatic representation is reserved to the Crown, Jersey has been developing its own international identity over recent years.", "It negotiates directly with foreign governments on various matters, for example, tax information exchange agreements (TIEAs) have been signed directly by the island with several countries.", "The government maintains offices (some in partnership with Guernsey) in Caen, London and Brussels.Jersey is a member of the British-Irish Council, the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association and the Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie.Jersey independence has in the past been discussed in the States Assembly.", "Former external relations minister, Sir Philip Bailhache, has at various times warned that the island may need to become independent.", "It is not Jersey government policy to seek independence, but the island is prepared if needs to do so.Jersey is a third-party European country to the EU.", "Since 1 January 2021, Jersey has been part of the UK-EU Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement for the purposes of goods and fishing.", "Goods exported from the island into Europe are not subject to tariffs and Jersey is solely responsible for management of its territorial waters, however permits may be granted to EU fishermen who have a history of fishing in the Bailiwick's waters.", "The management of this permit system has caused tension between the French and Jersey authorities, with the French threatening to cut off Jersey's electricity supply in May 2021.Before the end of the transition period after the UK withdrew from the EU in 2020, Jersey had a special relationship with the EU.", "It was part of the EU customs union and there was free movement of goods between Jersey and the EU but the single market in financial services and free movement of people did not apply to Jersey." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Jersey is divided into twelve parishes (which have civil and religious functions).", "They are all named after their parish church.", "The ''connétable'' is the head of the parish.", "They are elected at island general elections and sit ''ex oficio'' in the States Assembly.The parishes have various civil administrative functions, such as roads (managed by the Road Committee) and policing (through the Honorary Police).", "Each parish is governed through direct democracy at parish assemblies, consisting of all eligible voters resident in the parish.", "The ''Procureurs du Bien Public'' are the legal and financial representatives of these parishes.The parishes of Jersey are further divided into ''vingtaines'' (or, in St. Ouen, ''cueillettes'')." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite view of JerseyMap of islands of Bailiwick of JerseyLarge, detailed map of JerseyJersey is an island measuring (or 66,436 vergées), including reclaimed land and intertidal zone.", "It lies in the English Channel, about from the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy, France, and about south of Great Britain.", "It is the largest and southernmost of the Channel Islands and part of the British Isles, with a maximum land elevation of 143 m (469 ft) above sea level.About 24% of the island is built-up.", "52% of the land area is dedicated to cultivation and around 18% is the natural environment.It lies within longitude -2° W and latitude 49° N. It has a coastline that is long and a total area of .", "It measures roughly from west to east and north to south, which gives it the affectionate name among locals of \"nine-by-five\".The island is divided into twelve parishes; the largest is St Ouen and the smallest is St Clement.", "The island is characterised by a number of valleys which generally run north-to-south, such as Waterworks Valley, Grands Vaux, Mont les Vaux, although a few run in other directions, such as Le Mourier Valley.", "The highest point on the island is Les Platons at .There are several smaller island groups that are part of the Bailiwick of Jersey, such as Les Minquiers and Les Écrehous, however unlike the smaller islands of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, none of these are permanently inhabited.=== Settlements ===The largest settlement is the town of St Helier, including the built-up area of southern St Helier and neighbouring areas such as Georgetown, which also plays host to the island's seat of government.", "The town is the central business district, hosting a large proportion of the island's retail and employment, such as the finance industry.Outside of the town, many islanders live in suburban and rural settlements, especially along main roads leading out of town and even the more rural areas of the island have considerable amounts of development (St Ouen, the least densely populated parish still has 270 persons per square kilometre).", "The south and east coasts from St Aubin to Gorey are largely urbanised.", "The second smaller urban area is the Les Quennevais area in St Brelade, which is home to a small precinct of shops, a school, a park and a leisure centre.Most people across Jersey regularly travel from the rural settlements to St Helier and from the town to the rural areas for work and leisure purposes.Housing costs in Jersey are very high.", "The Jersey House Price Index has at least doubled between 2002 and 2020.The mix-adjusted house price for Jersey is £567,000, higher than any UK region (UK average: £249,000) including London (average: £497,000; highest of any UK region).=== Climate ===The island has an oceanic climate with mild winters and mild to warm summers.", "The highest temperature recorded was 37.9 °C (100.2 °F), on 18 July 2022, and the lowest temperature recorded was −10.3 °C (13.5 °F), on 5 January 1894.2014 was the warmest year on record; the mean daily air temperature was 13.34 °C.", "For tourism advertising, Jersey often claims to be \"the sunniest place in the British Isles\", which is true, as Jersey has over 1,900 hours of sunlight, 342 more than any place in the UK.", "In 2011, Jersey generated controversy for calling itself \"the warmest place in the British Isles\" during an advertising campaign.Average wind speeds vary between and , with gusts over once every 4–5 years.The following table contains the official data for 1981–2010 at Jersey Airport, located from St. Helier –" ], [ "Economy", "The Central Business District of St HelierJersey's economy is highly developed and services-focused, with a GDP per capita of £45,320 in 2019.It is a mixed market economy, with free market principles and an advanced social security infrastructure.", "53,460 people were employed in Jersey : 24% in financial and legal services; 16% in wholesale and retail trades; 16% in the public sector; 10% in education, health and other private sector services; 10% in construction and quarrying; 9% in hotels, restaurants and bars.+Economic sectors in Jersey by GVA (2019)SectorGVA (%)GVA (£mn)Financial services39.5%1,966Rental income15.5%771Other business activities11.7%580Public administration8.6%426Construction7%350Wholesale and retail6.4%319Hotels, bars and restaurants4.2%210Transport, storage and communication3.5%176Electricity, gas and water1.3%65Agriculture1.2%59Manufacturing1%50Thanks to specialisation in a few high-return sectors, at purchasing power parity Jersey has high economic output per capita, substantially ahead of all of the world's large developed economies.", "Gross national income in 2009 was £3.7 billion (approximately £40,000 per head of population).", "However, this is not indicative of each individual resident's purchasing power and the actual standard of living in Jersey is comparable to that in the UK outside central London.Jersey is one of the world's largest offshore finance centres.", "The UK acts as a conduit for financial services between European countries and the island.", "The growth of this sector however has not been without its controversies as Jersey has been characterised by critics and detractors as a place in which the \"leadership has essentially been captured by global finance, and whose members will threaten and intimidate anyone who dissents.", "\"Tourism is an important economic sector for the island, however travel to Jersey is very seasonal.", "Accommodation occupancy is much higher in the summer months, especially August, than in the winter months (with a low in November).", "The majority of visitors to the island arrive by air from the UK.", "On 18 February 2005, Jersey was granted Fairtrade Island status.Aerial view of fields in Saint Clement, JerseyIn 2017, 52% of the Island's area was agricultural land (a decrease since 2009).", "Major agricultural products are potatoes and dairy produce.", "Jersey cattle are a small breed of cow widely known for their rich milk and cream; the quality of their meat is also appreciated on a small scale.", "The herd total in 2009 was 5,090 animals.", "Fisheries and aquaculture make use of Jersey's marine resources to a total value of over £6 million in 2009.Along with Guernsey, Jersey has its own lottery called the Channel Islands Lottery, which was launched in 1975.=== Taxation ===Jersey is not a tax-free jurisdiction.", "Taxes are levied on properties (known as 'rates') and a Personal Income Tax, Corporate Income Tax and goods and services tax exist.", "Before 2008, Jersey had no value-added tax (VAT).", "Many companies, such as Amazon and Play.com, took advantage of this and a loophole in European law, known as low-value consignment relief, to establish a tax-free fulfilment industry from Jersey.", "This loophole was closed by the European Union in 2012, resulting in the loss of hundreds of jobs.There is a 20% standard rate for Income Tax and a 5% standard rate for GST.", "The island has a 0% default tax rate for corporations; however, higher rates apply to financial services, utility companies and large corporate retailers.", "Jersey is considered to be a tax haven.", "The island, until March 2019, was on the EU tax haven blacklist, but no longer features.", "In January 2021, the chair of the EU Tax Matters Subcommittee, Paul Tang, criticised the list for not including such \"renowned tax havens\" as Jersey.", "In 2020, Tax Justice ranked Jersey as the 16th on the Financial Secrecy Index, below larger countries such as the UK, however still placing at the lower end of the 'extreme danger zone' for offshore secrecy'.", "The island accounts of 0.46% of the global offshore finance market, making a small player in the total market.", "In 2020, the Corporate Tax Haven Index ranked Jersey eighth for 2021 with an haven score (a measure of the jurisdiction's systems to be used for corporate tax abuse) of 100 out of 100; however, the island only has 0.51% on the Global Scale Weight ranking.=== Transport ===GoreyThe primary mode of transport on the island is the motor vehicle.", "Jersey has a road network consisting of of roads and there are a total of 124,737 motor vehicles registered on the island as of 2016.Jersey has a large network of lanes, some of which are classified as green lanes, which have a 15 mph speed limit and where priority is afforded to pedestrians, cyclists and horse riders.The public bus network in Jersey has been regulated by the Government since 2002, replacing a de-regulated, commercial service.", "It is operated on a sole-operator franchise model, currently contracted to LibertyBus, a company owned by Kelsian Group.", "LibertyBus also operate the school bus services.", "There is also a taxi network and an electronic bike scheme (EVie).", "Jersey has an airport and a number of ports, which are operated by Ports of Jersey.=== Currency ===Jersey stamps commemorating the 150th anniversary of the birth of General William MesnyJersey's monetary policy is linked to the Bank of England.", "The official currency of Jersey is the pound sterling.", "Jersey issues its own postage stamps, banknotes (including a £1 note which is not issued in the UK) and coins that circulate alongside all other sterling coinage.", "Jersey currency is not legal tender outside Jersey; however it is \"acceptable tender\" in the UK and can be surrendered at banks in exchange for UK currency.In July 2014, the Jersey Financial Services Commission approved the establishment of the world's first regulated Bitcoin fund, at a time when the digital currency was being accepted by some local businesses." ], [ "Demography", "Mont Orgueil was built in the 13th century after its split from NormandyCensuses have been undertaken in Jersey since 1821.In the 2021 census, the total resident population was estimated to be 103,267, of whom 35% live in Saint Helier, the island's only town.", "Approximately half the island's population was born in Jersey; 29% of the population were born elsewhere in the British Isles, 8% in continental Portugal or Madeira, 9% in other European countries and 5% elsewhere.=== Nationality and citizenship ===Jersey people are the native nation on the island, however do not form a majority of the population.", "Jersey people are often called Islanders or, in individual terms, Jerseyman or Jerseywoman.", "Jersey people did not generally identify themselves as English prior to the Union of Britain.", "Jersey was culturally and geographically much closer to Normandy and there were limited cross-Channel links.", "However, wars with France, including invasions of Jersey, grew loyalty to Britain over time and the French came more and more to be seen as a distinct people.", "By the start of the 19th century, Jersey people generally identified as British, which can be seen through the treatment of the Breton immigrants of the time as a distinct nation.", "Furthermore, the growth of the British migrant population strengthened the role of English and the British cultural influence.", "Finally, the introduction of compulsory education - which was exclusively in English - and the period of the Occupation reduced the traditional and Norman cultural influences and increased British cultural practices and pride in British nationhood among the island population.Nationality law in Jersey is conferred by the British Nationality Act 1981 extended to the island by an Order in Council with the consent of the States of Jersey.", "British nationality law confers British citizenship onto those with suitable connections to Jersey.", "The Lieutenant Governor's office issues British passports (specifically the Jersey variant) to British citizens with a connection to Jersey by residency or birth.=== Immigration ===Jersey is constitutionally entitled to restrict immigration by non-Jersey residents, but control of immigration at the point of entry cannot be introduced for British, certain Commonwealth and EEA nationals without change to existing international law.Jersey is part of the Common Travel Area (CTA), a border control-free zone which encompasses the Crown Dependencies, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.", "This means a passport is not required to travel from Jersey to any of these territories (or vice versa) though the Government recommends all travellers bring photo ID since it may need to be checked by customs or police officers and is generally required by commercial transport providers into the island.", "Due to the CTA, Jersey-born British citizens in the rest of the CTA and British and Irish citizens in Jersey have the right to access social benefits, access healthcare, access social housing support and to vote in general elections.For non-CTA travel, Jersey maintains its own immigration and border controls (although most travel into the Bailiwick is from the rest of the CTA), however UK immigration legislation may be extended to Jersey (subject to exceptions and adaptations) following consultation with Jersey and with Jersey's consent.To control population numbers, Jersey operates a system of registration which restricts the right to live and work in the island according to certain requirements.", "In order to move to Jersey or work in Jersey, everyone (including Jersey-born people) must be registered and have a registration card.", "There are a number of statuses:+Residential and employment statusesRequirementsHousingWorkEntitledMost Jersey-born residents (permanently)Long-term residents (at least 10 years)Can buy, sell or lease any propertyCan work anywhereLicensedCertain essential workersCan buy, sell or lease most propertyPermission requiredEntitled to workLong-term residents (at least 5 years)Spouse or civil partner of someone who is entitled to work or higher.Can lease 'registered' propertyCan work anywhereRegisteredAll othersCan lease 'registered' propertyPermission required==== History of immigration ====Until the 19th centuries, there was generally limited immigration to the island, especially from English people.", "Jersey was a distant territory to the British mainland (taking days to travel between England and the islands) and culturally distinct (the locals predominantly speaking Norman French).", "However, from the 16th to 19th centuries, Jersey became home to French religious refugees, particularly Protestants following the Edict of Nantes.From the early 19th century, the island's economic boom attracted economic migrants.", "By 1841, of the 47,544 population, 11,338 were born in the British Isles outside of Jersey.", "From the 1840s onwards, agricultural workers came from neighbouring Brittany and mainland Normandy, both due to the booming economy of Jersey and the economic situation in northern France.", "Furthermore, the new potato season coincided with the time of least agricultural activity in Brittany and Normandy.", "While many returned to France, some settled in the island.Between 1851 and 1921, the Jersey population fell by 12.8% (possibly up to 18%).", "The economic boom ended in the 1850s leading to significant emigration, including on to British colonies.", "A 1901 report by the States concluded that by 1921, the number of births to foreign-born fathers would be equal to those to Jersey-born fathers, describing the immigration situation as a 'formidable invasion, although peaceful', and predicted this would have a large impact on the island's socio-political situation.After World War II, when the island had only 55,244 residents, it saw a period of rapid population increase.", "By 1991, the population was 84,082.The booming tourism industry required a large volume of relatively low cost labour, so the island turned to Madeira for seasonal staff.", "Between 1961 and 1981, the Portuguese-born population grew 0.2% to 3.1% of the population.", "In 2021, this figure was 8%.", "Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the new source of cheap labour for the island has been Polish people, whose population has grown from non-existent to 3%.Immigration has helped give aspects of Jersey a distinct urban character, particularly in and around the parish of St Helier, which contributes much to ongoing debates between development and sustainability throughout the island.=== Religion ===St Thomas' Catholic Church in St HelierJersey's patron saint is St Helier, after whom the capital town is named.", "From the fifth century, the island was under the Bishop of Coutances, until being transferred to the Diocese of Winchester in 1568.As of 2022, the island is planned to be transferred to the Diocese of Salisbury.", "The established church is the Church of England, presided over in the island by the Dean, who is ''ex officio'' a States Member, but has no vote.", "The primary churches are the parish churches, which are 12 ancient Anglican churches in each of the parish centre, though other churches do exist.According to a 2015 survey of islanders, 54% of adults have a religion.", "Christianity is the predominant religion in the island, with over half of islanders identifying as Christian in some form.", "The largest religious group is Anglicans, with 23% of the population.+Religion in JerseyReligionPercentage (2015)No religion39%'''All religious''''''54%'''Anglican23%Catholic22.5%Other Christian6.8%Other religion3%" ], [ "Culture", "Saint Ouen=== Cultural events ===The Battle of Flowers is a carnival, which has been held annually in August since 1902.Other festivals include (Christmas festival), (cidermaking festival), the Battle of Britain air display, Weekender Music Festival, food festivals, and parish events.The Jersey Eisteddfod is an annual festival celebrating local culture.", "It is split into performing arts (e.g.", "dance, music, modern languages) and creative arts (e.g.", "needlework, photography, craft).=== Art ===Archaeologists have discovered stone planquettes with abstract designs made by the Magdalenians and dating to the Upper Palaeolithic; these are the oldest pieces of art discovered in the British Isles as of 2023.The island has produced a number of notable artists.", "John St Helier Lander (1868–1944) was a portrait painter born in St Helier in 1868; he was a portraitist for the Royal Family.", "Edmund Blampied also lived around the same period; he was known for his etchings and drypoint.", "Other famous historic artists include John Le Capelain, John Everett Millais and Philip Ouless.", "There are also several contemporary Jersey artists, such as Ian Rolls, known for painting quirky landscape paintings.Jersey also has historic connections to French art.", "French artist René Lalique created the stained glass windows at St Matthew's Church.", "No similar Lalique commission survives elsewhere in the world.", "Artist partners Claude Cahun and Marcel Moore were born in France but moved to and died in the island.=== Media ===A Channel Television crew interview the Bailiff of JerseyBBC Radio Jersey provides a radio service, and BBC Channel Islands News provides a joint television news service with Guernsey.", "ITV Channel Television is a regional ITV franchise shared with the Bailiwick of Guernsey but with its headquarters in Jersey.", "Radio services are also provided by Channel 103, among other companies.Bailiwick Express is one of Jersey's digital online news sources.", "Jersey has only one newspaper, the ''Jersey Evening Post'', which is printed six days a week, and has been in publication since 1890.=== Music ===The ''Band of the Island of Jersey'' play at many eventsLittle is known of the history of music in the islands, though fieldwork has recorded folk songs from the Channel Islands, mostly in French.", "The folk song is unique to the island.In contemporary music, Guru Josh, who was born in Jersey, produced house and techno music.", "He was most notable for his internationally successful debut hit Infinity and its re-releases, reaching number one in numerous European countries.", "Furthermore, rock and pop artist Nerina Pallot was raised on the island and has enjoyed international success, and has written songs for famous artists like Kylie Minogue.The island has a summer music festival scene stretching from mid-June to late September including Good Vibrations, Out-There, the Weekender (the largest festival in the Channel Islands) and Electric Park.=== Theatre ===Actress Lillie Langtry, nicknamed the ''Jersey Lily''There are two theatres on the island: the Jersey Opera House and the Jersey Arts Centre.", "Lillie Langtry is probably the most famous actress from the island.", "She was born in Jersey and became an actress on the West End in the late 19th century.", "She was the first socialite to appear on stage and the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.", "She was also famous for her relationships with notable figures, including the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII.", "She is buried in St Saviour's Church graveyard.=== Cinema ===In 1909, T. J.", "West established the first cinema in the Royal Hall in St. Helier, which became known as West's Cinema in 1923 and was demolished in 1977.The first talking picture, ''The Perfect Alibi'', was shown on 30 December 1929 at the Picture House in St. Helier.", "The Jersey Film Society was founded on 11 December 1947 at the Café Bleu, West's Cinema.", "The large Art Deco Forum Cinema was opened in 1935 – during the German occupation this was used for German propaganda films.The Odeon Cinema was opened 2 June 1952 and, was later rebranded in the early 21st century as the Forum cinema.", "Its owners, however, struggled to meet tough competition from the Cineworld Cinemas group, which opened a 10 screen multiplex on the waterfront centre in St. Helier on reclaimed land in December 2002 and the Odeon closed its doors in late 2008.The Odeon is now a listed building.First held in 2008, the Branchage Jersey International Film Festival attracts filmmakers from all over the world.The 2001 movie The Others was set on the island in 1945 shortly after liberation.=== Food and drink ===''Jersey wonders'', or , are a favourite snack consisting of fried dough, found especially at country fêtes.", "According to tradition, the success of cooking depends on the state of the tide.Seafood has traditionally been important to the cuisine of Jersey: mussels (called in the island), oysters, lobster and crabs – especially spider crabs – ormers and conger.Jersey milk being very rich, cream and butter have played a large part in insular cooking.", "Jersey Royal potatoes are the local variety of new potato, and the island is famous for its early crop of Chats (small potatoes) from the south-facing côtils (steeply sloping fields).", "They were originally grown using vraic as a natural fertiliser, giving them their own individual taste; only a small portion of those grown in the island still use this method.", "They are eaten in a variety of ways, often simply boiled and served with butter or when not as fresh fried in butter.Apples historically were an important crop.", "are apple dumplings, but the most typical speciality is black butter (), a dark spicy spread prepared from apples, cider and spices.", "Cider used to be an important export.", "After decline and near-disappearance in the late 20th century, apple production is being increased and promoted.", "Besides cider, apple brandy is produced.", "Other production of alcohol drinks includes wine, and in 2013 the first commercial vodkas made from Jersey Royal potatoes were marketed.Among other traditional dishes are cabbage loaf, Jersey wonders (), fliottes, bean crock (), nettle () soup, and vraic buns.=== Sport ===A statue of Jersey golfer, Harry Vardon, stands at the entrance to the Royal Jersey Golf ClubIn its own right Jersey participates in the Commonwealth Games and in the biennial Island Games, which it first hosted in 1997 and more recently in 2015.The Jersey Football Association supervises football in Jersey.", "As of 2022, the Jersey Football Combination has nine teams in its top division.", "Jersey national football team plays in the annual Muratti competition against the other Channel Islands.", "Rugby union in Jersey comes under the auspices of the Jersey Rugby Association (JRA), which is a member of the Rugby Football Union of England.", "Jersey Reds compete in the English rugby union system; after four promotions in five seasons, the last three of which were consecutive, they competed in the second-level RFU Championship in 2012–13.Jersey Cricket Board is the official governing body of the sport of cricket in Jersey.", "Jersey Cricket Board is Jersey's representative at the International Cricket Council (ICC).", "It has been an ICC member since 2005 and an associate member since 2007.The Jersey cricket team plays in the Inter-insular match, as well as in ICC tournaments around the world in One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals.For Horse racing, Les Landes Racecourse can be found at Les Landes in St. Ouen next to the ruins of Grosnez Castle.Jersey has two public indoor swimming pools: AquaSplash, St Helier and Les Quennevais, St Brelade.", "Swimming in the sea, windsurfing and other marine sports are practised.", "Jersey Swimming Club has organised an annual swim from Elizabeth Castle to Saint Helier Harbour for over 50 years.", "A round-island swim is a major challenge: the record for the swim is Ross Wisby, who circumnavigated the island in 9 hours 26 minutes in 2015.The Royal Channel Island Yacht Club is based in St Brelade.Two professional golfers from Jersey have won the Open Championship seven times between them; Harry Vardon won six times and Ted Ray won once, both around the turn of the 20th century.", "Vardon and Ray also won the U.S. Open once each.", "Harry Vardon's brother, Tom Vardon, had wins on various European tours.Jersey Sport, an independent body that promotes sports in Jersey and support clubs, was launched in 2017=== Languages ===Until the 19th century, indigenous Jèrriais – a variety of Norman – was the language of the island though French was used for official business.", "During the 20th century, British cultural influence saw an intense language shift take place and Jersey today is predominantly English-speaking.", "Jèrriais nonetheless survives; around 2,600 islanders (three per cent) are thought to be habitual speakers, and some 10,000 (12 per cent) in all claim some knowledge of the language, particularly amongst the elderly in rural parishes.", "There have been efforts to revive Jèrriais in schools.The dialects of Jèrriais differ in phonology and, to a lesser extent, lexis between parishes, with the most marked differences to be heard between those of the west and east.", "Many place names are in Jèrriais, and French and English place names are also to be found.", "Anglicisation of the place names increased apace with the migration of English people to the island.=== Literature ===Victor Hugo in exile, 1850sWace was a 12th-century poet born in Jersey.", "He is the earliest known Jersey writer, authoring ''Roman de Brut'' and ''Roman de Rou'', among others.", "Some believe him to be the earliest Jèrriais writer and he is known as the founder of Jersey literature, but the language in which he wrote is very different from modern Jèrriais.As Jèrriais was not an official language in Jersey, it had no standard written form, which meant that Jersey literature is very varied, written in multiple forms of Jèrriais alongside Standard English and French.Matthew Le Geyt was the first poet to publish in Jèrriais after the introduction of printing to the island in the 18th century.", "Philippe Le Sueur Mourant wrote in Jèrriais in the 19th century.", "Jerseyman George d'la Forge is named the 'Guardian of the Jersey Norman Heritage'.", "Though he lived in America for most of his life, he felt a strong attachment to Jersey and his native language.", "His works were turned into books in the 1980s.After the failure of the 1848 revolution, thirty-nine French revolutionaries were exiled in Jersey, including the famous French author Victor Hugo, as Jersey's culture had a relation to their native French.", "Gerald Durrell, the famous zoologist who set up Jersey Zoo, was also an author, writing novels, non-fiction and children's books.", "He was writing as a means to fund and further his conservation work." ], [ "Education", "Education in the island is managed by the Department for Children, Young People, Education and Skills of the Government of Jersey.", "The education system in Jersey is based on the English system.", "Full time education is compulsory for children aged 5 to 16.Furthermore, the Government provides limited pre-school education free to parents.", "Jersey schools must teach the Jersey Curriculum, which is based on the English National Curriculum, with differences to account for Jersey's unique position.As of 2022, there are 24 States primary schools, seven private primary or preparatory schools, four comprehensive States secondary schools, two fee-paying States secondary schools, two private secondary schools and one provided grammar school and sixth form, Hautlieu School.", "Furthermore, Highlands College provides alternative post-16 and all post-18 education available on the island.", "However, higher education facilities are limited, so many students study off-island.", "In the UK, Jersey students pay the same rate as Home students." ], [ "Environment", "Three areas of land are protected for their ecological or geological interest as Sites of Special Interest (SSI).", "Jersey has four designated Ramsar sites: Les Pierres de Lecq, Les Minquiers, Les Écréhous and Les Dirouilles and the south east coast of Jersey (a large area of intertidal zone).Jersey is the home of the Jersey Zoo (formerly known as the Durrell Wildlife Park) founded by the naturalist, zookeeper and author Gerald Durrell.=== Biodiversity ===Four species of small mammal are considered native: the wood mouse (''Apodemus sylvaticus''), the Jersey bank vole (''Myodes glareolus caesarius''), the lesser white-toothed shrew (''Crocidura suaveolens'') and the French shrew (''Sorex coronatus'').", "Three wild mammals are well-established introductions: the rabbit (introduced in the mediaeval period), the red squirrel and the hedgehog (both introduced in the 19th century).", "The stoat (''Mustela erminea'') became extinct in Jersey between 1976 and 2000.The green lizard (Lacerta bilineata) is a protected species of reptile; Jersey is its only native habitat in the British Isles.The red-billed chough (''Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax'') became extinct in Jersey around 1900, when changes in farming and grazing practices led to a decline in the coastal slope habitat required by this species.", "Birds on the Edge, a project between the Government of Jersey, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and National Trust for Jersey, is working to restore Jersey's coastal habitats and reinstate the red-billed chough (and other bird species) to the islandJersey is the only place in the British Isles where the agile frog (''Rana dalmatina)'' is found.", "The remaining population of agile frogs on Jersey is very small and is restricted to the south west of the island.", "The species is the subject of an ongoing programme to save it from extinction in Jersey via a collaboration between the Government of Jersey, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Jersey Amphibian and Reptile Group (JARG), with support and sponsorship from several other organisations.", "The programme includes captive breeding and release, public awareness and habitat restoration activities.Trees generally considered native are the alder (''Alnus glutinosa''), silver birch (''Betula pendula''), sweet chestnut (''Castanea sativa''), hazel (''Corylus avellana''), hawthorn (''Crataegus monogyna''), beech (''Fagus sylvatica''), ash (''Fraxinus excelsior''), aspen (''Populus tremula''), wild cherry (''Prunus avium''), blackthorn (''Prunus spinosa''), holm oak (''Quercus ilex''), oak (''Quercus robur''), sallow (''Salix cinerea''), elder (''Sambucus nigra''), elm (''Ulmus'' spp.)", "and medlar (''Mespilus germanica'').", "Among notable introduced species, the cabbage palm (''Cordyline australis'') has been planted in coastal areas and may be seen in many gardens.Notable marine species include the ormer, conger, bass, undulate ray, grey mullet, ballan wrasse and garfish.", "Marine mammals include the bottlenosed dolphin and grey seal.Historically the island has given its name to a variety of overly-large cabbage, the Jersey cabbage, also known as Jersey kale or cow cabbage.Japanese knotweed (''Reynoutria japonica'') is an invasive species that threatens Jersey's biodiversity.", "It is easily recognisable and has hollow stems with small white flowers that are produced in late summer.", "Other non-native species on the island include the Colorado beetle, burnet rose and oak processionary moth." ], [ "Public services", "=== Healthcare ===Health services on the island are overseen by the Department for Health and Social Care.", "Jersey does not have a nationalised health service and the service is not part of the National Health Service.", "Many healthcare treatments are not free at the point of use, however treatment in the accident and emergency department is free.", "For residents, prescriptions and some hospital treatments are free, but GP services cost money.=== Emergency services ===Emergency services are provided by the States of Jersey Police with the support of the Honorary Police as necessary, States of Jersey Ambulance Service, Jersey Fire and Rescue Service and the Jersey Coastguard.", "The Jersey Fire and Rescue Service, Jersey Lifeboat Association and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate an inshore rescue and lifeboat service; Channel Islands Air Search provides rapid response airborne search of the surrounding waters.The States of Jersey Fire Service was formed in 1938 when the States took over the Saint Helier Fire Brigade, which had been formed in 1901.The first lifeboat was equipped, funded by the States, in 1830.The RNLI established a lifeboat station in 1884.Border security and customs controls are undertaken by the States of Jersey Customs and Immigration Service.", "Jersey has adopted the 112 emergency number alongside its existing 999 emergency number.=== Supply services ===Water supplies in Jersey are managed by Jersey Water.", "Jersey Water supply water from two water treatment works, around 7.2 billion litres in 2018.Water in Jersey is almost exclusively from rainfall-dependent surface water.", "The water is collected and stored in six reservoirs and there is also a desalination plant that produces up to 10.8 million litres per day (around half of the Island's average daily usage).", "In 2017, 101 water pollution incidents were reported, an increase of 5% on 2016.Another estimated 515,700 m3 of water is abstracted for domestic purposes from private sources (around 9% of the population).Electricity in Jersey is provided by a sole supplier, Jersey Electricity, of which the States of Jersey is the majority shareholder.", "Jersey imports 95 per cent of its power from France.", "35% of the imported power derives from hydro-electric sources and 65% from nuclear sources.", "Jersey Electricity claims the carbon intensity of its electricity supply is 35g CO2 e / kWh compared to 352g CO2 e / kWh in the UK." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Balleine's History of Jersey, Marguerite Syvret and Joan Stevens (1998) * Jersey Through the Centuries, Leslie Sinel, Jersey 1984, * A Biographical Dictionary of Jersey, G.R.", "Balleine=== Archaeology ===* The Archaeology of the Channel Islands.", "Vol.", "2: The Bailiwick of Jersey by Jacquetta Hawkes (1939)* The Prehistoric Foundations of Europe to the Mycenean Age, 1940, C. F. C. Hawkes* Jersey in Prehistory, Mark Patton, 1987* The Archaeology and Early History of the Channel Islands, Heather Sebire, 2005.", "* Dolmens of Jersey: A Guide, James Hibbs (1988).", "* A Guide to The Dolmens of Jersey, Peter Hunt, Société Jersiaise, 1998.", "* Statements in Stone: Monuments and Society in Neolithic Brittany, Mark Patton, 1993* Hougue Bie, Mark Patton, Warwick Rodwell, Olga Finch, 1999* The Channel Islands, An Archaeological Guide, David Johnston, 1981* The Archaeology of the Channel Islands, Peter Johnston, 1986=== Cattle ===* One Hundred Years of the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society 1833–1933.Compiled from the Society's Records, by H.G.", "Shepard, Secretary.", "Eric J. Boston.", "Jersey Cattle, 1954=== Religion ===* The Channel Islands under Tudor Government, A.J.", "Eagleston* Reformation and Society in Guernsey, D.M.", "Ogier* International Politics and the Establishment of Presbyterianism in the Channel Islands: The Coutances Connection, C.S.L.", "Davies* Religion, History and G.R.", "Balleine: The Reformation in Jersey, by J. St John Nicolle, The Pilot Magazine* The Reformation in Jersey: The Process of Change over Two centuries, J. St John Nicolle* The Chroniques de Jersey in the light of contemporary documents, BSJ, AJ Eagleston* The Portrait of Richard Mabon, BSJ, Joan Stevens" ], [ "External links", "* gov.je Official Government of Jersey website* Visit Jersey Government owned tourism website* Jerripedia Online history and family history encyclopedia* Vote.je Elections in Jersey* Jersey.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Locate Jersey* Jersey, from the BBC News* Jersey Evening Post* Prehistoric Jersey* JerseyShops.co.uk – local retailers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "A map of Jersey dating from 1783Jersey – the largest of the Channel Islands – has been an island for around 6,000 years.", "Early inhabitation is evidenced by various neolithic monuments and hoards.", "In the 10th century, Jersey became part of Normandy.", "When the Normans conquered England in the 11th century, Jersey remained a part of the Duchy of Normandy, but when Normandy and England were finally split in the 13th century, the Channel Islands remained loyal to the English Crown, splitting Jersey politically from mainland Normandy.Due to the English kings' continuing claim to the Duchy of Normandy, Jersey's Norman political and legal structures remained after the split, which led to the establishment of self-governance as a Crown Dependency.", "Between the 11th and 15th centuries, political tensions between England and France placed Jersey at the frontline of frequent wars.During the Tudor period, the English Crown split from the Roman Church and immigration to the island of French religious refugees led to the establishment of Calvinism as the major religion of the island.", "In 1617, the Privy Council separated the powers of Governor and Bailiff, establishing that the Bailiff had sole jurisdiction over justice and civil affairs in the island.", "During the English Civil War, Jersey remained more loyal to the Crown due to the loyalties of the de Carteret family, though the island was eventually captured by Parliamentarian forces.", "After restoration, the de Carterets were gifted land in the American colonies, establishing New Jersey.In the 18th century, Jersey experienced bouts of unrest, culminating in the Corn Riots of 1769.As a result, legislative power was concentrated in the States in 1771, stripping the Royal Court of its lawmaking abilities.", "Island politics was then split between the Magot and Charlot parties through much of the 19th century.", "In 1781, the island was invaded by the French, but was defeated by an army led by Major Francis Peirson in the Battle of Jersey.", "From 1815, new peace with the French meant the island lost strategic military value.", "Improvements in transport infrastructure led to non-political increased links with the United Kingdom.", "Alongside this, a rising sense of British nationalism led to the island's culture, which had previously retained many Norman-French qualities, to be highly anglicised.The islands were away from the frontline of the First World War, but during the Second World War, the Channel Islands were the only part of the British Isles to be occupied by enemy forces.", "From 1940 to 1945, Jersey was occupied by German forces.", "The islands were liberated on 9 May 1945, which is still celebrated as the island's national day.", "After liberation, the island became a popular tourist destination and has become a major offshore finance centre." ], [ "Name of the island", "Although Jersey was part of the Roman world, there is a lack of evidence to give a better understanding of the island during the Gallo-Roman and early Middle Ages.", "The tradition is that the island was called ''Caesarea'' by the Romans as laid down in the Antonine Itinerary, however this is disputed by some, who claim ''Caesarea'', ''Sarnia'' and ''Riduna'' are the Scilly Isles off the southwestern tip of England, nevertheless ''Sarnia'' in particular has a large cultural influence as the historic name of Guernsey (for example the national anthem of Guernsey is ''Sarnia chérie'').", "''Andium'' however is also mentioned on the list and this name is very often attributed to Jersey.", "Therefore, it is possible another island, such as the Minquiers were in fact ''Caesarea'' and Jersey ''Andium''.The name is claimed to be the source of the modern name Jersey, ''-ey'' being a Norse signification of an island, and ''Jer-'' possibly being a contraction of Caesar, similar to Cherbourg, therefore the island meaning Caesar's island.", "Another claim for the origin of the name is as ''Geirr's Island'' from the Norse name Geirr or as ''the grassy isle'' from the Frisian ''gers''.", ":16 The Roman name for the Channel Islands was ''I.", "Lenuri'' (Lenur Islands)Some claim that the pre-Roman name for the island was ''Augia'' (alternatively ''Andium''), and it was given by this name by King Childebert of France to Archbishop Samson of Dol in 550 CE.", "In the past the island's name has various variations of its spelling, such as Gersey, Jarzé, Gerzai and Gersui (including re-latinisations such as ''Gersoium'' and ''Grisogium'') Andium has considerable popularity as the former name for Jersey, being for example the name of the island's social housing corporation.