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[ [ "Mozambique Channel" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mozambique Channel''' (, , ) is an arm of the Indian Ocean located between the Southeast African countries of Madagascar and Mozambique.", "The channel is about long and across at its narrowest point, and reaches a depth of about off the coast of Mozambique.", "A warm current, the Mozambique Current, flows in a southward direction in the channel, leading into the Agulhas Current off the east coast of Southern Africa." ], [ "Extent", "The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the limits of the Mozambique Channel as follows:::''On the North.''", "A line from the estuary of the River Rovuma () to Ras Habu, the northernmost point of Ile Grande Comore, the northernmost of the Comore (Comoro) Islands, to Cap d'Ambre (Cape Amber), the northern extremity of Madagascar ().", "::''On the East.''", "The west coast of Madagascar.", "::''On the South.''", "A line from Cap Sainte-Marie, the southern extremity of Madagascar to Ponto do Ouro on the mainland ().", "::''On the West.''", "The coast of Southern Africa." ], [ "Islands in the channel", "===Comoros===*Grande Comore*Mohéli*Anjouan===France===*Region of France: Mayotte (claimed by Comoros)*Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean, district of French Southern and Antarctic Lands:**Glorioso Islands (claimed by Madagascar and Comoros)**Juan de Nova Island (claimed by Madagascar)**Europa Island (claimed by Madagascar)**Bassas da India (claimed by Madagascar)===Mozambique===*Primeiras and Segundas Archipelago*Ilha do Fogo" ], [ "History", "=== World War II ======= ''Graf Spee'' Incident ====On 15 November 1939, under the command of Captain Patrick (Paddy) Dove, the British Coastal Tanker ''Africa Shell'' was plying through the Mozambique Channel en-passage from Quelimane to Lourenco Marques sailing in ballast.", "During the course of the morning, at a point south-southwest from the lighthouse at Cape Zavora, she was spotted by the German Pocket Battleship ''Admiral Graf Spee'', under the command of Captain Hans Langsdorff, and which was embarked upon a commerce raiding sortie.", "''Graf Spee'' ordered the ''Africa Shell'' to stop by the firing of a shot across her bow.Having stopped the ''Africa Shell,'' a cutter with a boarding party was despatched from the ''Graf Spee'' and subsequently boarded the tanker, the officer in charge addressing Captain Dove in perfect English with the sentence: ''\"Good morning, captain.", "Sorry; fortunes of war.", "\"''In time, the boarding party ordered the ship's company, save the ''Africa Shell's'' Master, into their lifeboats before stripping the ''Africa Shell'' of all foodstuffs including a small amount of wine.The crew were ordered to row for shore, however Captain Dove was taken prisoner on board the ''Graf Spee'' where he was to be held captive.", "Capt.", "Dove was incensed by the interception of his ship, and complained personally to Capt.", "Langsdorff, citing that the ''Africa Shell'' was within Portuguese Territorial Waters and that the action was in clear violation of international law.With the crew of the ''Africa Shell'' making their way to the shore, and with Capt.", "Dove transferred to the ''Graf Spee,'' the boarding party proceeded to set about the operation of sinking the tanker.", "Scuttling charges were placed within the ship, and their timers set, following which the party re-embarked in the motor launch and made their way back to the ''Graf Spee.''", "With all personnel safely aboard the ''Graf Spee'', Langsdorff and his crew observed the detonation of the charges which blew two holes in the ''Africa Shell's'' stern.", "Following this ''Graf Spee'' opened fire using some of her secondary armament of SK C/28 guns, sinking the ''Africa Shell''.==== Battle of Madagascar ====The Mozambique Channel was a World War II clashpoint during the Battle of Madagascar." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Japanese Submarines at Madagascar and the Mozambique Channel*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Medical psychology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Medical psychology''' or '''medico-psychology''' is the application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine, primarily drug-oriented, for both physical and mental disorders.", "A medical psychologist who holds prescriptive authority for specific psychiatric medications and other pharmaceutical drugs must first obtain specific qualifications in psychopharmacology.", "A trained medical psychologist, or clinical psychopharmacologist who has prescriptive authority, is equated with a mid-level provider who has the authority to prescribe psychotropic medication such as antidepressants for mental health disorders.", "However, a medical psychologist does not automatically equate with a psychologist who has the authority to prescribe medication.", "In fact, most medical psychologists do not prescribe medication and do not have the authority to do so.Medical psychologists apply psychological theories, scientific psychological findings, and techniques of psychotherapy, behavior modification, cognitive, interpersonal, family, and lifestyle therapy to improve the psychological and physical health of the patient.", "Psychologists with postdoctoral specialty training as medical psychologists are the practitioners with refined skills in clinical psychology, health psychology, behavioral medicine, psychopharmacology, and medical science.", "Highly qualified and postgraduate specialized doctors are trained for service in primary care centers, hospitals, residential care centers, and long-term care facilities and in multidisciplinary collaboration and team treatment." ], [ "Medical psychology specialty", "The field of medical psychology may include predoctoral training in the disciplines of health psychology, rehabilitation psychology, pediatric psychology, neuropsychology, and clinical psychopharmacology, as well as subspecialties in pain management, primary care psychology, and hospital-based (or medical school-based) psychology as the foundation psychological training to qualify for proceeding to required postdoctoral specialty training to qualify to become a diplomate/specialist in medical psychology.", "To be a specialist in medical psychology, a psychologist must hold board certification from the American Board of Medical Psychology (ABMP), which requires a doctorate degree in psychology, a license to practice psychology, a postdoctoral graduate degree or other acceptable postdoctoral didactic training, a residency in medical psychology, submission of a work product for examination, and a written and oral examination by the American Board of Medical Psychology.", "The American Board of Medical Psychology maintains a distinction between specialists and psychopharmacological psychologists or those interested in practicing one of the related psychological disciplines in primary care centers.", "The term \"medical psychologist\" is not an umbrella term, and many other specialties in psychology such as health psychology, embracing the biopsychosocial paradigm (Engel, 1977) of mental/physical health and extending that paradigm to clinical practice through research and the application of evidenced-based diagnostic and treatment procedures are akin to the specialty and are prepared to practice in integrated and primary care settings.Adopting the biopsychosocial paradigm, the field of medical psychology has recognized the Cartesian assumption that the body and mind are separate entities is inadequate, representing as it does an arbitrary dichotomy that works to the detriment of healthcare.", "The biopsychosocial approach reflects the concept that the psychology of an individual cannot be understood without reference to that individual's social environment.", "For the medical psychologist, the medical model of disease cannot in itself explain complex health concerns any more than a strict psychosocial (LeVine & Orabona Foster, 2010) explanation of mental and physical health can in itself be comprehensive." ], [ "Duties", "Medical psychologists and some psychopharmacologists are trained and equipped to modify physical disease states and the actual cytoarchitecture and functioning of the central nervous and related systems using psychological and pharmacological techniques (when allowed by statute), and to provide prevention for the progression of disease having to do with poor personal and lifestyle choices and conceptualization, behavioral patterns, and chronic exposure to the effects of negative thinking, choosing, attitudes, and negative contexts.", "The specialty of medical psychology includes training in psychopharmacology and, in states providing statutory authority, may prescribe psychoactive substances as one technique in a larger treatment plan which includes psychological interventions.", "The medical psychologists and psychopharmacologists who serve in states that have not yet modernized their psychology prescribing laws may evaluate patients and recommend appropriate psychopharmacological techniques in collaboration with a state-authorized prescriber.", "Medical psychologists and psychopharmacologists who are not board certified strive to integrate the major components of an individual's psychological, biological, and social functioning and are designed to contribute to that person's well-being in a way that respects the natural interface among these components.", "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts when it comes to providing comprehensive and sensible behavioral healthcare and the medical psychologist is uniquely qualified to collaborate with physicians that are treating the patient's physical illnesses." ], [ "Certifications", "The Academy of Medical Psychology defines medical psychology as a specialty trained at the postdoctoral level and designed to deliver advanced diagnostic and clinical interventions in medical and healthcare facilities utilizing the knowledge and skills of clinical psychology, health psychology, behavioral medicine, psychopharmacology and basic medical science.", "The Academy of Medical Psychology makes a distinction between the prescribing psychologist who is a psychologist with advanced training in psychopharmacology and may prescribe medicine or consult with a physician or other prescriber to diagnose mental illness and select and recommend appropriate psychoactive medicines.", "Medical psychologists are prepared to do the psychopharmacology consulting or prescribing, but also must have training which prepares them for functioning with behavioral and lifestyle components of physical disease and functioning in or in consultation with multidisciplinary healthcare teams in primary care centers or community hospitals in addition to traditional roles in the treatment of mental illness and substance abuse disorders.", "The specialty of medical psychology and this distinction from psychopharmacologist is recognized by the National Alliance of Professional Psychology Providers (the psychology national practitioner association; see www.nappp.org).The specialty of medical psychology has established a specialty board certification, American Board of Medical Psychology and Academy of Medical Psychology (www.amphome.org) requiring a doctoral degree in psychology and extensive postdoctoral training in the specialty and the passage of an oral and written examination.Although the Academy of Medical Psychology defines medical psychology as a \"specialty,\" has established a \"specialty board certification,\" and is recognized by the national psychology practitioner association (www.nappp.org), there is a split between NAPPP and the American Psychological Association in that they do not currently recognize the same specialties.", "APA represents scientists, academics, and practitioners and NAPPP represents only practitioners.", "However, Louisiana, having a unique definition of medical psychology does recognize the national distinction between medical psychology as a specialty and a clinical psychopharmacology specialty and restricts the term and practice of medical psychology by statute (the Medical Psychology Practice Act) as a \"profession of the health sciences\" with prescriptive authority.", "The American Psychological Association does not recognize that the term '''medical psychology''' has, as a prerequisite, nor should the term be equated with having, prescriptive authority and has established a specialty in clinical psychopharmacology.In 2006, the APA recommended that the education and training of psychologists, who are specifically pursuing one of several prerequisites for prescribing medication, integrate instruction in the biological sciences, clinical medicine, and pharmacology into a formalized program of postdoctoral education.", "In 2009, the National Alliance of Professional Providers in Psychology recognized the education and training specified by the American Board of Medical Psychology (www.amphome.org; ABMP) and the Academy of Medical Psychology as the approved standards for postgraduate training and examination and qualifications in the nationally recognized specialty in medical psychology.", "Since then, numerous hospitals, primary care centers, and other health facilities have recognized the ABMP standards and qualifications for privileges in healthcare facilities and verification of specialty status.", "The following ''Clinical Competencies'' are identified as essential in the education and training of psychologists, wishing to pursue prescriptive authority.", "These recommended prerequisites are not required or specifically recommended by APA for the training and education of medical psychologists not pursuing prerequisites for prescribing medication.# Basic Science: anatomy, & physiology, biochemistry;# Neurosciences: neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neurochemistry;# Physical Assessment and Laboratory Exams: physical assessment, laboratory and radiological assessment, medical terminology;# Clinical Medicine and Pathophysiology: pathophysiology with emphasis on the principal physiological systems, clinical medicine, differential diagnosis, clinical correlation and case studies, chemical dependency, chronic pain management;# Clinical and Research Pharmacology and Psychopharmacology: pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, pharmacogenetics, psychopharmacology, developmental psychopharmacology;# Clinical Pharmacotherapeutics: professional, ethical and legal issues, combined therapies and their interactions, computer-based aids to practice, pharmacoepidemiology;# Research: methodology and design of psychopharmacology research, interpretation and evaluation, FDA drug development and other regulatory processes.The 2006 APA recommendations also include supervised clinical experience intended to integrate the above seven knowledge domains and assess competencies in skills and applied knowledge.The national psychology practitioner association (NAPPP; www.nappp.org) and national certifying body (Academy of Medical Psychology; www.amphome.org) have established the national training, examination, and specialty practice criteria and guidelines in the specialty of medical psychology and have established a national journal in the specialty.", "Such certifying bodies view psychopharmacology training (either to prescribe or consult) as one component of the training of a specialist in medical psychology, but recognize that training and specialized skills in other aspects of the treatment of behavioral aspects of medical illness and mental illness affecting physical illness is essential to practice at the specialty level in medical psychology." ], [ "See also", "* Prescriptive authority for psychologists movement* Health psychology*Rehabilitation psychology* Psychiatry* Pain Psychology* Medical ethics" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* https://web.archive.org/web/20100705104932/http://www.health-psych.org/MedPsych.cfm* https://www.apadivisions.org/division-55 American Psychological Association - Division 55 - Society for Prescribing Psychology*http://nappp.org/ National Alliance of Professional Psychology Providers*http://www.amphome.org/ Academy of Medical Psychology*http://www.abbhp.org/ American Board of Behavioral Health Practice*http://www.nibhq.org/ National Institute For Behavioral Health Quality* https://www.apadivisions.org/division-55/councils/training-council Postdoctoral training programs in clinical psychopharmacology*https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/clinical-psychopharmacology?_ga=2.105171523.1524242252.1640627274-422746752.1639255355 Specialty of clinical psychopharmacology* https://www.asppb.net/page/PEPExam Psychopharmacology Examination for Psychologists (PEP)* https://www.apadivisions.org/division-55/publications Division 55 newsletter \"The Tablet\"* http://www.medicalpsychology.nl Department Medical Psychology Tilburg University The Netherlands" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Music lesson" ], [ "Introduction", "A teacher using a blackboard to illustrate a music lesson in New Orleans in 1940Juilliard School of Music Chamber Orchestra.", "While lessons are often individual (one teacher and one student), group lessons or coaching sessions are also done.", "'''Music lessons''' are a type of formal instruction in playing a musical instrument or singing.", "Typically, a student taking music lessons meets a music teacher for one-to-one training sessions ranging from 30 minutes to one hour in length over a period of weeks or years.", "Depending on lessons to be taught, students learn different skills relevant to the instruments used.", "Music teachers also assign technical exercises, musical pieces, and other activities to help the students improve their musical skills.", "While most music lessons are one-on-one (private), some teachers also teach groups of two to four students (semi-private lessons), and, for very basic instruction, some instruments are taught in large group lessons, such as piano and acoustic guitar.", "Since the widespread availability of high speed.", "low latency Internet, private lessons can also take place through live video chat using webcams, microphones and videotelephony online.Music lessons are part of both amateur music instruction and professional training.", "In amateur and recreational music contexts, children and adults take music lessons to improve their singing or instrumental playing skills and learn basic to intermediate techniques.", "In professional training contexts, such as music conservatories, university music performance programs (e.g., Bachelor of music, Master of music, DMA, etc.", "), students aiming for a career as professional musicians take a music lesson once a week for an hour or more with a music professor over a period of years to learn advanced playing or singing techniques.", "Many instrumental performers and singers, including a number of pop music celebrities, have learned music \"by ear\", especially in folk music styles such as blues and popular styles such as rock music.", "Nevertheless, even in folk and popular styles, a number of performers have had some type of music lessons, such as meeting with a vocal coach or getting childhood instruction in an instrument such as piano." ], [ "Posture", "Manhattan School of Music professor Timothy Cobb teaching a bass lesson in the late 2000sFor vocal lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand and breathe, and how to position the head and mouth for good vocal tone.", "For instrument lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand with the instrument, how to hold the instrument, and how to manipulate the fingers and other body parts to produce tones and sounds from the instrument.", "For wind and brass instruments, the teacher shows the student how to use their lips, tongue, and breath to produce tones and sounds.", "For some instruments, teachers also train students in the use of the feet, as in the case of piano or other keyboard instruments that have damper or sustain pedals on the piano, the pedal keyboard on a pipe organ, and some drums and cymbals in the drum kit such as the bass drum pedal and the hi-hat cymbal pedal.", "In addition to teaching fingering, teachers also provide other types of instruction.", "A classical guitar player learns how to strum and pluck strings; players of wind instruments learn about breath control and embouchure, and singers learn how to make the most of their vocal cords without hurting the throat or vocal cords.Teachers also instruct students in achieving correct posture for most efficient playing and to prevent injury.", "For all instruments, the optimal way to move the fingers and arms to achieve a desired effect is to play with the least tension in your hands and body.", "This prevents habit formation that can injure the skeletal frame and muscles.", "For example, when playing the piano, ''fingering''—which fingers to put on which keys—is a skill slowly learned as the student advances, and there are many standard techniques a teacher can pass on.There are many myths and misconceptions among music teachers, especially in the Western classical tradition, about \"good\" posture and \"bad\" posture.", "Students who find that playing their instruments causes them physical pain should bring this to their teachers' attention.", "It could be a potentially serious health risk, but it is often overlooked when learning to play an instrument.", "Learning to use one's body in a manner consistent with the way their anatomy is designed to work can mean the difference between a crippling injury and a lifetime of enjoyment.", "Many music teachers would caution students about taking \"no pain, no gain\" as an acceptable response from their music teacher regarding a complaint of physical pain.", "Concerns about use-related injury and the ergonomics of musicianship have gained more mainstream acceptance in recent years.", "Musicians have increasingly been turning to medical professionals, physical therapists, and specialized techniques seeking relief from pain and prevention of serious injury.", "There exists a plurality of special techniques for an even greater plurality of potential difficulties.", "The Alexander Technique is just one example of these specialized approaches." ], [ "Theory and history", "To fully understand music being played, the student must learn the basics of the underlying music theory.", "Along with musical notation, students learn rhythmic techniques—like controlling tempo, recognizing time signatures, and the theory of harmony, including chords and key signatures.", "In addition to basic theory, a good teacher stresses ''musicality'', or how to make the music sound good.", "This includes how to create good, pleasing tone, how to do musical phrasing, and how to use dynamics (loudness and softness) to make the piece or song more expressive.Most music lessons include some instruction in the history of the type of music that the student is learning.", "When a student is taking Western classical music lessons, music teachers often spend some time explaining the different eras of western classical music, such as the Baroque Era, the Classical era, the Romantic Era, and the contemporary classical music era, because each era is associated with different styles of music and different performance practice techniques.", "Instrumental music from the Baroque era is often played in the 2000s as teaching pieces for piano students, string instrument players, and wind instrument players.", "If students just try to play these Baroque pieces by reading the notes from the score, they might not get the right type of interpretation.", "However, once a student learns that most Baroque instrumental music was associated with dances, such as the gavotte and the sarabande, and keyboard music from the Baroque era was played on the harpsichord or the pipe organ, a modern-day student is better able to understand how the piece should be played.", "If, for example, a cello player is assigned a gavotte that was originally written for harpsichord, this gives the student insight in how to play the piece.", "Since it is a dance, it should have a regular, clear pulse, rather than a Romantic era-style shifting tempo rubato.", "As well, since it was originally written for the harpsichord, a light-sounding keyboard instrument in which the strings are plucked with quills, this suggests that the notes should be played relatively lightly, and with spaces between each note, rather than in a full-bodied, sustained legato." ], [ "Technical exercises", "Although not universally accepted, many teachers drill students with the repetitive playing of certain patterns, such as scales, arpeggios, and rhythms.", "Scales are often taught because they are the building blocks of melody in most Western art music.", "In addition, there are flexibility studies, which make it physically easier to play the instrument.", "Percussion instruments use rudiments that help in the development of sticking patterns, roll techniques and other little nuances such as flams and drags.There are sets of exercises for piano designed to stretch the connection between fourth and fifth fingers, making them more independent.", "Brass players practice ''lip slurs'', which are unarticulated changes in embouchure between partials.", "Woodwind players (Saxophone, Clarinet, and Flute) have a multitude of exercises to help with tonguing techniques, finger dexterity, and tone development.", "Entire books of études have been written to this purpose." ], [ "Repertoire", "Teachers typically assign the student pieces (or songs for vocal students) of slowly increasing difficulty.", "These may include études, solo, or chamber repertoire.", "Besides using pieces to teach various musical rudiments (rhythm, harmony, pitch, etc.)", "and teach the elements of good playing (or singing) style, a good teacher also inspires more intangible qualities—such as expressiveness and musicianship.", "Pieces (or songs) may be more enjoyable for students than theory or scale exercises, and an emphasis on learning new pieces is usually required to maintain students' motivation.", "However, the teacher must not over-accommodate a student's desire for \"fun\" pieces.", "Often the student's idea of fun music is popular vocal selections, movie soundtracks, and TV show theme songs, etc.", "While some of these \"fun\" pieces can be performed, pieces should also be selected for pedagogical reasons, such as challenging the student and honing their skills.", "In addition, for students to be well rounded they must play many types of pieces by composers and songwriters from different eras, ranging from Renaissance music to pieces from the 20th and 21st century.", "A varied repertoire increases the student's musical understanding and skill." ], [ "Examinations", "A popular measure of progress, especially for children, is external assessment of the progress of the pupil by a regular examination.", "A number of exam boards assess pupils on music theory or practice.", "These are available for almost every musical instrument.", "A common method to mark progress is graded examinations—for example from grade 1 (beginner) to grade 8 (ready to enter higher study at music school).", "Some teachers prefer other methods of target-setting for their pupils.", "The most common is the pupil's concert, which gives experience in playing in public and under a certain degree of pressure, without outright criticism or a more or less arbitrary marking system.", "Another is the graded system of books followed by teachers of the Suzuki method, in which the completion of each book is celebrated, without a system of marking or ranking of pupils." ], [ "Extra-musical benefits", "Jean-Marc Nattier, ''The music lesson'', (1711)Some studies suggests that music lessons provide children with important developmental benefits beyond simply the knowledge or skill of playing a musical instrument.", "Research suggests that musical lessons may enhance intelligence and academic achievement, build self-esteem and improve discipline.", "A recent Rockefeller Foundation Study found that music majors have the highest rate of admittance to medical schools, followed by biochemistry and the humanities.", "On SAT tests, the national average scores were 427 on the verbal and 476 on math.", "At the same time, music students averaged 465 on the verbal and 497 on the math – 38 and 21 points higher, respectively.", "However, the observed correlation between musical and mathematical ability may be inherent rather than acquired.", "Furthermore, it is possible that the correlation between taking music lessons and academic ability exists because both are strongly correlated with parental income and education.", "Even if music lessons had no impact on academic ability, one would expect to see a correlation between music lessons and academic ability.", "An article from Inc.com titled \"The Benefits of Playing Music Help Your Brain More Than Any Other Activity\" says that studies show that learning a musical instrument expands neuronal cell body capacity in numerous brain areas.", "It also reinforces the long-range links between them.", "Even more research shows that musical pedagogy can amplify verbal memory, spatial reasoning, and literacy skills.Skills learned through the discipline of music may transfer to study skills, communication skills, and cognitive skills useful in every part of a child's studies at school, though.", "An in-depth Harvard University study found evidence that spatial-temporal reasoning improves when children learn to make music, and this kind of reasoning improves temporarily when adults listen to certain kinds of music, including Mozart.", "This finding (named ''The Mozart effect'') suggests that music and spatial reasoning are related psychologically (i.e., they may rely on some of the same underlying skills) and perhaps neurologically as well.", "However, there has been considerable controversy over this as later researchers have failed to reproduce the original findings of Rauscher (e.g.", "Steele, Bass & Crook, 1999), questioned both theory and methodology of the original study (Fudis & Lembesis 2004) and suggested that the enhancing effects of music in experiments have been simply due to an increased level of arousal (Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain, 2001).A relationship between music and the strengthening of math, dance, reading, creative thinking and visual arts skills has also been reported in literature.", "(Winner, Hetland, Sanni, as reported in ''The Arts and Academic Achievement – What the Evidence Shows'', 2000) However recent findings by Dr. Levitin of McGill University in Montreal, Canada, undermines the suggested connection between musical ability and higher math skills.", "In a study conducted on patients with Williams syndrome (a genetic disorder causing low intelligence), he found that even though their intelligence was that of young children, they still possessed an unusually high level of musical ability." ], [ "See also", "*Band sectional*Clinic (music)*Five finger exercise*Learning music by ear*Master class*Music Education*School band*Music Society*Group piano" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mutagen" ], [ "Introduction", "international pictogram for chemicals that are sensitising, mutagenic, carcinogenic or toxic to reproductionIn genetics, a '''mutagen''' is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes genetic material, usually DNA, in an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level.", "As many mutations can cause cancer in animals, such mutagens can therefore be carcinogens, although not all necessarily are.", "All mutagens have characteristic mutational signatures with some chemicals becoming mutagenic through cellular processes.The process of DNA becoming modified is called mutagenesis.", "Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: so-called \"spontaneous mutations\" occur due to spontaneous hydrolysis, errors in DNA replication, repair and recombination." ], [ "Discovery", "The first mutagens to be identified were carcinogens, substances that were shown to be linked to cancer.", "Tumors were described more than 2,000 years before the discovery of chromosomes and DNA; in 500 B.C., the Greek physician Hippocrates named tumors resembling a crab ''karkinos'' (from which the word \"cancer\" is derived via Latin), meaning crab.", "In 1567, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested that an unidentified substance in mined ore (identified as radon gas in modern times) caused a wasting disease in miners, and in England, in 1761, John Hill made the first direct link of cancer to chemical substances by noting that excessive use of snuff may cause nasal cancer.", "In 1775, Sir Percivall Pott wrote a paper on the high incidence of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps, and suggested chimney soot as the cause of scrotal cancer.", "In 1915, Yamagawa and Ichikawa showed that repeated application of coal tar to rabbit's ears produced malignant cancer.", "Subsequently, in the 1930s the carcinogen component in coal tar was identified as a polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), benzo(a)pyrene|benzoapyrene.", "Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also present in soot, which was suggested to be a causative agent of cancer over 150 years earlier.The association of exposure to radiation and cancer had been observed as early as 1902, six years after the discovery of X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen and radioactivity by Henri Becquerel.", "Georgii Nadson and German Filippov were the first who created fungi mutants under ionizing radiation in 1925.The mutagenic property of mutagens was first demonstrated in 1927, when Hermann Muller discovered that x-rays can cause genetic mutations in fruit flies, producing phenotypic mutants as well as observable changes to the chromosomes, visible due to the presence of enlarged \"polytene\" chromosomes in fruit fly salivary glands.", "His collaborator Edgar Altenburg also demonstrated the mutational effect of UV radiation in 1928.Muller went on to use x-rays to create Drosophila mutants that he used in his studies of genetics.", "He also found that X-rays not only mutate genes in fruit flies, but also have effects on the genetic makeup of humans.", "Similar work by Lewis Stadler also showed the mutational effect of X-rays on barley in 1928, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation on maize in 1936.The effect of sunlight had previously been noted in the nineteenth century where rural outdoor workers and sailors were found to be more prone to skin cancer.Chemical mutagens were not demonstrated to cause mutation until the 1940s, when Charlotte Auerbach and J. M. Robson found that mustard gas can cause mutations in fruit flies.", "A large number of chemical mutagens have since been identified, especially after the development of the Ames test in the 1970s by Bruce Ames that screens for mutagens and allows for preliminary identification of carcinogens.", "Early studies by Ames showed around 90% of known carcinogens can be identified in Ames test as mutagenic (later studies however gave lower figures), and ~80% of the mutagens identified through Ames test may also be carcinogens." ], [ "Difference between mutagens and carcinogens", "Mutagens are not necessarily carcinogens, and vice versa.", "Sodium azide for example may be mutagenic (and highly toxic), but it has not been shown to be carcinogenic.", "Meanwhile, compounds which are not directly mutagenic but stimulate cell growth which can reduce the effectiveness of DNA repair and indirectly increase the chance of mutations, and therefore that of cancer.", "One example of this would be anabolic steroids, which stimulate growth of the prostate gland and increase the risk of prostate cancer among others.", "Other carcinogens may cause cancer through a variety of mechanisms without producing mutations, such as tumour promotion, immunosuppression that reduces the ability to fight cancer cells or pathogens that can cause cancer, disruption of the endocrine system (e.g.", "in breast cancer), tissue-specific toxicity, and inflammation (e.g.", "in colorectal cancer)." ], [ "Difference between mutagens and DNA damaging agents", "A DNA damaging agent is an agent that causes a change in the structure of DNA that is not itself replicated when the DNA is replicated.", "Examples of DNA damage include a chemical addition or disruption of a nucleotide base in DNA (generating an abnormal nucleotide or nucleotide fragment), or a break in one or both strands in DNA.", "When duplex DNA containing a damaged base is replicated, an incorrect base may be inserted in the newly synthesized strand opposite the damaged base in the complementary template strand, and this can become a mutation in the next round of replication.", "Also a DNA double-strand break may be repaired by an inaccurate process leading to an altered base pair, a mutation.", "However, mutations and DNA damages differ in a fundamental way: mutations can, in principle, be replicated when DNA replicates, whereas DNA damages are not replicated.", "Thus DNA damaging agents often cause mutations as a secondary consequence, but not all DNA damages lead to mutation and not all mutations arise from a DNA damage.", "The term genotoxic means toxic (damaging) to DNA." ], [ "Effects", "Mutagens can cause changes to the DNA and are therefore genotoxic.", "They can affect the transcription and replication of the DNA, which in severe cases can lead to cell death.", "The mutagen produces mutations in the DNA, and deleterious mutation can result in aberrant, impaired or loss of function for a particular gene, and accumulation of mutations may lead to cancer.", "Mutagens may therefore be also carcinogens.", "However, some mutagens exert their mutagenic effect through their metabolites, and therefore whether such mutagens actually become carcinogenic may be dependent on the metabolic processes of an organism, and a compound shown to be mutagenic in one organism may not necessarily be carcinogenic in another.Different mutagens act on DNA differently.", "Powerful mutagens may result in chromosomal instability, causing chromosomal breakages and rearrangement of the chromosomes such as translocation, deletion, and inversion.", "Such mutagens are called clastogens.Mutagens may also modify the DNA sequence; the changes in nucleic acid sequences by mutations include substitution of nucleotide base-pairs and insertions and deletions of one or more nucleotides in DNA sequences.", "Although some of these mutations are lethal or cause serious disease, many have minor effects as they do not result in residue changes that have significant effect on the structure and function of the proteins.", "Many mutations are silent mutations, causing no visible effects at all, either because they occur in non-coding or non-functional sequences, or they do not change the amino-acid sequence due to the redundancy of codons.Some mutagens can cause aneuploidy and change the number of chromosomes in the cell.", "They are known as aneuploidogens.In Ames test, where the varying concentrations of the chemical are used in the test, the dose response curve obtained is nearly always linear, suggesting that there may be no threshold for mutagenesis.", "Similar results are also obtained in studies with radiations, indicating that there may be no safe threshold for mutagens.", "However, the no-threshold model is disputed with some arguing for a dose rate dependent threshold for mutagenesis.", "Some have proposed that low level of some mutagens may stimulate the DNA repair processes and therefore may not necessarily be harmful.", "More recent approaches with sensitive analytical methods have shown that there may be non-linear or bilinear dose-responses for genotoxic effects, and that the activation of DNA repair pathways can prevent the occurrence of mutation arising from a low dose of mutagen." ], [ "Types", "Mutagens may be of physical, chemical or biological origin.", "They may act directly on the DNA, causing direct damage to the DNA, and most often result in replication error.", "Some however may act on the replication mechanism and chromosomal partition.", "Many mutagens are not mutagenic by themselves, but can form mutagenic metabolites through cellular processes, for example through the activity of the cytochrome P450 system and other oxygenases such as cyclooxygenase.", "Such mutagens are called promutagens.===Physical mutagens===* Ionizing radiations such as X-rays, gamma rays and alpha particles cause DNA breakage and other damages.", "The most common lab sources include cobalt-60 and cesium-137.", "* Ultraviolet radiations with wavelength above 260 nm are absorbed strongly by bases, producing pyrimidine dimers, which can cause error in replication if left uncorrected.", "* Radioactive decay, such as 14C in DNA which decays into nitrogen.===Chemical mutagens===A DNA adduct (at center) of the mutagenic metabolite of Benzo(a)pyrene|benzo''a''pyrene from tobacco smokeChemical mutagens either directly or indirectly damage DNA.", "On this basis, they are of 2 types:====Directly acting chemical mutagens====They directly damage DNA, but may or may not undergo metabolism to produce promutagens (metabolites that can have higher mutagenic potential than their substrates).", "* Reactive oxygen species (ROS) – These may be superoxide, hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide, and large number of these highly reactive species are generated by normal cellular processes, for example as a by-products of mitochondrial electron transport, or lipid peroxidation.", "As an example of the latter, 15-hydroperoxyicosatetraenocic acid, a natural product of cellular cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases, breaks down to form 4-hydroxy-2(''E'')-nonenal, 4-hydroperoxy-2(''E'')-nonenal, 4-oxo-2(''E'')-nonenal, and ''cis''-4,5-epoxy-2(''E'')-decanal; these bifunctional electophils are mutagenic in mammalian cells and may contribute to the development and/or progression of human cancers (see 15-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid).", "A number of mutagens may also generate these ROS.", "These ROS may result in the production of many base adducts, as well as DNA strand breaks and crosslinks.", "* Deaminating agents, for example nitrous acid which can cause transition mutations by converting cytosine to uracil.", "* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), when activated to diol-epoxides can bind to DNA and form adducts.", "* Alkylating agents such as ethylnitrosourea.", "The compounds transfer methyl or ethyl group to bases or the backbone phosphate groups.", "Guanine when alkylated may be mispaired with thymine.", "Some may cause DNA crosslinking and breakages.", "Nitrosamines are an important group of mutagens found in tobacco, and may also be formed in smoked meats and fish via the interaction of amines in food with nitrites added as preservatives.", "Other alkylating agents include mustard gas and vinyl chloride.", "* Aromatic amines and amides have been associated with carcinogenesis since 1895 when German physician Ludwig Rehn observed high incidence of bladder cancer among workers in German synthetic aromatic amine dye industry.", "2-Acetylaminofluorene, originally used as a pesticide but may also be found in cooked meat, may cause cancer of the bladder, liver, ear, intestine, thyroid and breast.", "* Alkaloid from plants, such as those from Vinca species, may be converted by metabolic processes into the active mutagen or carcinogen.", "* Bromine and some compounds that contain bromine in their chemical structure.", "* Sodium azide, an azide salt that is a common reagent in organic synthesis and a component in many car airbag systems* Psoralen combined with ultraviolet radiation causes DNA cross-linking and hence chromosome breakage.", "* Benzene, an industrial solvent and precursor in the production of drugs, plastics, synthetic rubber and dyes.====Indirectly acting chemical mutagens====They are not necessarily mutagenic by themselves, but they produce promutagens mutagenic compounds through metabolic processes in cells.", "*Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)*Aromatic amines*Benzene===Base analogs===* Base analog, which can substitute for DNA bases during replication and cause transition mutations.some examples are 5 bromo uracil and 2 amino purine===Intercalating agents===* Intercalating agents, such as ethidium bromide and proflavine, are molecules that may insert between bases in DNA, causing frameshift mutation during replication.", "Some such as daunorubicin may block transcription and replication, making them highly toxic to proliferating cells.===Metals===Many metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, nickel and their compounds may be mutagenic, but they may act, however, via a number of different mechanisms.", "Arsenic, chromium, iron, and nickel may be associated with the production of ROS, and some of these may also alter the fidelity of DNA replication.", "Nickel may also be linked to DNA hypermethylation and histone deacetylation, while some metals such as cobalt, arsenic, nickel and cadmium may also affect DNA repair processes such as DNA mismatch repair, and base and nucleotide excision repair.===Biological agents===* Transposons, a section of DNA that undergoes autonomous fragment relocation/multiplication.", "Its insertion into chromosomal DNA disrupts functional elements of the genes.", "* Oncoviruses – Virus DNA may be inserted into the genome and disrupts genetic function.", "Infectious agents have been suggested to cause cancer as early as 1908 by Vilhelm Ellermann and Oluf Bang, and 1911 by Peyton Rous who discovered the Rous sarcoma virus.", "* Bacteria – some bacteria such as ''Helicobacter pylori'' cause inflammation during which oxidative species are produced, causing DNA damage and reducing efficiency of DNA repair systems, thereby increasing mutation." ], [ "Protection", "Fruits and vegetables are rich in antioxidants.Antioxidants are an important group of anticarcinogenic compounds that may help remove ROS or potentially harmful chemicals.", "These may be found naturally in fruits and vegetables.", "Examples of antioxidants are vitamin A and its carotenoid precursors, vitamin C, vitamin E, polyphenols, and various other compounds.", "β-Carotene is the red-orange colored compounds found in vegetables like carrots and tomatoes.", "Vitamin C may prevent some cancers by inhibiting the formation of mutagenic N-nitroso compounds (nitrosamine).", "Flavonoids, such as EGCG in green tea, have also been shown to be effective antioxidants and may have anti-cancer properties.", "Epidemiological studies indicate that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is associated with lower incidence of some cancers and longer life expectancy, however, the effectiveness of antioxidant supplements in cancer prevention in general is still the subject of some debate.Other chemicals may reduce mutagenesis or prevent cancer via other mechanisms, although for some the precise mechanism for their protective property may not be certain.", "Selenium, which is present as a micronutrient in vegetables, is a component of important antioxidant enzymes such as gluthathione peroxidase.", "Many phytonutrients may counter the effect of mutagens; for example, sulforaphane in vegetables such as broccoli has been shown to be protective against prostate cancer.", "Others that may be effective against cancer include indole-3-carbinol from cruciferous vegetables and resveratrol from red wine.An effective precautionary measure an individual can undertake to protect themselves is by limiting exposure to mutagens such as UV radiations and tobacco smoke.", "In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.In 1981, human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto indicated that smoking caused 30% of cancers in the US.", "Diet is also thought to cause a significant number of cancer, and it has been estimated that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by modification to the diet.", "Mutagens identified in food include mycotoxins from food contaminated with fungal growths, such as aflatoxins which may be present in contaminated peanuts and corn; heterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature; PAHs in charred meat and smoked fish, as well as in oils, fats, bread, and cereal; and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon (ascorbate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation).", "Overly-browned starchy food such as bread, biscuits and potatoes can generate acrylamide, a chemical shown to cause cancer in animal studies.", "Excessive alcohol consumption has also been linked to cancer; the possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen acetaldehyde, and the induction of the cytochrome P450 system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens.For certain mutagens, such as dangerous chemicals and radioactive materials, as well as infectious agents known to cause cancer, government legislations and regulatory bodies are necessary for their control." ], [ "Test systems", "Many different systems for detecting mutagen have been developed.", "Animal systems may more accurately reflect the metabolism of human, however, they are expensive and time-consuming (may take around three years to complete), they are therefore not used as a first screen for mutagenicity or carcinogenicity.=== Bacterial ===* '''Ames test''' – This is the most commonly used test, and ''Salmonella typhimurium'' strains deficient in histidine biosynthesis are used in this test.", "The test checks for mutants that can revert to wild-type.", "It is an easy, inexpensive and convenient initial screen for mutagens.", "* '''Resistance to 8-azaguanine in ''S.", "typhimurium''''' – Similar to Ames test, but instead of reverse mutation, it checks for forward mutation that confer resistance to 8-Azaguanine in a histidine revertant strain.", "* '''''Escherichia coli'' systems''' – Both forward and reverse mutation detection system have been modified for use in ''E.", "coli''.", "Tryptophan-deficient mutant is used for the reverse mutation, while galactose utility or resistance to 5-methyltryptophan may be used for forward mutation.", "* '''DNA repair''' – ''E.", "coli'' and ''Bacillus subtilis'' strains deficient in DNA repair may be used to detect mutagens by their effect on the growth of these cells through DNA damage.=== Yeast ===Systems similar to Ames test have been developed in yeast.", "''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' is generally used.", "These systems can check for forward and reverse mutations, as well as recombinant events.=== ''Drosophila'' ==='''Sex-Linked Recessive Lethal Test''' – Males from a strain with yellow bodies are used in this test.", "The gene for the yellow body lies on the X-chromosome.", "The fruit flies are fed on a diet of test chemical, and progenies are separated by sex.", "The surviving males are crossed with the females of the same generation, and if no males with yellow bodies are detected in the second generation, it would indicate a lethal mutation on the X-chromosome has occurred.===Plant assays===Plants such as ''Zea mays'', ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' and ''Tradescantia'' have been used in various test assays for mutagenecity of chemicals.===Cell culture assay===Mammalian cell lines such as Chinese hamster V79 cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells or mouse lymphoma cells may be used to test for mutagenesis.", "Such systems include the '''HPRT assay''' for resistance to 8-azaguanine or 6-thioguanine, and '''ouabain-resistance (OUA) assay'''.Rat primary hepatocytes may also be used to measure DNA repair following DNA damage.", "Mutagens may stimulate unscheduled DNA synthesis that results in more stained nuclear material in cells following exposure to mutagens.===Chromosome check systems===These systems check for large scale changes to the chromosomes and may be used with cell culture or in animal test.", "The chromosomes are stained and observed for any changes.", "'''Sister chromatid exchange''' is a symmetrical exchange of chromosome material between sister chromatids and may be correlated to the mutagenic or carcinogenic potential of a chemical.", "In '''micronucleus Test''', cells are examined for micronuclei, which are fragments or chromosomes left behind at anaphase, and is therefore a test for clastogenic agents that cause chromosome breakages.", "Other tests may check for various chromosomal aberrations such as chromatid and chromosomal gaps and deletions, translocations, and ploidy.===Animal test systems===Rodents are usually used in animal test.", "The chemicals undertest are usually administered in the food and in the drinking water, but sometimes by dermal application, by gavage, or by inhalation, and carried out over the major part of the life span for rodents.", "In tests that check for carcinogens, maximum tolerated dosage is first determined, then a range of doses are given to around 50 animals throughout the notional lifespan of the animal of two years.", "After death the animals are examined for sign of tumours.", "Differences in metabolism between rat and human however means that human may not respond in exactly the same way to mutagen, and dosages that produce tumours on the animal test may also be unreasonably high for a human, i.e.", "the equivalent amount required to produce tumours in human may far exceed what a person might encounter in real life.Mice with recessive mutations for a visible phenotype may also be used to check for mutagens.", "Females with recessive mutation crossed with wild-type males would yield the same phenotype as the wild-type, and any observable change to the phenotype would indicate that a mutation induced by the mutagen has occurred.Mice may also be used for '''dominant lethal assays''' where early embryonic deaths are monitored.", "Male mice are treated with chemicals under test, mated with females, and the females are then sacrificed before parturition and early fetal deaths are counted in the uterine horns.", "'''Transgenic mouse assay''' using a mouse strain infected with a viral shuttle vector is another method for testing mutagens.", "Animals are first treated with suspected mutagen, the mouse DNA is then isolated and the phage segment recovered and used to infect ''E.", "coli''.", "Using similar method as the blue-white screen, the plaque formed with DNA containing mutation are white, while those without are blue." ], [ "In anti-cancer therapy", "Many mutagens are highly toxic to proliferating cells, and they are often used to destroy cancer cells.", "Alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide and cisplatin, as well as intercalating agent such as daunorubicin and doxorubicin may be used in chemotherapy.", "However, due to their effect on other cells which are also rapidly dividing, they may have side effects such as hair loss and nausea.", "Research on better targeted therapies may reduce such side-effects.", "Ionizing radiations are used in radiation therapy." ], [ "In fiction", "In science fiction, mutagens are often represented as substances that are capable of completely changing the form of the recipient or granting them superpowers.", "Powerful radiations are the agents of mutation for the superheroes in Marvel Comics's Fantastic Four, Daredevil, and Hulk, while in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise the mutagen is a chemical agent also called \"ooze\", and for Inhumans the mutagen is the Terrigen Mist.", "Mutagens are also featured in video games such as ''Cyberia,'' System Shock, ''The Witcher'', ''Metroid Prime: Trilogy'', ''Resistance: Fall of Man'', ''Resident Evil'', ''Infamous'', ''Freedom Force, Command & Conquer'', ''Gears of War 3'', ''StarCraft'', ''BioShock'', ''Fallout'', ''Underrail'', and ''Maneater''.In the \"nuclear monster\" films of the 1950s, nuclear radiation mutates humans and common insects often to enormous size and aggression; these films include ''Godzilla'', ''Them!", "'', ''Attack of the 50 Foot Woman'', ''Tarantula!", "'', and ''The Amazing Colossal Man''." ], [ "See also", "* Carcinogenesis* DNA damage (naturally occurring)* Linear no-threshold model" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mychal Judge" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mychal Fallon Judge''', OFM (born '''Robert Emmett Judge'''; May 11, 1933 – September 11, 2001), was an American Franciscan friar and Catholic priest who served as a chaplain to the New York City Fire Department.", "While serving in that capacity he was killed, becoming the first certified fatality of the September 11 attacks." ], [ "Early life", "Mychal Judge was born Robert Emmett Judge on May 11, 1933, in Brooklyn, New York, the son of immigrants from County Leitrim, Ireland, and the firstborn of a pair of fraternal twins.", "His twin sister Dympna was born two days later.", "Judge was baptized in St. Paul's Church in Brooklyn on June 4.They and their older sister Erin grew up during the Great Depression.From the ages of three to six, he watched his father suffer and die of mastoiditis, a slow and painful illness of the skull and inner ear.", "To earn income following his father's death, Judge shined shoes at New York Penn Station and would visit St. Francis of Assisi Church, located across the street.", "Seeing the Franciscan friars there, he later said, \"I realized that I didn't care for material things.", "...I knew then that I wanted to be a friar.\"" ], [ "Career", "After spending his freshman year at the St. Francis Preparatory School in Brooklyn, where he studied under the Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn, in 1948, at the age of 15, Judge began the formation process to enter the Order of Friars Minor.", "He transferred to St. Joseph's Seraphic Seminary in Callicoon, New York, the minor seminary of the Holy Name province of the Order.", "After graduation, he enrolled at St. Bonaventure University in Allegany, New York.", "In 1954 he was admitted to the novitiate of the Province in Paterson, New Jersey.", "After completing that year of formation, he received the religious habit and professed his first vows as a member of the Order.", "At that time, he was given the religious name of '''Fallon Michael'''.", "He later dropped 'Fallon' and changed 'Michael' to '''Mychal'''.", "According to ''Queer There and Everywhere'' by Sarah Prager, Mychal changed his name to \"differentiate himself from all the other 'Father Michaels.'\"", "He resumed his college studies at St. Bonaventure University, where he earned a bachelor's degree in 1957.He professed his solemn vows as a full member of the Order in 1958.Following this, he did his theological studies at Holy Name College Seminary in Washington, D.C.", "Upon completing these studies in 1961, he was ordained a priest.After his ordination, Judge was assigned to the Shrine of St. Anthony in Boston, Massachusetts.", "Following his assignment there, he served in various parishes served by the Franciscans: St. Joseph Parish in East Rutherford, New Jersey, Sacred Heart Parish in Rochelle Park, New Jersey, Holy Cross Parish in the Bronx and St. Joseph Parish in West Milford, New Jersey.", "For three years he served as assistant to the President of Siena College, operated by the Franciscans in Loudonville, New York.", "In 1986 he was assigned to St. Francis of Assisi Church in Manhattan, where he had first come to know the friars.", "He lived and worked there until his death.Around 1971, Judge developed alcoholism, although he never showed obvious signs.", "In 1978, with the support of Alcoholics Anonymous, he became sober and continued to share his personal story of alcoholism to help others facing addiction.In 1992, Judge was appointed a chaplain to the New York City Fire Department.", "As chaplain, he offered encouragement and prayers at fires, rescues, and hospitals, and counseled firemen and their families, often working 16-hour days.", "\"His whole ministry was about love.", "Mychal loved the fire department and they loved him.\"", "Judge was a member of AFSCME Local 299 (District Council 37).Judge was also well known in the city for ministering to the homeless, the hungry, recovering alcoholics, people with AIDS, the sick, injured, and grieving, immigrants, gays and lesbians, and those alienated by society.", "Judge once gave the winter coat off his back to a homeless woman in the street, later saying, \"She needed it more than me.\"", "When he anointed a man who was dying of AIDS, the man asked him, \"Do you think God hates me?\"", "Judge picked him up, kissed him, and silently rocked him in his arms.", "Judge worked with St. Clare's Hospital, which opened the city's first AIDS ward, in order to start an active AIDS ministry.", "He visited hospitals and AIDS patients and their families, presided over many funerals, and counseled other Catholics such as Brendan Fay and John McNeill.", "Judge continued to be an advocate for gay rights throughout the rest of his life, marching in pride parades and attending other gay events.Even before his death, many considered Judge to be a living saint for his extraordinary works of charity and his deep spirituality.", "While praying, he would sometimes \"become so lost in God, as if lost in a trance, that he'd be shocked to find several hours had passed.\"", "Judge's spiritual director, the late Jesuit John J. McNeill, observed that Judge achieved an \"extraordinary degree of union with the divine.", "We knew we were dealing with someone directly in line with God.\"" ], [ "September 11 attacks", "Judge's memorial inscription:\"FR.", "MYCHAL JUDGEMAY 11, 1933 – SEPTEMBER 11, 2001Lord, Take me where you want me to go, Let me meet who you want me to meet, Tell me what you want me to say and Keep me out of your way.On September 11, 2001, upon learning that the World Trade Center had been hit by the first of two jetliners, Judge rushed to the site.", "He was met by Rudolph Giuliani, the Mayor of New York City, who asked him to pray for the city and its victims.", "Judge prayed over bodies lying on the streets, then entered the lobby of the World Trade Center North Tower, where an emergency command post had been organized.", "There he continued offering aid and prayers for the rescuers, the injured, and the dead.South Tower was ejected into the lobby of the North Tower during the collapse of the World Trade Center.", "This image of the South Tower was photographed nine days before Judge's death.When the neighboring South Tower collapsed at 9:59a.m., debris went flying through the North Tower lobby, killing many inside.", "Judge died at this moment, too, and it was initially assumed that he was struck and killed by the debris, but according to a later interview with firefighter Chief Joseph Pfeifer, it turned out that he had suffered a heart attack.", "In the moment before his death, Judge was repeatedly praying aloud, \"Jesus, please end this right now!", "God, please end this!", "\", according to Judge's biographer and ''New York Daily News'' columnist Michael Daly.Shortly after his death, Judge's body was found and carried out of the North Tower by five people (Firefighters Christian Waugh and Zachary Vause, NYPD Lt. William Cosgrove, civilian John Maguire and FDNY EMT Kevin Allen) shortly before it collapsed at 10:28a.m.", "This act was photographed by Reuters photographer Shannon Stapleton, and became one of the most famous photographs taken during the attacks.", "This event was captured in the documentary film ''9/11'', shot by Jules and Gedeon Naudet.", "The ''Philadelphia Weekly'' reported that the photograph is \"considered an American ''Pietà''.\"", "Judge's body was placed before the altar of St. Peter's Catholic Church before being taken by ambulance and fire department colleagues to Engine 1/Ladder 24, the fire station opposite the Franciscan Friary on W 31st Street in Manhattan.", "He was later taken from the fire station to the medical examiner.Judge was designated as \"Victim 0001\" and thereby recognized as the first official victim of the attacks.", "Although others had been killed before him, including the crews, passengers, and hijackers of the first three planes, and occupants of the towers and the Pentagon, Judge was the first certified fatality because his body was the first to be recovered and taken to the medical examiner.Judge's body was formally identified by NYPD Detective Steven McDonald, a long-time friend.", "The New York Medical Examiner found that Judge died of \"blunt force trauma to the head\"." ], [ "Personal life", "Following his death, a few of Judge's friends and associates revealed that Judge was gay.", "According to Fire Department Commissioner Thomas Von Essen: \"I actually knew about his homosexuality when I was in the Uniformed Firefighters Association.", "I kept the secret, but then he told me when I became commissioner five years ago.", "He and I often laughed about it, because we knew how difficult it would have been for the other firemen to accept it as easily as I had.", "I just thought he was a phenomenal, warm, sincere man, and the fact that he was gay just had nothing to do with anything.", "\"Judge developed a romantic relationship with a Filipino nurse named Al Alvarado in the last year of his life, which Judge documented in his diaries.", "The two often did not see each other for months because of Judge's work as a firefighter.The revelations about his sexual orientation were not without controversy.", "Dennis Lynch, a lawyer, wrote an article about Judge that appeared on the website catholic.org.", "Lynch said that Judge was not gay and that any attempt to define him as gay was due to \"homosexual activists\" who wanted to \"attack the Catholic Church\" and turn the priest into a \"homosexual icon\".", "Others refuted Lynch with evidence that Judge did in fact identify himself as gay, both to others and in his personal journals.Judge was a long-term member of Dignity, a Catholic LGBT activist organization that advocates for change in the Catholic Church's teaching on homosexuality.", "On October 1, 1986, the Vatican's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued an encyclical, ''On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons'', which declared homosexuality to be a \"strong tendency ordered toward an intrinsic moral evil\".", "In response, many bishops, including John Cardinal O'Connor, banned Dignity from diocesan churches under their control.", "Judge then welcomed Dignity's AIDS ministry to the Church of St. Francis of Assisi, which is under the control of the Franciscan friars, thereby partially circumventing the cardinal's ban of Dignity.Judge disagreed with official Catholic teaching regarding homosexuality.", "Judge often asked, \"Is there so much love in the world that we can afford to discriminate against any kind of love?