=== Origins of other place names on the island ===L'Etacq is of Norse origin, a derivative of L'Estack, from the Norse ''stakkr'', meaning high rock.", "This word also gives name to various places called Etacquerel.", ":16" ], [ "Prehistory", "La Pouquelaye de Faldouet was constructed on a site on the east coast looking across to the Cotentin Peninsula.The earliest evidence of human activity in Jersey dates to about 250,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic (before Jersey became an island) when bands of Neanderthal nomadic hunters used the caves at La Cotte de St Brelade as a base for hunting mammoth and woolly rhinoceros.Due to rising sea levels, Jersey has been an island for approximately 6,000 years.", "The geology of the Channel Islands, has its origins in the Hercynian mountain building period, which also accounts for the hills of Brittany and the moors of Devon and Cornwall.", "At its current extremes it measures east to west and north to south.", "Evidence of Ice Age period engravings dating from at least 12,000 BC has been found, showing occupation by Homo sapiens.Evidence also exists of settled communities in the Neolithic period, which is marked by the building of the ritual burial sites known as dolmens.", "The number, size, and visible locations of these megalithic monuments (especially La Hougue Bie) have suggested that social organisation over a wide area, including surrounding coasts, was required for the construction.", "Archaeological evidence also shows that trading links with Brittany and the south coast of England existed during this time.===Hoards===Evidence of occupation and wealth has been discovered in the form of hoards.", "In 1889, during construction of a house in Saint Helier, a 746-gram gold torc of Irish origin was unearthed.", "A Bronze Age hoard consisting of 110 implements, mostly spears and swords, was discovered in Saint Lawrence in 1976 – probably a smith's stock.", "Hoards of coins were discovered at La Marquanderie, in Saint Brelade, Le Câtel, in Trinity, and Le Câtillon, in Grouville (1957).In June 2012, two metal detectorists announced that they had uncovered what could be Europe's largest hoard of Iron Age Celtic coins, 70,000 late Iron Age and Roman coins.", "The hoard is thought to have belonged to a Curiosolitae tribe fleeing Julius Caesar's armies around 50 to 60 BC.In October 2012, another metal detectorist reported an earlier Bronze Age find, the Trinity Hoard." ], [ "Early history", "=== Prior to Normandy ===Although there is no evidence of a Roman occupation of Jersey, historians consider that it is entirely feasible it was occupied by the Romans.", "Various Roman archeological artefacts have been found on the island, such as coins discovered on the north coast at Ile Agois.", "There are several sites attributed to the Romans on the island, such as Caesar's fort at Mont Orgeuil.", "Roman influence has been found, in particular at , the coastal headland site at Le Pinacle, where remains of a primitive structure are attributed to Gallo-Roman temple worship (''fanum'').When Augustus Caesar divided Gaul into four provinces, Jersey was part of the province headquartered at Lyons.", "Roman influence has a strong grounding in the development of Jersey culture, bringing vernacular Latin to the isle, which would later develop into Standard French and Jèrriais (and influence English).During the migration of the Britons from Britain to Brittany (c. 5th – 6th century AD), specifically during the invasion led by St Samson, Bishop of Dol, it is believed the Channel Islands came to be settled by them.", "There are numerous references to the habitation of Jersey by Breton people.", "This likely brought Christianity to the island.", "Various saints such as the Celts Samson of Dol and Branwalator (Brelade) were active in the region.", "Tradition has it that Saint Helier from Tongeren in modern-day Belgium first brought Christianity to the island in the 6th century; part of the walls of the Fishermen's Chapel dates from this period and Charlemagne sent his emissary to the island (at that time called ''Angia'', also spelt ''Agna'') in 803.A chapel built around 911 now forms part of the nave of the Parish Church of St Clement.=== Duchy of Normandy (873–1204) ===From 873, Jersey was affected by the conquests by the Normans of the western coast of France (the Channel Islands were territory of the Kingdom of France at this time).", "During the reign of Charles III the Simple, the territory of modern Normandy was yielded to Rollo, the leader of the Normans, with the title of the \"Duke of Normandy\".", "While the Duchy was held in fief to the French Crown, the Crown only had limited rights in the province.In around 933, Duke William I (William Longsword), seized Jersey, which until then had been politically linked to Brittany, and it is likely that the pre-Norman form of government and way of life was replaced at this point.", "The island adopted the Norman law system, still the basis of Jersey law today.", "During Norman rule, the island redeveloped after the devastation brought by the Vikings and developed agriculture.", "Immigration from the Norman mainland at this time first brought the modern Norman cultural influences found in the island today.", ":19A key part of the early administrative structure of Jersey was the fief.", "Alongside the parish, the fief provided a basic framework for rural life; the system began with the Norman system and largely remained similar to it.", "In Jersey, the dues, services and rents owed by tenants were extensive and often onerous.", "Jersey peasants retained a degree of freedom lost elsewhere, probably due to the insignificance of the island in the Duchy.", "More is known of the origins of the fief than of the parishes and early documents show that Jersey was thoroughly feudalised (the majority of the residents were tenants holding land from Seigneurs).", "The fief of St Ouen, the most senior fief in Jersey's feudal structure, was by 1135 in the hands of the de Carteret family.", "They held extensive lands in Carteret as well, but these were lost by them after King John's loss of Normandy, so they decided to settle on the island.", "Between the 12th and 20th centuries, there were an estimated 245 fiefs in Jersey, though not all simultaneously.In 1066, the Duke William the Conqueror defeated Harold Godwinson at Hastings to become the King of England; however, he continued to rule his French possessions, including Jersey, as a separate entity, as fealty was owed to the King of France.", "This initial association of Jersey with England did not last long, as William split his possessions between his two elder sons: Robert Curthose became Duke of Normandy and William Rufus gained the English Crown.", "After William Rufus' death his younger brother Henry I claimed the English throne, and recaptured Normandy for England in 1106.The island was then part of the English King's realm (though still part of Normandy and France).", "Around 1142, it is recorded that Jersey was under the control of the Count of Anjou, who administered Normandy for the Duke.According to the Rolls of the Norman Exchequer, in 1180 Jersey was divided for administrative purposes into three ministeria: , and (possibly containing four parishes each).", "Gorroic is an old spelling for Gorey, containing St Martin, St Saviour, Grouville and St Clement; Groceio could derive from de Gruchy, and contains St John, Trinity, St Lawrence and St Helier; and Crapoudoit, likely referring to the stream of St Peter's Valley, contains the remainder of the parishes in the West.", "This was a time of building or extending churches with most parish churches in the island being built/rebuilt in a Norman style chosen by the abbey or priory to which each church had been granted.", "St Mary and St Martin being given to Cerisy Abbey.", "By Norman times, the parish boundaries were firmly fixed and remain largely unchanged since.", "It was likely set in place due to the tithe system under Charlemagne, where each property must contribute to the church, so each property would have had to be established within a parish.", "The parish system is much more important in Jersey than in England or post-Napoleon France.", ":15After the death of Henry II in 1189 and the short reign of Richard I, the island (and the rest of the Empire) fell to King John in 1199.In 1200, John agreed to render homage of his Norman territories to the King Philip Augustus of France, but in 1204, King Philip re-conquered the Duchy.", "Though the French initially occupied the Channel Islands from 1204 to 1206 (and again in 1216 to 1217), John recognised their strategic importance and recovered them.", "However, thanks to Pierre de Préaux, a governor of Rouen who possessed the isles, who decided to support King John, the islands remained in the personal possession of the English king and were described as being a Peculiar of the Crown.Gorey and guards Jersey from attack from the French coast opposite" ], [ "13th century", "It is said, in tradition, that the island's autonomy derives from the ''Constitutions of King John'', however this is disputed.", "Until King James II, successive English monarchs have then granted to Jersey by charter its certain privileges, likely to ensure the island's continued loyalty, accounting for its advantageous position at the boundary of the European continent.", "As John (and later Henry III) maintained his title as the rightful Duke of Normandy until 1259, the island's courts were originally established as Norman, not English territory (to use English law would de-legitimise the English Crown's claim to the ducal title), so are based upon traditional Norman laws and customs, such as the ''Coutumier de Normandie''.Now sited on the French-English border, the Channel Islands ceased to be a peaceful backwater and became a potential flashpoint on the international stage.", "Under the wardenships of Philippe d'Aubigny (1212–1224, 1232–1234), the island was attacked by Eustace the Monk, a pirate, while the warden was fighting for the King in the Barons' war.", "In 1217, Louis, the son of Philip II of France, ordered after the Treaty of Lambeth, that the supporters of Eustace should return the islands to England.", "The same year, Eustace was beheaded after being captured at Sandwich.", "Therefore, the Warden, de Suligny, constructed a castle at Gorey, known as Mont Orgueil, to serve as a royal fortress and military base.", "This was needed as the Island had few defences and had previously been suppressed by a fleet commanded by a French exile, Eustace the Monk working with the English King until in 1212 he changed sides and raided the Channel Islands on behalf of the French King.An inquest was held into the loyalty of the Jersey landowners.", "Most Jersey landowners had their main estates on the Mainland, so John needed to re-organise the land to remove the unfaithful lords.", "Most lords forfeited their insular land in favour of their French territory, but some remained, notably the de Carteret family of St Ouen.", "The old aristocracy gave way to a new one, with landowners drawn from royal officials, who soon came to think of themselves as islanders rather than Englishmen.", "This saw the firm establishment of the feudal system in Jersey, with fiefs headed by Seigneurs.", ":30In the Treaty of Paris (1259), the King of France gave up claim to the Channel Islands.", "The claim was based upon his position as feudal overlord of the Duke of Normandy.", "The King of England gave up claim to mainland Normandy and therefore the Channel Islands were split from the rest of Normandy.", "The Channel Islands were never absorbed into the Kingdom of England and the island has had self-government since.", "The administration of the island was handled by an insular government.", "The King appointed a Warden (later \"Capitain\" or \"Governor\", now the Lieutenant-Governor of Jersey), a position largely occupied with the defence of the island.", "From 1415 until the second half of the 15th century, the islands were governed by a Lord (or Lady).", "Despite the end to Norman rule, the churches of the island were permitted to continue to be under the Diocese of Coutances for another 300 years to appease islanders, however at times of war the liberties of the clergy were often restricted.The existing Norman customs and laws were allowed to continue and there was no attempt to introduce English law.", "The formerly split administrative system was replaced with a centralised legal system, of which the head was the King of England rather than the Duke of Normandy.", "The law was conducted through 12 jurats, constables () and a bailiff ().", "These titles have different meanings and duties to those in England.", "Any oppression by a bailiff or a warden was to be resolved locally or failing that, by appeal to the King who appointed commissioners to report on disputes.", "In the late 1270s, Jersey was given its own Bailiff and from the 1290s, the duties of Bailiff and Warden were separated.", "The (Sub-)Warden became responsible for taxation and defence, while the Bailiff became responsible for justice.", "While probably originally a temporary arrangement by Otto de Grandison, this became permanent and the foundation for Jersey's modern separation of Crown and justice.", "It also lessened the Warden's authority relative to the Bailiff, who had much more interaction with the community.The role of the jurats when the King's court was mobile would have been preparatory work for the visit of the Justices in Eyre.", "It is unknown for how long the position of the jurats has existed, with some claiming the position dates to time immemorial.", "After the cessation of the visits of the Justices in Eyre (and with the frequent absence of the Warden), the Bailiff and jurats took on a much wider role, from jury to justice.", ":28For geographic reasons, during the thirteenth century, the Channel Islands became a strategic stopping point for fleets carrying goods, particularly wine, across the Channel.", "This led to an economic boom, islanders becoming highly wealthy, and a population boom.", "Jersey's population probably numbered around 12,000, beyond what the island's agriculture was able to sustain itself.In 1294, Philip IV 'the Fair' conquered Gascony, starting an Anglo-French war.", "Jersey was attacked that year in revenge for the destruction of a French fleet in the Channel, leading to the destruction of churches, homes and crops and the deaths of many islanders." ], [ "14th and 15th centuries", "=== Plague and Hundred Year's War (1337–1455) ===In 1336, the Scots king David Bruce attacked the Channel Islands, committing arson, murder and other atrocities.", "Due to this attack, other attacks and the threat of further attacks from the Scots, an Island Militia was formed in 1337, which was compulsory for the next 600 years for all men of military age.", "In November 1337, King Edward III broke off negotiations with the French, starting the Hundred Year's War.In March 1338, a French force led by Admiral Béhuchet landed on Jersey, intent on capturing the island.", "The French devastated the island.", "In four parishes, all tithe corn was burnt.", "Although the island was overrun, Mont Orgueil remained in English hands, besieged by Béhuchet.", "The French remained until September, when they sailed off to conquer Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark.", "In 1339, the French returned, allegedly with 8,000 men in 17 Genoese galleys and 35 French ships.", "Led by Robert Bertrand, to whom the islands had been transferred by the French King, the French forces promised islanders their ancient liberties, which had not been ratified by the English King in recent times.", "A number of senior islanders were pro-French at the time.", "Again, they failed to take the castle and, after causing damage, withdrew.In 1341, in recognition of islanders' efforts during the war, Edward III declared that Jerseymen should 'hold and retain all privileges, liberties, immunities and customs granted by our forebares'.", "This began the tradition of successive Monarchs devolving powers over the island to Islanders, giving them certain privileges and protecting the separation between the Channel Islands and the rest of their royal realm.", "In 1342, the Warden Sir Thomas of Hampton attempted to recapture Castle Cornet with a contingent of Jerseymen.", "His Lieutenant Henry de la More however lost the faith gained from the islanders by the King's charter.", "Islanders petitioned the King to punish de la More and Hampton.", "The island was thrown in a sullen revolt, which sometimes broke out into fighting.The change in England to a written language in \"English\" was not taken up in Jersey, where Norman-French continued until the 20th century.In 1348, when the Black Death would likely have reached the island, there are no kept records for the number of deaths seen on the island.", "Coastal France was highly affected by the plague and it is likely that the death toll was around 30–40 percent in Jersey.", "In the wake of the plague, the island experienced economic stagnation but high levels of employment, with population numbers kept down by late marriage and declining fertility.In July 1373, Bertrand du Guesclin overran Jersey and besieged Mont Orgueil.", "His troops succeeded in breaching the outer defences, forcing the garrison back to the keep.", "The garrison came to an agreement that they would surrender if not relieved by Michaelmas and du Guesclin sailed back to Brittany, leaving a small force to carry on the siege.", "An English relief fleet arrived in time.In 1378, the island was placed in an awkward position during the Western Schism.", "The island was under the Diocese of Coutances in France, while administered politically by England.", "Therefore, as France supported Clement's claim to the Papal see and England supported Urban's, there was tension in the island between the Government and Church.", "The Warden ordered the banishment of the Dean, labelled a 'supporter of the anti-Pope'.", "The island was placed under an Urbanite Administrator, as a separately administered part of the Coutances diocese.In the 1390s, under Richard II who was eager for peace with France, the island was almost recognised as an integral part of Normandy and returned to the French Crown.", "He did however in 1394 grant the islands the right of exemption from tolls, duties and customs in England.However, this matter was interrupted by the usurpation of Henry IV in England in 1399.When he seized the throne, Henry renewed the charters confirming the privileges of Jersey.", "Henry's much firmer stance on relations with the French caused the war with France to resume.", "On 7 October 1406, 1,000 French men at arms led by Pedro de Niño, a Castilian nobleman turned corsair, invaded Jersey, landing at St Aubin's Bay and defeated the 3,000 defenders but failed to capture the island.", "They landed in St Aubin's Bay (at the islet where Elizabeth Castle now stands) at night, then the next morning advanced across the beach towards the town, but lost the battle.", "The next day they moved towards Mont Orgueil.", "An agreement was reached with the invaders that the island would pay a hefty ransom and they left on 9 October.In 1412, Henry V came to the throne with a renewed vigour to reclaim England's former continental possessions.", "In 1413, Parliament ordered the transfer of all foreign-owned property to the Crown, which led to the closure of six priorities in England and the cessation of tithes to the Church in France.", "Instead, the tithes from the Church's land in Jersey was reverted to the Crown.", "Henry's successful campaign against the French involved Jerseymen: in the siege of Cherbourg in 1418, every boat on the island was called out to support the blockade.", "In 1420, Henry entered Paris, leaving Jersey no longer an outpost of the English realm, leading to years of prosperity and the enlargement of many parish churches.", "When Henry called the bishops of Normandy to do him homage in Rouen, only Coutances obeyed.", "As a result, Jersey was returned to his full jurisdiction.From 1429, animosity towards the English rulers by the French and the subsequent rise of Joan of Arc inspired France to evict the English from mainland France, with the exception of Calais, returning Jersey to the front line.", "This eviction cemented Jersey's Britishness.", "Had England not lost its possessions, France would certainly have become the dominant part of the Anglo-French combined realm, and its relative geographic and cultural proximity would have made Jersey markedly part of France.=== War of the Roses (1455–1487) ===During the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), the French did not succeed in capturing Jersey.", "However, during the War of the Roses (1455–1487), Margaret of Anjou, queen consort of England, made a secret deal with Pierre de Brézé to gain French support for the Lancastrians, leading to the French capturing Mont Orgueil in the summer of 1461.In 1462, de Brézé issued ordinances outlining the role of the bailiff and the jurats.", "Jersey was occupied by French forces until 1468 when Yorkist forces and local militia recaptured the castle.Edward IV oversaw the administrative separation of Jersey and Guernsey.", "In 1469, he issued separate charters of privilege for the bailiwicks and from 1478 the islands had different captains (albeit with a common captain in chief).It may well be during this occupation that the island saw the establishment of the States.", "Comte Maulevrier, who had led the invasion of the island, ordered the holding of an Assize in the island.", "Maulevrier confirmed the place of existing institutions, however created the requirement for Jurats to be chosen by Bailiffs, Jurats, Rectors and Constables.=== Tudors and Reformation (1485–1603) ===The accession of Henry VII is determined as the 'final separation of the Channel Islands from Normandy'.", "The end of the War of the Roses marked the end of the previously complex, war-torn relationship with Normandy.", "In 1496, King Henry VII obtained a Papal bull to transfer the islands from the Bishop of Coutances to Salisbury, although for nearly 50 years after, due to the proximity of the isles to Coutances, the Bishop continued to act as the de facto bishop of the islands.", ":67During the 16th century, ideas of the reformation of the church coupled with the split with the Catholic Faith by Henry VIII, resulted in the islanders adopting the Protestant religion, in 1569 the churches moved under the control of the Diocese of Winchester.", "During the reign of Edward VI, the Government issued a new prayer book, which was translated into French, however did not arrive in the island until the throne had changed hands to Queen Mary, who led the restoration of Catholicism in England.", "However, Jersey did not have any death sentences issued for Catholicism, due to the island being kept out of the limelight by its Governor Poulet.", "The island did not become Catholic, with numerous anti-Papists still in position.", ":79During the reign of Elizabeth I, Calvinism took hold in Jersey due to the immigration of French Huguenot refugees.", "This meant that life became very austere: laws were strictly enforced, punishment for wrong doers was severe, but education was improved – a school was started in every parish and support was given for Jersey boys to attend Oxford.", "Each elder knew every family within his vingtaine, 'whether they have household prayers morning and evening, say grace after meals and live in peace and concord.'", "The excommunication of Elizabeth by the Pope increased the military threat to the island and the increasing use of gunpowder on the battlefield meant that the fortifications on the island had to be adapted.", "A new fortress was built to defend St Aubin's Bay, the new Elizabeth Castle was named after the queen by Sir Walter Raleigh when he was governor.", "The island militia was reorganised on a parish basis and each parish had two cannon which were usually housed in the church – one of the St Peter cannon can still be seen at the bottom of Beaumont Hill.In 1540, there was an outbreak of plague on the island, and the Lieutenant Governor, Robert Raymond, ordered the closure of all markets, fairs and public assemblies.", ":70In 1541, the Privy Council, which had recently given a seat to Calais, intended to give two seats in Parliament to Jersey.", "Seymour, the Lieutenant-Governor of the Island, wrote to the Jurats, instructing them to send two Burgesses for the isle.", "However, no further steps seemed to have been taken since the letter did not arrive in front of the States Assembly until the day the elected persons were required to arrive in London.", ":70=== Jersey's role in early colonialism ===During the Elizabethan Era, Europeans began to explore and establish colonies in the Americas.", "The Jèrriais were no exception to this.", "Jersey was a notable trading port, on the route linking the Netherlands to Spain and between England and France.", "A number of locals were colonialists to Newfoundland from its discovery by Europeans in 1497.By 1591, Jerseymen were sailing small boats across the Atlantic in the spring and not returning to the island until the autumn ploughing.", "In 1611, St Brelade's Church was allowed to hold Communion early, such that the travellers could communicate before sailing from St Aubin.", "Southampton was also an important port for the Jersey people, with a number of them settling and taking important roles in the town.This map of Jersey, published in 1639, shows interior details such as Le Mont ès Pendus (the gallows hill, now called Westmount).", "At first sight, the coastline appears wildly inaccurate, but if the image is rotated a little clockwise, the shape becomes much closer to what is known today.One of the favourable trade deals with England was the ability to import wool (England needing an export market but was at war with most of Europe).", "The production of knitwear in the island reached such a scale that it threatened the island's ability to produce its own food, so laws were passed regulating who could knit with whom and when.", "The name jersey being synonymous for a sweater, shows its importance." ], [ "17th century", "=== Governorship of John Peyton (1603–1620) ===James VI of Scotland became King of England, and hence of Jersey, after the death of Elizabeth I in 1603.The Governor of the time, Walter Ralegh, was tried and imprisoned for conspiring against the King after the death of Elizabeth and replaced with Sir John Peyton.", "Peyton strongly disliked Presbyterianism, including Calvinism, and attempted to abolish the religion in Jersey.", "The king initially allowed the island's to continue under their present faith system.", "However, Calvinism was increasingly unpopular among islanders, which aided Peyton's caused.", "When St Peter's rectory became vacant in 1613, Peyton appointed Elie Messervy to the position.", "The Colloquy called a Synod to meet to discuss, however Peyton banned the meeting.", "Both sides sent parties to Westminster – the Colloquy sending George Poulet, the Bailiff – however a compromise was found locally, with Messervy agreeing to continue using the Huguenot prayer book.To this day, the tradition that the Bailiff wears red robes remains.Peyton was also against democracy in the form of the States and the freedoms of the Courts in Jersey.", "In 1615, Jean Hérault was appointed Bailiff by the King, having been promised the role by letters patent in 1611.Peyton disputed this appointment, claiming it was the Governor's jurisdiction to appoint the Bailiff.", "Hérault asserted it was the King's jurisdiction to directly appoint the Bailiff.", "An Order in Council (dated 9 August 1615) sided with Hérault, which Hérault took to claim the Bailiff was the real head of government and the Governor was simply a military officer.", "Hérault took steps to assert the precedence of the Bailiff over Governor: he ordered his name to be placed before the Governor's in church prayers and was the first Bailiff to wear red robes (in the style of English judges).", "To back his claims, he cited that in the Norman administrative tradition, the Bailiffs had \"noone above them except the Duke\".", "He frequently reported neglect of duty by Peyton, such as the reduction in the guard at Elizabeth Castle.This dispute led to one of the most major turning points in Jersey's constitutional history, as the division of powers between the Governor and Bailiff were clearly demarcated.", "Though the Privy Council did not agree with Hérault's extreme position on the precedence of the Bailiff, on 18 February 1617 it declared that the \"charge of military forces be wholly in the Governor, and the care of justice and civil affairs in the Bailiff.\"", "This secured for both the Bailiff and the States precedence over the Governor on justice and civil affairs, the constitutional precedent which limits the involvement of the Lieutenant-Governor in domestic affairs today.In 1617, the Royal Commissioners Sir Edward Conway and Sir William Bird visited the island.", "This led to the recommendation that the island should have a Dean.", "The appointment was David Bandinel, the Italian Rector of St Brelade's, taking office in 1620.This was not popular with the States, with some Rectors stating they would not recognise the position of the Dean.", "He took office nonetheless and, by order of the King, Anglicanism was hence effectively established as the state religion of the island.", "The Book of Discipline lost its validity and the prayer book was changed to a translated version of the Book of Common Prayer, and all future Ministers had to be appointed from then on by a Bishop.", "Bandinel enforced these changes, including removing the Rector of St Mary from office for speaking against the prayer book, however the order that Communion should be taken kneeling was not.Aside from religion, the Commissioners also ordered that the island's garrisons be increased and for better training for the militia.", "They did not recognise the Bailiff as being the island's true Governor, ordering that the States must receive permission from the Governor before being permitted to meet, however did also affirm the precedence of the Bailiff in the civil administrative spheres.=== Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1646–1651) ===During the 1640s, England, Ireland and Scotland were embroiled in the War of the Three Kingdoms.", "The civil war also divided Jersey, and while the sympathy of islanders lay with Parliament, the de Carterets (particularly Sir George Carteret and Sir Philippe de Carteret II) held the island for the king.", "The Prince of Wales, the future Charles II visited the island in 1646 and again in October 1649 following the trial and execution of his father, Charles I.", "In the Royal Square in St. Helier on 17 February 1649, Charles was publicly proclaimed king after his father's death (following the first public proclamation in Edinburgh on 5 February 1649).", "Parliamentarian forces eventually captured the island in 1651 and Elizabeth Castle seven weeks later.=== Commonwealth and Restoration (1651-1689) ===The Puritan Col. James Heane was appointed Governor of Jersey in 1651.There were complaints from islanders about the new resident soldiers.", "Despite the fact that Heane had prohibited looting, many soldiers stole things from islanders and secularised a number of holy buildings, for example burning all the pews in St Helier's church.", "Many soldiers attending services at the island's churches disrespected services because they could not understand them, as Jersey services were in the local French language.", "Printed slips were brought from England which Jerseymen were required to sign, swearing allegiance to the 'Republic of England ... without King or House of Lords'.The Royalist landowners could redeem their land by pating between one and two years' income.", "However Jersey's system of ''rentes'' were complicated from an English perspective and the process of extracting the value of incomes from the landlords was laborious.", "The Receiver-General stormed because he could not get enough funds for his department, leading to him affronting the Bailiff and being imprisoned in Mont Orgeuil.There was concern over the new republican Government's powers to reform Jersey's system of governance.", "At the time, all but one Jurat had been deposed of office and Parliament had prevented any election in the island until it had control of the situation.", "The Council recommended that the island's government be fully restored, but that all entrusted with public office should be freely elected and not to enjoy continuance for life.", "However, before the reforms could be implemented, the English Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Long Parliament in 1653.As such, the replacement Parliament recommended that year that ten new Jurats be elected, provided they were loyal to Parliament and to hold office for two years only.", "However, this new Parliament was also dissolved, so only one Jurat remained.", "Attempts were also made to incorporate Jersey into England.", "In 1652, Parliament had treated it as an English county, appointing a county committee, and in 1653, an Instrument decreed that Jersey should send one member to the House of Commons.", "In the end, the States never met during the nine years of the Commonwealth as the Bailiff, Lemprière, refused to call on the Rectors.Instead the island was governed by the Royal Court (called ''L'État'' or the Court of the Lord Protector).", "Cromwell directly appointed – as opposed to the islanders electing – eleven Jurats to serve on the Court, however many of these were absent and neither able to govern nor administer justice.While Charles was proclaimed King in London on 8 May 1660, it was not until 2 June that that news reached the island, and Charles II was proclaimed King for the second time in the Royal Square.", "In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile, Charles II gave George Carteret, Bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named New Jersey, now part of the United States of America.", "Furthermore, Charles II presented to the island a royal mace as a 'perpetual remembrance of the Bailiffs' fiedelity'; since then, it has always been carried before the Bailiff at sittings of the Royal Court and the States (even during the Occupation).Another reward given to the island by Charles was the perquages.", "These are a series of routes that offered sanctuary to malefactors to leave the island.", "All except St Ouen and St Martin lead to the south coast.", "For example, St Mary, St John and St Lawrence leave via St Peter's Valley and Beaumont (today a cycle track leading to the south coast).", "Where a case did not amount to felony, wrongdoers could request to ''vider le pays'', being entitled to nine days of sanctuary in any of the parish churches and then having to leave the island using a perquage route.", "This theory of the perquages as being routes of sanctuary is disputed.", "However, it is likely the clergy used these ancient ways to convey outlaws to the sea and records show sanctions for blocking the perquage way.In 1666, it was reported by English spies in Paris that Louis XIV intended to invade Jersey after his declaration of war with England.", "The Governor rallied the militia, intent on dying to defend the island, but peace was agreed before any invasion could happen.In 1673, there were concerns over the growing number of houses on the island.", "The construction of houses on arable land was putting the island's self-sustenance and food security at risk.", "Therefore, the States declared that new houses should only be built in St Aubin and Gorey, or where surrounded by 20 vergées of land.In 1680, the States voted in favour of requesting the island's first dedicated prison be constructed in town in order to be nearer the Royal Court (previously prisoners had been held at Mont Orgueil, the King's tenants in the east being required to guard them).", "The building arching over Charing Cross (at the time the entrance to town from the west) was completed by 1699, where the prison would remain until its 1811 relocation to the present site of the General Hospital (on Gloucester Street, not at Westmount).=== Reign of William of Orange (1689–1699) ===In 1689, William of Orange became the King of England; and England, as a Dutch ally, went to war against the French.", "Although due to the scale of the war, the island did not come into much focus, it was at this time the Privilege of Neutrality which had long been enjoyed by the islands was lost.", "William had banned all trade with France, a proclamation which applied to Jersey as well, however due to corruption in the higher levels of Jersey's government, namely the Lieutenant-Governor himself Edward Harris, a large smuggling trade thrived, operating from the bailiwick.", "Smugglers would be alerted by a fire set by French merchants on the Écrehous reef, a part of Jersey's bailiwick, to which Jersey boats, under the approval of the Lieutenant-Governor, would travel to conduct illegal trade.", "Despite attempts from parish authorities to stop the boats, the fact that the reef was part of Jersey and that these boats had permission from the government to travel to the islets, no action could be taken.During William's wars with France, Jersey was on the whole at peace, with the notable exception of 1692, when Louis XIV permitted an army to gather at La Hougue on the Cotentin.", "James II himself also went to the Cotentin, however Jersey's allegiance was now against the Stuarts.", "However, in a naval battle in 1692, the French fleet at La Hougue were destroyed.", "Although the threat of foreign powers was numb during this period, on island tensions were high.", "The Governors and Bailiffs were generally absent – the Governor Henry Lumley never visited the island at all during his time in office and after the death of Sir Edouard de Carteret, no bailiff was appointed for five years.", "The eventual successor Charles de Carteret faced large opposition, especially from his own tenants in St. Ouen.", "A group of jurats complained to the Privy Council that de Carteret was absent and not well accustomed to the law and culture of the island.", "Charles attempted to oppose this by blocking sittings of the Jurats in court, claiming they could not sit since they were related to the plaintiff or defendant (which they most often were since everyone in Jersey was somehow related to one another).", "With Charles ended the male line of de Carteret seigneurs.Towards the end of the 17th century, Jersey strengthened its links with the Americas when many islanders emigrated to New England and north east Canada.", "The Jersey merchants built up a thriving business empire in the Newfoundland and Gaspé fisheries.", "Companies such as Robins and the Le Boutilliers set up thriving businesses." ], [ "18th century", "Martello towers were built along the coasts to protect the Island from French attack.", "Pictured is First Tower on Victoria Avenue.=== Public unrest in the early century ===By the 1720s, a discrepancy in coinage values between Jersey and France was threatening economic stability.", "The States of Jersey therefore resolved to devalue the liard to six to the sou.", "The legislation to that effect implemented in 1729 caused popular riots that shook the establishment.", "The devaluation was therefore cancelled.In the 1730s, there was sporadic violence against the collectors of Crown tithes, especially in St Ouen, St Brelade and Trinity.=== Corn Riots ===A revolt, known as the Corn Riots or the Jersey Revolution, occurred in 1769.They were centred around the balance of power between the island's parliament, the States, and the Royal Court, both of which had powers to create legislation.", "An anti-Seigneurial sentiment – opposition to the feudal economic system – also contributed to the popular revolt.", "The spark for the riots was a corn shortage, in part caused by corruption in the ruling classes, led by the Lieutenant Bailiff Charles Lemprière, whose style of rule was authoritarian.On 28 September 1769, men from the northern parishes marched into town and rioted, including breaking into the Royal Court in a threatening manner.", "The States retreated to Elizabeth Castle and called on the Privy Council for help under false pretences.", "The Council sent five companies of Royal Scots, who discovered the islanders' grievances.The protestors demands include reductions in price of wheat and the abolition of certain, or all, Seigneurial privileges.", "In reaction, the Crown issued the Code of 1771, which attempted to separate the island's judiciary and legislature.", "The Code codified Jersey's laws and removed lawmaking powers from the Royal Court.", "While the abolition of the Seigneurial system woas not achieved, tighter restrictions were placed on the collection of Crown revenues.=== Politics and religion in the 18th century ===The Chamber of Commerce founded 24 February 1768 is the oldest English-speaking Chamber of Commerce.The late 18th century was the first time political parties in some form came into existence on the island.", "Jean Dumaresq was an early Liberal who called for democratic reforms (that the States should be democratically elected Deputies and should have vested in them executive power).", "His supporters were known as (\"maggots\", initially an insult from his opponents, which the reclaimed as their own term) and his opponents as the '''' (supporters of the Lieutenant Baliff Charles Lempière).", "Dumaresq is quoted as saying \"we shall make these Seigneurs bite the dust\".", "In 1776, he was elected as Connétable for St Peter.", ":200Wesley's legacy remains in Jersey today.", "The Methodist Centre in St Helier in 2012.Methodism arrived in Jersey in 1774, brought by fishermen returning from Newfoundland.", "Conflict with the authorities ensued when men refused to attend militia drill when that coincided with chapel meetings.", "The Royal Court attempted to proscribe Methodist meetings, but King George III refused to countenance such interference with liberty of religion.", "The first Methodist minister in Jersey was appointed in 1783, and John Wesley preached in Jersey in August 1789, his words being interpreted into the vernacular for the benefit of those from the country parishes.", "The first building constructed specifically for Methodist worship was erected in St. Ouen in 1809.=== Battle of Jersey ===''The Death of Major Peirson'', John Singleton Copley, 1782–1784.The 18th century was a period of political tension between Britain and France, as the two nations clashed all over the world as their ambitions grew.", "Because of its position, Jersey was more or less on a continuous war footing.During the American Wars of Independence, two attempted invasions of the island were made.", "In 1779, the Prince of Orange William V was prevented from landing at St Ouen's Bay; on 6 January 1781, a force led by Baron de Rullecourt captured St Helier in a daring dawn raid, but was defeated by a British army led by Major Francis Peirson in the Battle of Jersey.", "A short-lived peace was followed by the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars which, when they had ended, had changed Jersey forever.", "In 1799–1800, over 6000 Russian troops under the command of Charles du Houx de Vioménil were quartered in Jersey after an evacuation of Holland.=== After the Battle ===The end of war with France and America saw the growth of trade between Jersey and the New World, especially Canada and Newfoundland.", "By 1763, around a third of the fish being exported from Conception Bay was carried by Jersey vessels.", "In the 1780s, a number of Jersey families settled permanently, such as the de Quettevilles in Forteau, Labrador.", "The first printing press was introduced to Jersey in 1784.Anti-seigneurial attitudes remained in Jersey, despite the reforms of 1771.In 1785, an anti-seigneurial document containing 36 articles was included in St Ouen's Parish Assembly minutes.", "It included demands for reform such as the abolition of Seigneurial services and an end to the seizure of goods following bankruptcy.", "These demands were paralleled in St Helier and St John and by an article in , the only newspaper at the time.", "These demands formed the basis for a sustained anti-feudal struggle during the next century." ], [ "19th century", "The 19th century saw massive changes in Jersey society.", "A large influx of immigrants from England made Jersey a more connected island than ever before, and brought with it cultural changes and the desire for political reform.", "During this period, the States reformed to become more representative of the population and the Jersey culture became more anglicised and less religious.", "The island also grew economically and the built-up areas of the island expanded, especially St Helier, with the development of public transport on the island.=== Pre-Victoria ===leftThe statue to General Don in the ParadeThe pre-existing road network was an intricate network of roads and lanes.", "During the nineteenth century, many parishes took on the administration of more and more of these lanes.", "The network was criticised at the time for being subpar.", "A common Jèrriais saying is , which means 'as old as the roads'.", "In the early 19th century, the military roads were constructed (on occasion at gunpoint in the face of opposition from landowners) by the governor, General George Don, to link coastal fortifications with the town harbour.", "Much of the opposition to the plans came from islanders, who thought the country's best defence was its convoluted network of narrow lanes.", "The new road system was met with considerable opposition, particularly due to its expense.", "The St Helier Parish Assembly forbade the completion of the Trinity main road within its boundaries.", "The new network allowed greater communication between disparate parts of the island.", "These had an unexpected effect on agriculture once peace restored reliable trade links.", "Farmers in previously isolated valleys were able to swiftly transport crops grown in the island's microclimate to waiting ships and then on to the markets of London and Paris ahead of the competition.", "In conjunction with the later introduction of steamships and the development of the French and British railway systems, Jersey's agriculture was no longer as isolated as before.The early 19th century was a period of growth of trade for Jersey.", "In the wake of the Napoleonic wars after the defeat of France in 1815, the Channel Islands lost their strategic value, as points of conflict between the British and foreign powers moved to the North Sea.", "The UK had a need to reduce its forces to cut spending, but the Channel Islands defence costs reached £500,000 pa, even in peacetime.", "The utility of possessing the islands came into question.", "John Ramsay McCulloch described the advantages the islands provided to the UK as \"neither very obvious nor material\".", "However, in 1845, the Duke of Wellington strongly defended the islands in the Memorandum on the Defence of the United Kingdom.An English Custom House was established in the island in 1810.A key turning point in Jersey history was the introduction of steamships.", "Previous to that, travel to the island was long and unpredictable.", "In the mid-1820s, the post office switched to steam as well.", "The first paddle steamer to visit Jersey was the Medina on 11 June 1823.In 1824, two shipping companies were established, each operating weekly steamship services to England.A view over St Helier in 2008.During the 19th century, St Helier saw significant expansion to the north.This brought thousands of passengers to the country.", "By 1840, there were 5,000 English residents, who some say did not mix well or interact deeply with the native Jèrriais.", "The number of English-speaking soldiers stationed in the island and the number of retired officers and English-speaking labourers who came to the islands in the 1820s led to the island gradually moving towards an English-speaking culture in town.", "This new immigration had a large impact on local architecture, with a number of mainland Georgian-style houses and terraces erected on the main roads out of St Helier.", "The town also expanded with many new streets, such as Burrard Street, first developed in 1812.In 1831, street lighting was first used.", "In 1843 it was agreed to erect street names.", "The rapid growth of St. Helier was one of the most significant changes in the landscape of Jersey during the 19th century.", "The town developed from a small settlement by the coast to encompassing most of the parish and spreading out into St. Clement and St. Saviour.The English harbour was the first permanent harbour to be constructed in town.An important growth for St Helier in the early 19th century was the construction of the harbour.", "Previously, ships coming into the town had only a small jetty at the site now called the English Harbour and the French Harbour.", "The Chamber of Commerce urged the States to build a new harbour, but the States refused, so the Chamber took it into their own hands and paid to upgrade the harbour in 1790.A new breakwater was constructed to shelter the jetty and harbours.", "In 1814, the merchants constructed the roads now known as Commercial Buildings and Le Quai des Marchands to connect the harbours to the town and in 1832 construction was finished on the Esplanade and its sea wall.", "A rapid expansion in shipping led the States in 1837 to order the construction of two new piers: the Victoria and Albert Piers.=== A new island politics ===The post-Napoleonic War period was a divisive period politically for the island.", "In 1821, there was an election for Jurat.", "The St Laurentine Laurelites (conservatives, the eventual name for the '''') attacked the Inn in their village where Rose men (the progressive descendants of the '''') were holding a meeting.", "They damaged the building and injured both the innkeeper and his wife.", "On election day in St Martin, the a number of Rose voters were attacked, after which most Rose men refrained from voting.", "Although the Rose candidate won overall, he faced a number of lawsuits over claims of voter fraud, so in the end the Laurel candidate George Bertram took office.", ":232At this time, the national administration system, despite reform, still resembled a feudal system of governance.", "They also remained dominated by judicial and legislative overlap.", "In the nineteenth century, the growth of the town shifted economic power from the country parishes to St Helier, where also resided a large English population.", "During this century, Jersey's power structure shifted from the English Crown to the Jersey States, establishing Jersey as a near-independent state, however ultimate authority over the island shifted from the Crown to the British Parliament, aligning with the shift in the UK's politics towards a purely ceremonial monarch.", "The Privy Council put pressure of the island to reform its institutions, in the belief these reforms should align the country with a more English model of government and law.", "In 1883, John Stuart Blackie recounted an Englishman's comment that only one thing was needed to make Jersey perfect, and that was \"a full participation in the benefits of English law\".", "However, the Lieutenant Governor at the time stated that the absence of English law was what had brought Jerseymen such prosperity.Many locals blamed this push for reform on the island's new immigrants, who were unaccustomed to the island's distinct political and legal systems (although a major part of the mainstream reformer movement was in fact made of Jerseymen).", "Many English who had moved to the island discovered an alien environment, with unfamiliar laws (in a foreign language they could not understand) and no recourse to access the local power to counter them.", "The reformers of English heritage mostly came from the middle classes, and sought to further their own rights, not necessarily those of the working class.", "These Englishmen formed a pressure group known as the Civil Assembly of St Helier.", "This group was effectively split into two, one organised around Abraham Le Cras' hard-code English reformism and the other, a larger looser corpus of English reformists.", "The former was never representative of a significant proportion of the English community.", "One thing both shared however was a belief that the English systems were far superior to the historic Norman-based structures.Abraham Le Cras was an outspoken new resident – though with Jersey heritage – opposed to Jersey's self-government.", "He not only thought Jersey should be integrated into England fully, but disputed the right of the States to even make its own laws.", "He is noted as saying, 'the States have no more power to make laws for Jersey than I have'.", "In 1840 he won a court case challenging the States' ability to naturalise people as citizens.", "The Privy Council determined that the long-standing precedent of the States doing so had been invalidated since Jersey had been ruled under civil law since 1771.In 1846, he persuaded the MP for Bath to push for a Parliamentary Committee to enquire into the law of Jersey, however HM Government instead promised a Royal Commission.", "The Commission advised the abolition of the Royal Court run by the Jurats and the replacement of it with three Crown-appointed judges and the introduction of a paid police force.", "Le Cras left the island to live in England in 1850.In 1852, the island experienced somewhat of a constitutional crisis when the Privy Council issued three Orders in Council: establishing a police court, a petty debts court and a paid police force for St Helier.", "This sparked controversy locally, with claims that the move threatened Jersey's independence.", "Both parties united against the move and around 7000 islanders signing a petition.", "By 1854, the council had agreed to revoke the Orders, on the condition that the States passed most of the council's requirements.", "In 1856, further constitutional reform brought deputies into the States for the first time, with one deputy from each country parish and three from town.The threats to Jersey's autonomy continued.", "In the 1860s, there was raised a threat of an intervention in the island's government by the British Parliament itself, in order to impose change on the island's structures.=== Nonconformism and reform ===Nonconformity challenged traditional Jersey society from within; it had always been a part of Jersey life, and non-conformists such as the Methodists had generally been tolerated during peacetime.", "This isn't to say there weren't some tensions between the Established Church and non-conformists, but these were generally exceptional.", "Most country people had at least one non-conformist within their own family, so the othering of non-conformists never took much hold.", "However, non-conformists were often unable to fully participate in country life as the church played a central role in the secular parish, and were notably absent from honorary roles within the parish.", "The Established Church had to reassess itself and reform and the parish structure altered itself to become a more civil-focused organisation, preserving itself while allowing its community more religious freedom.=== Anglicisation ===At the start of the 19th century, Jersey people as a nation were British, rather French nor Norman.", "Due to the cultural divergence between the Island and the Norman mainland, relationships between individual Islanders and Frenchmen were less common.", "Due to an increase in French immigrants, the differences between the Islanders and the French became more apparent, and thus France and the French people were seen as foreign to the Island's population.", "Furthermore, increased links between Jersey and mainland Britain, such as through the improvement of St Helier's shipping capabilities and an increase in mainland Brits, made Jersey a more British nation.This led to a change in the linguistic demography in the Island.", "In the early parts of the century, mostly due to increased immigration from the rest of the British Isles, the town became a predominantly English-speaking place, though bilingualism was still common.", "This created a divided linguistic geography, as the people of the countryside continued to use Jèrriais, and many did not even know English.", "English became seen as 'the language of commercial success and moral and intellectual achievement'.The growth of English and the decline of French brought about the adoption of more values and social structures from Victorian England.", "From 1912, the new compulsory education was delivered solely in English, following the cultural norms, and teaching subjects from the perspective, of England.", "Eventually, this has led to the Island's culture becoming anglicised and much of the traditional Norman-based culture of the Island being disregarded or lost.", "Kelleher identifies anglicisation as a challenge Le Feuvre argues that this cultural change created a sense of inferiority about native Jersey culture and the language – viewed as a 'corruption, rather than an improvement' of Standard French by the English immigrant population – which only served to accelerate the process of anglicisation.Anglicisation was supported by the British state.", "It was suggested that, although the islands had proven themselves loyal to the British Sovereign, that this was out of hereditary impression, rather than affinity towards the English people, and that anglicisation would not only encourage loyalty and congeniality between the nations, but also provide economic prosperity and improved \"general happiness\".", "In 1846, through a lens of growing nationalism in the UK, there was concern against sending young islanders to France for education, where they might bring French principles, friendships and views of policy and government to the British Islands.", "The Jersey gentry adopted this policy of anglicisation, due to the social and economic benefits it would bring.", "Anglophiles such as John Le Couteur strove to introduce England to Jersey.", "In 1856, the Jersey Times, an English-language newspaper, was established in Jersey.", "The use of the English language in the States was first suggested by the Rev.", "Abraham Le Sueur of Grouville in 1880.=== Victorian Era (1837–1901) ===A Victorian 1/13 shilling coin issued in 1851Queen Victoria was crowned Queen of the United Kingdom in the right of Jersey in 1837.The first notable event of the Victorian era for Jersey was the change in currency.", "The ''livre tournois'' had been used as the legal currency for centuries, however it had been abolished during the French Revolutionary period.", "Although the coins were no longer minted, they remained the legal currency in Jersey until 1837, when dwindling supplies and consequent difficulties in trade and payment obliged the adoption of the pound sterling as legal tender.", "Keen to prevent a repeat of the ''Six-sou'' Revolt, the authorities wanted to ensure a fair exchange rate; 520 sous would be the equivalent of one Pound sterling.", "Jersey issued its first coins in 1841, including the 1/13 shilling coin, which was closer in value to the old ''sou'' than the English penny.The obelisk to Le SueurIn the 1840s, the Rose leader Pierre Le Sueur was elected as Connétable of St Helier.", "From 1845, he orchestrated the construction of a complete sewer system for the town.", "He remained in office for 15 years and on his death an obelisk was erected in the Broad Street square.The population of Jersey rose rapidly, from 47,544 in 1841 to 56,078 20 years later, despite a 20% mortality rate amongst new born children.", "Life expectancy was 35 years.", "Both immigration and emigration increased.", "In 1851, the English immigrant population numbered around 12,000, compared with a total island population of 57,000 people.", "In St Helier, they constituted 7,000 of the parish's 30,000 residents.", "As with in England, the English community in Jersey was not coherent, but divided by social class.", "At the top of the social ladder were those of independent means, who chose to retire in the island: they did not participate much in the local lifestyle or politics, instead creating a mini-English social life for themselves.", "While at the bottom, there was the English-born working class, who often lacked basic rights such as accessing welfare.The Hermitage Rock, St. Helier, Jersey amidst a fantastic landscape – by Victor Hugo (1855)In 1852, the French author and poet Victor Hugo arrived to seek refuge in Jersey, as had many other revolutionaries and socialists from the Continent, facing exile from France and Belgium.", "If any of these ''proscrits'' died on the island, they were buried in Macpela cemetery in Sion, St John.", "In 1855, these refugees republished in their weekly paper an open letter from a number of French socialists living in London, which stated 'You have sacrificed your dignity as a Queen, your fastidiousness as a woman, your pride as an aristocrat, even your honour.'", "The Lieutenant-Governor banished the three editors two days later.", "Although Hugo had disapproved of the letter, he joined a protest against the expulsion, and hence too was exiled from the island.", "He and his family left for Guernsey.The Theatre Royal was built, as were Victoria College in 1852 and exhibited 34 items at The Great Exhibition in 1851, the world's first ever Pillar box was installed in 1852 and a paid police force was created in 1854.Map of the former railway lines of JerseyThis century saw Jersey develop a public transport network.", "Towards the end of the last century, omnibuses came into use for the first time in the island.", "Two railways, the Jersey Western Railway in 1870, and the Jersey Eastern Railway in 1874, were opened.", "The western railway from to La Corbière and the eastern railway from to Gorey Pier.", "The two railways were never connected.Jersey was the fourth-largest shipbuilding area in the 19th-century British Isles, building over 900 vessels around the island.", "Shipbuilding declined with the coming of iron ships and steam.", "A number of banks on Jersey, guarantors of an industry both onshore and off, failed in 1873 and 1886, even causing strife and discord in far-flung societies.", "The population fell slightly in the twenty years to 1881.In the late 19th century, as the former thriving cider and wool industries declined, island farmers benefited from the development of two luxury products – Jersey cattle and Jersey Royal potatoes.", "The former was the product of careful and selective breeding programmes; the latter was a total fluke.The anarchist philosopher, Peter Kropotkin, who visited the Channel Islands in 1890, 1896, and 1903, described the agriculture of Jersey in ''The Conquest of Bread''.The 19th century also saw the rise of tourism as an important industry (linked with the improvement in passenger ships) which reached its climax in the period from the end of the Second World War to the 1980s." ], [ "20th century", "Elementary education became obligatory in 1899, and free in 1907.Queen Victoria died in 1901, and Edward VII was proclaimed as King in the Royal Square.", "His coronation a year later was marked by the first Battle of Flowers.", "The years before the First World War saw the foundation of the Jersey Eisteddfod by the Dean of Jersey, Samuel Falle.", "The first aeroplanes arrived in Jersey in 1912.In 1914, the British garrison was withdrawn at the start of the First World War and the militia were mobilised.", "Jersey men served in the British and French armed forces.", "Numbers of German prisoners of war were interned in Jersey.", "The influenza epidemic of 1918 added to the toll of war.In 1919, imperial measurements replaced, for the most part, the traditional Jersey system of weights and measures; women aged over 30 were given the vote; and the endowments of the ancient grammar schools were repurposed as scholarships for Victoria College.In 1921, the visit of King George V was the occasion for the design of the parish crests.In 1923, the British government asked Jersey to contribute an annual sum towards the costs of the Empire.", "The States of Jersey refused and offered instead a one-off contribution to war costs.", "After negotiations, Jersey's one-off contribution was accepted.With the growth of air travel globally, Jersey Airport was opened in 1937.The original terminal still stands today.The first motor car had arrived in 1899 and buses started running on the island in the 1920s, and by the 1930s, competition from motor buses had rendered the railways unprofitable, with final closure coming in 1935 after a fire disaster (except for the later German reintroduction of rail during the military occupation).", "Jersey Airport was opened in 1937 to replace the use of the beach of Saint Aubin's bay as an airstrip at low tide, and the railways could not cope with the competition.English was first permitted in debates in the States of Jersey in 1901, and the first legislation to be drawn up primarily in English was the Income Tax Law of 1928.===Occupation 1940–1945===As part of the Atlantic Wall, between 1940 and 1945, the occupying German forces and the Organisation Todt constructed fortifications round the coast of Jersey such as this observation tower at Battery Moltke.Following the withdrawal of defences by the British government and German bombardment, Jersey was occupied by German troops between 1940 and 1945.The Channel Islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.", "This period of occupation had about 8,000 islanders evacuated, 1,200 islanders deported to camps in Germany, and over 300 islanders sentenced to the prison and concentration camps of mainland Europe.", "Twenty died as a result.", "The islanders endured near-starvation in the winter of 1944–45, after the Channel Islands had been cut off from German-occupied Europe by Allied forces advancing from the Normandy beachheads, avoided only by the arrival of the Red Cross supply ship ''Vega'' in December 1944.Liberation Day – 9 May is marked as a public holiday.===Post-Liberation===After five years of occupation, the people of Jersey began to rebuild the island.", "In 1944, a group of exiled islanders, called ''Nos Iles'', set out what the Channel Islands would need after the war.", "Examples include better education, development of the economy, especially tourism, and greater cooperation between the islands.", "They also emphasised the need for efficient land management.Some Jersey men were enlisted in national service in occupied Germany.", "The UK donated more than £4 million to clear Jersey's occupation debt, as well as sending gifts of essential items.", "There were over 50,000 mines to be cleared.", "Sir Edward Grasett was sworn in as Lieutenant Governor in August 1945.The 1945 census showed that 44,382 people were resident in the island (an increase of 4000 since Liberation).", "By the next year, there were 50,749, and the majority lived in St Helier.", "Many returned to their pre-war homes to find them in a state of dereliction and were given grants to repair the damage.Many islanders called for the reform and modernisation of the States: a poll by the JEP showed that only 88 of the 1,784 surveyed thought Rectors should stay in the States and a vast majority wanted the legislature and judiciary separated.", "The Jersey Democratic Movement campaigned for either the incorporation of the island as a county of England or at least the abolition of the States.", "The other political party to emerge during this period was the Progressive Party, consisting of some present States members, who opposed the JDM.", "In the 1945 Deputies' election, the Progressives won a landslide victory, giving a mandate for change.The franchise was extended to all British adults, previously voting rights in Jersey had only been to men and women over 30 according to property ownership.", "The largest reform came in the form of the 1948 States reform.", "Jurats were no longer States members and were to be elected by an Electoral College.", "It also introduced a retirement age for Jurats of 70.In all cases, the Bailiff shall be the judge of the law, and the Jurats the \"judge of fact\".", "The Jurats' role in the States was replaced by 12 senators, four of whom would retire every three years.", "The Church also lost most of its representation in the States, with the role of Rector being abolished and the number of Deputies increased to 28.Les Quennevais schoolThe island adopted free, universal secondary education and a social security system.", "The bill for the social security system was passed in May 1950.A paid police force to cover the whole island was established to work alongside the honorary police.", "Divorce was legalised in 1949.In 1952, a state secondary school for boys was opened at Hautlieu and a girls' secondary was opened at Rouge Bouillon.", "Ten years later these would combine to form a single co-ed grammar school at Hautlieu, and two other schools: one for boys (d'Hautrée) and another for girls (at the Rouge Bouillon site) were opened.", "Later the two St Helier schools were combined into one comprehensive school and two other comprehensives were opened at Les Quennevais and Le Rocquier.", "Highlands College was purchased by the States in 1973 to provide further education.", ":280There was an expansion of housing to deal with growing population and to improve the quality of existing housing.", "There was also a slum clearance programme involving States-funded homes (either for social housing or sale) and States-funded mortgages.", "By 1948, since the end of the war, two estates had been built: Grasett Park and Princess Place.", "A sum of £52,000 was agreed to build more houses on land already owned by the States.The population saw growth from wealthy immigrants looking for lower taxes and seasonal essential workers from the Continent and mainland.", "Jersey was particularly attractive to retired civil servants in former British colonies as these obtained independence throughout the 20th century.", "This created a need for new infrastructure.", "Street lighting began to spread to the country parishes and a new sewage farm was built at Bellozane.", "Mains drainage was extended beyond St Helier and new water production facilities were constructed.", ":281 The island saw a growth in tourism and the reopening of the Battle of Flowers parade (for the first time since World War I) as well as new cinemas and the International Road Race.The military establishments of the island were handed over by the British Government to the Island and Jersey's Militia abolished.", "For the first time since Edward III, there was no permanent military presence on the island.", "The arsenals, forts are castles were converted to museums and housing (or in the case of Fort Regent, into the main leisure centre for town).", "There was a dispute over the ownership of Jersey's islets – the Minquiers and the Ecréhous – between the UK and France.", "The International Court of Justice ruled in favour of British ownership of the reefs.Between 1945 and the Queen's coronation in 1952, there were outbreaks of polio and tuberculosis and the opening of the Jersey Maternity hospital and St John Ambulance headquarters.", "Agriculture was hit by a series of foot-and-mouth outbreaks.The first senatorial election was brief.", "Each Senator was elected for either nine, six or three years depending on where they came in the polling list.", "Philip Le Feuvre topped the poll and was elected for nine years.", "On 8 December 1945 at the Deputies' election, Ivy Forster of the Progressive Party became the first woman to ever be elected to the States.", "Other notable successful candidates include John Le Marquand Jr. (whose father has recently been returned as Senator) and Cyril Le Marquand.The event which has had the most far-reaching effect on Jersey in modern times is the growth of the finance industry in the island from the 1960s onwards,:287 which has led to debate that Jersey constitutes a tax haven.", "Jersey's role as a finance centre has occasionally brought the island global media attention.", "For example in 2017, the Paradise Papers – a global leak of confidential documents relating to offshore investments – revealed that Apple had made two international subsidiaries tax resident in Jersey in 2015.In 2008, a police investigation at children's home found a record of abuse at the home dating back since liberation.", "More than 500 alleged offences were recorded and eight people were prosecuted." ], [ "Further reading", "The most widely regarded '''history of Jersey''' is ''Balleine's History of the Island of Jersey'', written by G. R. Balleine in 1959, and later adapted by the Société Jersiaise, most notably two of its members Marguerite Syvret and Joan Stevens." ], [ "See also", "History of the British IslesDuchy of Normandy=== Other Histories of the Channel Islands ===German occupation of the Channel IslandsArchaeology of the Channel IslandsMaritime history of the Channel IslandsList of English monarchsList of British monarchs=== Related articles for Jersey ===Lieutenant Governor of JerseyCulture of JerseyPolitics of JerseyDemographics of Jersey (contains historical figures)" ], [ "References", "===Print===''Balleine's History of Jersey'', Marguerite Syvret and Joan Stevens (1998)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Jersey''' (Jèrriais: ''Jèrri'') is the largest of the Channel Islands, an island archipelago in the St. Malo bight in the western English Channel.", "It has a total area of and is part of the British Isles archipelago.", "It lies from the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy, France and about from the south coast of Great Britain.", "Jersey lies within longitude -2° W and latitude 49° N.It has a coastline of 70 kilometres and no land connections to any other territories.", "Jersey claims a territorial sea of and an exclusive fishing zone of and shares maritime borders with the Bailiwick of Guernsey to the north and France to the south and east.Jersey is the main island of the Bailiwick of Jersey, which also consists of islet groups known as Les Écréhous, Les Minquiers, Les Dirouilles and Les Pierres de Lecq.It is a highly densely populated territory, being the 13th most densely populated country or territory.", "About 30% of the population of the island is concentrated in the parish of Saint Helier, which contains the main town of the island." ], [ "Climate", "Jersey has a generally mild, temperature and oceanic climate.", "The mean daily air temperature for 2019 was 12.79 °C - the eighth warmest year since 1894.The record warmest year was 2014, with a mean daily air temperature of 13.34 °C.There are very few extreme weather events in Jersey, however there are regular heatwaves and storm periods.", "This can lead to disruption across the island.", "For example, in February 2020, Storm Ciara led to the closure of a number of roads (especially Victoria Avenue)." ], [ "Physical geography", "GIF showing the evolution of the Cotentin Peninsula and the separation of Jersey from the remainder of the European continent.This true colour image of Jersey was taken on 30 June 2018, by ESA's Sentinel-2 satellite.Besides the main island, the bailiwick includes other islets and reefs with no permanent population: Les Écréhous, Les Minquiers, Les Pierres de Lecq, Les Dirouilles.The highest point in the island is Les Platons on the north coast, at .", "Parts of the parish of St Clement in the south were previously below sea-level but the construction of a seawall and infilling of low land has probably left only a few pockets of land below mean sea level.", "The terrain is generally low-lying on the south coast, with some rocky headlands, rising gradually to rugged cliffs along the north coast.", "On the west coast there are sand dunes.", "Small valleys run north to south across the island.", "Very large tidal variation exposes large expanses of sand and rock to the southeast at low tide.Snow falls rarely in Jersey; some years will pass with no snow fall at all.===Natural resources===leftThe main natural resource on this island is arable land.", "66% of the island's land is used as such, and the remaining 34% is used for other purposes.There are two laws that govern agricultural land in Jersey: Agricultural Land (Control of Sales and Leases) (Jersey) Law 1947 and Protection of Agricultural Land (Jersey) Law 1964.Temporary changes of land use can be granted by the Land Controls scheme, which means land over 2 vergées (0.36 ha) can be used for an alternative purpose, however permanent changes require planning permission.The Channel Islands are located in an area with a large tidal range.", "The development of tidal energy in the archipelago has long been suggested.", "Studies suggest the primary sites for tidal energy development would be located in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, especially in the Alderney Race, which could potentially produce up to 5.10 GW of energy.===Environment===Jersey is facing localised impacts due to anthropogenic climate change.", "The island is party to the Kyoto Protocol but does not have an emissions cap.", "In 2017, Jersey has emissions of around 400 ktCO2 eq., a decrease of around 350 ktCO2 eq since the peak in 1998.Under a 3 °C rise in temperature, Jersey may have four to five times the number of hot days in summer and a 45% decrease in summer rainfall.+Jersey Greenhouse Gas Emissions (2017)Emissions (kt CO2eq)%Agriculture14.84Business80.322Energy Supply22.76Land use change -6.5 -2Residential56.015Transport186.951Waste Management11.43Imported Electricity30.8Total368.5Climate change could have impacts on Jersey's economy.", "Climate change will increase soil temperatures, shifting growing seasons more to winter seasons, impacting the current husbandry practices.", "Being at the boundary of two marine regions, Jersey's waters could see a change in fish species.", "A rise in temperature could be beneficial to the island's tourist industry, with more annual warm days and less rainfall in the summer attracting longer and more frequent stays from travellers.In May 2019, the States Assembly declared the island was undergoing a climate emergency.", "This commits the island to carbon neutrality by 2030.On 31 Dec 2019, the Government of Jersey published the Carbon Neutral Strategy which aims to meet the island's carbon neutrality target.", "Plans of the Carbon Neutral Strategy include:* A \"people-powered\" approach, possibly incorporating the parish and community governance as well as a Citizens' Assembly* The introduction of a new Sustainable Transport Policy, including 1.55 million GBP in cycling, walking, bus travel and transition to electric vehiclesIn order to adapt to the effects of sea level rise on the island, the Government has prepared a Shoreline Management Plan." ], [ "Human geography", "Detailed map of JerseyAn infographic showing land uses in JerseyJersey has a population of 107,800 and a population density of roughly 917 people per square kilometre.", "The population is spread out throughout Jersey's twelve parishes, with population concentrated in the seven southern parishes.Outside of the town, the land is largely separated into small closes, dissimilar to the larger fields found on Great Britain or the European continent.", "This land division structure has a long history in the island.", "In 1815, Quayle stated \"no country is more strongly enclosed than Jersey\".=== Settlements ===The settlement geography of Jersey has always been dispersed across the island, though with a much smaller population in the past.", "In the 19th century, Jersey had no tendency towards village or centralised settlement, except in the growing town of St. Helier.", "On the 1795 Richmond Map, the land appears \"excessively divided\" into small closes and even around the parish churches, the houses are no denser than elsewhere.Jersey can be defined as an urban island.", "The 2011 Island Plan defines the island's built-up areas as three main entities.", "The island effectively operates as a single conurbation, consisting of an urban core, suburbs and exurban rural communities.The largest settlement is the town of St Helier, which also plays host to the island's seat of government.", "The town consists of the built-up area of southern St Helier, including First Tower, and some adjoining parts of St Saviour and St Clement, such as Georgetown.", "The town is the central business district, hosting a large proportion of the island's retail and employment, such as the finance industry.The primary suburban areas of St Helier consist of the Five Oaks area in St Saviour, and developments along the coast, primarily along main roads to east and west of the town.", "The south and east coasts from St Aubin to Gorey are largely urbanised, with only small gaps in their development, such as the Royal Golf Course in Grouville.Outside of the town, many islanders live in rural and village settlements and even the more rural areas of the island have considerable amounts of development (even St Ouen, the least densely populated parish still has 270 persons per square kilometre).", "The most notable exurban development is the Les Quennevais area, which is home to a small precinct of shops, a park and a leisure centre.", "Many people in these communities regularly travel to St Helier for work and leisure purposes.Most of the villages are the namesake settlement of their parish, for example St John's Village in St John, however some are not, such as Maufant Village on the border of St Saviour and St Martin.", "Another semantic term used for smaller settlements are (different in meaning from the term with the same name meaning 'Town') such as in St. Lawrence.Housing costs in Jersey are very high.", "The Jersey House Price Index has at least doubled between 2002 and 2020.The mix-adjusted house price for Jersey is £567,000, higher than any UK region (UK average: £249,000) including London (average: £497,000; highest of any UK region).=== Planning and development control ===Land use is tightly controlled in Jersey, especially due to the high density population.", "The Planning Team of the Customer and Local Services Department manages planning applications, but approval is granted by the Planning Committee, made of States Members.The governing development plan for the island is the Island Plan, last published in 2011 and voted on by the States Assembly.", "The plan decides the overall vision for development on the island as well as issuing baseline planning guidance.", "The current Island Plan was issued in 2011 and revised in 2014.In 2021, the Island Plan is under review, with a bridging Island Plan expected to be in place from 2022.The Revised 2011 Island Plan is centred of three simple concepts of countryside protection, the wise use of resources and urban regeneration.", "It aims to meet most development needs in the existing built-up areas, especially the town of St Helier.Jersey has a single national park known as the Coastal National Park, formed of a number of separate areas.", "The park includes St Ouen's Bay, Gorey Common, the north and south-west coast and certain valleys such as St Catherine's Woods.", "It also includes the offshore reefs part of the Bailiwick.", "In the national park, most forms of development are not permitted.Jersey has a green belt policy known as the Green Zone.", "This consists of most rural areas on the island except the national park.", "There is a general presumption against development in the zone.", "According to the plan the policy has \"vigorous\" public support.=== Political geography ===The Bailiwick of Jersey is a British Crown Dependency.", "It is self-governing with its own legislature, the States Assembly, and government.", "It is sovereign territory of the Crown and not part of the United Kingdom, however the UK is internationally responsible for Jersey.", "The Jersey government is \"with some important caveats, content with their relationship with the Ministry of Justice\".", ":para 13Jersey is part of the British-Irish Council, which is formed of the national governments of each of the countries and dependencies in the British Isles.", "Jersey is neither a member of the United Nations nor the European Union.The island is divided into twelve administrative regions, known as parishes, the largest of which is St Ouen and the smallest of which is St Clement.=== Economic geography ===Jersey has a highly developed economy driven by international financial and legal services, which accounted for 40.5% of total GVA in 2010.Its gross national income per capita is among the highest in the world.", "The island has been criticised by some as a tax haven as it attracts deposits from customers outside the island seeking lower taxes.", "However, the Jersey financial sector disputes this claim.", "Other important sectors to the Jersey economy include construction, retail and wholesale, agriculture and tourism." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Jersey Meteorological Department" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demography of Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "Jersey is the most populated of the crown dependencies and of the Channel Islands.", "The Demographic statistics of the island includes population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.The population of Jersey has grown in each census record since 1931 (although those did not include records during the Occupation by Nazi Germany)." ], [ "History", "The resident population of Jersey has been increasing during the last 60 years.", "The resident population increased by 9,100 between 2010 and 2011.The estimated 2020 growth rate is 0.72%.Pre-census data, there are a number of estimates for Jersey's population.", "It was around 2,000 in 4000-3000 BC; 6,000 in 1050; 10,000 in 1331; and between 10,000 and 20,000 in the 16th and 17th centuries.From the 16th to 19th centuries, Jersey was home to a number of French religious refugees, possibly up to 4,000 at a time.", "In the first half of the 19th century, tax advantages and a better climate saw a boom in Jersey's population.", "This also needed a large immigrant population, with significant movement from Scotland and Ireland.Before 1851 and 1921, Jersey's population fell significantly, but the number of French people rose by more than 3,000.These were mostly agricultural workers (not replacing the British migrants).From 1821, Jersey conducted an annual census (figures to the right).", "In 1951, the population was 55,244.It has grown every decade since then, and the rate of growth now is very high (1% per year in 2019).", "This is due to the growth of the finance industry and tourism." ], [ "Population", "In 2021, the total resident population of Jersey is 103,267, although the CIA World Factbook estimates it as 101,073 (this may be due to a different estimate).=== Geographic distribution ===Jersey is divided into twelve parishes.", "The most populous parish is St Helier, with 35% of the island's population.", "In 1798, around 6,000 people lived in St. Helier, or one-fifth of the island's population at the time.+Population by parishParish2011 population2021 population% of totalPopulation per km20x20px Saint Helier33,52235,82235371620x20px Grouville4,8665,401565820x20px Saint Brélade10,56811,0121183020x20px Saint Clement9,2219,92510226220x20px Saint John2,9113,051333220x20px Saint Lawrence5,4185,561555620x20px Saint Martin3,7633,948438420x20px Saint Mary1,7521,818227720x20px Saint Ouen4,0974,206427420x20px Saint Peter5,0035,264544820x20px Saint Saviour13,58013,90413149818x18px Trinity3,1563,3553267===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 48 296 49 561 97 857 100 0–4 2 466 2 549 5 015 5.12 5–9 2 470 2 382 4 852 4.96 10–14 2 729 2 573 5 302 5.42 15–19 2 863 2 632 5 495 5.62 20–24 3 006 2 938 5 944 6.07 25–29 3 351 3 354 6 705 6.85 30–34 3 670 3 566 7 236 7.39 35–39 3 615 3 610 7 225 7.38 40–44 4 183 4 180 8 363 8.55 45–49 4 187 4 170 8 357 8.54 50–54 3 536 3 662 7 198 7.36 55–59 2 955 3 087 6 042 6.17 60–64 2 832 2 818 5 650 5.77 65-69 1 938 2 110 4 048 4.14 70-74 1 732 1 900 3 632 3.71 75-79 1 343 1 550 2 893 2.96 80-84 822 1 183 2 005 2.05 85-89 446 779 1 225 1.25 90-94 115 368 483 0.49 95+ 37 150 187 0.19Age group MaleFemaleTotalPer cent 0–14 7 665 7 504 15 169 15.50 15–64 34 198 34 017 68 215 69.71 65+ 6 433 8 040 14 473 14.79Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 51 003 52 264 103 267 100 0–4 2 425 2 237 4 662 4.51 5–9 2 732 2 682 5 414 5.24 10–14 2 638 2 719 5 357 5.19 15–19 2 654 2 521 5 175 5.01 20–24 2 928 2 723 5 651 5.47 25–29 2 985 2 885 5 870 5.68 30–34 3 293 3 295 6 588 6.38 35–39 3 660 3 686 7 346 7.11 40–44 3 755 3 774 7 529 7.29 45–49 3 773 3 822 7 595 7.35 50–54 4 234 4 211 8 445 8.18 55–59 4 101 4 091 8 192 7.93 60–64 3 294 3 413 6 707 6.49 65-69 2 547 2 747 5 294 5.13 70-74 2 279 2 511 4 790 4.64 75-79 1 524 1 809 3 333 3.23 80-84 1 227 1 496 2 723 2.64 85-89 658 976 1 634 1.58 90-94 242 479 721 0.70 95+ 54 187 241 0.23Age group MaleFemaleTotalPer cent 0–14 7 795 7 638 15 433 14.94 15–64 34 677 34 421 69 098 66.91 65+ 8 531 10 205 18 736 18.14In 2011, there were 64,353 people of working age (16 to 64 for men, and 16 to 59 for women; 66% of the population).", "The dependency ratio for Jersey was 52% (similar to 2011); the dependency ratio is around the same value as that in 1931, however was higher (60%) in 1971, and lower (47%) in 1991.