\"" ], [ "Legacy", "The FDNY Memorial to Judge at Engine 1, Ladder 24 in ManhattanJudge's name is located on Panel S-18 of the National September 11 Memorial's South Pool, along with those of other first responders.On September 15, 2001, 3,000 people attended Judge's funeral Mass at St. Francis of Assisi Church, which was presided over by Cardinal Edward Egan, the Archbishop of New York.", "Former President Bill Clinton and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton also attended.", "President Clinton said that Judge's death was a \"special loss.", "We should lift his life up as an example of what has to prevail.", "We have to be more like Father Mike than the people who killed him.", "\"Judge was buried in the friars' plot at Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in Totowa, New Jersey.", "On October 11, 2001, Brendan Fay organized a \"Month's Mind Memorial\" in Good Shepherd Chapel, General Theological Seminary, New York.", "It was an evening of prayer, stories, traditional Irish music, and personal testimonials about Judge.Three people in the Roman Catholic Church called for the canonization of Judge.", "The Orthodox-Catholic Church of America declared him a saint.", "Two people say they experienced miraculous healings through prayers to Judge.", "Evidence of miracles is required for canonization in the Catholic Church.Judge's fire helmet was presented to Pope John Paul II.", "France awarded him the Légion d'honneur.", "Some members of the United States Congress nominated him for the Congressional Gold Medal, as well as the Presidential Medal of Freedom.", "In 2002, the City of New York renamed the portion of West 31st Street on which the friary where he lived is located as \"Father Mychal F. Judge Street\", and christened a commuter ferry the ''Father Mychal Judge'' in his honor in 2002.In 2002, the United States Congress passed ''The Mychal Judge Police and Fire Chaplains Public Safety Officers Benefit Act'' into law.", "The law extended federal death benefits to chaplains of police and fire departments, and also marked the first time the federal government extended equal benefits for same-sex couples by allowing the domestic partners of public safety officers killed in the line of duty to collect a federal death benefit.", "This act was signed into law on June 24, 2002, but would be retroactive only to September 11, 2001.The New York Press Club instituted The Rev.", "Mychal Judge Heart of New York Award, which is presented annually for the news story or series that is most complimentary of New York City.A campaign has been started in East Rutherford, New Jersey, to have a statue of Judge erected in its Memorial Park.Alvernia University, a private independent college in the Franciscan tradition in Reading, Pennsylvania, named a new residence hall in honor of Judge.The Father Mychal Judge Memorial in the village of Keshcarrigan, County Leitrim, Ireland, was dedicated in 2005, on donated land which had belonged to Judge's ancestors.", "People from the village and surrounding area celebrate his life every year on the 9/11 anniversary.In 2006, a documentary film, ''Saint of 9/11'', directed by Glenn Holsten, co-produced by Brendan Fay and narrated by Sir Ian McKellen, was released.Larry Kirwan, leader of the Irish-American band Black 47, wrote a tribute song entitled \"Mychal\" in honor of Judge that appeared in the band's 2004 album ''New York Town''.The Father Mychal Judge Walk of Remembrance takes place every year in New York on the Sunday before the 9/11 anniversary.", "It begins with a Mass at St. Francis Church on West 31st Street, then proceeds to the site of Ground Zero, retracing Judge's final journey and praying along the way.", "Every September 11, there is a Mass in memory of Judge in Boston, attended by many who lost family members on 9/11.At the National 9/11 Memorial, Judge is memorialized at the South Pool, on Panel S-18, where other first responders are located.In 2014, Judge was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people.In 2015, a statue was dedicated to Judge at St. Joseph's Park in East Rutherford, New Jersey, across the street from St. Joseph's Parish where he served for several years.In recognition of his heroic actions and his commitment to the dignity of LGBTQ people, Judge was posthumously awarded the Dooley Award by GALA-ND/SMC, an alumni organization of the University of Notre Dame, a prominent American Catholic university.In September 2021, Judge was nominated for sainthood in the Catholic Church.A documentary film directed by Brendan Fay that focuses on Judge, ''Remembering Mychal'', premiered on October 26, 2021, in New York City.", "Featured voices in the film include Malachy McCourt and Pete Hamill." ], [ "Canonization Debate", "Several organizations have proposed to the Vatican a possible canonization, to which the Archdiocese of New York and the Franciscan Third Order have not given clear answers.", "However, Christian denominations that are not in communion with Rome have canonized him, recognizing him as a saint and a martyr while his tomb, in the Holy Sepulchre Cemetery of Totowa, has been becoming a kind of \"informal sanctuary\".", "While there is an active campaign to open his cause of beatification (the first step to canonization), there remains a controversy over his illicit sexual activity (despite his vow of chastity) and his disobedience towards Church hierarchy regarding certain circumstances which has represented a serious obstacle to his being named a saint.The fact that Mychal had a homosexual orientation is irrelevant and not an impediment to beatification.", "Postulators have argued that there are precedents of saints and openly LGBT martyrs.", "Recently, in 2021, 20 years after his death, an official cause has been initiated, but without the official support of the Archdiocese of New York, but from an independent postulator, the Rv.", "Luis Fernando Escalante, directly in charge of the cause in Rome." ], [ "References", "===General references===**===Inline citations===" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ], [ "External links", "* Fire Chaplain Becomes Larger than Life* The Happiest Man on Earth: Eulogy of Fr.", "Mychal Judge* An RTE Radio 1 documentary 'Victim No.", "0001', September 3, 2011, describes his life and work* An NPR Radio clip \"Slain Priest: 'Bury His Heart, But Not His Love*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moonfleet (novel)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Moonfleet''''' is an 1898 novel written by English writer J. Meade Falkner.", "The plot is an adventure tale of smuggling, treasure, and shipwreck set in 18th-century England." ], [ "Plot summary", "In 1757, Moonfleet is a small village along the coast of southern England.", "The village takes its name from a formerly prominent local family, the Mohunes.", "The main character is John Trenchard, an orphan who lives with his aunt, Miss Arnold.", "The village church includes the sexton, Mr. Ratsey, and Parson Glennie, who also teaches in the village school.", "Elzevir Block is the landlord of the ''Mohune Arms''.", "The inn is nicknamed the ''Why Not?", "'', a pun on the Mohune coat of arms, which includes a ''cross-pall'' in the shape of the letter \"Y\".", "Mr. Maskew is the local magistrate, who has a daughter, Grace.", "Village legend tells of the notorious Colonel John \"Blackbeard\" Mohune who is buried in the family crypt under the church.", "He is reputed to have stolen a diamond from King Charles I and hidden it.", "His ghost is said to wander at night looking for it and the mysterious lights in the churchyard are attributed to his activities.As the main part of the story opens, Block's youthful son, David, has just been killed by Maskew during a raid by the Maskew and other authorities on a smuggling boat.", "One night a bad storm hits the village and there is a flood.", "While attending the Sunday service at church, John hears strange sounds from the crypt below.", "He thinks it is the sound of the coffins of the Mohune family.", "The next day, he finds Elzevir and Ratsey against the south wall of the church.", "They claim to be checking for damage from the storm, but John suspects they are searching for Blackbeard's ghost.Later John finds a large sinkhole has opened in the ground by a grave.", "He follows the passage and finds himself in the crypt with coffins on shelves and casks on the floor.", "He realises his friends are smugglers and this is their hiding place.", "He has to hide behind a coffin when he hears Ratsey and Elzevir coming.", "When they leave, they fill in the hole, inadvertently trapping him.", "John finds a locket in the coffin that he hid behind (it turns out to be that of Blackbeard himself) which holds a piece of paper with verses from the Bible.", "John eventually passes out after drinking too much of the wine while trying to quench his thirst, having not eaten or drunk for over 24 hours.", "Later he wakes up in the ''Why Not?''", "inn – he has been rescued by Elzevir and Ratsey.", "When he is better, he returns to his aunt's house, but she, suspecting him of drunken behaviour, throws him out.", "Elzevir takes him in.When Block's lease on the ''Why Not?''", "comes up for renewal, Maskew bids against him in the auction and wins.", "Block must leave the inn and Moonfleet but plans one last smuggling venture.", "John feels honour-bound to go with him, and visits Grace Maskew, whom he loves and has been seeing in secret, to say goodbye; his aunt gives him his mother's prayer book — her last hope to influence John towards piety.", "The excisemen and Maskew are aware of the planned smuggling run but do not know exactly where it will occur.", "During the landing Maskew appears and is caught by the smugglers.", "Elzevir is bent on vengeance for his son by killing Maskew, and while the rest land the cargo and leave, he and John keep watch over Maskew.", "Just as Block prepares to shoot Maskew the excisemen attack.", "They wound John and unintentionally kill Maskew.", "Block carries John away to safety and they hide in some old quarries.", "While there, John inadvertently finds out that the verses from Blackbeard's locket contain a code that will reveal the location of his famous diamond.Once John's wound heals, he and Block decide to recover the diamond from Carisbrooke Castle.", "After a suspenseful scene in the well where the jewel is hidden, they succeed in escaping to Holland where they try to sell it to a diamond merchant named Krispijn Aldobrand.", "The merchant cheats them, claiming the diamond is fake.", "Elzevir falls for the deceit and angrily throws the diamond out of the window.", "John, however, knows they have been duped, and suggests they try to recover the diamond through burglary.", "The attempt fails and they are arrested and sentenced to prison.", "John curses the merchant for his lies.John and Elzevir go to prison for life.", "Eventually they are separated.", "Then, unexpectedly, ten years later, their paths cross again.", "They are being transported, and board a ship.", "A storm blows up, and by a strong coincidence, the ship is wrecked upon Moonfleet beach.", "While trying to reach the beach Elzevir helps John to safety, but is himself dragged under by the surf and drowned.John arrives where he originally started, in the ''Why Not?", "'', and is reunited with Ratsey.", "He is also reunited with Grace.", "She is now a rich young lady, having inherited her father's money.", "However, she is still in love with John.", "John tells her about the diamond and his life in prison.", "He regrets having lost everything, but she says, rich or not, she loves him.Then Parson Glennie visits and reveals he had received a letter from Aldobrand.", "The merchant, suffering a guilty conscience and in an attempt to make amends, had bequeathed the worth of the diamond to John.John gives the money to the village, and new almshouses are built, and the school and the church renovated.", "John marries Grace and becomes Lord of the Manor and Justice of the Peace.", "They have three children, including their first-born son, Elzevir.", "The children grow up, the sons going away to \"serve King George on sea and land\" while their daughter too, it seems, has married away.", "But John and Grace themselves do not leave their beloved Moonfleet ever again.===Backgammon===One feature of the narrative is a continuing reference to the boardgame of backgammon which is played by the patrons of the ''Why Not?''", "on an antique board which bears a Latin inscription ''Ita in vita ut in lusu aleae pessima jactura arte corrigenda est'' (translated in the book as ''As in life, so in a game of hazard, skill will make something of the worst of throws'')." ], [ "Literary significance", "''Moonfleet'' is considered to be a classic work of fiction, and continues to be published in series such as Dover Children's Evergreen Classics.", "Its popularity among children worldwide continued up until at least the 1970s, primarily as a result of its adventure themes relating to pirates, treasure, and smuggling, and due to its suspenseful story-line.", "It has frequently been studied in schools, and used as required reading for some English courses.", "It is often compared with similar novels like Stevenson's ''Treasure Island''." ], [ "Geography of the book", "The Moonfleet Manor Hotel, DorsetFalkner uses the local geography of Dorset and the Isle of Wight in the book, only changing some of the place names.", "The village of ''Moonfleet'' is based on East Fleet in Dorset by Chesil Beach.", "The headland in the book called ''The Snout'' is Portland Bill.Corfe Castle and Carisbrooke Castle are key plot locations." ], [ "Adaptations in other media", "===TV and film===* The book was filmed by Fritz Lang in 1955 and released under the same name, with a screenplay adapted by from the novel.", "A handful of scenes from the book survived, including John's ordeal in the church crypt with the remains of Blackbeard (here renamed Redbeard), and his descent into the well to retrieve the diamond, but the movie altered the novel's plot substantially.", "Among other major changes, its young hero was given the newly invented rogue gentleman Jeremy Fox for a mentor (played by Stewart Granger), while the role of the working class Elzevir Block was reduced to leading a group of the smugglers seeking to kill John.", "Lang's film has enjoyed some cachet among French film critics.", "* In 1964 the BBC produced a six-episode TV adaptation under the title ''Smuggler's Bay'', starring future ''Doctor Who'' actors Frazer Hines and Patrick Troughton as John Trenchard and Ratsey respectively.", "It began on BBC1 on 12 July 1964.no recordings of this production are known to exist.", "* In 1984 a TV mini-series ''Moonfleet'' was filmed, starring Adam Godley and David Daker.", "* Sky1 filmed ''Moonfleet'' a two-part TV adaptation in Ireland in 2013 starring Ray Winstone, Aneurin Barnard and Karl McCrone.", "This was aired on 28 and 29 December 2013 Though more of the plot of the book remains than in the 1955 film, it still bears little relation; John is in his mid-twenties, Maskew has become an aristocrat and a tyrannical descendant of Blackbeard, and Elzevir Block the leader of a brothel-frequenting, knife-fighting band of gangsters.===Theatre and music ===* Angel Exit Theatre company devised a production which toured the UK in 2009.", "* In 2010 Chris de Burgh released an album of songs called ''Moonfleet & Other Stories'' featuring a story based on the book.", "* In 2017 the Salisbury Playhouse announced a major new musical adaptation of ''Moonfleet'' with book and lyrics by Gareth Machin and music by Russell Hepplewhite.", "The show ran from 19 April to 5 May 2018.===Radio===* In 1963 the BBC aired a five-episode radio series of ''Moonfleet'' adapted by Morna Stuart and produced by Brandon Acton-Bond.", "* A 90-minute BBC radio version was first broadcast in 1998 on BBC Radio Four, and starred Richard Pearce as John Trenchard, along with Robert Glenister and James Laurenson.", "* The Colonial Radio Theatre on the Air released a 300-minute production of the book in May 2009, starring Jerry Robbins, David Ault, and Rob Cattell.", "It was dramatised by Deniz Cordell, and produced by M. J. Cogburn." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * ''Time Magazine'' review of ''Moonfleet'' dated August 13, 1951* Penguin Reader's Factsheets for ''Moonfleet'', Teacher's Notes, 2008" ] ]
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[ [ "Merge algorithm" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Merge algorithms''' are a family of algorithms that take multiple sorted lists as input and produce a single list as output, containing all the elements of the inputs lists in sorted order.", "These algorithms are used as subroutines in various sorting algorithms, most famously merge sort." ], [ "Application", "A graph exemplifying merge sort.", "Two red arrows starting from the same node indicates subdivision, while two green arrows ending in the same node corresponds to an execution of the merge algorithm.The merge algorithm plays a critical role in the merge sort algorithm, a comparison-based sorting algorithm.", "Conceptually, the merge sort algorithm consists of two steps:# Recursively divide the list into sublists of (roughly) equal length, until each sublist contains only one element, or in the case of iterative (bottom up) merge sort, consider a list of ''n'' elements as ''n'' sub-lists of size 1.A list containing a single element is, by definition, sorted.# Repeatedly merge sublists to create a new sorted sublist until the single list contains all elements.", "The single list is the sorted list.The merge algorithm is used repeatedly in the merge sort algorithm.An example merge sort is given in the illustration.", "It starts with an unsorted array of 7 integers.", "The array is divided into 7 partitions; each partition contains 1 element and is sorted.", "The sorted partitions are then merged to produce larger, sorted, partitions, until 1 partition, the sorted array, is left." ], [ "Merging two lists", "Merging two sorted lists into one can be done in linear time and linear or constant space (depending on the data access model).", "The following pseudocode demonstrates an algorithm that merges input lists (either linked lists or arrays) and into a new list .", "The function yields the first element of a list; \"dropping\" an element means removing it from its list, typically by incrementing a pointer or index.", "'''algorithm''' merge(A, B) '''is''' '''inputs''' A, B : list '''returns''' list C := new empty list '''while''' A is not empty and B is not empty '''do''' '''if''' head(A) ≤ head(B) '''then''' append head(A) to C drop the head of A '''else''' append head(B) to C drop the head of B ''// By now, either A or B is empty.", "It remains to empty the other input list.''", "'''while''' A is not empty '''do''' append head(A) to C drop the head of A '''while''' B is not empty '''do''' append head(B) to C drop the head of B '''return''' CWhen the inputs are linked lists, this algorithm can be implemented to use only a constant amount of working space; the pointers in the lists' nodes can be reused for bookkeeping and for constructing the final merged list.In the merge sort algorithm, this subroutine is typically used to merge two sub-arrays , of a single array .", "This can be done by copying the sub-arrays into a temporary array, then applying the merge algorithm above.", "The allocation of a temporary array can be avoided, but at the expense of speed and programming ease.", "Various in-place merge algorithms have been devised, sometimes sacrificing the linear-time bound to produce an algorithm; see for discussion." ], [ "K-way merging", "-way merging generalizes binary merging to an arbitrary number of sorted input lists.", "Applications of -way merging arise in various sorting algorithms, including patience sorting and an external sorting algorithm that divides its input into blocks that fit in memory, sorts these one by one, then merges these blocks.Several solutions to this problem exist.", "A naive solution is to do a loop over the lists to pick off the minimum element each time, and repeat this loop until all lists are empty:* Input: a list of lists.", "* While any of the lists is non-empty:** Loop over the lists to find the one with the minimum first element.", "** Output the minimum element and remove it from its list.In the worst case, this algorithm performs element comparisons to perform its work if there are a total of elements in the lists.It can be improved by storing the lists in a priority queue (min-heap) keyed by their first element:* Build a min-heap of the lists, using the first element as the key.", "* While any of the lists is non-empty:** Let .", "** Output the first element of list and remove it from its list.", "** Re-heapify .Searching for the next smallest element to be output (find-min) and restoring heap order can now be done in time (more specifically, comparisons), and the full problem can be solved in time (approximately comparisons).A third algorithm for the problem is a divide and conquer solution that builds on the binary merge algorithm:* If , output the single input list.", "* If , perform a binary merge.", "* Else, recursively merge the first lists and the final lists, then binary merge these.When the input lists to this algorithm are ordered by length, shortest first, it requires fewer than comparisons, i.e., less than half the number used by the heap-based algorithm; in practice, it may be about as fast or slow as the heap-based algorithm." ], [ "Parallel merge", "A parallel version of the binary merge algorithm can serve as a building block of a parallel merge sort.", "The following pseudocode demonstrates this algorithm in a parallel divide-and-conquer style (adapted from Cormen ''et al.'').", "It operates on two sorted arrays and and writes the sorted output to array .", "The notation denotes the part of from index through , exclusive.", "'''algorithm''' merge(Ai...j, Bk...ℓ, Cp...q) '''is''' '''inputs''' A, B, C : array i, j, k, ℓ, p, q : indices '''let''' m = j - i, n = ℓ - k '''if''' m < n '''then''' swap A and B ''// ensure that A is the larger array: i, j still belong to A; k, ℓ to B'' swap m and n '''if''' m ≤ 0 '''then''' '''return''' ''// base case, nothing to merge'' '''let''' r = ⌊(i + j)/2⌋ '''let''' s = binary-search(Ar, Bk...ℓ) '''let''' t = p + (r - i) + (s - k) Ct = Ar '''in parallel do''' merge(Ai...r, Bk...s, Cp...t) merge(Ar+1...j, Bs...ℓ, Ct+1...q)The algorithm operates by splitting either or , whichever is larger, into (nearly) equal halves.", "It then splits the other array into a part with values smaller than the midpoint of the first, and a part with larger or equal values.", "(The binary search subroutine returns the index in where would be, if it were in ; that this always a number between and .)", "Finally, each pair of halves is merged recursively, and since the recursive calls are independent of each other, they can be done in parallel.", "Hybrid approach, where serial algorithm is used for recursion base case has been shown to perform well in practice The work performed by the algorithm for two arrays holding a total of elements, i.e., the running time of a serial version of it, is .", "This is optimal since elements need to be copied into .", "To calculate the span of the algorithm, it is necessary to derive a Recurrence relation.", "Since the two recursive calls of ''merge'' are in parallel, only the costlier of the two calls needs to be considered.", "In the worst case, the maximum number of elements in one of the recursive calls is at most since the array with more elements is perfectly split in half.", "Adding the cost of the Binary Search, we obtain this recurrence as an upper bound:The solution is , meaning that it takes that much time on an ideal machine with an unbounded number of processors.", "'''Note:''' The routine is not stable: if equal items are separated by splitting and , they will become interleaved in ; also swapping and will destroy the order, if equal items are spread among both input arrays.", "As a result, when used for sorting, this algorithm produces a sort that is not stable." ], [ "Parallel merge of two lists", "There are also algorithms that introduce parallelism within a single instance of merging of two sorted lists.", "These can be used in field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), specialized sorting circuits, as well as in modern processors with single-instruction multiple-data (SIMD) instructions.", "Existing parallel algorithms are based on modifications of the merge part of either the bitonic sorter or odd-even mergesort.", "In 2018, Saitoh M. et al.", "introduced MMS for FPGAs, which focused on removing a multi-cycle feedback datapath that prevented efficient pipelining in hardware.", "Also in 2018, Papaphilippou P. et al.", "introduced FLiMS that improved the hardware utilization and performance by only requiring pipeline stages of compare-and-swap units to merge with a parallelism of elements per FPGA cycle." ], [ "Language support", "Some computer languages provide built-in or library support for merging sorted collections.=== C++ ===The C++'s Standard Template Library has the function , which merges two sorted ranges of iterators, and , which merges two consecutive sorted ranges ''in-place''.", "In addition, the (linked list) class has its own method which merges another list into itself.", "The type of the elements merged must support the less-than () operator, or it must be provided with a custom comparator.C++17 allows for differing execution policies, namely sequential, parallel, and parallel-unsequenced.=== Python ===Python's standard library (since 2.6) also has a function in the module, that takes multiple sorted iterables, and merges them into a single iterator." ], [ "See also", "* Merge (revision control)* Join (relational algebra)* Join (SQL)* Join (Unix)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Donald Knuth.", "''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition.", "Addison-Wesley, 1997..", "Pages 158–160 of section 5.2.4: Sorting by Merging.", "Section 5.3.2: Minimum-Comparison Merging, pp.", "197–207." ], [ "External links", "* High Performance Implementation of Parallel and Serial Merge in C# with source in GitHub and in C++ GitHub" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ML" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ML''' or '''ml''' may refer to:" ], [ "Computing and mathematics", "* ML (programming language), a general-purpose functional programming language* .ml, the top-level Internet domain for Mali* Machine language, the direct instructions to a computer's central processing unit (CPU)* Machine learning, a field of computer science* Markup language, a system for annotating a document* Maximum likelihood, a method of estimating the parameters of a statistical model * Mathematical Logic, a variation of Quine's system New Foundations* Mittag-Leffler, Gösta, a Swedish mathematician (1846-1927)** things named after Mittag-Leffler, including: Institute, distribution, function, polynomials, star, summation, theorem, condition, and glacier." ], [ "Languages", "* Malayalam (ISO 639-1 code), a language* Meitei Lon (Meiteilon), the endonym of Meitei language" ], [ "Measurement", "* Megalitre or megaliter (ML, Ml, or Mℓ), a unit of volume* Millilitre or milliliter (mL, ml, or mℓ), a unit of volume* Millilambert (mL), a non-SI unit of luminance* Richter magnitude scale (''M''L), used to measure earthquakes* Megalangmuir (ML), a unit of exposure of a surface to a given chemical species (convention is 1 ML=monolayer=1 Langmuir)" ], [ "Other", "* 1050, in Roman numerals* ''ML'' (film), a 2018 Philippine film* ML 8-inch shell gun* ML postcode area, Motherwell postcode area of Scotland* Dean ML, a model of electric guitar* Mali (ISO 3166-1 country code), a country in Africa* Marxism–Leninism, a form of communist ideology as practiced in the Soviet Union and other nations*Marxist–Leninist, a follower of Marxism–Leninism * McConnell Unit, a prison near Beeville, Texas* ''Mere Liye'' (also known as ML), a 2001 album by Sagarika.", "* Motor Launch, a type of small Royal Navy vessel used by British Coastal Forces* Mountain Leader Award, a UK qualification* MultiLevel Recording, to increase the storage capacity of optical discs* ml.", "or mladší, used in Czech–Slovak similarly to Junior* Malaysia-Singapore Airlines, IATA code ML until 1972* Midway Airlines (1976–1991), IATA code ML* Mom Luang, a Thai royal title* Silt, in the Unified Soil Classification System*Miraculous Ladybug, a French cartoon* ''Mobile Legends'', short for ''Mobile Legends: Bang Bang'', a mobile MOBA game by Moonton*Merrill Lynch, the wealth management division of Bank of America" ], [ "See also", "* Mercedes-Benz GLE-Class, formerly known as the ML-Class* M1 (disambiguation)* MI (disambiguation)* Metalanguage (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Cuisine of the Midwestern United States" ], [ "Introduction", "Minnesota potluck'''Midwestern cuisine''' is a regional cuisine of the American Midwest.", "It draws its culinary roots most significantly from the cuisines of Central, Northern and Eastern Europe, and Indigenous cuisine of the Americas, and is influenced by regionally and locally grown foodstuffs and cultural diversity.Everyday Midwestern home cooking generally showcases simple and hearty dishes that make use of the abundance of locally grown foods.", "It has been described as \"no-frills homestead and farm food, exemplifying what is called typical American cuisine\".", "Some Midwesterners bake their own bread and pies and preserve food by canning and freezing it." ], [ "Background", "Sometimes called \"the breadbasket of America\", the Midwest serves as a center for grain production, particularly wheat, corn, and soybeans.Beef and pork processing have long been important Midwestern industries.", "Chicago and Kansas City served as stockyards and processing centers of the beef trade and Cincinnati, nicknamed \"Porkopolis\", was once the largest pork-producing city in the world.", "Iowa is the current center of pork production in the U.S.Everyday Midwestern home cooking generally showcases simple and hearty dishes that make use of the abundance of locally grown foods.", "The traditions of canning and freezing summer foods is still practiced in modern times.", "It's not unheard of for pies and bread to be baked at home.===History===Seen highlighted in red, the region known as the Midwestern United States, as currently defined by the U.S. Census BureauOhio was one of the first Midwestern regions settled, mostly by farmers from the Thirteen Colonies, in 1788.Maize was the staple food, eaten at every meal.", "Ohio was abundant in fish, game, and wild fruits.", "The settlers learned techniques of making venison jerky from Native Americans.", "They grew pumpkins, beans, potatoes, and corn, and raised hogs.", "Apples, wheat, and oats were introduced later.Swedes, Norwegians, and Finns began to settle the Midwest in the late 18th century, introducing rich, butter-laden cakes and cookies.", "In addition to making cheese and butter, German and Swiss dairy farmers raised milk-fed veal and produced a type of white beer called ''weisse bier''.", "Germans brought dishes like ''Hassenpfeffer'', sauerbraten, Spätzle, Maultasche, Schnitzel, and pumpernickel bread.", "Lutefisk and other types of pickled and smoked fish were introduced by Scandinavians.In the 19th century, as the frontier advanced westward, recipes had to be adapted based on the availability of ingredients.", "Danish frikadeller and aebleskivers were served with locally grown chokecherry or blueberry syrup.", "Custard-style puddings similar to figgy pudding were made with native wild persimmons.", "A typical Midwestern breakfast might have included meat, eggs, potatoes, fruit preserves, and pie or doughnuts.", "At harvest time, families ate mostly home-produced foods.More settlers began to arrive in the rural Midwest after the Erie Canal was completed in the 1820s.", "Rural and urban foodways began to diverge as cash-strapped immigrants became dependent on packaged foods.The expansion of railroads in the 1870s and 1880s allowed fresh citrus fruits to be shipped to the Midwest.", "At the turn of the century, cruise ships operating along the Great Lakes offered varied dining selections.", "Seasonal fruits, sirloin steak, and lamb kidney saute with mushrooms were some of the breakfast offerings available in 1913.Beginning in the 1930s, fine dining was offered on railroad cars.", "Some of the dishes found on the menu were cashew chicken, baked filet of Lake Superior whitefish au gratin and the ambiguous dessert called \"floating island\".===Ethnic influences===Some European foodways have, by wide acceptance, become part of the local cuisine to a degree that they have shed most cultural associations with specific immigrant groups.A Wurst mart, sometimes spelled Wurstmart or Wurst Markt, is a variation on a fish fry found predominantly in German-American communities.", "Wurst marts are usually held by churches as fundraising events, where people will pay for a buffet of sausages and other side dishes.", "Common side dishes include mashed potatoes, gravy, and sauerkraut.", "Wurst Mart comes from the German word \"Wurstmarkt\", meaning sausage market.", "Wurst marts are found mostly in small rural German-American communities in the Midwest, particularly around St. Louis." ], [ "Urban centers", "===Chicago===Chicago-style deep dish pizzaThe local cuisine of Chicago has been shaped by its Greek, Jewish, and Italian communities.", "Jewish immigrant communities of Eastern European origin ate oatmeal cereal called ''krupnik'', made with milk only when it was available.", "Workers carried packed lunches of bagels, knish, and herring to work.", "Today, restaurants in Chicago's Greektown serve typical dishes like gyros and cheese saganaki.Throughout the city there are many variations on classic sandwiches like the Chicago-style hot dog or club sandwiches served on bagels or other artisan breads like sourdough or brioche with complex spreads like aioli and piri piri sauce.", "The iconic Italian beef sandwich, made with slow-cooked tough cuts of beef, originated during the Great Depression.Italian-American cuisine continued to flourish in Chicago as American forces returned from World War II with a taste for Italian foods.", "Pepper- and onion-topped Italian pork sausage sandwiches became widely available, and can still be found at festivals, fairs, and ballparks today.", "Thin-crust pizza arrived in Chicago with Italian immigrants as early as 1909; according to some, the iconic Chicago deep-dish pizza dates to 1943 when it first appeared on Pizzeria Uno menus.", "Italians are also known for Chicken Vesuvio, bone-in chicken sauteed with oregano and garlic in white wine sauce and finished in the oven with potatoes.Chicago's cuisine has also seen notable contributions from its Latin American communities.", "Steamed tamales made from cornmeal filled with seasoned ground beef have been available in Chicago since the 19th century.Puerto Ricans introduced the skirt steak sandwich Jibarito.", "Now also available with chicken, roast pork, ham, shrimp, and even the vegetarian option tofu, the ''jibarito'' is distinguished from other sandwiches by substituting green plantains for bread.Chicago's food processing industry is historically significant.", "Following the Civil War, Chicago made use of railway networks to establish distribution networks, making fresh beef widely available.", "For the first time American consumers without access to local livestock could purchase fresh beef.", "In 1903, James L. Kraft founded a wholesale cheese distribution business in Chicago which became Kraft Foods.", "Miracle Whip was introduced in 1933 at an industry event.", "The American Licorice Company founded in Chicago in 1914 makes Red Vines and Super Ropes.", "Brach's company in Chicago started making candy corn in the 1920s.", "The Dove Bar was invented in Chicago.", "Cracker Jack was founded by a German immigrant who in 1871 started selling molasses-coated, steam-popped corn out of a candy shop in Chicago's South Side.", "Chicago meat packer Gustavus F. Swift is credited with commercializing shipping fresh meat in refrigerated railroad cars.", "By 1892 the number of refrigerated railroad cars in use exceeded 100,000.Vienna Beef became a major producer of hot dogs and by the early 2000s was one of the major suppliers for hot dog carts.", "Some other Chicago meatpackers are Armour, Oscar Mayer, Hygrade and Swift.===Cincinnati===The Queen City is known for its namesake Cincinnati chili, a Greek-inspired meat sauce (ground beef seasoned with cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, bay leaf, cumin, and ground chilis), served over spaghetti or hot dogs.", "Unlike ''chili con carne'', Cincinnati-style chili is almost never eaten by itself and is instead consumed in \"ways\" or on cheese coneys, which are a regional variation on a chili dog.The city has a strong German heritage and a variety of German-oriented restaurants and menu items can be found in the area.", "Goetta, a meat-and-grain sausage or mush made from pork and oats, is unique to the Greater Cincinnati area and \"every bit as much a Queen City icon\" as Cincinnati chili.", "It is similar to the traditional porridge-like German peasant food ''stippgrutze'' but incorporates a higher proportion of meat-to-grain and is thicker, forming a sliceable loaf.", "Slices are typically fried like sausage patties and served for breakfast.", "More than a million pounds of goetta are served in the Cincinnati area per year.In addition, Cincinnati's Oktoberfest Zinzinnati, an annual food and music celebration held each September, is the second-largest in the world.", "Taste of Cincinnati, the longest running culinary arts festival in the United States, is held each year on Memorial Day weekend.", "In 2014, local chefs and food writers organized the inaugural Cincinnati Food & Wine Classic, which drew chefs and artisan food producers from the region.The area was once a national center for pork processing and is often nicknamed Porkopolis, with many references to that heritage in menu-item names and food-event names; pigs are a \"well-loved symbol of the city.", "\"File:Skyline 4-way.jpg|Four-way Cincinnati chiliFile:Pork packing in Cincinnati 1873.jpg|Pork packing in Cincinnati 1873File:Taste-of-Cincinnati-2009.jpg|Taste of Cincinnati 2009===Columbus===Schmidt's Sausage Haus in German Village, Columbus, Ohio\tThe Columbus, Ohio area is the home and birthplace of many well-known fast-food chains, especially those known for hamburgers.", "Wendy's opened its first store in Columbus in 1969, and is now headquartered in nearby Dublin.", "America's oldest hamburger chain, White Castle, is based there.Besides burgers, Columbus is noted for the German Village, a neighborhood south of downtown where German cuisine such as sausages and kuchen are served.In recent years, local restaurants focused on organic, seasonal, and locally or regionally sourced food have become more prevalent, especially in the Short North area, between downtown and the Ohio State University campus.", "Numerous Somali restaurants are also found in the city, particularly around Cleveland Avenue.Columbus is also the birthplace of the Marzetti Italian Restaurant, opened in 1896.Owner Teresa Marzetti is credited with creation of the beef-and-pasta casserole named after her brother-in-law, Johnny Marzetti.", "The restaurant's popular salad dressings became the foundation for the T. Marzetti Company, an international specialty foods manufacturer and distributor, headquartered in Columbus.===Cleveland===Cleveland's many immigrant groups and heavily blue-collar demographic have long played an important role in defining the area's cuisine.", "Ethnically, Italian foods as well as several Eastern European cuisines, particularly those of Poland and Hungary, have become gastronomical staples in the Greater Cleveland area.Prominent examples of these include cavatelli, rigatoni, pizza, Chicken paprikash, stuffed cabbage, pierogi, and kielbasa all of which are widely popular in and around the city.Local specialties, such as the pork-based dish City Chicken and the Polish Boy (a loaded sausage sandwich native to Cleveland), are dishes definitive of a cuisine that is based on hearty, inexpensive fare.", "Commercially, Hector Boiardi (aka Chef Boyardee) started his business in Cleveland's Little Italy.In Italian bakeries around the Cleveland area, a variation of the ''cassata'' cake is widely popular.", "This local version, commonly called the \"Cleveland-style cassata\", differs from the ''cassata siciliana'' in that it is made with layers of sponge cake, custard, and strawberries, then frosted with whipped cream.", "The cake is sold at bakeries throughout the Midwest region, including the Cleveland-area Corbo's, Presti's, and LaPuma Bakery (credited with creating the cake back in the 1920s).===Detroit===Competing, neighboring Coney Island hot dog restaurants in DetroitDetroit specialties include Coney Island hot dogs, found at hundreds of unaffiliated \"Coney Island\" restaurants.", "Not to be confused with a chili dog, a coney is served with a ground beef sauce, chopped onions, and mustard.The Coney Special has an additional ground beef topping.", "It is often served with French fries.", "Food writers Jane and Michael Stern call out Detroit as the only \"place to start\" in pinpointing \"the top Coney Islands in the land.", "\"alt=Detroit also has its own style of pizza, a thick-crusted, Sicilian cuisine-influenced, rectangular type called Detroit-style Pizza.", "Other Detroit foods include zip sauce, served on steaks; the triple-decker Dinty Moore sandwich, corned beef layered with lettuce, tomato and Russian dressing; and a Chinese-American dish called ''warr shu gai'' or almond boneless chicken, consisting of battered fried boneless chicken breasts served sliced on a bed of lettuce with a gravy-like chicken flavored sauce and slivered almonds.The Detroit area has many large groups of immigrants.", "A large Arabic-speaking population reside in and around the suburb of Dearborn, home to many Lebanese storefronts.Detroit also has a substantial number of Greek restaurateurs.", "Thus, numerous Mediterranean restaurants dot the region and typical foods such as gyros, hummus, and falafel can be found in many run-of-the-mill grocery stores and restaurants.A Coney Island hot dogPolish food is also prominent in the region, including popular dishes such as pierogi, borscht, and ''pączki''.", "Bakeries concentrated in the Polish enclave of Hamtramck, Michigan, within the city, are celebrated for their ''pączki,'' especially on Fat Tuesday.", "Hungarian food is featured in nearby eastern Toledo, Ohio with Tony Packo's Hungarian hot dog, a form of ''kolbász''.===Kansas City===Kansas City is an important barbecue and meat-processing center with a distinctive barbecue style.", "The Kansas City metropolitan area has more than 100 barbecue restaurants and proclaims itself to be the \"world's barbecue capital.", "\"The Kansas City Barbeque Society spreads its influence across the nation through its barbecue-contest standards.", "Kansas City's barbecue craze can be traced back to Henry Perry, who in the early 1920s started barbecuing in an outdoor pit adjacent to his streetcar barn===St.", "Louis===Pork steaks cookingThe large number of Irish and German immigrants who came to St. Louis beginning in the early 19th century contributed significantly to the shaping of local cuisine by their uses of beef, pork, and chicken, often roasted or grilled, and desserts including rich cakes, stollens, fruit pies, doughnuts, and cookies.", "A local form of fresh-stick pretzel, called Gus's Pretzels, has been sold singly and by the bagful by street-corner vendors.", "Mayfair salad dressing was a mainstay at a St. Louis hotel of the same name, and one of the original recipes from the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.St.", "Louis is also known for popularizing the ice cream cone and for inventing gooey butter cake (a rich, soft-centered coffee cake) and frozen custard.", "Iced tea is also rumored to have been invented at the World's Fair, as well as the hot dog bun.A staple of grilling in St. Louis is the pork steak, which is sliced from the shoulder of the pig and often basted with or simmered in barbecue sauce during cooking.", "Other popular grilled items include crispy snoots, cut from the cheeks and nostrils of the pig; bratwurst; and Italian sausage, often referred to as \"sah-zittsa,\" a localization of its Italian name, ''salsiccia''.", "Maull's is a popular brand of barbecue sauce in the St. Louis area.", "Restaurants on The Hill reflect the lasting influence of the early 20th-century Milanese and Sicilian immigrant community.", "Two unique Italian-American style dishes include \"toasted\" ravioli, which is breaded and fried, and St. Louis-style pizza, which has a crisp, thin crust and is usually made with Provel cheese instead of traditional mozzarella.A poor boy sandwich is the traditional name in St. Louis for a submarine sandwich.", "A St. Paul sandwich is a St. Louis sandwich, available in Chinese-American restaurants.", "A slinger is a diner and late-night specialty consisting of eggs, hash browns, and hamburger, topped with chili, cheese, and onion.=== Milwaukee ===Traditional cuisine in Wisconsin was influenced by the European immigration there, so much, that it could be considered the \"most European in the United States\".", "Foods frequently considered comfort foods, and foods signature to Wisconsin culture in Milwaukee include cheese dishes, butter burgers, beer, Bloody Marys, beer soup, cheese curds, fish fry, and bratwursts.", "There is a sizeable amount of farms spread across Wisconsin for dairy, corn, and meat production.===Twin Cities of Minnesota===Once known as \"Mill City\", homemade breads and pies feature prominently in Minneapolis cuisine.", "Bread and cakes available at the Eagle Bakery in 1850 included fruitcake, pound cake and something called \"Fancy cake\" for the holidays.", "In the 1930s, there were four Jewish bakeries within a few blocks of each other baking bagels and other fresh breads.", "Jewish families purchased ''challah'' loaves for their Sabbath meal at the North Side Bakery.", "There were two kosher meat markets and four Jewish delicatessens, one of which began distribution for what would become Sara Lee frozen cheesecakes.", "The delis sold sandwiches like corned beef and salami.Minneapolis is more racially and ethnically diverse than the rest of Minnesota.", "For the diverse ethnic groups that call Minneapolis home, retaining their distinct ethnic culture remains a goal that is supported by ethnic-oriented community organizations.", "Celebrating ethnic holidays and get togethers by preparing traditional foods remains a major symbol of cultural retention.", "It is a way people share their heritage and culture with outsiders.", "There are a plethora of restaurants serving ethnic cuisines.Today, there are many restaurants serving various Polish dishes like polish sausage, pierogies and stuffed cabbage rolls.", "and typical German foods like ''rippchen'', ''knackwurst'', and ''wienerschnitzel''.", "Traditionally, potato salad and kraut were served alongside an entree of bratwurst or ham hocks.", "A side of ''spaetzle'' and red cabbage would accompany ''sauerbraten'' or ''rouladen''.In the fall, the Twin Cities share along with Green Bay, Wisconsin, the tradition of the neighborhood booyah, a cuisine and cultural event featuring a hodge-podge of ingredients in stews.American restaurants in the Twin Cities supply a wide spectrum of choices and styles that range from small diners, sports bars and decades-old supper clubs to high-end steakhouses and eateries that serve new American cuisine using locally grown ingredients.", "The Jucy Lucy (or \"Juicy Lucy\"), claimed as an innovation of the local pubs, is a hamburger with a core of melted cheese.", "Barbecue restaurants in the area tend to feature a combination of the various regional styles of this type of cooking.Minneapolis and St. Paul also offer a diverse array of cuisines influenced by their many immigrant groups.", "In the 1970s the Twin Cities saw a large influx of Southeast Asian immigrants from Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam.", "Asian cuisine was initially dominated by Chinese Cantonese immigrants that served Americanized offerings.", "In 1883 Woo Yee Sing and his younger brother, Woo Du Sing, opened the Canton Cafe in Minneapolis, the first Chinese restaurant in Minnesota.", "Authentic offerings began at the influential Nankin Cafe which opened in 1919, and many new Chinese immigrants soon took this cuisine throughout the Twin Cities and to the suburbs.", "The cuisine of Japan has been present since the opening of the area's very first Japanese restaurant, Fuji Ya in 1959.Since 1976 Supenn Supatanskinkasem has been cooking and serving Thai food through her Minnesota State Fair Booth, Siam Café, and Sawatdee chain of Thai restaurants.", "Modern dining options include ''phở'' noodle shops, ''banh mi'' and Thai curry restaurants.Restaurants offering other cuisines of Asia including those from Afghanistan, India, Nepal and the Philippines are also recent additions to the Twin Cities dining scene.", "Local ingredients are often integrated into Asian offerings, for example Chinese steamed walleye and Nepalese curried bison.", "Mexican and Tex-Mex restaurants serve ''tacos'', ''tortas'', ''tamales'' and other similar dishes.", "Cuisines from Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Peru and the Spanish Speaking West Indies are also represented, as well as Native American cuisine.The Twin Cities are home to many restaurants that serve the cuisines of the Mediterranean, Middle East and Northeast Africa including, Greek, Ethiopian and Somalia have also opened a number of restaurants in Minnesota.West-African immigrants have brought their own cuisine in recent years.", "There is also a presence of Afro-Caribbean restaurants, with the famed Nicollet Avenue in Minneapolis being home to two Caribbean restaurants.===Omaha===A Reuben sandwich is a hot sandwich of corned beef or pastrami, sauerkraut and Swiss cheese, with Russian or Thousand Island dressing on rye breadOmaha is known for its steakhouses, many of which have closed.Central European and Southern influences can be seen in the local popularity of carp and South 24th Street contains a multitude of Mexican restaurants.", "North Omaha also has its own barbecue style.Omaha is one of the places claiming to have invented the reuben sandwich, supposedly named for Reuben Kulakofsky, a grocer from the Dundee neighborhood.Godfather's Pizza is one of the chain restaurants that originated in Omaha.The cheese frenchee is also a local favorite and staple, originating from the original King's Food Host fast-food restaurants." ], [ "Regional specialties", "===Illinois===The Horseshoe sandwich originates from Springfield, IllinoisEarly settlement in Illinois along the Ohio River included farm owners, tenant farmers and sharecroppers.", "The lowest rung were called \"river rats\", similar to folks who lived along the Illinois River foraging for clams and mussels, mostly German, Irish, English and Appalachian.", "During winter months when fish, clams and mussels were inaccessible the \"river people\", or alternately \"shantyboat dwellers\" hunted possums, beaver or raccoons.", "Lower-income families consumed less milk, meat and eggs in general.", "Whole milk was usually not available outside wealthy families, but children were sometimes given skimmed milk.Beans, pork, and potatoes were dietary staples in Southern Illinois.", "Fried eggs, fried pork, biscuits, fruit preserves and coffee were traditional breakfast foods.", "Dinner options consisted of boiled or fried potatoes, green beans cooked in fat, boiled pork, fried fat pork, sliced tomatoes, lettuce wilted with vinegar, macaroni with tomatoes, pie and cake.German settlers arriving in the 19th century brought foods like wienerschnitzel, sauerbraten, potato pancakes, rouladen, bratwurst, liverwurst.", "hasenpfeffer, liver dumplings, cakes like Black Forest cake, Lebkuchen and Schnecken, strudel and cookie recipes like Sandbakelse and Pfeffernüsse.By 1890, fish from the Illinois river were being sent upstream to Chicago for sale in commercial markets on the east coast.", "Carp and buffalo fish were used to make gefilte fish or fried carp in cornmeal batter.The horseshoe sandwich is rarely seen outside Springfield, Illinois.", "The original version from Springfield was an open-faced sandwich made a horseshoe-shaped ham steak and two pieces of white toast but it is available with other types of meat also like chicken cutlets or hamburger.", "The sandwich is served with a cheese sauce similar to Welsh rarebit and french fries.===Indiana===Indiana claims shoreline along Lake Michigan so freshwater fish like perch and walleye have a place on local menus.", "Biscuits and gravy, topped with sausage gravy, can be found at diners throughout the state, sometimes served with eggs on the side, or other breakfast sides like home fries.Chicken and noodles (or beef and noodles) are served over mashed potatoes.", "An original amish dish of chicken or beef and noodles can be ordered at the renown Das Dutchman Essenhaus restaurant in Middlebury, Indiana.", "German pubs serve traditional fare like sausages, schnitzels, rouladen, and sauerbraten.", "Fried brain sandwich is not very common any more but was more widely available in the past.", "It was first brought to Evansville by German immigrants.Indiana produces roughly 25,000 gallons of maple syrup each year, making it a popular condiment for different sweet and savory foods.Fried biscuits are a specialty of the state, served with cinnamon sugar and spiced apple butter.", "Deep-fried pork tenderloin and fried bologna sandwiches are popular in Indianapolis and other parts of the state.", "Turkey and Beef Manhattan dishes originated in Indianapolis and can be found in diners across the state.Fried chicken is a staple of after-church dinner on Sundays (Indiana's version uses more black pepper than most).", "A popular dish seen almost exclusively in Indiana is sugar cream pie (also called Hoosier pie) which most likely originated in the state's Amish community.", "Some say it originated with the Shaker settlements along Indiana's eastern border with Ohio.", "Sometimes called \"desperation pie\", the simple milk and sugar pie may be related to the Amish Bob Andy pie, Pennsylvania's shoo-fly pie and North Carolina's brown sugar pie.", "Persimmon pudding made with sweet, wild persimmons is a typical Thanksgiving dish in Indiana.Indiana produces more popcorn than any other state except Nebraska.A common Breakfast food found throughout Indiana is fried cornmeal mush, a dish consisting of cornmeal which is boiled, then cut into pieces and fried in oil.", "The dish is normally served with maple syrup or molasses on top.===Iowa===Pork tenderloin sandwich as served in Cedar Rapids, IowaWhen French Icarians arrived in the 19th century their simple meals were put together using just a few basics: milk, butter, bacon and corn bread.", "The Amana Colony settled on the rich soils of Iowa and until the 1930s their meals were provided by communal kitchens supplied by the village orchards, communal gardens, vineyards, bakery, smokehouse and dairy.Iowa's last communal meal was served in 1932.Traditional recipes from Amana's communal kitchens include radish salad, apple bread, strawberry rhubarb pie, and dumpling soup.Danish immigrants brought apple cake and spherical ''æbleskiver'' pancakes.", "Dutch letters, pastries filled with almond paste and shaped like an 'S,' are also common in Iowa, although they were historically only made for Sinterklaas Day.", "Iowa's Dutch bakeries offer other baked goods like speculaas and boter koek.Czech immigrants contributed pastry filled with sweetened fruit or cheese called ''kolaches''.", "''Kringla'', ''krumkake'' and ''lefse'' are found at church suppers throughout the holiday season when a typical lutefisk dinner would include mashed potatoes, cranberry salad, corn, rutabaga, ''rommegrot'', meatballs with gravy, and Norwegian pastry for dessert.Recipes compiled and published by the ''Des Moines Register'' include salmon mousse, fresh gazpacho, apple coleslaw, cabbage n' macaroni slaw, other slaws, soups, and dips, and various salads like turkey-melon, shrimp-yogurt and pasta-blackbean, including one gelatin-based salad made with 7Up, lemon-lime gelatin, crushed pineapple, marshmallow and bananas.", "Other gelatin based salads included blueberry salad and a \"Good Salad\" which included a mix of puddings, orange gelatin and citrus fruits.Sliced pickle wraps or roll-ups made with dill pickles wrapped in cream cheese and ham may have derived from German cuisine.Basic soups included cauliflower-cheddar garnished with scallions, cream of carrot made with milk and rice, and beef noodle soup made with frozen vegetables and beef bouillon.Various beverage offerings included cool apple-mint tea, German beer, a citrus mix that included orange juice, lemonade powder and club soda, as well as coffee flavored with cinnamon.The state is the center for loose-meat sandwiches, also called tavern sandwiches and appearing on many menus by each restaurant's unique name for them.", "They originated in the region in the Ye Olde Tavern restaurant in 1934 before being popularized by Maid-Rite in 1936, which now has franchises in other Midwestern states.", "The original Maid Rite sandwich from the 1920s is a ground meat sandwich with pickles, ketchup, mustard, and onions.", "Hot beef sandwich is made with leftover pot roast topped with gravy and mashed potatoes.Iowa is the leading pork producer in the United States.", "This is reflected in Iowan cuisine, which includes the pork tenderloin sandwich (or simply \"pork tenderloin\"), consisting of a lean section of boneless pork loin pounded flat, breaded, and deep fried before being served on a seeded hamburger bun with any or all of ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, and dill pickle slices.", "It is a popular \"fair food\" at the Iowa State Fair where the meat of a pork tenderloin sandwich is often far larger than the area of the bun.", "Burgers are made with local beef.Iowa is the leader in corn production in the United States, also leading in production of eggs and pork.", "One well-known variety of sweet corn grown in Iowa is the bi-color peaches and cream.Rhubarb grows well in Iowa and is used for sauces, jams, cakes and pies.", "Heirloom varieties like Green Moldovan tomatoes, St. Valery carrot and Cimarron lettuce are still grown at the Plum Grove Historic Site.Locally brewed beers like pale ale and lager varieties are made with wheat and barley.===Kansas===Potluck suppers, farmhouse meals and after-church Sunday dinners are part of the food culture of Kansas.", "Smoked brisket, pork shoulder, short ribs, hot wings, and fried chicken are served with sides like macaroni and cheese, mashed potatoes, string beans, jalapeno poppers, jello salads, and cheesy potatoes and some places still offer whole hog barbecue.", "Kansas is a cattle producing state so pot roasts and steak dinners are staples of the local diet.Classic comfort foods like fried chicken and chicken fried steak are standard diner fare.", "Chili is served alongside cinnamon rolls in a commonly found but unlikely pairing.", "Breakfast burritos are filled with scrambled eggs and fillings like potatoes, salsa, cheese and tomatillos.", "Other offerings include pastor, carnitas, carne asada, pork rind and tinga.Pies include cherry pie, coconut meringue pie and coconut cream pie.", "''Bierock'' is a stuffed yeast bread filled with sausage, ground beef, cabbage and onion that was introduced by Volga Germans.", "It was a hearty, portable lunch for field laborers.", "Today, it can be found in varieties like garlic chicken or vegetable.Similarly, the Czech pastry kolaches are yeast buns available with a range of fruit and cheese based fillings like prune, apricot, cottage cheese, cherry, apple, peach and poppy seed.", "Cake doughnuts like pumpkin spice, maple, and caramel apple are produced seasonally.====Alcoholic beverages====As of November 2006, Kansas still has 29 dry counties and only 17 counties have passed liquor-by-the-drink without a food sales requirement.", "Today there are more than 2600 liquor and 4000 cereal malt beverage licensees in the state.===Michigan===Michigan is a large producer of asparagus, a vegetable crop widespread in spring.", "Western and northern Michigan are notable in the production of apples, blueberries, and cherries.", "The Northwestern region of Michigan's Lower Peninsula accounts for approximately 75 percent of the U.S. crop of tart cherries, usually about 250 million pounds (11.3 Gg).", "A popular dish, Michigan chicken salad, includes cherries and often apples.", "Fruit salsas are also popular, with cherry salsa being especially prominent.Michigan's wine and beer industries are substantial in the region.", "The Traverse City area is a popular destination to visit wineries and the state makes many varieties of wine, such as Rieslings, ice wines, and fruit wines.", "Micro-breweries continue to blossom, creating a wide range of unique beers.", "Grand Rapids was voted Beer City USA 2013 in the Beer City USA poll, with Founders being the largest of Grand Rapids' breweries.", "Bell's, another large Michigan craft brewery, is located further south in Kalamazoo.Michigan is the home of both Post and Kellogg, with Battle Creek being called Cereal City.", "Vernor's ginger ale and Faygo pop also originate in Michigan.", "Vernor's ginger ale is often used as a home remedy for an upset stomach.", "Additionally, two of the three largest pizza companies in the world, Little Caesars and Domino's Pizza, both originate in Michigan.Coney Islands, a diner originating with Greek immigrants in Detroit, are fairly common throughout the state.", "A coney is a natural-casing hot dog on a bun, topped with raw onion, mustard, and coney sauce, a type of chili.", "Cheese may be added as well and variations are found throughout the state, with each city claiming theirs is the best.These diners usually also have gyros served with cucumber or honey-mustard sauce, as well as hamburgers, sandwiches, breakfast, and dinner entrees.", "Most Coney Islands are open 24 hours and are a popular place to get a late or early coffee.In Polish communities throughout the state, ''pączki'' can be found every year on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) in a wide assortment of flavors including lemon, blueberry, prune, and custard.", "Pierogis, goulash, and Polish-style sausage are common specialties in many restaurants.Fish fries are common on Fridays and during Lent, usually set up buffet-style with items including rolls, potatoes (typically in the form of french fries and mashed), salad, coleslaw, apple sauce, deep-fried fish, and sometimes fried shrimp and baked fish.Fish is generally popular throughout the state due to the state's location on four of the Great Lakes.", "Trout, walleye, perch, and catfish are common.", "Whitefish is a regional specialty usually offered along the coast, with smoked whitefish and whitefish dip being noteworthy.Cornish immigrant miners introduced the pasty to Michigan's Upper Peninsula (U.P.)", "as a convenient meal to take to work in the numerous copper, silver, and nickel mines of that region.", "The pasty is today considered iconic of the U.P.Fudge is commonly sold in tourist areas, with Mackinac Island being most famous for its fudge, traditionally chocolate, but there is a wide variety of flavors from mint to maple and may include nuts, fruit, or other candy pieces.===Minnesota===A Tater Tot hotdish at the Saint Paul, Minnesota, Winter CarnivalMinnesota is known for its church potlucks, where hotdish is often served.", "Hotdish is any of a variety of casserole dishes, which are popular throughout the United States, although the term \"hotdish\" is used mainly in Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Dakota, and South Dakota.", "Hotdishes are filling comfort foods that are convenient and easy to make.", "\"Tater Tot Hotdish\" is a popular dish, and as Minnesota is one of the leading producers of wild rice, wild rice hotdishes are quite popular.", "Dessert bars are the second of the two essentials for potlucks in Minnesota.", "Other dishes include glorified rice, German baked apples and cookie salad.Walleye, trout, herring, crappie, lutefisk, wild rice, raspberry, blueberry and strawberry are preferred ingredients in modern Minnesotan cuisine.", "Typical sides include mashed potatoes, pickles, jello salad, locally grown boiled new potatoes seasoned with fresh herbs or horseradish, baked beans, and vegetables like sweet corn on the cob, or buttered peas, carrots and green beans.", "Preferred to rice or pasta, potatoes are often served alongside buttered rolls and homemade strawberry jam.Food selections served at the annual Minnesota State Fair in past years have included watermelon pickles, baked beans, hot dogs, buffalo burgers, deep-fried cheese curds, glazed ham and homemade apple pie New foods for 2019 included fried tacos on a stick, Turkish pizza, stuffed cabbage rolls, feta bites, shrimp and grits fritters, blueberry key lime pie and assorted other dessert selections.Scandinavian cuisine has had a significant impact on the cuisine of Minnesota.", "The cafe at the American Swedish Institute serves Swedish dishes like gravlax with dill, potato dumplings and Swedish meatballs with lingonberry jam.", "Among the state's most iconic dishes are ''lefse'' and ''lutefisk''.", "Made from stockfish (air-dried whitefish) and soda lye (''lut''), the dish was brought to the state by Scandinavian immigrants.", "''Lefse'' is a Norwegian flatbread made from flour, potatoes, cream and butter, and in Minnesota it is commonly prepared for Christmas dinner.", "Scandinavian rice pudding is also served during the holidays.In northern Minnesota, along the North Shore of Lake Superior, commercial fishing has been practiced for generations.", "Settlers were used to the cold, rugged work as many of these immigrants came directly from the coastal fishing villages of Norway.", "Ciscoes (also known as lake herring), lake trout, lake whitefish, and rainbow smelt are still commercially fished today.", "Smoked or sugar-cured trout is prepared from local fish in areas along the North Shore like Duluth.", "Walleye is the state fish of Minnesota and it is common to find it on restaurant menus.", "Battered and deep-fried is a popular preparation for walleye, as is grilling.", "Many restaurants feature walleye on their Friday night fish fry.Letters and household accounts of Minnesota residents give details of mid-19th century frontier cuisine.", "A farmer's wife writes to her cousin about harvest in Rochester, Minnesota \"My hand is so tired perhaps you'll excuse penciling\", explaining she woke before four to skim milk, churn butter and bake \"6 loaves of bread & seven pumpkin pies\".", "In the 1850s supplies couldn't keep pace with settlement, though steamboats regularly brought in sugar-cured hams, oysters, herring, sardines, alcohol, salt pork and other supplies.", "In those days a full multi-course meal served for a special occasions would have started with a typical soup followed by a choice of local fish and the so-called \"boiled dishes\" like chicken with egg sauce, ham or corned beef.", "Entrees were followed by assorted roast meats served with cranberry sauce.", "Early Minnesotans used cranberries in pies, molded desserts and frozen confections.Arriving in the 19th century, immigrants from Eastern Europe opened delicatessens, bakeries and restaurants, and introduced dishes like ''varenyky'', ''krakowski'', poppy seed roll, ''kluski'', kolaches and stuffed cabbage rolls to the Midwest.", "German immigrants brought kohlrabi with them.", "Slovenian and Croatian immigrants brought the honey-nut bread called ''potica'' to the Iron Range region, which is also known for Cornish pasties.", "Porketta, a pork roast seasoned with fennel and garlic and served with either sliced or shredded like a pulled pork sandwich was brought to Minnesota and the Iron Range region by Italian immigrants.Minnesota's Black Diaspora is the most diverse in the United States, New halal butchers and African restaurants opened in Minneapolis after tens of thousands of African Americans arrived in Minnesota from other cities in the 1990s.", "The Safari Express is a Somali cuisine fast food spot that serves camel burgers and fries.", "Halal Hotdogs is a not for profit providing employment and job training to new immigrants.