=== Place of birth ===Half of the population of Jersey was born on the island, with the majority of the remainder from elsewhere in the British Islands.", "7% of the population was born in Portugal, conspicuously from Madeira Autonomous Region, a sister province, the largest overseas place of birth.", "In 1981, only 3% of the population was born in Portugal and 5% elsewhere.+Jersey population by place of birth (2011)Place of birthNumberPer centJersey48,65450British Isles30,22331Portugal7,0317Poland3,1333Ireland1,8802Other European country3,1463Elsewhere in the world3,7914Of the category 'Other European country', the primary countries were France and Romania and for 'Elsewhere in the world', the primary countries were South Africa and India." ], [ "Statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Birth rate===11.0 births/1,000 population (2005)===Death rate===8.5 deaths/1,000 population (2005)===Net immigration rate===2.81 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.", ")===Sex ratio===''At birth:'' 1.11 male(s)/female''under 15 years:'' 1.08 male(s)/female''15–64 years:''0.99 male(s)/female''65 years and over:'' 0.74 male(s)/female''total population:'' 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.", ")===Infant mortality===4 deaths/1,000 live births (2005)===Life expectancy at birth===''total population:''78.48 years''male:''76.07 years''female:''81.07 years (2000 est.", ")===Average age at death===* Men 72* Women 79===Total fertility rate===1.56 children born/woman (2000 est.", ")===Nationality===''noun:''Jerseyman, Jerseywoman, Jèrriais, Jèrriaise''adjective:''Jersey===Ethnic groups===Indigenous Jersey-Normans and those of British and French descent.", "Portuguese, Polish, Irish and Romanian minorities.===Religions===Anglican, Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist and Presbyterian.===Languages===:See ''Languages of Jersey''English (official), French (official), Jèrriais (official: though only spoken by a few native elderly in rural areas, used as a first language by around 1,900 people).Portuguese commonly spoken by migrant workers and is sometimes found in written form, e.g.", "government informational signs.===Literacy===82% of children in state schools achieve their reading targets – the UK average is 90%.", "This leads to some cases of illiteracy in Jersey." ], [ "See also", "* List of people from Jersey" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "A diagram representing Jersey's political structureThe Bailiwick of Jersey is a British Crown dependency, unitary state and parliamentary representative democracy and constitutional monarchy.", "The head of the civil administration and judiciary is the Bailiff Timothy Le Cocq, while the Chief Minister Kristina Moore is the head of government.", "The current monarch and head of state is King Charles III.Legislative and executive power is vested in the States of Jersey, which is composed of the Assembly of States members (States Assembly, French: ''Assemblé des États'').", "Elected States members appoint the Council of Ministers (including the Chief Minister and other Ministers), which is the decision-making body of the island's government, the Government of Jersey.Other powers are exercised by the Connétable and Parish Assembly in each of the twelve parishes.As one of the Crown dependencies, Jersey is sovereign territory of the Crown, but is not part of the United Kingdom.", "Jersey can be best described as \"neither a colony nor a conquest, but a peculiar and immediate dependency of the Crown.\"", "The island is part of the British Islands, a political term encompassing the United Kingdom and the Crown Dependencies.", "This island is for the most part self-governing, with its own independent legal, administrative and fiscal systems.The link between the island and the monarchy, rather than through Parliament, has led to an effectively independent political development on the island.", "In medieval times, the island was treated as a possession of the King by the English government, rather than part of the English state." ], [ "History", "=== Prior to English rule ===When Augustus Caesar divided Gaul into four provinces, Jersey was part of the province headquartered at Lyons.In around 933, Duke William I (William Longsword), seized Jersey, which until then had been politically linked to Brittany, and it is likely that the pre-Norman form of government and way of life was replaced at this point.", "The island adopted the Norman law system, still the basis of Jersey law today.", ":19A key part of the early administrative structure of Jersey was the fief.", "Alongside the parish, the fief provided a basic framework for rural life; the system began with the Norman system and largely remained similar to it.", "In Jersey, the dues, services and rents owed by tenants were extensive and often onerous.", "Jersey peasants retained a degree of freedom lost elsewhere, probably due to the insignificance of the island in the Duchy.", "More is known of the origins of the fief than of the parishes and early documents show that Jersey was thoroughly feudalised (the majority of the residents were tenants holding land from Seigneurs).", "The fief of St Ouen, the most senior fief in Jersey's feudal structure, was by 1135 in the hands of the de Carteret family.", "They held extensive lands in Carteret as well, but these were lost by them after King John's loss of Normandy, so they decided to settle on the island.", "Between the 12th and 20th centuries, there were an estimated 245 fiefs in Jersey, though not all simultaneously.In 1066, the Duke William the Conqueror defeated Harold Godwinson at Hastings to become the King of England; however, he continued to rule his French possessions, including Jersey, as a separate entity, as fealty was owed to the King of France.", "This initial association of Jersey with England did not last long, as William split his possessions between his sons: Robert Curthose became Duke of Normandy and William Rufus gained the English Crown.", "William Rufus' son Henry I recaptured Normandy for England in 1106.The island was then part of the English King's realm (though still part of Normandy and France).", "Around 1142, it is recorded that Jersey was under the control of the Count of Anjou, who administered Normandy for the Duke.According to the Rolls of the Norman Exchequer, in 1180 Jersey was divided for administrative purposes into three ministeria: , and (possibly containing four parishes each).", "Gorroic is an old spelling for Gorey, containing St Martin, St Saviour, Grouville and St Clement; Groceio could derive from de Gruchy, and contains St John, Trinity, St Lawrence and St Helier; and Crapoudoit, likely referring to the stream of St Peter's Valley, contains the remainder of the parishes in the West.", "By Norman times, the parish boundaries were firmly fixed and remain largely unchanged since.", "It was likely set in place due to the tithe system under Charlemagne, where each property must contribute to the church, so each property would have had to be established within a parish.", ":15=== Establishment of self-government ===It is said, in tradition, that the island's autonomy derives from the ''Constitutions of King John'', however this is disputed.", "Until King James II, successive English monarchs have then granted to Jersey by charter its certain privileges, likely to ensure the island's continued loyalty, accounting for its advantageous position at the boundary of the European continent.", "As John (and later Henry III) maintained his claim to the title as the rightful Duke of Normandy until 1259, the island's courts were originally established as Norman, not English territory (to use English law would de-legitimise the English Crown's claim to the ducal title), so are based upon traditional Norman laws and customs, such as the ''Coutumier de Normandie''.", "Legislative power was vested in 12 jurats, the twelve \"senior men\" of the island.", "Along with the Bailiff, they would form the Royal Court, which determined all civil and criminal causes (except treason).Most lords forfeited their insular land in favour of their French territory, but some remained, notably the de Carteret family of St Ouen.", "The old aristocracy gave way to a new one, with landowners drawn from royal officials, who soon came to think of themselves as islanders rather than Englishmen.", "This saw the firm establishment of the feudal system in Jersey, with fiefs headed by Seigneurs.", ":30 In the Treaty of Paris (1259), the King of France gave up claim to the Channel Islands.", "The claim was based upon his position as feudal overlord of the Duke of Normandy.", "The King of England gave up claim to mainland Normandy and therefore the Channel Islands were split from the rest of Normandy.", "The Channel Islands were never absorbed into the Kingdom of England and the island has had self-government since.", "In medieval times, the island was treated as a possession of the King by the English government, rather than part of the English state.The administration of the island was handled by an insular government.", "The King appointed a Warden (later \"Capitain\" or \"Governor\", now the Lieutenant-Governor of Jersey), a position largely occupied with the defence of the island.", "From 1415 until the second half of the 15th century, the islands were governed by a Lord (or Lady).The existing Norman customs and laws were allowed to continue and there was no attempt to introduce English law.", "The formerly split administrative system was replaced with a centralised legal system, of which the head was the King of England rather than the Duke of Normandy.", "The law was conducted through 12 jurats, constables () and a bailiff ().", "These titles have different meanings and duties to those in England.", "Any oppression by a bailiff or a warden was to be resolved locally or failing that, by appeal to the King who appointed commissioners to report on disputes.", "In the late 1270s, Jersey was given its own Bailiff and from the 1290s, the duties of Bailiff and Warden were separated.", "The (Sub-)Warden became responsible for taxation and defence, while the Bailiff became responsible for justice.", "While probably originally a temporary arrangement by Otto de Grandison, this became permanent and the foundation for Jersey's modern separation of Crown and justice.", "It also lessened the Warden's authority relative to the Bailiff, who had much more interaction with the community.The role of the jurats when the King's court was mobile would have been preparatory work for the visit of the Justices in Eyre.", "It is unknown for how long the position of the jurats has existed, with some claiming the position dates to time immemorial.", "After the cessation of the visits of the Justices in Eyre (and with the frequent absence of the Warden), the Bailiff and jurats took on a much wider role, from jury to justice.", ":28In 1341, in recognition of islanders' efforts during the war, King Edward III declared that Jerseymen should 'hold and retain all privileges, liberties, immunities and customs granted by our forebares'.", "This began the tradition of successive monarchs devolving powers over the island to Islanders, giving them certain privileges and protecting the separation between the Channel Islands and the rest of their royal realm.In 1462, the occupying French Governor de Brézé issued ordinances outlining the role of the Bailiff and the Jurats.", "It may well be during this occupation that the island saw the establishment of the States.", "Comte Maulevrier, who had led the invasion of the island, ordered the holding of an Assize in the island.", "Maulevrier confirmed the place of existing institutions, however created the requirement for Jurats to be chosen by Bailiffs, Jurats, Rectors and Constables.", "The earliest extant Act of the States dates from 1524.In 1541, the Privy Council, which had recently given a seat to Calais, intended to give two seats in Parliament to Jersey.", "Seymour, the Lieutenant-Governor of the Island, wrote to the Jurats, instructing them to send two Burgesses for the isle.", "However, no further steps seemed to have been taken since the letter did not arrive in front of the States Assembly until the day the elected persons were required to arrive in London.", ":70=== Division of powers between Governor and Bailiff ===To this day, the tradition that the Bailiff wears red robes remainsSir John Peyton became the Governor in 1603 after the death of Queen Elizabeth I. Peyton struggled with the Bailiff over converting the island from the dominant Calvinist religion to Anglicanism.", "In 1615, Jean Hérault was appointed Bailiff by the King, having been promised the role by letters patent in 1611.Peyton disputed this appointment, claiming it was the Governor's jurisdiction to appoint the Bailiff.", "Hérault asserted it was the King's jurisdiction to directly appoint the Bailiff.", "An Order in Council (dated 9 August 1615) sided with Hérault, which Hérault took to claim the Bailiff was the real head of government and the Governor was simply a military officer.", "To back his claims, he also cited that in the Norman administrative tradition, the Bailiffs had \"no one above them except the Duke\".This dispute led to one of the most major turning points in Jersey's constitutional history, as the division of powers between the Governor and Bailiff were clearly demarcated.", "Though the Privy Council did not agree with Hérault's extreme position on the precedence of the Bailiff, on 18 February 1617 it declared that the \"charge of military forces be wholly in the Governor, and the care of justice and civil affairs in the Bailiff.\"", "This secured for both the Bailiff and the States precedence over the Governor on justice and civil affairs, the constitutional precedent which limits the involvement of the Lieutenant-Governor in domestic affairs today.=== Jersey Revolution: division of the legislature and judiciary ===During the late 17th century, the Governors and Bailiffs were generally absent - the Governor Henry Lumley never visited the island at all during his time in office and after the death of Sir Edouard de Carteret, no bailiff was appointed for five years.", "The eventual successor Charles de Carteret faced large opposition, especially from his own tenants in St. Ouen.", "A group of jurats complained to the Privy Council that de Carteret was absent and not well accustomed to the law and culture of the island.", "Charles attempted to oppose this by blocking sittings of the Jurats in court, claiming they could not sit since they were related to the plaintiff or defendant (which they most often were since everyone in Jersey was somehow related to one another).", "By 1750, the Bailiffship had de facto become a hereditary position in the de Carteret family.", "Absences of the de Carterets and all other high-ranking posts left Charles Lempière, the Lieutenant Bailiff, in effective full control over the island.", "Lempière was a Parliamentarian, but by temperament was autocratic.", "His family had significant power with a number of high-ranking roles in the island and he issued ordinances and quashed protest through his court.", ":195 Democratic representation was not present in the island's political system, with only wealthier men able to vote for Connétables, with those men filling the roles with their relatives.", "A revolt, known as the Corn Riots or the Jersey Revolution, occurred in 1769.They were centred around the balance of power between the island's parliament, the States, and the Royal Court, both of which had powers to create legislation.", "An anti-Seigneurial sentiment - opposition to the feudal economic system - also contributed to the popular revolt.", "The spark for the riots was a corn shortage, in part caused by corruption in the ruling classes, led by the Lieutenant Bailiff Charles Lemprière, whose style of rule was authoritarian.", "On 28 September 1769, men from the northern parishes marched into town and rioted, including breaking into the Royal Court in a threatening manner.", "The States retreated to Elizabeth Castle and called on the Privy Council for help under false pretences.", "The Council sent five companies of Royal Scots, who discovered the islanders' grievances.The protestors demands include reductions in price of wheat and the abolition of certain, or all, Seigneurial privileges.", "In reaction, the Crown issued the Code of 1771, which attempted to separate the island's judiciary and legislature.", "After the petitions of Le Geyt, the English authorities instructed that peace and reform should be brought to the island.", "Bentinck became Lieutenant Governor and introduced important reforms.", "The Royal Court was no longer a lawmaking body and all legislative power was vested in the States.", "With the fixing in 1771 of the ''Code des Lois'' it was established that the States had a legislative monopoly, and the lawmaking powers of the Royal Court were removed (''see quote below'').", "The ''Code'' of 1771 laid down for the first time in one place the extant laws of Jersey.", ":199=== Party politics: Magots and Charlots ===The late 18th century was the first time political parties in some form came into existence on the island.", "Jean Dumaresq was an early Liberal who called for democratic reforms (that the States should be democratically elected Deputies and should have vested in them executive power).", "His supporters were known as (\"maggots\", initially an insult from his opponents, which the reclaimed as their own term) and his opponents as the '''' (supporters of the Lieutenant Baliff Charles Lempière).", "Dumaresq is quoted as saying \"we shall make these Seigneurs bite the dust\".", "In 1776, he was elected as Connétable for St Peter.", ":200The post-Napoleonic War period was a divisive period politically for the island.", "In 1821, there was an election for Jurat.", "The St Laurentine Laurelites (conservatives, the eventual name for the '''') attacked the Inn in their village where Rose men (the progressive descendants of the '''') were holding a meeting.", "They damaged the building and injured both the innkeeper and his wife.", "On election day in St Martin, the a number of Rose voters were attacked, after which most Rose men refrained from voting.", "Although the Rose candidate won overall, he faced a number of lawsuits over claims of voter fraud, so in the end the Laurel candidate George Bertram took office.", ":232=== Anglicisation ===During the 19th century, the administration system, despite reform, still resembled a feudal system of governance.", "At the start of the century, Jersey had achieved a high degree of self-government through delegation of Crown powers to the States, though the Bailiff, Governor and Jurats were all still Crown appointees.", "During the century, Jersey's power structure shifted more and more from the Crown to the States, establishing Jersey as a near-independent state, however ultimate authority over the island shifted from the Crown to the British Parliament, aligning with the shift in the UK's politics towards a purely ceremonial monarchy.", "The Privy Council put pressure of the island to reform its institutions, in the belief these reforms should align the country with a more English model of government and law.", "In 1883, John Stuart Blackie recounted an Englishman's comment that only one thing was needed to make Jersey perfect, and that was \"a full participation in the benefits of English law\".", "However, the Lieutenant Governor at the time stated that the absence of English law was what had brought Jerseymen such prosperity.Many locals blamed this push for reform on the island's new immigrants, who were unaccustomed to the island's distinct political and legal systems (although a major part of the mainstream reformer movement was in fact made of Jerseymen).", "Many English who had moved to the island discovered an alien environment, with unfamiliar laws (in a foreign language they could not understand) and no recourse to access the local power to counter them.", "The reformers of English heritage mostly came from the middle classes, and sought to further their own rights, not necessarily those of the working class.", "These Englishmen formed a pressure group known as the Civil Assembly of St Helier.", "This group was effectively split into two, one organised around Abraham Le Cras' hard-code English reformism and the other, a larger looser corpus of English reformists.", "The former was never representative of a significant proportion of the English community.", "One thing both shared however was a belief that the English systems were far superior to the historic Norman-based structures.Abraham Le Cras was an outspoken new resident - though with Jersey heritage - opposed to Jersey's self-government.", "He not only thought Jersey should be integrated into England fully, but disputed the right of the States to even make its own laws.", "He is noted as saying, 'the States have no more power to make laws for Jersey than I have'.", "In 1840, he won a court case challenging the States' ability to naturalise people as citizens.", "The Privy Council determined that the long-standing precedent of the States doing so had been invalidated since Jersey had been ruled under civil law since 1771.In 1846, he persuaded the MP for Bath to push for a Parliamentary Committee to enquire into the law of Jersey, however HM Government instead promised a Royal Commission.", "The Commission advised the abolition of the Royal Court run by the Jurats and the replacement of it with three Crown-appointed judges and the introduction of a paid police force.", "Le Cras left the island to live in England in 1850.In 1852, the island experienced somewhat of a constitutional crisis when the Privy Council issued three Orders in Council: establishing a police court, a petty debts court and a paid police force for St Helier.", "This sparked controversy locally, with claims that the move threatened Jersey's independence.", "Both parties united against the move and around 7000 islanders signing a petition.", "By 1854, the council had agreed to revoke the Orders, on the condition that the States passed most of the council's requirements.", "In 1856, further constitutional reform brought deputies into the States for the first time, with one deputy from each country parish and three from town.The threats to Jersey's autonomy continued.", "In the 1860s, there was raised a threat of an intervention in the island's government by the British Parliament itself, in order to impose change on the island's structures.=== Reforms of 1948 ===After the Occupation, many islanders called for the reform and modernisation of the States: a poll by the JEP showed that only 88 of the 1,784 surveyed thought Rectors should stay in the States, and a vast majority wanted the legislature and judiciary separated.", "The Jersey Democratic Movement campaigned for either the incorporation of the island as a county of England or at least the abolition of the States.", "The other political party to emerge during this period was the Progressive Party, consisting of some present States members, who opposed the JDM.", "In the 1945 Deputies' election, the Progressives won a landslide victory, giving a mandate for change.", "The franchise was extended to all British adults; previously voting rights in Jersey had only been accorded to men, and women over 30, according to property ownership.", "The largest reform was the 1948 States reform.", "Jurats were no longer States members, and were to be elected by an Electoral College.", "The reform also introduced a retirement age of 70 for Jurats.", "In all cases, the Bailiff would be the judge of the law, and the Jurats the \"judge of fact\".", "The Jurats' role in the States was taken on by 12 senators, four of whom would retire every three years.", "The Church also lost most of its representation in the States, with the role of Rector being abolished and the number of Deputies increased to 28.The first senatorial election was brief.", "Each Senator was elected for either nine, six or three years depending on where they came in the polling list.", "Philip Le Feuvre topped the poll and was elected for nine years.", "On 8 December 1945 in the Deputies' election, Ivy Forster of the Progressive Party became the first woman ever elected to the States.", "Other notable successful candidates included John Le Marquand Jr. (whose father had recently been returned as Senator) and Cyril Le Marquand." ], [ "Constitution", "Jersey has an unwritten constitution arising from the Treaty of Paris (1259).", "This peculiar political position has often benefited the islanders.", "Until the 19th century, the island was generally exempt from the harsher parts of Westminster legislation, while being included in favourable policies, such as protectionist economic policies.", "Over time, there have been calls for reforms to Jersey's constitution, such as the 2000 Clothier report.Jersey has never been part of the United Kingdom nor its predecessors; however it has been a dependency of the monarch of each of these states at their time of existence.", "The government in Westminster has played an important role in Jersey's lawmaking and political landscape.", "Since the island is linked with the monarch, not with the UK Parliament, the competency of Parliament to legislate for the island without the States' consent is disputed.", "The Crown retains residual responsibility for the \"good government\" of the island, and the UK Government has a \"non-interventionist policy\" for supervising the Bailiwick.=== International relations ===The 1973 Kilbrandon Report stated that \"In international law the United Kingdom Government is responsible for the Islands' international relations\" and \"also responsible for the defence of the Islands\".The United Kingdom is responsible for Jersey's international relations as an aspect of the island's status as a Crown dependency.", "It is now normal practice for the UK to consult the Jersey government and seek their consent before entering into treaty obligations affecting the island.Since 2000, Jersey's \"external personality\" has developed, as recognised in the preamble to the States of Jersey Law 2005 which refers to \"an increasing need for Jersey to participate in matters of international affairs\".", "In 2007, the Chief Minister of Jersey and the UK government agreed an \"International Identity Framework\", setting out the modern relationship between the United Kingdom and Jersey.", "The United Kingdom now issues \"Letters of Entrustment\" to the Jersey government, which delegate power to Jersey to negotiate international agreements on its own behalf and sign treaties in Jersey's own name rather than through the United Kingdom.", "This development was \"strongly supported\" by the House of Commons Justice Committee in its March 2010 report on the Crown Dependencies.", "In January 2011 Senator Freddie Cohen was appointed as Assistant Chief Minister with responsibility for UK and International Relations (in effect, Jersey's first Foreign Minister).", "Jersey was neither a Member State nor an Associate Member of European Union.", "It did, however, have a relationship with the EU governed by Protocol 3 to the UK's Treaty of Accession in 1972.In relation to the Council of Europe, Jersey – as a territory the United Kingdom is responsible for in international law – has been bound by the European Convention on Human Rights since the UK acceded to the treaty in 1951.The Human Rights (Jersey) Law 2000 makes Convention rights part of Jersey law and is based closely on the United Kingdom's Human Rights Act 1998.During the 1980s, the question was raised of Jersey making an annual contribution towards the United Kingdom's costs of defence and international representation undertaken on behalf of Jersey.", "In 1987, the States of Jersey made an interim payment of £8 million while the matter was discussed.", "The outcome of debates within the island was that the contribution should take the form of maintaining a Territorial Army unit in Jersey.", "The Jersey Field Squadron (Militia), attached to the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (Militia), deploys individuals on operations in support of British Forces." ], [ "The Crown", "Lieutenant Governor is the representative of head of state and the Bailiff is the civic head.", "Both are appointed by the Crown.", "Here the holders of the offices in 2011 are seen processing alongside on Liberation DayKing Charles III, colloquially known as the Duke of NormandyAs a Crown dependency, the head of state of Jersey is the British monarch and Jersey is a self-governing possession of the Crown.", "The present monarch, whose traditional title in the Channel Islands is the Duke of Normandy, is King Charles III.", "+Present office holdersPositionHolderSinceMonarchHM King Charles III2022BailiffTimothy Le Cocq2019Deputy BailiffRobert MacRae2019Lieutenant GovernorSir Stephen Dalton GCB2017\"The Crown\" is defined by the Law Officers of the Crown as the \"Crown in right of Jersey\".", "The King's representative and adviser in the island is the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, appointed for a five-year term.", "He is a point of contact between Jersey ministers and the United Kingdom government and carries out executive functions in relation to immigration control, deportation, naturalisation and the issue of passports.", "Since 2017, the incumbent Lieutenant Governor has been Sir Stephen Dalton.The Crown (not the government or parliament of Jersey) appoints the Lieutenant Governor, the Bailiff, Deputy Bailiff, Attorney General and Solicitor General.", "In practice, the process of appointment involves a panel in Jersey which selects a preferred candidate whose name is communicated to the UK Ministry of Justice for approval before a formal recommendation is made to the King." ], [ "Legislature", "The States building in St. HelierThe parliamentary body responsible for adopting legislation and scrutinising the Council of Ministers is the States Assembly.", "49 elected members (37 Deputies and 12 Connétables) sit in the unicameral assembly.", "There are also five non-elected, non-voting members appointed by the Crown (the Bailiff, the Lieutenant Governor, the Dean of Jersey, the Attorney General and the Solicitor General).Elections for Senators and Deputies occur at fixed four-yearly intervals, historically in October.", "From 2018, elections are held in May every fourth year.At a local level, the Connétables (or \"constables\") are elected for four years.", "Other posts in parish municipalities vary in length from one to three years, and elections are held at a Parish Assembly on a majority basis.", "It has been some time since parties contested elections at this level, other than for the position of Connétable, who uniquely has a role in both the national assembly and in local government.Decisions in the States are taken by majority vote of the elected members present and voting.", "The States of Jersey Law 2005 removed the Bailiff's a casting vote and the Lieutenant Governor's power of veto.", "Although formally organised party politics plays no role in the States of Jersey assembly, members often vote together in two main blocs: a minority of members, holding broadly progressive views and critical of the Council of Ministers versus a majority of members, of conservative ideology, who support the Council of Ministers.Scrutiny panels of backbench members of the assembly have been established to examine (i) economic affairs, (ii) environment, (iii) corporate services, (iv) education and home affairs and (v) health, social security and housing.", "The real utility of the panels is said to be \"that of independent critique which holds ministers to account and constructively engages with policy which is deficient\".According to constitutional convention United Kingdom legislation may be extended to Jersey by Order in Council at the request of the Island's government.", "Whether an Act of the United Kingdom Parliament may expressly apply to the Island as regards matters of self-government, or whether this historic power is now in abeyance, is a matter of legal debate.", "The States of Jersey Law 2005 established that no United Kingdom Act or Order in Council may apply to the Bailiwick without being referred to the States of Jersey." ], [ "Executive", "Previously, both executive and legislative powers were vested in a single body: the States of Jersey.", "A committee system managed government affairs and policy, with committees formed of States members.", "A report of a review committee chaired by Sir Cecil Clothier criticised this system of government, finding it incapable of developing high-level strategy, efficient policy coordination or effective political leadership.The States of Jersey Law 2005 introduced a ministerial system of government.", "Executive powers are now vested in the Council of Ministers, formed of the Chief Minister and other ministers (all elected directly by the States).", "The council is the leading decision-making body of the wider Government of Jersey.The Chief Minister is elected from among the elected members of the States.", "Ministers are then proposed both by the Chief Minister and any other elected member, the final decision being made by the States Assembly.The overall direction of government as agreed by the Council of Ministers is published periodically as a \"strategic plan\", the current one being the ''Common Strategic Policy 2018 to 2022''.", "These plans are debated and approved by the States Assembly and translated into action by a series of business plans for each department.Cabinet collective responsibility among members of the Council of Ministers is a feature of the 2015 ''Code of Conduct for Ministers''.", "However, ministers retain the right to present their own policy to the States in their capacity as a member of the assembly in domains not concerning Council policy.In recent years, former Chief Executive Charlie Parker introduced a number of reforms to the government's administrative structure.", "Moving away from a system whereby each minister heads a single department, the One Government structure focuses on more efficient governmental organisation.", "As of 2022, the government departments are:* Office of the Chief Executive* Customer and Local Services* Children, Young People, Education and Skills* Health and Community Services* Infrastructure, Housing and Environment* Justice and Home Affairs* Strategic Policy, Planning and Performance* Treasury and Exchequer* Economy* Chief Operating Office" ], [ "Political parties", "Since the 1950s, politics in Jersey has been dominated by independent representatives.", "Historically, the island had two parties: the conservative Roses (Charlots) and the progressive Laurels (Magots).", "Due to the 2022 electoral reform, Jersey may be moving towards a politics dominated by parties.", "As of February 2022, there are four political parties in Jersey, which hold around a third of the States:* Jersey Alliance (centre-right, party of government)* Jersey Liberal Conservatives (centre-right)* Reform Jersey (social democratic)* Progress Party (centrist)" ], [ "Criticism", "Jersey's political system has often been criticised over the centuries, both within and outside the island.", "The 'Jersey Way' is a term used in critiques to describe a political culture that is claimed to enforce conformity, ignore perversion of the course of justice and suppress political dissent.", "The Tax Justice Network states that the Jersey Way allows for the island's political system to be abused by financial services sector companies.The Tax Justice Network criticises the political system for its absence of judicial independence (due to 'close relations between the legal and financial services' and 'the intimate relations between legal professionals who grew up together'); lack of second chamber in its parliament (for scrutiny purposes); no political parties; no formalised government and opposition and the lack of a wide range of independent news sources, or research capabilities.Criticism of the political system is no modern development.", "In the 19th century, Abraham Le Cras was an outspoken new resident of the island.", "A retired colonel, Le Cras was opposed to Jersey's historic self-government and represented a group of people who not only thought Jersey should be fully integrated into England, but disputed the right of the States even to make its own laws.", "He is noted as saying, 'The States have no more power to make laws for Jersey than I have'.", "In 1840 he won a court case challenging the States' power to naturalise people as citizens.", "The Privy Council determined that the long-standing precedent of the States doing so had been invalidated since Jersey had been ruled under civil law since 1771.In 1846, he persuaded the MP for Bath to push for a Parliamentary Committee to enquire into the law of Jersey; however HM Government instead promised a Royal Commission.", "The Commission advised the abolition of the Royal Court run by the Jurats and its replacement by three Crown-appointed judges, and the introduction of a paid police force.", "Le Cras left the island to live in England in 1850." ], [ "Local government", "Jersey is divided into twelve administrative districts known as parishes.", "All have access to the sea, and they are mostly named after the saints to whom their ancient parish churches are dedicated.Each parish is further divided into ''vingtaines'' (or, in St. Ouen, ''cueillettes''), divisions which are historic and nowadays mostly used for purposes of electoral constituency in municipal elections, which elect the members of the Parish municipality.", "Each parish has an Honorary Police force of elected, unpaid civilians who exercise police and prosecution powers." ], [ "Jersey politicians" ], [ "Separation debate", "The separation issue came up in the House of Commons in a debate on Jersey's constitution in 1969.According to Sir Cyril Black, Member of Parliament for Wimbledon, Jersey was on the verge of declaring independence from the British Government after the Queen's speech stated HM Government would examine the relationships with the Channel Islands.", "Jersey opposed its inclusion in the Royal Commission on the Constitution and the complete lack of consultation surrounding it.", "The Home Secretary later stated that there was no intention to change the relationship.The question of Jersey's independence has been discussed from time to time in the States Assembly.", "In 1999, a member of the government said that 'Independence is an option open to the Island if the circumstances should justify this' but the government 'does not believe independence is appropriate in the present circumstances and does not see the circumstances arising in the foreseeable future when it would be appropriate'.", "In 2000, Senator Paul Le Claire called for a referendum on independence, a proposal which failed to win any significant support.The Policy and Resources Committee of the States of Jersey established the Constitutional Review Group in July 2005, chaired by Sir Philip Bailhache, with terms of reference 'to conduct a review and evaluation of the potential advantages and disadvantages for Jersey in seeking independence from the United Kingdom or other incremental change in the constitutional relationship, while retaining the Queen as Head of State'.Proposals for Jersey independence have subsequently been discussed at an international conference held in Jersey, organised by the ''Jersey and Guernsey Law Review''.", "The former Bailiff, Sir Philip Bailhache has called for changes to the Channel Islands' relationship with the United Kingdom government, arguing that 'at the very least, we should be ready for independence if we are placed in a position where that course was the only sensible option'.In October 2012, the Council of Ministers issued a \"Common policy for external relations\" that set out a number of principles for the conduct of external relations in accordance with existing undertakings and agreements.", "This document noted that Jersey \"is a self-governing, democratic country with the power of self-determination\" and \"that it is not Government policy to seek independence from the United Kingdom, but rather to ensure that Jersey is prepared if it were in the best interests of Islanders to do so\".", "On the basis of the established principles the Council of Ministers decided to \"ensure that Jersey is prepared for external change that may affect the Island's formal relationship with the United Kingdom and/or European Union\".=== Constitutional Review Group report ===The Group's ''Second Interim Report'' was presented to the States by the Council of Ministers in June 2008.The report made a number of recommendations about Jersey independence, including the benefits and costs of independence and the social and cultural consequences.", "The island would need to be recognised as a sovereign state on a country by country basis.", "The report concluded that 'Jersey is equipped to face the challenges of independence' but 'whether those steps should be taken is not within the remit of this paper'.At present the island is protected by the British Armed Forces.", "Upon independence the island would need to develop its own capacity to entirely handle defensive and security affairs.", "It established that Jersey could seek membership of a defensive alliance (e.g.", "NATO); negotiate a defence agreement with a sovereign state (e.g.", "the UK) - San Marino, for example have a defence agreement with Italy that cost 700,000 USD in 2000/01 - or establish an independent defence force (in a similar manner to Antigua and Barbuda, which spends around £2.5 million).", "Furthermore, it is unlikely that any major European power would allow the island to be invaded, but the island could not feasibly protect itself from a major external threat without securing defensive agreements.Independence would require the establishment of a Foreign Affairs Department within the Government of Jersey, or other similar steps.", "At present, the island's international affairs are formally governed by the UK Government.", "The report recommended the island join 'essential' global organisations, such as the UN and IMF; the Commonwealth and the WTO.", "At the time, independence would have brought an end to Jersey's relationship with the EU, which was mediated through the UK's accession treaty protocol 3.The report suggests a minimum requirement of the establishment of three overseas missions: London, New York and Brussels (the Government has an office in London and shares an office in Brussels already), to provide contact with major organisations such as the Commonwealth, UN and EU, as well as the UK, US and EU, and also to allow use of them for tourism and trade-related purposes.Consideration would need to be given to the questions of the internal organisation of Jersey's constitution, as well as citizenship and passports.", "The report assumes the Queen would continue to be the Head of State, appointing a Governor-General on the advice of the British Government.", "The report recommended the need for a codified constitution, which should contain a basic human rights statement.", "The current States Assembly could be replaced by a States Parliament, which would need to replace the checks and balances provided by the Privy Council." ], [ "Political pressure groups", "Jersey, as a polity predominated by independents has always had a number of pressure groups.", "Many ad-hoc lobby groups form in response to a single issue and then dissolve once the concerns have been dealt with.", "However, there are a number of pressure groups actively working to influence government decisions on a number of issues.", "For example, in 2012 the National Trust engaged in pressure campaign against development of the Plemont headland.", "The Trust was supported by the majority of the islands senior politicians, including the Chief Minister, but a proposition made in the States of Jersey for the States to compulsorily purchase the headland and sell it to the Trust was defeated in a vote on 13 December 2012.The outcome of the vote was 24 in favour of acquisition, 25 against, with one absent and one declaring an interest.===Interest Groups===The following groups are funded by their members.", "Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural SocietyInstitute of Directors, Jersey branchJersey Chamber of CommerceProgress JerseyJersey Youth Reform TeamJersey Rights AssociationSame DifferenceSave Jersey's HeritageSociété JersiaiseAlliance Française, Jersey branchAttac, Jersey BranchNational Trust for Jersey===Quangos===The following groups are, at least, partially funded by government.", "Appointments are made by the States Assembly.", "Jersey FinanceCommunity Relations TrustJersey Overseas AidJersey Consumer CouncilJersey Legal Information Board Jersey Development Company (formerly ''Jersey Waterfront Enterprise Board'')" ], [ "See also", "Law of Jersey" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "''Balleine's History of Jersey'', Marguerite Syvret and Joan Stevens (1998) *''The Constitution of Jersey'', Roy Le Herissier''Constitutional History of Jersey'', F. de L. Bois, 1972" ], [ "External links", "* States of Jersey Assembly* States of Jersey government* States of Jersey Scrutiny" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Jersey''' is a highly developed social market economy.", "It is largely driven by international financial services and legal services, which accounted for 39.5% of total GVA in 2019, a 4% increase on 2018.Jersey is considered to be an offshore financial centre.", "Jersey has the preconditions to be a microstate, but it is a self-governing Crown dependency of the UK.", "It is considered to be a corporate tax haven by many organisations.Other sectors include construction, retail, agriculture, tourism and telecommunications.", "Before the Second World War, Jersey's economy was dominated by agriculture, however after liberation, tourism to the island became popular.", "More recently, the finance industry recognised worth in operating in Jersey, which has now become the island's dominant industry.In 2017, Jersey's GDP per capita was one of the highest in the world at $55,324.In 2019, the island's economy, as measured by GVA, grew by 2.1% in real terms to £4.97 billion.", "In December 2020, there were 1,350 people actively seeking work." ], [ "History", "===Agriculture===Until the 16th century, the economy of Jersey was based on feudalism and open-field self-sustenance agriculture.", "The main crop, wheat, was exported and sold to Spanish merchants in St Malo.Enclosure happened in Jersey around the end of the 16th century.", "Unlike in England, enclosure was done by the peasantry in order to make profit from producing cider, the production of which moved Jersey's economy from self-sufficiency to cash-crop agriculture.", "From then until the 19th century, cider was the largest agricultural export; in 1795, 20 percent of the island was orchard.", "In 1839 for example, of cider were exported from Jersey to England alone, but by 1870 exports from Jersey had slumped to .", "Beer had replaced cider as a fashionable drink in the main export markets, and even the home market had switched to beer as the population became more urban.Enclosure and the subsequent transition to cash-crop agriculture can be blamed for shortages in essential crops, particularly corn, which caused political instability in the island, such as the 1769 Corn Riots.Potatoes overtook cider as the most important crop in Jersey in the 1840s.", "Small-scale cider production on farms for domestic consumption, particularly by seasonal workers from Brittany and mainland Normandy, was maintained, but by the mid-20th century production dwindled until only eight farms were producing cider for their own consumption in 1983.The number of orchards had been reduced to such a level that the destruction of trees in the Great Storm of 1987 demonstrated how close the Islands had come to losing many of its traditional cider apple varieties.", "A concerted effort was made to identify and preserve surviving varieties and new orchards were planted.", "As part of diversification, farmers have moved into commercial cider production, and the cider tradition is celebrated and marketed as a heritage experience.Since the 1800s a significant portion of the Jersey economy has been greenhouse agriculture raising fruits, vegetables and flowers under glass.", "In the twenty first century this has been a declining activity with many greenhouses now unused and some in derelict condition.", "There was a motion in the Jersey legislature in early 2022 to repurpose unused greenhouses as construction sites for housing.", "A compromise proposal was that half the unused greenhouses be used for other purposes.", "The measures failed to pass ===Textiles===The textile industry became a popular export industry for islanders, particularly women.", "In fact, the trade became so popular that in 1608 the States had to ban knitting during harvest and vraicing season.", "This industry connected rural Jerseymen to the wider global economy.", "The knitting of woollen garments was a thriving industry for Jersey during the 17th and 18th centuries.", "The knitting industry died sometime after 1750.===Ship building===Jersey was the 4th largest ship building area in the 19th century British Isles.", "See History of Jersey.===Historical exchange rates===Jersey pounds per US dollar - 0.55 (2005), 0.6981 (January 2002), 0.6944 (2001), 0.6596 (2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997); the Jersey pound is at par with the British pound." ], [ "Fiscal policy", "Jersey is fiscally independent from the UK.", "UK public money is not ordinarily spent in the island, and Jersey residents do not pay tax or national insurance contributions to HMRC.", "As the UK is responsible for Jersey's defence and international representation, the cost of Jersey to the British taxpayer could be seen at around £55 million, though this is a notional cost; it is unlikely that, if Jersey were independent, that money would be saved on costs to the armed forces.", "The States make, upon agreement with Westminster, a contribution to the costs of its relationship in the form of a territorial army on the island.=== Tax system ===Jersey has a 'simple and stable' tax system, which does not change much over time.", "This is reflected in States policies, which call for a 'low, broad, simple and fair' system.", "The country collects income tax on its ordinary residents, with allowances and exemptions available for both low-income and very high-income residents (the latter through the 2(1)(e) policy).", "Corporate income tax is charged through the zero-ten policy, through which most businesses do not pay any corporation tax.", "Jersey does not have inheritance, wealth, corporate or capital gains tax.", "are charged on road fuel, vehicles, alcohol and tobacco and are similar to UK excise duties.=== Social protection ===The social protection system in Jersey is known as Social Security.", "In 2004, Jersey spent less than any EU country on social protection at 12.3 per cent of GDP, though the island's per capita GDP was higher than the European average.", "Social security contributions are funded by both employees and employers on monthly earnings.=== Criticism ===Jersey is considered a 'tax haven' by some sources (e.g.", "the Tax Justice Network), but this label is contested.", "Jersey has a long history of tax avoidance and smuggling due to its special constitutional status.", "The EU's tax haven blacklist does not include Jersey in the list dated February 2023, though has in the past and the list has been criticised for leaving out jurisdictions such as Jersey.", "The Government of Jersey and UK Government have argued that Jersey is a cooperative jurisdiction and the local finance industry rejects the tax haven label.=== GST and VAT avoidance ===A value-added tax system is in place known as Goods and Services Tax (GST), which is set at 5 per cent.", "Some items are zero-rated - but not food - and imported products below £135 are exempt.The difference between the GST and UK/EU VAT systems previously led to VAT avoidance facilitated through the island.", "This included fulfilment by Play.com and Amazon, among other large retailers.", "Low-value consignment relief provided the mechanism for VAT-free imports from the Channel Islands to the UK.", "In April 2012, the EU closed this loophole, leading to the closure of many island businesses and the loss of a number of jobs on the island." ], [ "Sectors", "=== Financial and legal services ===International Finance CentreJersey-based financial organisations provide services to customers worldwide.", "In December 2020, it was reported that there were 13,510 jobs within this sector.", "The finance sector profits were about £1.18 billion in 2015.Jersey is one of the top worldwide offshore financial centers It has been criticised for its tax practices, with many calling the island a tax haven.", "It attracts deposits from customers outside of the island, seeking the advantages such places offer, like reduced tax burdens.", "In 2020, Tax Justice ranked Jersey as the 16th on the Financial Secrecy Index, below larger countries such as the UK, however still placing at the lower end of the 'extreme danger zone' for offshore secrecy'.However The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU) have all endorsed Jersey as a top international finance centre.", "In 2017's OECD Rating, Jersey scored top marks from the OECD on tax transparency, receiving a \"fully compliant\" rating and as recently as 2019 The European Council of Finance Ministers (ECOFIN) have formally confirmed Jersey a Co-operative Jurisdiction.", "In addition, a MONEYVAL Assessment by the Council of Europe rated Jersey compliant or largely compliant in 48 of their 49 assessment areas, the highest score amongst all states assessed.In the fourth quarter of 2020, the total value of banking deposits held in Jersey decreased from £137.8bn to £131.6bn while the net asset value of regulated funds under administration increased by £12.6bn to £378.1bn.", "There were 33,626 live companies on Jersey's register.Jersey shares The International Stock Exchange (TISE) with Guernsey, where it is based.===Construction===Construction represented 7% of GVA during 2019.In June 2020 it was reported that 5,970 people were employed full-time in the construction and quarrying sector.St Helier has a lot of ongoing construction projects.", "The reclamation of land opened in the 1980s new land for development in the town centre.", "This has led to development projects such as the Jersey International Finance Centre, Horizon and the new St Helier Waterfront project.The GVA of the construction sector declined by 1% between 2018 and 2019.===Retail and wholesale===As of June 2020 there were 6,940 jobs within Jersey's wholesale and retail trades.", "Retail and wholesale declined by 1% between 2018 and 2019.Jersey has a large range of local and national shops.", "SandpiperCI Limited operate a chain of stores in Jersey, their franchises include well-known names, such as Morrisons, Marks & Spencer, Iceland, and Costa Coffee.A number of online retailers, and fulfillment houses operate from the Channel Islands, including Jersey, supplying a variety of low-value goods such as CDs, DVDs, video games, and gadgets.", "Residents of the EU were choosing to order goods from Jersey, so as to benefit from a tax relief known as Low-value consignment relief (LVCR).", "UK residents, in particular, were taking advantage of this situation.A local company, play.com grew substantially during the time that LVCR applied to Jersey.", "Notably, Amazon UK also took advantage of this by dispatching some low-value items from Jersey.In April 2012 the UK Government made law changes to prevent the Channel Islands continued exploitation of LVCR, meaning that UK residents would have to pay the full VAT amount on items imported from the Channel Islands.", "Some goods are still sold and distributed from Jersey, despite these changes.===Agriculture===In 2017, 33,301 vergées were dedicated to agriculture, with each holding having an average area of 78 vergées.", "Since 2006, there has been a reduction in the number of smaller holding areas, as have the number of larger holdings (64 in 2006 to 53 in 2017).The Rural Support Scheme was introduced in 2017 to replace the Single Area Payment.", "75% of agricultural areas by surface area are subject to RSS.There has been a reduction in the total number of agricultural workers since 2007.+10-year averages of staff numbers during peak season months.200720122017Full-time678635488Part-time138188114Seasonal1031837834Total184716601436The total value of all export crops has increased since 2013.In 2017, it is £42.5 million.", "The primary exported crops are potatoes (£31.6m), narcissus flowers (£891k), courgettes (£184k) and cauliflowers (£22k).", "The number of Jersey Royal potatoes cultivated has increased by 18% between 2007 and 2017.The total area dedicated to glasshouses from 2013 to 2017 has reduced from 275.8k m2 to 174.3k m2.The Jersey breed of dairy cattle is known worldwide.", "In 2017, there were 4,842 cattle in Jersey.", "The gross sales value of the milk delivered to Jersey Dairy in 2017-18 was £13.9 million.", "Milk products go to the UK and other EU countries.===Tourism and hospitality===Hotel de FranceHospitality (hotels, restaurants and bars) made up 4.2% of Jersey's GVA in 2019.It is estimated that the wider contribution of tourism in particular is 8.3% (2017).", "Tourism is important for Jersey's taxation, making £12.5 million in GST (15% of the total).", "However, total spend is much higher, around £250 million.", "This creates 6,470 jobs.Most tourist attractions are operated by private companies and nonprofit organisations, including companies owned, or funded by the States of Jersey.", "Elizabeth Castle, for example, is controlled by Jersey Heritage.", "Some other attractions are owned by the National Trust for Jersey.", "One notable attraction is Jersey Zoo in Trinity, a wildlife park founded by conservationist Gerald Durrell.===Transport, storage and communication===This sector accounted for 3.5% of GVA during 2019.In December 2020, this sector had 1,950 private sector jobs in transport and storage and 1,810 private sector jobs in information and communications.Most of the telecoms infrastructure is owned by Jersey Telecom.In December 2020, there were 154,300 vehicles registered in Jersey.In 2008, most goods imported and exported were transported by Huelin-Renouf, Condor Logistics, and other smaller operators, via either Saint Helier harbour, or Jersey Airport.During the period 1984 to 1994, British Channel Island Ferries were responsible for much shipping to and from the United Kingdom." ], [ "Genuine Jersey", "Genuine Jersey is a brand icon found on products made locally within the island.", "The brand was launched in 2001 by local businessmen who wanted to differentiate their products from imported goods and is now particularly visible island-based brand that supports local businesses and promotes island products broadly to locals and visitors.", "Jersey holds an enviable positions amongst island jurisdictions for its internationally famous products such as Jersey milk and the Jersey Royal potato.", "The use of the word \"Jersey\" in the name of these products helps to connect place with product branding and to build the recognition of the island brand.", "The Genuine Jersey organisation has various links with the Government of Jersey and the organisation exists in a public-private sphere in Jersey's small island political and commercial landscape.", "In restaurants, Genuine Jersey dishes can have 20% non-local ingredients.", "Contemporary green politics allows the Genuine Jersey brand to align itself with environmental goals in the modern age of buying local." ], [ "Cost of living", "Jersey has a high cost of living, due to transport costs and a lack of competition.", "In January 2021, Numbeo, an online cost-of-living index, reported that Jersey was the \"world's 'most expensive place to live'.", "\"=== Inflation ===In Jersey, inflation is based on the All Items Retail Prices Index (RPI).", "In March 2020, this stood at 182.1, where June 2000 is 100.The largest increases in RPI were in housing, household services, leisure services.", "Underlying inflation, as measured by the annual change in RPI(Y), increased by 2.3% over the twelve months to March 2020.Historically, the highest RPI change was in September 2008 at 6.4% and the lowest was in September 2009 at -0.6%.+Annual average API (2000 = 100)YearInflationYearInflation19494.3198547.819504.4198649.619514.6198751.919524.9198855.51953519896019545.1199065.719555.319917119565.6199275.319575.9199378.219586.1199480.319596.3199583.219606.3199685.819616.419978919626.7199892.919637199996.219647.22000100.419657.42001104.219667.72002108.719677.82003113.419688.22004118.919698.52005122.619709.12006126.41971102007131.8197210.72008137.9197311.82009138.9197414.32010142.5197517.42011148.9197620.22012153.6197723.42013155.9197825.92014158.5197929.12015159.5198033.62016162.2198137.32017167.2198240.12018173.8198342.52019178.8198444.9" ], [ "Seasonal workers", "The workforce in Jersey tends to increase during the summer months, with around 3,500 more people employed in the summer of 2008 than in the winter of 2007.These seasonal workers are mostly employed in agriculture, hotels, restaurants and bars." ], [ "International economic relationships", "Jersey has long been part of the UK's customs area.", "When the UK was part of the European Union, Jersey was part of the European Union Customs Union.", "In 2018, Jersey became part of a customs union with the United Kingdom.", "Therefore, there are no tariffs between the territories and a common external tariff on places outside the customs union.", "However Jersey retains the ability to impose specific prohibitions and restrictions at its border and retain autonomy in customs systems and fiscal matters.Most of Jersey's physical linkages are with southern Great Britain, rather than the geographically nearer northern France.", "Almost all freight capacity is UK-related, not EU-related.", "Despite this, the finance industry means Jersey has economic (particularly financial) linkages with countries all over the world, particularly with emerging markets.", "In 2014, Jersey had a global trade surplus of £600 million (18% of national output), but a trade deficit with the UK of £500 million." ], [ "See also", "Channel Islands Lottery" ], [ "References", "''Jersey in Figures, 2005'', States of Jersey" ], [ "External links", "* Jersey Treasury and Resources * Jersey Finance* Jersey Development Company" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''services of communication in Jersey''' comprise Internet, telephone, broadcasting and postal services, which allow islanders to contact people and receive information." ], [ "Internet", "As of 2018, three companies provide fixed-line services to the island -* Jersey Telecom (JT), who operate island's fixed-line network;* Sure, whose services are based on wholesale access to JT's infrastructure; and* Newtel, who focus on business customers and also use JT's infrastructure.As all services are based on JT's infrastructure, there is limited competition.", "Nevertheless, islanders enjoy average fixed broadband download speedswhich outstrip the UK and other small countries.", "As of 2021, Jersey has the highest broadband speeds of any country in the world, with an average rate of 274.27 Mbit/s, compared with Liechtenstein, which only had speeds of 211.26 Mbit/s, and the global average of just 9.10 Mbit/s.JT has dominance over the broadband sector, with 68% broadband market share in 2015, however this is declining relative to the competition.", "In terms of value for money on high-speed internet services, Jersey broadband consumers pay lower prices than nations like Bermuda, but higher prices than in the UK or the Isle of Man, but for lower-speed services islanders pay far lower prices than other small islands (and less than UK consumers).+Jersey broadband services market share20122016JT78%68%Sure13%27%Newtel9%5%Internet connectivity to the rest of the world is provided by undersea cables linked to Guernsey, the UK and France.", "In 2016, a ship – believed to be the King Arthur owned by Mediterranea di Navigazione – dragging its anchor on the seabed in the English Channel cut the three main internet cables to Jersey and Guersey.", "As a result, all communications traffic had to travel via cables to France." ], [ "Mobile telephones", "Jersey is part of the UK's National Telephone Numbering Plan, which means the island shares the UK's international dialling code +44.4G license operators in the island are obligated to provide a 2 Mbit/s download speed to 95% of the island population 90% of the time.", "In 2016, the island had 95% 4G coverage and higher average mobile data speeds than (7 major cities in) the UK.In 2020, JT retains the majority mobile market share of 52%, compared with 24% for Airtel-Vodafone and 23% for Sure, the island's other mobile operators.", "In 2020, there were 124,262 mobile subscriptions, of which 2,845 were mobile only.Mobile data prices are lower in Jersey than other similarly sized countries, such as Bermuda and Malta, but slightly higher than the major operators in the UK.", "In 2020, the following mobile usage statistics were recorded: 202.0 million mobile minutes, 48.3 million SMS messages and 9.56 million GB of data used." ], [ "Landline telephones", "Jersey is part of the UK's National Telephone Numbering Plan, which means the island shares the UK's international dialling code +44.Landline telephone numbers have the area code (0)1534." ], [ "Postal service" ], [ "Future", "The Government of Jersey has a telecommunications development strategy called ''A telecoms strategy for Jersey''." ], [ "Telephony", "===Addressing===Jersey is incorporated into the UK National Telephone Numbering Plan, using the following area codes:* JT Global (formerly Jersey Telecom): +44 1534 for land-lines +44 7797 for mobiles* Sure (Batelco):** +44 7700 for mobiles* Airtel-Vodafone:** +44 7829 for mobiles====Fixed line====Fixed PSTN lines in use; approx 57,700 (2009).====Mobile cellular====* JT Group Limited* Sure* Airtel-VodafoneWith over 120 mobile phone masts, in 2012, spread across its area, the island has a phone mast density almost five times that of the United Kingdom as a whole but similar to any urban area.===Telephony system and infrastructure=======Domestic====Jersey Telecom:* System X supplied by Marconi Communications.", "* Marconi Softswitch and UTStarcom SoftSwitch.====Connectivity====* 4 submarine communication cables.", "* 2 microwave links." ], [ "Mass media", "===Radio===Digital DAB+ broadcasts started in Jersey on 1 August 2021.====Radio broadcast stations====BBC Radio Jersey 88·8MHz FM, 1026kHz MW AM, DAB+ and bbc.co.uk/jersey.", "Channel 103 103·7 MHz FM, DAB+ and channel103.com.", "Radio Lions, a closed-circuit hospital radio station launched by the Jersey Lions Club in 1975.", "Radio Force 7, a former Saint-Malo radio station, pioneered bilingual broadcasting aimed at the Channel Islands from January 1988 to the early 1990s.", "Contact 94.Former radio station (5 September 1988 to 29 November 1991) broadcasting to the island from Normandy.====Radio receiver adoption and usage====Not available===Television=======Television broadcast stations==== ITV Channel Television.", "* Sub Opt from BBC One of Spotlight Channel Islands.====Cable television====* Newtel Solutions====Satellite television====* BSkyB====Television set adoption and usage====Not available===Internet service providers (ISPs)===* JT Group Limited which owns most of the telecommunications infrastructure in Jersey* Newtel Solutions* Sure* Airtel-Vodafone (3G data only)" ], [ "See also", "* Frémont Point Transmitter" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A History of Radio and Television Relay Services in Jersey" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Jersey" ], [ "Introduction", "Victoria Avenue is the longest dual carriageway in Jersey.", "It links St Helier to Bel Royal.", "'''Transport in Jersey''' is primarily through the motor vehicle.", "The island, which is the largest of the Channel Islands has 124,737 registered vehicles (2016).", "The island is committed to combatting climate change, having declared a climate emergency, and policy is focused on reducing dependence on the car.", "The island has a cycle network and bus service.", "The primary modes of transport for leaving the island are by air or sea." ], [ "Road transport", "Road transport is the primary form of both private and public transport in Jersey.=== Highways ===Road names in Jersey are generally in French224x224pxVehicles in Jersey drive on the left side of the road.", "The island has a default speed limit of 40 miles per hour (64 km/h) with slower limits on certain stretches of road, such as 20/30 mph (32/48 km/h) in built up areas and 15 mph (24 km/h) on roads designated as ''green lanes''.The island is home to longest dual carriageway in the Channel Islands, consisting of Victoria Avenue (A2), and the Esplanade/Route de la Liberation (A1).", "Roads in Jersey are often named in French or Jèrriais, except in St Helier, where they are often named in English.Public highways are state-owned and managed by public highways authorities.", "Main roads are maintained by the Government of Jersey and funded through general taxation.", "By-roads (''chemins vinciaux'') are managed by the relevant parish through a Roads Committee.", "Roads Inspectors are elected to report on roads in their vingtaine.Roads in Jersey are classified using two systems.", "The first is the signposted system for classifying main roads, consisting of an \"A\", \"B\" and \"C\" system as used in Great Britain, Northern Ireland and the Isle of Man.", "These are often signed on directional signs, however some are inaccurate.The second is a system used privately by the Government of Jersey to classify both main roads and by-roads.", "The system consists of Class 1, 2 and 3 roads (main roads) and Class 4 roads (by-roads).", "Class 1 roads include Victoria Avenue.A Visite du Branchage is an inspection of roads to ensure property owners have complied with the laws against vegetation encroaching on the highway.==== History ====Until the 19th century, Jersey's highway system were narrow and muddy tracks connecting homes and fields to the churches, mills and beaches.", "Around the turn of the 18th century, the number of roads are described as \"holding no Proportion with the Bigness of the island\".", "The sides of the road, unlike in England had \"great Bulwarks of Earth ... from 6 to 8, and sometimes 10 Foot high\".", "At the time there were three types of road: , which, including the banks, were 16 feet wide; , which were 12 feet wide; and , which served only carriages on horseback.In the early 19th century, the military roads were constructed (on occasion at gunpoint in the face of opposition from landowners) by the governor, General George Don, to link coastal fortifications with St. Helier harbour.", "These had an unexpected effect on agriculture once peace restored reliable trade links.", "Farmers in previously isolated valleys were able to swiftly transport crops grown in the island's microclimate to waiting ships and then on to the markets of London and Paris ahead of the competition.", "In conjunction with the later introduction of steamships and the development of the French and British railway systems, Jersey's agriculture was no longer as isolated as before.==== A-roads ====La Route du Fort in St Helier is the main route to the east of the island* A1 St Helier to St Aubin road: La Route de la Liberation, Esplanade, La Route de Saint Aubin, La Route de la Haule* A2 St Helier to Bel Royal road: Victoria Avenue* A3 St Helier to Gorey road: Don Road, Georgetown Road, Bagot Road, Longueville Road, La Rue à Don* A4 St Clement to Gorey coast road* A5 St Clement to Gorey inner road* A6 St Helier to St Martin road: Mont Millais, Bagatelle Road, La Grande Route de Saint Martin* A7 St Helier to St Saviour road: La Motte Street, St Saviour's Road, St Saviour's Hill* A8 St Helier to Trinity road: Trinity Road, Le Mont de la Trinité, La Route de la Trinité, La Rue des Croix, La Route d'Ebenezer* A9 St Helier to St John road: Queens Road, La Grande Route de Saint Jean, La Route des Issues* A10 St Lawrence main road: La Grande Route de Saint Laurent* A11 St Peter's valley road: La Vallée de Saint Pierre* A12 Beaumont to St Ouen road: La Route de Beaumont, La Grande Route de Saint Pierre, La Grande Route de Saint Ouen* A13 St Aubin to Red Houses road: La Mont les Vaux, La Grande Route de Saint Brelade, La Route des Genets, La Route Orange* A14: Rouge Bouillon* A15: St Clement's Road* A16: Commercial Buildings* A17: La Route du Fort==== Driving laws ====leftDriving laws in Jersey are the United Kingdom Highway Code, supplemented by the Jersey Highway Code.Visitors wishing to drive must possess a Certificate of Insurance or an International Green Card, a valid Driving Licence or International Driving Permit (UK International Driving Permits are not valid).", "Photocopies are not acceptable.", "A nationality plate must be displayed on the back of visiting vehicles.It is an offence to hold a mobile phone whilst driving a moving vehicle.", "It is not an offence to use a hands-free system.", "Where fitted, all passengers inside a vehicle must wear a seat belt at all times, regardless of whether they are sitting in the front or the rear.Drink-driving is illegal in Jersey.", "Police use breathalyser tests during spot checks and a person is guilty if there is over 35 microgrammes of alcohol per 100 ml breath.The penalties for drinking and driving in Jersey are up to £2,000 fine or 6 months in prison for the first offence plus unlimited disqualification of driving licence.", "It is an offence to drive whilst under the influence of drugs.", "Since July 2014 it has also been illegal to smoke in any vehicle carrying passengers under the age of 18.=== Traffic calming ===Over the years, a number of traffic calming schemes have been introduced around the island to get motorists to slow down.", "In 2016, a report in the JEP outlined a number of traffic calming schemes that were under consideration around the island.+Parish (in Jèrriais)Traffic calming details20x20px Saint Helier (Saint Hélyi)All roads inside of the ring road have the speed limit set at 20 mph.20x20px Grouville (Grouville)There is a 20 mph zone in Gorey Village and near Grouville school.", "Furthermore, the Grouville Coast road was reduced 20x20px Saint Brelade (Saint Brélade)In 2018, a review of all parish speed limits was conducted and most of the parish roads were reduced to 20 mph.", "There are 20 mph limits in the residential estates in the parish.20x20px Saint Clement (Saint Cliément)The Constable had tried to introduce a 20 mph limit outside the parish church but this did not succeed.", "20x20px Saint John (Saint Jean)A \"french-style\" traffic calming with a speed camera at each end of the village which is linked to a zebra crossing.", "If a car is speeding, the crossing would change to a red light.", "The Constable is opposed to 20 mph zones.20x20px Saint Lawrence (Saint Louothains)20x20px Saint Martin (Saint Martîn)A number of speed limit reductions were being considered, including a 20 mph zone outside the school and along the Gorey Coast Road.20x20px Saint Mary (Sainte Mathie)Roads around Grève de Lecq may be changed to 20 mph zones.20x20px Saint Ouen (Saint Ouën)As of 2016, Speed limits will remain \"as they are\".20x20px Saint Peter (Saint Pièrre)There is a 20 mph zone in the village centre.20x20px Saint Saviour (Saint Saûveux)New one-way schemes were considered including Les Varines and Rue de Beauvoir, including a new footpath along Les Varines.18x18px Trinity (La Trinneté)A 20 mph speed limit may be introduced in the village centre along Rue ès Picots.=== Car sharing ===Jersey has a shared electric car operator, EVie, that provides islandwide self-service electric car hire.=== Cycling ===Jersey Cycle Route signsJersey has infrastructure dedicated to cyclists.", "Cycle infrastructure has been improving in the previous decade under the Sustainable Transport Policy.The best developed cycle route is the route from St Helier to Corbière.", "The route consists of segregated cycle paths and shared pedestrian-cycle paths, including the St Aubin's Bay promenade and the Railway Walk.", "The connection from West Park to Havre des Pas was completed an upgraded after a ministerial decision in 2011.A branch of this route connects to St Peter's Village via Les Quennevais.There is a segregated cycle-pedestrian path along St Peter's Valley, which connects pedestrians and cyclists from the green lane network in St Mary to roads near the St Aubin's Bay Promenade cycle route.", "It was opened in 2016.Jersey has a network of signposted cycle routes.", "There are fifteen routes in total, such as route 1, which forms a loop around the island.", "Most of the routes are on quieter lanes and dedicated paths, however some of these routes are on busy main road with no dedicated infrastructure.The Eastern Cycle Route network is a proposed network of cycle-safe routes in the eastern parishes of St Clement and Grouville.", "The first section from Gorey to La Ville-ès-Renauds in Grouville was opened in 2011.There is a dedicated network of Green Lanes across the island, which have a 15 mph speed limit and where priority is afforded to cyclists.Jersey has a shared electric bike operator, EVie, that provides islandwide self-service electric bike hire.==== Companies ==== EVie=== Buses ===leftBuses started running on the island in the 1920s, and by the 1930s, competition from motor buses had rendered the railways unprofitable, with final closure coming in 1935 after a fire disaster (except for the later German reintroduction of rail during the military occupation).Buses are operated by CT Plus Jersey, a local subsidiary of HCT Group.", "Bus service routes radiate from the Liberation Station in St Helier.In 2012, it was announced that CT Plus would take over the operation of the bus service, commencing on 2 January 2013, ending 10 years of Connex service in Jersey.", "This new service is called LibertyBus.===Parking===Public parking in Jersey is controlled by time restrictions and payment.A single-yellow line along the side of the carriageway indicates a \"No waiting\" restriction.", "There are no double-yellow lines in Jersey.", "Parking on yellow lines is liable to a fine.Some on-street and off-street parking is paid parking.", "Payments operate using either Paycards or PayByPhone and is indicated with the Paycard Symbol.", "Paycards are a form of voucher payment.", "Paycards are purchased from various stores around the island and can be used by scratching the time of arrival on the relevant number of units.Certain car parks, such as the Waterfront, Sand Street and Ports of Jersey Car Parks use automatic number plate recognition or ticket technology with a pay upon exit system.Some parking is free to use however is time-restricted and a Jersey parking disc must be displayed showing time of arrival.There are four main residents’ and business parking zones within St Helier." ], [ "Air transport", "There is a single airport on the island, Jersey Airport, located in St Peter.", "It has one runway and one terminal building and has direct flights throughout the year to many United Kingdom and International destinations, including nine daily flights to London.Before the present airport opened in 1937, air transport was through seaplanes, which landed at West Park in St Helier.", "The first aeroplane to land in Jersey was the Sanchez Besa in August 1912.The first passenger flight was recorded as taking place 147 years earlier through air balloon." ], [ "Rail transport", "Map of the former railway lines of JerseyHistorically there were public railway services in the island, provided by two railway companies:The Jersey Railway (closed in 1936)The Jersey Eastern Railway (closed in 1929).The mostly coastal lines operated out of St Helier and ran across the southern part of the island, reaching Gorey Harbour in the east and la Corbière in the west.", "There were two stations in St Helier: (JR) and (JER).After closure, most of the infrastructure was removed and today little evidence remains of these railways.", "A small number of former station buildings are still standing, including St Helier Weighbridge, which is now in use as the Liberty Wharf shopping centre, and St Aubin railway station, which is used today as the Parish Hall of Saint Brélade.", "Part of the former Jersey Railway line from St Aubin to Corbière has been converted into a rail trail for cyclists and walkers.During the German military occupation 1940–1945, light railways were re-established by the Germans for the purpose of supplying coastal fortifications.", "A one-metre gauge line was laid down following the route of the former Jersey Railway from Saint Helier to La Corbière, with a branch line connecting the stone quarry at Ronez in Saint John.", "A 60 cm line ran along the west coast, and another was laid out heading east from Saint Helier to Gorey.", "The first line was opened in July 1942, the ceremony being disrupted by passively resisting Jersey spectators.", "The German railway infrastructure was dismantled after the Liberation in 1945.Two railways operate at the Pallot Heritage Steam Museum; a standard gauge heritage steam railway, and a narrow gauge pleasure line operated by steam-outline diesel motive power." ], [ "Sea transport", "A Condor Ferries catamaran heading west around Jersey past La Tour de Vinde, Saint Brelade=== History ===An important growth for St Helier in the early 19th century was the construction of the harbour.", "Previously, ships coming into the town had only a small jetty at the site now called the English Harbour and the French Harbour.", "The Chamber of Commerce urged the States to build a new harbour, but the States refused, so the Chamber took it into their own hands and repaired and upgraded the harbour in 1790.A new breakwater was constructed to shelter the jetty and harbours.", "In 1814, the merchants constructed the roads now known as Commercial Buildings and Le Quai des Marchands to connect the harbours to the town and in 1832 construction was finished on the Esplanade and its sea wall.", "A rapid expansion in shipping led the States in 1837 to order the construction of two new piers: the Victoria and Albert Piers.=== Seaports and harbours ===Saint Helier Harbour is the island's main port, others include Gorey, Saint Aubin, La Rocque, and Bonne Nuit.", "It is distant from Granville, Manche, from Southampton, from Poole, and from St Malo.On 20 August 2013, Huelin-Renouf, which had operated a \"lift-on lift-off\" container service for 80 years between the Port of Southampton and the Port of Jersey, ceased trading.", "Senator Alan Maclean, a Jersey politician had previously tried to save the 90-odd jobs furnished by the company to no avail.", "On 20 September, it was announced that Channel Island Lines would continue this service, and would purchase the MV ''Huelin Dispatch'' from Associated British Ports who in turn had purchased them from the receiver in the bankruptcy.", "The new operator was to be funded by Rockayne Limited, a closely held association of Jersey businesspeople.", "Channel Island Lines closed in 2020.Passenger-only access to France is provided by Manche-Iles Express ferry service, to either Barneville-Carteret, Granville or Dielette.A service to St Malo was provided by Compagnie Corsaire, but is now operated by its sister service, Condor Ferries, which runs ''MV Commodore Goodwill'', a large ro-ro vessel to Portsmouth, and has multiple ro-ro connections to Poole and St Malo.", "Poole - Guernsey - Jersey (seasonal service normally operated by ''HSC Condor Liberation'')Portsmouth - Guernsey - Jersey (''Commodore Clipper'', ''Commodore Goodwill''.", "''Commodore Goodwill'' service is extended to St Malo at the weekends)Saint-Malo - Jersey - Guernsey (''Condor Rapide'')===Companies===Condor Ferries freight and passenger services: ''Commodore Goodwill''.", "* Manche Îles Express" ], [ "See also", "* Bailiwick of Jersey* List of shipwrecks in the Channel Islands" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Jersey on SABRE Road Wiki" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Johnston Atoll" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Johnston Atoll''' is an unincorporated territory of the United States, under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force (USAF).", "The island is closed to public entry, and limited access for management needs is only granted by letter of authorization from the United States Air Force.", "A special use permit is also required from the USFWS to access the island by boat or enter the waters surrounding the island, which are designated as a National Wildlife Refuge and part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument.", "The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge extends from the shore out to 12 nautical miles, continuing as part of the National Wildlife Refuge System out to 200 nautical miles.", "The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument extends from the shore out to 200 nautical miles.The isolated atoll has been under the control of the U.S. military since 1934.During that time, it was variously used as a naval refueling depot, an airbase, a testing site for nuclear and biological weapons, a secret missile base, and a site for the storage and disposal of chemical weapons and Agent Orange.", "Those activities left the area environmentally contaminated.", "The USAF completed remediating the contamination in 2004, and today performs only periodic monitoring.The island is home to thriving communities of nesting seabirds and has significant marine biodiversity.", "USAF and USFWS teams carry out environmental monitoring and maintenance to protect the native wildlife." ], [ "Geography", "Johnston Atoll is located between the Marshall Islands and the Hawaiian Islands.Johnston Island has been significantly increased in size through coral dredging.Johnston Atoll is a atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, located about southwest of the island of Hawaiʻi, and is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands.", "The atoll, which is located on a coral reef platform, has four islands.", "Johnston Island and Sand Island are both enlarged natural features, while ''Akau'' (North) and ''Hikina'' (East) are two artificial islands formed by coral dredging.", "By 1964, dredge and fill operations had increased the size of Johnston Island to from its original , increased the size of Sand Island from , and added the two new islands, North and East, of respectively.The four islands compose a total land area of .", "Due to the atoll's tilt, much of the reef on the southeast portion has subsided.", "But even though it does not have an encircling reef crest, the reef crest on the northwest portion of the atoll does provide for a shallow lagoon, with depths ranging from .The climate is tropical but generally dry.", "Northeast trade winds are consistent and there is little seasonal temperature variation.", "With elevation ranging from sea level to at Summit Peak, the islands contain some low-growing vegetation and palm trees on mostly flat terrain, and no natural fresh water resources.", "Island Size in 1942 (ha) Final size in 1964 (ha) Johnston Island 19 241 Sand Island 4 9 North (''Akau'') Island N/A 10 East (''Hikina'') Island N/A 7 Total land area 23 267 Johnston Atoll 13,000 13,000" ], [ "Climate", "It is a dry atoll with just over of annual rainfall." ], [ "Wildlife", "About 300 species of fish have been recorded from the reefs and inshore waters of the atoll.", "It is also visited by green turtles and Hawaiian monk seals.", "The possibility of humpback whales using the waters as a breeding ground has been suggested, albeit in small numbers and with irregular occurrences so far.", "Many other cetaceans possibly migrate through the area, including Cuvier's beaked whales.