===Missouri===In Missouri, much of the cuisine is influenced by the various regions of the state.In the Ozarks you will find that country ham, fried chicken, catfish, and frog legs are popular entree choices served with fried potatoes, baked beans and biscuits.Mid-Missouri and Northern Missourians eat a lot of beef (steaks, hamburgers, meatloaf, and roasts) and pork (steak, roasts, chops, and BBQ); sides often include potatoes (baked, mashed, cheesy, fried) and green vegetables (green beans, asparagus, zucchini).Barbecue, mainly pork and beef, is popular in both St. Louis and Kansas City, as well as in much of the southern half of the state.In Southern Missouri, sweet tea is commonly available at restaurants, while in Northern Missouri most citizens prefer unsweetened tea.", "Missourians also love beer and bacon, with many businesses that specializing in these Missouri staples.St.", "Louis features toasted ravioli, St. Louis-style pizza, and gooey butter cake.", "Kansas City is known for their K.C.-style BBQ-sauced burnt ends.Another region is the Missouri Rhineland along the valley of the Missouri River, known for its wineries.", "Missourians love their regional wines and often eat summer sausage, cheese, and crackers while enjoying.Fishing is popular throughout the state, and fish fries are regular social events, often feature catfish, largemouth bass, and crappie.", "Fried potatoes, morel mushrooms (when in season), and onion rings are commonly fried as well at these social gatherings.For breakfast, Missourians enjoy bacon, country ham, and breakfast sausage with eggs, hash browns, and toast or biscuits.", "Biscuits and gravy, pancakes, and breakfast casseroles are also some favorites.===Nebraska===A significant population of Germans from Russia settled in Nebraska, leading to one of the state's most iconic dishes, the Runza sandwich.Large numbers of Czech immigrants, especially in southeastern Nebraska, influenced the culture and cuisine of the area.", "Wilber, Nebraska is the self-designated Czech Capital of the US and celebrates an annual Czech Days festival at which Czech food, such as kolaches, roast duck, and pork and dumplings, is served.In 2015, Nebraska resettled the largest number of refugees per capita in the United States, and Lincoln, Nebraska has been a significant resettlement location for refugees since the 1980s, particularly Vietnamese-Americans.A large Vietnamese-American population in Lincoln has created Vietnamese markets—which sell ingredients, such as fresh persimmon, not typically found in Midwestern grocery store chains—and Vietnamese restaurants which sell foods such as ''pho'' and ''bánh mì.", "''Nebraska is also known as the Cornhusker State in reference to the abundance of corn grown in the state.", "Corn is a common part of late-summer and autumnal meals in Nebraska in dishes such as corn souffle, corn chowder, cornbread, and corn on the cob.", "Early pioneers relied heavily on corn and cornmeal in everything from breads, (cornbread, corn mush rolls), to soups, (corn soup, Indian meal mush), and desserts, (green corn pudding, popcorn pudding, sweet corn cake).The cheese frenchee, a deep-fried cheese sandwich, was invented in Lincoln, Nebraska at a King's Food Host Restaurant in the 1950s.", "It went on to become a regional favorite.===North Dakota===Cuisine in North Dakota has been heavily influenced by both Norwegians and Germans from Russia, ethnic groups that have historically accounted for a large portion of North Dakota's population.", "Norwegian contributions to the state include lefse, lutefisk, krumkake, and rosettes.Much of the Norwegian-influenced cuisine is also common in Minnesota and other states where Norwegians and their descendants lived, although it may be the greater in North Dakota than any other state.Norwegians played a large role in settling the area, and nearly one-third of North Dakotans claim Norwegian ancestry.", "Norwegian ancestry was historically more widespread throughout the northern half and eastern third of North Dakota, and therefore plays a stronger role in local cuisine in those parts of the state.German-Russian cuisine is primarily influenced by that of the ''Schwarzmeerdeutsche'', or Black Sea Germans, who heavily populated south-central and southwestern North Dakota (an area known as the German-Russian Triangle), as well as areas of South Dakota.While large numbers of ''Wolgadeutsche'', Germans from Russia who lived near the Volga River in Russia (several hundred miles away from the Black Sea), also settled in the United States, they did not settle in large numbers in the Dakotas.Popular German-Russian cuisine includes ''kuchen'', a thin, cheesecake-like custard pastry often filled with fruit such as cherries, apricot, prunes, and sometimes cottage cheese.", "''Fleischkuekle'' (or ''fleischkuechle'') is a popular meat-filled thin flatbread that is deep-fried and served hot.", "Another German-Russian specialty in the area is ''knoephla'', a dumpling soup that almost always includes potatoes, and to a lesser extent, celery.===Ohio===Buckeye candyBuckeye candy is a confection popular in the state of Ohio; it is the local variation of a peanut butter cup.", "Coated in chocolate, with a partially exposed center of peanut butter fudge, in appearance the candy resembles the chestnut that grows on the state tree, commonly known as the Buckeye.Cincinnati-style chili is a Greek-inspired meat sauce, (ground beef seasoned with cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, bay leaf, cumin, chili powder, and in some home recipes, chocolate), used as a topping for spaghetti or hot dogs.", "Additionally, red beans, chopped onions, and shredded cheese are offered as extra toppings referred to as \"ways.", "\"A local specialty of Ohio are sauerkraut balls, meatball-sized fritter containing sauerkraut and some combination of ham, bacon, and pork.", "The recipe was invented in the late 1950s by two brothers, Max and Roman Gruber for their five-star restaurant, Gruber's, located in Shaker Heights, Ohio.", "These were a derivative of the various ethnic cultures of Northeast Ohio, which includes Akron and Greater Cleveland.An annual Sauerkraut Festival is held in Waynesville, Ohio.", "at which sauerkraut balls, along with other sauerkraut specialities, are served.Clam bakes are very popular in Northeast Ohio.", "The region, which was originally part of the Connecticut Western Reserve, was initially settled by people from Connecticut and other New England states.", "A typical Northeast Ohio clam bake typically includes clams, chicken, sweet potatoes, corn, and other side dishes.", "Unlike in New England, seaweed is not used and the clams, chicken, and sweet potatoes are all steamed together in a large pot.Barberton, Ohio, part of the greater Akron area, is a small industrial city and home of Barberton Chicken, a dish of chicken deep fried in lard that was created by Serbian immigrants.", "It is usually accompanied by a hot rice dish, vinegar coleslaw and french fries.=== South Dakota ===One of the most notable dishes being Rocky Mountain oysters, a dish made from bull testicles.", "Another dish is known as bierock, which is similar to meat-pie dishes of Central and Eastern Europe.Many South Dakotan desserts show their European influences.", "Kuchen, originating from Germany, has found a home amongst South Dakotans.", "Another dish, more tied to Native Americans, is ''wojapi'', a berry sauce from the Lakota tribes.", "''Wojapi'' sometimes accompanies frybread, which is associated with another dish known as Navajo tacos, where meat is served atop it.===Wisconsin===Wisconsin is \"America's Dairyland,\" and is home to numerous frozen custard stands, particularly around Milwaukee and along the Lake Michigan corridor.", "The state also has a special relationship with Blue Moon ice cream, being one of the only places the flavor can be found.", "While the flavor's origins are not well documented, it was most likely developed by flavor chemist Bill \"Doc\" Sidon of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.", "The state is also well known as a home to many cheesemakers.", "Colby cheese was created here in 1885.Arguably the most universal Wisconsin dessert would be the cream puff, a type of profiterole that is a famous treat at the Wisconsin State Fair.", "The southeastern Wisconsin city of Racine is known for its Danish kringle, a sweet flaky pastry often served as a dessert.The Friday night fish fry, often battered and fried perch or walleye, is traditional throughout Wisconsin, while in northeast Wisconsin along Lake Michigan, the Door County fish boil holds sway.Besides its \"Cheesehead\" status, Wisconsin has a reputation for alcohol consumption.", "Common traits of \"drinking culture\" are embedded in Wisconsin traditions, from festivals and holidays to everyday life.", "Many large breweries were founded in Wisconsin, largely in Milwaukee, which gained the epithet \"Brew City\" before the turn of the century: Miller, Pabst, Schlitz (all from and originally based in Milwaukee) and Leinenkugel all began as local favorites before entering the national and international markets.", "\"Booyah\" is another common and hearty Wisconsin meal, found especially in the Northeast region of the state.", "The origins of this dish are disputed, but the Wisconsin origin contends that the word is a vernacular Flemish or Walloon Belgian spelling of the French word ''bouillon'', in this context meaning \"broth.", "\"Wisconsin cuisine also features a large amount of sausage, or ''wurst''.", "The state is also a major producer and consumer of summer sausage, as well as the nation's top producer and consumer of brats." ], [ "Restaurants and pubs", "Dark ales have been consumed in America since Colonial times, while light-colored German lager was a mid-19th-century arrival.", "The beer hall did not become established in the United States until the arrival of German immigrants in the mid-19th century.", "Taverns were generally seen as rough places with an exclusively male clientele.The beer hall, on the other hand, was in German culture views as a place where working-class families drank and ate together in groups at large tables.", "It was well-lit and served traditional fare like sausages, ''sauerbraten'', ''rollmops'', sauerkraut and pickled herring.", "Beer halls continued in the Midwest after Prohibition.", "German potato salad and the potato dumplings commonly served in local pubs in present times.The origin of \"fast food\" is uncertain, but one possibility is a hamburger stand that was founded by Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas.", "Known today as White Castle, the fast-food chain began to spread throughout the Midwest, offering a simple menu with hamburgers, Coca-Cola and coffee.", "By the 1920s White Castle had become a nationally recognized chain, and until the 1940s White Castle-style architecture was standard for fast-food hamburger outlets throughout the United States.", "Other local burger chains include Winstead's, Max & Erma's and Schoop's Hamburgers.Cities like New York did not want fast food to compete with local establishments, but the expansion of suburbs in the 1950s allowed fast-food franchises to grow into areas that lacked restaurants.", "The popularity of Midwestern fast food like the iconic pizza and burgers started as a rejection of the drive-in model.", "\"Car hops\" were replaced by the franchise model, including McDonald's, Wendy's, Domino's and Pizza Hut.", "(McDonald's was originally founded in California in 1940, but purchased by Ray Kroc and moved to Des Plaines, Illinois in 1955.)", "The growth of these franchises was bolstered by the development of interstate roads through the Midwest.Several restaurant chains have roots in the Minneapolis-St.Paul area, including Famous Dave's, and the now defunct Chi-Chi's and Buca di Beppo, which was started out of a small Minneapolis basement in 1993.Portillo's Restaurants is another Midwestern fast-food chain known for its hot dogs.", "Lion's Choice is best known for its roast beef sandwiches.", "The chain is based mostly in Missouri, with locations in Kansas and Illinois.", "Wisconsin chain Culver's is known for its frozen custard and root beer.", "Culver's has been recognized for their use of local dairy products like cheese and butter.", "Happy Joe's is known for its taco pizza and has restaurants in several Midwestern states.", "Other notable chains include Harold's Chicken Shack, Skyline Chili, Spangles, Big John Steak & Onion, Graeter's, Maid-Rite and Cousins Subs.Pizzerias serving deep-dish pizza include Gino's East, Giordano's Pizzeria and Buddy's Pizza, though the latter only has stores in Michigan.", "Papa John's started by selling pizzas out of a Jeffersonville, Indiana pub." ], [ "Dishes", "Ingredients commonly used in the Midwestern states include beef, pork, potatoes and corn.", "While not all exclusive to the Midwest, these dishes are typical of Midwestern foods, and often feature uniquely Midwestern preparation styles.", "* 7-layer dip* Apple pie* Barbecue* Beans* Beef, especially steak, pot roast and prime rib* Bread-and-butter pickles* Beer* Beer cheese soup* Biscuits* Biscuits and gravy* Brandy* Bratwurst* Buckeyes* Butter cake* Cabbage* Cabbage roll, also known as stuffed cabbage* City Chicken, commonly used: fried pork or veal on wood skewers native to Ohio * Cheese, including cheese curds* Chicken Vesuvio* Chicken paprikash* Chislic* Cole slaw* Coney Island hot dog* Cornbread* Deep-fried bacon* Diner fare* Door County fish boil* Doughnuts* Duck* Graham bread* Freshwater fish, including catfish, perch, trout, walleye and whitefish and other panfish, often breaded and fried* Fried chicken* Frozen custard* Fruit, especially apples, blueberries, cherries, cranberries, peaches and strawberries* Fruit wines* Fruit pies* German potato salad* Goulash* Hamburgers* Head cheese* Horseshoe sandwich* Hotdish or casseroles* Ice cream cone* Italian beef* Jello salads* Johnny cake* Johnny Marzetti* Lefse* Lutefisk* Maple syrup* Meatloaf* Morels* Pancakes* Pasties* Pea salad* Persimmon pudding* Pierogi* Pigs in a blanket* Pizza, with several regional styles* Pork* Potatoes, including mashed potatoes, potato pancakes, and potato salads* Ranch dressing* Ramps* Roast beef* Sauerbraten* Sauerkraut* Sausage, including bratwurst, kielbasa, summer sausage, ring bologna, and other ethnic types, as well as hot dogs, with several regional styles* Shrimp DeJonghe* Sponge cake* Steak* Stollen* Sugar cream pie* Sweet corn, on-the-cob, in creamed corn and in corn relish* Turkey* Wild rice" ], [ "See also", "* List of regional dishes of the United States" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Eating Habitats" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moor''' or '''Moors''' may refer to:" ], [ "Nature and ecology", "* Moorland, a habitat characterized by low-growing vegetation and acidic soils." ], [ "Ethnic and religious groups", "* Moors, Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta during the Middle Ages* Moors, a variant name for Melungeon (tri-racial isolate groups) in colonial North America* Moorish Orthodox Church of America, a syncretic, non-exclusive, and religious anarchist movement * Moorish Science Temple of America, an African-American Muslim religious group* Mouros da Terra, native or half-native coastal Muslims in south India such as Mappila (Mouros Malabares/Moors Mopulars)* Sri Lankan Moor, a minority Muslim group in Sri Lanka* United Nuwaubian Nation of Moors, an American religious group founded and led by Dwight York, which includes (among others) Yamassee Native American Moors of the Creek Nation" ], [ "People with the name", "* Karl Marx, 19th century German philosopher and communist.", "Was known as “The Moor” by family and friends because of his darker complexion.", "* Davey Ray Moor, Australian songwriter, singer, composer and producer* David Moor (1947–2000), British general practitioner who was prosecuted for the euthanasia of a patient* David Moor (cricketer) (born 1934), English cricketer* Dmitry Moor (1883–1946), professional name of Dmitry Stakhievich Orlov, Russian artist* Drew Moor (born 1984), American soccer player* Edward Moor (1771–1848), British soldier and Indologist* Els Moor (1937–2016), Surinamese educator, editor and book publisher * Emánuel Moór (1863–1931), Hungarian composer* Felix Moor (1903–1955), Estonian journalist and actor * George Raymond Dallas Moor (1896–1918), recipient of the Victoria Cross* Henry Moor (1809–1877), Mayor of Melbourne* Ian Moor (born 1974), English singer* James H. Moor, American philosopher* Karl Moor (Swiss banker) (1853–1932), Swiss Communist* Lova Moor (born 1946), French dancer, real name Marie-Claude Jourdain* Marie Möör, French singer* Paul Moor (born 1978), British Ten-pin Bowler* Peter Moor (born 1991), Zimbabwean cricketer* Terry Moor (born 1952), American tennis player* William Moor (died 1765), Canadian sailor and explorer* Wyman Moor (1811–1869), American politician" ], [ "Places", "* Moor, Nevada, United States* Moor, the German spelling of Mór, a town in Fejér county, Hungary* Moor Crichel, a village in southwest England* Moor Island, uninhabited Canadian Arctic Archipelago islands in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut* The Moor, Hawkhurst, a village green in Kent, England* The Moor Quarter, a street in Sheffield, England* Lower Moor, Village in Worcestershire, England" ], [ "Animals", "* Black Telescope (or Black Moor), a variety of goldfish* Moor frog, native to Europe and Asia" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "* ''Moor'' (film), a 2015 Pakistani drama by Jamshed Mehmood* ''The Moor'' (novel), the fourth book in Mary Russell detective series by Laurie R. King* \"The Moor\" (''The Borgias''), a 2011 episode of the television series ''The Borgias''* Berber the Moor, a character in ''The Bastard Executioner''*''The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice'', a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603 and based on a story of Cinthio* ''Un Capitano Moro'' (\"A Moorish Captain\"), a story by Cinthio (Giovanni Battista Giraldi), first published in 1565* \"Moor\", a song by American metalcore band Every Time I Die from the album ''From Parts Unknown''* \"The Moor\", a song by Swedish metal band Opeth from the album ''Still Life''" ], [ "Other uses", "* Mooring (watercraft), any permanent structure to which a vessel may be secured * Moors murders, murders of five children by Ian Brady and Myra Hindley between July 1963 and October 1965, in and around Manchester, England* Massive online open research* Red Moors, a Sardinian political party* Moors Sundry Act of 1790, advisory resolution passed by South Carolina House of Representatives, clarifying the status of free subjects of the Sultan of Morocco" ], [ "See also", "* Andy Moor (disambiguation)* Ben Moor (disambiguation)* Blackamoors (disambiguation)* De Moor* Moor End (disambiguation)* Moore (disambiguation)* MOR (disambiguation)* Mór (disambiguation)* More (disambiguation)* More (surname)* The Moor (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mitosis" ], [ "Introduction", "Mitosis in the animal cell cycle (phases ordered counter-clockwise).Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.Label-free live cell imaging of mesenchymal stem cells undergoing mitosisOnion cells in different phases of the cell cycle enlarged 800 diameters.", "a. non-dividing cellsb.", "nuclei preparing for division (spireme-stage) c. dividing cells showing mitotic figures e. pair of daughter-cells shortly after division'''Mitosis''' () is a part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei.", "Cell division by mitosis is an equational division which gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained.", "Mitosis is preceded by the S phase of interphase (during which DNA replication occurs) and is followed by telophase and cytokinesis; which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane of one cell into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.", "The different stages of mitosis altogether define the '''mitotic phase''' (M phase) of a cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next.", "These stages are preprophase (specific to plant cells), prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.", "During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated during interphase, condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell.", "The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei.", "The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells.", "The different phases of mitosis can be visualized in real time, using live cell imaging.An error in mitosis can result in the production of three or more daughter cells instead of the normal two.", "This is called tripolar mitosis and multipolar mitosis respectively.", "These errors can be the cause of non-viable embryos that fail to implant.", "Other errors during mitosis can induce mitotic catastrophe, apoptosis (programmed cell death) or cause mutations.", "Certain types of cancers can arise from such mutations.Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells and varies between organisms.", "For example, animal cells undergo an open mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, whereas fungal cells undergo a closed mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.", "Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis.", "Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division.", "Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis.", "Prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea which lack a true nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission." ], [ "Discovery", "Numerous descriptions of cell division were made during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy.", "In 1835, the German botanist Hugo von Mohl, described cell division in the green algae ''Cladophora glomerata'', stating that multiplication of cells occurs through cell division.", "In 1838, Matthias Jakob Schleiden affirmed that \"formation of new cells ''in their interior'' was a general rule for cell multiplication in plants\", a view later rejected in favour of Mohl's model, due to contributions of Robert Remak and others.In animal cells, cell division with mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875.Bütschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as \"mitosis\".", "In 1873, the German zoologist Otto Bütschli published data from observations on nematodes.", "A few years later, he discovered and described mitosis based on those observations.The term \"mitosis\", coined by Walther Flemming in 1882, is derived from the Greek word μίτος (''mitos'', \"warp thread\").", "There are some alternative names for the process, e.g., \"karyokinesis\" (nuclear division), a term introduced by Schleicher in 1878, or \"equational division\", proposed by August Weismann in 1887.However, the term \"mitosis\" is also used in a broad sense by some authors to refer to karyokinesis and cytokinesis together.", "Presently, \"equational division\" is more commonly used to refer to meiosis II, the part of meiosis most like mitosis." ], [ "Phases", "===Overview===Time-lapse video of mitosis in a ''Drosophila melanogaster'' embryoThe primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell's genome into two daughter cells.", "The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function.", "Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis.", "This occurs during the S phase of interphase.", "Chromosome duplication results in two identical ''sister chromatids'' bound together by cohesin proteins at the ''centromere''.When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible.", "In some eukaryotes, for example animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles.", "The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears.", "Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell.", "The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart.", "Sister chromatids at this point are called ''daughter chromosomes''.", "As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase.", "A new nuclear envelope forms around each set of daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei.During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis.", "In animal cells, a cell membrane pinches inward between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells.", "In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei.", "Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis.===Interphase===The interphase is a much longer phase of the cell cycle than the relatively short M phase.", "During interphase the cell prepares itself for the process of cell division.", "Interphase is divided into three subphases: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and G2 (second gap).", "During all three parts of interphase, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles.", "However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase.", "Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G2), and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle.", "All these phases in the cell cycle are highly regulated by cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, and other cell cycle proteins.", "The phases follow one another in strict order and there are cell cycle checkpoints that give the cell cues to proceed or not, from one phase to another.", "Cells may also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G0 phase to stop dividing.", "This can occur when cells become overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when they differentiate to carry out specific functions for the organism, as is the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons.", "Some G0 cells have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle.DNA double-strand breaks can be repaired during interphase by two principal processes.", "The first process, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), can join the two broken ends of DNA in the G1, S and G2 phases of interphase.", "The second process, homologous recombinational repair (HRR), is more accurate than NHEJ in repairing double-strand breaks.", "HRR is active during the S and G2 phases of interphase when DNA replication is either partially accomplished or after it is completed, since HRR requires two adjacent homologs.Interphase helps prepare the cell for mitotic division.", "It dictates whether the mitotic cell division will occur.", "It carefully stops the cell from proceeding whenever the cell's DNA is damaged or has not completed an important phase.", "The interphase is very important as it will determine if mitosis completes successfully.", "It will reduce the amount of damaged cells produced and the production of cancerous cells.", "A miscalculation by the key Interphase proteins could be crucial as the latter could potentially create cancerous cells.===Mitosis===Stages of early mitosis in a vertebrate cell with micrographs of chromatids====Preprophase (plant cells)====In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a preprophase stage.", "In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin.", "This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division.", "In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle.", "This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide.", "The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down.", "The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase.====Prophase====Interphase nucleus (left), condensing chromosomes (middle) and condensed chromosomes (right)Prophase during mitosisDuring prophase, which occurs after G2 interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation.", "During interphase, the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin.", "At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a light microscope.", "In this stage, chromosomes are long, thin, and thread-like.", "Each chromosome has two chromatids.", "The two chromatids are joined at the centromere.Gene transcription ceases during prophase and does not resume until late anaphase to early G1 phase.", "The nucleolus also disappears during early prophase.Close to the nucleus of an animal cell are structures called centrosomes, consisting of a pair of centrioles susurrounded by a loose collection of proteins.", "The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's microtubules.", "A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division, which is duplicated by the cell before a new round of mitosis begins, giving a pair of centrosomes.", "The two centrosomes polymerize tubulin to help form a microtubule spindle apparatus.", "Motor proteins then push the centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite sides of the cell.", "Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they are not essential for the formation of the spindle apparatus, since they are absent from plants, and are not absolutely required for animal cell mitosis.====Prometaphase====At the beginning of prometaphase in animal cells, phosphorylation of nuclear lamins causes the nuclear envelope to disintegrate into small membrane vesicles.", "As this happens, microtubules invade the nuclear space.", "This is called ''open mitosis'', and it occurs in some multicellular organisms.", "Fungi and some protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a variation called ''closed mitosis'' where the spindle forms inside the nucleus, or the microtubules penetrate the intact nuclear envelope.In late prometaphase, ''kinetochore microtubules'' begin to search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores.", "A ''kinetochore'' is a proteinaceous microtubule-binding structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere during late prophase.", "A number of ''polar microtubules'' find and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle.", "Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor.", "When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to \"crawl\" up the tube toward the originating centrosome.", "This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome's two chromatids.====Metaphase====A cell in late metaphase.", "All chromosomes (blue) but one have arrived at the metaphase plate.", "Metaphase during mitosisAfter the microtubules have located and attached to the kinetochores in prometaphase, the two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes towards opposite ends of the cell.", "The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to align along the metaphase plate at the equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is centrally located between the two centrosomes (at approximately the midline of the cell).", "To ensure equitable distribution of chromosomes at the end of mitosis, the ''metaphase checkpoint'' guarantees that kinetochores are properly attached to the mitotic spindle and that the chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate.", "If the cell successfully passes through the metaphase checkpoint, it proceeds to anaphase.====Anaphase====Anaphase during mitosisDuring ''anaphase A'', the cohesins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical daughter chromosomes.", "Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell.", "During ''anaphase B'', polar microtubules push against each other, causing the cell to elongate.", "In late anaphase, chromosomes also reach their overall maximal condensation level, to help chromosome segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus.", "In most animal cells, anaphase A precedes anaphase B, but some vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the opposite order of events.====Telophase====Telophase during mitosisTelophase (from the Greek word ''τελος'' meaning \"end\") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events.", "At telophase, the polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more.", "If the nuclear envelope has broken down, a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope.", "The new envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes (though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears.", "Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to \"relax\" or decondense.", "Mitosis is complete.", "Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes.", "Cell division may or may not occur at this time depending on the organism.===Cytokinesis===Cytokinesis illustrationCiliate undergoing cytokinesis, with the cleavage furrow being clearly visibleCytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis, but rather a separate process necessary for completing cell division.", "In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring, develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei.", "In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell.", "In plants, this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei.", "The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis.", "Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell.", "The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei.", "The most notable occurrence of this is among the fungi, slime molds, and coenocytic algae, but the phenomenon is found in various other organisms.", "Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development." ], [ "Function", "The function or significance of mitosis, is the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each formed cell receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell.Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances:*'''Development and growth''': The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis.", "This is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a single cell, i.e., zygote and also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body.", "*'''Cell replacement''': In some parts of the body, e.g.", "skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones.", "New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells being replaced.", "In like manner, red blood cells have a short lifespan (only about 3 months) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis.", "*'''Regeneration:''' Some organisms can regenerate body parts.", "The production of new cells in such instances is achieved by mitosis.", "For example, starfish regenerate lost arms through mitosis.", "*'''Asexual reproduction:''' Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction.", "For example, the hydra reproduces asexually by budding.", "The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a mass called a bud.", "Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a new individual.", "The same division happens during asexual reproduction or vegetative propagation in plants." ], [ "Variations", "=== Forms of mitosis ===The mitosis process in the cells of eukaryotic organisms follows a similar pattern, but with variations in three main details.", "\"Closed\" and \"open\" mitosis can be distinguished on the basis of nuclear envelope remaining intact or breaking down.", "An intermediate form with partial degradation of the nuclear envelope is called \"semiopen\" mitosis.", "With respect to the symmetry of the spindle apparatus during metaphase, an approximately axially symmetric (centered) shape is called \"orthomitosis\", distinguished from the eccentric spindles of \"pleuromitosis\", in which mitotic apparatus has bilateral symmetry.", "Finally, a third criterion is the location of the central spindle in case of closed pleuromitosis: \"extranuclear\" (spindle located in the cytoplasm) or \"intranuclear\" (in the nucleus).File:Mitosis classification closed intranuclear pleuromitoses.svg|closed intranuclear pleuromitosisFile:Mitosis classification closed extranuclear pleuromitoses.svg|closed extranuclear pleuromitosisFile:Mitosis classification closed orthomitoses.svg|closed orthomitosisFile:Mitosis classification semiopen pleuromitoses.svg|semiopen pleuromitosisFile:Mitosis classification semiopen orthomitoses.svg|semiopen orthomitosisFile:Mitosis classification open orthomitoses.svg|open orthomitosisNuclear division takes place only in cells of organisms of the eukaryotic domain, as bacteria and archaea have no nucleus.", "Bacteria and archaea undergo a different type of division.", "Within each of the eukaryotic supergroups, mitosis of the open form can be found, as well as closed mitosis, except for unicellular Excavata, which show exclusively closed mitosis.", "Following, the occurrence of the forms of mitosis in eukaryotes:*'''''Closed intranuclear pleuromitosis''''' is typical of Foraminifera, some Prasinomonadida, some Kinetoplastida, the Oxymonadida, the Haplosporidia, many fungi (chytrids, oomycetes, zygomycetes, ascomycetes), and some Radiolaria (Spumellaria and Acantharia); it seems to be the most primitive type.", "*'''''Closed extranuclear pleuromitosis''''' occurs in Trichomonadida and Dinoflagellata.", "* '''''Closed orthomitosis''''' is found among diatoms, ciliates, some Microsporidia, unicellular yeasts and some multicellular fungi.", "*'''''Semiopen pleuromitosis''''' is typical of most Apicomplexa.", "*'''''Semiopen orthomitosis''''' occurs with different variants in some amoebae (Lobosa) and some green flagellates (e.g., Raphidophyta or ''Volvox'').", "*'''''Open orthomitosis''''' is typical in mammals and other Metazoa, and in land plants; but it also occurs in some protists.===Errors and other variations===An abnormal (tripolar) mitosis (12 o'clock position) in a precancerous lesion of the stomach (H&E stain)Errors can occur during mitosis, especially during early embryonic development in humans.", "During each step of mitosis, there are normally checkpoints as well that control the normal outcome of mitosis.", "But, occasionally to almost rarely, mistakes will happen.", "Mitotic errors can create aneuploid cells that have too few or too many of one or more chromosomes, a condition associated with cancer.", "Early human embryos, cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can also suffer from pathological division into three or more daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis), resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements.In ''nondisjunction'', sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase.", "One daughter cell receives both sister chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome and the other cell receives none.", "As a result, the former cell gets three copies of the chromosome, a condition known as ''trisomy'', and the latter will have only one copy, a condition known as ''monosomy''.", "On occasion, when cells experience nondisjunction, they fail to complete cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell, resulting in binucleated cells.", "''Anaphase lag'' occurs when the movement of one chromatid is impeded during anaphase.", "This may be caused by a failure of the mitotic spindle to properly attach to the chromosome.", "The lagging chromatid is excluded from both nuclei and is lost.", "Therefore, one of the daughter cells will be monosomic for that chromosome.", "''Endoreduplication'' (or endoreplication) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide.", "This results in polyploid cells or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly, polytene chromosomes.", "Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to be a normal part of development.", "Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter, but prematurely terminate, mitosis.", "Instead of being divided into two new daughter nuclei, the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus.", "The cells then re-enter G1 and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again.", "This may occur multiple times, increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis.", "Platelet-producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis during cell differentiation.", "''Amitosis'' in ciliates and in animal placental tissues results in a random distribution of parental alleles.", "''Karyokinesis without cytokinesis'' originates multinucleated cells called coenocytes." ], [ "Diagnostic marker", "Mitosis appearances in breast cancerIn histopathology, the mitosis rate (mitotic count or mitotic index) is an important parameter in various types of tissue samples, for diagnosis as well as to further specify the aggressiveness of tumors.", "For example, there is routinely a quantification of mitotic count in breast cancer classification.", "The mitoses must be counted in an area of the highest mitotic activity.", "Visually identifying these areas, is difficult in tumors with very high mitotic activity.", "Also, the detection of atypical forms of mitosis can be used both as a diagnostic and prognostic marker.", "For example, ''lag-type mitosis'' (non-attached condensed chromatin in the area of the mitotic figure) indicates high risk human papillomavirus infection-related Cervical cancer.", "In order to improve the reproducibility and accuracy of the mitotic count, automated image analysis using deep learning-based algorithms have been proposed.", "However, further research is needed before those algorithms can be used to routine diagnostics.", "File:Normal versus atypical mitosis.jpg|Normal and atypical forms of mitosis in cancer cells.", "A, normal mitosis; B, chromatin bridge; C, multipolar mitosis; D, ring mitosis; E, dispersed mitosis; F, asymmetrical mitosis; G, lag-type mitosis; and H, micronuclei.", "H&E stain." ], [ "Related cell processes", "===Cell rounding===Cell shape changes through mitosis for a typical animal cell cultured on a flat surface.", "The cell undergoes mitotic cell rounding during spindle assembly and then divides via cytokinesis.", "The actomyosin cortex is depicted in red, DNA/chromosomes purple, microtubules green, and membrane and retraction fibers in black.", "Rounding also occurs in live tissue, as described in the text.In animal tissue, most cells round up to a near-spherical shape during mitosis.", "In epithelia and epidermis, an efficient rounding process is correlated with proper mitotic spindle alignment and subsequent correct positioning of daughter cells.", "Moreover, researchers have found that if rounding is heavily suppressed it may result in spindle defects, primarily pole splitting and failure to efficiently capture chromosomes.", "Therefore, mitotic cell rounding is thought to play a protective role in ensuring accurate mitosis.Rounding forces are driven by reorganization of F-actin and myosin (actomyosin) into a contractile homogeneous cell cortex that 1) rigidifies the cell periphery and 2) facilitates generation of intracellular hydrostatic pressure (up to 10 fold higher than interphase).", "The generation of intracellular pressure is particularly critical under confinement, such as would be important in a tissue scenario, where outward forces must be produced to round up against surrounding cells and/or the extracellular matrix.", "Generation of pressure is dependent on formin-mediated F-actin nucleation and Rho kinase (ROCK)-mediated myosin II contraction, both of which are governed upstream by signaling pathways RhoA and ECT2 through the activity of Cdk1.Due to its importance in mitosis, the molecular components and dynamics of the mitotic actomyosin cortex is an area of active research.===Mitotic recombination===Mitotic cells irradiated with X-rays in the G1 phase of the cell cycle repair recombinogenic DNA damages primarily by recombination between homologous chromosomes.", "Mitotic cells irradiated in the G2 phase repair such damages preferentially by sister-chromatid recombination.", "Mutations in genes encoding enzymes employed in recombination cause cells to have increased sensitivity to being killed by a variety of DNA damaging agents.", "These findings suggest that mitotic recombination is an adaptation for repairing DNA damages including those that are potentially lethal." ], [ "Evolution", "Mitosis and meiosis differencesSome types of cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotesThere are prokaryotic homologs of all the key molecules of eukaryotic mitosis (e.g., actins, tubulins).", "Being a universal eukaryotic property, mitosis probably arose at the base of the eukaryotic tree.", "As mitosis is less complex than meiosis, meiosis may have arisen after mitosis.", "However, sexual reproduction involving meiosis is also a primitive characteristic of eukaryotes.", "Thus meiosis and mitosis may both have evolved, in parallel, from ancestral prokaryotic processes.While in bacterial cell division, after duplication of DNA, two circular chromosomes are attached to a special region of the cell membrane, eukaryotic mitosis is usually characterized by the presence of many linear chromosomes, whose kinetochores attaches to the microtubules of the spindle.", "In relation to the forms of mitosis, closed intranuclear pleuromitosis seems to be the most primitive type, as it is more similar to bacterial division." ], [ "Gallery", "Mitotic cells can be visualized microscopically by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes." ], [ "See also", "* Chromosome abnormality* Cytoskeleton* DREAM complex* Mitogen* Mitosis Promoting Factor* Mitotic bookmarking" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* A Flash animation comparing Mitosis and Meiosis* Khan Academy, lecture* Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells* General K-12 classroom resources for Mitosis* The Cell-Cycle Ontology* WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the ''C.", "elegans'' Cell Lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree and all of the cell divisions of the nematode ''C.", "elegans''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metabolism" ], [ "Introduction", "Simplified view of the cellular metabolismStructure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a central intermediate in energy metabolism'''Metabolism''' (, from ''metabolē'', \"change\") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms.", "The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes.", "These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments.", "The word ''metabolism'' can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transportation of substances into and between different cells, in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism.", "Metabolic reactions may be categorized as ''catabolic'' – the ''breaking down'' of compounds (for example, of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or ''anabolic'' – the ''building up'' (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids).", "Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme.", "Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy and will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy.", "Enzymes act as catalysts – they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly – and they also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous.", "For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals.", "The basal metabolic rate of an organism is the measure of the amount of energy consumed by all of these chemical reactions.A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways among vastly different species.", "For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium ''Escherichia coli'' and huge multicellular organisms like elephants.", "These similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and their retention is likely due to their efficacy.", "In various diseases, such as type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cancer, normal metabolism is disrupted.", "The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer." ], [ "Key biochemicals", "Structure of a triacylglycerol lipidThis is a diagram depicting a large set of human metabolic pathways.Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from four basic classes of molecules: amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid and lipids (often called fats).", "As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or on breaking them down and using them to obtain energy, by their digestion.", "These biochemicals can be joined to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life.Type of moleculeName of monomer formsName of polymer formsExamples of polymer formsAmino acidsAmino acidsProteins (made of polypeptides)Fibrous proteins and globular proteinsCarbohydratesMonosaccharidesPolysaccharidesStarch, glycogen and celluloseNucleic acidsNucleotidesPolynucleotidesDNA and RNA===Amino acids and proteins===Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined by peptide bonds.", "Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism.", "Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape.", "Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle.", "Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle), especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.===Lipids===Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals.", "Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane.", "Their chemical energy can also be used.", "Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen.", "Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, benzene or chloroform.", "The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids by ester linkages is called a triacylglyceride.", "Several variations on this basic structure exist, including backbones such as sphingosine in sphingomyelin, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids.", "Steroids such as sterol are another major class of lipids.===Carbohydrates===Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings.", "Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals).", "The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose.", "Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.===Nucleotides===The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides.", "Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base.", "Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis.", "This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication.", "Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome.", "RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions.", "Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar.", "These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines.", "Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic-group-transfer reactions.===Coenzymes===Structure of the coenzyme acetyl-CoA.", "The transferable acetyl group is bonded to the sulfur atom at the extreme left.Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules.", "This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions.", "These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes.", "Each class of group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it.", "These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled.One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of cells.", "This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions.", "There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day.", "ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism.", "Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together.", "Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it.", "It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions.A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells.", "In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells.", "Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor.", "Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH.", "This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates.", "Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH.", "The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.The structure of iron-containing hemoglobin.", "The protein subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green.", "From .===Mineral and cofactors===Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g.", "sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations.", "About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur.", "Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water.The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes.", "The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate.", "The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH.", "Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol.", "Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels.", "For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules.Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those.", "Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed.", "Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use." ], [ "Catabolism", "Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules.", "These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules.", "The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules.", "The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy, hydrogen, and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below.", "Organic molecules are used as a source of hydrogen atoms or electrons by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates.", "Whereas phototrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy, chemotrophs depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to oxygen, nitrate or sulfate.", "In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water.", "Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, use similar electron-transfer reactions to store energy absorbed from sunlight.+Classification of organisms based on their metabolism Energy source sunlight photo-   -troph molecules chemo- Hydrogen or electron donor organic compound   organo-   inorganic compound litho- Carbon source organic compound   hetero- inorganic compound auto-The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages.", "In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells.", "Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy.", "Finally, the acetyl group on acetyl-CoA is oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing more energy while reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH.===Digestion===Macromolecules cannot be directly processed by cells.", "Macromolecules must be broken into smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism.", "Different classes of enzymes are used to digest these polymers.", "These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides.Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and in salivary glands.", "The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins.A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats===Energy from organic compounds===Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units.", "Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after they have been digested into monosaccharides.", "Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated.", "Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA through aerobic (with oxygen) glycolysis and fed into the citric acid cycle.", "Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle, the most important product is NADH, which is made from NAD+ as the acetyl-CoA is oxidized.", "This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product.", "In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re-use in glycolysis.", "Carbon Catabolism pathway map for free energy including carbohydrate and lipid sources of energyFats are catabolized by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol.", "The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle.", "Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates.", "Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy.", "''M.", "tuberculosis'' can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol-use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of ''M.", "tuberculosis''.Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide to produce energy.", "The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase.", "The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid.", "Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example α-ketoglutarate formed by deamination of glutamate.", "The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis (discussed below)." ], [ "Energy transformations", "===Oxidative phosphorylation===In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP.", "This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain.", "In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane.", "These proteins use the energy from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane.Mechanism of ATP synthase.", "ATP is shown in red, ADP and phosphate in pink and the rotating stalk subunit in black.Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient.", "This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase.", "The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP.===Energy from inorganic compounds===Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds.", "These organisms can use hydrogen, reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate), ferrous iron (Fe(II)) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds.", "These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility.===Energy from light===The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists.", "This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below.", "The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can, however, operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds.In many organisms, the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient.", "This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis.", "The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres.", "Reaction centers are classified into two types depending on the nature of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two.In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product.", "The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast.", "These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before.", "The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+." ], [ "Anabolism", "'''Anabolism''' is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules.", "In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from smaller and simpler precursors.", "Anabolism involves three basic stages.", "First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.Anabolism in organisms can be different according to the source of constructed molecules in their cells.", "Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in their cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water.", "Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules.", "Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from oxidation reactions.===Carbon fixation===Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesisPhotosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2).", "In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product.", "This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose.", "This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle.", "Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis.", "These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions.In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse.", "Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle, or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA.", "Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin–Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.===Carbohydrates and glycans===In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch.", "The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis.", "Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis.", "However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes.", "This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle.Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery.", "As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids.", "In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose.", "Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood.Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-Glc) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide.", "As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures.", "The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases.===Fatty acids, isoprenoids and sterol===Simplified version of the steroid synthesis pathway with the intermediates isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and squalene shown.", "Some intermediates are omitted for clarity.Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units.", "The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group.", "The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway.Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products.", "These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.", "These precursors can be made in different ways.", "In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates.", "One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is sterol biosynthesis.", "Here, the isoprene units are joined to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol.", "Lanosterol can then be converted into other sterols such as cholesterol and ergosterol.===Proteins===Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids.", "Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food.", "Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria ''Mycoplasma pneumoniae'', lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts.", "All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway.", "Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine.", "Nonessensial amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined in a chain of peptide bonds.", "Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure.", "Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins.", "Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond.", "This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase.", "This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA.===Nucleotide synthesis and salvage===Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy.", "Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides.", "Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose).", "Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate.", "Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate." ], [ "Xenobiotics and redox metabolism", "All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and that would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function.", "These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics.", "Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes.", "In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione ''S''-transferases.", "This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II).", "The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III).", "In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills.", "Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds.A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress.", "Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide.", "These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases." ], [ "Thermodynamics of living organisms", "Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work.", "The second law of thermodynamics states that in any isolated system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease.", "Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings.", "Living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments.", "The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism.", "In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder." ], [ "Regulation and control", "As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis.", "Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments.", "Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled.", "Firstly, the ''regulation'' of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals.", "Secondly, the ''control'' exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway).", "For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (''i.e.''", "it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.", "'''Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism.'''", "Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2).", "These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6).There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation.", "In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate.", "This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway.", "Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells.", "These signals are usually in the form of water-soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface.", "These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins.A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin.", "Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels.", "Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen.", "The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it.", "These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase.", "Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes." ], [ "Evolution", "Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of organisms from all three domains of life.", "Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, and archaea green.", "Relative positions of some of the phyla included are shown around the tree.The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor.", "This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.", "The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps.", "The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world.Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve.", "These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway.", "The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway.", "An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic.", "A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as \"modules\" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules.As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions.", "For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host.", "Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms." ], [ "Investigation and manipulation", "Metabolic network of the ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' citric acid cycle.", "Enzymes and metabolites are shown as red squares and the interactions between them as black lines.Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway.", "Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products.", "The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated.", "A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome.", "Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell.An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 26.500 genes.", "However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior.", "These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies.", "Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research.", "These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites.Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow-tie organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies.A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering.", "Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid.", "These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes." ], [ "History", "The term ''metabolism'' is derived from the Ancient Greek word μεταβολή – \"Metabole\" for \"a change\" which derived from μεταβάλλ –\"Metaballein\" means \"To change\"Aristotle's metabolism as an open flow model===Greek philosophy===Aristotle's ''The Parts of Animals'' sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made.", "He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces.Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase \"Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change.", "\"===Application of the scientific method and Modern metabolic theories===The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry.", "The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book ''Ars de statica medicina''.", "He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting.", "He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called \"insensible perspiration\".Santorio Santorio in his steelyard balance, from ''Ars de statica medicina'', first published 1614In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue.", "In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called \"ferments\".", "He wrote that \"alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells.\"", "This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors.", "This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry.It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry.", "The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century.", "One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism.", "He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * , a \"metabolism first\" theory of the origin of life* * Microphysiometry* * * * * * * * * *Oncometabolism* *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "'''Introductory'''* * * '''Advanced'''* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "'''General information'''* The Biochemistry of Metabolism (archived 8 March 2005)* Sparknotes SAT biochemistry Overview of biochemistry.", "School level.", "* MIT Biology Hypertextbook Undergraduate-level guide to molecular biology.", "'''Human metabolism'''* Topics in Medical Biochemistry Guide to human metabolic pathways.", "School level.", "* THE Medical Biochemistry Page Comprehensive resource on human metabolism.", "'''Databases'''* Flow Chart of Metabolic Pathways at ExPASy* IUBMB-Nicholson Metabolic Pathways Chart* SuperCYP: Database for Drug-Cytochrome-Metabolism '''Metabolic pathways'''* Metabolism reference Pathway *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Medieval Inquisition" ], [ "Introduction", "Pope Gregory IX from medieval manuscript: Universitätsbibliothek Salzburg, M III 97, 122rb, ca.", "1270)The '''Medieval Inquisition''' was a series of Inquisitions (Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the '''Episcopal Inquisition''' (1184–1230s) and later the '''Papal Inquisition''' (1230s).", "The Medieval Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Roman Catholicism, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy.", "These were the first movements of many inquisitions that would follow.The Cathars were first noted in the 1140s in Southern France, and the Waldensians around 1170 in Northern Italy.", "Before this point, individual heretics such as Peter of Bruis had often challenged the Church.", "However, the Cathars were the first mass organization in the second millennium that posed a serious threat to the authority of the Church.", "This article covers only these early inquisitions, not the Roman Inquisition of the 16th century onwards, or the somewhat different phenomenon of the Spanish Inquisition of the late 15th century, which was under the control of the Spanish monarchy using local clergy.", "The Portuguese Inquisition of the 16th century and various colonial branches followed the same pattern." ], [ "History", "An inquisition was a process that developed to investigate alleged instances of crimes.", "Its use in ecclesiastical courts was not at first directed to matters of heresy, but a broad assortment of offenses such as clandestine marriage and bigamy.French historian Jean-Baptiste Guiraud (1866–1953) defined Medieval Inquisition as \"... a system of repressive means, some of temporal and some others of spiritual kind, concurrently issued by ecclesiastical and civil authorities in order to protect religious orthodoxy and social order, both threatened by theological and social doctrines of heresy.", "\"Bishop of Lincoln, Robert Grosseteste, defined heresy as \"an opinion chosen by human perception, created by human reason, founded on the Scriptures, contrary to the teachings of the Church, publicly avowed, and obstinately defended.\"", "The fault was in the obstinate adherence rather than theological error, which could be corrected; and by referencing scripture Grosseteste excludes Jews, Muslims, and other non-Christians from the definition of heretic.There were many different types of inquisitions depending on the location and methods; historians have generally classified them into the ''episcopal inquisition'' and the ''papal inquisition''.", "All major medieval inquisitions were decentralized, and each tribunal worked independently.", "Authority rested with local officials based on guidelines from the Holy See, but there was no central top-down authority running the inquisitions, as would be the case in post-medieval inquisitions.Early Medieval courts generally followed a process called ''accusatio'', largely based on Germanic practices.", "In this procedure, an individual would make an accusation against someone to the court.", "However, if the suspect was judged innocent, the accusers faced legal penalties for bringing false charges.", "This provided a disincentive to make any accusation unless the accusers were sure it would stand.", "Later, a threshold requirement was the establishment of the accused's ''publica fama'', i.e., the fact that the person was widely believed to be guilty of the offense charged.By the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, there was a shift away from the accusatorial model toward the legal procedure used in the Roman Empire.", "Instead of an individual making accusations based on first-hand knowledge, judges now took on the prosecutorial role based on information collected.", "Under inquisitorial procedures, guilt or innocence was proved by the inquiry (''inquisitio'') of the judge into the details of a case.===Episcopal inquisitions===The common people tended to view heretics \"...as an antisocial menace.", "...Heresy involved not only religious division, but social upset and political strife.\"", "In 1076 Pope Gregory VII excommunicated the residents of Cambrai because a mob had seized and burned a Cathar determined by the bishop to have been a heretic.", "A similar occurrence happened in 1114 during the bishops absence in Strassburg.", "In 1145 clergy at Liège managed to rescue victims from the crowd.The first medieval inquisition, the episcopal inquisition, was established in the year 1184 by a papal bull of Pope Lucius III entitled ''Ad abolendam'', \"For the purpose of doing away with.\"", "It was a response to the growing Catharist movement in southern France.", "This inquisition was called the \"episcopal\" inquisition, because it was administered by a local bishop, also known in latin as ''episcopus''.", "This inquisition obliged bishops to visit their diocese twice a year in search of heretics.", "The methods of dealing with heretics were revised gradually.Practices and procedures of episcopal inquisitions could vary from one diocese to another, depending on the resources available to individual bishops and their relative interest or disinterest.", "Convinced that Church teaching contained revealed truth, the first recourse of bishops was that of ''persuasio''.", "Through discourse, debates, and preaching, they sought to present a better explanation of Church teaching.", "This approach often proved very successful.===Legatine inquisitions===The spread of other movements from the 12th century can be seen at least in part as a reaction to the increasing moral corruption of the clergy, which included illegal marriages and the possession of extreme wealth.In the Middle Ages, the Inquisition's main focus was to eradicate these new sects.", "Thus, its range of action was predominantly in Italy and France, where the Cathars and the Waldensians, the two main heretic movements of the period, were.Bishops had always the authority to look into alleged heretical activity, but as it wasn't always clear what constituted heresy they conferred with their colleagues and sought advice from Rome.", "Legates were sent out, at first as advisors, later taking a greater role in the administration.During the pontificate of Innocent III, papal legates were sent out to stop the spread of the Cathar and Waldensian heresies to Provence and up the Rhine into Germany.", "Procedures began to be formalized by time of Pope Gregory IX.====Cathars====The Cathars were a group of dissidents mostly in the South of France, in cities like Toulouse.", "The sect developed in the 12th century, apparently founded by soldiers from the Second Crusade, who, on their way back, were converted by a Bulgarian sect, the Bogomils.The Cathars' main heresy was their belief in dualism: the evil God created the materialistic world and the good God created the spiritual world.", "Therefore, Cathars preached poverty, chastity, modesty and all those values which in their view helped people to detach themselves from materialism.", "The Cathars presented a problem to feudal government by their attitude towards oaths, which they declared under no circumstances allowable.", "Therefore, considering the religious homogeneity of that age, heresy was an attack against social and political order, besides orthodoxy.The Albigensian Crusade resulted in the defeat of the Cathars militarily.", "After this, the Inquisition played an important role in finally destroying Catharism during the 13th and much of the 14th centuries.", "Punishments for Cathars varied greatly.", "Most frequently, they were made to wear yellow crosses atop their garments as a sign of outward penance.", "Others undertook obligatory pilgrimages, many for the purpose of fighting against Muslims.", "Another common punishment, including for returned pilgrims, was visiting a local church naked once each month to be scourged.", "Cathars who were slow to repent suffered imprisonment and, often, the loss of property.", "Others who altogether refused to repent were burned.====Waldensians====The Waldensians were mostly in Germany and North Italy.", "The Waldensians were a group of orthodox laymen concerned about the increasing wealth of the Church.", "As time passed, however, they found their beliefs at odds with Catholic teaching.", "In contrast with the Cathars and in line with the Church, they believed in only one God, but they did not recognize a special class of priesthood, believing in the priesthood of all believers.", "They also objected to the veneration of saints and martyrs, which were part of the Church's orthodoxy.", "They rejected the sacramental authority of the Church and its clerics and encouraged apostolic poverty.", "These movements became particularly popular in Southern France as well as Northern Italy and other parts of Holy Roman Empire.===Papal inquisition===One reason for Pope Gregory IX's creation of the Inquisition was to bring order and legality to the process of dealing with heresy, since there had been tendencies by mobs of townspeople to burn alleged heretics without much of a trial.", "According to historian Thomas Madden: \"The Inquisition was not born out of desire to crush diversity or oppress people; it was rather an attempt to stop unjust executions.", "...Heresy was a crime against the ''state''.", "Roman law in the Code of Justinian made heresy a capital offense\" (emphasis in original).", "In the early Middle Ages, people accused of heresy were judged by the local lord, many of whom lacked theological training.", "Madden claims that \"The simple fact is that the medieval Inquisition ''saved'' uncounted thousands of innocent (and even not-so-innocent) people who would otherwise have been roasted by secular lords or mob rule\" (emphasis in original).", "Madden argues that while medieval secular leaders were trying to safeguard their kingdoms, the Church was trying to save souls.", "The Inquisition provided a means for heretics to escape death and return to the community.The complaints of the two main preaching orders of the period, the Dominicans and the Franciscans, against the moral corruption of the Church, to some extent echoed those of the heretical movements, but they were doctrinally conventional, and were enlisted by Pope Innocent III in the fight against heresy.", "In 1231 Pope Gregory IX appointed a number of Papal Inquisitors (''Inquisitores haereticae pravitatis''), mostly Dominicans and Franciscans, for the various regions of Europe.", "As mendicants, they were accustomed to travel.", "Unlike the haphazard episcopal methods, the papal inquisition was thorough and systematic, keeping detailed records.", "Some of the few documents from the Middle Ages involving first-person speech by medieval peasants come from papal inquisition records.", "This tribunal or court functioned in France, Italy and parts of Germany and had virtually ceased operation by the early fourteenth century.Pope Gregory's original intent for the Inquisition was a court of exception to inquire into and glean the beliefs of those differing from Catholic teaching, and to instruct them in the orthodox doctrine.", "It was hoped that heretics would see the falsity of their opinion and would return to the Roman Catholic Church.", "If they persisted in their heresy, however, Pope Gregory, finding it necessary to protect the Catholic community from infection, would have suspects handed over to civil authorities, since public heresy was a crime under civil law as well as Church law.", "The secular authorities would apply their own brands of punishment for civil disobedience which, at the time, included burning at the stake.", "Over centuries the tribunals took different forms, investigating and stamping out various forms of heresy, including witchcraft.Throughout the Inquisition's history, it was rivaled by local ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions.", "No matter how determined, no pope succeeded in establishing complete control over the prosecution of heresy.", "Medieval kings, princes, bishops, and civil authorities all had a role in prosecuting heresy.", "The practice reached its apex in the second half of the 13th century.", "During this period, the tribunals were almost entirely free from any authority, including that of the pope.", "Therefore, it was almost impossible to eradicate abuse.", "For example, Robert le Bougre, the \"Hammer of Heretics\" (''Malleus Haereticorum''), was a Dominican friar who became an inquisitor known for his cruelty and violence.", "Another example was the case of the province of Venice, which was handed to the Franciscan inquisitors, who quickly became notorious for their frauds against the Church, by enriching themselves with confiscated property from the heretics and by the selling of absolutions.", "Because of their corruption, they were eventually forced by the Pope to suspend their activities in 1302.In southern Europe, Church-run courts existed in the kingdom of Aragon during the medieval period, but not elsewhere in the Iberian peninsula or some other kingdoms, including England.", "In Scandinavian kingdoms it had hardly any impact.At the beginning of the fourteenth century, two other movements attracted the attention of the Inquisition, the Knights Templar and the Beguines.", "It is not clear if the process against the Templars was initiated by the Inquisition on the basis of suspected heresy or if the Inquisition itself was exploited by the king of France, Philip the Fair, who owed them money and wanted the knights' wealth.", "In England the Crown was also deeply in debt to the Templars and, probably on that basis, the Templars were also persecuted in England, their lands forfeited and taken by others, (the last private owner being the favorite of Edward II, Hugh le Despenser).", "Many Templars in England were killed; some fled to Scotland and other places.The Beguines were mainly a women's movement, recognized by the Church since their foundation in the thirteenth century.Marguerite Porete wrote a mystical book known as ''The Mirror of Simple Souls''.", "The book provoked some controversy, because of statements which some took to mean that a soul can become one with God and that when in this state it can ignore moral law, as it had no need for the Church and its sacraments, or its code of virtues.", "The book's teachings were easily misconstrued.", "Porete was eventually tried by the Dominican inquisitor of France and burned at the stake as a relapsed heretic in 1310.The Council of Vienne of 1311 proclaimed them heretics and the movement went into decline.The medieval Inquisition paid little attention to sorcery until Pope John XXII was the victim of an assassination attempt via poisoning and sorcery.", "In a letter written in 1320 to the Inquisitors of Carcassonne and Toulouse, Cardinal William of Santa Sabina states that Pope John declared witchcraft to be heresy, and thus it could be tried under the Inquisition.===Medieval Inquisition in Aragon===Although Raymond of Penyafort was not an inquisitor, James I of Aragon had often consulted him on questions of law regarding the practices of the Inquisition in the king's domains since Penyafort was a canon lawyer and royal advisor....The lawyer's deep sense of justice and equity, combined with the worthy Dominican's sense of compassion, allowed him to steer clear of the excesses that were found elsewhere in the formative years of the inquisitions into heresy.Despite its early implantation, the Papal Inquisition was greatly resisted within the Crown of Aragon by both population and monarchs.", "With time, its importance was diluted, and, by the middle of the fifteenth century, it was almost forgotten although still there according to the law.Regarding the living conditions of minorities, the kings of Aragon and other monarchies imposed some discriminatory taxation of religious minorities, so false conversions were a way of tax evasion.In addition to the above discriminatory legislation, Aragon had laws specifically targeted at protecting minorities.", "For example, crusaders attacking Jewish or Muslim subjects of the King of Aragon while on their way to fight in the reconquest were punished with death by hanging.", "Up to the 14th century, the census and wedding records show an absolute lack of concern with avoiding intermarriage or blood mixture.", "Such laws were now common in most of central Europe.", "Both the Roman Inquisition and neighbouring Christian powers showed discomfort with Aragonese law and lack of concern with ethnicity, but to little effect.High-ranking officials of Judaism were not as common as in Castile, but were not unheard of either.", "Abraham Zacuto was a professor at the university of Cartagena.", "Vidal Astori was the royal silversmith for Ferdinand II of Aragon and conducted business in his name.", "And King Ferdinand himself was said to have remote Jewish ancestry on his mother's side.===Medieval Inquisition in Castile===There was never a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition in Castile, nor any inquisition during the Middle Ages.", "Members of the episcopate were charged with surveillance of the faithful and punishment of transgressors, always under the direction of the king.During the Middle Ages in Castile, the Catholic ruling class and the population paid little or no attention to heresy.", "Castile did not have the proliferation of anti-Jewish pamphlets as England and France did during the 13th and 14th centuries—and those that have been found were modified, watered-down versions of the original stories.", "Jews and Muslims were tolerated and generally allowed to follow their traditional customs in domestic matters.The legislation regarding Muslims and Jews in Castilian territory varied greatly, becoming more intolerant during the period of great instability and dynastic wars that occurred by the end of the 14th century.", "Castilian law is particularly difficult to summarize since, due to the model of the free Royal Villas, mayors and the population of border areas had the right to create their own fueros (law) that varied from one villa to the next.", "In general, the Castilian model was parallel to the initial model of Islamic Spain.", "Non-Catholics were subject to discriminatory legislation regarding taxation and some other specific discriminatory legislation—such as a prohibition on wearing silk or \"flashy clothes\"—that varied from county to county, but were otherwise left alone.", "Forced conversion of minorities was against the law, and so was the belief in the existence of witchcraft, oracles or similar superstitions.", "In general, all \"people from the book\" were permitted to practice their own customs and religions as far as they did not attempt proselytizing on the Christian population.", "Jews particularly had surprising freedoms and protections compared with other areas of Europe and were allowed to hold high public offices such as the counselor, treasurer or secretary for the crown.During most of the medieval period, intermarriage with converts was allowed and encouraged.", "Intellectual cooperation between religions was the norm in Castile.", "Some examples are the Toledo School of Translators from the 11th century.", "Jews and Moors were allowed to hold high offices in the administration (see Abraham Seneor, Samuel HaLevi Abulafia, Isaac Abarbanel, López de Conchillos, Miguel Pérez de Almazán, Jaco Aben Nunnes and Fernando del Pulgar).A tightening of the laws to protect the right of Jews to collect loans during the Medieval Crisis was one of the causes of the revolt against Peter the Cruel and catalyst of the anti-semitic episodes of 1391 in Castile, a kingdom that had shown no significant antisemitic backlash to the black death and drought crisis of the early 14th century.", "Even after the sudden increase in hostility towards other religions that the kingdom experienced after the 14th-century crisis, which clearly worsened the living conditions of non-Catholics in Castile, it remained one of the most tolerant kingdoms in Europe.The kingdom had serious tensions with Rome regarding the Church's attempts to extend its authority into the kingdom.", "A focus of conflict was Castilian resistance to truly abandon the Mozarabic Rite, and the refusal to grant Papal control over Reconquest land (a request Aragon and Portugal conceded).", "These conflicts added to a strong resistance to allowing the creation of an Inquisition, and the kingdom's general willingness to accept heretics seeking refuge from prosecution in France." ], [ "Joan of Arc", "In the spring of 1429 during the Hundred Years' War, in obedience to what she said was the command of God, Joan of Arc inspired the Dauphin's armies in a series of stunning military victories which lifted the siege of Orleans and destroyed a large percentage of the remaining English forces at the battle of Patay.", "A series of military setbacks eventually led to her capture in the Spring of 1430 by the Burgundians, who were allied with the English.", "They delivered her to them for 10,000 livres.", "In December of that same year she was transferred to Rouen, the military headquarters and administrative capital in France of King Henry VI of England, and placed on trial for heresy before a Church court headed by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, a supporter of the English.The trial was politically motivated.", "Cauchon, although a native of France, had served in the English government since 1418, and he was therefore hostile to a woman who had worked for the opposing side.", "The same was true of the other tribunal members.", "Ascribing a diabolic origin to her victories would be an effective way to ruin her reputation and bolster the morale of English troops.", "Thus the decision to involve the Inquisition, which did not initiate the trial and in fact showed a reluctance throughout its duration.Seventy charges were brought against her, including accusations of heresy and dressing as a male (i.e., wearing soldiers' clothing and armor).", "Eyewitnesses later said that Joan had told them she was wearing this clothing and keeping it \"firmly laced and tied together\" because the tunic could be tied to the long boots to keep her guards from pulling her clothing off during their occasional attempts to rape her.Joan was first condemned to life imprisonment and the deputy-inquisitor, Jean Le Maitre (whom the eyewitness said only attended because of threats from the English), obtained from her assurances of relinquishing her male clothes.", "However, after four days, during which she was said to have been subjected to attempted rape by English soldiers, she put her soldier's clothing back on because (according to the eyewitnesses) she needed protection against rape.", "Cauchon declared her a relapsed heretic, and she was burned at the stake two days later on 30 May 1431.In 1455, a petition by Joan of Arc's mother Isabelle led to a re-trial designed to investigate the dubious circumstances which led to Joan's execution.", "The Inquisitor-General of France was put in charge of the new trial, which opened in Notre Dame de Paris on 7 November 1455.After analyzing all the proceedings, including Joan's answers to the allegations and the testimony of 115 witnesses who were called to testify during the appellate process, the inquisitor overturned her condemnation on 7 July 1456.Joan of Arc was eventually canonized in 1920.Historian Edward Peters identifies a number of illegalities in Joan's first trial in which she had been convicted." ], [ "Inquisition procedure", "The papal inquisition developed a number of procedures to discover and prosecute heretics.", "These codes and procedures detailed how an inquisitorial court was to function.", "If the accused renounced their heresy and returned to the Church, forgiveness was granted and a penance was imposed.", "If the accused upheld their heresy, they were excommunicated and turned over to secular authorities.", "The penalties for heresy, though not as severe as the secular courts of Europe at the time, were codified within the ecclesiastic courts as well (e.g.", "confiscation of property, turning heretics over to the secular courts for punishment).", "Additionally, the various \"key terms\" of the inquisitorial courts were defined at this time, including, for example, \"heretics,\" “believers,\" “those suspect of heresy,\" “those simply suspected,\" “those vehemently suspected,\" and \"those most vehemently suspected\".===Investigation===The townspeople would be gathered in a public place.", "The inquisitors would provide an opportunity for anyone to step forward and denounce themselves in exchange for leniency.", "Legally, there had to be at least two witnesses, although conscientious judges rarely contented themselves with that number.===Trial===At the beginning of the trial, defendants were invited to name those who had \"mortal hatred\" against them.", "If the accusers were among those named, the defendant was set free and the charges dismissed; the accusers would face life imprisonment.", "This option was meant to keep the inquisition from becoming involved in local grudges.", "Early legal consultations on conducting inquisition stress that it is better that the guilty go free than that the innocent be punished.", "Gregory IX urged Conrad of Marburg: \"''ut puniatur sic temeritas perversorum quod innocentiae puritas non laedatur''\" – i.e., \"not to punish the wicked so as to hurt the innocent\".There was no personal confrontation of witnesses, neither was there any cross-examination.", "Witnesses for the defense hardly ever appeared, as they would almost infallibly be suspected of being heretics or favorable to heresy.", "At any stage of the trial the accused could appeal to Rome.===Torture===Like the inquisitorial process itself, torture was an ancient Roman legal practice commonly used in secular courts.On May 15, 1252, Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull entitled ''Ad extirpanda'', which authorized the limited use of torture by inquisitors.", "Much of the brutality commonly associated with the Inquisition was actually previously common in secular courts, but prohibited under the Inquisition, including torture methods that resulted in bloodshed, miscarriages, mutilation or death.", "Also, torture could be performed only once, and for a limited duration.In preparation for the Jubilee in 2000, the Vatican opened the archives of the Holy Office (the modern successor to the Inquisition) to a team of 30 scholars from around the world.", "According to the governor general of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, recent studies \"seem to indicate\" that \"torture and the death penalty were not applied with the pitiless rigor\" often ascribed to the Inquisition.", "Other methods such as threats and imprisonment seem to have proven more effective.===Punishment===A council in Tours in 1164, presided over by Pope Alexander III, ordered the confiscation of a heretic's goods.", "Of 5,400 people interrogated in Toulouse between 1245 and 1246, 184 received penitential yellow crosses (used to mark repentant Cathars), 23 were imprisoned for life, and none were sent to the stake.The most extreme penalty available in antiheretical proceedings was reserved for relapsed or stubborn heretics.", "The unrepentant and apostates could be \"relaxed\" to secular authority, however, opening the convicted to the possibility of various corporal punishments, up to and including being burned at the stake.", "Execution was neither performed by the Church, nor was it a sentence available to the officials involved in the inquisition, who, as clerics, were forbidden to kill.", "The accused also faced the possibility that his or her property might be confiscated.", "In some cases, accusers may have been motivated by a desire to take the property of the accused, though this is a difficult assertion to prove in the majority of areas where the inquisition was active, as the inquisition had several layers of oversight built into its framework in a specific attempt to limit prosecutorial misconduct.The inquisitors generally preferred not to hand over heretics to the secular arm for execution if they could persuade the heretic to repent: ''Ecclesia non novit sanguinem (The Church knows not Blood)''.", "For example, of the 900 guilty verdicts levied against 636 individuals by the Dominican friar and inquisitor Bernard Gui, no more than 45 resulted in execution." ], [ "Legacy" ], [ "See also", "*Spanish Inquisition*Portuguese Inquisition*Roman Inquisition*Goa Inquisition*Nicolau Aymerich*Peruvian Inquisition*Mexican Inquisition" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Secondary sources===* * * ===Primary sources===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Dizionario storico dell’Inquisizione, diretto da Adriano Prosperi, Pisa 2015, 4 vols.", "(supersedes nearly all earlier publications)" ], [ "External links", "* Goldberg, Jonah.", "\"Nobody Expects a Defense of the Inquisition\", ''National Review'', January 5, 2014" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microorganism" ], [ "Introduction", "cluster of ''Escherichia coli'' bacteria magnified 10,000 times A '''microorganism''', or '''microbe''', is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single-celled form or as a colony of cells.The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient times, such as in Jain scriptures from sixth century BC India.", "The scientific study of microorganisms began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek.", "In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation.", "In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, and anthrax.Because microorganisms include most unicellular organisms from all three domains of life they can be extremely diverse.", "Two of the three domains, Archaea and Bacteria, only contain microorganisms.", "The third domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms as well as many unicellular protists and protozoans that are microbes.", "Some protists are related to animals and some to green plants.", "There are also many multicellular organisms that are microscopic, namely micro-animals, some fungi, and some algae, but these are generally not considered microorganisms.Microorganisms can have very different habitats, and live everywhere from the poles to the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea.", "Some are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure, and a few, such as ''Deinococcus radiodurans'', to high radiation environments.", "Microorganisms also make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms.", "There is evidence that 3.45-billion-year-old Australian rocks once contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth.Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods and treat sewage, and to produce fuel, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds.", "Microbes are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism.", "Microbes are a vital component of fertile soil.", "In the human body, microorganisms make up the human microbiota, including the essential gut flora.", "The pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases are microbes and, as such, are the target of hygiene measures." ], [ "Discovery", " ===Ancient precursors===Mahavira postulated the existence of microscopic creatures in the 6th century BCAntonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to study microscopic organisms.Lazzaro Spallanzani showed that boiling a broth stopped it from decaying.The possible existence of microscopic organisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the seventeenth century.", "By the 6th century BC, the Jains of present-day India postulated the existence of tiny organisms called nigodas.", "These nigodas are said to be born in clusters; they live everywhere, including the bodies of plants, animals, and people; and their life lasts only for a fraction of a second.", "According to Mahavira, the 24th preacher of Jainism, the humans destroy these nigodas on a massive scale, when they eat, breathe, sit, and move.", "Many modern Jains assert that Mahavira's teachings presage the existence of microorganisms as discovered by modern science.The earliest known idea to indicate the possibility of diseases spreading by yet unseen organisms was that of the Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in a first-century BC book entitled ''On Agriculture'' in which he called the unseen creatures animalia minuta, and warns against locating a homestead near a swamp:In ''The Canon of Medicine'' (1020), Avicenna suggested that tuberculosis and other diseases might be contagious.===Early modern===Turkish scientist Akshamsaddin mentioned the microbe in his work ''Maddat ul-Hayat'' (The Material of Life) about two centuries prior to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's discovery through experimentation:In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances.Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is considered to be one of the fathers of microbiology.", "He was the first in 1673 to discover and conduct scientific experiments with microorganisms, using simple single-lensed microscopes of his own design.", "Robert Hooke, a contemporary of Leeuwenhoek, also used microscopy to observe microbial life in the form of the fruiting bodies of moulds.", "In his 1665 book ''Micrographia'', he made drawings of studies, and he coined the term ''cell''.===19th century===Louis Pasteur showed that Spallanzani's findings held even if air could enter through a filter that kept particles out.Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) exposed boiled broths to the air, in vessels that contained a filter to prevent particles from passing through to the growth medium, and also in vessels without a filter, but with air allowed in via a curved tube so dust particles would settle and not come in contact with the broth.", "By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment.", "Nothing grew in the broths in the course of Pasteur's experiment.", "This meant that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth.", "Thus, Pasteur refuted the theory of spontaneous generation and supported the germ theory of disease.Robert Koch showed that microorganisms caused disease.In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microorganisms can cause disease.", "He found that the blood of cattle that were infected with anthrax always had large numbers of ''Bacillus anthracis''.", "Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become sick.", "He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness.", "Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microorganism and a disease and these are now known as Koch's postulates.", "Although these postulates cannot be applied in all cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought and are still being used today.The discovery of microorganisms such as ''Euglena'' that did not fit into either the animal or plant kingdoms, since they were photosynthetic like plants, but motile like animals, led to the naming of a third kingdom in the 1860s.", "In 1860 John Hogg called this the Protoctista, and in 1866 Ernst Haeckel named it the Protista.The work of Pasteur and Koch did not accurately reflect the true diversity of the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on microorganisms having direct medical relevance.", "It was not until the work of Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky late in the nineteenth century that the true breadth of microbiology was revealed.", "Beijerinck made two major contributions to microbiology: the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment culture techniques.", "While his work on the tobacco mosaic virus established the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies.", "Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes.", "He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.", "French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists." ], [ "Classification and structure", "Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth.", "Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants.", "Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered to be microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses.===Evolution===Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3.5 billion years ago.", "Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, (much of the history of life on Earth), all organisms were microorganisms.", "Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since at least the Triassic period.", "The newly discovered biological role played by nickel, however – especially that brought about by volcanic eruptions from the Siberian Traps – may have accelerated the evolution of methanogens towards the end of the Permian–Triassic extinction event.Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution.", "Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between widely divergent species.", "This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and other means of transformation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses.", "This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, ''superbugs'', that are resistant to antibiotics.A possible transitional form of microorganism between a prokaryote and a eukaryote was discovered in 2012 by Japanese scientists.", "''Parakaryon myojinensis'' is a unique microorganism larger than a typical prokaryote, but with nuclear material enclosed in a membrane as in a eukaryote, and the presence of endosymbionts.", "This is seen to be the first plausible evolutionary form of microorganism, showing a stage of development from the prokaryote to the eukaryote.===Archaea===Archaea are prokaryotic unicellular organisms, and form the first domain of life in Carl Woese's three-domain system.", "A prokaryote is defined as having no cell nucleus or other membrane bound-organelle.", "Archaea share this defining feature with the bacteria with which they were once grouped.", "In 1990 the microbiologist Woese proposed the three-domain system that divided living things into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, and thereby split the prokaryote domain.Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and biochemistry.", "For example, while bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, archaean membranes are made of ether lipids.", "Archaea were originally described as extremophiles living in extreme environments, such as hot springs, but have since been found in all types of habitats.", "Only now are scientists beginning to realize how common archaea are in the environment, with Thermoproteota (formerly Crenarchaeota) being the most common form of life in the ocean, dominating ecosystems below in depth.", "These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation.The combined domains of archaea and bacteria make up the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on Earth and inhabit practically all environments where the temperature is below +.", "They are found in water, soil, air, as the microbiome of an organism, hot springs and even deep beneath the Earth's crust in rocks.", "The number of prokaryotes is estimated to be around five nonillion, or 5 × 1030, accounting for at least half the biomass on Earth.The biodiversity of the prokaryotes is unknown, but may be very large.", "A May 2016 estimate, based on laws of scaling from known numbers of species against the size of organism, gives an estimate of perhaps 1 trillion species on the planet, of which most would be microorganisms.", "Currently, only one-thousandth of one percent of that total have been described.", "Archael cells of some species aggregate and transfer DNA from one cell to another through direct contact, particularly under stressful environmental conditions that cause DNA damage.===Bacteria===''Staphylococcus aureus'' bacteria magnified about 10,000xLike archaea, bacteria are prokaryotic – unicellular, and having no cell nucleus or other membrane-bound organelle.", "Bacteria are microscopic, with a few extremely rare exceptions, such as ''Thiomargarita namibiensis''.", "Bacteria function and reproduce as individual cells, but they can often aggregate in multicellular colonies.", "Some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate into complex swarming structures, operating as multicellular groups as part of their life cycle, or form clusters in bacterial colonies such as ''E.coli''.Their genome is usually a circular bacterial chromosome – a single loop of DNA, although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called plasmids.", "These plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation.", "Bacteria have an enclosing cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells.", "They reproduce by binary fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo meiotic sexual reproduction.", "However, many bacterial species can transfer DNA between individual cells by a horizontal gene transfer process referred to as natural transformation.", "Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction.", "Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and their numbers can double as quickly as every 20 minutes.===Eukaryotes===Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans.", "However, many eukaryotes are also microorganisms.", "Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells.", "The nucleus is an organelle that houses the DNA that makes up a cell's genome.", "DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) itself is arranged in complex chromosomes.Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.", "They evolved from symbiotic bacteria and retain a remnant genome.", "Like bacteria, plant cells have cell walls, and contain organelles such as chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes.", "Chloroplasts produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also originally symbiotic bacteria.Unicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle.", "This qualification is significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles.", "Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple cell nuclei.Unicellular eukaryotes usually reproduce asexually by mitosis under favorable conditions.", "However, under stressful conditions such as nutrient limitations and other conditions associated with DNA damage, they tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis and syngamy.====Protists====Euglena mutabilis'', a photosynthetic flagellateOf eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic.", "This is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify.", "Several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms.", "The number of species of protists is unknown since only a small proportion has been identified.", "Protist diversity is high in oceans, deep sea-vents, river sediment and an acidic river, suggesting that many eukaryotic microbial communities may yet be discovered.====Fungi====The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast (''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'') and fission yeast (''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'').", "Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast ''Candida albicans'', can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others.====Plants====The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms.", "Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants.", "Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells.", "The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms.", "In the Charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the organism.", "There are about 6000 species of green algae." ], [ "Ecology", "Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature, including hostile environments such as the North and South poles, deserts, geysers, and rocks.", "They also include all the marine microorganisms of the oceans and deep sea.", "Some types of microorganisms have adapted to extreme environments and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles.", "Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the Earth's surface, and it has been suggested that the amount of organisms living below the Earth's surface is comparable with the amount of life on or above the surface.", "Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation, which may even allow them to survive in space.", "Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to the host organism (parasitism).", "If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens and then they are sometimes referred to as ''microbes''.Microorganisms play critical roles in Earth's biogeochemical cycles as they are responsible for decomposition and nitrogen fixation.Bacteria use regulatory networks that allow them to adapt to almost every environmental niche on earth.", "A network of interactions among diverse types of molecules including DNA, RNA, proteins and metabolites, is utilised by the bacteria to achieve regulation of gene expression.", "In bacteria, the principal function of regulatory networks is to control the response to environmental changes, for example nutritional status and environmental stress.", "A complex organization of networks permits the microorganism to coordinate and integrate multiple environmental signals.===Extremophiles===A tetrad of ''Deinococcus radiodurans'', a radioresistant extremophile bacteriumExtremophiles are microorganisms that have adapted so that they can survive and even thrive in extreme environments that are normally fatal to most life-forms.", "Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive in high temperatures.", "Psychrophiles thrive in extremely low temperatures.", "– Temperatures as high as , as low as Halophiles such as ''Halobacterium salinarum'' (an archaean) thrive in high salt conditions, up to saturation.", "Alkaliphiles thrive in an alkaline pH of about 8.5–11.Acidophiles can thrive in a pH of 2.0 or less.", "Piezophiles thrive at very high pressures: up to 1,000–2,000 atm, down to 0 atm as in a vacuum of space.", "A few extremophiles such as ''Deinococcus radiodurans'' are radioresistant, resisting radiation exposure of up to 5k Gy.", "Extremophiles are significant in different ways.", "They extend terrestrial life into much of the Earth's hydrosphere, crust and atmosphere, their specific evolutionary adaptation mechanisms to their extreme environment can be exploited in biotechnology, and their very existence under such extreme conditions increases the potential for extraterrestrial life.===Plants and soil===The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.", "This is achieved by a number of diazotrophs.", "One way this can occur is in the root nodules of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the genera ''Rhizobium'', ''Mesorhizobium'', ''Sinorhizobium'', ''Bradyrhizobium'', and ''Azorhizobium''.The roots of plants create a narrow region known as the rhizosphere that supports many microorganisms known as the root microbiome.These microorganisms in the root microbiome are able to interact with each other and surrounding plants through signals and cues.", "For example, mycorrhizal fungi are able to communicate with the root systems of many plants through chemical signals between both the plant and fungi.", "This results in a mutualistic symbiosis between the two.", "However, these signals can be eavesdropped by other microorganisms, such as the soil bacteria, ''Myxococcus xanthus'', which preys on other bacteria.", "Eavesdropping, or the interception of signals from unintended receivers, such as plants and microorganisms, can lead to large-scale, evolutionary consequences.", "For example, signaler-receiver pairs, like plant-microorganism pairs, may lose the ability to communicate with neighboring populations because of variability in eavesdroppers.", "In adapting to avoid local eavesdroppers, signal divergence could occur and thus, lead to the isolation of plants and microorganisms from the inability to communicate with other populations.===Symbiosis===The photosynthetic cyanobacterium ''Hyella caespitosa'' (round shapes) with fungal hyphae (translucent threads) in the lichen ''Pyrenocollema halodytes''A lichen is a symbiosis of a macroscopic fungus with photosynthetic microbial algae or cyanobacteria." ], [ "Applications", "Microorganisms are useful in producing foods, treating waste water, creating biofuels and a wide range of chemicals and enzymes.", "They are invaluable in research as model organisms.", "They have been weaponised and sometimes used in warfare and bioterrorism.", "They are vital to agriculture through their roles in maintaining soil fertility and in decomposing organic matter.===Food production===Microorganisms are used in a fermentation process to make yoghurt, cheese, curd, kefir, ayran, xynogala, and other types of food.", "Fermentation cultures provide flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.", "They are used to leaven bread, and to convert sugars to alcohol in wine and beer.", "Microorganisms are used in brewing, wine making, baking, pickling and other food-making processes.+Example industrial uses of microorganismsProductContribution of microorganismsCheese Growth of microorganisms contributes to ripening and flavor.", "The flavor and appearance of a particular cheese is due in large part to the microorganisms associated with it.", "''Lactobacillus Bulgaricus'' is one of the microbes used in production of dairy productsAlcoholic beverages yeast is used to convert sugar, grape juice, or malt-treated grain into alcohol.", "other microorganisms may also be used; a mold converts starch into sugar to make the Japanese rice wine, sake.", "''Acetobacter Aceti'' a kind of bacterium is used in production of Alcoholic beveragesVinegar Certain bacteria are used to convert alcohol into acetic acid, which gives vinegar its acid taste.", "''Acetobacter Aceti'' is used on production of vinegar, which gives vinegar odor of alcohol and alcoholic tasteCitric acid Certain fungi are used to make citric acid, a common ingredient of soft drinks and other foods.", "VitaminsMicroorganisms are used to make vitamins, including C, B2 , B12.AntibioticsWith only a few exceptions, microorganisms are used to make antibiotics.", "''Penicillin, Amoxicillin, Tetracycline, and Erythromycin''===Water treatment===Wastewater treatment plants rely largely on microorganisms to oxidise organic matter.These depend for their ability to clean up water contaminated with organic material on microorganisms that can respire dissolved substances.", "Respiration may be aerobic, with a well-oxygenated filter bed such as a slow sand filter.", "Anaerobic digestion by methanogens generate useful methane gas as a by-product.", "''''''''''===Energy===Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and in biogas reactors to produce methane.", "Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels.===Chemicals, enzymes===Microorganisms are used to produce many commercial and industrial chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules.", "Organic acids produced on a large industrial scale by microbial fermentation include acetic acid produced by acetic acid bacteria such as ''Acetobacter aceti'', butyric acid made by the bacterium ''Clostridium butyricum'', lactic acid made by ''Lactobacillus'' and other lactic acid bacteria, and citric acid produced by the mould fungus ''Aspergillus niger''.", "Microorganisms are used to prepare bioactive molecules such as Streptokinase from the bacterium ''Streptococcus'', Cyclosporin A from the ascomycete fungus ''Tolypocladium inflatum'', and statins produced by the yeast ''Monascus purpureus''.===Science===A laboratory fermentation vesselMicroorganisms are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology.", "The yeasts ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' and ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' are important model organisms in science, since they are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated.", "They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics.", "Microorganisms can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases.", "Scientists are also considering using microorganisms for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution.===Warfare===In the Middle Ages, as an early example of biological warfare, diseased corpses were thrown into castles during sieges using catapults or other siege engines.", "Individuals near the corpses were exposed to the pathogen and were likely to spread that pathogen to others.In modern times, bioterrorism has included the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack and the 1993 release of anthrax by Aum Shinrikyo in Tokyo.===Soil===Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses.", "In general a more diverse set of soil microbes results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield." ], [ "Human health", "=== Human gut flora ===Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms.", "For example, microbial symbiosis plays a crucial role in the immune system.", "The microorganisms that make up the gut flora in the gastrointestinal tract contribute to gut immunity, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates.", "Some microorganisms that are seen to be beneficial to health are termed probiotics and are available as dietary supplements, or food additives.===Disease===The eukaryotic parasite ''Plasmodium falciparum'' (spiky blue shapes), a causative agent of malaria, in human bloodMicroorganisms are the causative agents (pathogens) in many infectious diseases.", "The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoan parasites, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis.", "However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition.", "No clear examples of archaean pathogens are known, although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human periodontal disease.", "Numerous microbial pathogens are capable of sexual processes that appear to facilitate their survival in their infected host.=== Hygiene ===Hygiene is a set of practices to avoid infection or food spoilage by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings.", "As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, harmful microorganisms may be reduced to acceptable levels rather than actually eliminated.", "In food preparation, microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods such as cooking, cleanliness of utensils, short storage periods, or by low temperatures.", "If complete sterility is needed, as with surgical equipment, an autoclave is used to kill microorganisms with heat and pressure." ], [ "In fiction", "*''Osmosis Jones'', a 2001 film, and its show ''Ozzy & Drix'', set in a stylized version of the human body, featured anthropomorphic microorganisms.", "*''War of the Worlds (2005 film)'', when Alien lifeforms attempt to conquer earth, they are ultimately defeated by a common Microbe to which Humans are immune." ], [ "See also", "* Catalogue of Life* Impedance microbiology* Microbial biogeography* Microbial intelligence* Microbiological culture* Microbivory, an eating behavior of some animals feeding on living microbes* Nanobacterium* Nylon-eating bacteria* Petri dish* Staining" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Microbes.info is a microbiology information portal containing a vast collection of resources including articles, news, frequently asked questions, and links pertaining to the field of microbiology.", "* Our Microbial Planet A free poster from the National Academy of Sciences about the positive roles of micro-organisms.", "* \"Uncharted Microbial World: Microbes and Their Activities in the Environment\" Report from the American Academy of Microbiology* Understanding Our Microbial Planet: The New Science of Metagenomics A 20-page educational booklet providing a basic overview of metagenomics and our microbial planet.", "* Tree of Life Eukaryotes* Microbe News from Genome News Network* Medical Microbiology On-line textbook* Through the microscope: A look at all things small On-line microbiology textbook by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts, University of Wisconsin–Madison* * Methane-spewing microbe blamed in worst mass extinction.", "CBCNews" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Modulus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Modulus''' is the diminutive from the Latin word ''modus'' meaning measure or manner.", "It, or its plural '''moduli''', may refer to the following:" ], [ "Physics, engineering and computing", "* Moduli (physics), scalar fields for which the potential energy function has continuous families of global minima* The measurement of standard pitch in the teeth of a rotating gear* Bulk modulus, a measure of compression resistance* Elastic modulus, a measure of stiffness*Shear modulus, a measure of elastic stiffness* Young's modulus, a specific elastic modulus* Modulo operation (a % b, mod(a, b), etc.", "), in both math and programming languages; results in remainder of a division* Casting modulus used in Chvorinov's rule." ], [ "Mathematics", "* Modulus (modular arithmetic), base of modular arithmetic* Modulus, the absolute value of a real or complex number ( )* Moduli space, in mathematics a geometric space whose points represent algebro-geometric objects* Conformal modulus, a measure of the size of a curve family* Modulus of continuity, a function gauging the uniform continuity of a function* Similarly, the modulus of a Dirichlet character* Modulus (algebraic number theory), a formal product of places of a number field* The modular function in the theory of Haar measure, often called simply the modulus" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Modulus'' (gastropod) a genus of small sea snails* Modulus Guitars, musical instrument manufacturer* Modulus robot, a household robot" ], [ "See also", "* Module (disambiguation)* Modulo (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Micronation" ], [ "Introduction", "The Principality of Sealand is a micronation located on a seafort off the coast of the United Kingdom.A '''micronation''' is a political entity whose representatives claim that they belong to an independent nation or sovereign state, but which lacks legal recognition by any sovereign state.", "Micronations are classified separately from de facto states and quasi-states; they are also not considered to be autonomous or self-governing as they lack the legal basis in international law for their existence.", "The activities of micronations are almost always trivial enough to be ignored rather than disputed by the established nations whose territory they claim—referred to in micronationalism as \"macronations\".", "Several micronations have issued coins, flags, postage stamps, passports, medals and other state-related items, some as a source of revenue.", "Motivations for the creation of micronations include theoretical experimentation, political protest, artistic expression, personal entertainment and the conduct of criminal activity.", "The study of micronationalism is known as '''micropatriology''' or '''micropatrology'''.Although several historical states have been retroactively called micronations, the concept was formulated in the 1970s, with a particular influence from the International Micropatrological Society.", "Micronationalism saw several developments thereafter, with several micronations being founded in Australia in the 1970s and a \"micronations boom\" in Japan in the 1980s.", "As a result of the emergence of the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s, micronationalism lost much of its traditionally eccentric anti-establishment sentiment in favour of more hobbyist perspectives, and the number of exclusively online or merely simulation-based micronations expanded dramatically.", "This has allowed several intermicronational organisations to form, as well as allowing for many diplomatic summits to take place between micronations since the 2000s." ], [ "Definition", "Micronations are aspirant states that claim independence but lack legal recognition by world governments or major international organisations.", "Micronations are classified separately from states with limited recognition and quasi-states, nor are they considered to be autonomous or self-governing as they lack the legal basis in international law for their existence.", "While some are secessionist in nature, most micronations are widely regarded as sovereignty projects that instead seek to mimic a sovereign state rather than to achieve international recognition, and their activities are almost always trivial enough to be ignored rather than challenged by the established nations whose territory they claim—referred to as a \"macronation\" in micronationalism.", "Some micronations admit to having no intention of actually becoming internationally recognised as sovereign.", "Geographically, most micronations are very small, are often the outgrowth of a single individual, rely on their sovereign state to some extent, and mimic sovereign states by creating their own government, legislation, proclaiming national symbols, holding national elections and engaging in diplomacy with other micronations.", "While most micronations claim sovereignty over physical territory, others are based solely around the Internet or do not claim sovereignty at all, a hobbyist paradigm of micronationalism that arose with the rise of the Internet from the mid-1990s onwards.In 2021, legal academics Harry Hobbs and George Williams, in their ''Micronations and the Search for Sovereignty'', defined micronations as:Online dictionary ''Collins English Dictionary'', published by HarperCollins, gives a similar definition:" ], [ "History", "=== Retrospective micronations ===Several historical political entities have been retroactively described as \"micronations\" in academic and journalistic works, including the Islands of Refreshment (existed 1811–16), Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia (since 1860), State of Scott (1861–1986), Republic of Parva Domus Magna Quies (since 1878), and the more contemporary Kingdom of Elleore (since 1944), Republic of Saugeais (since 1947), Principality of Outer Baldonia (1949–1973) and Sultanate of M'Simbati (1959–).=== Libertarian micronations and seasteading projects: 1964–1972 ===Republic of Rose Island, before its destructionThe Republic of Minerva was a libertarian project that succeeded in building an artificial island in 1972 by importing sandSeveral entities that can be considered micronations by contemporary standards were established throughout the 1960s and early 1970s and based on ideals of libertarianism and many of them created via seasteading.New Atlantis was founded in 1964 by writer Leicester Hemingway, claiming a bamboo raft that he had constructed with steel, iron piping and rock.", "Hemingway had it towed off the coast of Jamaica and argued that it was technically an island and fully sovereign based on the Guano Islands Act of 1856.Although Hemingway had plans to expand the raft, it was destroyed within a few years by a cyclone, and the project was completely abandoned in 1973.In 1967, Paddy Roy Bates squatted on HM Fort Roughs, an offshore platform in the North Sea used during World War II approximately off the coast of the United Kingdom.", "Bates had intended to broadcast a pirate radio station from the platform, however ultimately never did so.", "He instead declared the independence of Fort Roughs and deemed it the Principality of Sealand.", "Bates died in 2012, and Michael Bates has since succeeded him as Prince of Sealand.Operation Atlantis was a project started in 1968 by Werner Stiefel, aiming to establish a new, libertarian nation in international waters via seasteading.", "The operation launched a ferrocement boat on the Hudson River in December 1971, piloting it to an area near the Bahamas with the intent to permanently anchor it as their territory.", "Upon reaching its destination, however, it sank in a hurricane.", "After a number of subsequent failed attempts to construct a habitable sea platform and achieve sovereign status, the project was abandoned in 1976.The Republic of Rose Island was an artificial platform originally constructed as a tourist attraction in the Adriatic Sea in 1968.However, Italian architect Giorgio Rosa soon declared it sovereign.", "The micronation had its own currency, a post office and commercial establishments.", "In 1969, the Italian Navy used explosives to destroy the facility, claiming it was a ploy to raise money from tourists while avoiding national taxation.", "The Republic of Minerva was a libertarian project that succeeded in building a small artificial island on the Minerva Reefs in 1972 by importing sand.", "It was invaded by troops from Tonga that same year, who annexed it before destroying the island.", "During its brief existence, Minerva was a media sensation.