===Birds===Seabird species recorded as breeding on the atoll include Bulwer's petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Christmas shearwater, white-tailed tropicbird, red-tailed tropicbird, brown booby, red-footed booby, masked booby, great frigatebird, spectacled tern, sooty tern, brown noddy, black noddy, and white tern.", "It is the world's largest colony of red-tailed tropicbirds, with 10,800 nests in 2020.It is visited by migratory shorebirds, including the Pacific golden plover, wandering tattler, bristle-thighed curlew, ruddy turnstone and sanderling.", "The island, with its surrounding marine waters, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International for its seabird colonies." ], [ "Flora", "The first list of plants catalogued on Johnston Atoll was published in ''Vascular Plants of Johnston and Wake Islands'' (1931), based on collections from the Tanager Expedition (1923).", "Three species were described: ''Lepturus repens'', ''Boerhavia diffusa'', and ''Tribulus cistoides''.", "In the 1940s, when the island was used for aviation activities for the war, ''Pluchea odorata'' was introduced from Honolulu.File:Starr 080606-6956 Lepturus repens.jpg\|''Lepturus repens''File:Punar-nava (Telugu- పునర్నవ) (4938290660).jpg\|''Boerhavia diffusa''File:Starr 080605-6704 Tribulus cistoides.jpg\|''Tribulus cistoides''" ], [ "History", "===Early history===The first Western record of the atoll was on September 2, 1796, when the Boston-based American brig ''Sally'' accidentally grounded on a shoal near the islands.", "The ship's captain, Joseph Pierpont, published his experience in several American newspapers the following year giving an accurate position of Johnston and Sand Island along with part of the reef, but did not name or lay claim to the area.", "The islands were not officially named until Captain Charles J. Johnston of the Royal Naval ship sighted them on December 14, 1807.The ship's journal recorded: \"on the 14th December 1808 made a new discovery, viz.", "two very low islands, in lat.", "16° 52′ N. long.", "190° 26′ E., having a dangerous reef to the east of them, and the whole not exceeding four miles in extent\".In 1856, the United States enacted the Guano Islands Act, which allowed citizens of the United States to take possession of islands containing guano deposits.", "Under this act, William Parker and R. F. Ryan chartered the schooner ''Palestine'' specifically to find Johnston Atoll.", "They located guano on the atoll in March 1858 and proceeded to claim the island as U.S. territory.", "In June of the same year, S. C. Allen, sailing on the ''Kalama'' under a commission from King Kamehameha IV of Hawaii, landed on Johnston Atoll, removed the American flag, and claimed the atoll for the Kingdom of Hawaii.", "Allen named the atoll \"Kalama\" and the nearby smaller island \"Cornwallis.", "\"Returning on July 27, 1858, the captain of the ''Palestine'' again hoisted the American flag and tried to acquire the island in the name of the United States.", "The same day, the \"derelict and abandoned\" atoll was declared part of the domain of Kamehameha IV.", "On its July visit, however, the ''Palestine'' left two crew members on the island to gather phosphate.", "Later that year, Kamehameha revoked the lease granted to Allen when he learned the atoll had been claimed previously by the United States.", "However, this did not prevent the Hawaiian Territory from making use of the atoll or asserting ownership.By 1890, the atoll's guano deposits had been almost entirely depleted (mined out) by U.S. interests operating under the Guano Islands Act.", "In 1892, made a survey and map of the island, hoping that it might be suitable as a telegraph cable station.", "On January 16, 1893, the Hawaiian Legation at London reported a diplomatic conference over this temporary occupation of the island.", "However, the Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown on January 17, 1893.When Hawaii was annexed by the United States in 1898, during the Spanish–American War, the name of Johnston Island was omitted from the list of Hawaiian Islands.", "On September 11, 1909, Johnston was leased by the Territory of Hawaii to a private citizen for fifteen years.", "A board shed was built on the southeast side of the larger island, and a small tramline run up onto the slope of the low hill, to facilitate the removal of guano.", "Apparently neither the quantity nor the quality of the guano was sufficient to pay for gathering it, so that the project was soon abandoned.===National Wildlife Refuge since 1926=== with members of the 1923 Tanager ExpeditionThe Tanager Expedition was a joint expedition, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Bishop Museum of Hawaii, which visited the Atoll in 1923.The expedition to the atoll consisted of two teams accompanied by destroyer convoys, with the first departing Honolulu on July 7, 1923, aboard the , which conducted the first survey of Johnston Island in the 20th century.", "Aerial survey and mapping flights over Johnston were conducted with a Douglas DT-2 floatplane carried on her fantail, which was hoisted into the water for takeoff.", "From July 10–22, 1923, the atoll was recorded in a pioneering aerial photography project.", "The left Honolulu on July 16 and joined up with the ''Whippoorwill'' to complete the survey and then traveled to Wake Island to complete surveys there.", "Tents were pitched on the southwest beach of fine white sand, and a rather thorough biological survey was made of the island.", "Hundreds of sea birds, of a dozen kinds, were the principal inhabitants, together with lizards, insects, and hermit crabs.", "The reefs and shallow water abounded with fish and other marine life.On June 29, 1926, by , President Calvin Coolidge established '''Johnston Island Reservation''' as a federal bird refuge and placed it under the control of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, as a \"refuge and breeding ground for native birds.\"", "Johnston Atoll was added to the United States National Wildlife Refuge system in 1926, and renamed the '''Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge''' in 1940.The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge was established to protect the tropical ecosystem and the wildlife that it harbors.However, the Department of Agriculture had no ships, and the United States Navy was interested in the atoll for strategic reasons, so with on December 29, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed the islands under the \"control and jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy for administrative purposes\", but subject to use as a refuge and breeding ground for native birds, under the United States Department of the Interior.On February 14, 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt issued to create naval defense areas in the central Pacific territories.", "The proclamation established \"Johnston Island Naval Defensive Sea Area\" which encompassed the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll.", "\"Johnston Island Naval Airspace Reservation\" was also established to restrict access to the airspace over the naval defense sea area.", "Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Johnston unless authorized by the Secretary of the Navy.In 1990, two full-time U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service personnel, a Refuge Manager and a biologist, were stationed on Johnston Atoll to handle the increase in biological, contaminant, and resource conflict activities.", "After the military mission on the island ended in 2004, the Atoll was administered by the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex.", "The outer islets and water rights were managed cooperatively by the Fish and Wildlife Service, with some of the actual Johnston Island land mass remaining under control of the United States Air Force (USAF) for environmental remediation and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) for plutonium cleanup purposes.", "However, on January 6, 2009, under authority of section 2 of the Antiquities Act, the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was established by President George W. Bush to administer and protect Johnston Island along with six other Pacific islands.", "The national monument includes Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge within its boundaries and contains of land and over of water area.", "The Administration of President Barack Obama in 2014 extended the protected area to encompass the entire Exclusive Economic Zone, by banning all commercial fishing activities.", "Under a 2017 review of all national monuments extended since 1996, then-Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke recommended to permit fishing outside the 12-mile limit.===Military control 1934–2004===On December 29, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt with transferred control of Johnston Atoll to the United States Navy under the 14th Naval District, Pearl Harbor, in order to establish an air station, and also to the Department of the Interior to administer the bird refuge.", "In 1948, the USAF assumed control of the Atoll.During the Operation Hardtack nuclear test series from April 22 to August 19, 1958, administration of Johnston Atoll was assigned to the Commander of Joint Task Force 7.After the tests were completed, the island reverted to the command of the US Air Force.From 1963 to 1970, the Navy's Joint Task force 8 and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) held joint operational control of the island during high-altitude nuclear testing operations.In 1970, operational control was handed back to the Air Force until July 1973, when Defense Special Weapons Agency was given host-management responsibility by the Secretary of Defense.", "Over the years, sequential descendant organizations have been the Defense Atomic Support Agency (DASA) from 1959 to 1971, the Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) from 1971 to 1996, and the Defense Special Weapons Agency (DSWA) from 1996 to 1998.In 1998, Defense Special Weapons Agency, and selected elements of the Office of Secretary of Defense were combined to form the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA).", "In 1999, host-management responsibility transferred from the Defense Threat Reduction Agency once again to the Air Force until the Air Force mission ended in 2004 and the base was closed.===Sand Island seaplane base===Aerial approach to the former base on Johnston Island (top).", "The ship channel is visible as a darker blue area starting at left and continuing up around the right side of Johnston Island, with Sand Island on the near side (bottom).In 1935, personnel from the US Navy's Patrol Wing Two carried out some minor construction to develop the atoll for seaplane operation.", "In 1936, the Navy began the first of many changes to enlarge the atoll's land area.", "They erected some buildings and a boat landing on Sand Island and blasted coral to clear a seaplane landing.", "Several seaplanes made flights from Hawaii to Johnston, such as that of a squadron of six aircraft in November, 1935.In November 1939, further work was commenced on Sand Island by civilian contractors to allow the operation of one squadron of patrol planes with tender support.", "Part of the lagoon was dredged and the excavated material was used to make a parking area connected by a causeway to Sand Island.", "Three seaplane landings were cleared, one by and two cross-landings each by and dredged to a depth of .", "Sand Island had barracks built for 400 men, a mess hall, underground hospital, radio station, water tanks and a steel control tower.", "In December 1943 an additional of parking was added to the seaplane base.On May 26, 1942, a United States Navy Consolidated PBY-5 Catalina wrecked at Johnston Atoll.", "The Catalina pilot made a normal power landing and immediately applied throttle for take-off.", "At a speed of about 50 knots the plane swerved to the left and then continued into a violent waterloop.", "The hull of the plane was broken open and the Catalina sank immediately.After the war on March 27, 1949, a PBY-6A Catalina had to make a forced landing during flight from Kwajalein to Johnston Island.", "The plane was damaged beyond repair and the crew of 11 was rescued nine hours later by a Navy ship which sank the plane using gunfire.During 1958, a proposed support agreement for Navy Seaplane operations at Johnston Island was under discussion though it was never completed because a requirement for the operation failed to materialize.===Airfield===By September 1941, construction of an airfield on Johnston Island commenced.", "A by runway was built together with two 400-man barracks, two mess halls, a cold-storage building, an underground hospital, a fresh-water plant, shop buildings, and fuel storage.", "The runway was complete by December 7, 1941, though in December 1943 the 99th Naval Construction Battalion arrived at the atoll and proceeded to lengthen the runway to .", "The runway was subsequently lengthened and improved as the island was enlarged.During World War II Johnston Atoll was used as a refueling base for submarines, and also as an aircraft refueling stop for American bombers transiting the Pacific Ocean, including the Boeing B-29 Enola Gay.", "By 1944, the atoll was one of the busiest air transport terminals in the Pacific.", "Air Transport Command aeromedical evacuation planes stopped at Johnston en route to Hawaii.", "Following V-J Day on August 14, 1945, Johnston Atoll saw the flow of men and aircraft that had been coming from the mainland into the Pacific turn around.", "By 1947, over 1,300 B-29 and B-24 bombers had passed through the Marianas, Kwajalein, Johnston Island, and Oahu en route to Mather Field and civilian life.Following World War II, Johnston Atoll Airport was used commercially by Continental Air Micronesia, touching down between Honolulu and Majuro.", "When aircraft landed, soldiers surrounded the aircraft and passengers were not allowed to leave the aircraft.", "Aloha Airlines also made weekly scheduled flights to the island carrying civilian and military personnel.", "In the 1990s there were flights almost daily, and some days saw up to three arrivals.", "Just before movement of the chemical munitions to Johnston Atoll, the Surgeon General, Public Health Service, reviewed the shipment and the Johnston Atoll storage plans.", "His recommendations caused the Secretary of Defense in December 1970 to issue instructions suspending missile launches and all non-essential aircraft flights.", "As a result, Air Micronesia service was immediately discontinued, and missile firings were terminated with the exception of two 1975 satellite launches deemed critical to the island's mission.", "There were many times when the runway was needed for emergency landings for both civil and military aircraft.", "When the runway was decommissioned, it could no longer be used as a potential emergency landing place when planning flight routes across the Pacific Ocean.", "As of 2003, the airfield at Johnston Atoll consisted of an unmaintained closed single asphalt/concrete runway 5/23, a parallel taxiway, and a large paved ramp along the southeast side of the runway.===World War II 1941–1945=== In February 1941 Johnston Atoll was designated as a Naval Defensive Sea Area and Airspace Reservation.", "On the day the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, was out of her home port of Pearl Harbor, to make a simulated bombardment at Johnston Island.", "Japan's strike at Pearl Harbor occurred as the ship was unloading marines, civilians and stores on the atoll.", "On December 15, 1941, the atoll was shelled outside the reef by a Japanese submarine, which had been part of the attack on Pearl Harbor eight days earlier.", "Several buildings including the power station were hit, but no personnel were injured.", "Additional Japanese shelling occurred on December 22 and 23, 1941.On all occasions, Johnston Atoll's coastal artillery guns returned fire, driving off the sub.In July 1942, the civilian contractors at the atoll were replaced by 500 men from the 5th and 10th Naval Construction Battalions, who expanded the fuel storage and water production at the base and built additional facilities.", "The 5th Battalion departed in January 1943.In December 1943 the 99th Naval Construction Battalion arrived at the atoll and proceeded to lengthen the runway to and add an additional of parking to the seaplane base.===Coast Guard mission 1957–1992===Sand Island and former U.S. Coast Guard LORAN StationOn January 25, 1957, the Department of Treasury was granted a 5-year permit for the United States Coast Guard (USCG) to operate and maintain a Long Range Aid to Navigation (LORAN) transmitting station on Johnston Atoll.", "Two years later in December 1959, the Secretary of Defense approved the Secretary of the Treasury's request to use Sand Island for U.S. Coast Guard LORAN A and C station sites.", "The USCG was granted permission to install a LORAN A and C station on Sand Island to be staffed by U.S. Coast Guard personnel through June 30, 1992.The permit for a LORAN station to operate on Johnston Island was terminated in 1962.On November 1, 1957, a new United States Coast Guard LORAN-A station was commissioned.", "By 1958, the Coast Guard LORAN Station at Johnston Island began transmitting on a 24-hour basis, thus establishing a new LORAN rate in the Central Pacific.", "The new rate between Johnston Island and French Frigate Shoals gave a higher order of accuracy for fixing positions in the steamship lanes from Oahu, Hawaii, to Midway Island.", "In the past, this was impossible in some areas along this important shipping route.", "The original U.S. Coast Guard LORAN-A Station on Johnston Island ceased operations on June 30, 1961, when the new station on nearby Sand Island began transmitting using a larger 180 foot antenna.The LORAN-C station was disestablished on July 1, 1992, and all Coast Guard personnel, electronic equipment and property departed that month.", "Buildings on Sand Island were transferred to other activities.", "LORAN whip antennas on Johnston and Sand Islands were removed, and the 625-foot LORAN tower and antenna were demolished on December 3, 1992.The LORAN A and C station and buildings on Sand Island were then dismantled and removed.===National nuclear weapon test site 1958–1963=======Successes====Between 1958 and 1975, Johnston Atoll was used as an American national nuclear test site for atmospheric and extremely high-altitude nuclear explosions in outer space.", "In 1958, Johnston Atoll was the location of the two \"Hardtack I\" nuclear tests firings.", "One conducted August 1, 1958, was codenamed \"Hardtack Teak\" and one conducted August 12, 1958, was codenamed \"Orange.\"", "Both tests detonated 3.8-megaton hydrogen bombs launched to high altitudes by rockets from Johnston Atoll.Johnston Island was also used as the launch site of 124 sounding rockets going up as high as .", "These carried scientific instruments and telemetry equipment, either in support of the nuclear bomb tests, or in experimental antisatellite technology.Array of sounding rockets with instruments for making scientific measurements of high-altitude nuclear tests during liftoff preparations in the Scientific Row area on Johnston IslandEight PGM-17 Thor missiles deployed by the U.S. Air Force (USAF) were launched from Johnston Island in 1962 as part of \"Operation Fishbowl,\" a part of \"Operation Dominic\" nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific.", "The first launch in \"Operation Fishbowl\" was a successful research and development launch with no warhead.", "In the end, \"Operation Fishbowl\" produced four successful high-altitude detonations: \"Starfish Prime,\" \"Checkmate,\" \"Bluegill Triple Prime,\" and \"Kingfish.\"", "In addition, it produced one atmospheric nuclear explosion, \"Tightrope.", "\"On July 9, 1962, \"Starfish Prime\" had a 1.4-megaton explosion, using a W49 warhead at an altitude of about .", "It created a very brief fireball visible over a wide area, plus bright artificial auroras visible in Hawaii for several minutes.", "\"Starfish Prime\" also produced an electromagnetic pulse that disrupted some electric power and communication systems in Hawaii.", "It pumped enough radiation into the Van Allen belts to destroy or damage seven satellites in orbit.The final Fishbowl launch that used a Thor missile carried the \"Kingfish\" 400-kiloton warhead up to its detonation altitude.", "Although it was officially one of the Operation Fishbowl tests, it is sometimes not listed among high-altitude nuclear tests because of its lower detonation altitude.", "\"Tightrope\" was the final test of Operation Fishbowl and detonated on November 3, 1962.It launched on a nuclear-armed Nike-Hercules missile and was detonated at a lower altitude than the other tests:\"At Johnston Island, there was an intense white flash.", "Even with high-density goggles, the burst was too bright to view, even for a few seconds.", "A distinct thermal pulse was felt on bare skin.", "A yellow-orange disc was formed, and transformed itself into a purple doughnut.", "A glowing purple cloud was faintly visible for a few minutes.\"", "The nuclear yield was reported in most official documents as \"less than 20 kilotons.\"", "One report by the U.S. government reported the yield of the \"Tightrope\" test as 10 kilotons.", "Seven sounding rockets were launched from Johnston Island in support of the ''Tightrope'' test, and this was the final American nuclear atmospheric test.====Failures====Nuclear-armed Thor missile explodes and burns on the launch pad at Johnston Island during the failed \"Bluegill Prime\" nuclear test, July 25, 1962The \"Fishbowl\" series included four failures, all of which were deliberately disrupted by range safety officers when the missiles' systems failed during launch and were aborted.", "The second launch of the Fishbowl series, \"Bluegill\", carried an active warhead.", "Bluegill was \"lost\" by a defective range safety tracking radar and had to be destroyed 10 minutes after liftoff even though it probably ascended successfully.", "The subsequent nuclear weapon launch failures from Johnston Atoll caused serious contamination to the island and surrounding areas with weapons-grade plutonium and americium that remains an issue to this day.The failure of the \"Bluegill\" launch created in effect a dirty bomb but did not release the nuclear warhead's plutonium debris onto Johnston Atoll as the missile fell into the ocean south of the island and was not recovered.", "However, the \"Starfish\", \"Bluegill Prime\", and \"Bluegill Double Prime\" test launch failures in 1962 scattered radioactive debris over Johnston Island contaminating it, the lagoon, and Sand Island with plutonium for decades.Johnston Island Launch Emplacement One (LE1) after a Thor missile launch failure and explosion contaminated the island with plutonium during the Operation \"Bluegill Prime\" nuclear test, July, 1962\"Starfish\", a high altitude Thor launched nuclear test scheduled for June 20, 1962, was the first to contaminate the atoll.", "The rocket with the 1.45-megaton Starfish device (W49 warhead and the MK-4 re-entry vehicle) on its nose was launched that evening, but the Thor missile engine cut out only 59 seconds after launch.", "The range safety officer sent a destruct signal 65 seconds after launch, and the missile was destroyed at approximately altitude.", "The warhead high explosive detonated in 1-point safe fashion, destroying the warhead without producing nuclear yield.", "Large pieces of the plutonium contaminated missile, including pieces of the warhead, booster rocket, engine, re-entry vehicle and missile parts, fell back on Johnston Island.", "More wreckage along with plutonium contamination was found on nearby Sand Island.", "\"Bluegill Prime,\" the second attempt to launch the payload which failed last time was scheduled for 23:15 (local) on July 25, 1962.It too was a genuine disaster and caused the most serious plutonium contamination on the island.", "The Thor missile was carrying one pod, two re-entry vehicles and the W50 nuclear warhead.", "The missile engine malfunctioned immediately after ignition, and the range safety officer fired the destruct system while the missile was still on the launch pad.", "The Johnston Island launch complex was demolished in the subsequent explosions and fire which burned through the night.", "The launch emplacement and portions of the island were contaminated with radioactive plutonium spread by the explosion, fire and wind-blown smoke.Inspection of Thor rocket engine remains on Johnston Island after failure of \"Bluegill Prime\" nuclear test attempt, July 1962Afterward, the Johnston Island launch complex was heavily damaged and contaminated with plutonium.", "Missile launches and nuclear testing halted until the radioactive debris was dumped and soils were recovered and the launch emplacement rebuilt.", "Three months of repairs, decontamination, and rebuilding the LE1 as well as the backup pad LE2 were necessary before tests could resume.", "In an effort to continue with the testing program, U.S. troops were sent in to do a rapid cleanup.", "The troops scrubbed down the revetments and launch pad, carted away debris and removed the top layer of coral around the contaminated launch pad.", "The plutonium-contaminated rubbish was dumped in the lagoon, polluting the surrounding marine environment.", "More than 550 drums of contaminated material were dumped in the ocean off Johnston from 1964 to 1965.At the time of the Bluegill Prime disaster, the top fill around the launch pad was scraped by a bulldozer and grader.", "It was then dumped into the lagoon to make a ramp, so the rest of the debris could be loaded onto landing craft to be dumped out into the ocean.", "An estimated 10 percent of the plutonium from the test device was in the fill used to make the ramp.", "Then the ramp was covered and placed into a landfill on the island during 1962 dredging to extend the island.", "The lagoon was again dredged in 1963–1964 and used to expand Johnston Island from to recontaminating additional portions of the island.PGM-17 Thor missile at Johnston IslandOn October 15, 1962, the \"Bluegill Double Prime\" test also misfired.", "During the test, the rocket was destroyed at a height of 109,000 feet after it malfunctioned 90 seconds into the flight.", "U.S. Defense Department officials confirm that when the rocket was destroyed, it contributed to the radioactive pollution on the island.In 1963, the U.S. Senate ratified the Limited Test Ban Treaty, which contained a provision known as \"Safeguard C\".", "Safeguard C was the basis for maintaining Johnston Atoll as a \"ready to test\" above-ground nuclear testing site should atmospheric nuclear testing ever be deemed to be necessary again.", "In 1993, Congress appropriated no funds for the Johnston Atoll \"Safeguard C\" mission, bringing it to an end.===Anti-satellite mission 1962–1975===Program 437 turned the PGM-17 Thor into an operational anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon system, a capability that was kept top secret even after it was deployed.", "The Program 437 mission was approved for development by U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara on November 20, 1962, and based at the Atoll.", "Program 437 used modified Thor missiles that had been returned from deployment in Great Britain and was the second deployed U.S. operational nuclear anti-satellite operation.", "Eighteen more suborbital Thor launches took place from Johnston Island during the 1964–1975 period in support of Program 437.In 1965–1966 four Program 437 Thors were launched with 'Alternate Payloads' for satellite inspection.", "This was evidently an elaboration of the system to allow visual verification of the target before destroying it.", "These flights may have been related to the late 1960s Program 922, a non-nuclear version of Thor with infrared homing and a high-explosive warhead.", "Thors were kept positioned and active near the two Johnston Island launch pads after 1964.However, partly because of the Vietnam War, in October 1970 the Department of Defense had transferred Program 437 to standby status as an economic measure.", "The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks led to Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty that prohibited 'interference with national means of verification', which meant that ASAT's were not allowed, by treaty, to attack Soviet spy satellites.", "Thors were removed from Johnston Atoll and were stored in mothballed war-reserve condition at Vandenberg Air Force Base from 1970 until the anti-satellite mission of Johnston Island facilities was ceased on August 10, 1974, and the program was officially discontinued on April 1, 1975, when any possibility of restoring the ASAT program was finally terminated.", "Eighteen Thor launches in support of the Program 437 Alternate Payload (AP) mission took place from Johnston Atoll's Launch emplacements.Two Thor missiles were launched from the Island in late 1975, months after the \"officially discontinued\" date.===Baker–Nunn satellite tracking camera station===The Space Detection and Tracking System or SPADATS was operated by North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) along with the U.S. Air Force Spacetrack system, The Navy Space Surveillance System and Canadian Forces Air Defense Command Satellite Tracking Unit.", "The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory also operated a dozen 3.5 ton Baker-Nunn Camera systems (none at Johnston) for cataloging of man-made satellites.", "The U.S. Air Force had ten Baker-Nunn camera stations around the world mostly from 1960 to 1977 with a phase-out beginning in 1964.The Baker-Nunn space camera station was constructed on Sand Island and was functioning by 1965.USAF 18th Surveillance Squadron operated the Baker-Nunn camera at a station built along the causeway on Sand Island until 1975 when a contract to operate the four remaining Air Force stations was awarded to Bendix Field Engineering Corporation.", "In about 1977, the camera at Sand Island was moved to Daegu, South Korea.", "Baker-Nunn were rendered obsolete with the Initial Operational Capability of 3 GEODSS optical tracking sites at Daegu, Korea; Mount Haleakala, Maui and White Sands Missile Range.", "A fourth site was operational in 1985 at Diego Garcia and a proposed fifth site in Portugal was cancelled.", "The Daegu, Korea site was closed due to encroaching city lights.", "GEODSS tracked satellites at night, though the MIT Lincoln Laboratory test site, co-located with Site 1 at White Sands did track asteroids in daytime as proof of concept in the early 1980s.===Johnston Island Recovery Operations Center===JC-130 aircraft retrieving a SAMOS film capsuleSatellite and Missile Observation System Project (SAMOS-E) or \"E-6\" was a relatively short-lived series of United States visual reconnaissance satellites in the early 1960s.", "SAMOS was also known by the unclassified terms Program 101 and Program 201.The Air Force program was used as a cover for the initial development of the Central Intelligence Agency's Key Hole (including Corona and Gambit) reconnaissance satellites systems.", "Imaging was performed with film cameras and television surveillance from polar low Earth orbits with film canisters returning via capsule and parachute with mid-air retrieval.", "SAMOS was first launched in 1960, but not operational until 1963 with all of the missions being launched from Vandenberg AFB.Corona film capsule recovery sequence.", "Credit: CIA Directorate of Science and TechnologyDuring the early months of the SAMOS program it was essential not only to hide the Corona and GAMBIT technical efforts under a screen of SAMOS activity, but also to make the orbital vehicle portions of the two systems resemble one another in outward appearance.", "Thus, some of the configuration details of SAMOS were decided less by engineering logic than by the need to camouflage GAMBIT and thus, in theory, a GAMBIT could be launched without alerting many people to its real nature.Problems relative to tracking networks, communications, and recovery were resolved with the decision in late February 1961 to use Johnston Island as the film capsule descent and recovery zone for the program.On July 10, 1961, work was initiated on four buildings of the Johnston Island Recovery Operations Center for the National Reconnaissance Office.", "Men from the Johnston Atoll facility would recover the parachuting film canister capsules with a radar equipped JC-130 aircraft by capturing them in the air with a specialized recovery apparatus.The recovery center was also responsible for collecting the radioactive scientific data pods dropped from missiles following launch and nuclear detonation.===Biological warfare test site 1965–1968===The atoll was subject to large-scale bioweapons testing over four years starting in 1965.The American strategic tests of bioweapons were as expensive and elaborate as the tests of the first hydrogen bombs at Eniwetok Atoll.", "They involved enough ships to have made the world's fifth-largest independent navy.", "One experiment involved a number of barges loaded with hundreds of rhesus monkeys.", "It is estimated that one jet with bioweapon spray \"would probably be more efficient at causing human deaths than a ten-megaton hydrogen bomb.", "\"In the lead up to biological warfare testing in the Pacific under Project 112 and Project SHAD, a new virus was discovered during the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program by teams from the Smithsonian's Division of Birds aboard a United States Army tugboat involved in the program.", "Initially, the name of that effort was to be called the Pacific Ornithological Observation Project but this was changed for obvious reasons.", "First isolated in 1964 the tick-borne virus was discovered in ''Ornithodoros capensis'' ticks, found in a nest of common noddy (''Anous stolidus'') at Sand Island, Johnston Atoll.", "It was designated Johnston Atoll Virus and is related to influenza.In February, March, and April 1965 Johnston Atoll was used to launch biological attacks against U.S. Army and Navy vessels south-west of Johnston island in vulnerability, defense and decontamination tests conducted by the Deseret Test Center during Project SHAD under Project 112.Test DTC 64-4 (Deseret Test Center) was originally called \"RED BEVA\" (Biological EVAluation) though the name was later changed to \"Shady Grove\", likely for operational security reasons.", "The biological agents released during this test included ''Francisella tularensis'' (formerly called ''Pasteurella tularensis'') (Agent UL), the causative agent of tularemia; ''Coxiella burnetii'' (Agent OU), causative agent of Q fever; and ''Bacillus globigii'' (Agent BG).", "During Project SHAD, ''Bacillus globigii'' was used to simulate biological warfare agents (such as anthrax), because it was then considered a contaminant with little health consequence to humans; however, it is now considered a human pathogen.", "Ships equipped with the E-2 multi-head disseminator and A-4C aircraft equipped with Aero 14B spray tanks released live pathogenic agents in nine aerial and four surface trials in phase B of the test series from February 12 to March 15, 1965, and in four aerial trials in phase D of the test series from March 22 to April 3, 1965.According to Project SHAD veteran Jack Alderson who commanded the Army tugs, area three at Johnston Atoll was located at the most downwind part of the island and consisted of an collapsible Nissen hut to be used for weapons preparation and some communications.===Chemical weapon storage 1971–2001===In 1970, Congress redefined the island's military mission as the storage and destruction of chemical weapons.", "The United States Army leased on the Atoll to store chemical weapons held in Okinawa, Japan.", "Johnston Atoll became a chemical weapons storage site in 1971 holding about 6.6 percent of the U.S. military chemical weapon arsenal.", "The chemical weapons were brought from Okinawa under Operation Red Hat with the re-deployment of the 267th Chemical Company and consisted of rockets, mines, artillery projectiles, and bulk 1-ton containers filled with Sarin, Agent VX, vomiting agent, and blister agent such as mustard gas.", "Chemical weapons from West Germany and World War II era weapons from the Solomon Islands were also stored on the island after 1990.Chemical agents were stored in the high security Red Hat Storage Area (RHSA) which included hardened igloos in the weapon storage area, the Red Hat building (#850), two Red Hat hazardous waste warehouses (#851 and #852), an open storage area, and security entrances and guard towers.Some of the other weapons stored at the site were shipped from U.S. stockpiles in West Germany in 1990.These shipments followed a 1986 agreement between the U.S. and West Germany to move the munitions.", "Merchant ships carrying the munitions left West Germany under Operation Golden Python and Operation Steel Box in October 1990 and arrived at Johnston Island November 6, 1990.Although the ships were unloaded within nine days, the unpacking and storing of munitions continued into 1991.The remainder of the chemical weapons was a small number of World War II era weapons shipped from the Solomon Islands.===Agent Orange storage 1972–1977===Leaking Agent Orange Barrels in storage at Johnston Atoll, circa 1973Agent Orange was brought to Johnston Atoll from South Vietnam and Gulfport, Mississippi in 1972 under Operation Pacer IVY.", "It was stored on the northwest corner of the island known as the Herbicide Orange Storage site, dubbed the \"Agent Orange Yard\".", "The Agent Orange was eventually destroyed during Operation Pacer HO on the Dutch incineration ship MT ''Vulcanus'' in the Summer of 1977.The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that 1,800,000 gallons of Herbicide Orange were stored at Johnston Atoll, and that an additional 480,000 gallons stored at Gulfport, Mississippi, was brought to Johnston Atoll for destruction.", "Leaking barrels during storage, and spills during re-drumming operations, contaminated both the storage area and the lagoon with herbicide residue and its toxic contaminant 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin.===Chemical weapon demilitarization mission 1990–2000===Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) buildingThe Army's Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) was the first full-scale chemical weapons disposal facility.", "Built to incinerate chemical munitions on the island, planning started in 1981, construction began in 1985, and it was completed five years later.", "Following completion of construction and facility characterization, JACADS began operational verification testing (OVT) in June 1990.From 1990 until 1993, the Army conducted four planned periods of Operational Verification Testing (OVT), required by Public Law 100–456.OVT was completed in March 1993, having demonstrated that the reverse assembly incineration technology was effective, and that JACADS operations met all environmental parameters.", "Transition to full-scale operations started in May 1993, but the facility did not begin full-scale operations until August 1993.All of the chemical weapons once stored on Johnston Island were demilitarized, and the agents incinerated at JACADS, with the process completed in year 2000.Later, the destruction of legacy hazardous waste material associated with chemical weapon storage and cleanup was completed.", "JACADS was demolished by 2003, and the island was stripped of its remaining infrastructure and environmentally remediated.===Closure and remaining structures===In 2003, structures and facilities, including those used in JACADS, were removed, and the runway was marked closed.", "The last flight out for official personnel was June 15, 2004.After this date, the base was completely deserted, with the only structures left standing being the Joint Operations Center (JOC) building at the east end of the runway, chemical bunkers in the weapon storage area, and at least one Quonset hut.Built in 1964, the JOC is a four-floor concrete and steel administration building for the island that has no windows and was built to withstand a category IV tropical cyclone as well as atmospheric nuclear tests.", "The building remains standing but was gutted entirely in 2004, during an asbestos abatement project.", "All doors of the JOC except one have been welded shut.", "The ground floor has a side building attached which served as a facility for decontamination that contained three long snaking corridors and 55 shower heads one could walk through during decontamination.Rows of bunkers in the Red Hat Storage Area remain intact; however, an agreement was established between the U.S. Army and EPA Region IX on August 21, 2003, that the Munitions Demilitarization Building (MDB) at JACADS would be demolished and the bunkers in the RHSA used for disposal of construction rubble and debris.", "After placement of the debris inside the bunkers, they were secured and the entries blocked with a concrete block barrier (a.k.a.", "King Tut Block) to prevent access to the bunker interior.===Contamination and cleanup===Over the years, leaks of Agent Orange as well as chemical weapon leaks in the weapon storage area occurred where caustic chemicals such as sodium hydroxide were used to mitigate toxic agents during cleanup.", "Larger spills of nerve and mustard agent within the MCD at JACADS also took place.", "Small releases of chemical weapon components from JACADS were cited by the EPA.", "Multiple studies of the Johnston Atoll environment and ecology have been conducted and the atoll is likely the most studied island in the Pacific.Studies at the atoll on the effect of PCB contamination in reef damselfish (''Abudefduf sordidus'') demonstrated that embryonic abnormalities could be used as a metric for comparing contaminated and uncontaminated areas.", "Some PCB contamination in the lagoon was traced to Coast Guard disposal practices of PCB-laden electrical transformers.In 1962, plutonium pollution following three failed nuclear missile launches was heaviest near the destroyed launch emplacement, in the lagoon offshore of the launch pad, and near Sand Island.", "The contaminated launch site was stripped, the debris gathered and buried in the island's 1962 expansion.", "A comprehensive radiological survey was completed in 1980 to record transuranic contamination remaining from the 1962 THOR missile aborts.", "The Air Force also initiated research on methods to remove dioxin contamination from soil resulting from leakage of the stored herbicide Agent Orange.", "Since then, U.S. defense authorities have surveyed the island in a series of studies.Contaminated structures were dismantled and isolated within the former Thor Launch Emplacement No.", "1 (LE-1) as a start for the cleanup program.", "About 45,000 tons of soil contaminated with radioactive isotopes was collected and placed into a fenced area covering on the north of the island.", "The area was known as the Radiological Control Area, and heavily contaminated with highly radioactive Plutonium.", "The Pluto Yard is on the site of the LE1 where the 1962 missile explosion occurred and also where a highly contaminated loading ramp was buried that was made for loading plutonium contaminated debris onto small boats that was dumped at sea.", "Remediation included a plutonium \"mining\" operation called the Johnston Atoll Plutonium Contaminated Soil Cleanup Project.", "The collected radioactive soil and other debris was buried in a landfill created within the former LE-1 area from June 2002 through November 11, 2002.Remediation at the Radiation Control Area included the construction of a 61-centimeter-thick cap of coral sealing the landfill.", "Permanent markers were placed at each corner of the landfill to identify the landfill area.