=== Conceptualisation ===As of January 1973, the Office of the Geographer of the United States Department of State had a file cabinet for \"countries which are only partially real\", which included the Kingdom of Humanity, Outer Baldonia, Minerva and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta—not a micronation—among others.", "Writer Philip J. Hilts added, \"We know the Eastern bloc, the Western bloc, and the Third World nations.", "But there is another universe of nations which exist apart from the familiar countries.\"", "The International Micropatrological Society (IMS), an American learned society and research institute, was founded in 1973 and dedicated to the study of micronations, a discipline it named ''micropatrology''.", "By 1976, it had documents pertaining to 128 micronations and similar political entities.", "The earliest attested use of ''micronation'' in its current meaning appeared on 28 March 1976 in an article by ''the New York Times'' about the IMS.", "The first use of ''micronation'' in a book was in an eponymous dedicated section of the 1978 ''The People's Almanac#2'' by David Wallechinsky and Irving Wallace.", "In 1979, the first book about micronations, ''How to Start Your Own Country'', was published by Erwin S. Strauss.", "The IMS contributed considerably to the work.", "However, the word ''micronation'' is notably absent from the book.", "A second edition of the work was published in 1984 by Loompanics, followed in 1999 by a third edition published by Paladin Press.", "According to the Yearbook of International Organizations, the IMS was disestablished in 1988.=== Initial developments in Australia: 1970–1981 ===Entrance to the Principality of Hutt River (formerly Hutt River Province), a micronation founded in AustraliaAustralia has a disproportionate number of micronations compared to other countries.", "The first micronation founded within Australia was the Principality of Hutt River in 1970.It was declared independent by farmer Leonard Casley over a dispute concerning wheat production quotas.", "In 2017, the Supreme Court of Western Australia ordered that Casley pay $2.7 million in unpaid tax, and that his son Arthur Casley pay $242,000 in unpaid tax.", "Casley abdicated in 2017 in favour of his son Graeme.", "Leonard died in 2019, and Hutt River dissolved the following year amidst continued disputes with the Australian Taxation Office as well as the financial impact caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In 1976, the Province of Bumbunga was declared by Alec Brackstone in response to the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.", "Brackstone, an ardent British monarchist, became alarmed by what he saw as a drift away from the Australian system of constitutional monarchy toward outright republicanism.", "Thus, to ensure that at least one portion of Australia would remain loyal to the British Crown, Bumbunga was declared.The Sovereign State of Aeterna Lucina was proclaimed in 1978 by German migrant Paul Neuman.", "Aeterna Lucina came to public attention in 1990 when Neuman faced fraud charges in the New South Wales court system relating to land sale offences; the case was abandoned in 1992.In 1979, the Independent State of Rainbow Creek was declared by Thomas Barnes in protest of alleged incompetence by the Government of Victoria in regards to the flooding of his and others' properties.", "He was inspired by Hutt River.", "The Grand Duchy of Avram was established in Tasmania in the early 1980s by politician John Charlton Rudge, and issues its own banknotes.", "In recognition of his status, Rudge legally changed his name to John the Duke of Avram.", "In 1981, the Empire of Atlantium was founded in Sydney as a non-territorial global government based on the ideals of secularism, progressivism and liberalism.", "Among the causes Atlantium supports are the right to unrestricted international freedom of movement, the right to abortion, and the right to assisted suicide.=== Micronational community in Japan: 1981–1991 ===In 1981, drawing on a news story about Hemingway's New Atlantis, novelist Hisashi Inoue wrote a 700-page work of magic realism, ''Kirikirijin'', about a village that secedes from Japan and proclaims its bumpkinish, marginalized dialect its national language, and its subsequent war of independence.", "This single-handedly inspired a large number of real-world Japanese villages, mostly in the northern regions, to \"declare independence\", generally as a move to raise awareness of their unique culture and crafts for urban Japanese who saw village life as backwards and uncultured.", "These micronations, known as mini-independent countries (), held intermicronational summits, and some of them formed confederations and intermicronational organisations.", "The Ginko Federation held an intermicronational Olympic games in 1986.However, the economic impact of the Japanese asset price bubble in 1991 ended the boom.", "Many of the villages were forced to merge with larger cities, and the micronations and confederations were generally dissolved.=== Protest micronations: 1980s ===The 1980s saw the establishment of several micronational entities in protest.The Free Republic of Wendland was a protest camp established in Gorleben, West Germany, in 1980 in order to protest against the establishment of a nuclear waste dump at the site.", "The residents created a border checkpoint and built a temporary village with more than 100 huts, ranging from elaborate round houses to tents.", "After 33 days, the local police moved in and evicted the camp.", "Also in 1980, the Independent State of Aramoana was declared by residents of the eponymous settlement during the Save Aramoana Campaign, which was opposed to the proposed construction of an aluminium smelter at Aramoana in New Zealand.", "This was because the project called for the destruction of the villages of Aramoana and Te Ngaru, and also threatened a local wildlife reserve.", "The project was ultimately abandoned in the early 1980s, and the micronation of Aramoana peacefully reintegrated into New Zealand.The Conch Republic was founded by local residents of the Florida Keys in 1982 after the United States Border Patrol set up a roadblock and inspection point on one of the only two roads connecting the Florida Keys with the mainland.", "The Key West City Council complained repeatedly about the inconvenience, claiming that it hurt the Keys' tourism industry.", "Though the roadblock was soon removed, the claim to sovereignty of the Conch Republic has persisted as a tongue-in-cheek venture meant to bolster tourism.", "In 1986, the Kingdom of North Dumpling in was declared by inventor Dean Kamen after a denial from local officials to build his own wind turbine on North Dumpling Island in Long Island Sound, which Kamen privately owns.", "Kamen wrote his own constitution and created a flag, currency and national anthem for the micronation.", "In 1992, despite still being recognised as part of New York State in the United States, Kamen was able to leverage his personal relationship with then-president George H. W. Bush to sign an unofficial non-aggression pact.=== Artistic micronations: 1990s ===Several conceptual art projects with micronational claims arose in the 1990s, usually as a means to challenge the idea of statehood.In 1991, Neue Slowenische Kunst (NSK), a Slovenian political art collective, declared independence.", "NSK describes itself as a \"State in Time\", claiming no territory in order to be a \"stateless state\".", "Elgaland-Vargaland is a conceptual art project founded in 1992 by Swedish artists Carl Michael von Hausswolff and Leif Elggren.", "According to them, everyone who dies is automatically granted citizenship.", "Among Elgaland-Vargaland's territorial claims include graveyards, people's mental states and \"the distance between high tide and low tide\" of France.", "They also claim to operate embassies around the world.", "In 1996, Swedish artist Lars Vilks proclaimed the Royal Republic of Ladonia as a result of a court battle between local authorities over Vilks's illegal construction of two sculptures in the natural reserve of Kullaberg in southern Sweden.", "Ladonia's claim of independence has since persisted following Vilks's death in 2021, with Carolyn Shelby serving as Queen since 2011.In 1997, the neighbourhood of Užupis in Vilnius, Lithuania declared tongue-in-cheek independence as a republic consisting of laidback artists.=== Effects of the Internet and media attention ===In the mid-1990s, the emerging popularity of the World Wide Web made it possible for anyone to create their own virtual state-like entity with relative ease, and many micronations launched their own websites.", "As a result, micronationalism lost much of its traditionally eccentric anti-establishment sentiment in favour of more hobbyist perspectives, and the number of exclusively online or merely simulation-based micronations expanded dramatically.", "Several intermicronational organisations were also established, with the League of Secessionist States, originally founded in 1980 by the Kingdom of Talossa, and the United Micronations being at the forefront.", "The French Institute of Micropatrology () was founded in 1996 by Swiss academic Fabrice O'Driscoll to study this phenomenon.", "Other online micronational services during the 1990s included MicroWorld, a monthly micronational magazine, and alt.politics.micronations, a Usenet newsgroup dedicated to discussions regarding micronationalism.", "In 2000, O'Driscoll authored ''Ils ne siègent pas à l'ONU: revue de quelques micro-Etats, micro-nations et autres entités éphémères'' (They do not sit at the UN: a review of some micro-states, micro-nations and other ephemeral entities), which details over 600 micronations.A marker along the Republic of Molossia's claimed border with NevadaIn 2000, the Republic of Molossia and the erstwhile Kingdom of TorHavn hosted an Intermicronational Olympic Games online to coincide with the 2000 Summer Olympics.", "Six micronations competed and were asked to record their performances then report it to a Molossian message board.", "In 2003, the ''First Summit of Micronations'' summit commenced in Helsinki, Finland, coinciding with a performance art festival called Amorph!03.Six micronations were represented.", "An art exhibition exhibiting various micronational miscellanea, ''We Could Have Invited Everyone'', occurred in 2004 and 2005 at the Reg Vardy Gallery, University of Sunderland, England and Andrew Kreps Gallery, New York City, United States respectively.", "The items were featured alongside artwork by artists including Yoko Ono and Nina Katchadourian.", "Both exhibitions coincided with an intermicronational summit.", "In 2005, the six-part BBC comedy-documentary series ''How to Start Your Own Country'' aired on BBC Two, in which comedian Danny Wallace attempts to create his own country in his apartment in Bow, London.", "The micronation he created was eventually named the Kingdom of Lovely.", "The following year, the travel guide company Lonely Planet published a light-hearted guide to numerous micronations titled ''Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations''.In 2007, two self-proclaimed princesses of the Sunda Democratic Empire, sisters Puteri Lamia Roro Wiranata and Puteri Fathia Reza, were detained by Malaysian immigration authorities for attempting to enter from Brunei using diplomatic passports from the Sunda Empire.", "They claimed to be the princesses of the historical Sunda Kingdom and that their parents were in \"exile\".", "In early 2008, they were freed by the Sessions Court, but maintained their claim of Sundan citizenship, thus making them ineligible for deportation to Indonesia.", "The Malaysian authorities subsequently deemed them stateless individuals, and they were interned at an immigration depot under supervision of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.=== 2010s ===In 2010, the documentary film ''How to Start Your Own Country'', directed by Jody Shapiro, was screened as part of the 35th Toronto International Film Festival.", "The documentary explored various micronations around the world and included an analysis of the concept of statehood, seasteading and citizenship.", "The film was inspired by Erwin Strauss' eponymous book.", "Also that same year, an intermicronational summit, PoliNation 2010, was held at Dangar Island in Sydney, Australia.", "It was organised by Judy Lattas of Macquarie University, Princess Paula of the Principality of Snake Hill and George Cruickshank of the Empire of Atlantium.", "Between 2013 and 2014, two Aboriginal Australian nations declared independence from Australia as part of the concept of Australian Aboriginal sovereignty—first the Murrawarri Republic, comprising the Muruwari, in 2013, and the Sovereign Yidindji Government, comprising the Yidindji, in 2014.In both cases, the declarations of independence went wholly unrecognised by the Government of Australia.In 2015, the first convention of the biannual MicroCon was held in Anaheim, California, United States.", "Hosted by the Republic of Molossia, several presentations were held by micronationalists regarding various topics in micronationalism.", "The ''Organisation de la microfrancophonie'', a French intermicronational organisation, was founded in 2015.The organisation organised its first summit in 2016, hosted by the Principality of Aigues-Mortes.", "In 2018, the Principality of Islandia was established by two individuals aiming to build a crowdfunded micronation.", "Successfully purchasing the uninhabited Coffee Caye in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Belize in 2019, Prime Minister of Belize John Briceño dismissed the project in 2022, calling them \"stupid\" and stating \"We will never allow anybody to have their own country within this country Belize - what a stupid thing.", "If you stupid enough to pay a lot of money to buy a piece of land, good for you.", "\"=== 2020s ===During the COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2020, several micronations imposed their own restrictions, mimicking countries.", "Some inactive Internet-based micronations also returned to activity as people were commanded to stay home and quarantine.", "In 2020, Netflix released the film ''Rose Island'', based on the story of engineer Giorgio Rosa and the Republic of Rose Island.", "In 2021, academics Harry Hobbs and George Williams published ''Micronations and the Search for Sovereignty'', a book exploring various aspects of micronationalism.", "It was published by Cambridge University Press.", "A follow-up book on micronations by Hobbs and Williams, entitled ''How to Rule Your Own Country: The Weird and Wonderful World of Micronations'', was published in 2022 by the University of New South Wales Press.", "Also in 2022, illusionist Uri Geller purchased Lamb, an uninhabited island off the coast of Scotland and declared it independent as the Republic of Lamb.", "Geller offers citizenship, with proceeds going to Save a Child's Heart, an Israeli charity." ], [ "Territorial claims", "While most micronations claim land they can administer, often private property, some have made claims to uninhabitable tracts of land.", "For instance, some micronations have claimed Bir Tawil in Africa and Marie Byrd Land in West Antarctica, lands which are ''terra nullius''—unclaimed by any other sovereign state.", "Several others have also made claims to other portions of Antarctica.", "Examples are the Grand Duchy of Westarctica and Grand Duchy of Flandrensis.", "However, due to Antartica's remoteness, no micronation has yet to establish a permanent residence on the continent.", "On the other hand, at least one micronationalist has physically reached Bir Tawil; in June 2014, Virginian farmer Jeremiah Heaton travelled to the area and proclaimed the Kingdom of North Sudan.", "Heaton stated that he claimed the territory in order to fulfil a promise to his daughter to make her a princess, however Heaton has appeared to have other motivations, offering several initiatives—such as the implementation of a national currency and the construction of an international airport and capital city—via crowdfunding.Other micronational claims have been made to small pockets on the west bank of the Danube between Serbia and Croatia.", "Some micronationalists argue that the land is ''terra nullius'' because Croatia states the pockets are Serbian, whilst Serbia makes no claims on the land.", "However, the Croatian Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs has rejected these claims, stating that the differing border claims between Serbia and Croatia do not involve ''terra nullius'' and are not subject to occupation by a third party.", "The most prominent example is the Free Republic of Liberland, which was proclaimed in April 2015 by Czech right-libertarian politician and activist Vít Jedlička, and claims the largest pocket, Gornja Siga.", "The land lacks infrastructure and lies on the floodplain of the Danube.=== Other claims ===Some micronations have attempted to establish themselves in international waters—parts of the sea that cannot be claimed by any sovereign state—by seasteading.", "This involves the creation of permanent dwellings at sea.", "Some micronations are associated with the Seasteading Institute, a non-profit organisation formed to facilitate the establishment of these seasteads.The Space Kingdom of Asgardia, founded in October 2016, claims an artificial satellite that orbited the Earth.", "Named Asgardia-1, the two-unit CubeSat was successfully launched by Orbital ATK in November 2017 as part of an International Space Station resupply mission.", "Asgardia-1 reportedly re-entered the atmosphere in September 2022.The Nation of Celestial Space claims all of outer space, whilst the Empire of Angyalistan lays claim to garbage patches around the world's oceans in protest against their existence." ], [ "Functions as a sovereign state", "Coins minted by the Principality of SealandMicronations function in the same way as sovereign states in that they have their own government, constitution, legislation, and (if a democracy) hold national elections.", "Micronations often have national symbols such as a flag, coat of arms or seal, motto and anthem, and many micronations also issue coins, banknotes, stamps, passports, passport stamps, orders of merit and bestow honours and titles of nobility, although these are not recognised internationally.", "Some micronations have made profits by selling these items as souvenirs and memorabilia to tourists and via their national websites, and others have even sold citizenship and titles of nobility.", "Some micronational coinage and stamps, if professionally made, have become valued as collector's items by numismatists and philatelists (stamp collectors) alike.", "In addition, both Sealand and Seborga have their own national association football teams.", "The Sealand national football team was founded in 2004 and became an associate member of the N.F.-Board, a federation made up of unrecognised states, stateless peoples, regions and micronations that are not allowed to join FIFA, in 2006.The Seborga national football team was founded in 2014 and is run by the Football Federation of the Principality of Seborga." ], [ "Community", "=== Diplomacy ===Micronationalists after signing a treaty at PoliNation 2012Like countries, micronations engage in intermicronational diplomacy with one another.", "This includes the signing of treaties, non-aggression pacts and intermicronational conventions, diplomatic missions and declarations of war.", "Several intermicronational organisations also exist, with some having as many as 80 member states.", "Most of these organisations generally work to maintain peace, strengthen micronational cooperation and to improve diplomatic relations between member states.==== Intermicronational summits ====Intermicronational summits are also commonplace within the micronational community, and several reoccurring summits have taken place.", "These include the sporadically-held PoliNation, biennial MicroCon; and the ''Organisation de la microfrancophonie'' has hosted three intermicronational summits between its member states.", "PoliNation 2010 was held at Dangar Island, Sydney, Australia and was organised by Judy Lattas of Macquarie University, Princess Paula of the Principality of Snake Hill and George Cruickshank of the Empire of Atlantium.", "PoliNation 2012 was held in London, United Kingdom, and PoliNation 2015 commenced at Umbria, Italy.", "MicroCon 2015 was held in Anaheim, California and hosted by Molossia; MicroCon 2017 in Tucker, Georgia by the Kingdom of Ruritania; MicroCon 2019 in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, by the Kingdom of Slabovia; and MicroCon 2022 in Las Vegas, Nevada by Westarctica, having been delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The first summit hosted by the ''Microfrancophonie'' was held in 2016 in Aigues-Mortes, Occitania, and hosted by the Principality of Aigues-Mortes; the second summit took place in 2018 in Vincennes, Paris, and was hosted by Angyalistan; the third summit took place in 2022 in Blaye, Nouvelle-Aquitaine, organised by the Principality of Hélianthis.=== Websites and online communities ===There are thousands of micronations which exist and operate solely online.", "Micronationalists convene and engage with one another through several online platforms, especially social media and historically forums (message boards), where micronationalists can share lessons and ideas as well as gain inspiration for establishing their own micronation.", "MicroWiki, the largest micronational wiki and encyclopaedia, has thousands of articles on various topics related to micronationalism \"with many country pages on MicroWiki longer than those of real nations on Wikipedia\", and a number of micronations exist and conduct diplomacy solely on the wiki, utilising it as an online community.", "As of October 2023, the largest micronational group on Facebook, ''Micronations and Alternative Polities'', had 3,400 members, and the subreddit forum r/micronations on Reddit had another 8,000." ], [ "Legality", "=== Arguments for sovereignty ===''Micronation'' as a word has no basis in international law.", "Despite this, several micronations have attempted to justify their claims to sovereignty by citing loopholes in local laws.", "A commonly attempted tactic used by micronationalists to legitimise their claims is the declarative theory of statehood as defined by the Montevideo Convention, which defines a ''state'' as: \"a person of international law that possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.", "\"In 2019, a couple seasteading off the coast of Thailand went into hiding after being accused by the Royal Thai Navy of violating Thailand's sovereignty.", "If found guilty, they could face life in prison or the death penalty.", "As of 2020, they relocated to Panama.=== Based on historical claims ===Some micronations are founded on the basis of historical anomalies.", "The Principality of Seborga was founded in 1963 by Giorgio Carbone, who claimed to have found documents from the Vatican archives which, according to Carbone, indicated that Seborga had never been a possession of the House of Savoy and was thus not legally included in the Kingdom of Italy when it was formed in 1861, meaning that Seborga had remained sovereign.", "The Romanov Empire, created by chairman of the Monarchist Party of Russia Anton Bakov, claims to be a re-creation of the Russian Empire that holds Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen as the rightful heir to the imperial throne." ], [ "See also", "* League of Small and Subject Nationalities* List of micronations* List of unrecognised countries* Fictional country* Nation-building* State-building" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "===Nonfiction===* * * * * ===Fiction===* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Micronation at MicroWiki, the free micronational encyclopædia* micronation at ''Lexico UK English Dictionary''.", "Oxford University Press." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mining" ], [ "Introduction", "Mining of sulfur from a deposit at the edge of Ijen's crater lake, Indonesia.", "'''Mining''' is the extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the Earth.", "Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or feasibly created artificially in a laboratory or factory.", "Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay.", "The ore must be a rock or mineral that contains valuable constituent, can be extracted or mined and sold for profit.", "Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water.Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and final reclamation or restoration of the land after the mine is closed.", "Mining materials are often obtained from ore bodies, lodes, veins, seams, reefs, or placer deposits.", "The exploitation of these deposits for raw materials is dependent on investment, labor, energy, refining, and transportation cost.Mining operations can create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed.", "Hence, most of the world's nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact; however, the outsized role of mining in generating business for often rural, remote or economically depressed communities means that governments often fail to fully enforce such regulations.", "Work safety has long been a concern as well, and where enforced, modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines.", "Unregulated or poorly regulated mining, especially in developing economies, frequently contributes to local human rights violations and environmental conflicts.", "Mining can also perpetuate political instability through resource conflicts." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, clay and, later, metals found close to the Earth's surface.", "These were used to make early tools and weapons; for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools.", "Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries.", "The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (c. 4000–3000 BC).", "Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District.The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Ngwenya Mine in Eswatini (Swaziland), which radiocarbon dating shows to be about 43,000 years old.", "At this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre.", "Mines of a similar age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools.===Ancient Egypt===MalachiteAncient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi.", "At first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery.", "Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself.", "Quarries for turquoise and copper were also found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna.", "Quarries for gypsum were found at the Umm el-Sawwan site; gypsum was used to make funerary items for private tombs.", "Other minerals mined in Egypt from the Old Kingdom (2649-2134 BC) until the Roman Period (30 BC-AD 395) including granite, sandstone, limestone, basalt, travertine, gneiss, galena, and amethyst.Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties.", "The gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt.", "These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one method used to break down the hard rock holding the gold.", "One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known mining maps.", "The miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust known as the dry and wet attachment processes.===Ancient Greece and Rome===Ancient Roman development of the Dolaucothi Gold Mines, WalesMining in Europe has a very long history.", "Examples include the silver mines of Laurium, which helped support the Greek city state of Athens.", "Although they had over 20,000 slaves working them, their technology was essentially identical to their Bronze Age predecessors.", "At other mines, such as on the island of Thassos, marble was quarried by the Parians after they arrived in the 7th century BC.", "The marble was shipped away and was later found by archaeologists to have been used in buildings including the tomb of Amphipolis.", "Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, captured the gold mines of Mount Pangeo in 357 BC to fund his military campaigns.", "He also captured gold mines in Thrace for minting coinage, eventually producing 26 tons per year.However, it was the Romans who developed large-scale mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts.", "The water was used for a variety of purposes, including removing overburden and rock debris, called hydraulic mining, as well as washing comminuted, or crushed, ores and driving simple machinery.The Romans used hydraulic mining methods on a large scale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially using a now-obsolete form of mining known as hushing.", "They built numerous aqueducts to supply water to the minehead, where the water was stored in large reservoirs and tanks.", "When a full tank was opened, the flood of water sluiced away the overburden to expose the bedrock underneath and any gold-bearing veins.", "The rock was then worked by fire-setting to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of water.", "The resulting thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed by further streams of water from the overhead tanks.", "The Roman miners used similar methods to work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and lead ore in the Pennines.Sluicing methods were developed by the Romans in Spain in 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largest site being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueducts tapped local rivers and sluiced the deposits.", "The Romans also exploited the silver present in the argentiferous galena in the mines of Cartagena (''Cartago Nova''), Linares (''Castulo''), Plasenzuela and Azuaga, among many others.", "Spain was one of the most important mining regions, but all regions of the Roman Empire were exploited.", "In Great Britain the natives had mined minerals for millennia, but after the Roman conquest, the scale of the operations increased dramatically, as the Romans needed Britannia's resources, especially gold, silver, tin, and lead.Roman techniques were not limited to surface mining.", "They followed the ore veins underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible.", "At Dolaucothi they stoped out the veins and drove adits through bare rock to drain the stopes.", "The same adits were also used to ventilate the workings, especially important when fire-setting was used.", "At other parts of the site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered the mines using several kinds of machines, especially reverse overshot water-wheels.", "These were used extensively in the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, and lifting water about .", "They were worked as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats.", "Many examples of such devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved in the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales.===Medieval Europe===Agricola, author of ''De Re Metallica''Gallery, 12th to 13th century, GermanyMining as an industry underwent dramatic changes in medieval Europe.", "The mining industry in the early Middle Ages was mainly focused on the extraction of copper and iron.", "Other precious metals were also used, mainly for gilding or coinage.", "Initially, many metals were obtained through open-pit mining, and ore was primarily extracted from shallow depths, rather than through deep mine shafts.", "Around the 14th century, the growing use of weapons, armour, stirrups, and horseshoes greatly increased the demand for iron.", "Medieval knights, for example, were often laden with up to of plate or chain link armour in addition to swords, lances and other weapons.", "The overwhelming dependency on iron for military purposes spurred iron production and extraction processes.The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when all mines had reached depths at which the shafts could no longer be pumped dry with the available technology.", "Although an increased use of banknotes, credit and copper coins during this period did decrease the value of, and dependence on, precious metals, gold and silver still remained vital to the story of medieval mining.Due to differences in the social structure of society, the increasing extraction of mineral deposits spread from central Europe to England in the mid-sixteenth century.", "On the continent, mineral deposits belonged to the crown, and this regalian right was stoutly maintained.", "But in England, royal mining rights were restricted to gold and silver (of which England had virtually no deposits) by a judicial decision of 1568 and a law in 1688.England had iron, zinc, copper, lead, and tin ores.", "Landlords who owned the base metals and coal under their estates then had a strong inducement to extract these metals or to lease the deposits and collect royalties from mine operators.", "English, German, and Dutch capital combined to finance extraction and refining.", "Hundreds of German technicians and skilled workers were brought over; in 1642 a colony of 4,000 foreigners was mining and smelting copper at Keswick in the northwestern mountains.Use of water power in the form of water mills was extensive.", "The water mills were employed in crushing ore, raising ore from shafts, and ventilating galleries by powering giant bellows.", "Black powder was first used in mining in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia) in 1627.Black powder allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore veins.", "Blasting was much faster than fire-setting and allowed the mining of previously impenetrable metals and ores.", "In 1762, one of the world's first mining academies was established in the same town there.The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations such as the iron plowshare, as well as the growing use of metal as a building material, was also a driving force in the tremendous growth of the iron industry during this period.", "Inventions like the arrastra were often used by the Spanish to pulverize ore after being mined.", "This device was powered by animals and used the same principles used for grain threshing.Much of the knowledge of medieval mining techniques comes from books such as Biringuccio's ''De la pirotechnia'' and probably most importantly from Georg Agricola's ''De re metallica'' (1556).", "These books detail many different mining methods used in German and Saxon mines.", "A prime issue in medieval mines, which Agricola explains in detail, was the removal of water from mining shafts.", "As miners dug deeper to access new veins, flooding became a very real obstacle.", "The mining industry became dramatically more efficient and prosperous with the invention of mechanically- and animal-driven pumps.===Africa===Iron metallurgy in Africa dates back over four thousand years.", "Gold became an important commodity for Africa during the trans-Saharan gold trade from the 7th century to the 14th century.", "Gold was often traded to Mediterranean economies that demanded gold and could supply salt, even though much of Africa was abundant with salt due to the mines and resources in the Sahara desert.", "The trading of gold for salt was mostly used to promote trade between the different economies.", "Since the Great Trek in the 19th century, after, gold and diamond mining in Southern Africa has had major political and economic impacts.", "The Democratic Republic of Congo is the largest producer of diamonds in Africa, with an estimated 12 million carats in 2019.Other types of mining reserves in Africa include cobalt, bauxite, iron ore, coal, and copper.=== Oceania ===Gold and coal mining started in Australia and New Zealand in the 19th century.", "Nickel has become important in the economy of New Caledonia.In Fiji, in 1934, the Emperor Gold Mining Company Ltd. established operations at Vatukoula, followed in 1935 by the Loloma Gold Mines, N.L., and then by Fiji Mines Development Ltd. (aka Dolphin Mines Ltd.).", "These developments ushered in a “mining boom”, with gold production rising more than a hundred-fold, from 931.4 oz in 1934 to 107,788.5 oz in 1939, an order of magnitude then comparable to the combined output of New Zealand and Australia's eastern states.===Americas===Lead mining in the upper Mississippi River region of the U.S., 1865During prehistoric times, early Americans mined large amounts of copper along Lake Superior's Keweenaw Peninsula and in nearby Isle Royale; metallic copper was still present near the surface in colonial times.", "Indigenous peoples used Lake Superior copper from at least 5,000 years ago; copper tools, arrowheads, and other artifacts that were part of an extensive native trade-network have been discovered.", "In addition, obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined, worked, and traded.", "Early French explorers who encountered the sites made no use of the metals due to the difficulties of transporting them, but the copper was eventually traded throughout the continent along major river routes.", "Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, U.S., in 1905.Mining factory, ca.", "1880–1885.Photographs of the American West, Boston Public LibraryIn the early colonial history of the Americas, \"native gold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to Spain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons\", the gold and silver originating mostly from mines in Central and South America.", "Turquoise dated at 700 AD was mined in pre-Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining District in New Mexico, an estimate of \"about 15,000 tons of rock had been removed from Mt.", "Chalchihuitl using stone tools before 1700.", "\"In 1727 Louis Denys (Denis) (1675–1741), sieur de La Ronde – brother of Simon-Pierre Denys de Bonaventure and the son-in-law of René Chartier – took command of Fort La Pointe at Chequamegon Bay; where natives informed him of an island of copper.", "La Ronde obtained permission from the French crown to operate mines in 1733, becoming \"the first practical miner on Lake Superior\"; seven years later, mining was halted by an outbreak between Sioux and Chippewa tribes.Mining in the United States became widespread in the 19th century, and the United States Congress passed the General Mining Act of 1872 to encourage mining of federal lands.", "As with the California Gold Rush in the mid-19th century, mining for minerals and precious metals, along with ranching, became a driving factor in the U.S. Westward Expansion to the Pacific coast.", "With the exploration of the West, mining camps sprang up and \"expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new nation\"; Gold Rushers would experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of the transient West that preceded them.", "Aided by railroads, many people traveled West for work opportunities in mining.", "Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns.When new areas were explored, it was usually the gold (placer and then lode) and then silver that were taken into possession and extracted first.", "Other metals would often wait for railroads or canals, as coarse gold dust and nuggets do not require smelting and are easy to identify and transport.===Modernity===View showing miners' clothes suspended by pulleys, also wash basins and ventilation system, Kirkland Lake, Ontario, 1936.In the early 20th century, the gold and silver rush to the western United States also stimulated mining for coal as well as base metals such as copper, lead, and iron.", "Areas in modern Montana, Utah, Arizona, and later Alaska became predominate suppliers of copper to the world, which was increasingly demanding copper for electrical and households goods.", "Canada's mining industry grew more slowly than did the United States' due to limitations in transportation, capital, and U.S. competition; Ontario was the major producer of the early 20th century with nickel, copper, and gold.Meanwhile, Australia experienced the Australian gold rushes and by the 1850s was producing 40% of the world's gold, followed by the establishment of large mines such as the Mount Morgan Mine, which ran for nearly a hundred years, Broken Hill ore deposit (one of the largest zinc-lead ore deposits), and the iron ore mines at Iron Knob.", "After declines in production, another boom in mining occurred in the 1960s.", "Now, in the early 21st century, Australia remains a major world mineral producer.As the 21st century begins, a globalized mining industry of large multinational corporations has arisen.", "Peak minerals and environmental impacts have also become a concern.", "Different elements, particularly rare earth minerals, have begun to increase in demand as a result of new technologies." ], [ "Mine development and life cycle", "cut and fill mining operation in hard rock.The process of mining from discovery of an ore body through extraction of minerals and finally to returning the land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps.", "The first is discovery of the ore body, which is carried out through prospecting or exploration to find and then define the extent, location and value of the ore body.", "This leads to a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the size and grade of the deposit.This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit.", "This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work.", "The next step is to conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, the technical and financial risks, and the robustness of the project.This is when the mining company makes the decision whether to develop the mine or to walk away from the project.", "This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements, and an analysis of the proposed mine from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation.", "The proportion of a deposit that is economically recoverable is dependent on the enrichment factor of the ore in the area.To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it is often necessary to mine through or remove waste material which is not of immediate interest to the miner.", "The total movement of ore and waste constitutes the mining process.", "Often more waste than ore is mined during the life of a mine, depending on the nature and location of the ore body.", "Waste removal and placement is a major cost to the mining operator, so a detailed characterization of the waste material forms an essential part of the geological exploration program for a mining operation.Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth recovering, development begins to create access to the ore body.", "The mine buildings and processing plants are built, and any necessary equipment is obtained.", "The operation of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as long as the company operating the mine finds it economical to do so.", "Once all the ore that the mine can produce profitably is recovered, reclamation can begin, to make the land used by the mine suitable for future use.Technical and economic challenges notwithstanding, successful mine development must also address human factors.", "Working conditions are paramount to success, especially with regard to exposures to dusts, radiation, noise, explosives hazards, and vibration, as well as illumination standards.", "Mining today increasingly must address environmental and community impacts, including psychological and sociological dimensions.", "Thus, mining educator Frank T. M. White (1909–1971), broadened the focus to the “total environment of mining”, including reference to community development around mining, and how mining is portrayed to an urban society, which depends on the industry, although seemingly unaware of this dependency.", "He stated, “In the past, mining engineers have not been called upon to study the psychological, sociological and personal problems of their own industry – aspects that nowadays are assuming tremendous importance.", "The mining engineer must rapidly expand his knowledge and his influence into these newer fields.”" ], [ "Techniques", "Underground longwall mining.Mining techniques can be divided into two common excavation types: surface mining and sub-surface (underground) mining.", "Today, surface mining is much more common, and produces, for example, 85% of minerals (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United States, including 98% of metallic ores.Targets are divided into two general categories of materials: ''placer deposits'', consisting of valuable minerals contained within river gravels, beach sands, and other unconsolidated materials; and ''lode deposits'', where valuable minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineral grains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual rock.", "Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined by both surface and underground methods.Some mining, including much of the rare earth elements and uranium mining, is done by less-common methods, such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves digging neither at the surface nor underground.", "The extraction of target minerals by this technique requires that they be soluble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, which dissolve in water.", "Some minerals, such as copper minerals and uranium oxide, require acid or carbonate solutions to dissolve.", "'''Explosives in Mining'''Explosives have been used in surface mining and sub-surface mining to blast out rock and ore intended for processing.", "The most common explosive used in mining is ammonium nitrate.", "Between 1870 and 1920, in Queensland Australia, an increase in mining accidents lead to more safety measures surrounding the use of explosives for mining.", "In the United States of America, between 1990 and 1999, about 22.3 billion kilograms of explosives were used in mining quarrying and other industries; Moreover \"coal mining used 66.4%, nonmetal mining and quarrying 13.5%, metal mining 10.4%, construction 7.1%, and all other users 2.6%\".=== Artisanal ====== Surface ===Surface mining is done by removing surface vegetation, dirt, and bedrock to reach buried ore deposits.", "Techniques of surface mining include: open-pit mining, which is the recovery of materials from an open pit in the ground; quarrying, identical to open-pit mining except that it refers to sand, stone and clay; strip mining, which consists of stripping surface layers off to reveal ore underneath; and mountaintop removal, commonly associated with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a mountain off to reach ore deposits at depth.", "Most placer deposits, because they are shallowly buried, are mined by surface methods.", "Finally, landfill mining involves sites where landfills are excavated and processed.", "Landfill mining has been thought of as a long-term solution to methane emissions and local pollution.=== High wall ===Coalburg Seam highwall mining at ADDCAR 16 Logan County WVHigh wall mining, which evolved from auger mining, is another form of surface mining.", "In high wall mining, the remaining part of a coal seam previously exploited by other surface-mining techniques has too much overburden to be removed but can still be profitably exploited from the side of the artificial cliff made by previous mining.", "A typical cycle alternates sumping, which undercuts the seam, and shearing, which raises and lowers the cutter-head boom to cut the entire height of the coal seam.", "As the coal recovery cycle continues, the cutter-head is progressively launched further into the coal seam.", "High wall mining can produce thousands of tons of coal in contour-strip operations with narrow benches, previously mined areas, trench mine applications and steep-dip seams.Mysłowice coal mine shaft tower, Upper Silesian Coal Basin.=== Underground mining ===Mantrip used for transporting miners within an underground mineCaterpillar Highwall Miner HW300 – Technology Bridging Underground and Open Pit MiningSub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach buried ore deposits.", "Ore, for processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the surface through the tunnels and shafts.", "Sub-surface mining can be classified by the type of access shafts used, and the extraction method or the technique used to reach the mineral deposit.", "Drift mining uses horizontal access tunnels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access shafts, and shaft mining uses vertical access shafts.", "Mining in hard and soft rock formations requires different techniques.Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which is mining upward, creating a sloping underground room, long wall mining, which is grinding a long ore surface underground, and room and pillar mining, which is removing ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to support the roof of the room.", "Room and pillar mining often leads to retreat mining, in which supporting pillars are removed as miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in, thereby loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include hard rock mining, bore hole mining, drift and fill mining, long hole slope mining, sub level caving, and block caving." ], [ "Machines", "The Bagger 288 is a bucket-wheel excavator used in strip mining.", "It is also one of the largest land vehicles of all time.CAT 797 haul truck at the North Antelope Rochelle opencut coal mineHeavy machinery is used in mining to explore and develop sites, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to process the ore, and to carry out reclamation projects after the mine is closed.", "Bulldozers, drills, explosives and trucks are all necessary for excavating the land.", "In the case of placer mining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium, is fed into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking screen or trommel which frees the desired minerals from the waste gravel.", "The minerals are then concentrated using sluices or jigs.Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes, and obtain samples for analysis.", "Trams are used to transport miners, minerals and waste.", "Lifts carry miners into and out of mines, and move rock and ore out, and machinery in and out, of underground mines.", "Huge trucks, shovels and cranes are employed in surface mining to move large quantities of overburden and ore.", "Processing plants use large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other equipment to consolidate the mineral-rich material and extract the desired compounds and metals from the ore." ], [ "Processing", "Once the mineral is extracted, it is often then processed.", "The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of valuable metals from their ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means.Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enable the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals or minerals from their gangue (waste material).", "Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-dependent methods of separation, such as sluice boxes.", "Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate (unclump) the sands or gravels before processing.", "Processing of ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surface or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be crushed and pulverized before extraction of the valuable minerals begins.", "After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of several, mechanical and chemical techniques.Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sulfides, the metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form.", "This can be accomplished through chemical means such as smelting or through electrolytic reduction, as in the case of aluminium.", "Geometallurgy combines the geologic sciences with extractive metallurgy and mining.In 2018, led by Chemistry and Biochemistry professor Bradley D. Smith, University of Notre Dame researchers \"invented a new class of molecules whose shape and size enable them to capture and contain precious metal ions,\" reported in a study published by the Journal of the American Chemical Society.", "The new method \"converts gold-containing ore into chloroauric acid and extracts it using an industrial solvent.", "The container molecules are able to selectively separate the gold from the solvent without the use of water stripping.\"", "The newly developed molecules can eliminate water stripping, whereas mining traditionally \"relies on a 125-year-old method that treats gold-containing ore with large quantities of poisonous sodium cyanide... this new process has a milder environmental impact and that, besides gold, it can be used for capturing other metals such as platinum and palladium,\" and could also be used in urban mining processes that remove precious metals from wastewater streams." ], [ "Environmental effects", "=== Environmental regulation ===Iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainage from surface coal mining.Countries with strongly enforced mining regulations commonly require environmental impact assessment, development of environmental management plans, and mine closure planning prior beginning mine operations.", "Environmental monitoring during operation and after closure may also be required.", "Government regulations may not be well enforced, especially in the developing world.For major mining companies and any company seeking international financing, there are a number of other mechanisms to enforce environmental standards.", "These generally relate to financing standards such as the Equator Principles, IFC environmental standards, and criteria for Socially responsible investing.", "Mining companies have used this oversight from the financial sector to argue for some level of industry self-regulation.", "In 1992, a Draft Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations was proposed at the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre for Transnational Corporations (UNCTC), but the Business Council for Sustainable Development (BCSD) together with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) argued successfully for self-regulation instead.This was followed by the Global Mining Initiative which was begun by nine of the largest metals and mining companies and which led to the formation of the International Council on Mining and Metals, whose purpose was to \"act as a catalyst\" in an effort to improve social and environmental performance in the mining and metals industry internationally.", "The mining industry has provided funding to various conservation groups, some of which have been working with conservation agendas that are at odds with an emerging acceptance of the rights of indigenous people – particularly the right to make land-use decisions.Certification of mines with good practices occurs through the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).", "For example, ISO 9000 and ISO 14001, which certify an \"auditable environmental management system\", involve short inspections, although they have been accused of lacking rigor.", "Certification is also available through Ceres' Global Reporting Initiative, but these reports are voluntary and unverified.", "Miscellaneous other certification programs exist for various projects, typically through nonprofit groups.The purpose of a 2012 EPS PEAKS paper was to provide evidence on policies managing ecological costs and maximize socio-economic benefits of mining using host country regulatory initiatives.", "It found existing literature suggesting donors encourage developing countries to:* Make the environment-poverty link and introduce cutting-edge wealth measures and natural capital accounts.", "* Reform old taxes in line with more recent financial innovation, engage directly with the companies, enact land use and impact assessments, and incorporate specialized support and standards agencies.", "* Set in play transparency and community participation initiatives using the wealth accrued.===Waste=== Location of waste rock storage (center) at Teghut (village) Copper-Molybdenum Mine in Armenia's northern Lori province.Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings.", "For example, 99 tons of waste is generated per ton of copper, with even higher ratios in gold mining – because only 5.3 g of gold is extracted per ton of ore, a ton of gold produces 200,000 tons of tailings.", "(As time goes on and richer deposits are exhausted – and technology improves – this number is going down to .5 g and less.)", "These tailings can be toxic.", "Tailings, which are usually produced as a slurry, are most commonly dumped into ponds made from naturally existing valleys.", "These ponds are secured by impoundments (dams or embankment dams).", "In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings impoundments existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 major failures and 35 minor failures occurred.", "For example, in the Marcopper mining disaster at least 2 million tons of tailings were released into a local river.", "In 2015, Barrick Gold Corporation spilled over 1 million liters of cyanide into a total of five rivers in Argentina near their Veladero mine.", "Since 2007 in central Finland, the Talvivaara Terrafame polymetal mine's waste effluent and leaks of saline mine water have resulted in ecological collapse of a nearby lake.", "Subaqueous tailings disposal is another option.", "The mining industry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD), which disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it avoids the risks of tailings ponds.", "The practice is illegal in the United States and Canada, but it is used in the developing world.The waste is classified as either sterile or mineralized, with acid generating potential, and the movement and storage of this material form a major part of the mine planning process.", "When the mineralised package is determined by an economic cut-off, the near-grade mineralised waste is usually dumped separately with view to later treatment should market conditions change and it becomes economically viable.", "Civil engineering design parameters are used in the design of the waste dumps, and special conditions apply to high-rainfall areas and to seismically active areas.", "Waste dump designs must meet all regulatory requirements of the country in whose jurisdiction the mine is located.", "It is also common practice to rehabilitate dumps to an internationally acceptable standard, which in some cases means that higher standards than the local regulatory standard are applied." ], [ "Industry", "apatite mine in Siilinjärvi, FinlandMining exists in many countries.", "London is the headquarters for large miners such as Anglo American, BHP and Rio Tinto.", "The US mining industry is also large, but it is dominated by extraction of coal and other nonmetal minerals (e.g., rock and sand), and various regulations have worked to reduce the significance of mining in the United States.", "In 2007, the total market capitalization of mining companies was reported at US$962 billion, which compares to a total global market cap of publicly traded companies of about US$50 trillion in 2007.In 2002, Chile and Peru were reportedly the major mining countries of South America.", "The mineral industry of Africa includes the mining of various minerals; it produces relatively little of the industrial metals copper, lead, and zinc, but according to one estimate has as a percent of world reserves 40% of gold, 60% of cobalt, and 90% of the world's platinum group metals.", "Mining in India is a significant part of that country's economy.", "In the developed world, mining in Australia, with BHP founded and headquartered in the country, and mining in Canada are particularly significant.", "For rare earth minerals mining, China reportedly controlled 95% of production in 2013.The Bingham Canyon Mine of Rio Tinto's subsidiary, Kennecott Utah Copper.While exploration and mining can be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, most modern-day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of capital to establish.", "Consequently, the mining sector of the industry is dominated by large, often multinational, companies, most of them publicly listed.", "It can be argued that what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is actually two sectors, one specializing in exploration for new resources and the other in mining those resources.", "The exploration sector is typically made up of individuals and small mineral resource companies, called \"juniors\", which are dependent on venture capital.", "The mining sector is made up of large multinational companies that are sustained by production from their mining operations.", "Various other industries such as equipment manufacture, environmental testing, and metallurgy analysis rely on, and support, the mining industry throughout the world.", "Canadian stock exchanges have a particular focus on mining companies, particularly junior exploration companies through Toronto's TSX Venture Exchange; Canadian companies raise capital on these exchanges and then invest the money in exploration globally.", "Some have argued that below juniors there exists a substantial sector of illegitimate companies primarily focused on manipulating stock prices.Mining operations can be grouped into five major categories in terms of their respective resources.", "These are oil and gas extraction, coal mining, metal ore mining, nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and mining support activities.", "Of all of these categories, oil and gas extraction remains one of the largest in terms of its global economic importance.", "Prospecting potential mining sites, a vital area of concern for the mining industry, is now done using sophisticated new technologies such as seismic prospecting and remote-sensing satellites.", "Mining is heavily affected by the prices of the commodity minerals, which are often volatile.", "The 2000s commodities boom (\"commodities supercycle\") increased the prices of commodities, driving aggressive mining.", "In addition, the price of gold increased dramatically in the 2000s, which increased gold mining; for example, one study found that conversion of forest in the Amazon increased six-fold from the period 2003–2006 (292 ha/yr) to the period 2006–2009 (1,915 ha/yr), largely due to artisanal mining.===Corporate classifications===Mining companies can be classified based on their size and financial capabilities:* ''Major'' companies are considered to have an adjusted annual mining-related revenue of more than US$500 million, with the financial capability to develop a major mine on its own.", "* ''Intermediate'' companies have at least $50 million in annual revenue but less than $500 million.", "* ''Junior'' companies rely on equity financing as their principal means of funding exploration.", "Juniors are mainly pure exploration companies, but may also produce minimally, and do not have a revenue exceeding US$50 million.Re their valuation, and stock market characteristics, see .===Regulation and governance===EITI Global Conference 2016New regulations and a process of legislative reforms aim to improve the harmonization and stability of the mining sector in mineral-rich countries.", "New legislation for mining industry in African countries still appears to be an issue, but has the potential to be solved, when a consensus is reached on the best approach.", "By the beginning of the 21st century, the booming and increasingly complex mining sector in mineral-rich countries was providing only slight benefits to local communities, especially in given the sustainability issues.", "Increasing debate and influence by NGOs and local communities called for new approaches which would also include disadvantaged communities, and work towards sustainable development even after mine closure (including transparency and revenue management).", "By the early 2000s, community development issues and resettlements became mainstream concerns in World Bank mining projects.", "Mining-industry expansion after mineral prices increased in 2003 and also potential fiscal revenues in those countries created an omission in the other economic sectors in terms of finances and development.", "Furthermore, this highlighted regional and local demand for mining revenues and an inability of sub-national governments to effectively use the revenues.", "The Fraser Institute (a Canadian think tank) has highlighted the environmental protection laws in developing countries, as well as voluntary efforts by mining companies to improve their environmental impact.In 2007, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) was mainstreamed in all countries cooperating with the World Bank in mining industry reform.", "The EITI operates and was implemented with the support of the EITI multi-donor trust fund, managed by the World Bank.", "The EITI aims to increase transparency in transactions between governments and companies in extractive industries by monitoring the revenues and benefits between industries and recipient governments.", "The entrance process is voluntary for each country and is monitored by multiple stakeholders including governments, private companies and civil society representatives, responsible for disclosure and dissemination of the reconciliation report; however, the competitive disadvantage of company-by-company public report is for some of the businesses in Ghana at least, the main constraint.", "Therefore, the outcome assessment in terms of failure or success of the new EITI regulation does not only \"rest on the government's shoulders\" but also on civil society and companies.However, implementation has issues; inclusion or exclusion of artisanal mining and small-scale mining (ASM) from the EITI and how to deal with \"non-cash\" payments made by companies to subnational governments.", "Furthermore, the disproportionate revenues the mining industry can bring to the comparatively small number of people that it employs, causes other problems, like a lack of investment in other less lucrative sectors, leading to swings in government revenue because of volatility in the oil markets.", "Artisanal mining is clearly an issue in EITI Countries such as the Central African Republic, D.R.", "Congo, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone – i.e.", "almost half of the mining countries implementing the EITI.", "Among other things, limited scope of the EITI involving disparity in terms of knowledge of the industry and negotiation skills, thus far flexibility of the policy (e.g.", "liberty of the countries to expand beyond the minimum requirements and adapt it to their needs), creates another risk of unsuccessful implementation.", "Public awareness increase, where government should act as a bridge between public and initiative for a successful outcome of the policy is an important element to be considered.