===After closing===The atoll was placed up for auction via the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) in 2005 before it was withdrawn.", "The stripped Johnston Island was briefly offered for sale with several deed restrictions in 2005 as a \"residence or vacation getaway,\" with potential usage for \"eco-tourism\" by the GSA's Office of Real Property Utilization and Disposal.", "The proposed sale included the unique postal zip code 96558, formerly assigned to the Armed Forces in the Pacific.", "The proposed sale did not include running water, electricity, or activation of the closed runway.", "The details of the offering were outlined on GSA's website and in a newsletter of the Center for Land Use Interpretation as unusual real estate listing # 6384, Johnston Island.On August 22, 2006, Johnston Island was struck by Hurricane Ioke.", "The eastern eye-wall passed directly over the atoll, with winds exceeding .", "Twelve people were on the island when the hurricane struck, part of a crew sent to the island to deliver a USAF contractor who sampled groundwater contamination levels.", "All 12 survived and one wrote a first hand account of taking shelter from the storm in the JOC building.On December 9, 2007, the United States Coast Guard swept the runway at Johnston Island of debris and used the runway in the removal and rescue of an ill Taiwanese fisherman to Oahu, Hawaii.", "The fisherman was transferred from the Taiwanese fishing vessel ''Sheng Yi Tsai No.", "166'' to the Coast Guard buoy tender ''Kukui'' on December 6, 2007.The fisherman was transported to the island, and then picked up by a Coast Guard HC-130 Hercules rescue plane from Kodiak, Alaska.Since the base was closed, the atoll has been visited by many vessels crossing the Pacific, as the deserted atoll has a strong lure due to the activities once performed there.", "Visitors have blogged about stopping there during a trip, or have posted photos of their visits.In 2010, a Fish and Wildlife survey team identified a swarm of Anoplolepis ants that had invaded the Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.", "The crazy ants threatened vital seabird colonies, and needed to be eradicated.", "The \"Crazy Ant Strike Team\" project was led by the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service, who achieved a 99% reduction in ant numbers by 2013.The team camped in a bunker that was previously used as a fallout shelter and office.", "Full eradication of the species from the atoll was achieved in 2021." ], [ "Demographics", "Johnston Atoll has never had any indigenous inhabitants, although during the late part of the 20th century, there were averages of about 300 American military personnel and 1,000 civilian contractors present at any given time.", "Today it is uninhabited except for a handful of workers with the Crazy Ant Strike Team project, who live on the island for six months at a time with little outside contact.The primary means of transportation to this island was the airport, which had a paved military runway, or alternatively by ship via a pier and ship channel through the atoll's coral reef system.", "The islands were wired with 13 outgoing and 10 incoming commercial telephone lines, a 60-channel submarine cable, 22 DSN circuits by satellite, an Autodin with standard remote terminal, a digital telephone switch, the Military Affiliated Radio System (MARS station), a UHF/VHF air-ground radio, and a link to the Pacific Consolidated Telecommunications Network (PCTN) satellite.", "Amateur radio operators occasionally transmitted from the island, using the KH3 call-sign prefix.", "The United States Undersea Cable Corporation was awarded contracts to lay underwater cable in the Pacific.", "A cable known as \"Wet Wash C\" was laid in 1966 between Makua, Hawaii, and the Johnston Island Air Force Base.", "surveyed the route and laid of cable and 45 repeaters.", "These cables were manufactured by the Simplex Wire and Cable Company with the repeaters being supplied by Felten and Guilleaume.", "In 1993 a satellite communication ground station was added to augment the atoll's communications capability.Johnston Atoll's economic activity was limited to providing services to American military and contractor personnel residing on the island.", "The island was regularly resupplied by ship or barge, and all foodstuffs and manufactured goods were imported.", "The base had six 2.5-megawatt electrical generators using diesel engines.", "The runway was also available to commercial airlines for emergency landings (a fairly common event), and for many years it was a regular stop on Continental Micronesia airline's \"island hopper\" service between Hawaii and the Marshall Islands.There were no official license plates issued for use on Johnston Atoll.", "U.S. government vehicles were issued U.S. government license plates and private vehicles retained the plates from which they were registered.", "According to reputable license plate collectors, a number of Johnston Atoll license plates were created as souvenirs, and have even been sold online to collectors, but they were not officially issued.==Areas==\t\t\t Site Location Notes Red Hat Storage Area a.k.a.", "the \"Red Hat Area\" Radiological Control Area a.k.a.", "the \"Pluto' Yard\" (Plutonium Yard) Site Herbicide Orange Storage Site a.k.a.", "Agent Orange Yard Joint Operations Center building (JOC)a.k.a.", "JOC Scientific Row Runway 5/23 (closed) Navy Pier Wharf Area and Demilitarization Zone L Hama Point Bunker buildings 746 through 761Southwest Area Board on Army Science and Technology (BAST) building" ], [ "Launch facilities", "\t\t\t Component LocationJohnston Island LC1 Redstone launch complex.", "Pad 1 Johnston Island LC2 Redstone launch complex.", "Pad 2 Johnston Island HAD23 Tomahawk Sandia launch complex.", "HAD Launcher 23Johnston Island UL6 Sandhawk launch complex.", "Universal Launcher 6Johnston Island LE1 Thor-Delta launch complex.", "Launch Emplacement 1 Johnston Island LE2 Thor-Delta launch complex.", "Launch Emplacement 2 Johnston Island S Johnston Island Operation Dominic south launchers" ], [ "See also", "List of Guano Island claims" ], [ "References", " " ], [ "External links", " Video from 1923 USS ''Tanager'' Expedition Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Multi-Agency Education Project of the University of Hawaii* \"Cleaning up Johnston Atoll\" (2005), Plutonium contamination on the Island.", "* Johnston Island Memories Site – the personal website of an AFRTS serviceman stationed there in 1975 to 1976* Coast Guard Medevac from Johnston Island – photo from December 2007 medevac operation* CyberSarge – Pictorial evidence of chemical weapons disposal* U.S.", "Fish & Wildlife Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge – Contains additional information on wildlife and clean-up efforts* Mark in the Pacific ( archive version) – website about the end of Johnston Atoll* Flickr: Laysan at Johnston Island – Photographs of stop-over on abandoned Johnston Atoll in 2012* The Sovereignty of Guano Islands in the Pacific Ocean, U.S. Department of State Legal Advisor, January 9, 1933.." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Jordan" ], [ "Introduction", "A map of Jordan.", "'''Jordan''' is situated geographically in West Asia, south of Syria, west of Iraq, northwest of Saudi Arabia, east of Israel and the Palestinian territory of the West Bank.", "The area is also referred to as the Middle or Near East.", "The territory of Jordan now covers about .Between 1950 and the Six-Day War in 1967, although not widely recognized, Jordan claimed and administered an additional encompassing the West Bank; in 1988 and with continuing Israeli occupation, King Hussein relinquished Jordan's claim to the West Bank in favor of the Palestinians.Jordan is landlocked except at its southern extremity, where nearly of shoreline along the Gulf of Aqaba provide access to the Red Sea.", "'''Geographic coordinates:'''" ], [ "Boundaries", "Borders of Jordan.Except for small sections of the borders with Israel and Syria, Jordan's international boundaries do not follow well-defined natural features of the terrain.", "The country's boundaries were established by various international agreements and with the exception of the border with Israel, none was in dispute in early 1989.Jordan's boundaries with Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia do not have the special significance that the border with Israel does; these borders have not always hampered tribal nomads in their movements, yet for a few groups borders did separate them from traditional grazing areas and delimited by a series of agreements between the United Kingdom and the government of what eventually became Saudi Arabia) was first formally defined in the Hadda Agreement of 1925.Map of 1965 land swap between Jordan and Saudi ArabiaIn 1965 Jordan and Saudi Arabia concluded an agreement that realigned and delimited the boundary.", "Jordan gained 19 kilometers of land on the Gulf of Aqaba and 6,000 square kilometers of territory in the interior, and 7,000 square kilometers of Jordanian-administered, landlocked territory was ceded to Saudi Arabia.", "The new boundary enabled Jordan to expand its port facilities and established a zone in which the two parties agreed to share petroleum revenues equally if oil were discovered.", "The agreement also protected the pasturage and watering rights of nomadic tribes inside the exchanged territories." ], [ "Topography", "A satellite map of the Middle East with Jordan in the center.A village near Al-Salt in the Balqa Governorate.Wadi Rum in Southern Jordan.The country consists mainly of a plateau between and meters high, divided into ridges by valleys and gorges, and a few mountainous areas.", "West of the plateau, land descents form the East Bank of the Jordan Rift Valley.", "The valley is part of the north-south Great Rift Valley, and its successive depressions are Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee; its bottom is about ), Jordan Valley, the Dead Sea (its bottom is about ), Arabah, and the Gulf of Aqaba at the Red Sea.", "Jordan's western border follows the bottom of the rift.", "Although an earthquake-prone region, no severe shocks had been recorded for several centuries.By far the greatest part of the East Bank is desert, displaying the land forms and other features associated with great aridity.", "Most of this land is part of the Syrian Desert and northern Arabian Desert.", "There are broad expanses of sand and dunes, particularly in the south and southeast, together with salt flats.", "Occasional jumbles of sandstone hills or low mountains support only meager and stunted vegetation that thrives for a short period after the scanty winter rains.", "These areas support little life and are the least populated regions of Jordan.The drainage network is coarse and incised.", "In many areas the relief provides no eventual outlet to the sea, so that sedimentary deposits accumulate in basins where moisture evaporates or is absorbed in the ground.", "Toward the depression in the western part of the East Bank, the desert rises gradually into the Jordanian Highlands—a steppe country of high, deeply cut limestone plateaus with an average elevation of about 900 meters.", "Occasional summits in this region reach 1,200 meters in the northern part and exceed 1,700 meters in the southern part; the highest peak is Jabal Ramm at 1,754 meters (though the highest peak in all of Jordan is Jabal Umm al Dami at 1854 meters.", "It is located in a remote part of southern Jordan).", "These highlands are an area of long-settled villages.The western edge of this plateau country forms an escarpment along the eastern side of the Jordan River-Dead Sea depression and its continuation south of the Dead Sea.", "Most of the wadis that provide drainage from the plateau country into the depression carry water only during the short season of winter rains.", "Sharply incised with deep, canyon-like walls, whether flowing or dry the wadis can be formidable obstacles to travel.The Jordan River is short, but from its mountain headwaters (approximately 160 kilometers north of the river's mouth at the Dead Sea) the riverbed drops from an elevation of about 3,000 meters above sea level to more than 400 meters below sea level.", "Before reaching Jordanian territory the river forms the Sea of Galilee, the surface of which is 212 meters below sea level.", "The Jordan River's principal tributary is the Yarmouk River.", "Near the junction of the two rivers, the Yarmouk forms the boundary between Israel on the northwest, Syria on the northeast, and Jordan on the south.", "The Zarqa River, the second main tributary of the Jordan River, flows and empties entirely within the East Bank.A 380-kilometer-long rift valley runs from the Yarmouk River in the north to Al Aqaba in the south.", "The northern part, from the Yarmouk River to the Dead Sea, is commonly known as the Jordan Valley.", "It is divided into eastern and western parts by the Jordan River.", "Bordered by a steep escarpment on both the eastern and the western side, the valley reaches a maximum width of twenty-two kilometers at some points.", "The valley is properly known as ''Al Ghawr'' or ''Al Ghor'' (the depression, or valley).The Rift Valley on the southern side of the Dead Sea is known as the Southern ''Ghawr'' and the Wadi al Jayb (popularly known as the Wadi al Arabah).", "The Southern Ghawr runs from Wadi al Hammah, on the south side of the Dead Sea, to Ghawr Faya, about twenty-five kilometers south of the Dead Sea.", "Wadi al Jayb is 180 kilometers long, from the southern shore of the Dead Sea to Al Aqaba in the south.", "The valley floor varies in level.", "In the south, it reaches its lowest level at the Dead Sea (more than 400 meters below sea level), rising in the north to just above sea level.", "Evaporation from the sea is extreme due to year-round high temperatures.", "The water contains about 250 grams of dissolved salts per liter at the surface and reaches the saturation point at 110 meters.The Dead Sea occupies the deepest depression on the land surface of the earth.", "The depth of the depression is accentuated by the surrounding mountains and highlands that rise to elevations of 800 to 1,200 meters above sea level.", "The sea's greatest depth is about 430 meters, and it thus reaches a point more than 825 meters below sea level.", "A drop in the level of the sea has caused the former Lisan Peninsula to become a land bridge dividing the sea into separate northern and southern basins." ], [ "Climate", "A Köppen climate classification map of Jordan.Salt.Snow in Amman.Jordan is the seventeenth most water stressed country in the world.The major characteristic of the climate is the contrast between a relatively rainy season from November to April and very dry weather for the rest of the year.", "With hot, dry, uniform summers and cool, variable winters during which practically all of the precipitation occurs, the country has a Mediterranean-style climate.In general, the farther inland from the Mediterranean Sea a given part of the country lies, the greater are the seasonal contrasts in temperature and the less rainfall.", "Atmospheric pressures during the summer months are relatively uniform, whereas the winter months bring a succession of marked low pressure areas and accompanying cold fronts.", "These cyclonic disturbances generally move eastward from over the Mediterranean Sea several times a month and result in sporadic precipitation.Most of the East Bank receives less than of rain a year and may be classified as a dry desert or steppe region.", "Where the ground rises to form the highlands east of the Jordan Valley, precipitation increases to around in the south and or more in the north.", "The Jordan Valley, lying in the lee of high ground on the West Bank, forms a narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to of rain in the northern reaches; rain dwindles to less than at the head of the Dead Sea.The country's long summer reaches a peak during August.", "January is usually the coolest month.", "The fairly wide ranges of temperature during a twenty-four-hour period are greatest during the summer months and have a tendency to increase with higher elevation and distance from the Mediterranean seacoast.", "Daytime temperatures during the summer months frequently exceed and average about .", "In contrast, the winter months—November to April—bring moderately cool and sometimes cold weather, averaging about .", "Except in the rift depression, frost is fairly common during the winter, it may take the form of snow at the higher elevations of the north western highlands.", "Usually it snows a couple of times a year in western Amman.For a month or so before and after the summer dry season, hot, dry air from the desert, drawn by low pressure, produces strong winds from the south or southeast that sometimes reach gale force.", "Known in the Middle East by various names, including the khamsin, this dry, sirocco-style wind is usually accompanied by great dust clouds.", "Its onset is heralded by a hazy sky, a falling barometer, and a drop in relative humidity to about 10 percent.", "Within a few hours there may be a to rise in temperature.", "These windstorms ordinarily last a day or so, cause much discomfort, and destroy crops by desiccating them.The shamal, another wind of some significance, comes from the north or northwest, generally at intervals between June and September.", "Remarkably steady during daytime hours but becoming a breeze at night, the shamal may blow for as long as nine days out of ten and then repeat the process.", "It originates as a dry continental mass of polar air that is warmed as it passes over the Eurasian landmass.", "The dryness allows intense heating of the Earth's surface by the sun, resulting in high daytime temperatures that moderate after sunset.+Ultraviolet indexJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear3579101212 11 96437.5" ], [ "Area and boundaries", "'''Area:'''''total:'' 89,342 km²''land:'' 88,802 km²''water:'' 540 km²'''Land boundaries:'''''total:'' 1,744 km''border countries:''Iraq 179 km, Israel 307 km, Saudi Arabia 731 km, Syria 379 km, West Bank 148 km'''Coastline:''' 26 km''note:''Jordan also borders the Dead Sea, for '''Maritime claims:'''''territorial sea:'''''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:'' Dead Sea −408 m''highest point:'' Jabal Umm ad Dami 1,854 m" ], [ "Resources and land use", "Phosphate Mines in Jordan, east of the southerly Dead Sea'''Natural resources:''' phosphates, potash, oil shale'''Land use:'''''arable land:''2.41%''permanent crops:''0.97%''other:''96.62% (2012)'''Irrigated land:'''788.6 km² (2004)'''Total renewable water resources:'''0.94 km3 (2011)'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:''0.94 km3/yr (31%/4%/65%)''per capita:''166 m3/yr (2005)" ], [ "Environmental concerns", "Droughts; occasional minor earthquakes in areas close to the Jordan Rift Valley'''Environment – current issues:'''limited natural fresh water resources and water stress; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification'''Environment – international agreements:'''''party to:''Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands" ], [ "See also", "* Borders of Jordan* Midian* Winston's Hiccup" ], [ "References", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Jordan" ], [ "Introduction", "Jordan has a population of more than 11.1 million inhabitants as of 2023.Jordanians () are the citizens of Jordan.", "Around 94% of Jordanians are Arabs, while the remaining 6% belong to other ethnic minorities, including Circassians, Chechens, Armenians and Kurds.", "Around 2.9 million inhabitants are non-citizens, a figure including refugees, legal and illegal immigrants.", "Jordan's annual population growth rate stands at 3.05% as of 2023, with an average birth rate of 2.8.There were 1,977,534 households in Jordan in 2015, with an average of 4.8 persons per household.The official language is Arabic, while English is the second most widely spoken language by Jordanians.", "It is also widely used in commerce and government.", "In 2016, about 84% of Jordan's population live in urban towns and cities.", "Many Jordanians and people of Jordanian descent live across the world, mainly in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries, United States, Canada and Turkey.In 2016, Jordan was named as the largest refugee hosting country per capita in the world, followed by Turkey, Pakistan and Lebanon.", "Jordan hosts refugees mainly from the Palestinian territories, Syria, and Iraq, as well as smaller communities from other nations.", "There are also hundreds of thousands of workers from Egypt, Indonesia and South Asia, who work as domestic and construction workers." ], [ "Definition", "The territory of Jordan can be defined by the history of its creation after the end of World War I, the League of Nations and redrawing of the borders of the Eastern Mediterranean littoral.", "The ensuing decisions, most notably the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which created the Mandatory Palestine.", "In September 1922, Transjordan was formally identified as a subdivision of the Mandate Palestine after the League of Nations approved the British Transjordan memorandum which stated that the Mandate east of the Jordan River would be excluded from all the provisions dealing with Jewish settlement west of the Jordan River." ], [ "Ethnic and religious groups", "===Arab===Arab Jordanians are mostly either descended from families and clans who were living in the cities and towns in Transjordan prior to the 1948 war, most notably in the governorates of Jerash, Ajlun, Balqa, Irbid, Madaba, Al Karak, Aqaba, Amman and some other towns in the country, or from the Palestinian families who sought refuge in Jordan in different times in the 20th century, mostly during and after the wars of 1948 and 1967.Many Christians are natives especially in towns such as Fuhies, Madaba, Al Karak, Ajlun, or have Bedouin origins, and a significant number came in 1948 and 1967 mainly from Jerusalem, Jaffa, Lydda, Bethlehem, and other Palestinian and Israeli cities.====Druze====The Druze people are believed to constitute about 0.5% of the total population of Jordan, around 32,000 people.", "The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or \"believers in one God,\" are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas west and north of Amman.", "Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims, and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam.====Bedouin Arabs====The other group of Jordanians is descended from Bedouins (of which, less than 1% live a nomadic lifestyle).", "Bedouin settlements are concentrated in the south and east of the country.===Afro-Jordanians===An unknown but considerable number of Jordanians are of African descent.===Armenians===There were an estimated 5,000 Armenians living within the country in 2009.An estimated 4,500 of these are members of the Armenian Apostolic Church, and predominantly speak the Western dialect of the Armenian language.", "This population makes up the majority of non-Arab Christians in the country.===Assyrians===There is an Assyrian refugee population in Jordan.", "Many Assyrians have arrived in Jordan as refugees since the invasion of Iraq, making up a large part of the Iraqi refugees.===Circassians===By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Authorities directed the Circassian immigrants to settle in Jordan.", "The Circassians are Sunni Muslims and are estimated to number 100,000 to 170,000 people.===Chechens===There are about 10,000 Chechens estimated to reside in Jordan." ], [ "Refugees", "Jordan is a home to 2,175,491 registered Palestinian refugees.", "Out of those 2,175,491 refugees, 634,182 have not been given Jordanian citizenship.", "Jordan also hosts around 1.4 million Syrian refugees who fled to the country due to the Syrian Civil War since 2011.About 31,163 Yemenis and 22,700 Libyan refugees live in Jordan as of January 2015.There are thousands of Lebanese refugees who came to Jordan when civil strife and war and the 2006 war broke out in their native country.", "Up to 1 million Iraqis came to Jordan following the Iraq War in 2003.In 2015, their number was 130,911.About 2,500 Iraqi Mandaean refugees have been resettled in Jordan." ], [ "Genetics", "Bahri et al.", "(2011) observed that the Jordanians were consistently Arabian Semitic despite the succession of several civilizations in Jordan.", "They have a common origin in Mesopotamia and are not too genetically dissimilar from the peoples of the United Arab Emirates and North Africa, who respectively have a common origin in Arabia and North Africa.", "Zanetti et al.", "(2014) discovered significant genetic differentiation between general Jordanians and Bedouin Arabs.", "General Jordanians were more similar to other Middle Eastern populations whilst Bedouin Arabs were more similar to North Africans.", "However, the Bedouin Arabs played a significant role in the \"peopling\" of Jordan, both in the past and present." ], [ "Religion" ], [ "Health and education", "Jordan prides itself on its health services, some of the best in the region.", "Qualified medics, favourable investment climate and Jordan's stability have contributed to the success of this sector.Jordan has a very advanced education system.", "The school education system comprises 2 years of pre-school education, 10 years of compulsory basic education, and two years of secondary academic or vocational education, after which the students sit for the General Certificate of Secondary Education Exam (Tawjihi).", "Scholars may attend either private or public schools.Access to higher education is open to holders of the General Secondary Education Certificate, who can then choose between private Community Colleges, public Community Colleges or universities (public and private).", "The credit-hour system, which entitles students to select courses according to a study plan, is implemented at universities.", "The number of public universities has reached (10), besides (17) universities that are private, and (51) community colleges.", "Numbers of universities accompanied by significant increase in number of students enrolled to study in these universities, where the number of enrolled students in both public and private universities is estimated at nearly (236) thousand; (28) thousand out of the total are from Arab or foreign nationalities.Life expectancy at birth in JordanPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195546.51985–199069.21955–196050.71990–199570.41960–196554.61995–200071.31965–197058.42000–200572.21970–197561.92005–201073.01975–198064.92010–201573.81980–198567.2Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''" ], [ "Statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Total population===11,200,320 (According to the Population Clock as of July 23, 2022).=== Gender ratio ===:* at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female:* 0-14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female:* 15-24 years: 1.05 male(s)/female :* 25-54 years: 1 male(s)/female:* 55-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female:* 65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female :* total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2016 est.", ")=== Age structure ===:* 0-14 years: 34.68% (male 1,827,554/female 1,726,691) :* 15-24 years: 20.07% (male 1,103,042/female 953,704) :* 25-54 years: 37.36% (male 2,073,211/female 1,755,290):* 55-64 years: 4.44% (male 236,435/female 218,469):* 65 years and over: 3.45% (male 174,470/female 179,203) (2017 est.", ")'''Structure of the population''' \tAge GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 626 287 2 477 352 5 103 639 100 0-4 333 216 317 115 650 331 12.74 5-9 329 133 313 738 642 871 12.60 10-14 313 083 297 046 610 129 11.95 15-19 287 693 272 145 559 838 10.97 20-24 279 600 260 593 540 193 10.58 25-29 239 774 216 487 456 261 8.94 30-34 207 178 191 991 399 169 7.82 35-39 167 737 155 689 323 426 6.34 40-44 123 945 117 455 241 400 4.73 45-49 87 098 83 358 170 456 3.34 50-54 64 607 63 633 128 240 2.51 55-59 55 765 57 956 113 721 2.23 60-64 52 084 46 703 98 787 1.94 65-69 37 095 34 728 71 823 1.41 70-74 23 467 23 353 46 820 0.92 75-79 12 651 11 617 24 268 0.48 80+ 10 137 11 923 22 060 0.43 80-84 6 144 7 441 13 585 0.27 85-89 2 444 2 588 5 032 0.10 90-94 1 012 1 304 2 316 0.05 95-99 537 590 1 127 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 975 432 927 899 1 903 331 37.29 15-64 1 565 481 1 466 010 3 031 491 59.40 65+ 83 350 81 621 164 971 3.23 unknown 2 024 1 822 3 846 0.08\tAge GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 3 366 000 3 174 000 6 530 000 100 0-4 427 485 405 300 832 785 12.75 5-9 422 095 400 880 822 975 12.60 10-14 401 900 379 680 781 580 11.97 15-19 368 915 347 720 716 635 10.97 20-24 358 485 333 170 691 655 10.59 25-29 307 650 276 855 584 505 8.95 30-34 265 915 245 520 511 435 7.83 35-39 215 425 199 015 414 440 6.35 40-44 158 875 149 975 308 850 4.73 45-49 111 750 106 630 218 380 3.34 50-54 82 805 81 320 164 125 2,51 55-59 71 360 74 040 145 400 2.23 60-64 66 645 59 800 126 445 1.94 65-69 47 485 44 280 91 765 1.41 70-74 30 040 29 785 59 825 0.92 75-79 16 195 14 815 31 010 0.48 80-84 7 865 9 495 17 360 0.27 85-89 3 130 3 300 6 430 0.10 90-94 1 295 1 665 2 960 0.05 95+ 685 755 1 440 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 1 251 480 1 185 860 2 437 340 37.33 15-64 2 007 825 1 874 045 3 881 870 59.45 65+ 106 695 104 095 210 790 3.23Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 5 046 824 4 484 888 9 531 712 100 0–4 561 280 532 918 1 094 198 11.48 5–9 597 975 571 516 1 169 491 12.27 10–14 519 876 490 522 1 010 398 10.60 15–19 498 519 449 302 947 821 9.94 20–24 519 140 426 835 945 975 9.92 25–29 459 841 370 765 830 606 8.71 30–34 395 939 338 461 734 400 7.70 35–39 352 691 298 499 651 190 6.83 40–44 304 330 256 601 560 931 5.88 45–49 258 567 214 842 473 409 4.97 50–54 187 189 162 648 349 837 3.67 55–59 127 359 117 340 244 699 2.57 60–64 86 254 80 824 167 078 1.75 65-69 67 492 68 161 135 653 1.42 70-74 52 668 47 124 99 792 1.05 75-79 32 428 31 759 64 187 0.67 80-84 15 324 15 633 30 957 0.32 85-89 6 387 7 351 13 738 0.14 90-94 1 797 2 238 4 035 0.04 95+ 1 768 1 549 3 317 0.03Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 1 679 131 1 594 956 3 274 087 34.35 15–64 3 189 829 2 716 117 5 905 946 61.96 65+ 177 864 173 815 351 679 3.69=== Median age ===:* total: 22.5 years:* male: 22.9 years:* female: 22 years (2017 est.", ")=== Population growth rate ===:2.05% (2017 est.", ")=== Birth rate ===:17.9 births/1,000 population ( 2021 est.", ")'''Births and deaths'''Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)1951 51,518 1952 586,200 46,146 1953 49,228 1954 53,170 1955 58,037 1956 55,374 1957 60,582 1958 69,594 1959 63,643 1960 78,520 1961 900,800 70,775 1962 86,397 1963 84,544 1964 86,327 1965 91,857 1966 94,299 1967 70,956 1968 69,483 1969 73,443 1970 1,508,200 76,828 1971 77,758 1972 80,327 1973 81,302 1974 81,490 1975 81,659 1976 84,380 1977 79,882 1978 84,195 1979 2,133,000 91,622 1980 2,233,000 1981 2,319,000 95,628 41.2 1982 2,409,000 97,794 40.6 1983 2,502,000 98,398 39.3 1984 2,599,000 102,521 39.4 1985 2,700,000 102,712 38.0 1986 2,805,000 112,451 40.1 1987 2,914,000 107,519 36.9 1988 3,027,000 116,346 38.4 1989 3,144,000 115,742 36.8 1990 3,468,000 116,520 33.6 1991 3,701,000 150,177 40.6 1992 3,844,000 155,684 40.5 1993 3,993,000 149,493 37.4 1994 4,139,400 140,444 33.9 1995 4,264,000 141,319 33.1 1996 4,383,000 142,404 32.5 1997 4,506,000 130,633 29.0 4.41998 4,623,000 133,714 28.9 1999 4,738,000 135,266 28.5 2000 4,857,000 126,016 13,339 112,677 25.9 2.7 23.2 2001 4,918,000 142,956 16,164 126,792 29.1 3.3 25.8 2002 5,038,000 146,077 17,220 128,857 29.0 3.4 25.6 2003 5,164,000 148,294 16,937 131,357 28.7 3.3 25.4 2004 5,414,000 150,248 17,011 133,237 27.8 3.1 24.6 2005 5,678,000 170,122 18,739 151,383 30.0 3.3 26.7 2006 5,843,000 180,642 21,333 159,309 30.9 3.7 27.3 2007 6,017,000 201,621 21,885 179,736 33.5 3.6 29.9 3.62008 6,200,000 187,916 19,816 168,100 30.3 3.2 27.1 3.62009 6,392,000 188,950 20,759 168,191 29.6 3.2 26.3 3.82010 6,594,000 205,972 22,662 183,310 31.2 3.4 27.8 3.82011 6,846,000 199,917 22,203 177,714 29.2 3.2 26.0 3.82012 7,210,000 198,538 23,301 175,237 27.5 3.2 24.3 3.52013 7,771,000 197,485 24,380 173,105 25.4 3.1 22.3 3.52014 8,459,000 209,284 26,954 182,330 24.7 3.2 21.6 3.52015 9,182,000 210,953 27,221 183,732 23.0 3.0 20.0 3.382016 9,798,000 218,290 28,880 189,410 22.3 2.9 19.3 3.382017 10,053,000 230,944 28,782 202,162 23.0 2.9 20.1 2.72018 10,309,000 226,820 29,098 197,722 22.0 2.8 19.2 2.72019 10,554,000 215,116 31,212 183,904 20.4 3.0 17.4 2.72020 10,806,000 186,087 33,073 153,014 17.2 3.1 14.2 2.62021 11,057,000 197,397 39,333 158,064 17.9 3.6 14.3 2.62022 11,302,000 192,266 30,823 161,443 17.0 2.7 14.32.6=== Death rate ===:3.6 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.", ")=== Net migration rate ===:-310 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.", ")=== Urbanization ===:urban population: 84.1% of total population (2017):rate of urbanization: 1.26% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.", ")=== Maternal mortality rate ===:58 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.", ")=== Life expectancy at birth ===:* total population: 74.8 years:* male: 73.4 years:* female: 76.3 years (2017 est.", ")=== Total fertility rate ===:3.19 children born/woman (2017 est.", ")Fertility Rate (The Demographic Health Survey) Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and CBR (Crude Birth Rate): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1976 7.4 1983 6.6 1990 36.1 5.57 (3.94) 33.9 4.75 (3.36) 39.0 6.85 (4.76) 1997 33.1 4.35 (2.9) 32.5 4.22 (2.9) 35.5 5.00 (3.1) 2002 29.0 3.7 (2.6) 28.4 3.5 (2.5) 31.3 4.2 (2.8) 2007 28.1 3.6 (2.8) 28.1 3.6 (2.8) 28.2 3.7 (2.8) 2009 30.6 3.8 (3.0) 30.6 3.8 (2.9) 30.7 4.0 (3.1) 2012 27.2 3.5 (2.4) 26.7 3.4 (2.4) 29.8 3.9 (2.7) 2017-18 21.6 2.7 (2.2) 21.3 2.7 (2.1) 23.7 3.1 (2.4)Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) by nationality Year Jordanian Syrian Other nationality 2017-2018 2.6 (2.1) 4.7 (3.7) 1.9 (1.7)=== Health expenditures ===:7.5% of GDP (2014)=== Physicians density ===:2.65 physicians/1,000 population (2014)=== Hospital bed density ===:1.8 beds/1,000 population (2012)=== Obesity - adult prevalence rate ===Government health reports indicate that about 40% of Jordanian adults are overweight and child obesity stands at more than 50%.=== Children under the age of 5 years underweight ===:2.7% (2019)=== Literacy rate ==='''15–24 years (in 2015):'''* Total: 99.23%* Male: 99.11%* Female: 99.37%'''15 years and older (in 2015):'''* Total: 98.01%* Male: 98.51%* Female: 97.49%=== UN estimates ===PeriodLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR1CDR1NC1TFR1IMR1 1950–1955 26 000 11 000 15 000 47.4 19.3 28.1 7.38 160.9 1955–1960 38 000 13 000 25 000 49.4 16.5 32.9 7.38 128.9 1960–1965 54 000 15 000 40 000 53.6 14.5 39.1 8.00 103.2 1965–1970 73 000 16 000 57 000 52.3 11.8 40.5 8.00 82.8 1970–1975 90 000 17 000 73 000 49.0 9.4 39.6 7.79 68.3 1975–1980 92 000 16 000 76 000 42.8 7.5 35.3 7.38 56.5 1980–1985 101 000 17 000 85 000 39.7 6.5 33.2 7.05 44.4 1985–1990 117 000 18 000 99 000 37.5 5.7 31.8 6.44 36.0 1990–1995 132 000 19 000 113 000 33.9 4.9 29.0 5.14 30.6 1995–2000 147 000 21 000 127 000 32.0 4.5 27.5 4.34 26.7 2000–2005 143 000 21 000 122 000 28.1 4.2 23.9 3.60 23.6 2005–2010 152 000 23 000 128 000 26.4 4.1 22.3 3.27 21.0 1 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births" ], [ "See also", "Demographics of the Middle East" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Jordan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Jordan''' takes place in a framework of a parliamentary monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Jordan is head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution promulgated on January 8, 1952.The king exercises his power through the government he appoints which is responsible before the Parliament.", "In contrast to most parliamentary monarchies, the monarchy of Jordan is not ceremonial, with the King having significant influence over the affairs of the country.King Abdullah II of Jordan has been sovereign since the death of his father, King Hussein, in 1999.Bisher Al-Khasawneh has been Prime Minister since 7 October 2020." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|KingAbdullah II of JordanUnaffiliated7 February 1999Prime MinisterBisher Al-KhasawnehIndependent7 October 2020The Constitution of Jordan vests executive authority in the king and in his cabinet.", "The king signs and executes or vetoes all laws.", "The king may also suspend or dissolve parliament, and shorten or lengthen the term of session.", "A veto by the king may be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses of parliament at his discretion, most recently in November 2009.The king appoints and may dismiss all judges by decree, approves amendments to the constitution after passing by both parliaments, declares war and acts as the supreme leader of the armed forces.", "Cabinet decisions, court judgments, and the national currency are issued in his name.", "The Cabinet, led by a prime minister, was formerly appointed by the king, but following the 2011 Jordanian protests, King Abdullah agreed to a prime minister selected by and responsible to the Chamber of Deputies on matters of general policy, including the composition of cabinet.", "A two-thirds vote of \"no confidence\" by the Chamber can force the cabinet to resign." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Legislative power rests in the bicameral National Assembly.", "The National Assembly (''Majlis al-Umma'') has two chambers.", "The Chamber of Deputies (''Majlis al-Nuwaab'') has 130 members, elected for a four-year term in single-seat constituencies with 15 seats reserved for women by a special electoral college, nine for Christians and three for Chechens/Circassians.", "While the Chamber of Deputies is elected by the people, its main legislative abilities are limited to approving, rejecting, or amending legislation with little power to initiate laws.", "The Assembly of Senators (''Majlis al-Aayan'') has 65 members appointed by the King for a four-year term.", "The Assembly of Senators is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies and can be removed by a \"vote of no confidence\".Political factions or blocs in the Jordanian parliament change with each parliamentary election and typically involve one of the following affiliations; a democratic Marxist/Socialist faction, a mainstream liberal faction, a moderate-pragmatic faction, a mainstream conservative faction, and an extreme conservative faction (such as the Islamic Action Front).The Jordanian Chamber of Deputies is known for brawls between its members, including acts of violence and the use of weapons.", "In September 2013 Representative Talal al-Sharif tried to shoot one of his colleagues with an assault rifle while at the parliamentary premises." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The judiciary is completely independent from the other two branches of the government.", "The constitution provides for three categories of courts—civil (in this case meaning \"regular\"), religious, and special.", "Regular courts consist of both civil and criminal varieties at the first level—First Instance or Conciliation Courts, second level—Appelette or Appeals Courts, and the Cassation Court which is the highest judicial authority in the kingdom.", "There are two types of religious courts: Sharia courts which enforce the provisions of Islamic law and civil status, and tribunals of other religious communities officially recognized in Jordan." ], [ "Political conditions", "King Hussein ruled Jordan from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the Jordanians and Palestinian communities in Jordan.", "King Hussein ended martial law in 1989 and ended suspension on political parties that was initiated following the loss of the West Bank to Israel and in order to preserve the status quo in Jordan.", "In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair parliamentary elections.", "Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to boycott the 1997, 2011 and 2013 elections.King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999.Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States.", "Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic reform.Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties.", "Moving toward greater independence, Jordan's parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime figures and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political Islamists, are expressed.On February 1, 2011, it was announced that King Abdullah had dismissed his government.", "This has been interpreted as a pre-emptive move in the context of the Tunisian Jasmine Revolution and unfolding events in nearby Egypt." ], [ "Decentralization", "King Abdullah II and the Jordanian Government began the process of decentralization, with the Madaba governorate as the pilot project, on the regional level dividing the nation into three regions: North, Central, and South.", "The Greater Amman Municipality will be excluded from the plan but it will set up a similar decentralization process.", "Each region will have an elected council that will handle the political, social, legal, and economic affairs of its area.", "This decentralization process is part of Jordan's Democratization Program." ], [ "Corruption", "Jordan ranked 47th out of 180 nations in the Corruption Perceptions Index.", "The Constitution of Jordan states that no member of Parliament can have any financial or business dealings with the government and no member of the royal family can be in the government.", "However, corruption remains a problem in Jordan despite progress.", "Corruption cases are examined by the Anti-Corruption Commission and then referred to the judiciary for legal action.", "Corruption in Jordan takes the form of nepotism, favouritism, and bribery." ], [ "2018 Protests", "The 2018 Jordanian protests started as a general strike organized by more than 30 trade unions on 30 May 2018 after the government of Hani Mulki submitted a new tax law to Parliament.", "The bill followed IMF-backed measures to tackle Jordan's growing public debt.The day following the strike on 31 May, the government raised fuel and electricity prices responding to an increase in international oil prices, which led to more public discontent.", "On 1 June King Abdullah intervened and ordered the freeze of the price hikes.The protests continued for four days until Mulki submitted his resignation to the King on 4 June, and Omar Razzaz, his education minister, became Prime Minister.", "Protests only ceased after Razzaz announced his intention of withdrawing the new tax bill." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Administratively, Jordan is divided into twelve governorates (''muhafazat'', singular—''muhafazah''), each headed by a governor appointed by the king.", "They are the sole authorities for all government departments and development projects in their respective areas:#Ajlun#Aqaba#Balqa#Karak#Mafraq#Amman#Tafilah#Zarqa#Irbid#Jerash#Ma'an#Madaba" ], [ "International organization participation", "ABEDA, ACC, AFESD, AL, AMF, CAEU, CCC, CTBTO, EBRD, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UNWTO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, WTrO" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Constitution of Jordan*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Jordan" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Jordan''' is classified as an emerging market economy.", "Jordan's GDP per capita rose by 351% in the 1970s, declined 30% in the 1980s, and rose 36% in the 1990s.", "After King Abdullah II's accession to the throne in 1999, liberal economic policies were introduced.", "Jordan's economy had been growing at an annual rate of 8% between 1999 and 2008.However, growth has slowed to 2% after the Arab Spring in 2011.The substantial increase of the population, coupled with slowed economic growth and rising public debt led to a worsening of poverty and unemployment in the country.", "As of 2019, Jordan has a GDP of US$44.4 billion, ranking it 89th worldwide.Jordan has Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with the United States, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, the European Union, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Turkey and Syria.", "More FTA's are planned with Iraq, the Palestinian Authority, the GCC, Lebanon, and Pakistan.", "Jordan is a member of the Greater Arab Free Trade Agreement, the Euro-Mediterranean free trade area, the Agadir Agreement, and also enjoys advanced status with the EU.Jordan's economic resource base centers on phosphates, potash, and their fertilizer derivatives; tourism; overseas remittances; and foreign aid.", "These are its principal sources of hard currency earnings.", "Lacking coal reserves, hydroelectric power, large tracts of forest or commercially viable oil deposits, Jordan relies on natural gas for 93% of its domestic energy needs.", "Jordan used to depend on Iraq for oil until the American-led 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "Jordan also has a plethora of industrial zones producing goods in the textile, aerospace, defense, ICT, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors.", "Jordan is an emerging knowledge economy.The main obstacles to Jordan's economy are scarce water supplies, complete reliance on oil imports for energy, and regional instability.", "Just over 10% of its land is arable and the water supply is limited.", "Rainfall is low and highly variable, and much of Jordan's available ground water is not renewable.In the last few years Jordan's economic growth has slowed, averaging around 2%.", "Jordan's total foreign debt in 2011 was $19 billion, representing 60% of its GDP.", "In 2016, the debt reached $35.1 billion representing 93.4% of its GDP.", "This substantial increase is attributed to effects of regional instability causing: decrease in tourist activity; decreased foreign investments; increased military expenditure; attacks on Egyptian pipeline supplying the Kingdom with gas; the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria; expenses from hosting Syrian refugees and accumulated interests from loans.", "According to the World Bank, Syrian refugees have cost Jordan more than $2.5 billion a year, amounting to 6% of the GDP and 25% of the government's annual revenue.", "With the presence of Syrian refugees in Jordan, wage growth went considerably down as a result of competition for jobs between refugees and Jordan citizens.", "The downturn that began in 2011, continued until 2018.The country's top five contributing sectors to GDP, government services, finance, manufacturing, transport, and tourism and hospitality were badly impacted by the Syrian civil war.", "Foreign aid covers only a small part of these costs, 63% of the total costs are covered by Jordan.", "An austerity programme was adopted by the government which aims to reduce Jordan's debt-to-GDP ratio to 77% by 2021.The programme succeeded in preventing the debt from rising above 95% in 2018.The yearly growth rate of the economy was 2% from 2016 to 2019, compared to 6.4% from 2000 to 2009." ], [ "Currency", "The Central Bank of Jordan commenced operations in 1964 and is the sole issuer of Jordanian currency, the Jordanian dinar, which is pegged to the US dollar.", "The following chart of the trend of gross domestic product of Jordan at market prices by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Jordanian dinars.", "Year Gross domestic product (JD million) $US exchange Inflation index (2000=100) 1980 1,165 0.29 Jordanian dinars 35 1985 1,971 0.39 Jordanian dinars 45 1990 2,761 0.66 Jordanian dinars 70 1995 4,715 0.70 Jordanian dinars 87 2005 9,118 0.70 Jordanian dinars 112For purchasing power parity comparisons, the Jordanian dinar is exchanged per US dollar at 0.710.Jordan's population is 6,342,948 and mean wages were $4.19 per man-hour in 2009." ], [ "Economic overview", "Jordan is classified by the World Bank as a \"lower middle-income country.