===World Bank===World Bank logoThe World Bank has been involved in mining since 1955, mainly through grants from its International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, with the Bank's Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency offering political risk insurance.", "Between 1955 and 1990 it provided about $2 billion to fifty mining projects, broadly categorized as reform and rehabilitation, greenfield mine construction, mineral processing, technical assistance, and engineering.", "These projects have been criticized, particularly the Ferro Carajas project of Brazil, begun in 1981.The World Bank established mining codes intended to increase foreign investment; in 1988, it solicited feedback from 45 mining companies on how to increase their involvement.In 1992, the World Bank began to push for privatization of government-owned mining companies with a new set of codes, beginning with its report ''The Strategy for African Mining''.", "In 1997, Latin America's largest miner Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) was privatized.", "These and other developments, such as the Philippines 1995 Mining Act, led the bank to publish a third report (''Assistance for Minerals Sector Development and Reform in Member Countries'') which endorsed mandatory environment impact assessments and attention to the concerns of the local population.", "The codes based on this report are influential in the legislation of developing nations.", "The new codes are intended to encourage development through tax holidays, zero custom duties, reduced income taxes, and related measures.", "The results of these codes were analyzed by a group from the University of Quebec, which concluded that the codes promote foreign investment but \"fall very short of permitting sustainable development\".", "The observed negative correlation between natural resources and economic development is known as the resource curse." ], [ "Safety", "Mining transport in Devnya, Bulgaria.A coal miner in West Virginia spraying rockdust to reduce the combustible fraction of coal dust in the air.Safety has long been a concern in the mining business, especially in sub-surface mining.", "The Courrières mine disaster, Europe's worst mining accident, involved the death of 1,099 miners in Northern France on March 10, 1906.This disaster was surpassed only by the Benxihu Colliery accident in China on April 26, 1942, which killed 1,549 miners.", "While mining today is substantially safer than it was in previous decades, mining accidents still occur.", "Government figures indicate that 5,000 Chinese miners die in accidents each year, while other reports have suggested a figure as high as 20,000.Between 1870 and 1920, in Queensland Australia, an increase in mining accidents lead to more safety measures surrounding the use of explosives for mining.", "Mining accidents continue worldwide, including accidents causing dozens of fatalities at a time such as the 2007 Ulyanovskaya Mine disaster in Russia, the 2009 Heilongjiang mine explosion in China, and the 2010 Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in the United States.", "Mining has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.", "The Mining Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) was established in 1978 to \"work to prevent death, illness, and injury from mining and promote safe and healthful workplaces for US miners.\"", "Since its implementation in 1978, the number of miner fatalities has decreased from 242 miners in 1978 to 24 miners in 2019.There are numerous occupational hazards associated with mining, including exposure to rockdust which can lead to diseases such as silicosis, asbestosis, and pneumoconiosis.", "Gases in the mine can lead to asphyxiation and could also be ignited.", "Mining equipment can generate considerable noise, putting workers at risk for hearing loss.", "Cave-ins, rock falls, and exposure to excess heat are also known hazards.", "The current NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) of noise is 85 dBA with a 3 dBA exchange rate and the MSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) is 90 dBA with a 5 dBA exchange rate as an 8-hour time-weighted average.", "NIOSH has found that 25% of noise-exposed workers in Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction have hearing impairment.", "The prevalence of hearing loss increased by 1% from 1991 to 2001 within these workers.Noise studies have been conducted in several mining environments.", "Stageloaders (84-102 dBA), shearers (85-99 dBA), auxiliary fans (84–120 dBA), continuous mining machines (78–109 dBA), and roof bolters (92–103 dBA) represent some of the noisiest equipment in underground coal mines.", "Dragline oilers, dozer operators, and welders using air arcing were occupations with the highest noise exposures among surface coal miners.", "Coal mines had the highest hearing loss injury likelihood." ], [ "Human rights", "In addition to the environmental impacts of mining processes, a prominent criticism pertaining to this form of extractive practice and of mining companies are the human rights abuses occurring within mining sites and communities close to them.", "Frequently, despite being protected by International Labor rights, miners are not given appropriate equipment to provide them with protection from possible mine collapse or from harmful pollutants and chemicals expelled during the mining process, work in inhumane conditions spending numerous hours working in extreme heat, darkness and 14 hour workdays with no allocated time for breaks.===Child labor===Breaker boys: child workers who broke down coal at a mine in South Pittston, Pennsylvania, United States in the early 20th centuryIncluded within the human rights abuses that occur during mining processes are instances of child labor.", "These instances are a cause for widespread criticism of mines harvesting cobalt, a mineral essential for powering modern technologies such as laptops, smartphones and electric vehicles.", "Many of these cases of child laborers are found in the Democratic Republic of Congo.", "Reports have risen of children carrying sacks of cobalt weighing 25 kg from small mines to local traders being paid for their work only in food and accommodation.", "A number of companies such as Apple, Google, Microsoft and Tesla have been implicated in lawsuits brought by families whose children were severely injured or killed during mining activities in Congo.", "In December 2019, 14 Congolese families filed a lawsuit against Glencore, a mining company which supplies the essential cobalt to these multinational corporations with allegations of negligence that led to the deaths of children or injuries such as broken spines, emotional distress and forced labor.=== Indigenous peoples ===There have also been instances of killings and evictions attributed to conflicts with mining companies.", "Almost a third of 227 murders in 2020 were of Indigenous peoples rights activists on the frontlines of climate change activism linked to logging, mining, large-scale agribusiness, hydroelectric dams, and other infrastructure, according to Global Witness.The relationship between indigenous peoples and mining is defined by struggles over access to land.", "In Australia, the Aboriginal Bininj said mining posed a threat to their living culture and could damage sacred heritage sites.In the Philippines, an anti-mining movement has raised concerns regarding \"the total disregard for Indigenous communities' ancestral land rights\".", "Ifugao peoples' opposition to mining led a governor to proclaim a ban on mining operations in Mountain Province, Philippines.In Brazil, more than 170 tribes organized a march to oppose controversial attempts to strip back indigenous land rights and open their territories to mining operations.", "The United Nations Commission on Human Rights has called on Brazil's Supreme Court to uphold Indigenous land rights to prevent exploitation by mining groups and industrial agriculture." ], [ "Records", "Chuquicamata, Chile, site of the largest circumference and second deepest open pit copper mine in the world.As of 2019, '''Mponeng''' is the world's deepest mine from ground level, reaching a depth of 4 km (2.5 mi) below ground level.", "The trip from the surface to the bottom of the mine takes over an hour.", "It is a gold mine in South Africa's Gauteng province.", "Previously known as Western Deep Levels #1 Shaft, the underground and surface works were commissioned in 1987.The mine is considered to be one of the most substantial gold mines in the world.The Moab Khutsong gold mine in North West Province (South Africa) has the world's longest winding steel wire rope, which is able to lower workers to in one uninterrupted four-minute journey.The deepest mine in Europe is the 16th shaft of the uranium mines in Příbram, Czech Republic, at .", "Second is Bergwerk Saar in Saarland, Germany, at .", "The deepest open-pit mine in the world is Bingham Canyon Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, United States, at over .", "The largest and second deepest open-pit copper mine in the world is Chuquicamata in northern Chile at , which annually produces 443,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of molybdenum.", "The deepest open-pit mine with respect to sea level is Tagebau Hambach in Germany, where the base of the pit is below sea level.The largest underground mine is Kiirunavaara Mine in Kiruna, Sweden.", "With of roads, 40 million tonnes of annually produced ore, and a depth of , it is also one of the most modern underground mines.", "The deepest borehole in the world is Kola Superdeep Borehole at , but this is connected to scientific drilling, not mining." ], [ "Metal reserves and recycling", "Macro of native copper about inches (4 cm) in size.The Pyhäsalmi Mine, a metal mine in Pyhäjärvi, Finland A metal recycling plant in South Carolina that has been abandoned for years.During the 20th century, the variety of metals used in society grew rapidly.", "Today, the development of major nations such as China and India and advances in technologies are fueling an ever-greater demand.", "The result is that metal mining activities are expanding and more and more of the world's metal stocks are above ground in use rather than below ground as unused reserves.", "An example is the in-use stock of copper.", "Between 1932 and 1999, copper in use in the US rose from to per person.95% of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material.", "However, levels of metals recycling are generally low.", "In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), published reports on metal stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates.The report's authors observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground.", "However, they warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars, and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.As recycling rates are low and so much metal has already been extracted, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves.", "This is especially true of aluminum, used in cans, and precious metals, found in discarded electronics.", "Furthermore, waste after 15 years has still not broken down, so less processing would be required when compared to mining ores.", "A study undertaken by Cranfield University has found £360 million of metals could be mined from just four landfill sites.", "There is also up to 20 MJ/kg of energy in waste, potentially making the re-extraction more profitable.", "However, although the first landfill mine opened in Tel Aviv, Israel in 1953, little work has followed due to the abundance of accessible ores." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Woytinsky, W.S., and E.S.", "Woytinsky (1953).", "''World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks'', pp.", "749–881; with many tables and maps on the worldwide mining industry in 1950, including coal, metals and minerals* Ali, Saleem H. (2003).", "''Mining, the Environment and Indigenous Development Conflicts''.", "Tucson AZ: University of Arizona Press.", "* Ali, Saleem H. (2009).", "''Treasures of the Earth: need, greed and a sustainable future''.", "New Haven and London: Yale University Press.", "* * Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria (in PDF format)* Garrett, Dennis.", "''Alaska Placer Mining''.", "* * Morrison, Tom (1992).", "''Hardrock Gold: a miner's tale''.", "* John Milne.", "''The Miner's Handbook: A Handy Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits (1894) Mining operations in the 19th century.''", "The Miner's Handbook: A Handy Book of Reference on the Subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, Etc.", "For the Use of Students and Others Interested in Mining Matters.", "* Aryee, B., Ntibery, B., Atorkui, E. (2003).", "\"Trends in the small-scale mining of precious minerals in Ghana: a perspective on its environmental impact\", ''Journal of Cleaner Production'' 11: 131–40.", "* Temple, John (1972). ''", "Mining: An International History''.", "Ernest Benn Limited.", "* The Oil, gas and Mining Sustainable Community Development Fund (2009).", "''Social Mine Closure Strategy, Mali'' (in CommDev: Projects: Social Mine Closure Strategy, Mali).", "* White F. (2020).", "''Miner with a Heart of Gold: biography of a mineral science and engineering educator.''", "Friesen Press, Victoria.", "ISBN 978-1-5255-7765-9 (Hardcover), 978-1-5255-7766-6 (Paperback), 978-1-5255-7767-3 (eBook)." ], [ "External links", "* First chapter of Introductory Mining Engineering* An introduction to geology and hard rock mining (archived 13 August 2016)* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "Myanmar (Burma) map of Köppen climate classificationMyanmar (also known as Burma) is the northwesternmost country of mainland Southeast Asia located on the Indochinese peninsula.", "With an area of 261,228 sq mi (676,578 km2), it is the second largest country in Southeast Asia and the largest on mainland Southeast Asia.", "The kite-shaped country stretches from 10'N to 20'N for 1,275 miles (2,050 km) with a long tail running along the western coast of the Malay Peninsula.Myanmar lies along the Indian and Eurasian Plates, to the southeast of the Tibetan Plateau.", "To its west is the Bay of Bengal and to its south is the Andaman Sea.", "The country is nestled between several mountain ranges with the Arakan Mountains on the west and the Shan Plateau dominating the east.", "The central valley follows the Irrawaddy River, the most economically important river to the country with 39.5 million people, including the largest city Yangon, living within its basin.", "The country is home to many diverse ethnic groups, with 135 officially recognized groups.", "It is strategically located near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes and was historically home to overland trade routes into China from the Bay of Bengal.", "The neighboring countries are China, India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Laos." ], [ "Borders", "=== Land ===Myanmar has a land border totaling bordering five countries and encompassing a total land area of .The Bangladesh-Myanmar border begins at the mouth of the Naf River at the Bay of Bengal and head north around the Mayu Range in a wide arc before head back north through the Chittagong Hill Tracts to the tripoint with India at the peak of Teen Matha for a total of .The India-Myanmar border heads north through the Chin Hills towards the Tiau River.", "It follows this river upstream and then through various rivers near Manipur before going northeast through the Patkai range to the Chaukan Pass and the Mishmi Hills for a total of .The tripoint with China and India is disputed due to the Sino-Indian border dispute but lies de facto north of the Diphu Pass.", "The China-Myanmar border heads northeast to Hkakabo Razi just one mile west of its summit.", "It then turns southeast following the Hengduan and Gaoligong Mountains through many irregular lines towards the Taping River and Shweli River.", "It then heads south-eastwards across the far Shan Hills, following hills and rivers, until it reaches the Mekong river.", "It follows the Mekong until the tripoint with Laos for a grand total of .The Laos-Myanmar border runs entirely along the Mekong river from the tripoint with China the tripoint with Thailand at the confluence of the Kok and Mekon Rivers for The Myanmar-Thailand border follows the Kok River and Sai River briefly before continuing overland on a series of irregular lines southwards through the Daen Lao Range before heading southwest to the Salween River.", "The border follows the Salween and then the Moei River before going overland again through the Tenasserim Hills towards the Malay Peninsula.", "Near Prachuap Khiri Khan, the border comes within to the Gulf of Thailand.", "It then heads south towards the Kraburi River which it then follows towards a wide estuary before ending in the Andaman Sea, forming Myanmar's longest border at .=== Maritime ===The southern maritime boundary follows coordinates marked by both Myanmar and Thailand towards the maritime tripoint with India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands.", "The maritime India-Myanmar border resumes end south of Coco Islands before heading towards Myanmar's narrow boundary with international Bay of Bengal waters.", "Myanmar has a total coastline of and has several islands and archipelagos- most notably the Mergui Archipelago.", "The county has a total water area is and an Exclusive Economic Zone covering ." ], [ "Climate", "Tropical monsoon in the lowlands below ; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April).Myanmar has three seasons: the cool and drier northeast monsoon running from late October to mid-February, the hot and dry intermonsoonal season from mid-February to mid-May and the rainy southwest monsoon from mid-May to late-October.", "Colloquially, they are called the winter, summer and rainy seasons respectively.", "The alternating mountain ranges and valleys create alternate zones of heavy and subdued precipitation during the monsoon season, with the majority of the country's precipitation coming from the southwest monsoons.Climate varies in the highlands depending on elevation; subtropical temperate climate at around , temperate at , cool, alpine at and above the alpine zone, cold, harsh tundra and Arctic climate.", "The higher elevations are subject to heavy snowfall, especially in the north.", "Distance from the sea also affects temperature and inland highlands can experience daily temperature ranges spanning 22'F (12'C) despite the tropical latitude." ], [ "Mountains", "Myanmar's mountains create five distinct physiographic regions.", "'''Northern Mountains'''Mount Popa, a dormant volcano in the Central LowlandsMountains near Pindaya on the Shan PlateauView of Hpa-An from Mount Zwegabin in Southeastern HillsThe Northern Mountains are characterised by complex ranges centred around the eastern ends of the Himalayas and the northeastern limit of the Indian-Australian Plate.", "The ranges at the southern end of the Hengduan System form the border between Myanmar and China.", "Hkakabo Razi, the country's highest point at , is located at the northern end of the country.", "This mountain is part of a series of parallel ranges that run from the foothills of the Himalaya through the border areas with Assam, Nagaland and Mizoram.", "'''Central Lowlands'''Myanmar is characterized by its Central Lowlands running north–south between several different mountain ranges.", "This was deeply excavated by many rivers and today forms the basin for major rivers like the Irrawaddy, Chindwin and Sittaung Rivers.", "The Bago Yoma (Pegu Range) is a prominent but relatively low mountain chain between the Irrawaddy and the Sittaung River in lower-central Myanmar.", "Many smaller mountain ranges run through the lowlands like the small mountain ranges of Zeebyu Taungdan, Min-wun Taungdan, Hman-kin Taungdan and Gangaw Taungdan.", "Mount Popa, an extinct volcano and Nat worship holy site, rises prominently from the surrounding lowlands in these lowlands.", "'''Western Ranges'''The Western Ranges are characterized by the Arakan Mountains running from Manipur into western Myanmar southwards through Rakhine State almost to Cape Negrais in the shores of the Bay of Bengal in Ayeyarwady Region.", "The mountains reappear as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands further within the Andaman Sea.", "These mountains are old crystalline rocks separating the Arakan Coast from the rest of the country.", "The Arakan Range includes the Naga Hills, the Chin Hills, and the Patkai range which includes the Lushai Hills.", "The Arakan Coast of the Bay of Bengal lays west of these mountains with prominent island archipelagos and coral reefs.", "'''Shan Plateau'''In eastern Myanmar, the Shan Plateau rises abruptly from the central lowlands in single steps of some 2,000 feet (600m).", "The highest point of the Shan Hills is 2,563 m high Loi Pangnao, one of the ultra prominent peaks of Southeast Asia.", "The Shan Hills form, together with the Karen Hills, Dawna Range and Tenasserim Hills, a natural border with Thailand as well as the Kayah–Karen montane rain forests ecoregion which is included in the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) as priorities for conservation.", "The plateau was formed during the Mesozoic Era and are a much older feature than the other ranges of Myanmar, creating a series of elevated ranges and valleys.", "The most notable being the Salween River basin, covering 109,266 sq mi (283,00 km2).", "'''Southeastern Hills'''Myanmar's Southeastern Hills and see the Tenasserim Plains have western shores backed by the Tenasserim Range respectively.", "The Tenessarim Plains consists largely of the western slopes of the Bilauktaung, the highest part of the Tenasserim Range, which extends southwards forming the central range of the Malay Peninsula.", "The Dawna Range also stretches along the northern parts of the Tenasserim tail of Myanmar.", "Many hills in this area, like Mount Zwegabin and Kyaiktiyo, are important cultural and religious sites.", "The coastal islands rise prominently from the sea and form multiple island archipelago with coral reefs, especially in the Mergui Archipelago." ], [ "Rivers", "The shores of Irrawaddy River at Nyaung-U, BaganThe Irrawaddy, the main river of Burma, flows from north to south through the Central Burma Basin and ends in a wide delta.", "The Mekong river runs from the Tibetan Plateau through China's Yunnan and northeastern Burma into Laos.", "The basin has significant mining resources and forest ecosystems.", "Its fertile delta also create 60% of annual rice harvests.", "The river is historically significant with the Bagan temples on their banks and the Kachin people's homeland near the river's source- the confluence of the N'mai and Mali rivers.Salween river at Mae Sam Laep on the Thai-Myanmar borderIn the east the Salween and the Sittaung River run along the western side of the Shan Hills and the northern end of the Dawna Range.", "The Salween begins in China, where it is called the Nu River , and runs south through 17 degrees of latitude through the Shan Plateau.", "The Salween runs is called the angry river in Mandarin due to its fast running waters snaking through mountainous terrain for almost the entirety of its 1,491-mile (2,400 km) long length.In the narrow southeastern part of Burma, the Ye, Heinze, Dawei (Tavoy), Great Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) and the Lenya rivers are relatively short and flow into the Andaman Sea.", "Further south the Kraburi River forms the southern border between Thailand and Burma." ], [ "Maritime claims", "Grandfather Island, DaweiMyanmar has the 50th largest exclusive economic zone of .", "It includes more than 16 islands and the Mergui Archipelago.", "''Contiguous zone:''''Continental shelf:'' or to the edge of the continental margin''Exclusive economic zone:'', ===Islands===* Apaw-ye Kyun* Calventuras Islands* Cheduba Island* Coco Islands* Kaingthaung Island* Kalegauk Island* Kokunye Kyun* Kyungyi Island* Moscos Islands* Myingun Island* Nantha Kyun* Preparis* Ramree Island* Unguan* Wa Kyun* Zalat Taung* Mergui Archipelago** Auriol Island** Bentinck Kyun** Christie Island, the southernmost island of the archipelago** Kadan Kyun, the largest island of the archipelago** Lanbi Kyun** Letsok-aw Kyun** Mali Kyun, the northernmost island of the archipelago** Saganthit Kyun** Than Kyun** Thayawthadangyi** Zadetkyi" ], [ "Land use and natural resources", "Jade Mine in Hpakant Arable land 16.56% Permanent crops 2.25% Other land 81.20% (2012) Irrigated land 21,100 km2 (2004) Total renewable water resources (2011) Freshwater withdrawal, total (domestic/industrial/agricultural) (10%/1%/89%) Freshwater withdrawal, per capita (2005)Since ancient times, Myanmar has been famous for its abundance of natural resources.", "The Sanskrit name ''Suvarnabhumi'' (သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ) has been used in relation to the area in modern-day Lower Burma and Thailand for millennia.", "Today, major resources include petroleum, natural gas, teak, other timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, marble, limestone, jade, rubies, sapphire natural gas, and hydropower.", "Since 2010, Myanmar has had an explosion of foreign direct investment in the extractive sector.", "New large-scale infrastructure projects like the Kyaukphyu Pipeline and Myitsone Dam have caused controversy within the country, particularly in regard to China's role in the projects." ], [ "Natural hazards", "A large fracture on the Mingun Pahtodawgyi caused by the 1839 Ava earthquake.Natural hazards include destructive earthquakes and cyclones.", "Flooding and landslides are common during the rainy season from June to September.", "Periodic droughts also occur.Myanmar lies at the confluence of the Indian Plate, Eurasian Plate and the Burma microplate.", "Both the Indian-Eurasian subduction zone and the Indian-Burma plate boundaries are frequent hypocenters for earthquakes.", "The continental right-lateral transform Sagaing Fault responsible for many damaging earthquakes through the country's history like the 1839 Ava earthquake.Myanmar is also hit by a powerful cyclone roughly every two years.", "The highest frequency of severe cyclones occur during November and May.", "The past century of cyclogenesis data in the North Indian Ocean has seen a significant increase in cyclone formation during these two months.", "The most damaging cyclone that hit Myanmar was the Cyclone Nargis in April–May 2008; with ongoing climate change, oceans will become warmer, which may lead to cyclones becoming more intense and devastating for Myanmar." ], [ "Environment", "Deforestation in Myanmar during the British colonial era.Environmental issues include deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment that contributes to disease.", "Climate change is also projected to have major impacts on Myanmar, such as increasing the prevalence and intensity of drought and extreme weather.An IUCN Red List of Ecosystems Assessment was conducted for Myanmar in 2020 that assessed 64 terrestrial ecosystem types across 10 biomes.", "Of these 64 ecosystem types, 1 was confirmed as collapsed, 8 were considered Critically Endangered, 9 were considered Endangered, 12 were considered Vulnerable, 3 were considered Near Threatened, 14 were considered of Least Concern, and 17 were deemed Data Deficient.", "The 64 terrestrial ecosystem types included five brackish tidal systems, one dry subterranean system, one lake, five palustrine wetlands, four polar/alpine systems, twelve savannas and grasslands, two shoreline systems, two supralittoral coastal systems, seven temperate-boreal forests and woodlands, and twenty five tropical and subtropical forests.A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 3,316 km2 of tidal flats in Myanmar, making it the 8th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.===Environment – international agreements===''party to:''Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94" ], [ "See also", "* List of rivers of Myanmar* Geology of Myanmar* List of volcanoes in Myanmar* List of ecoregions in Myanmar* Zomia (geography)" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Myanmar Marine Biodiversity Atlas Online* Ramsar – Burma* Burma – Geography* The Geology of Burma (Myanmar)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "An ethnolinguistic map of Burma.This is a '''demography of Myanmar''' (also known as '''Burma''') including statistics such as population, ethnicity, language, education level, and religious affiliations.Population of Myanmar by census" ], [ "Population", "===1983 census===At the time of the 1983 census in Burma, as of 31 March 1983, the population was 35,442,972., this was estimated by the ''CIA World Factbook'' to have increased to '''60,584,650'''.", "Other estimates put place the total population at around 60 million.", "China's ''People's Daily'' reported that Burma had a census in 2007, and at the end of 2009 has 59.2 million people, and growing at 2% annually.", "with exception for Cyclone Nargis in 2008.Most of these estimates have indeed overlooked the demographic changes that were at work since the 1970s in the country.Britain-based human rights agencies place the population as high as 70 million.", "Estimates for the country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS.", "This can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.No trustworthy census has occurred since the 1930s.", "In the 1940s, the detailed census results were destroyed during the Japanese invasion of 1942.Census results after that time have been flawed by civil wars and a series of military governments.", "The census in 1983 occurred at a time when parts of the country were controlled by insurgent groups and inaccessible to the government.===2014 census===The Provisional results of the 2014 census show that the total population of Myanmar is 51,419,420—a population well below the official estimates of more than 60 million.", "This total population includes 50,213,067 persons counted during the census and an estimated 1,206,353 persons in parts of northern Rakhine State, Kachin State and Kayin State who were not counted.", "More females (51.8%) were counted than males (48.2%).", "People who were out of the country at the time of the census are not included in these figures.The provisional census results indicated that there were 10,889,348 households in Myanmar.", "On average, 4.4 people lived in each household in the country.", "The average household size was highest in Kachin State and Chin State at 5.1.The lowest household sizes were observed in Ayeyawady Region, Bago Region, Magway Region and Naypyidaw Union Territory, each at 4.1." ], [ "Vital statistics", "Burma has a low fertility rate (2.23 in 2011), slightly above replacement level, especially as compared to other Southeast Asian countries of similar economic standing, like Cambodia (3.18) and Laos (4.41), representing a significant decline from 4.7 in 1983 to 2.4 in 2001, despite the absence of any national population policy.The fertility rate is much pronouncedly lower in urban areas.", "This is attributed to extreme delays in marriage (almost unparalleled in the region, with the exception of developed countries), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and the high proportion of single, unmarried women of reproductive age (with 25.9% of women aged 30–34 and 33.1% of men and women aged 25–34 single).These patterns stem from several cultural and economic dynamics.", "The first is economic hardship, which results in the delay of marriage and family-building (the average age of marriage in Burma is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women).", "The second is the social acceptability of celibacy among the Burmese, who are predominantly Buddhist and value celibacy as a means of spiritual development.===Births and deaths===YearLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change per yearCBR1CDR1NC1TFR1IMR11950  808,000  496,000  312,00045.6 28.017.65.95213.71951  820,000  499,000  321,00045.427.617.85.95209.81952  832,000  485,000  347,00045.226.418.95.95201.11953  845,000  478,000  367,00045.125.519.65.96193.61954  858,000  469,000  389,00044.824.520.35.97186.71955  868,000  463,000  404,00044.523.720.75.97180.61956  879,000  458,000  421,00044.123.021.15.98175.21957  891,000  456,000  435,00043.822.421.45.99170.51958  900,000  452,000  447,00043.321.721.55.99166.41959  908,000  451,000  457,00042.721.221.55.99162.81960  917,000  449,000  467,00042.220.721.55.98159.31961  926,000  449,000  477,00041.720.221.55.98155.71962  938,000  447,000  491,00041.319.721.65.99151.71963  948,000  445,000  503,00040.919.221.75.99147.41964  960,000  439,000  521,00040.418.522.05.99142.31965  974,000  431,000  543,00040.117.822.35.99136.91966  983,000  425,000  559,00039.617.122.55.96131.31967  996,000  418,000  578,00039.116.422.75.92126.21968  1,007,000  413,000  594,00038.715.922.85.87121.81969  1,019,000  417,000  601,00038.2 15.722.65.81119.61970  1,032,000  420,000  612,00037.815.422.45.75117.81971  1,046,000  420,000  625,00037.515.122.45.68115.91972  1,056,000  424,000  632,00037.014.922.15.59113.81973  1,066,000  426,000  640,00036.514.621.95.49111.81974  1,069,000  427,000  643,00035.914.321.65.38109.71975  1,078,000  429,000  649,00035.514.121.45.29107.81976  1,088,000  428,000  659,00035.113.821.35.21105.71977  1,096,000  430,000  666,00034.713.621.15.12103.71978  1,105,000  435,000  670,00034.313.520.85.02102.01979  1,117,000  434,000  683,00034.013.220.84.9499.91980  1,122,000  434,000  687,00033.513.020.54.8398.01981  1,129,000  437,000  692,00033.112.820.34.7396.21982  1,145,000  439,000  706,00032.912.620.34.6794.51983  1,162,000  443,000  719,00032.812.520.34.6292.819841,169,000  447,000722,00032.312.420.04.5091.31985  1,153,000  450,000  702,00031.312.219.14.3089.91986  1,133,000  452,000  681,00030.212.018.14.0988.41987  1,112,000  453,000  659,00029.111.817.23.8987.01988  1,094,000  459,000  636,00028.111.816.43.7185.51989  1,102,000  455,000  646,00027.911.516.43.6483.91990  1,102,000  461,000  641,00027.511.516.03.5482.31991  1,101,000  461,000  640,00027.011.315.73.4580.81992  1,096,000  462,000  634,00026.611.215.43.3679.11993  1,092,000  461,000  631,00026.111.015.13.2877.31994  1,082,000  461,000  621,00025.510.914.73.1975.61995  1,072,000  461,000  611,00025.010.714.23.1174.01996  1,068,000  452,000  616,00024.610.414.23.0472.21997  1,059,000  453,000  606,00024.110.313.82.9670.61998  1,051,000  448,000  603,00023.610.113.52.8969.01999  1,046,000  454,000  592,00023.210.113.12.8367.42000  1,046,000  456,000  590,00022.910.012.92.7965.92001  1,059,000  458,000  601,00023.09.913.02.7864.32002  1,071,000  460,000  612,00023.09.913.12.7862.82003  1,054,000  461,000  593,00022.49.812.62.7061.12004  1,033,000  462,000  571,00021.89.712.02.6259.52005  1,016,000  460,000  556,00021.39.611.62.5557.82006  1,004,000  461,000  543,00020.89.611.32.5056.02007  1,000,000  457,000  543,00020.69.411.22.4854.22008  984,000593,000  391,00020.212.18.02.4362.82009  973,000  451,000  521,00019.89.210.62.3950.52010  960,000  456,000  504,00019.49.210.22.3548.72011  952,000  450,000  502,00019.19.010.12.3146.92012  943,000  453,000  489,00018.89.09.72.2745.22013  941,000  446,000  495,00018.68.89.82.2643.52014  941,000  450,000  491,00018.48.89.62.2442.02015  948,000  447,000  501,00018.48.79.72.2540.72016  952,000  455,000  497,00018.38.89.62.2539.42017  949,000  461,000  488,00018.18.89.32.2338.12018  942,000  455,000  488,00017.98.69.22.2136.92019  938,000  461,000  476,00017.78.79.02.2035.72020  928,000  471,000  457,00017.48.88.52.1734.62021  920,000  526,000  395,00017.19.87.32.1533.7 1 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births===Fertility and births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 2015–2016 18 2.3 (2.0) 16 1.9 (1.7) 18.8 2.4 (2.1)Crude Birth Rate (CBR), Total Fertility Rate (TFR), and Total Marital Fertility Rate (TMFR) by region (2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census): Region Crude Birth Rate (CBR) Total Fertility Rate (TFR) Total Marital Fertility Rate (TMFR) Total (Myanmar) 18.8 2.29 4.0 ''Urban'' 15.8 1.79 3.6 ''Rural'' 20.1 2.52 4.2Kachin 22.0 2.82 5.1Kayah 26.1 3.34 5.7Kayin 23.8 3.43 5.4Chin 29.9 4.37 6.9Sagaing 19.4 2.32 4.4Tanintharyi 21.9 2.98 5.0Bago 17.6 2.19 3.6Magway 17.6 2.07 3.8Mandalay 16.9 1.94 3.7Mon 18.1 2.44 4.2Rakhine 18.0 2.24 3.5Yangon 15.5 1.72 3.3Shan 21.2 2.67 4.3Ayeyawady 20.2 2.58 4.1Naypyitaw 18.7 2.15 3.4=== Structure of the population ===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 30 139 447 30 836 546 60 975 993 100 0-4 2 892 346 2 843 804 5 736 150 9.41 5-9 3 019 538 2 933 751 5 953 054 9.76 10-14 3 061 725 2 939 751 6 001 476 9.84 15-19 2 939 176 2 830 830 5 770 006 9.46 20-24 2 804 028 2 729 466 5 533 494 9.07 25-29 2 608 652 2 578 175 5 186 827 8.51 30-34 2 378 395 2 414 221 4 792 616 7.86 35-39 2 134 820 2 212 315 4 347 135 7.13 40-44 1 868 709 1 984 907 3 853 616 6.32 45-49 1 604 910 1 737 570 3 342 480 5.48 50-54 1 325 584 1 459 978 2 785 562 4.57 55-59 1 081 479 1 213 529 2 295 008 3.76 60-64 838 871 962 728 1 801 599 2.95 65-69 647 286 766 066 1 413 352 2.32 70-74 477 948 593 666 1 071 614 1.76 75-79 335 405 449 974 785 379 1.29 80+ 120 575 186 050 306 625 0.50Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 8 973 609 8 717 306 17 690 915 29.01 15-64 19 584 624 20 123 484 39 708 108 65.12 65+ 1 581 214 1 995 756 3 576 970 5.87Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 24 228 714 26 051 186 50 279 900 100 0-4 2 262 783 2 209 347 4 472 130 8.89 5-9 2 438 372 2 380 705 4 819 077 9.58 10-14 2 595 759 2 512 613 5 108 362 10.16 15-19 2 290 998 2 334 991 4 625 989 9.20 20-24 2 091 525 2 239 544 4 331 069 8.61 25-29 1 995 465 2 150 669 4 146 134 8.25 30-34 1 884 549 2 014 312 3 898 861 7.75 35-39 1 705 630 1 857 850 3 563 480 7.09 40-44 1 548 942 1 734 131 3 283 073 6.53 45-49 1 375 041 1 571 107 2 946 148 5.86 50-54 1 182 341 1 376 891 2 559 232 5.09 55-59 935 979 1 115 958 2 051 937 4.08 60-64 712 040 864 805 1 576 845 3.14 65-69 466 618 597 875 1 064 493 2.12 70-74 301 679 411 491 713 170 1.42 75-79 228 315 324 983 553 298 1.10 80-84 130 875 204 701 335 576 0.67 85-89 56 979 101 090 158 069 0.31 90+ 24 834 48 123 72 957 0.15Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 7 296 904 7 102 665 14 399 569 28.64 15-64 15 722 510 17 260 258 32 982 768 65.60 65+ 1 209 300 1 688 263 2 897 563 5.76Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 26 253 029 28 564 888 54 817 917 100 0–4 2 530 919 2 466 636 4 997 555 9.12 5–9 2 440 079 2 391 031 4 831 110 8.81 10–14 2 498 690 2 434 982 4 933 672 9.00 15–19 2 580 205 2 502 427 5 082 632 9.27 20–24 2 303 893 2 352 534 4 656 427 8.49 25–29 2 048 287 2 234 735 4 283 022 7.81 30–34 1 933 997 2 157 191 4 091 188 7.46 35–39 1 848 391 2 048 816 3 897 207 7.11 40–44 1 686 627 1 892 346 3 578 973 6.53 45–49 1 524 718 1 764 361 3 289 079 6.00 50–54 1 352 184 1 607 900 2 960 084 5.40 55–59 1 155 216 1 413 151 2 568 367 4.69 60–64 896 135 1 145 018 2 041 153 3.72 65-69 640 767 863 956 1 504 723 2.74 70-74 395 453 576 158 971 611 1.77 75-79 211 626 342 884 554 510 1.01 80-84 124 414 213 715 338 129 0.62 85-89 61 122 113 105 174 227 0.32 90+ 20 306 43 942 64 248 0.12Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 7 469 688 7 292 649 14 762 337 26.93 15–64 17 329 653 19 118 479 36 448 132 66.49 65+ 1 453 688 2 153 760 3 607 448 6.58=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195536.11985–199057.81955–196041.31990–199559.61960–196544.21995–200061.31965–197049.62000–200562.91970–197551.92005–201064.31975–198054.02010–201566.01980–198556.0Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "=== Government classifications ===The Burmese government identifies eight major national ethnic groups (which comprise 135 \"distinct\" ethnic groups), which include the Burman (68%), Shan (10%), Karen (7%), Rakhine (4%), Mon (3%), Kayah (1.5%), and Kachin (1.3%).", "However, the government classification system is flawed, because it groups ethnic groups by geography, rather than by linguistic or genetic similarity (e.g.", "the Kokang are under the Shan ethnicity, although they are a Han Chinese sub-group).Unrecognised ethnic groups include Burmese Han-Chinese and Burmese Indians, who form 3% and 2% of the population respectively.", "The remaining 5% of the population belong to small ethnic groups such as the remnants of the Anglo-Burmese and Anglo-Indian communities, as well as the Lisu, Rawang, Naga, Padaung, Burmese Gurkha, Moken, and many minorities across Shan State." ], [ "Language", "The official language and primary medium of instruction of Burma is Burmese (65%).", "Multiple languages are spoken in Burma, that includes Shan (7.4%), Karen (6.2%), Hindi or Urdu (4.3%), Kachin (2.1%), Chinese (2%) Chin (1.6%), Bengali (1.3%), Mon (1.8%), and Rakhine (2%), Nepali (1%).", "Additionally English is spoken as a second language, particularly by the educated urban elite, and is the secondary language learnt in government schools.", "In recent years, instruction of the Chinese language has been recovered, after long-term limitations from the government of Myanmar." ], [ "Religious affiliation", " Religiousgroup Population % '''1973''' Population % '''1983''' Population % '''2014''' Buddhism 88.8% 89.4% 87.9% Christianity 4.6% 4.9% 6.2% Islam 3.9% 3.9% 4.3% Hinduism 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% Tribal religions 2.2% 1.2% 0.8% Other religions 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% Not religious n/a n/a 0.1%+''Religion in Myanmar'' Faith %(2008 est.", ")'''Total Buddhism''' 89% Theravada Buddhism 89% Mahayana Buddhism <1%'''Total Christianity''' 4% Baptist 3% Roman Catholicism 1% '''Total Islam''' 4% Sunni Islam 4% Shia Islam ＞0% '''Total other religions''' <1% Animism 1% Other (inc. Hinduism) 2%=== Buddhist Sangha ===Below are statistics regarding the Buddhist monastic community in Myanmar, compiled by the State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee.+''Sangha in Myanmar'' Division Samanera members % Bhikkhu members % Sangha members % Kachin State 3,121 1.2% 4,845 1.7% 7,966 1.5% Kayah State 1,300 0.5% 760 0.3% 2,060 0.4% Kayin State 5,967 2.4% 8,113 2.9% 14,080 2.6% Chin State 157 0.1% 300 0.1% 457 0.1% Sagaing Region 25,050 9.9% 29,991 10.6% 55,041 10.3% Tanintharyi Region 3,009 1.2% 6,086 2.2% 9,095 1.7% Naypyidaw Union Territory 5,713 2.3% 5,243 1.9% 10,956 2% Bago Region 18,032 7.1% 32,166 11.4% 50,198 9.4% Magway Region 13,654 5.4% 17,695 6.3% 31,349 5.9% Mandalay Region 47,217 18.7% 52,747 18.7% 99,964 18.7% Mon State 13,466 5.3% 19,303 6.8% 32,769 6.1% Rakhine State 6,395 2.5% 6,548 2.3% 12,943 2.4% Yangon Region 36,654 14.5% 51,788 18.3% 88,442 16.5% Shan State 57,850 22.9% 19,663 7% 77,513 14.5% Ayeyawady Region 15,377 6.1% 27,117 9.6% 42,494 7.9% Subtotal 252,962 100% 282,365 100% 535,227 100%+''Thilashin in Myanmar'' Division Thilashin members % Kachin State 1,103 1.8% Kayah State 303 0.5% Kayin State 1,000 1.7% Chin State 43 0.1% Sagaing Region 9,915 16.4% Tanintharyi Region 978 1.6% Naypyidaw Union Territory 923 1.5% Bago Region 5,100 8.4% Magway Region 2,473 4.1% Mandalay Region 8,174 13.5% Mon State 3,550 5.9% Rakhine State 534 0.9% Yangon Region 16,960 28.1% Shan State 3,814 6.3% Ayeyawady Region 5,520 9.1% Subtotal 60,390 100%" ], [ "''CIA World Factbook'' demographic statistics", "FAO, year 2009; Number of inhabitants in thousands.The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Age structure===* 0–14 years: 26.85% (male 7,567,976/female 7,233,577)* 15–24 years: 17.75% (male 4,917,290/female 4,865,264)* 25–54 years: 42.36% (male 11,426,913/female 11,922,728)* 55–64 years: 7.52% (male 1,930,253/female 2,213,263)* 65 years and over: 5.53% (male 1,327,811/female 1,718,739)===Median age===* total: 28.2 years (2017 est.", ")===Population growth rate===0.91% (2017 est.", ")===Urbanisation===* Urban population: 29.6% of total population (2014 census)* Rate of urbanisation: 2.9% of annual rate of change (2010–15 est.", ")===Human sex ratios===* at birth: 1.06 males/female* under 15 years: 1.03 males/female* 15–64 years: 0.98 male/female* 65 years and over: 0.75 male/female (2009 est.", ")* total population: 0.93 male/female (2014 census)=== Life expectancy ===*total population: 69.92 years*male: 68.27 years*female: 71.67 years (2022 est.", ")=== Obesity - adult prevalence rate ===*5.8% (2016)=== Children under the age of 5 years underweight ===*18.9% (2016)===Literacy===Age 15 and over can read and write, official statistics:* Total: 89.5%* Male: 92.6%* Female: 86.9%" ], [ "Education expenditures", "0.8% of GDP (2011)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Population Projections for Myanmar, 1983-2013 ''Asia Pacific Population Journal'', Vol.", "6, No.", "2 (PDF document)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "Myanmar (also known as Burma) ( ) operates ''de jure'' as a unitary assembly-independent presidential republic under its 2008 constitution.", "On 1 February 2021, Myanmar's military took over the government in a coup, causing ongoing anti-coup protests." ], [ "Political conditions", "=== Early history ===The first known city-states emerged in central Myanmar in the second century AD.", "They were founded by Tibeto-Burman-speaking migrants from present-day Yunnan.", "The history of Myanmar as a unified entity, formerly called Burma, began with the Pagan Kingdom in 849.In 1057, King Anawrahta founded the first unified Myanmar state at Bagan.", "In 1287, the Bagan kingdom collapsed following recurring Mongol invasions, leading to 250 years of political divide.", "In the time period between 1510 and 1752, the area was united as Burma by the Toungoo dynasty, which was the largest Southeast Asian empire in the 16th century.", "From 1752 to 1885, the Toungoo administrative reforms were continued by the Konbaung dynasty.", "The thousand-year line of Burmese monarchy ended with the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.=== British rule ===After 1885, the country was administered as part of British India until 1937.British Burma began with its official recognition on the colonial map that marks its new borders containing over 100 ethnicities.", "It was named Burma after the dominant ethnic group Bamar, who make up 68 percent of the population.==== World War II ====During World War II, a coalition of mostly members of the Bamar ethnic group volunteered to fight alongside the Japanese in hope of overthrowing the occupying British forces.", "Meanwhile, many other ethnic groups supported the Allied forces against the Bamar-backed Japanese forces.", "This conflict would come to be very significant in the aftermath of World War II when Burma was granted its independence from Great Britain in 1948.Prior to the end of their colonization, the British government had created a novel map of the country with new borders that included some previously sovereign ethnicities.", "Many groups of racially and culturally diverse people suddenly found themselves as part of a country that was named after the Bamar, a group they did not identify with.", "The division created during World War II only exacerbated the growing resentment towards the Bamar.", "By granting independence to Burma, the British government handed the control of all the containing ethnicities over to the Bamar.=== Panglong Agreement ===Aung San, who led the fight for independence, was able to convince the leaders of the other ethnic groups that fought alongside the Burmese to remain as one country.", "The formation of the new Burmese constitution in 1948 was cemented by the Pin-Lone agreement, which was signed by every ethnic leader in support of the newfound union.", "Aung San's unprecedented assassination prior to the absolute fulfillment of the Pin-Lone agreement undid the unification he led.", "His death marked the short lived period of peace within the new nation, unleashing a power vacuum that has not been filled properly since.", "A period of instability with leaders that failed to represent every ethnicity's best interest followed.=== Socialist republic ===Democracy was suspended in the country following a coup in 1962.The uncertainty and chaos paved the way for a Burmese nationalist government to take over.", "From 1962 to 1988, the country was ruled by the Burma Socialist Programme Party as a one-party state guided by the Burmese Way to Socialism.", "The new Burmese leaders turned Burma into a Socialist Republic with isolationism, and a Burmese superiority.", "The newfound Burmese nationalism put the Bamar majority at the forefront, undoing the unification initiated through the Pin-Lone agreement.", "Additionally, the growing disdain was enhanced through the forced coexistence between members of different religions.", "Bamar kingdoms were almost exclusively Buddhist in the past.", "Most ethnic groups within the Shan, Kayin, Kayar, and Chin state practiced their own versions of Animism, while people of the Islamic faith lived alongside the Buddhists in the Arakan (now Rakhine) state.", "The annexation of all the diverse groups into the British India deepened the religious polarization.", "The movement of people across the border caused by the colonization added a large group of Hindu followers to the mix.", "The strenuous conversion campaigns by the Catholic Christians and their competition with the Methodist colonialists additionally divided minority groups such as the Karen and Kachin within themselves.", "The colonial departure unleashed the animosity that has been building towards one other.", "The death of Aung San, and the following leaderships ensured the lasting conflicts between every cultural and religious group.", "The 1988 Uprising cemented the social, political, and civil unrests that have plagued the country since.=== 1988 Uprising ===The SPDC junta which took power in 1988 had been responsible for the displacement of several hundred thousand citizens, both inside and outside of Burma.", "The Karen, Karenni, and Mon ethnic groups have sought asylum in neighbouring Thailand, where they are also abused by an unfriendly and unsympathetic government.", "These groups are perhaps more fortunate than the Wa and Shan ethnic groups, who have become internally displaced peoples in their own state since being removed from lands by the military junta in 2000.There are reportedly 600,000 of these internally displaced peoples living in Burma today.", "Many are trying to escape forced labour in the military or for one of the many state-sponsored drug cartels.", "This displacement of peoples led, and continues to lead to human rights violations as well as the exploitation of minority ethnic groups at the hands of the dominant Bamar group.", "The primary actors in these ethnic struggles include, but are not limited to, the military, the Karen National Union, Kachin Independence army, United League of Arakan, Restoration Council of Shan State, and the Mong Tai Army.The military gave up some of its power in 2011, leading to the creation of a semi-democratic system, although problems remained, including outsized influence by the military under the 2008 constitution, as well as economic and ethnic issues.", "In 2015 the military began taking steps to make peace with various ethnic armed groups calling a Nationwide Ceasfire Agreement which was signed by many such groups.=== 2021 Myanmar coup d'état ===On 31 January 2021, it was reported by multiple media and news outlets that the military had staged a coup and arrested members of the governing party, National League for Democracy, had been arrested and detained by the military.", "Spokesman for the NLD, Myo Nyunt said \"the military seems to take control of the capital now.\"", "These conflicts arose after the NLD had claimed victory after a successful election in November 2020.While the military contested the results of the election claiming fraudulent without any proof or investigation.", "This situation was followed by the military performing coup d'état on 1 February 2021, taking the presidential powers from the NLD government by brute force.", "Shortly after taking control of the government, the military began breaking the Nationwide Ceasfire Agreement by taking aggressive actions in territories controlled by its signers." ], [ "History", "=== Independence era ===On 4 January 1948, Burma achieved independence from Britain, and became a democracy based on the parliamentary system.In late 1946 Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government.", "But on 19 July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.", "On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the ''Union of Burma'', with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister.", "Unlike almost all other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth.", "A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities.", "The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.=== AFPFL/Union government ===In 1961, U Thant, Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organisation and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.", "Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi.=== Military socialist era ===In 1962, General Ne Win led a coup d'état and established a nominally socialist military government that sought to follow the \"Burmese Way to Socialism\".", "The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of autarky, or economic isolation.There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed.", "On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.", "In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant.", "Student protests in 1975, 1976 and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.", "The government was deposed following the 1988 Uprising, but was replaced by a military junta.=== SPDC era ===The former head of state was Senior General Than Shwe who held the title of \"Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council\".", "His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until 19 October 2004, when he was forcibly deposed in favour of Gen. Soe Win.", "Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers.US and European government sanctions against the military government, combined with consumer boycotts and shareholder pressure organised by Free Burma activists, have succeeded in forcing most western corporations to withdraw from Burma.", "However, some western oil companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions.", "For example, the French oil company TotalEnergies and the American oil company Chevron continue to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand.", "TotalEnergies (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged complicity in human rights abuses along the gas pipeline.", "Before it was acquired by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar lawsuit for a reported multimillion-dollar amount.", "Asian businesses, such as Daewoo, continue to invest in Burma, particularly in natural resource extraction.The United States and European clothing and shoe industry became the target of Free Burma activists for buying from factories in Burma that were wholly or partly owned by the government or the military.", "Many stopped sourcing from Burma after protests, starting with Levi Strauss in 1992.From 1992 to 2003, Free Burma activists successfully forced dozens of clothing and shoe companies to stop sourcing from Burma.", "These companies included Eddie Bauer, Liz Claiborne, Macy's, J.", "Crew, JoS.", "A.", "Banks, Children's Place, Burlington Coat Factory, Wal-Mart, and Target.", "The US government banned all imports from Burma as part of the \"Burmese Freedom and Democracy Act\" of 2003.Sanctions have been criticised for their adverse effects on the civilian population.", "However, Burmese democracy movement leader Aung San Suu Kyi has repeatedly credited sanctions for putting pressure on the ruling military regime.Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented egregious human rights abuses by the military government.", "Civil liberties are severely restricted.", "Human Rights Defenders and Promoters, formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights, claims that on 18 April 2007, several of its members were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local USDA Secretary U Nyunt Oo and beaten up.", "The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities.There is no independent judiciary in Burma and the military government suppresses political activity.", "The government uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages.In 2001, the government permitted NLD office branches to re-open throughout Burma.", "However, they were shut down or heavily restricted beginning 2004, as part of a government campaign to prohibit such activities.", "In 2006, many members resigned from NLD, citing harassment and pressure from the Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) and the Union Solidarity and Development Association.The military government placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest again on 31 May 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Burma by a mob reported to be in league with the military.", "The regime extended her house arrest for yet another year in late November 2005.Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure from ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006.She was released in 2010.The United Nations urged the country to move towards inclusive national reconciliation, the restoration of democracy, and full respect for human rights.", "In December 2008, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the human rights situation in Burma and calling for Aug San Suu Kyi's release—80 countries voting for the resolution, 25 against and 45 abstentions.", "Other nations, such as China and Russia, have been less critical of the regime and prefer to co-operate on economic matters.Facing increasing international isolation, Burma's military government agreed to embark upon a programme of reform, including permitting multiple political parties to contest elections in 2010 and 2012 and the release of political prisoners.", "However, organizations such as Human Rights Watch allege continued human rights abuses in ongoing conflicts in border regions such as Kachin State and Rakhine State.=== New constitution ===Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was overwhelmingly approved (by 92.4% of the 22 million voters with alleged voter turnout of 99%) on 10 May 2008 in the first phase of a two-stage referendum and Cyclone Nargis.", "It was the first national vote since the 1990 election.", "Multi-party elections in 2010 would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament.", "NLD spokesman Nyan Win, inter alia, criticised the referendum: \"This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country.", "In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything\".===2010 election===An election was held in 2010, with 40 parties approved to contest the elections by the Electoral Commission.", "some of which are linked to ethnic minorities.", "The National League for Democracy, which overwhelmingly won the previous 1990 elections but were never allowed to take power, decided not to participate.The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, winning 259 of the 330 contested seats.", "The United Nations and many Western countries have condemned the elections as fraudulent, although the decision to hold elections was praised by China and Russia.===2012 by-elections===In by-elections held in 2012, the main opposition party National League for Democracy, which was only re-registered for the by-elections on 13 December 2011 won in 43 of the 44 seats they contested (out of 46).", "Significantly, international observers were invited to monitor the elections, although the government was criticised for placing too many restrictions on election monitors, some of whom were denied visas.The Union Solidarity and Development Party said it would lodge official complaints to the Union Election Commission on poll irregularities, voter intimidation, and purported campaign incidents that involved National League for Democracy members and supporters, while the National League for Democracy also sent an official complaint to the commission, regarding ballots that had been tampered with.However, President Thein Sein remarked that the by-elections were conducted \"in a very successful manner\", and many foreign countries have indicated willingness to lift or loosen sanctions on Burma and its military leaders.===2015 election===Voting at a polling stationBallot papers and stampsMyanmar general elections were held on 8 November 2015.These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990.The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.The resounding victory of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy in 2015 general elections raised hopes for a successful political transition from a closely held military rule to a free democratic system.", "This transition was widely believed to be determining the future of Myanmar.According to the results announced by the Union Election Commission on 13 November 2015, the NLD won 238 seats in the lower house and 348 seats in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, exceeding the required number to form a government and elect a president.=== 2021 military coup and subsequent junta ===The Tatmadaw, under the leadership of Min Aung Hlaing, seized power from the civilian government after detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other democratically elected leaders in Naypyidaw.", "A military junta, officially the State Administration Council was subsequently established.====Heads and deputy heads====OfficeName Term of serviceTook officeLeft officeDaysActing PresidentMyint Swe1 February 2021Incumbent First Vice President30 March 2016Second Vice PresidentHenry Van Thio Chairman of the State Administration CouncilMin Aung Hlaing2 February 2021 Prime Minister1 August 2021 Vice Chairman of the State Administration CouncilSoe Win2 February 2021 Deputy Prime Minister1 August 2021 Mya Tun Oo1 February 2023Tin Aung SanSoe HtutWin Shein====Cabinet members====" ], [ "Executive branch", "ChairmanPrime MinisterMin Aung HlaingTatmadaw 2 February 2021Vice ChairmanSoe WinTatmadaw 2 February 2021PresidentMyint SweUnion Solidarity and Development Party 1 February 2021The president is the head of state and ''de jure'' head of government, and oversees the Cabinet of Myanmar.", "Currently the Chairman of the State Administration Council is the ''de facto'' head of government.The Commander-in-Chief of the Myanmar Defense Forces (Tatmadaw) has the right to appoint 25% of the members in all legislative assembly which means that legislations cannot obtain super-majority without support from Tatmadaw, thus preventing democratically elected members from amending the 2008 Constitution of Myanmar.", "He can also directly appoint ministers in Ministry of Defence (Myanmar) which in turn controls Myanmar Armed Forces, Ministry of Border Affairs (Myanmar) which controls border affairs of the country, Ministry of Home Affairs (Myanmar) which controls Myanmar police forces and the administration of the country and Myanmar Economic Corporation which is the largest economic corporation in Myanmar." ], [ "Legislative branch", "The Assembly of the Union.Under the 2008 Constitution the legislative power of the Union is shared among the ''Pyidaungsu Hluttaw'', State and Region Hluttaws.", "The ''Pyidaungsu Hluttaw'' consists of the People's Assembly (''Pyithu Hluttaw'') elected on the basis of township as well as population, and the House of Nationalities (''Amyotha Hluttaw'') with on an equal number of representatives elected from Regions and States.", "The People's Assembly consists of 440 representatives, with 110 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services.", "The House of Nationalities consists of 224 representatives with 56 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services." ], [ "Judicial system", "Burma's judicial system is limited.", "British-era laws and legal systems remain much intact, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial.", "The judiciary is not independent of the executive branch.", "Burma does not accept compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.", "The highest court in the land is the Supreme Court.", "The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is Htun Htun Oo, and the Attorney General is also named Thida Oo.===''Wareru dhammathat''===Wareru dhammathat or the Manu dhammathat () was the earliest law-book in Burma.", "It consists of laws ascribed to the ancient Indian sage, Manu, and brought to Burma by Hindu colonists.", "The collection was made at Wareru’s command, by monks from the writings of earlier Mon scholars preserved in the monasteries of his kingdom.", "(Wareru seized Martaban in 1281 and obtained the recognition of China as the ruler of Lower Burma and founded a kingdom which lasted until 1539.Martaban was its first capital, and remained so until 1369.It stretched southwards as far as Tenasserim.", ")===''Dhammazedi pyatton''===Mon King Dhammazedi (1472–92) was the greatest of the Mon rulers of Wareru's line.", "He was famous for his wisdom and the collection of his rulings were recorded in the Kalyani stone inscriptions and known as the Dammazedi pyatton." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "Burma is divided into seven regions (previously called divisions-''taing'') and seven states (''pyi-nè''), classified by ethnic composition.", "The seven regions are Ayeyarwady Region, Bago Division, Magway Division, Mandalay Division, Sagaing Division, Tanintharyi Division and Yangon Division; the seven states are Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Mon State, Rakhine State and Shan State.There are also five Self-administrated zones and a Self-administrated Division \"for National races with suitable population\"Within the Sagain Region* Naga (Leshi, Lahe and Namyun townships)Within the Shan State* Palaung (Namshan and Manton townships)* Kokang (Konkyan and Laukkai townships)* Pao (Hopong, Hshihseng and Pinlaung townships),* Danu (Ywangan and Pindaya townships),* Wa Selfadministrated division (Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, Pangsang, Naphan and Metman townships)" ], [ "International organisation participation", "* Asian Development Bank* Association of South East Asian Nations* Chittagong City Corporation (CCC)* Central Provinces (CP)* ESCAP* FAO* G-77* IAEA* IBRD* ICAO* International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM)* International Development Association (IDA)* IFAD* Irrawaddy Flotilla Company (IFC)* IFRCS* International Monetary Fund* International Monetary Fund Organization (IMO) -see IMF* Intelsat (nonsignatory user)* Interpol* International Olympic Committee* ITU* NAM* OPCW* United Nations* UNCTAD* UNDP* UNESCO* UNIDO* UPU* World Health Organization* WMO* WToO* World Trade Organization* Global Justice Center (GJC)" ], [ "See also", "* United Nations Special Envoy on Myanmar" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Kipgen, Nehginpao.", "\"Democracy Movement in Myanmar: Problems and Challenges\".", "New Delhi: Ruby Press & Co., 2014.Print.", "* * CIA World Factbook" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Economy of Myanmar''' is the seventh largest in Southeast Asia.", "After the return of civilian rule in 2011, the new government launched large-scale reforms, focused initially on the political system to restore peace and achieve national unity and moving quickly to an economic and social reform program.", "Despite the great potential that Myanmar's economy possesses, in order for the country to achieve its economic transition, considerable investments will have to be made in infrastructure and developing human capital, and progress made on building institutional capacity, a regulatory environment for the private sector to flourish, and a modern finance sector.", "Current economic statistics were a huge decline from the economic statistics of Myanmar in the fiscal year of 2020, in which Myanmar’s nominal GDP was $81.26 billion and its purchasing power adjusted GDP was $279.14 billion.", "The cause of the deterioration in the economy is due to the 2021 coup d’état by the Tatmadaw (armed forces) after they claimed that the elections were fraudulent.", "Myanmar's economy has been in economic crisis since the coup d’état in 2021." ], [ "History", "===Classical era===Burma has been the main trade route between China and India and China since 100 BC.", "The Mon Kingdom of lower Burma served as important trading centre in the Bay of Bengal.", "The majority of the population was involved in rice production and other forms of agriculture.", "Burma used silver as a medium of exchange.", "All land was technically owned by the Burmese monarch.", "Exports, along with oil wells, gem mining and teak production were controlled by the monarch.", "Burma was vitally involved in the Indian Ocean trade.", "Logged teak was a prized export that was used in European shipbuilding because of its durability, and became the focal point of Burmese exports from the 1700s to the 1800s.Under the monarchy, the economy of Myanmar had been one of redistribution, a concept embedded in local society, religion, and politics (Dāna).", "The state set the prices of the most important commodities.", "Agrarian self-sufficiency was vital, while trade was only of secondary importance.===British Burma (1885–1948)===Under the British administration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of social hierarchy, with Europeans at the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom.", "Integrated into the world economy by force, economic growth in Burma was driven by the extractive industries and cash crop agriculture, and the country had the second-highest GDP per capita in Southeast Asia.", "However, much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans.", "The country became the world's largest exporter of rice, mainly to European markets, while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation.", "The British followed the ideologies of Social Darwinism and the free market, and opened up the country to a large-scale immigration with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s.", "Historian Thant Myint-U states, \"This was out of a total population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year.\"", "By then, in most of the largest cities in Burma, Rangoon, Akyab, Bassein and Moulmein, the Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population.", "The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted with a \"racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear\".Crude oil production, an indigenous industry of Yenangyaung, was taken over by the British and put under Burmah Oil monopoly.", "British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853.It produced 75% of the world's teak.", "The wealth was however, mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans.", "In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined and did not recover for several decades.During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed a scorched earth policy.", "They destroyed the major government buildings, oil wells and mines for tungsten, tin, lead and silver to keep them from the Japanese.", "Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies.", "After independence, the country was in ruins with its major infrastructure completely destroyed.", "With the loss of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained independence from the British.", "After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the state was declared the owner of all land.", "The government tried to implement an eight-year plan partly financed by injecting money into the economy which caused some inflation.===Post-independence and under Ne Win (1948–1988)===After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation.", "He attempted to make Burma a welfare state by adopting central planning measures.", "By the 1950s, rice exports had decreased by two-thirds and mineral exports by over 96%.", "Plans were implemented in setting up light consumer industries by private sector.", "The 1962 Burmese coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture.", "The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries.", "Burma's classification as a least developed country by the United Nations in 1987 highlighted its economic decline.===Rule of the generals (1988–2011)===After 1988, the regime retreated from a command economy.", "It permitted modest expansion of the private sector, allowed some foreign investment, and received much needed foreign exchange.", "The economy was rated in 2009 as the least free in Asia (tied with North Korea).", "All basic market institutions are suppressed.", "Private enterprises were often co-owned or indirectly owned by state.", "The corruption watchdog organisation Transparency International in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index released on 26 September 2007 ranked Burma the most corrupt country in the world, tied with Somalia.The national currency is the kyat.", "Burma currently has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba.", "The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006.In 2011, the Burmese government enlisted the aid of the International Monetary Fund to evaluate options to reform the current exchange rate system, to stabilise the domestic foreign exchange trading market and reduce economic distortions.", "The dual exchange rate system allows for the government and state-owned enterprises to divert funds and revenues, while also giving the government more control over the local economy and making it possible to temporarily subdue inflation.Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007.In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organised a two-day workshop on the economy.", "The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth.", "\"Basic commodity prices have increased from 30% to 60% since the military regime promoted a pay rise for government workers in April 2006,\" said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop.", "\"Inflation is also correlated with corruption.\"", "Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: \"Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis.", "\"In recent years, China and India attempted to strengthen ties with Myanmar for mutual benefit.", "The European Union and some nations including the United States and Canada imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma.", "The United States banned all imports from Burma, though this restriction was since lifted.", "Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand.===Economic liberalisation (2011–present)===In 2011, when new President Thein Sein's government came to power, Burma embarked on a major policy of reforms including anti-corruption, currency exchange rate regulation, foreign investment laws and taxation.", "Foreign investments increased from US$300 million in 2009–10 to a US$20 billion in 2010–11 by about 6567%.", "Large inflow of capital results in stronger Burmese currency, kyat by about 25%.", "In response, the government relaxed import restrictions and abolished export taxes.", "Despite current currency problems, Burmese economy is expected to grow by about 8.8% in 2011.After the completion of 58-billion dollar Dawei deep seaport, Burma is expected be at the hub of trade connecting Southeast Asia and the South China Sea, via the Andaman Sea, to the Indian Ocean receiving goods from countries in the Middle East, Europe and Africa, and spurring growth in the ASEAN region.In 2012, the Asian Development Bank formally began re-engaging with the country, to finance infrastructure and development projects in the country.", "The $512 million loan is the first issued by the ADB to Myanmar in 30 years and will target banking services, ultimately leading to other major investments in road, energy, irrigation and education projects.In March 2012, a draft foreign investment law emerged, the first in more than 2 decades.", "This law oversees the unprecedented liberalisation of the economy.", "It for example stipulates that foreigners no longer require a local partner to start a business in the country and can legally lease land.", "The draft law also stipulates that Burmese citizens must constitute at least 25% of the firm's skilled workforce, and with subsequent training, up to 50–75%.On 28 January 2013, the government of Myanmar announced deals with international lenders to cancel or refinance nearly $6 billion of its debt, almost 60 per cent of what it owes to foreign lenders.", "Japan wrote off US$3 Billion, nations in the group of Paris Club wrote off US$2.2 Billion and Norway wrote off US$534 Million.Myanmar's inward foreign direct investment has steadily increased since its reform.", "The country approved US$4.4 billion worth of investment projects between January and November 2014.According to one report released on 30 May 2013, by the McKinsey Global Institute, Burma's future looks bright, with its economy expected to quadruple by 2030 if it invests in more high-tech industries.", "This however does assume that other factors (such as drug trade, the continuing war of the government with specific ethnic groups, etc.)", "do not interfere.As of October 2017, less than 10% of Myanmar's population has a bank account.", "As of 2016–17 approximately 98 percent of the population has smartphones and mobile money schemes are being implemented without the use of banks similar to African countries.On April 30, 2021, the United Nations Development Programme published a report indicating that the COVID-19 virus and the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état in February 2021 could reverse economic gains made over the last sixteen years.Since at least 2022, Myanmar is undergoing an ailing economy; the ruling military junta plans to shore up the worsening state of its balance of payments.", "When the kyat fell by a third of its pre-coup value, the central bank then sold $600 million worth of foreign reserves (10% of the entire country's total) to prop up the kyat.", "By April 2022, reserves dwindled, foreign investment fell and remittances plummeted.", "This led the junta to impose capital controls and import restrictions which led to shortages of diabetes and cancer medicines." ], [ "Still unresolved internal problems", "In a first ever countrywide study in 2013, the Myanmar government found that 37 per cent of the population were unemployed and 26 per cent lived in poverty.The current state of the Burmese economy has also had a significant impact on the people of Burma, as economic hardship results in extreme delays of marriage and family building.", "The average age of marriage in Burma is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women, almost unparalleled in the region, with the exception of developed countries like Singapore.Burma also has a low fertility rate of 2.07 children per woman (2010), especially as compared to other Southeast Asian countries of similar economic standing, like Cambodia (3.18) and Laos (4.41), representing a significant decline from 4.7 in 1983, despite the absence of a national population policy.", "This is at least partly attributed to the economic strain that additional children place on family income, and has resulted in the prevalence of illegal abortions in the country, as well as use of other forms of birth control.The 2012 foreign investment law draft, included a proposal to transform the Myanmar Investment Commission from a government-appointed body into an independent board.", "This could bring greater transparency to the process of issuing investment licenses, according to the proposed reforms drafted by experts and senior officials.", "However, even with this draft, it will still remain a question on whether corruption in the government can be addressed (links have been shown between certain key individuals inside the government and the drug trade, as well as many industries that use forced labour -for example the mining industry-).Many regions (such as the Golden Triangle) remain off-limits for foreigners, and in some of these regions, the government is at war with the country's ethnic minorities and the opposition." ], [ "Industries", "The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area.", "Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight.", "Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996.By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's rice fields, including 98% of the irrigated areas.", "In 2011, Myanmar's total milled rice production accounted for 10.60 million tons, an increase from the 1.8 per cent back in 2010.In northern Burma, opium bans have ended a century old tradition of growing poppy.", "Between 20,000 and 30,000 ex-poppy farmers left the Kokang region as a result of the ban in 2002.Rubber plantations are being promoted in areas of high elevation like Mong Mao.", "Sugar is grown in the lowlands such as Mong Pawk District.The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the country's economic problems.Lately, the Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure.", "Goods travel primarily across Thai and China borders and through the main port in Yangon.Railroads are old and dilapidated, with few repairs since their construction under British rule in the late nineteenth century.", "Presently China and Japan are providing aid to upgrade rail transport.", "Highways are normally paved, except in remote border regions.", "Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in Yangon.", "About 30 percent of the country's population does not have access to electricity, with 70 per cent of people living in rural areas.", "The civilian government has indicated that electricity will be imported from Laos to fulfil demand.Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.The private sector dominates agriculture, light industry, and transport activities, while the government controls energy, heavy industry, and military industries.===Garment production===The garment industry is a major job creator in the Yangon area, with around 200,000 workers employed in total in mid-2015.The Myanmar Government has introduced minimum wage of MMK 4,800 (US$3.18) per day for the garment workers from March 2018.The Myanmar garments sector has seen significant influx of foreign direct investment, if measured by the number of entriesrather than their value.", "In March 2012, six of Thailand's largest garment manufacturers announced that they would move production to Myanmar, principally to the Yangon area, citing lower labour costs.", "In mid-2015, about 55% of officially registered garment firms in Myanmar were known to be fully or partly foreign-owned, with about 25% of the foreign firms from China and 17% from Hong Kong.", "Foreign-linked firms supply almost all garment exports, and these have risen rapidly in recent years, especially since EU sanctions were lifted in 2012.Myanmar exported $1.6 billion worth of garments and textiles in 2016.===Illegal drug trade===Golden Triangle region, which Burma is part of, is pinpointed in this map.Burma (Myanmar) is the largest producer of methamphetamines in the world, with the majority of ''ya ba'' found in Thailand produced in Burma, particularly in the Golden Triangle and Northeastern Shan State, which borders Thailand, Laos and China.", "Burmese-produced ''ya ba'' is typically trafficked to Thailand via Laos, before being transported through the northeastern Thai region of Isan.In 2010, Burma trafficked 1 billion tablets to neighbouring Thailand.", "In 2009, the Chinese authorities seized over 40 million tablets that had been illegally trafficked from Burma.", "Ethnic militias and rebel groups (in particular the United Wa State Army) are responsible for much of this production; however, the Burmese military units are believed to be heavily involved in the trafficking of the drugs.Burma is also the second largest supplier of opium (following Afghanistan) in the world, with 95% of opium grown in Shan State.", "Illegal narcotics have generated $1 to US$2 billion in exports annually, with estimates of 40% of the country's foreign exchange coming from drugs.", "Efforts to eradicate opium cultivation have pushed many ethnic rebel groups, including the United Wa State Army and the Kokang to diversify into methamphetamine production.Prior to the 1980s, heroin was typically transported from Burma to Thailand, before being trafficked by sea to Hong Kong, which was and still remains the major transit point at which heroin enters the international market.", "Now, drug trafficking has shifted to southern China (from Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong) because of a growing market for drugs in China, before reaching Hong Kong.The prominence of major drug traffickers have allowed them to penetrate other sectors of the Burmese economy, including the banking, airline, hotel and infrastructure industries.", "Their investment in infrastructure have allowed them to make more profits, facilitate drug trafficking and money laundering.", "The share of informal economy in Myanmar is one of the largest in the world that feeds into trade in illegal drugs.===Oil and gas===A petrol station in Naypyidaw* Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) is the national oil and gas company of Burma.", "The company is a sole operator of oil and gas exploration and production, as well as domestic gas transmission through a onshore pipeline grid.", "* The Yadana Project is a project to exploit the Yadana gas field in the Andaman Sea and to carry natural gas to Thailand through Myanmar.", "* Sino-Burma pipelines refers to planned oil and natural gas pipelines linking Burma's deep-water port of Kyaukphyu (Sittwe) in the Bay of Bengal with Kunming in Yunnan province, China.", "* The Norwegian company Seadrill owned by John Fredriksen is involved in offshore oildrilling, expected to give the Burmese government oil and oil export revenues.", "* Myanmar exported $3.5 billion worth of gas, mostly to Thailand in the fiscal year up to March 2012.", "* Initiation to bid on oil exploration licenses for 18 of Myanmar's onshore oil blocks has been released on 18 January 2013.=== Renewable energy ===Myanmar has rich solar power and hydropower potential.", "The country's technical solar power potential is the greatest among the countries of the Greater Mekong Subregion.", "Wind energy, biogas and biomass have limited potential and are weakly developed.===Gemstones===The Union of Myanmar's economy depends heavily on sales of precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade.", "Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue.", "Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems.", "Burma's \"''Valley of Rubies''\", the mountainous Mogok area, north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires.Myanmar is famed for its production of Golden South Sea Pearls.", "In recent years, the countries has auctioned its production in Hong Kong, first organized by Belpearl company in 2013 to critical acclaim and premium prices due to strong Chinese demand.", "Notable pearls include the New Dawn of Myanmar, a 19mm round golden pearl which sold to an anonymous buyer for undisclosed price.In 2007, following the crackdown on pro-democracy protests in Myanmar, human rights organisations, gem dealers, and US First Lady Laura Bush called for a boycott of a Myanmar gem auction held twice yearly, arguing that the sale of the stones profited the dictatorial regime in that country.", "Debbie Stothard of the Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma stated that mining operators used drugs on employees to improve productivity, with needles shared, raising the risk of HIV infection: \"These rubies are red with the blood of young people.\"", "Brian Leber (41-year-old jeweller who founded The Jewellers' Burma Relief Project) stated that: \"For the time being, Burmese gems should not be something to be proud of.", "They should be an object of revulsion.", "It's the only country where one obtains really top quality rubies, but I stopped dealing in them.", "I don't want to be part of a nation's misery.", "If someone asks for a ruby now I show them a nice pink sapphire.", "\"Richard W. Hughes, author of Ruby and Sapphire, a Bangkok-based gemologist who has made many trips to Burma makes the point that for every ruby sold through the junta, another gem that supports subsistence mining is smuggled over the Thai border.", "Burma's gemstone industry is a cornerstone of the Burmese economy with exports topping $1 billion.The permits for new gem mines in Mogoke, Mineshu and Nanyar state will be issued by the ministry according to a statement issued by the ministry on 11 February.", "While many sanctions placed on the former regime were eased or lifted in 2012, the US has left restrictions on importing rubies and jade from Myanmar intact.", "According to recent amendments to the new Myanmar foreign investment law, there is no longer a minimum capital requirement for investments, except in mining ventures, which require substantial proof of capital and must be documented through a domestic bank.", "Another important clarification in the investment law is the dropping of foreign ownership restrictions in joint ventures, except in restricted sectors, such as mining, where FDI will be capped at 80 per cent.===Tourism===Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism.", "Until 2008, fewer than 750,000 tourists entered the country annually, but there has been substantial growth over the past years.", "In 2012, 1.06 million tourists visited the country, and 1.8 million are expected to visit by the end of 2013.Tourism is a growing sector of the economy of Burma.", "Burma has diverse and varied tourist attractions and is served internationally by numerous airlines via direct flights.", "Domestic and foreign airlines also operate flights within the country.", "Cruise ships also dock at Yangon.", "Overland entry with a border pass is permitted at several border checkpoints.", "The government requires a valid passport with an entry visa for all tourists and business people.", "As of May 2010, foreign business visitors from any country can apply for a visa on arrival when passing through Yangon and Mandalay international airports without having to make any prior arrangements with travel agencies.", "Both the tourist visa and business visa are valid for 28 days, renewable for an additional 14 days for tourism and three months for business.", "Seeing Burma through a personal tour guide is popular.", "Travellers can hire guides through travel agencies.Aung San Suu Kyi has requested that international tourists not visit Burma.", "Moreoever, the junta's forced labour programmes were focused on tourist destinations; these designations have been heavily criticised for their human rights records.", "Even disregarding the obviously governmental fees, Burma's Minister of Hotels and Tourism Major-General Saw Lwin admitted that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector tourism services.", "In addition, only a very small minority of impoverished people in Burma receive any money with any relation to tourism.Before 2012, much of the country was completely off-limits to tourists, and the military tightly controlled interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma.", "Locals were not allowed to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit \"unnecessary contact\" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.", "Since 2012, Burma has opened up to more tourism and foreign capital, synonymous with the country's transition to democracy.===Infrastructure===The Myanmar Infrastructure Summit 2018 noted that Myanmar has an urgent need to \"close its infrastructure gap\", with an anticipated expenditure of US$120 billion funding its infrastructural projects between now and 2030.More specifically, infrastructural development in Myanmar should address three major challenges over the upcoming years: 1) Road modernization and integration with neighboring roads and transportation networks; 2) Development of regional airports and expansion of existing airport capacity, and 3) Maintenance and consolidation of urban transport infrastructure, through instalments of innovative transportation tools including but not limited to water-taxis and air-conditioned buses.", "Myanmar needs to scale up its enabling infrastructure like transport, power supply and public utilities.China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) infrastructure projects may affect 24 million people in Myanmar living in the BRI corridors, thus transforming the allocation of economic benefits and losses among economic actors in the country." ], [ "External trade", "Burmese exports in 2006+'''2006–2007 Financial Year Trade volume (in US$000,000)''' Sr. No.", "Description 2006–2007 Budget Trade Volume 2006–2007 Real Trade Volume Export Import Trade Volume Export Import Trade Volume 1 Normal Trade 4233.60 2468.40 6702.00 4585.47 2491.33 7076.80 2 Border Trade 814.00 466.00 1280.00 647.21 445.40 1092.61 Total 5047.60 2934.40 7982.00 5232.68 2936.73 8169.41+'''Total Trade Value for Financial year 2006–2007 to Financial year 2009–2010''' No Financial Year Export Value Import Value Trade Value (US$, 000,000) 1 2006–2007 5222.92 2928.39 8151.31 2 2007–2008 6413.29 3346.64 9759.93 3 2008–2009 6792.85 4563.16 11356.01 4 2009–2010 7568.62 4186.28 11754.90" ], [ "Macro-economic trends", "This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Burma at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and EconStats with figures in millions of Myanmar kyats.", "Year Gross Domestic Product US dollar exchange Inflation index (2000=100) 1965 7,627 1970 10,437 1975 23,477 1980 38,608 1985 55,988 1990 151,941 1995 604,728 The following table shows the main economic indicators in 2004–2017.YearGDP (in bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)GDP (in bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP growth (real)Inflation (in Percent)Government debt (in % of GDP)200497.62,04310.113.6%3.8%119%2005114.32,38111.413.6%10.7%110%2006133.22,75712.813.1%26.3%90%2007153.23,15016.812.0%30.9%62%2008161.83,30523.93.6%11.5%53%2009171.43,47629.05.1%2.2%55%2010182.83,67935.75.3%8.2%50%2011197.03,93350.35.6%2.8%46%2012215.44,26355.17.3%2.8%41%2013237.34,65659.28.4%5.7%33%2014260.95,07463.28.0%5.1%30%2015282.15,44362.77.0%10.0%34%2016302.55,79060.15.9%6.8%36%2017328.76,24461.36.7%5.1%35%===Foreign investment===Though foreign investment has been encouraged, it has so far met with only moderate success.", "This is because foreign investors have been adversely affected by the junta government policies and because of international pressure to boycott the junta government.", "The United States has placed trade sanctions on Burma.", "The European Union has placed embargoes on arms, non-humanitarian aid, visa bans on military regime leaders, and limited investment bans.", "Both the European Union and the US have placed sanctions on grounds of human rights violations in the country.", "Many nations in Asia, particularly India, Thailand and China have actively traded with Burma.", "However, on April 22, 2013, the EU suspended economic and political sanctions against Burma.The public sector enterprises remain highly inefficient and also privatisation efforts have stalled.", "The estimates of Burmese foreign trade are highly ambiguous because of the great volume of black market trading.", "A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability.One government initiative was to utilise Burma's large natural gas deposits.", "Currently, Burma has attracted investment from Thai, Malaysian, Filipino, Russian, Australian, Indian, and Singaporean companies.", "Trade with the US amounted to $243.56 million as of February 2013, accounting for 15 projects and just 0.58 per cent of the total, according to government statistics.", "''The Economist''s special report on Burma points to increased economic activity resulting from Burma's political transformation and influx of foreign direct investment from Asian neighbours.", "Near the Mingaladon Industrial Park, for example, Japanese-owned factories have risen from the \"debris\" caused by \"decades of sanctions and economic mismanagement.\"", "Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe has identified Burma as an economically attractive market that will help stimulate the Japanese economy.", "Among its various enterprises, Japan is helping build the Thilawa Port, which is part of the Thilawa Special Economic Zone, and helping fix the electricity supply in Yangon.Japan is not the largest investor in Myanmar.", "\"Thailand, for instance, the second biggest investor in Myanmar after China, is forging ahead with a bigger version of Thilawa at Dawei, on Myanmar's Tenasserim Coast ... Thai rulers have for centuries been toying with the idea of building a canal across the Kra Isthmus, linking the Gulf of Thailand directly to the Andaman Sea and the Indian Ocean to avoid the journey round peninsular Malaysia through the Strait of Malacca.", "\"Dawei would give Thailand that connection.", "China, by far the biggest investor in Burma, has focused on constructing oil and gas pipelines that \"crisscross the country, starting from a new terminus at Kyaukphyu, just below Sittwe, up to Mandalay and on to the Chinese border town of Ruili and then Kunming, the capital of Yunnan province\".", "This would prevent China from \"having to funnel oil from Africa and the Middle East through the bottleneck around Singapore\".According to the CIA World Factbook, The economy saw continuous real GDP growth of at least 5% from 2009 onwards.Financing geothermal projects in Myanmar use an estimated break even power cost of 5.3–8.6 U.S cents/kWh or in Myanmar Kyat 53–86K per kWh.", "This pegs a non-fluctuating $1=1000K, which is a main concern for power project funding.", "The main drawback with depreciation pressures, in the current FX market.Between June 2012 and October 2015, the Myanmar Kyat depreciated by approximately 35%, from 850 down to 1300 against the US Dollar.", "Local businesses with foreign denominated loans from abroad suddenly found themselves rushing for a strategy to mitigate currency risks.", "Myanmar's current lack of available currency hedging solutions presents a real challenge for Geothermal project financing.===Foreign aid===The level of international aid to Burma ranks amongst the lowest in the world (and the lowest in the Southeast Asian region)—Burma receives $4 per capita in development assistance, as compared to the average of $42.30 per capita.In April 2007, the US Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified the financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance in the Southeast Asian country.", "The GAO report, entitled \"Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma,\" outlines the specific efforts of the Burmese government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organisations, including by restricting the free movement of international staff within the country.", "The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister Khin Nyunt was purged in October 2004.Furthermore, the reports states that the military government passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalised Burma's restrictive policies.", "According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups \"enhance and safeguard the national interest\" and that international organisations co-ordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals.", "United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable.US Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R-FL) said that the report \"underscores the need for democratic change in Burma, whose military regime arbitrarily arrests, tortures, rapes and executes its own people, ruthlessly persecutes ethnic minorities, and bizarrely builds itself a new capital city while failing to address the increasingly urgent challenges of refugee flows, illicit narcotics and human trafficking, and the spread of HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases.\"" ], [ "Other statistics", "'''Electricity – production:'''17,866.99 GWh (2016 est.", ")'''Electricity – consumption:'''7,572.60 GWh Residential, 4,650.90 GWh Industrial, 3,023.27 GWh Commercial, 2,384.89 GWh Loss (2016 est.", ")'''Electricity – exports:'''2,381.34 kWh (2016)'''Electricity – imports:'''0 kWh (2006)'''Agriculture – products:'''rice, pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts, watermelon, avocado sugarcane; hardwood; fish and fish products'''Currency:'''1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas'''Exchange rates:'''kyats per US dollar – 1,205 (2008 est.", "), 1,296 (2007), 1,280 (2006), 5.82 (2005), 5.7459 (2004), 6.0764 (2003)note: unofficial exchange rates ranged in 2004 from 815 kyat/US dollar to nearly 970 kyat/US dollar, and by year end 2005, the unofficial exchange rate was 1,075 kyat/US dollar; data shown for 2003–05 are official exchange rates'''Foreign Direct Investment'''In the first eight months, Myanmar has received investment of US$5.7 billion.", "Singapore has remained as the top source of foreign direct investments into Myanmar in the financial year of 2019-2020 with 20 Singapore-listed enterprises bringing in US$1.85 billion into Myanmar in the financial year 2019-2020.Hong Kong stood as the second-largest investors with an estimated capital of US$1.42 billion from 46 enterprises, followed by Japan investing $760 million in Myanmar.", "'''Foreign Trade'''Total foreign trade reached over US$24.5 billion in the first eight months of the fiscal year (FY) 2019-2020 ." ], [ "See also", "* *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 5 November 2015.Geothermal Energy in Myanmar, Securing Electricity for Eastern Border Development, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh* Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 19 June 2014.Myanmar's Institutional Infrastructure Constraints and How to Fill the Gaps, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh* Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 27 February 2014.A Roadmap to Building Myanmar into the Food Basket of Asia, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh* Taipei American Chamber of Commerce; Topics Magazine, Analysis, November 2012.Myanmar: Southeast Asia's Last Frontier for Investment, by David DuByne* Taiwan ASEAN Studies Center; ASEAN Outlook Magazine, May 2013.Myanmar's Overlooked Industry Opportunities and Investment Climate, by David DuByne* Myanmar Economic Monitor Report June 2023 (English); The World Bank, 28 June 2023.June 2023 Myanmar Economic Monitor : A Fragile Recovery - Special Focus on Employment, Incomes and Coping Mechanisms (English), by Edwards,Kim Alan, Mansaray,Kemoh Myint,Thi Da Hayati,Fayavar Maw,Aka Kyaw Min" ], [ "External links", "* Google Earth Map of oil and gas infrastructure in Myanmar* Myanmar Ministry of Commerce (MMC) News, information, journals, magazines related to Burmese business and commerce* Myanmar-US Chamber of Commerce* Union of Myanmar Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry (UMFCCI) * World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Myanmar" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "Myanmar has begun the liberalization of its Telecommunication market in 2013." ], [ "Telecommunication networks", "Private street telephone post in MyanmarPreviously, Myanma Post and Telecommunication (MPT) had a monopoly in the country.", "In 2013, the government started taking steps to open up the telecommunications market, issuing licenses to new service providers.", "Consulting firm Roland Berger supported the government in the liberalization and tendering process.", "In 2014, Qatar-based Ooredoo and Norwegian Telenor through their local subsidiaries – respectively Ooredoo Myanmar and Telenor Myanmar – entered the market, resulting in the reduction of consumer prices and rapid growth in the number of subscribers, as well as the expansion of the country's infrastructure.", "In November 2015, Ericsson named Myanmar the world's fourth fastest-growing mobile market.", "As of June 2015, Myanmar has a mobile phone penetration rate of 54.6%, up from less than 10% in 2012.On 12 January 2017, Mytel (Telecom International Myanmar Co., Ltd.) received License for the provision of telecommunication services, officially became the 4th operator in Myanmar.===Telephone system===* General assessment: meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government* Domestic: system barely capable of providing basic service; cellular phone system is grossly underdeveloped with a subscribership base of less than 1 per 100 persons* International: country code - 95; landing point for the SEA-ME-WE 3 optical telecommunications submarine cable that provides links to Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; satellite earth stations - 2, Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and ShinSat (2007)Bids were offered for two fresh telecom licenses by the Myanmar government.", "The deadline was set to be 8 February 2013.The licenses were expected to be issued in June and carry a contract duration of up to 20 years.", "Two more licenses were expected to be offered following this round of bidding.According to government statistics, 5.4 million of Myanmar's 60 million population had a mobile phone subscription at the end of 2012, giving the country a mobile penetration of 9 per cent.According to official figures released in mid-2012, Myanmar had 857 base transceiver stations (BTS) for 1,654,667 local GSM mobile users, 188 BTSs for 225,617 local WCDMA mobile users, 366 BTSs for 633,569 local CDMA-450 mobile users, and 193 BTSs for 341,687 CDMA-800 mobile users.", "Huawei who has built 40 percent of the towers and ZTE has built 60 percent in Myanmar, which amounts to 1500 across the country, said it has built the towers mostly in Yangon, Mandalay, and Naypyidaw.The Myanmar Telecommunications Operator Tender Evaluation and Selection Committee selected Norwegian Telenor Group and Ooredoo of Qatar as winners of the bidding, for the two telecom licenses issued by the government of Myanmar.", "The licenses allow the operators to build and operate a nationwide wireless network for 15 years.", "Ooredoo began selling low-price SIM cards at a price of US$1.5 in Yangon, Mandalay, and Naypyidaw in August 2014.Prior to 2012, during military rule, SIM cards cost USD 1,500.Mytel is the fourth telecom firm in Myanmar.", "It is a joint venture between Myanmar Army-backed Star High Public Co Ltd, which holds 48 percent, Vietnam's Ministry of Defence owned Viettel Group, which holds 28 percent, and Myanmar National Telecom Holding Public Ltd, a group of 11 local companies with a combined 23-percent stake.", "Commander-in-chief Senior General Min Aung Hlaing stated at the opening ceremony of Mytel on 11 February 2018 that it will cover 93 percent of the 2G networks and 60 percent of the 4G networks of Myanmar after installing towers and stations across the country." ], [ "Media", "*'''Radio broadcast stations**AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 3 (2015)*'''Television broadcast stations:'''**6 (2015)'''Press'''# Kyehmon (Burmese: ) - state-run daily# The New Light of Myanmar () - English and Burmese language organ of SPDC# The Myanmar Times () - private-run English-language weekly# Myanmar Business Today - the country's first and the only private-run business weekly'''Television'''# MRTV state-run, operated by Myanmar Government - Broadcasts With DVB-T2 System.", "Including 14 TV Channels Burmese, Arakanese, Shan, Karen, Kachin, Kayah, Chin, Mon and English# MITV - Showing about Myanmar to around the World.# Myawady TV army-run networkBroadcasts 7 Free Digital Channel available in Naypyidaw, Yangon & Mandalay.# SKYNET Largest Pay TV Service In Myanmar.", "Providing 110 TV Channels (Local & International) Including 10 High Definition Channel.", "Broadcasts With DTH system on Apstar 7 Satellite.", "SKYNET Have Official Broadcaster To England Premier League, Spain LaLiga, Italy Serie-A, France League 1 In 2015/16 Season.# 4TV - Second Largest Pay TV Service In Myanmar.", "operated by Forever Group.Providing Free to air Channels, Local & International Pay TV Channels, and High Definition Channels.", "4TV Has Only Broadcasts 2 Way With DTH and DVB-T2 In Myanmar.# Democratic Voice of Burma - Activists from the 88 Generation launched it.", "Based in Norway, it makes both TV and Radio broadcasts'''Radio'''# Radio Myanmar - state-run, operated by Myanmar TV and Radio Department# Thazin Radio - Military operated station# City FM - entertainment-based, operated by Yangon City Development Committee# Bagan FM# Cherry FM - Commercial station broadcasting music based programs to main cities# Mandalay FM#Padamyar FM# Pyinsawaddy FM# Shwe FM# Democratic Voice of Burma - opposition station based in Norway, broadcasts via shortwave'''News agency'''# Myanmar News Agency (MNA) - state-run" ], [ "Internet", "The government allowed unrestricted access to the Internet for some years following the telecoms liberalization.", "Many people were using the internet freely, often with widely available smart phones.Myanmar Teleport (formerly Bagan Cybertech), Information Technology Central Services (ITCS), and the state-owned Myanmar Post and Telecommunication (MPT) are two of the Internet service providers in Myanmar.", "Internet cafés are common in the larger cities of the country.", "Satellite (VSAT) internet connection is also available from Skynet, a satellite television provider, and another (VSAT) Operator Com & Com.According to MPT's official statistics as of July 2010, the country had over 400,000 Internet users (0.8% of the population) with the vast majority of the users located in the two largest cities, Yangon and Mandalay.", "More recent figures are hard to find, but the widespread use of smart phones and tablets with cellular modems on the 3G and 4G networks means that internet usage is likely to be far higher than the figures from 2010 indicate.Although the internet appears largely unrestricted, Myanmar experience internet shut downs during politically sensitive times.", "In 2007, the military government shutdown the internet during the Saffron Revolution for a few days to restrict information from within the country to be disseminated to international media.", "In 2019 June to February 2020, a few townships from Rakkhine and Chin State are facing internet shut downs as ordered by the Ministry of Transport and Communications.", "On 3 February 2021, 3G and 4G data network was restored in Rakhine and Chin States.Starting from dawn of 1 February 2021, there're re-restrictions and outage to access to the internet by the Military Government because of 2021 Myanmar coup d'état.", "The government banned and blocked social media, including Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and WhatsApp, western news agency websites and also Wikipedia.Starting from 16 February 2021, the internet was shut down from 1 a.m. to 9 a.m. in nationwide.On 22 February 2021, the internet was shut down only in Yangon from 12 a.m. to 12 p.m. while other states and regions were only from 1 a.m. to 9 a.m." ], [ "See also", "* Censorship in Burma" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Myanmar Post and Telecoms - the government ISP" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "Thanlwin Bridge in Hpa An.DF 2082 train passenger in Myanmar.The government of Myanmar (earlier known as Burma) has two ministries controlling transportation, the Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Rail Transport." ], [ "Road", "Truck-bus in Mandalay.Traffic on Anawrahta road, Yangon.", "Express buses parked at Hpa-an bus station''total:'' ''paved:'' ''unpaved:'' (2006)The main highways are as follows:* 1 – Runs from Yangon to Mandalay, passing through Bago, Taungoo, Pyinmana and Meiktila.", "* 2 – Runs from Yangon to Mandalay, passing through Pyay, Magwe, Kyaukpadaung and Myingyan.", "* 3 – Runs from Mandalay to Muse, on the border with China, passing through Lashio.", "* 4 – Runs from Meiktila to Tachileik, on the border with Thailand, passing through Taunggyi and Kengtung.", "* 5 – Runs from Taungoo to Hopong, passing through Loikaw.", "* 6 – Runs from Yangon to Pathein.", "* 7 – Runs from Mandalay to Moreh, on the border with India, passing through Shwebo and Kale.", "* 8 – Runs from Hpagyargyi to Myeik, passing through Moulmein, Ye and Dawei.", "*12– Runs from Tada-U to Myingyan, passing through Gwekon, and Myotha.", "* 31 – Runs from Mandalay to Myitkyina, passing through Mogok and Bhamo.There is one expressway in the country, which features double carriageway and four lanes on its entire length:* Yangon-Mandalay Expressway – Runs from Yangon to Mandalay, by-passing Bago, Taungoo, Naypyidaw and Meiktila.", "Length:365 miles (587 km).The other highways are as follows:* Wonnral Road – Runs from Naungte to Retphaw, by- passing Hlagazaing, Myohaung, Duk Daw Nain, Kale, Kayin State, Tagondaing, Tamoowoug, Taungdi, Kyongawon, Phabya, Paya and Ta Nyin.", "Length: 35 miles (55 km).In 2017, Yangon launched a bus network system that would reduce traffic and commute time of some two million commuters in the city." ], [ "Rail", "The trains are relatively slow in Myanmar.", "The railway trip from Bagan to Mandalay takes about 7.5 hours (111 miles; 179 km)., Myanmar had of railways, all gauge.", "There are currently no rail links to adjacent countries." ], [ "Water", "Ayeyarwady River ferries in Bagan.Ferries in Myanmar; navigable by large commercial vessels.", "(2008)Belmond Ltd operates on the Ayeyarwady River by the name ''Road to Mandalay River Cruise''.", "Irrawaddy Flotilla Company was also in service along the Ayeyarwady River in the 20th century, until 1942, when the fleet was destroyed to prevent invading Japanese forces from making use of it.", "The IFC has since been revived as Pandaw, named for a salvaged original IFC ship, and is now one of the leading river cruise companies in the country.===Merchant marine===''total:''24 ships (with a volume of or over) totalling /''Ships by type:''bulk carrier 1, cargo ship 17, passenger ship 2, passenger/cargo 3, specialised tanker 1 (2008)''note:''a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 3 countries: Cyprus 1, Germany 1, Japan 1===Ports and harbours===;Sea* Yangon* Sittwe (Akyab)* Dawei – railhead – new deepwater port under construction 2005;River* Myitkyina* Bhamo* Mandalay* Pakokku* Pathein" ], [ "Air", "Yangon International Airport.Mandalay International Airport.===Airports===In July 2010, the country had 69 airports.", "Only 11 of them had runways over 2 miles (3250 meters).", "Of the 11, only Yangon International , Mandalay International and Naypyidaw International had adequate facilities to handle larger jets.", "''total:'' 69''over 3,047 metres (3333 yards):'' 11''1524 to 3,047 metres (1666 yards to 3333 yards):'' 27''Under 1524 metres (1666 yards):'' 31===Heliports===4" ], [ "Pipelines", "* Crude oil ; natural gas .", "* Proposed pipe from Kyaukphyu through Mandalay to Kunming" ], [ "See also", "* Road Transport Authority (Myanmar)* Myanmar Railways" ], [ "External links" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Tatmadaw" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Tatmadaw''' (, , ) or '''Sit-Tat''' is the military of Myanmar (formerly Burma).", "It is administered by the Ministry of Defence and composed of the Myanmar Army, the Myanmar Navy and the Myanmar Air Force.", "Auxiliary services include the Myanmar Police Force, the Border Guard Forces, the Myanmar Coast Guard, and the People's Militia Units.", "Since independence in 1948, the Tatmadaw has faced significant ethnic insurgencies, especially in Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Kayah, and Shan states.", "General Ne Win took control of the country in a 1962 coup d'état, attempting to build an autarkic society called the Burmese Way to Socialism.", "Following the violent repression of nationwide protests in 1988, the military agreed to free elections in 1990, but ignored the resulting victory of the National League for Democracy and imprisoned its leader Aung San Suu Kyi.", "The 1990s also saw the escalation of the conflict involving Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State due to RSO attacks on the Tatmadaw forces, which saw the Rohingya minority facing oppression and, starting in 2017, genocide, under the rule of democratically elected president Aung San Suu Kyi.In 2008, the Tatmadaw again rewrote Myanmar's constitution, installing the pro-junta Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) in the 2010 elections, which were boycotted by most opposition groups.", "Political reforms over the next half-decade culminated in a sweeping NLD victory in the 2015 election; after the USDP lost another election in 2020, the Tatmadaw annulled the election and deposed the civilian government.", "The Tatmadaw has been widely accused by international organizations of human rights violation and crimes against humanity; including ethnic cleansing, political repression, torture, sexual assault, war crimes, extrajudicial punishments (including summary executions) and massacre of civilians involved in peaceful political demonstrations.", "The Tatmadaw has long operated as a state within a state.According to the Constitution of Myanmar, the Tatmadaw is led by the commander-in-chief of Defence Services.", "Some actions of the Tatmadaw require the approval of the National Defence and Security Council, an eleven-member national security council responsible for security and defence affairs in Myanmar.", "The president of Myanmar has no command role over the Tatmadaw, though he may work with the NDSC in authorizing military action." ], [ "History", "===Burmese monarchy===The '''Royal Armed Forces''' was the armed forces of the Burmese monarchy from the 9th to 19th centuries.", "It refers to the military forces of the Pagan dynasty, the Ava Kingdom, the Toungoo dynasty and the Konbaung dynasty in chronological order.", "The army was one of the major armed forces of Southeast Asia until it was defeated by the British over a six-decade span in the 19th century.The army was organised into a small standing army of a few thousands, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscription-based wartime army.", "Conscription was based on the ahmudan system, which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war.", "The wartime army also consisted of elephantry, cavalry, artillery and naval units.Firearms, first introduced from China in the late 14th century, became integrated into strategy only gradually over many centuries.", "The first special musket and artillery units, equipped with Portuguese matchlocks and cannon, were formed in the 16th century.", "Outside the special firearm units, there was no formal training program for the regular conscripts, who were expected to have a basic knowledge of self-defence, and how to operate the musket on their own.", "As the technological gap between European powers widened in the 18th century, the army was dependent on Europeans' willingness to sell more sophisticated weaponry.While the army had held its own against the armies of the kingdom's neighbours, its performance against more technologically advanced European armies deteriorated over time.", "While it defeated the Portuguese and French intrusions in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively, the army proved unable to match the military strength of the British Empire in the 19th century, losing the First, Second and Third Anglo-Burmese Wars.", "On 1 January 1886, the Royal Burmese Army was formally disbanded by the British government.===British Burma (1885–1948)===Under British rule, the colonial government in Burma abstained from recruiting Burmese soldiers into the East India Company forces (and later the British Indian Army), instead relying on pre-existing Indian sepoys and Nepalese Gurkhas to garrison the nascent colony.", "Due to mistrust of the Burmese population, the colonial government maintained this ban for decades, instead looking to the indigenous Karens, Kachins and Chins to form new military units in the colony.", "In 1937, the colonial government overturned the ban, and Burmese troops started to enlist in small numbers in the British Indian Army.At the beginning of the First World War, the only Burmese military regiment in the British Indian Army, the 70th Burma Rifles, consisted of three battalions, made up of Karens, Kachins and Chins.", "During the conflict, the demands of war led to the colonial government relaxing the ban, raising a Burmese battalion in the 70th Burma Rifles, a Burmese company in the ''85th Burma Rifles'', and seven Burmese Mechanical Transport companies.", "In addition, three companies (combat units) of ''Burma Sappers and Miners'', made up of mostly Burmese, and a company of Labour Corps, made up of Chins and Burmese, were also raised.", "All these units began their overseas assignment in 1917.The 70th Burma Rifles served in Egypt for garrison duties while the Burmese Labour Corps served in France.", "One company of Burma Sappers and Miners distinguished themselves in Mesopotamia at the crossing the Tigris.After the First World War, the colonial government stopped recruiting Burmese soldiers, and discharged all but one Burmese companies, which had been abolished by 1925.The last Burmese company of Burma Sappers and Miners too was disbanded in 1929.Instead, Indian soldiers and other ethnic minorities were used as the primary colonial force in Burma, which was used to suppress ethnic Burmese rebellions such as the one led by Saya San from 1930 to 1931.On 1 April 1937, Burma was made a separate colony, and Burmese were now eligible to join the army.", "But few Burmese bothered to join.", "Before World War II began, the British Burma Army consisted of Karen (27.8%), Chin (22.6%), Kachin (22.9%), and Burmese 12.3%, without counting their British officer corps.In December 1941, a group of Burmese independence activists founded the Burma Independence Army (BIA) with Japanese help.", "The Burma Independence Army led by Aung San (the father of Aung San Suu Kyi) fought in the Burma Campaign on the side of the Imperial Japanese Army.", "Thousands of young men joined its ranks—reliable estimates range from 15,000 to 23,000.The great majority of the recruits were Burmese, with little ethnic minority representation.", "Many of the fresh recruits lacked discipline.", "At Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy delta, an ethnic war broke out between Burmese BIA men and Karens, with both sides responsible for massacres.", "The Burma Independence Army was soon replaced with the Burma Defence Army, founded on 26 August 1942 with three thousand BIA veterans.", "The army became Burma National Army with General Ne Win as its commander on 1 August 1943 when Burma achieved nominal independence.", "In late 1944, it had a strength of approximately 15,000.Disillusioned by the Japanese occupation, the BNA switched sides, and joined the allied forces on 27 March 1945.===Post-independence===UBS ''Mayu''At the time of Myanmar's independence in 1948, the Tatmadaw was weak, small and disunited.", "Cracks appeared along the lines of ethnic background, political affiliation, organisational origin and different services.", "The most serious problem was the tension between Karen Officers, coming from the British Burma Army and Burmese officers, coming from the Patriotic Burmese Force (PBF).In accordance with the agreement reached at the Kandy Conference in September 1945, the ''Tatmadaw'' was reorganised by incorporating the British Burma Army and the Patriotic Burmese Force.", "The officer corps shared by ex-PBF officers and officers from the British Burma Army and Army of Burma Reserve Organisation (ABRO).", "The colonial government also decided to form what were known as \"Class Battalions\" based on ethnicity.", "There were a total of 15 rifle battalions at the time of independence and four of them were made up of former members of PBF.", "None of the influential positions within the War Office and commands were manned with former PBF Officers.", "All services including military engineers, supply and transport, ordnance and medical services, Navy and Air Force were commanded by former Officers from ABRO and British Burma Army.+'''Ethnic and Army Composition of Tatmadaw in 1948''' Battalion Ethnic/Army Composition No.", "1 Burma Rifles Bamar (Military Police + Members of Taungoo Guerilla group members associated with Aung San's PBF) No.", "2 Burma Rifles 2 Karen Companies + 1 Chin Company and 1 Kachin Company No.", "3 Burma Rifles Bamar / Former members of Patriotic Burmese Force – Commanded by then Major Kyaw Zaw BC-3504 No.", "4 Burma Rifles Bamar / Former members of Patriotic Burmese Force – Commanded by the then Lieutenant Colonel Ne Win BC-3502 No.", "5 Burma Rifles Bamar / Former members of Patriotic Burmese Force – Commanded by then Lieutenant Colonel Zeya BC-3503 No.", "6 Burma Rifles Formed after Aung San was assassinated in later part of 1947, Bamar / Former members of Patriotic Burmese Force – First CO was Lieutenant Colonel Zeya No.", "1 Karen Rifles Karen / Former members of British Burma Army and ABRO No.", "2 Karen Rifles Karen / Former members of British Burma Army and ABRO No.", "3 Karen Rifles Karen / Former members of British Burma Army and ABRO No.", "1 Kachin Rifles Kachin / Former members of British Burma Army and ABRO No.", "2 Kachin Rifles Kachin / Former members of British Burma Army and ABRO No.", "1 Chin Rifles Chin / Former members of British Burma Army and ABRO No.", "2 Chin Rifles Chin / Former members of British Burma Army and ABRO No.", "4 Burma Regiment Gurkha Chin Hill Battalion ChinBurmese troops surveying the Burma–China border, circa April 1954, on the lookout for Chinese Nationalist troops who fled to Burma following their defeat in the Chinese Civil War.The War Office was officially opened on 8 May 1948 under the Ministry of Defence and managed by a War Office Council chaired by the Minister of Defence.", "At the head of War Office was Chief of Staff, Vice Chief of Staff, Chief of Naval Staff, Chief of Air Staff, Adjutant General and Quartermaster General.", "Vice Chief of Staff, who was also Chief of Army Staff and the head of General Staff Office.", "VCS oversee General Staff matters and there were three branch offices: GS-1 Operation and Training, GS-2 Staff Duty and Planning; GS-3 Intelligence.", "Signal Corps and Field Engineering Corps are also under the command of General Staff Office.According to the war establishment adopted on 14 April 1948, Chief of Staff was under the War Office with the rank of major general.", "It was subsequently upgraded to a lieutenant general.", "Vice Chief of Staff was a brigadier general.", "The Chief of Staff was staffed with GSO-I with the rank of lieutenant colonel, three GSO-II with the rank of major, four GSO-III with the rank of captain for operation, training, planning and intelligence, and one Intelligence Officer (IO).", "The Chief of Staff office also had one GSO-II and one GSO-III for field engineering, and the Chief Signal Officer and a GSO-II for signal.", "Directorate of Signal and Directorate Field Engineering are also under General Staff Office.Under Adjutant General Office were Judge Advocate General, Military Secretary, and Vice Adjutant General.", "The Adjutant General (AG) was a brigadier general whereas the Judge Advocate General (JAG), Military Secretary (MS) and Vice Adjutant General (VAG) were colonels.", "VAG handles adjutant staff matters and there were also three branch offices; AG-1 planning, recruitment and transfer; AG-2 discipline, moral, welfare, and education; AG-3 salary, pension, and other financial matters.", "The Medical Corps and the Provost Marshal Office were under the Adjutant General Office.The Quarter Master General office also had three branch offices: QG-1 planning, procurement, and budget; QG-2 maintenance, construction, and cantonment; and QG-3 transportation.", "Under the QMG office were Garrison Engineering Corps, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Corps, Military Ordnance Corps, and the Supply and Transport Corps.Both AG and QMG office similar structure to the General Staff Office, but they only had three ASO-III and three QSO-III respectively.The Navy and Air Force were separate services under the War office but under the chief of staff.+'''Staff and Command Positions in War Office (1948)''' Post Name and Rank Ethnicity Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Smith Dun BC 5106 Karen Chief of Army Staff Brigadier General Saw Kyar Doe BC 5107 Karen Chief of Air Staff Lieutenant Colonel Saw Shi Sho BAF-1020 Karen Chief of Naval Staff Commander Khin Maung Bo Bamar North Burma Sub District Commander Brigadier General Ne Win BC 3502 Bamar South Burma Sub District Commander Brigadier General Aung Thin BC 5015 Bamar 1st Infantry Division Brigadier General Saw Chit Khin Karen Adjutant General Lieutenant Colonel Kyaw Win Bamar Judge Advocate General Colonel Maung Maung (Bull dog) BC 4034 Bamar Quarter Master General Lieutenant Colonel Saw Donny Karen==== Reorganisation in 1956 ====As per War Office order No.", "(9) 1955 on 28 September 1955, the Chief of Staff became the Commander in Chief, the Chief of Army Staff became the Vice Chief of Staff (Army), the Chief of Naval Staff become Vice Chief of Staff (Navy) and the Chief of Air Staff became the Vice Chief of Staff (Air).On 1 January 1956, the War Office was officially renamed as the Ministry of Defence.", "General Ne Win became the first Chief of Staff of the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) to command all three services – Army, Navy and Air Force – under a single unified command for the first time.Brigadier General Aung Gyi was given the post of Vice Chief of Staff (Army).", "Brigadier General D. A Blake became commander of South Burma Subdistrict Command (SBSD) and Brigadier General Kyaw Zaw, a member of the Thirty Comrades, became Commander of North Burma Subdistrict Command (NBSD).====Caretaker government====Due to deteroriating political situations in 1957, the then Prime Minister of Burma, U Nu invited General Ne Win to form a \"Caretaker Government\" and handed over power on 28 October 1958.Under the stewardship of the Military Caretaker Government, parliamentary elections were held in February 1960.Several high-ranking and senior officers were dismissed due to their involvement and supporting various political parties.+'''Senior Officers dismissed for alleged election fraud''' Serial Name and Rank Command Date Notes BC3505 Brigadier Aung Shwe Commander, Southern Burma Sub-District Command 13 February 1961 BC3507 Brigadier Maung Maung Director of Directorate of Military Training / Commandant, National Defence College 13 February 1961 BC3512 Colonel Aye Maung No.", "2 Infantry Brigade 13 February 1961 BC3517 Colonel Tin Maung No.", "12 Infantry Brigade 13 February 1961 BC3570 Colonel Hla Maw No.", "5 Infantry Brigade 13 February 1961 Father of Thein Hla Maw BC3572 Colonel Kyi Win No.", "7 Infantry Brigade 8 March 1961 BC3647 Colonel Thein Tote No.", "4 Infantry Brigade 13 February 1961 BC3181 Lieutenant Colonel Kyaw Myint 23 June 1962 No.", "10 Infantry Brigade // 13 February 1961 BC3649 Lieutenant Colonel Chit Khaing Deputy Commandant, Combat Forces School 13 February 1962 ====1962 coup d'état====The elections of 1960 had put U Nu back as the Prime Minister and Pyidaungsu Party (Union Party) led civilian government resume control of the country.On 2 March 1962, the then Chief of Staff of Armed Forces, General Ne Win staged a coup d'état and formed the \"Union Revolutionary Council\".", "Around midnight the troops began to move into Yangon to take up strategic position.", "Prime Minister U Nu and his cabinet ministers were taken into protective custody.", "At 8:50 am, General Ne Win announced the coup over the radio.", "He said \"''I have to inform you, citizens of the Union that Armed Forces have taken over the responsibility and the task of keeping the country's safety, owing to the greatly deteriorating conditions of the Union.''\"", "The country would be ruled by the military for the next 12 years.", "The Burma Socialist Programme Party became the sole political party and the majority of its full members were military.", "Government servants underwent military training and the Military Intelligence Service functioned as the secret police of the state.====1988 coup d'état====At the height of the Four Eights Uprising against the socialist government, Former General Ne Win, who at the time was chairman of the ruling Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP), issued a warning against potential protestors during a televised speech.", "He stated that if the \"disturbances\" continued the \"Army would have to be called and I would like to make it clear that if the Army shoots, it has no tradition of shooting into the Air, it would shoot straight to hit\".Subsequently, the 22 Light Infantry Division, 33 Light Infantry Division and the 44 Light Infantry Division were redeployed to Yangon from front line fighting against ethnic insurgents in the Karen states.", "Battalions from three Light Infantry Divisions, augmented by infantry battalions under Yangon Regional Military Command and supporting units from Directorate of Artillery and Armour Corps were deployed during the suppression of protests in and around the then capital city of Yangon.Initially, these troops were deployed in support of the then People's Police Force (now known as Myanmar Police Force) security battalions and to patrol the streets of the capital and to guard government offices and building.", "However, at midnight of 8 August 1988 troops from 22 Light Infantry Division guarding Yangon City Hall opened fire on unarmed protesters as the crackdown against the protests began.The armed forces under General Saw Maung formed a State Law and Order Restoration Council, repealed the constitution and declared martial law on 18 September 1988.By late September the military had complete control of the country.====Political reforms (2008–2020)====254x254pxIn 2008, the current constitution was released by the military government for a public referendum.", "The SPDC claimed that the referendum was a success, with an approval rate of 93.82%; however, there has been widespread criticism of the veracity of these claims, partially because Cyclone Nargis hit Myanmar a few days before the referendum, and the government did not allow postponement of the referendum.", "Under the 2008 Constitution, the Tatmadaw is guaranteed 25% of the seats in the parliament, making it difficult to pass meaningful reforms that the Tatmadaw does not approve of.In 2010, conscription legislation was passed that compelled able-bodied men and women between 18–45 and 18–35 respectively to serve up to three years in the military, or face significant jail sentences.Following Myanmar's political reforms, Myanmar has made substantial shifts in its relations with major powers China, Russia and the United States.", "In 2014, Lieutenant-General Anthony Crutchfield, the deputy commander of the United States Pacific Command (USPACOM), was invited to address his counterparts at the Myanmar National Defence College in Naypyidaw, which trains colonels and other high-ranking military officers.", "In May 2016, Myanmar's Union Parliament approved a military cooperation agreement with Russia following a proposal by Deputy Minister of Defence.", "In June 2016, Myanmar and Russia signed a defence cooperation agreement.", "The agreement will envisage exchanging information on international security issues, including fight against terrorism, cooperation in the sphere of culture and vacation of servicemen and their families, along with exchanging experience in peacekeeping activities.Moreover, in response to Naypyidaw's post-2011 political and economic reforms, Australia re-established a ‘normal’ bilateral relationship with Myanmar to support democratisation and reform.", "In June 2016, the Australian Federal Police signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with its Myanmar counterparts aimed at enhancing transnational crime cooperation and intelligence sharing.", "In December 2017, the US imposed sanctions on General Maung Maung Soe, a general of Western Myanmar Command who oversaw the military's crackdown in Rakhine State.", "The Tatmadaw had sentenced seven soldiers to 10-year prison terms for killing 10 Rohingya men in Rakhine in September 2017.A 2019 UN report revealed the degree to which the country's military uses its own businesses, foreign companies and arms deals to support, away from the public eye, a “brutal operations” against ethnic groups that constitute “serious crimes under international law”, bypassing civilian oversight and evading accountability.", "In June 2020, the Tatmadaw accused China for arming rebel groups in the country's frontier areas.