\"", "According to the Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom, Jordan has the third freest economy in the Middle East and North Africa, behind only Bahrain and Qatar, and the 32nd freest in the world.", "Jordan ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Index of Economic Competitiveness.", "The Kingdom scored higher than many of its peers in the Persian Gulf and Europe like Kuwait, Israel.", "and Ireland.", "The 2010 AOF Index of Globalization ranked Jordan as the most globalized country in the Middle East and North Africa region.", "Jordan's banking sector is classified as \"highly developed\" by the IMF along with the GCC economies and Lebanon.The official currency in Jordan is the Jordanian dinar and divides into 100 qirsh (also called piastres) or 1000 fils.", "Since 23 October 1995, the dinar has been officially pegged to the IMF's special drawing rights (SDRs).", "In practice, it is fixed at 1 US$ = 0.709 dinar, which translates to approximately 1 dinar = 1.41044 dollars.", "The Central Bank buys US dollars at 0.708 dinar, and sell US dollars at 0.7125 dinar, Exchangers buys US dollars at 0.708 and sell US dollars at 0.709.The Jordanian market is considered one of the most developed Arab markets outside the Persian Gulf states.", "Jordan ranked 18th on the 2012 Global Retail Development Index which lists the 30 most attractive retail markets in the world.", "Jordan was ranked as the 19th most expensive country in the world to live in 2010 and the most expensive Arab country to live in.Jordan has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 2000.In the 2009 Global Enabling Trade Report, Jordan ranked 4th in the Arab World behind the UAE, Bahrain, and Qatar.", "The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States that went into effect in December 2001 would phase out duties on nearly all goods and services by 2010.=== Unemployment ===Jordan has high unemployment rates, 11.9% in the fourth quarter of 2010 but some estimate it to be as high as a quarter of the working-age population.", "Unemployment has continued to rise, hitting 25% in 2021, the highest level in more than 25 years, 6% points more than in 2019, and more than double the amount in 2011.Unemployment is a major issue, particularly for young people, women, and those with a university degree, with rates of unemployment exceeding 45%, 30%, and 30%, respectively.==== Youth unemployment =======Remittances to Jordan===The flows of remittance to Jordan had experienced rapid growth rates, particularly during the end of the 1970s and 1980s, where Jordan had started exporting high skilled labour to the Persian Gulf States.", "The money that migrants send home, remittances, represents today an important source of external funding for many developing countries, including Jordan.", "According to the World Bank data on remittances, with about US$3000 million in 2010, Jordan ranks at 10th place among all developing countries.", "Jordan has ranked constantly among the top 20 remittances-recipient countries over the last decade.", "In addition, the Arab Monetary Fund (AMF) statistics in 2010 indicate that Jordan was the third biggest recipient of remittances among Arab countries after Egypt and Lebanon.", "The host countries that have absorbed most of the Jordanian expatriates are Saudi Arabia and the United Arab of Emirates (UAE), where the available recorded number of the Jordanian expatriates, working abroad, indicates that about 90% of these migrants are working in Persian Gulf countries.The proportion of skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the region.", "Many of the world's major software and hardware IT companies are present in Jordan.", "The presence of such firms underlines Jordan's attractiveness as a stable base with high-calibre human resources from which to serve the wider region.", "According to a report published in January 2012 by the founder of venture capital firm Finaventures, Rachid Sefraoui, Amman is one of the top 10 best cities in the world to launch a tech start-up.An estimated 13.3% of citizens live under the poverty line.", "Since the mid-1970s, migrants' remittances are Jordan's most important source of foreign exchange, and a decisive factor in the country's economic development and the rising standard of living of the population.Agriculture in Jordan constituted almost 40% of GNP in the early 1950s; on the eve of the June 1967 War, it was 17%.", "By the mid-1980s, agriculture's share of GNP in Jordan was only about 6%.Jordan hosts SOFEX, the world's fastest growing and region's only special operations and homeland security exhibition and conference.", "Jordan is a regional and international provider of advanced military goods and services.", "The KADDB Industrial Park, specialized in defense manufacturing, was opened in September 2009 in Mafraq.", "By 2015, the park is expected to provide around 15,000 job opportunities whereas the investment volume is expected to reach JD500 million.", "A report by Strategic Foresight Group has calculated the opportunity cost of conflict for the Middle East from 1991 to 2010 at $12 trillion.", "Jordan's share in this is almost $84 billion.Jordan has a 138% mobile phone penetration rate and a 63% internet penetration rate.", "41.6% of all mobile phones in Jordan are smartphones, compared with 40% in the United States and 26% in the United Kingdom.", "97% of Jordanian households own at least one television set while 90% have satellite reception.", "Furthermore, 61% of Jordanian households own at least one personal computer or laptop.According to an investment survey, Jordan ranked as the 9th best outsourcing destination worldwide.", "Amman is one of the top 10 cities in the world to launch a tech start-up in 2012 and is becoming referred to as the \"Silicon Valley of the Middle East\".Jordan has hosted the World Economic Forum on the Middle East and North Africa six times and plans to hold it again at the Dead Sea for the seventh time in 2013.Amman also hosts the Mercedes Benz Fashion Week semiannually and is the only city in the region to hold such a prestigious event that is usually held by the likes of New York, Paris, and Milan.===Standard of living===Jordan is one of the most liberal countries in the Middle East allowing a debate to consider introducing a secular government.", "In the 2010 Human Development Index, Jordan was placed in the \"high human development\" bracket and came 7th among Arab countries, after the Persian Gulf states and Lebanon.", "The 2010 Quality of Life Index prepared by ''International Living'' magazine ranked Jordan second in the MENA with 55.0 points after Israel.Decades of political stability and security and strict law enforcement make Jordan one of the top 10 countries worldwide in security.", "In the 2010 Newsweek \"World's Best Countries\" list, Jordan ranked 53rd worldwide, and 3rd among Arab countries after Kuwait and the UAE.", "Jordan is also among the top ten countries whose citizens feel safest walking the streets at night.As of 2011, 63% of working Jordanians are insured with the Social Security Corporation, as well as 120,000 foreigners, with plans to include the rest of Jordanian workers both inside and outside the kingdom as well as students, housewives, business owners, and the unemployed.", "Only 1.6% of Jordanians make less than $2 a day, one of the lowest in the developing world according to the Human Poverty Index.In the 2010 Gallup Global Wellbeing Survey, 30% of Jordanians described their financial situation as \"thriving\", surpassed most of the Arab countries with the exception of Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.", "In 2008, the Jordanian government launched the \"Decent Housing for a Decent Living\" project aimed at building 120,000 affordable housing units within the next 5 years, plus an additional 100,000 housing units if the need arises.=== Main indicators ===The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.YearGDP (in bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)GDP (in bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth (real)Inflation (in Percent)Government debt (in % of GDP)19808.33,6933.911.2%10.9%...198513.24,9035.0−2.7%2.8%...199015.14,3414.2−0.3%16.2%220%199523.05,3916.86.2%2.4%115%200029.36,0258.74.3%0.7%100%200544.88,18013.18.1%3.5%84%200649.98,90715.88.1%6.3%76%200755.49,67918.08.2%4.7%74%200860.610,35322.67.2%14.0%60%200964.410,63424.55.5% −0.7%65%201066.710,90527.12.3%4.8%67%201169.811,16929.52.6%4.2%71%201273.011,42231.72.7%4.5%81%201376.211,67634.52.8%4.8%87%201480.011,98636.93.1%2.9%89%201582.812,13538.62.4%−0.9%93%201685.612,26439.92.0%−0.8%95%201789.112,49441.72.3%3.3%96%" ], [ "Industries", "===Agriculture, forestry, and fishing===Despite increases in production, the agriculture sector's share of the economy has declined steadily to just 2.4 percent of gross domestic product by 2004.About 4 percent of Jordan's labor force worked in the agricultural sector in 2002.The most profitable segment of Jordan's agriculture is fruit and vegetable production (including tomatoes, cucumbers, citrus fruit, and bananas) in the Jordan Valley.", "The rest of crop production, especially cereal production, remains volatile because of the lack of consistent rainfall.", "Fishing and forestry are negligible in terms of the overall domestic economy.", "The fishing industry is evenly divided between live capture and aquaculture; the live weight catch totaled just over 1,000 metric tons in 2002.The forestry industry is even smaller in economic terms; approximately 240,000 total cubic meters of roundwood were removed in 2002, the vast majority for fuelwood.===Mining and minerals===Potash and phosphates are among the country's main economic exports.", "In 2003 approximately 2 million tons of potash salt production translated into US$192 million in export earnings, making it the second most lucrative exported good.", "Potash production totaled 1.9 million tons in 2004 and 1.8 million tons in 2005.In 2004 approximately 6.75 million tons of phosphate rock production generated US$135 million in export earnings, placing it fourth on Jordan's principal export list.", "With production totaling 6.4 million tons in 2005, Jordan was the world's third largest producer of raw phosphates.", "In addition to these two major minerals, smaller quantities of unrefined salt, copper ore, gypsum, manganese ore, and the mineral precursors to the production of ceramics (glass sand, clays, and feldspar) are also mined.===Industry and manufacturing===A recycling project situated a few kilometres outside Amman.The industrial sector, which includes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximately 26 percent of gross domestic product in 2004 (including manufacturing, 16.2 percent; construction, 4.6 percent; and mining, 3.1 percent).", "More than 21 percent of the country's labor force was reported to be employed in this sector in 2002.The main industrial products are potash, phosphates, pharmaceuticals, cement, clothes, and fertilizers.", "The most promising segment of this sector is construction.", "In the past several years, demand has increased rapidly for housing and offices of foreign enterprises based in Jordan to better access the Iraqi market.", "The manufacturing sector has grown as well (to nearly 20 percent of GDP by 2005), in large part as a result of the United States–Jordan Free Trade Agreement (ratified in 2001 by the U.S. Senate); the agreement has led to the establishment of approximately 13 Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZs) throughout the country.", "The QIZs, which provide duty-free access to the U.S. market, produce mostly light industrial products, especially ready-made garments.", "By 2004 the QIZs accounted for nearly US$1.1 billion in exports according to the Jordanian government.Jordan's free trade agreement (FTA) with the US – the first in the Arab world – has already made the US one of Jordan's most significant markets.", "By 2010, it would have barrier-free export access in almost all sectors.", "A number of trade agreements with countries in the Middle Eastern and North African regions and beyond should also reap increasing benefits, not in the least the Agadir Agreement, which is seen as a precursor to an FTA with the EU.", "Jordan also recently signed an FTA with Canada.", "Furthermore, Jordan's plethora of industrial zones offering tax incentives, low utility costs and improved infrastructure links are helping incubate new developments.", "The relatively high skills level is also a key factor in promoting investment and stimulating the economy, particularly in value-added sectors.", "Despite the fact that Jordan has few natural resources it does benefit from abundant reserves of potash and phosphates, which are widely used in the production of fertilisers.", "Exports by these industries are expected to have a combined worth of $1bn in 2008.Other important industries include pharmaceuticals, which exported around $435m in 2006 and $260m in the first half of 2008 alone, as well as textiles, which were worth $1.19bn in 2007.Although the value of Jordan's industrial sector is high, the kingdom faces a number of challenges.", "Because the country is dependent on importing raw materials, it is vulnerable to price volatility.", "Shortages in water and power also make consistent development difficult.", "Despite these challenges, Jordan's economic openness and long-standing fertiliser and pharmaceutical industries should continue to provide a solid source of foreign currency.Jordan has a plethora of industrial zones and special economic zones aimed at increasing exports and making Jordan an industrial giant.", "The Mafraq SEZ is focused on industry and logistics hoping to become the regional logistics hub with air, road, and rail links to neighboring countries and eventually Europe and the Persian Gulf.", "The Ma'an SEZ is primarily industrial focusing on satisfying domestic demand and reducing reliance on imports.", "With a national rail system under construction, Jordan expects trade to grow significantly and Jordan will mostly become the trade hub of the Levant and even the Middle East region as a whole due to its geography and natural resources.===Telecoms and IT===Telecommunications is a billion-dollar industry with estimates showing that core markets of fixed-line, mobile and data service generate annual revenue of around JD836.5m ($1.18bn) per year, which is equivalent to 13.5% of GDP.", "Jordan's IT sector is the most developed and competitive in the region due to the 2001 telecom liberalization.", "Market share of the mobile sector, the most competitive telecoms market, is currently fairly evenly divided between the three operators, with Zain, owned by MTC Kuwait, maintaining the largest share (39%), followed by France Telecom's brand Orange (36%) and Umniah (25%), which is 96% owned by Bahrain's Batelco.", "End of year figures for 2007 show that the market trend is towards greater parity, with Zain's share falling in the space of a year from 47% in 2006 and the other two operators picking up subscribers.", "The increased competition has led to pricing that is more favourable to consumers.", "Mobile penetration is currently around 80%.Ambitious subsequent national strategies were formulated already since Y 2000 as a private sector initiative directly led by his majesty the king of Jordan.", "Information technology association in Jordan (int@j ) was established to kick off a private sector process that would focus on preparing Jordan for the new economy through IT and shall reflect the national objectives towards automation and modernization in co-operation with the ministry of information technology in Jordan the (MOICT).", "The latest strategy will take the sector through to 2011, aims to bring Jordan to precise objectives.", "The ICT sector currently accounts for over a 14% (indirect) of the kingdom's GDP.", "This figure includes foreign investment and total domestic revenue from the sector.", "Employment growth in the sector was progressive and reached up to 60.000 (indirect ) by 2008.The government is working to address employment issues and education related to sector by developing ICT training and opportunities to increase the overall penetration of ICT in Jordanian society.", "The policy outlines a number of objectives for the country to reach within the next three years, including almost doubling the size of the sector to $3bn, and pushing internet user penetration up to 50%.The early founder of Int@j and its first chairman of the board is Karim Kawar and early activists who drove the national strategic objectives and helped formulate an action plan through the developing pillars were Marwan Juma Jordan's minister of ICT, Doha Abdelkhaleq on labour and education.", "Humam Mufti on advocacy and Nashat Masri on Capital and finance amongst others.Such an infrastructure made Jordan a suitable location for IT startups that operate in the fields of web development, mobile application development, online services, and investment in IT businesses.The IT industry in Jordan in the year 2000 and beyond got a very big boost after the Gulf War of 1991.This boost came from a large influx of immigrants from the Gulf countries to Jordan, mostly from Jordanian expatriates from Kuwait, totaling few hundred thousands.", "This large wave impacted Jordan in many ways, and one of them was on its IT industry.===Energy===Energy remains perhaps the biggest challenge for continued growth for Jordan's economy.", "Spurred by the surge in the price of oil to more than $145 a barrel at its peak, the Jordanian government has responded with an ambitious plan for the sector.", "The country's lack of domestic resources is being addressed via a $14bn investment programme in the sector.", "The programme aims to reduce reliance on imported products from the current level of 96%, with renewables meeting 10% of energy demand by 2020 and nuclear energy meeting 60% of energy needs by 2035.The government also announced in 2007 that it would scale back subsidies in several areas, including energy, where there have historically been regressive subsidies for fuel and electricity.", "In another new step, the government is opening up the sector to competition, and intends to offer all the planned new energy projects to international tender.Unlike most of its neighbors, Jordan has no significant petroleum resources of its own and is heavily dependent on oil imports to fulfill its domestic energy needs.", "In 2002 proved oil reserves totaled only .", "Jordan produced only in 2004 but consumed an estimated .", "According to U.S. government figures, oil imports had reached about in 2004.The Iraq invasion of 2003 disrupted Jordan's primary oil supply route from its eastern neighbor, which under Saddam Hussein had provided the kingdom with highly discounted crude oil via overland truck routes.", "Since late 2003, an alternative supply route by tanker through the Al Aqabah port has been established; Saudi Arabia is now Jordan's primary source of imported oil; Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are secondary sources.", "Although not so heavily discounted as Iraqi crude oil, supplies from Saudi Arabia and the UAE are subsidized to some extent.In the face of continued high oil costs, interest has increased in the possibility of exploiting Jordan's vast oil shale resources, which are estimated to total approximately 40 billion tons, 4 billion tons of which are believed to be recoverable.", "Jordan's oil shale resources could produce of oil, enabling production of about .", "The oil shale in Jordan has the fourth largest in the world which currently, there are several companies who are negotiating with the Jordanian government about exploiting the oil shale like Royal Dutch Shell, Petrobras and Eesti Energia.Natural gas is increasingly being used to fulfill the country's domestic energy needs, especially with regard to electricity generation.", "Jordan was estimated to have only modest natural gas reserves (about 6 billion cubic meters in 2002), but new estimates suggest a much higher total.", "In 2003 the country produced and consumed an estimated 390 million cubic meters of natural gas.", "The primary source is located in the eastern portion of the country at the Risha gas field.", "Until the early 2010s, the country imported the bulk of its natural gas via the Arab Gas Pipeline that stretches from the Al Arish terminal in Egypt underwater to Al Aqabah and then to northern Jordan, where it links to two major power stations.", "This Egypt–Jordan pipeline supplied Jordan with approximately 1 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year.", "Gas supplies from Egypt were halted in 2013 due to insurgent activities in the Sinai and domestic gas shortages in Egypt.", "In light of this, a liquified natural gas terminal was built in the Port of Aqaba to facilitate gas imports.", "In 2017, a low-capacity gas pipeline from Israel was completed which supplies the Arab Potash factories near the Dead Sea.", "As of 2018, a large capacity pipeline from Israel is under construction in northern Jordan which is expected to begin operating by 2020 and will supply the kingdom with 3 BCM of gas per year, thereby satisfying most of Jordan's natural gas consumption needs.The state-owned National Electric Power Company (NEPCO) produces most of Jordan's electricity (94%).", "Since mid-2000, privatization efforts have been undertaken to increase independent power generation facilities; a Belgian firm was set to begin operations at a new power plant near Amman with an estimated capacity of 450 megawatts.", "Power plants at Az Zarqa (400 megawatts) and Al Aqabah (650 MW) are Jordan's other primary electricity providers.", "As a whole, the country consumed nearly 8 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity in 2003 while producing only 7.5 billion kWh of electricity.", "Electricity production in 2004 rose to 8.7 billion kWh, but production must continue to increase in order to meet demand, which the government estimates would continue to grow by about 5% per year.", "About 99 percent of the population is reported to have access to electricity.===Transport===The transportation sector on average contributes some 10% to Jordan's GDP, with transportation and communications accounting for $2.14bn in 2007.Well aware of the sector's importance to the country's service and industry-oriented economy, in 2008 the government formulated a new national transport strategy with the aim to improve, modernise and further privatise the sector.", "With no imminent solution to the ongoing security crisis in Iraq in sight, prospects for the Jordanian transport sector as a whole look bright.", "The country will arguably remain one of the major transit points for both goods and people destined for Iraq, while the number of tourists visiting Jordan is set to continue to increase.", "The main events to follow in the near future are the relocation of Aqaba's main port, a national railway system, and the construction of a new terminal at QAIA.", "Volatility in fuel prices is almost certainly going to have negative effects on operational costs and as such may hamper the sector's average annual growth of around 6%.", "However, uncertain fuel prices also offer a great deal of incentive to boost private investments in alternative modes of transport such as public buses and improved trains.===Media and advertising===Although the state remains a major influence, Jordan's media sector has seen significant privatisation and liberalisation efforts in recent years.", "Based on official rack rates, research firm Ipsos estimated that the advertisement sector spent some $280m towards publicity in Jordan's media, 80% of which was spent on newspapers, followed by TV, radio and magazines.", "The biggest event of 2007 was the cancelled launch of ATV, the kingdom's first private broadcaster.", "As a result, the state-owned Jordan TV (JTV) remains the country's sole broadcaster.", "In recent years, Jordan has also seen a spectacular rise in the number of blogs, websites and news portals as sources of news information.", "The increasing diversification of Jordan's media is a good sign and should boost advertising revenues and private initiatives.Recording growth of 30%, 2007 turned out to be yet another outstanding year for Jordan's advertising industry.", "Following nearly a decade of double-digit growth, however, most publicity specialists expect to see a relative slowdown in 2008.Unlike 2007, no major campaigns were planned for the first part of 2008.Additionally, the Jordanian advertising had some catching up to do with the rest of the region in terms of average expenditure per capita.", "As the sector matures, it is only normal for growth figures to gradually decrease.", "Since 2000 total ad spend increased from $77m to $280m in 2007, an increase of 260%.", "The Jordanian telecoms sector was the biggest ad spender in 2007, accounting for around 20% of the market, followed by the banking and finance sector (12%), services industry (11%), real estate (8%) and the automotive sector (5%).", "In the next year, particularly if there is a downturn, it would become increasingly important for the sector to develop good vocational training and to begin to take advantage of new media markets.===Services===Services accounted for more than 70 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004.The sector employed nearly 75 percent of the labor force in 2002.Jordan's banking system consists of 25 commercial banks, three Islamic banks, and nine foreign banks, with total assets of Jordanian dinar, JOD 57 billion (or EUR69.6 billion).", "Between 2010 and 2020, the sector's total assets climbed by 5% on average, led by a 7% increase in lending.The banking sector is widely regarded as advanced in both regional and international terms.", "In 2007, total profits of the 15 listed banks rose 14.89% to JD640m ($909m).", "Jordan's strong growth of 6% in 2007 was reflected in a 20.57% expansion in net credit to JD17.9bn ($25.4bn) by the end of the year.", "The most improvement was in trade, construction and industry.", "Many banks suffered from the sharp correction in the Amman Stock Market in 2006, encouraging them to focus on core banking business in 2007, and this was reflected in a 16.65% rise in net interest and commission income to JD1.32bn ($1.87bn).", "The stock market also picked up in 2007 and total portfolio income losses decreased.", "Although Jordan's banking sector is small by global standards, it has attracted strong interest from regional investors in Lebanon and the GCC.", "New regulations introduced by the CBJ, in addition to political stability, have helped to create a favourable investment environment.", "Its conservative policies helped Jordan avoid the global financial crisis of 2009, Jordanian banks was one of the only countries that posted a profit in 2009.Banking sector profitability was momentarily impacted (in 2020) by the COVID-19-induced economic downturn, but it already recovered to pre-COVID-19 levels in 2021.The Jordanian banking sector's non-performing loan (NPL) ratio remained at 5.5% during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "According to a survey conducted in 2021, the pandemic's impact on credit supply in Jordan has been quite limited, with two-thirds of the banks surveyed indicating a constant or growing availability of loans.", "50% of banks also reported an increase to loan supply for SMEs.", "For corporates, the increase was 25%.90% of Banks believed that the pandemic will also affect the digitization of internal processes.", "81% believed that banks' daily operations will be impacted and 90% believed that banks' online offerings will be improved.Contributing an estimated JD477.5m ($678.05m), or 4.25% of Jordan's GDP, according to figures from the Central Bank, the construction sector performed strongly in 2007.The Great Amman Municipality (GAM) completed its master plan for the capital, which is expected to grow from 700 km2 today to 1700 km2 by 2025.Amman is changing from a predominantly horizontal to a largely vertical city due to various clusters of high-rises.", "Significant developments outside Amman include the rapid residential build-up of Zarqa, the transformation of Aqaba into a commercial and tourist centre, and the construction of a series of high-end hotels and tourist resorts along the Dead Sea.", "A new airport terminal, Amman ring road and a light rail between the capital and Zarqa are being constructed.Despite recording a relative slowdown compared to the expansion of recent years, Jordan's construction and real estate market continued to grow in 2007.Trading totaled JD5.6bn ($8bn), up from JD5.2bn ($7.4bn) in 2006, according to Jordan's Land and Survey Department.", "Although the years of astounding growth—some 75% in 2004 and 48% in 2005—seem to have passed, the future looks bright for real estate, as demand continues to outstrip supply, while Jordan remains a very attractive investment destination for foreign businesses, second-home buyers and Jordanians working abroad.", "With Jordan's continuing sharp population growth, as well as its strategic location at the heart of the Middle East, the kingdom's main market drivers indicate a bright future for years to come.", "Although a number of class-A office space developments are currently under construction, it would take a few years to close the gap between demand and supply.", "The Amman retail market may become more saturated in the short term.", "Consequently, developers may turn to other cities to build supermarkets and malls.Jordan's insurance market, with 29 companies operating in a country of just 5.7 million people, is saturated, despite regulatory encouragements for mergers and acquisitions.", "In terms of market share based on premiums, motor coverage accounts for 42.4%, medical insurance 18.6%, fire and property damage 17%, life 9.8%, marine and transport 7.9% and other insurance the remaining 4.3%.", "The insurance sector made up 2.52% of GDP in 2006, up from 2.43% in 2005.Current plans call for increasing the sector's GDP contribution to 7% in the short term and 10% in the long term.", "The sector holds great potential but remains underdeveloped.", "Region-wide price increases and a lack of consumer understanding of products are two major challenges.", "In addition, cultural considerations, including religion, make improving market penetration difficult.", "The cost of living has also risen, and the IMF forecasts that the inflation rate would reach 9% in 2008.Salaries have remained unchanged, however, leaving consumers with less disposable income.", "Other than mandatory motor coverage, insurance products are considered a luxury by average Jordanians, who must often prioritise spending.", "There would likely only be a few changes to the market in the coming year.", "Members of the sector would like to see greater coordination among the regulators and those working for the kingdom's legal system in order to improve insurance laws.===Tourism===The state of the tourism sector is widely regarded as below potential, especially given the country's rich history, ancient ruins, Mediterranean climate, and diverse geography.", "Despite personal appeals by the king and an increasingly sophisticated marketing campaign, the industry is still adversely affected by the political instability of the region.", "More than 5 million visitors entered Jordan in 2004, generating US$1.3 billion in earnings.", "Earnings from tourism rose to US$1.4 billion in 2005.The fact that the bulk of Jordan's tourist trade emanates from elsewhere in the Middle East should contribute to the industry's growth potential in the years ahead, as Jordan is relatively stable, open, and safe in comparison to many of its neighbors.", "The tourism sector remains an important element of the Jordanian economy, directly employing some 30,000 Jordanians and contributing 10% to the kingdom's GDP.", "Despite a decline in Arab and Gulf visitors, 2007 marked a year of steady growth for the tourism sector.", "Revenues jumped 13% to nearly $2.11bn during the first 11 months, up from $1.86bn for the same period in 2006.The sector is overseen by the government's National Tourism Strategy (NTS), which was established in 2004 to take the industry through 2010.NTS aimed to double tourism revenues during the period and to increase tourism-related jobs to 91,719.The first goal has already been met but the second one might be more of a challenge: between 2004 and 2007 the total number of people employed in the sector rose from 23,544 to 35,484.This is impressive growth, but less than half the 90,000-or-more goal.", "NTS hopes to place Jordan as a boutique destination for high-end tourists.", "The strategy identifies seven priorities or niche markets: cultural heritage (archaeology); religion; ecotourism; health and wellness; adventure; meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (MICE); and cruises.", "The Jordan Tourism Board's (JTB) marketing budget has increased in the past year from JD6m ($8.52m) to JD11.5m ($16.3m).", "These are positive times for tourism in Jordan, with steady growth and major projects in the pipeline.", "The sector has to make improvements in infrastructure and marketing, but overall the industry has been improving for the past several years.Jordan's real GDP fell by 1.6% in 2020, with a dramatic reduction in tourism—a crucial economic sector—being one of the primary transmission routes of the crisis.", "Tourism provides for about 40% of Jordan's export receipts and 10–15% of GDP, with 3.8 million international tourists every year.", "The sector's GDP share fell to 3% in 2020, and the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to be slow." ], [ "External trade", "Jordanian exports in 2006Since 1995, economic growth has been low.", "Real GDP has grown at only about 1.5% annually, while the official unemployment has hovered at 14% (unofficial estimates are double this number).", "The budget deficit and public debt have remained high and continue to widen, yet during this period inflation has remained low due mainly to stable monetary policy and the continued peg to the United States Dollar.", "Exports of manufactured goods have risen at an annual rate of 9%.", "Monetary stability has been reinforced, even when tensions were renewed in the region during 1998, and during the illness and ultimate death of King Hussein in 1999.Expectations of increased trade and tourism as a consequence of Jordan's peace treaty with Israel have been disappointing.", "Security-related restrictions to trade with the West Bank and the Gaza Strip have led to a substantial decline in Jordan's exports there.", "Following his ascension, King Abdullah improved relations with Arabic states of the Persian Gulf and Syria, but this brought few real economic benefits.", "Most recently the Jordanians have focused on WTO membership and a Free Trade Agreement with the U.S. as means to encourage export-led growth." ], [ "Investment", "The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Jordan was valued at $37.639 billion in 2005 by the World Bank." ], [ "Salaries", "According to the 2015 Middle East and North Africa Salary Survey conducted by Bayt.com, Respondents from GCC (49%) seem somewhat happier with the raise they received in 2014, as compared to respondents from Levant (42%):" ], [ "Aqaba Special Economic Zone", "The population of Aqaba is only 100,000 people and is set to double over the next 10 years.", "The town benefits from some natural advantages.", "Located at the southern tip of the country, between Saudi Arabia and Israel on the shores of the Red Sea, the city is close to the Suez Canal, with easy access to key trade centres in both the Middle East and Africa.", "Aqaba is also the kingdom's only deep-water port town, taking up most of Jordan's scant of coastline.", "The Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZ) has been responsible for most of this development since it opened in 2001.It covers 375 km2 and offers tax and tariff incentives, as well as full repatriation rights and more flexible operating regulations.", "There is a 5% flat tax on most economic activities, no tariffs on imported goods, no currency restrictions and no property taxes for corporate land.", "Additionally – and somewhat controversially, given Jordan's past issues with unemployment – companies based in ASEZ are allowed to employ up to 70% foreign workers in their operations.", "Jordan's investment profile has been growing nationally, but according to the Jordan Investment Board (JIB), the ASEZ has exceeded investment targets by 33%.", "By 2006 it had already brought in around $8bn in investment, some $2bn more than the original target of $6bn by 2020.ASEZ expects to attract a further $12bn spread across a number of sectors, including tourism, finance and industry.", "The Development Law of 2008 set in place a universal framework for special development areas based on the Aqaba model." ], [ "See also", "* Jordan Investment Board* MENA ICT Forum" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* Brand, Laurie.", "''Jordan’s Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.", "* ''Country Profile: Jordan 1995-96''.", "London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1995.", "* International Monetary Fund Jordan Page* Jeffreys, Andrew ed.", "''Emerging Jordan 2003''.", "London: The Oxford Business Group, 2002.", "* Maciejewski, Edouard and Ahsan Mansur eds.", "''Jordan: Strategy for Adjustment and Growth''.", "Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1996.", "* Piro, Timothy.", "''The Political Economy of Market Reform in Jordan''.", "Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998.", "* Prados, Alfred and Jeremy Sharp.", "Congressional Research Service.", "Report for Congress.", "''Jordan: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues''.", "Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 2006.", "* Robins, Philip.", "''Jordan to 1990: Coping with Change''.", "London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1986." ], [ "External links", "* * ICT Association of Jordan - int@j" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Jordan" ], [ "Introduction", "Jordan has a highly developed communications infrastructure.", "Jordan's telecom infrastructure is growing at a very rapid pace and continually being updated and expanded.", "'''Communications in Jordan''' occur across many media, including telephone, radio, television, and internet." ], [ "Telephone", "50% of households have at least one main line telephone.", ", 103% of the population has a cell phone; 15% have more than one.", "* '''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 622,600 ()* '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 6,250,000 ()* '''Digital Radio Trunking:'''100,000 (Unofficial, Nov'07)'''In mid 2004, XPress Telecom was launched as the country's digital radio trunking operator.", "* '''Telephone system:''' The service has improved recently with the increased use of digital switching equipment, but better access to the telephone system is needed in some rural areas and easier access to pay telephones is needed by the urban public.", ":: ''domestic:'' Microwave radio relay transmission and coaxial and fiber-optic cable are employed on trunk lines; considerable use is made of mobile cellular systems; Internet service is available.", ":: ''international:'' satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat, 1 Arabsat, and 29 land and maritime Inmarsat terminals; fiber-optic cable to Saudi Arabia and microwave radio relay link with Egypt and Syria; connection to international submarine cable FLAG (Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe); participant in MEDARABTEL; international links total about 4,000." ], [ "Radio", "* '''Radios:''' 1.66 million ()----===Media and Communications Providers===Seagulls - www.seagullscommunications.com===FM Stations=== Play 99.6BBC ArabicBeat FM 102.5Mazaj FM 95.3 FMHala FMHD FM (Hala Dounia FM)Radio Jordan FrenchAmman FMWatan FMSawt Ma'anSunny 105.1Virgin Radio JordanRadio RotanaRadio PanoramaRadio Monte CarloMood 92.0 FMAmmannetRadio Jordan FMMelody FMRadio SawaYarmouk FM" ], [ "Television", "* '''Television broadcast stations:''' 20 (plus 96 repeaters) ()* '''Televisions:''' 500,000 ()" ], [ "PCs", "40% of Jordanian households have a PC.", "This is expected to double in the coming years when the government reduces the sales tax on PCs and internet service in an effort to make Jordan the high-tech capital of the Middle East.", "The Jordanian Government is also providing every university student with a laptop in partnership with the private sector.", "All Jordan's schools are connected with internet service and the Jordanian Government is heavily purchasing computers and smart technology to be equipped in Jordan's classrooms." ], [ "Internet", "As of 2013, Internet penetration in Jordan was 63%.", "It was 50.5 percent by the end of 2011.Internet usage more than doubled from 2007 to 2009 with the rapid growth expected to continue.", "Telecommunications Regulatory Commission (TRC) figures indicate that Internet penetration stood at 29 per cent by the end of 2009 and 38 per cent by the end of 2010.The Jordanian government has announced that the sales tax on computers and internet connection would be removed in order to further stimulate the ICT industry in Jordan.", "King Abdullah II told the BBC in 2004 that he hoped to make his country the tech hub of the Middle East.", "Jordan has more internet start up companies than any other country in the Middle East, and thus was dubbed the Middle East's \"Silicon Valley\".", "Amman was ranked as the 10th-best city in the world to launch a tech startup, according to a 2012 list compiled by Finaventures, a California-based venture-capital firm.", "Tech entrepreneurs have praised the ability to access high speed internet connections in Jordan, comparing this to Dubai and Saudi Arabia.", "''Al Jami'a Street'', in Jordan's northern city of Irbid, was ranked as the street with the highest number of internet cafes in the world by the Guinness World Records.", "* '''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 3,160 ()* '''Internet users:''': 3.163 million ()* '''Country code top-level domain (ccTLD):''' .JO" ], [ "Past", "The IT industry in Jordan in the year 2000 and beyond got a very big boost after the Gulf War of 1991.This boost came from a large influx of immigrants from the Gulf countries to Jordan, mostly from Jordanian expatriates from Kuwait, totaling few hundred thousands.", "This large wave impacted Jordan in many ways, and one of them was on its IT industry." ], [ "Future", "When King Abdullah II ascended to the throne in 1999, he stated his intentions to turn Jordan into the high-tech capital of the Middle East and to create a Silicon Valley-like venture in Jordan.", "All Jordanian schools are equipped with computers and internet connection and instituted an ICT curriculum into Jordan's education system.", "ICT faculties were established in Jordanian universities and these campuses have been churning out 15,000 ICT graduates every year.", "Information access centers were established across the Kingdom to allow rural areas access to the Internet.The number of phone lines has decreased dramatically in the past three years to below 500K telephone lines, due to the introduction of WI-Max technology and 3G networks." ], [ "References", "" ], [ "See also", " Jordan Radio and Television (JRTV)* ATV Jordan* Jordan Cable Services (JCS)* Orange Jordan* Umniah* XPress* Zain Jordan" ] ]	wikipedia

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