==== 2021 coup d'état and aftermath ====In February 2021, the Tatmadaw detained Aung San Suu Kyi and other high-ranking politicians after a contested election with disputed results.", "A state of emergency had been declared for one year.", "The State Administration Council was established by Min Aung Hlaing on 2 February 2021 as the current government in power.", "On 1 August 2021, the State Administration Council was re-formed as a caretaker government, which appointed Min Aung Hlaing as Prime Minister.", "The same day, Min Aung Hlaing announced that the country's state of emergency had been extended by an additional two years.As the Myanmar Civil War has progressed, the Tatmadaw has become more reliant on military aid from Russia and China.", "As of 2023, analysts suggested that the Tatmadaw has sustained significant losses due to both combat against the pro-democracy insurgents as well as desertions within the rank and file soldiers.", "The United States Institute for Peace estimates that the Tatamadaw has sustained at least 13,000 combat losses and 8,000 losses due to desertion.", "The Tatmadaw itself has acknowledged that it does not have control over 132 of Myanmar’s 330 townships, or 42 percent of the country's towns.On February 10, 2024, the State Administration Council activated conscription under the 2010 SPDC ''People's Military Service Law'' in response to anti-junta ethnic militias and pro-democracy rebels capturing massive swathes of territory." ], [ "Budget", "According to an analysis of budgetary data between FY 2011–12 and 2018–19, approximately 13% to 14% of the national budget is devoted to the Burmese military.", "However, the military budget remains opaque and subject to limited civilian scrutiny, and a 2011 Special Funds Law has enabled the Burmese military to circumvent parliamentary oversight to access supplemental funding.", "Defence budgets were publicly shared for the first time in 2015, and in recent years, parliamentary lawmakers have demanded greater transparency in military spending.The military also generates substantial revenue through 2 conglomerates, the Myanma Economic Holdings Limited (MEHL) and the Myanmar Economic Corporation (MEC).", "Revenues generated from these business interests have strengthened the Burmese military's autonomy from civilian oversight, and have contributed to the military's financial operations in \"a wide array of international human rights and humanitarian law violations.\"", "Revenues from MEHL and MEC are kept \"off-book,\" enabling the military to autonomously finance military affairs with limited civilian oversight.Between 1990 and 2020, Myanmar's military officers received in dividends from MEHL, whose entire board is made up of senior military officials.In the FY 2019–20 national budget, the military was allocated 3,385 billion kyats (approximately US$2.4 billion).", "In May 2020, the Burmese parliament reduced the military's supplementary budgetary request by $7.55 million.", "On 28 October 2014, the Minister for Defence Wai Lwin revealed at a Parliament session that 46.2% of the budget is spent on personnel cost, 32.89% on operation and procurement, 14.49% on construction related projects and 2.76% on health and education." ], [ "Doctrine", "===Post-independence/civil war era (1948–1958)===The initial development of Burmese military doctrine post-independence was developed in the early 1950s to cope with external threats from more powerful enemies with a strategy of Strategic Denial under conventional warfare.", "The perception of threats to state security was more external than internal threats.", "The internal threat to state security was managed through the use of a mixture of force and political persuasion.", "Lieutenant Colonel Maung Maung drew up defence doctrine based on conventional warfare concepts, with large infantry divisions, armoured brigades, tanks and motorised war with mass mobilisation for the war effort being the important element of the doctrine.The objective was to contain the offensive of the invading forces at the border for at least three months, while waiting for the arrival of international forces, similar to the police action by international intervention forces under the directive of United Nations during the war on Korean peninsula.", "However, the conventional strategy under the concept of total war was undermined by the lack of appropriate command and control system, proper logistical support structure, sound economic bases and efficient civil defence organisations.===Kuomintang invasion/Burma Socialist Programme Party era (1958–1988)===At the beginning of the 1950s, while the Tatmadaw was able to reassert its control over most part of the country, Kuomintang (KMT) troops under General Li Mi, with support from the United States, invaded Burma and used the country's frontier as a springboard for attack against China, which in turn became the external threat to state security and sovereignty of Burma.", "The first phase of the doctrine was tested for the first time in Operation \"Naga Naing\" in February 1953 against invading KMT forces.", "The doctrine did not take into account logistic and political support for KMT from the United States and as a result it failed to deliver its objectives and ended in a humiliating defeat for the Tatmadaw.The Tatmadaw leadership then argued that the excessive media coverage was partly to blame for the failure of Operation \"Naga Naing\".", "For example, Brigadier General Maung Maung pointed out that newspapers, such as the \"Nation\", carried reports detailing the training and troops positioning, even went as far to the name and social background of the commanders who are leading the operation thus losing the element of surprise.", "Colonel Saw Myint, who was second in command for the operation, also complained about the long lines of communications and the excessive pressure imposed upon the units for public relations activities to prove that the support of the people was behind the operation.Myanmar Navy visiting Indonesia in 1960Despite failure, the Tatmadaw continued to rely on this doctrine until the mid-1960s.", "The doctrine was under constant review and modifications throughout KMT invasion and gained success in anti-KMT operations in the mid and late 1950s.", "However, this strategy became increasingly irrelevant and unsuitable in the late 1950s as the insurgents and KMT changed their positional warfare strategy to hit and run guerrilla warfare.At the 1958 the Tatmadaw's annual Commanding Officers (COs) conference, Colonel Kyi Win submitted a report outlining the requirement for new military doctrine and strategy.", "He stated that the 'Tatmadaw did not have a clear strategy to cope with insurgents', even though most of Tatmadaw's commanders were guerrilla fighters during the anti-British and anti-Japanese campaigns during the Second World War, they had very little knowledge of anti-guerrilla or counterinsurgency warfare.", "Based upon Colonel Kyi Win's report, the Tatmadaw began developing an appropriate military doctrine and strategy to meet the requirements of counterinsurgency warfare.This second phase of the doctrine was to suppress insurgency with people's war and the perception of threats to state security was more of internal threats.", "During this phase, external linkage of internal problems and direct external threats were minimised by the foreign policy based on isolation.", "It was common view of the commanders that unless insurgency was suppressed, foreign interference would be highly probable, therefore counterinsurgency became the core of the new military doctrine and strategy.", "Beginning in 1961, the Directorate of Military Training took charge the research for national defence planning, military doctrine and strategy for both internal and external threats.", "This included reviews of international and domestic political situations, studies of the potential sources of conflicts, collection of information for strategic planning and defining the possible routes of foreign invasion.In 1962, as part of new military doctrine planning, principles of anti-guerrilla warfare were outlined and counterinsurgency-training courses were delivered at the training schools.", "The new doctrine laid out three potential enemies and they are internal insurgents, historical enemies with roughly an equal strength (i.e.", "Thailand), and enemies with greater strength.", "It states that in suppressing insurgencies, the Tatmadaw must be trained to conduct long-range penetration with a tactic of continuous search and destroy.", "Reconnaissance, Ambush and all weather day and night offensive and attack capabilities along with winning the hearts and minds of people are important parts of anti-guerrilla warfare.", "For countering an historical enemy with equal strength, the Tatmadaw should fight a conventional warfare under total war strategy, without giving up an inch of its territory to the enemy.", "For powerful enemy and foreign invaders, the Tatmadaw should engage in total people's war, with a special focus on guerrilla strategy.To prepare for the transition to the new doctrine, Brigadier General San Yu, the then Vice Chief of Staff (Army), sent a delegation led by Lieutenant Colonel Thura Tun Tin was sent to Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and East Germany in July 1964 to study organisation structure, armaments, training, territorial organisation and strategy of people's militias.", "A research team was also formed at General Staff Office within the War Office to study defence capabilities and militia formations of neighbouring countries.The new doctrine of total people's war, and the strategy of anti-guerrilla warfare for counterinsurgency and guerrilla warfare for foreign invasion, were designed to be appropriate for Burma.", "The doctrine flowed from the country's independent and active foreign policy, total people's defence policy, the nature of perceived threats, its geography and the regional environment, the size of its population in comparison with those of its neighbours, the relatively underdeveloped nature of its economy and its historical and political experiences.The doctrine was based upon 'three totalities': population, time and space () and 'four strengths': manpower, material, time and morale ().", "The doctrine did not develop concepts of strategic denial or counter-offensive capabilities.", "It relied almost totally on irregular low-intensity warfare, such as its guerrilla strategy to counter any form of foreign invasion.", "The overall counterinsurgency strategy included not only elimination of insurgents and their support bases with the 'four cuts' strategy, but also the building and designation of 'white area' and 'black area' as well.In April 1968, the Tatmadaw introduced special warfare training programmes at \"Command Training Centres\" at various regional commands.", "Anti-Guerrilla warfare tactics were taught at combat forces schools and other training establishments with special emphasis on ambush and counter-ambush, counterinsurgency weapons and tactics, individual battle initiative for tactical independence, commando tactics, and reconnaissance.", "Battalion size operations were also practised in the Southwest Regional Military Command area.", "The new military doctrine was formally endorsed and adopted at the first party congress of the BSPP in 1971.BSPP laid down directives for \"complete annihilation of the insurgents as one of the tasks for national defence and state security\" and called for \"liquidation of insurgents through the strength of the working people as the immediate objective\".", "This doctrine ensures the role of Tatmadaw at the heart of national policy making.Throughout the BSPP era, the total people's war doctrine was solely applied in counterinsurgency operations, since Burma did not face any direct foreign invasion throughout the period.", "In 1985, the then Lieutenant General Saw Maung, Vice-Chief of Staff of Tatmadaw reminded his commanders during his speech at the Command and General Staff College:In Myanmar, out of nearly 35 million people, the combined armed forces (army, navy and air force) are about two hundred thousand.", "In terms of percentage, that is about 0.01%.", "It is simply impossible to defend a country the size of ours with only this handful of troops... therefore, what we have to do in the case of foreign invasion is to mobilise people in accordance with the \"total people's war\" doctrine.", "To defend our country from aggressors, the entire population must be involved in the war effort as the support of people dictate the outcome of the war.===SLORC/SPDC era (1988–2010)===The third phase of doctrinal development of the Myanmar Armed Forces came after the military take over and formation of the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) in September 1988 as part of the armed forces modernisation programme.", "The development was the reflection of sensitivity towards direct foreign invasion or invasion by proxy state during the turbulent years of the late 1980s and early 1990s, for example: the unauthorised presence of a US aircraft carrier Battle Group in Myanmar's territorial waters during the 1988 political uprising as evidence of an infringement of Myanmar's sovereignty.", "Also, the leadership was concerned that foreign powers might arm the insurgents on the border to exploit the political situation and tensions in the country.", "This new threat perception, previously insignificant under the nation's isolationist foreign policy, led leaders to review the defence capability and doctrine of the .The third phase was to face the lower level external threats with a strategy of strategic denial under total people's defence concept.", "Current military leadership has successfully dealt with 17 major insurgent groups, whose 'return to legal fold' in the past decade has remarkably decreased the internal threats to state security, at least for the short and medium terms, even though threat perception of the possibility of external linkage to internal problems, perceived as being motivated by the continuing human rights violations, religious suppression and ethnic cleansing, remains high.Within the policy, the role of the Tatmadaw was defined as a `modern, strong and highly capable fighting force'.", "Since the day of independence, the Tatmadaw has been involved in restoring and maintaining internal security and suppressing insurgency.", "It was with this background that the Tatmadaw's \"multifaceted\" defence policy was formulated and its military doctrine and strategy could be interpreted as defence-in-depth.", "It was influenced by a number of factors such as history, geography, culture, economy and sense of threats.The Tatmadaw has developed an 'active defence' strategy based on guerrilla warfare with limited conventional military capabilities, designed to cope with low intensity conflicts from external and internal foes, which threatens the security of the state.", "This strategy, revealed in joint services exercises, is built on a system of total people's defence, where the armed forces provide the first line of defence and the training and leadership of the nation in the matter of national defence.It is designed to deter potential aggressors by the knowledge that defeat of the Tatmadaw's regular forces in conventional warfare would be followed by persistent guerrilla warfare in the occupied areas by people militias and dispersed regular troops which would eventually wear down the invading forces, both physically and psychologically, and leave it vulnerable to a counter-offensive.", "If the conventional strategy of strategic denial fails, then the Tatmadaw and its auxiliary forces will follow Mao's strategic concepts of 'strategic defensive', 'strategic stalemate' and 'strategic offensive'.Over the past decade, through a series of modernisation programs, the Tatmadaw has developed and invested in better Command, Control, Communication and Intelligence system; real-time intelligence; formidable air defence system; and early warning systems for its 'strategic denial' and 'total people's defence' doctrine." ], [ "Organisational, command and control structure", "===Before 1988===Overall command of the Tatmadaw (armed forces) rested with the country's highest-ranking military officer, a general, who acted concurrently as Defence Minister and Chief of Staff of Defence Services.", "He thus exercised supreme operational control over all three services, under the direction of the President, State Council and Council of Ministers.", "There was also a National Security Council which acted in advisory capacity.", "The Defence Minister cum Chief-of-Staff of Defence Services exercised day-to-day control of the armed forces and assisted by three Vice-Chiefs of Staff, one each for the army, navy and air force.", "These officers also acted as Deputy Ministers of Defence and commanders of their respective Services.", "They were all based at Ministry of Defence () in Rangoon/Yangon.", "It served as a government ministry as well as joint military operations headquarters.The Joint Staff within the Ministry of Defence consisted of three major branches, one each for Army, Navy and Air Force, along with a number of independent departments.", "The Army Office had three major departments; the General (G) Staff to oversee operations, the Adjutant General's (A) Staff administration and the Quartermaster General's (Q) Staff to handle logistics.", "The General Staff consisted two Bureaus of Special Operations (BSO), which were created in April 1978 and June 1979 respectively.These BSO are similar to \"Army Groups\" in Western armies, high level staff units formed to manage different theatres of military operations.", "They were responsible for the overall direction and co-ordination of the Regional Military Commands (RMC) with BSO-1 covering Northern Command (NC), North Eastern Command (NEC), North Western Command (NWC), Western Command (WC) and Eastern Command (EC).", "BSO-2 responsible for South Eastern Command (SEC), South Western Command (SWC), Western Command (WC) and Central Command (CC).The Army's elite mobile Light Infantry Divisions (LID) were managed separately under a staff colonel.", "Under G Staff, there were also a number of directorates which corresponded to the Army's functional corps, such as Intelligence, Signals, Training, Armour and Artillery.", "The A Staff was responsible for the Adjutant General, Directorate of Medical Services and the Provost Marshal's Office.", "The Q Staff included the Directorates of Supply and Transport, Ordnance Services, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, and Military Engineers.The Navy and Air Force Offices within the Ministry were headed by the Vice Chiefs of Staff for those Services.", "Each was supported by a staff officer at full colonel level.", "All these officers were responsible for the overall management of the various naval and air bases around the country, and the broader administrative functions such as recruitment and training.Operational Command in the field was exercised through a framework of Regional Military Commands (RMC), the boundaries of which corresponded with the country's Seven States and Seven Divisions.", "The Regional Military Commanders, all senior army officers, usually of Brigadier General rank, were responsible for the conduct of military operations in their respective RMC areas.", "Depending on the size of RMC and its operational requirements, Regional Military Commanders have at their disposal 10 or more infantry battalions ().===1988 to 2005===The Tatmadaw command structure as of 2000.The Tatmadaw's organisational and command structure dramatically changed after the military coup in 1988.In 1990, the country's most senior army officer become a Senior general (equivalent to Field marshal rank in Western armies) and held the positions of chairman of State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), Prime Minister and Defence Minister, as well as being appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services.", "He thus exercised both political and operational control over the entire country and armed forces.From 1989, each service has had its own Commander-in-Chief and Chief of Staff.", "The Army Commander in Chief is now elevated to full general () rank and also acted as deputy commander in Chief of the Defence Services.", "The C-in-C of the Air Force and Navy hold the equivalent of lieutenant general rank, while all three Service Chiefs of Staff were raised to major general level.", "Chiefs of Bureau of Special Operations (BSO), the heads of Q and A Staffs and the Director of Defence Services Intelligence (DDSI) were also elevated to lieutenant general rank.", "The reorganisation of the armed forces after 1988 resulted in the upgrading by two ranks of most of the senior positions.A new command structure was introduced at the Ministry of Defence level in 2002.The most important position created is the Joint Chief of Staff (Army, Navy, Air Force) that commands commanders-in-chief of the Navy and the Air Force.The Office of Strategic Studies (OSS, or ) was formed around 1994 and charged with formulating defence policies, and planning and doctrine of the Tatmadaw.", "The OSS was commanded by Lieutenant General Khin Nyunt, who is also the Director of Defence Service Intelligence (DDSI).", "Regional Military Commands (RMC) and Light Infantry Divisions (LID) were also reorganised, and LIDs are now directly answerable to Commander in Chief of the Army.A number of new subordinate command headquarters were formed in response to the growth and reorganisation of the Army.", "These include Regional Operation Commands (ROC, or Da Ka Sa), which are subordinate to RMCs, and Military Operations Commands (MOC, or Sa Ka Kha), which are equivalent to Western infantry divisions.The Chief of Staff (Army) retained control of the Directorates of Signals, Directorate of Armour Corps, Directorate of Artillery Corps, Defence Industries, Security Printing, Public Relations and Psychological Warfare, and Military Engineering (field section), People's Militias and Border Troops, Directorate of Defence Services Computers (DDSC), the Defence Services Museum and Historical Research Institute.Under the Adjutant General Office, there are three directorates: Medical Services, Resettlement, and Provost Martial.", "Under the Quartermaster General Office are the directorates of Military Engineering (garrison section), Supply and Transport, Ordnance Services, and Electricaland Mechanical Engineering.Other independent department within the Ministry of Defence are Judge Advocate General, Inspector General, Military Appointment General, Directorate of Procurement, Record Office, Central Military Accounting, and Camp Commandant.All RMC Commander positions were raised to the level of major general and also serve as appointed chairmen of the state- and division-level Law and Order Restoration Committees.", "They were formally responsible for both military and civil administrative functions for their command areas.", "Also, three additional regional military commands were created.", "In early 1990, a new RMC was formed in Burma's north west, facing India.", "In 1996, the Eastern Command in Shan State was split into two RMCs, and South Eastern Command was divided to create a new RMC in country's far south coastal regions.In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) was abolished and the military government created the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).", "The council includes all senior military officers and commanders of the RMCs.", "A new Ministry of Military Affairs was established and headed by a lieutenant general.", "This new ministry was abolished after its minister Lieutenant General Tin Hla was sacked in 2001.===2005 to 2010===On 18 October 2004, the OSS and DDSI were abolished during the purge of General Khin Nyunt and military intelligence units.", "OSS ordered 4 regiment to raid in DDSI Headquarter in Yangon.", "At the same time, all of the MIU in the whole country were raided and arrested by OSS corps.", "Nearly two thirds of MIU officers were detained for years.", "A new military intelligence unit called Military Affairs Security (MAS) was formed to take over the functions of the DDSI, but MAS units were much fewer than DDSI's and MAS was under control by local Division commander.In early 2006, a new Regional Military Command (RMC) was created at the newly formed administrative capital, Naypyidaw.Tatmadaw Command Structure as of 2005" ], [ "Service branches", "===Myanmar Army ()===rightThe Myanmar Army has always been by far the largest service and has always received the lion's share of Burma's defence budget.", "It has played the most prominent part in Burma's struggle against the 40 or more insurgent groups since 1948 and acquired a reputation as a tough and resourceful military force.", "In 1981, it was described as \"probably the best army in Southeast Asia, apart from Vietnam's\".", "This judgment was echoed in 1983, when another observer noted that \"Myanmar's infantry is generally rated as one of the toughest, most combat seasoned in Southeast Asia\".===Myanmar Air Force ()===rightPersonnel: 23,000 The Myanmar Air Force was formed on 16 January 1947, while Myanmar (also known as Burma) was under British colonial rule.", "By 1948, the new air force fleet included 40 Airspeed Oxfords, 16 de Havilland Tiger Moths, 4 Austers and 3 Supermarine Spitfires transferred from Royal Air Force with a few hundred personnel.", "The primary mission of Myanmar Air Force since its inception has been to provide transport, logistical, and close air support to Myanmar Army in counter-insurgency operations.===Myanmar Navy ()===borderThe Myanmar Navy is the naval branch of the armed forces of Burma with estimated 19,000 men and women.", "The Myanmar Navy was formed in 1940 and, although very small, played an active part in Allied operations against the Japanese during the Second World War.", "The Myanmar Navy currently operates more than 122 vessels.", "Before 1988, the Myanmar Navy was small and its role in the many counterinsurgency operations was much less conspicuous than those of the army and air force.", "Yet the navy has always been, and remains, an important factor in Burma's security and it was dramatically expanded in recent years to a provide blue water capability and external threat defence role in Burma's territorial waters.", "Its personnel number 19,000 (including two naval infantry battalions).===Myanmar Police Force ()===rightThe Myanmar Police Force, formally known as The People's Police Force (), was established in 1964 as independent department under the Ministry of Home Affairs.", "It was reorganised on 1 October 1995 and informally become part of the Tatmadaw.", "Current director general of Myanmar Police Force is Brigadier General Kyaw Kyaw Tun with its headquarters at Naypyidaw.", "Its command structure is based on established civil jurisdictions.", "Each of Burma's seven states and seven divisions has their own Police Forces with headquarters in the respective capital cities.", "Israel and Australia often provide specialists to enhance the training of Burma's police.", "Personnel: 72,000 (including 4,500 Combat/SWAT Police)" ], [ "Rank structure" ], [ "Air Defence", "The Myanmar Air Defense Forces () is one of the major branches of the Tatmadaw.", "It was established as the Air Defence Command in 1997 but was not fully operational until late 1999.It was renamed the Bureau of Air Defence in the early 2000s.", "In early 2000s, the Tatmadaw established the Myanmar Integrated Air Defence System (MIADS) () with help from Russia, Ukraine and China.", "It is a tri-service bureau with units from all three branches of the armed forces.", "All air defence assets except anti-aircraft artillery are integrated into MIADS." ], [ "Military intelligence", "The Office of the Chief of Military Security Affairs (OCMSA), commonly referred to by its Burmese acronym (), is a branch of the Myanmar's Armed Forces tasked with intelligence gathering.", "It was created to replace the Directorate of Defence Services Intelligence (DDSI), which was disbanded in 2004." ], [ "Defence industries", "The Myanmar Directorate of Defence Industries (DI) consists of 25 major factories throughout the country that produce approximately 70 major products for Army, Navy and Air Force.", "The main products include automatic rifles, machine guns, sub-machine guns, anti-aircraft guns, complete range of mortar and artillery ammunition, aircraft and anti-aircraft ammunition, tank and anti-tank ammunition, bombs, grenades, anti-tank mines, anti-personnel mines such as the M14 pyrotechnics, commercial explosives and commercial products, and rockets and so forth.", "DI have produced new assault rifles and light machine-guns for the infantry.", "The MA series of weapons were designed to replace the old German-designed but locally manufactured Heckler & Koch G3s and G4s that equipped Burma's army since the 1960s." ], [ "Political representation in Myanmar's legislature", "25% of the seats in both houses of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, Myanmar's legislature, are reserved for military appointees.===House of Nationalities ()=== Election Total seats reserved Total votes Share of votes Outcome of election Election leader2010 56 seats Than Shwe 2012 Min Aung Hlaing2015 Min Aung Hlaing2020 Min Aung Hlaing===House of Representatives ()=== Election Total seats reserved Total votes Share of votes Outcome of election Election leader2010 110 seats Than Shwe 2012 Min Aung Hlaing2015 Min Aung Hlaing2020 Min Aung Hlaing" ], [ "See also", "* Military intelligence of Myanmar* Aung San* Royal Burmese armed forces* Military history of Myanmar* Ma Chit Po" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Burma Library Archives" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Myanmar" ], [ "Introduction", "Historically strained, '''Myanmar's foreign relations''', particularly with Western nations, have improved since 2012.Relations became strained once more in 2017 with the Rohingya genocide and due to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état.", "Myanmar (also known as Burma) has generally maintained warmer relations with near states and is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Myanmar maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425pxCountry Date123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118—119120121122123124125126Unknown" ], [ "Europe and America", "The United States has placed broad sanctions on Myanmar because of the military crackdown in 1988 and the military regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election.", "Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.US and European government sanctions against the military government, alongside boycotts and other types of direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Myanmar of most US and many European companies.", "However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions.", "Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction.The French oil company TotalEnergies is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Myanmar to Thailand despite the European Union's sanctions on Myanmar.", "TotalEnergies is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline.", "Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of TotalEnergies and its American partner Chevron Corporation with aid and implementation by the Tatmadaw.", "Prior to its acquisition by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multimillion-dollar amount.", "There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.===Armenia===Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 January 2013.===Belarus===Myanmar delegation at MILEX-2021 military exhibition.", "Minsk, BelarusMyanmar delegation at MILEX-2021 military exhibition.", "Minsk, BelarusBelarus and Myanmar established diplomatic relations on 22 September 1999.In December 2011, prime minister of Belarus Mikhail Myasnikovich made on official visit to Myanmar.In 2021, Belarus was the only country to vote against UN General Assembly resolution calling Myanmar military to stop violence, release arrested protesters and restore democracy.", "It was assumed that Belarusian support for Myanmar military junta was caused by long history of arms trade with Myanmar Army.===Denmark===Myanmar is represented in Denmark through its embassy in the United Kingdom, and Denmark is represented in Myanmar through its embassy in Thailand.", "Diplomatic relations were established in 1955.Relations between the two countries are friendly, but economically, Denmark has the \"worst\" trade with Myanmar in the European Union.", "Development assistance to Myanmar is a top priority of the Danish International Development Agency's engagement in Southeast Asia.", "93 million DKK was given to education and healthcare projects.", "Danish development assistance has focused on promoting democracy and human rights.", "Denmark was one of the first countries to respond to cyclone Nargis by providing humanitarian assistance to Myanmar.", "Three Diseases Fund was founded in 2006, and Denmark joined in 2009.Three Diseases Fund helps Myanmar fight HIV and AIDS, and has assisted with 73 million dollars.====Burmese Consul incident====In 1996, the consul in Myanmar for Denmark, James Leander Nichols, was sentenced to three years in jail.", "The sentence was for illegal possession of two facsimile machines and a telephone switchboard.", "Two months later, he died in prison.", "Despite Danish insistence, Burmese authorities refused to allow an independent autopsy.", "Soon after, the European Union, with Canada, called for a United Nations gathering on the democratisation process.===Hungary===In June 2019, Aung San Suu Kyi visited Hungary and meet with the Prime Minister Viktor Orbán.", "\"The two leaders highlighted that one of the greatest challenges at present for both countries and their respective regions – south-east Asia and Europe – is migration\", read a statement released after their meeting.", "it also said \"They noted that both regions have seen the emergence of the issue of co-existence with continuously growing Muslim populations\".===Ireland===The Government of Ireland established diplomatic relations with Myanmar on a non-resident basis on 10 February 2004.The Irish Government was still concerned about the arbitrary detention of the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.", "Burma Action Ireland is a pro-democracy group that freely operates in the Republic of Ireland.Ireland supported a UN commission of inquiry and international level monitoring of Myanmar after 2008, as part of their efforts to support democracy and human rights movements in Myanmar.", "This became public knowledge after official papers were leaked in September 2010.===France===Franco-Burmese relations go back to the early 18th century, as the French East India Company attempted to extend its influence into Southeast Asia.", "French involvement started in 1729 when it built a shipyard in the city of Syriam.", "The 1740 revolt of the Mon against Burmese rule, however, forced the French to depart in 1742.They were able to return to Siam in 1751 when the Mon requested French assistance against the Burmese.", "A French envoy, Sieur de Bruno was sent to evaluate the situation and help in the defence against the Burmese.", "French warships were sent to support the Mon rebellion, but in vain.", "In 1756, the Burmese under Alaungpaya vanquished the Mon.", "Many French were captured and incorporated into the Burmese Army as an elite gunner corps, under Chevalier Milard.", "In 1769, official contacts resumed when a trade treaty was signed between King Hsinbyushin and the French East India Company.Soon after, however, France was convulsed by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, thus allowing overwhelming British influence in Burma.", "French contacts with Myanmar, effectively a British colony, became almost non-existent.", "Instead, from the second half of the 19th century, France concentrated on the establishment of French Indochina and the conflicts with China leading to the Sino-French War.", "Following the end of World War II, ambassador-level diplomatic relationships between France and Burma were established in 1948, soon after the Burmese nation became an independent republic on 4 January 1948, as ''Union of Burma'', with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister.===Serbia===* Both countries have established diplomatic relations in 1950.", "* A number of bilateral agreements in various fields have been concluded and are in force between both countries.===United States===Embassy of Myanmar in Washington, D.C.The political relations between the United States of America and Myanmar began to face major problems following the 1988 military coup and the junta's outbursts of repression against pro-democracy activists.", "Subsequent repression, including that of protestors in 2007 and 2021, further strain the relationship.", "In the 2010s, following signs of democratisation and economic liberalisation, the United States lifted sanctions calling for the mending of US relations with Myanmar.", "The US also re-established ambassador-level relations with Myanmar in 2012 for the first time since 1990.However, the US re-imposed targeted sanctions following the 2017 Rohingya genocide and the 2021 myanmar coup d'état, focusing on individuals and companies involved in atrocities and human rights violations.==== Historical relations====In 1988, the United States downgraded its level of representation in Myanmar from Ambassador to Chargé d'Affaires after the Burmese government's lethal crackdown on the 8888 Uprising and its failure to honor the results of the 1990 election.", "The United States remains one of a few countries to still not recognize the 1989 name change from Burma to Myanmar arguing that the change was made without the consent of the people by the illegitimate 1989 government.", "The US upgraded its representation back in 2012, appointing Derek Mitchel as Ambassador.Massachusetts attempted to place sanctions against Burma on its own in 1996 but the concept proved to be contradictory to the US Constitution.The US government imposed broad sanctions on Myanmar including the 2003 Burma Freedom and Democracy Act, which banned all imports and export of financial services with Myanmar, froze certain Burmese financial institutions' access and increased visa restrictions for Burmese officials.", "In 2007, the US imposed additional sanctions, including freezing assets of 25 high-ranking officials Burmese government officials through Executive Orders.Thein Sein meets US President Barack Obama in Yangon/Rangoon, the former capital, on 19 November 2012In 2011, US Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, visited Myanmar, the first by a Secretary of State since 1955.Clinton met with President Thein Sein and with then-democracy activist Aung San Suu Kyi In 2012, the Clinton announced the US will exchange ambassadors with Myanmar, after a landmark Burmese political prisoner amnesty.", "President Barack Obama nominated Derek Mitchell to serve as US Ambassador to Myanmar.In July 2012 the United States formally reduced sanctions against Myanmar.", "and \"targeted easing\" of sanctions allowing minor US investment.In 2013, Thein Sein visited the US White House to discuss Myanmar's reforms with President Obama.", "The two countries later signed a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement.====Recent relations====In October 2017 the United States withdrew military aid to Myanmar units responsible for the displacement of Rohingya in the Rohingya crisis.", "The US later imposed a blacklist on Maung Maung Soe, chief of the Myanmar army's Western Command responsible for the violence, and commanders directly involved.", "The United States also provided humanitarian aid to displaced Rohingya refugees.", "In 2022, the United States formally recognized the Rohingya genocide.In February 2021, a military coup led by Min Aung Hlaing overthrew Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar.", "The United States condemned the coup and imposed sanctions on Myanmar military leaders and their business associates.In July 2022, the new junta of Myanmar executed four political prisoners, which was met with condemnation from the G7 nations, including the United States.", "The State Department further pressed China to influence the situation.In August 2021, as the protests escalated into greater conflict, two Myanmar citizens in the United States were arrested over an alleged plot to hire hitmen to assassinate Kyaw Moe Tun, Myanmar's representative to the United Nations in New York.In December 2022, The BURMA Act was passed in Congress authorising sanctions on individuals involved in the coup d'état, providing support to civil society and humanitarian assistance as well as creating a position within the State Department dedicated to democracy in Burma.====US activities in Myanmar====On 10 September 2007, the Burmese Government accused the CIA of assassinating a rebel Karen commander from the Karen National Union who wanted to negotiate with the military government.In 2011, ''The Guardian'' newspaper published leaked diplomatic cables information that revealed that the US funded some civil society groups in Myanmar who eventaully forced the government to suspend the controversial Chinese Myitsone Dam on the Irrawaddy river.According to media reports in 2010, the Embassy of the United States in Yangon is the site of an electronic surveillance facility used to monitor telephones and communications networks jointly run by the Special Collection Service.====Diplomatic missions====The US Embassy in Myanmar is located in Yangon, whilst the Burmese diplomatic representation to America is based in Washington, D.C.=====Major officials of the US Embassy in Yangon=====Source:* Ambassador Thomas L. Vajda* Deputy Chief of Mission Deborah C. Lynn* Political & Affairs Chief Douglas Sonnek* Public Affairs Officer Adrienne Nutzman* Consular Chief Andrew Webster-Main* Management Officer Luther Lindberg* Defence Attaché Colonel William Dickey* Information Officer Bob Lynn===Russia===Bilateral relations with the Russian Federation are among the strongest enjoyed by a largely isolated Burma.", "Russia had established diplomatic relations with Myanmar at independence and these continued after the fall of the Soviet Union.", "China and Russia once vetoed a U.N. Security Council resolution condemning the Burmese government.", "Today Russia, along with China, remains part of the UN Security Council, which occasionally shields Myanmar from global pressure and criticism, and remains a strong Tatmadaw ally.Russia maintains an embassy in Yangon whilst Myanmar maintains one in Moscow.==== Nuclear centre deal ====In 2007 Russia and Myanmar engaged in a deal regarding Myanmar's nuclear programme.", "According to the press release, Russia and Myanmar shall construct a nuclear research centre that 'will comprise a 10 MW light-water reactor working on 20%-enriched uranium-235, an activation analysis laboratory, a medical isotope production laboratory, silicon doping system, nuclear waste treatment and burial facilities'.==== Diplomatic missions ====* Embassy of Russia in Yangon" ], [ "Association of Southeast Asian Nations", "Myanmar is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and part of ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit.", "Myanmar agreed to relinquish its turn to hold the rotating ASEAN presidency in 2006 due to others member states' concern of its previous democratic situation.ASEAN has announced that it shall not provide defence for Myanmar at any international forum regarding the authoritarian junta's refusal to restore democracy.", "In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary Ahmad Shabery Cheek said that Malaysia and other ASEAN members had decided not to defend Myanmar if the country was raised for discussion at any international conference.", "\"Now Myanmar has to defend itself if it was bombarded at any international forum,\" he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry.", "He was replying to queries from Opposition Leader Lim Kit Siang on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and Asean with the Burmese military junta.", "Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Myanmar and support efforts to bring the situation in Myanmar to the UN Security Council's attention.", "Recently, ASEAN did take a stronger tone with Burma, particularly regards to the detention of now-released Aung San Suu Kyi.===Brunei===Brunei has an embassy in Yangon, and Myanmar has an embassy in Gadong.", "The relations have been established since 21 September 1993.===Malaysia===The relations between the two countries were established on 1 March 1957 and the first Myanmar mission at the legation level was set up in Kuala Lumpur in June 1959 and later raised to the embassy level.===Thailand===Relations between Myanmar and Thailand focus mainly on economic issues and trade.", "There is sporadic conflict with Thailand over the alignment of the border.", "Recently, Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva made it clear that dialogue encouraging political change is a priority for Thailand, but not through economic sanctions.", "He also publicised intentions to help reconstruct temples damaged in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis.", "However, there were tensions over detained opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi, with Thailand calling for her release.", "She was released in 2010.In the Thaksin Shinawatra administration, relations have been characterised by conflicts and confrontations.", "Border disputes are now coming more prominent and Thailand as disturbed by the imprisonment of Myanmar's dissident Aung San Suu Kyi.Myanmar has diplomatic offices in Bangkok whilst Thailand maintains an embassy in Yangon.===Philippines===Philippines established relations with Myanmar in 1956 and recognised its political name Myanmar.", "In 2012, Myanmar ranked 3rd to the lowest among the Philippines' trading partners in ASEAN.", "It only fared better than Cambodia and Laos.", "The Philippines and Myanmar traded only $47.07 million in 2012.The Philippines grant Burmese citizens visa-free access for 30 days.", "Myanmar on the other hand signed the visa exemption for Filipinos on 5 December 2013 effective 4 January 2014.The agreement allows Filipinos to stay in Myanmar up to 14 days visa-free.=== Cambodia ===Burma accorded de jure recognition to the newly sovereign state of Cambodia on August 16, 1954.On January 10, 1955, Burma and Cambodia agreed to establish diplomatic relations, which were maintained with the Lon Nol government after the deposition of Norodom Sihanouk in March 1970.Diplomatic recognition was later transferred to Democratic Kampuchea when Lon Nol's Khmer Republic was overthrown in April 1975.=== Indonesia ===Burma recognized the Republic of Indonesia as de jure sovereign power of the archipelago on December 27, 1949.A five-year treaty of friendship was signed in Rangoon on March 31, 1951.Indonesian President Sukarno paid his first visit to Rangoon on his way home from a journey to India and Pakistan in 1950.=== Singapore ===Singapore established diplomatic relations with the Union of Burma in 1966.However, it was only in May 1984 that the Embassy was opened in Yangon.Singapore is one of Myanmar's top investors and trading partners.", "In the past, Singapore faced scrutiny from Burmese democracy activists, exacerbated by Lee Kuan Yew's comments in 1996.After the 2021 Myanmar coup, Singapore adopted stronger stances against the military regime and pressuring the regime to cooperate with ASEAN's peace plan.", "However, Singapore continues to be a major source of equipment for the junta's weapons factories." ], [ "China", "The People's Republic of China had poor relations with Myanmar until the late 1980s.", "Between 1967 and 1970, Burma broke relations with Beijing because of the latter's support for the Communist Party of Burma (CPB).", "Deng Xiaoping visited Yangon in 1978 and withdrew support for the long running insurgency of the Communist Party of Burma.", "However, in the early 1950s Burma enjoyed a hot-and-cold relationship with China.", "Burma's Ba U and U Nu lobbied for China's entry as a permanent member into the UN Security Council, but denounced the invasion of Tibet.China and Burma have had many border disputes, dating long before the British annexation of Burma.", "The last border dispute occurred in 1956, when the People's Liberation Army occupied disputed areas in northern Burma, but both sides agreed to resolve the issue through negotiations.", "A border agreement was reached in 1960.In the late 1960s, due to Ne Win's propaganda that the PRC was to blame for crop failures, and the increasing number of ethnic Chinese students supporting Chairman Mao Zedong, by carrying the Quotatians from his books, anti-Chinese riots broke out in June 1967.At the same time, many Sino-Burmese were influenced by the Cultural Revolution in China and began to wear Mao badges.", "Shops and homes were ransacked and burned.", "The Chinese government heavily berated the Burmese government and started a war of words, but no other actions were taken.", "The anti-Chinese riots continued till the early 1970s.However, after 1986, China withdrew support for the CPB and began supplying the military junta with the majority of its arms in exchange for increased access to Burmese markets and a rumoured naval base on Coco Islands in the Andaman Sea.", "China is supposed to have an intelligence gathering station on the Great Coco Island to monitor Indian naval activity and ISRO & DRDO missile and space launch activities.", "The influx of Chinese arms turned the tide in Myanmar against the ethnic insurgencies, many of which had relied indirectly on Chinese complicity.", "As a result, the military junta of Myanmar is highly reliant on the Chinese for their currently high level of power.Myanmar maintains diplomatic offices in Beijing and consular offices in Kunming and Hong Kong, whilst the PRC has a diplomatic mission in Yangon and a consulate in Mandalay.After 2015, China increased considerably its scope of engagement with Myanmar by playing a more active role in the peace process, developing large infrastructure projects and promoting the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in the country.In July 2019, UN ambassadors from 50 countries, including Myanmar, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region." ], [ "India", "Bilateral relations between Myanmar and the Republic of India have improved considerably since 1993, overcoming disagreements related to drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Myanmar.", "Myanmar is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India.", "The proximity of the People's Republic of China give strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations.", "The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 kilometers.", "India is generally friendly with Myanmar, but is concerned by the flow of tribal refugees and the arrest of Aung San Suu Kyi.As a result of increased Chinese influence in Myanmar as well as the safe haven and arms trafficking occurring along the Indo-Burmese border, India has sought in recent years to refurbish ties with the Union of Burma.", "Numerous economic arrangements have been established including a roadway connecting the isolated provinces of Northeastern India with Mandalay which opens up trade with China, Myanmar, and gives access to the Burmese ports.", "Relations between India and Myanmar have been strained in the past however due to India's continuing support for the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar.In an interview on the BBC, George Fernandes, former Indian Defence Minister and prominent Myanmar critic, said that Coco Island was part of India until it was donated to Myanmar by former Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru.", "Coco Island is located at 18 km from the Indian Nicobar Islands.Myanmar has a fully operating embassy based in New Delhi and India has one in Yangon, the former capital of Myanmar.", "Like the PRC, the Republic of India maintains a Consulate-General in Mandalay.===Economic relations===India is the largest market for Burmese exports, buying about US$220 million worth of goods in 2000; India's exports to Myanmar stood at US$75.36 million.", "India is Myanmar's 4th largest trading partner after Thailand, the PRC and Singapore, and second largest export market after Thailand, absorbing 25 percent of its total exports.", "India is also the seventh most important source of Myanmar's imports.", "The governments of India and Myanmar had set a target of achieving $1 billion and bilateral trade reached US$650 million by 2006.The Indian government has worked to extend air, land and sea routes to strengthen trade links with Myanmar and establish a gas pipeline.", "While the involvement of India's private sector has been low and growing at a slow pace, both governments are proceeding to enhance co-operation in agriculture, telecommunications, information technology, steel, oil, natural gas, hydrocarbons and food processing.", "The bilateral border trade agreement of 1994 provides for border trade to be carried out from three designated border points, one each in Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.On 13 February 2001 India and Myanmar inaugurated a major 160 kilometre highway, called the Indo-Myanmar Friendship Road, built mainly by the Indian Army's Border Roads Organisation and aimed to provide a major strategic and commercial transport route connecting North-East India, and South Asia as a whole, to Southeast Asia.India and Myanmar have agreed to a four-lane, 3200 km triangular highway connecting India, Myanmar and Thailand.", "The route, which is expected to be completed by sometime during 2018, will run from India's northeastern states into Myanmar, where over 1,600 km of roads will be built or improved.", "The first phase connecting Guwahati to Mandalay is set to complete by 2016.This will eventually be extended to Cambodia and Vietnam.", "This is aimed at creating a new economic zone ranging from Kolkata on the Bay of Bengal to Ho Chi Minh City on the South China Sea.=== Operation Leech ===Operation ''Leech'' is the name given to an armed operation on the Indo-Burmese border in 1998.India has sought to install friendly governments in the Southeast Asia region.", "To these ends, India's external intelligence agency, R&AW, cultivated Burmese rebel groups and pro-democracy coalitions, especially the Kachin Independence Army (KIA).", "India allowed the KIA to carry a limited trade in jade and precious stones using Indian territory and even supplied them with weapons.However, with increasing bonhomie between the Indian government and the Burmese junta, the KIA became the main source of training and weapons for all northeastern rebel groups in India.", "Thus, R&AW initiated Operation ''Leech'', with the help of Indian Army and paramilitary forces, to assassinate the leaders of the Burmese rebels as an example to other groups." ], [ "Bangladesh", "Historical relations between Myanmar and Bangladesh include centuries of trade, cultural interactions and migration between the kingdoms and empires of Bengal and the kingdoms of Burma, particularly Arakan.", "Most prominently this is visible in the Indic Buddhist culture of Burma that was transmitted often through Bengal resulting in the imprint of Indian (inclusive of Bengali) culture and civilization currently found in Myanmar.", "The two nations also share a heritage of colonial commerce during the British Empire.", "The Bengali community in Myanmar is present in Yangon and the Rakhine.", "In Bangladesh, a large population of Burmese ancestry resides in Chittagong and southeastern hill districts, including Rakhines and Bohmong, as well as Burmese-Bengalis.", "After the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, Burma became one of the first countries to recognise the independence of Bangladesh.However, the relationship between two countries deteriorated under Ziaur Rahman of Bangladesh.", "In April 1978, a large number of Rohingya refugees suddenly started arriving in Bangladesh.", "About two lakh refugees arrived and took shelter during the month of June.", "In May 1979, Burmese president Ne Win visited Bangladesh.", "During his visit, the demarcation agreement between the two countries was signed on May 23.Towards the end of Rahman's presidency, Win and Rahman visited back and forth.The presence of 270,000 Burmese Muslim refugees (Rohingya people) in southern Bangladesh have often caused irritants in bilateral relations, which are generally cordial.", "A 40-year maritime boundary dispute in the Bay of Bengal was resolved by the two countries at a UN tribunal in March 2012.Bangladesh has sought transit rights through Myanmar, to establish connectivity with China and ASEAN through projects such as the proposed Chittagong-Mandalay-Kunming highway.", "The governments of both countries are also in discussions on the possible export of Burmese gas to Bangladesh, as well as setting up a joint hydroelectric power plant in Rakhine State.The political class and civil society of Bangladesh often voiced support for Myanmar's pro-democracy struggle.", "In 2006 a petition by 500 Bangladeshi politicians and intellectuals, including Sheikh Hasina and Kamal Hossain, expressed support for Aung San Suu Kyi and called for the release of all political prisoners in Myanmar.", "After winning elections in 2008, Sheikh Hasina reiterated her position on Burma's pro-democracy struggle, calling for an end to the detention of Suu Kyi and Burmese political prisoners.", "The Democratic Voice of Burma radio station operates bureaus in Dhaka and Chittagong.Despite border (both territorial and nautical) tensions and the forced migration of 270,000 Rohingya Muslims from Buddhist Burma in 1978, relations with Bangladesh have generally been cordial, albeit somewhat tense at times.Many Rohingya refugees, not recognised as a sanctioned ethnic group and allegedly suffering abuse from the Burmese authorities, remain in Bangladesh, and have been threatened with forced repatriation to Myanmar.", "There are about 28,000 documented refugees remaining in camps in southern Bangladesh.At the 2008 ASEAN Regional forum summit in Singapore, Bangladesh and Myanmar have pledged to solve their maritime boundary disputes as quickly as possible especially that a UN deadline in claiming maritime territories will expire in three years time.", "However, in late 2008, Myanmar sent in ships into disputed waters in the Bay of Bengal for the exploration of oil and natural gas.", "Bangladesh responded by sending in three warships to the area and diplomatically pursued efforts to pressure the Burmese junta to withdraw their own ships.", "During the crisis Myanmar deployed thousands of troops on its border with Bangladesh.", "However, following the Bangladeshi deployment, within a week the ships withdrew and the crisis ended.Myanmar has an embassy in Dhaka, whilst Bangladesh has an embassy in Yangon and a consular office in Sittwe.", "Bangladesh is also one of the first countries to begin constructing a diplomatic mission in Nay Pyi Taw." ], [ "Sri Lanka", "===History===Ramañña Monks to ordainedThe early exchange of Theravada Buddhism between Sri Lanka and Myanmar built the two's first bilateral links and continues to be emphasized today.", "The generally held belief within Myanmar is that a ''Bhikkhu'' (monk) named Shin Arahan from Thaton introduced Theravada Buddhism to the Bagan Kingdom.", "Anawrahta invited monks from Sri Lanka, among others, after banishing Ari priests in an attempt to revitalize a more orthodox form of Buddhism.", "Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa sent a copy of the ''Tripitaka'' to Anawrahta.In the 1150s, the Burmese king Sithu I visited the court of Parakramabahu I in Sri Lanka appointing an ambassador.", "According to the Sri Lankan chronicle ''Cūḷavaṃsa'', that Sithu caught sight of a letter addressed to the King of Cambodia.", "He attempted to stop Sri Lanka's elephant trade with Cambodia and later captured a lesser Sinhalese princess on her way to be married to a prince of Cambodia, sparking a war between the two kingdoms in 1180.The influence of Burmese architecture on Sri Lanka's religious building in Polonnaruwa is also evident.", "The Satmahalprasada, a setup with an unusual pyramid like form in several levels or storeys in Polonnnaruwa is the best example.King Dhammazedi of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom sent all the monks in Lower Burma to be re-ordained on the in Sri Lanka making Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhism the dominant form of Buddhism in Myanmar.", "In the late 18th century, King Bodawpaya of the Konbaung Dynasty re-introduced the ''upasampadā'' ordination system to Sri Lanka, establishing the Amarapura Nikaya.", "The establishment of the Amarapura Nikaya was also significant as a monastic lineage was established through collective action rather than the patronage of a king.====Modern Relations====In 1949, soon after the independence of both countries, resident embassies were quickly established.", "The two countries continued their history of religious exchange during the Sixth Buddhist Council, hosted by Burma.", "The Sri Lankan delegation played a leading role in the deliberations of the council of 2500 monks.During Myanmar's economic liberalisation of the 2010s, Myanmar and Sri Lanka furthered trade ties, signing joint trade agreements and cooperating on many development issues through BIMSTEC.", "Sri Lankan President Maithripala Sirisena emphasized the two countries' similarities as Theravada Buddhist countries with an agricultural economy stating that Sri Lanka was a true friend of Myanmar ready to provide assistance in international forums.Today, the two maintain good relations with Sri Lanka presenting diplomatic credentials to Myanmar's State Administration Council (SAC_ despite international condemnation against the SAC for its war.====Bilateral visits=========Sri Lankan officials visiting Myanmar=====* Official visit of Hon.", "Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Prime Minister in January (1976)* Visit of Hon.", "A.C.S.", "Hameed, Foreign Minister (1987)* Visit of Hon.", "Lakshman Kadirgamar, Foreign Minister (1999)* Visit of Hon.", "W.J.M.", "Loku Bandara, Minister of Buddha Sasana (2003)* Visit of Hon.", "Loku Bandara, Speaker of the Parliament (2005)* Visit of Hon Mahinda Rajapakse, Prime Minister (2004)* Visit of Hon.", "Loku Bandara, Speaker (2005)* Visit of Hon.", "Prime Minister (2006)* Visit of the Hon.", "Minister of Foreign Affairs for First Joint Commission (2007)=====Burmese officials visiting Sri Lanka=====* State Visit of H.E.", "Gen U Ne Win, President of Myanmar (1966)* Visit of H.E.", "U Win Aung, Foreign Minister of Myanmar in (1999)* Visit of H.E.", "Professor Kyaw Myint, Minister of Health (2005)* Visit of Acting Prime Minister, Lt. Gen. Thein Sein (2007)* Visit of the Foreign Minister of Myanmar (to participate at ECOSOC) (2009)" ], [ "Other Asian countries", "===North Korea=== and North Korea has an embassy in Yangon.====History====Since they both achieved independence in 1948, Burma and North Korea have enjoyed a chequered relationship.", "Burma expressed diplomatic support for the UN forces during the Korean War, but after the signing of the 1953 armistice it established good working relations with the two Koreas.", "Consular links with both states were established in 1961 and full diplomatic relations followed in 1975.During the 1960s and 1970s, General Ne Win's government made efforts to balance the competing demands of North Korea and South Korea for recognition, diplomatic support and trade.", "However, during the late 1970s the relationship with Pyongyang became slightly stronger than that with Seoul, as Ne Win and the Burma Socialist Programme Party forged fraternal ties with Kim Il Sung and the Workers' Party of Korea.====The assassination attempt in 1983====The bilateral relationship with North Korea dramatically collapsed in 1983, after Pyongyang allegedly sent three agents to Yangon to assassinate South Korean President Chun Doo Hwan, who was making a state visit to Burma.", "Due to a last minute, unannounced change to his schedule, Chun survived the massive bomb attack at the Martyrs' Mausoleum, but 17 South Korean and four Burmese officials, including four Korean Cabinet ministers, were killed.", "Forty-six others were injured.There was probably at least one bilateral agreement as early as 2000, but the relationship seemed to reach a major turning point around 2003.In July that year, it was reported that between 15 and 20 North Korean technicians were working at the Monkey Point naval base in Yangon.", "A UN report released on 1 February 2018 cited North Korean ballistic missile transfers to the Myanmar army.===Maldives===In September 2017, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Maldives announced that it was ceasing all trade ties with Myanmar in response to the government's treatment of the Rohingya people in Rakhine State.===Taiwan===Although Myanmar officially recognises the PRC and not the Republic of China (Taiwan), there is much interaction between the two countries.", "Many Taiwanese nationals own businesses in Myanmar.", "There are direct air flights to Taipei.", "In the absence of diplomatic relations, Myanmar was represented by the Myanmar Trade Office in Taipei, and Taiwan remains represented by the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Yangon.===Pakistan===Pakistan and Myanmar have cordial relations with each other, with embassies in each other's capitals.", "Pakistan International Airlines has flown to Yangon in the past and still operates Hajj charter flights on behalf of the Burmese government.Pakistan has a diplomatic mission in Yangon, whilst Myanmar maintains a diplomatic office in Islamabad.===South Korea===The Republic of Korea and Burma generally enjoy good relations.", "Burma has an embassy in Seoul and South Korea has an embassy in Yangon." ], [ "Oceania", "===New Zealand===In February 2021, New Zealand suspended high-level bilateral relations with Myanmar following the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and joined other Western governments in rejecting the new military-led government and has called for the restoration of civilian-led rule.", "In addition, aid projects were diverted away from the Tatmadaw and a travel ban was imposed on Myanmar's military leaders." ], [ "Timeline of diplomatic representation", "By the end of the Union Solidarity and Development Party tenure in January 2016, Myanmar had 36 ambassadors, 3 consuls general and a permanent representative at the UN in New York.", "The country had established official relations with 114 independent states." ], [ "United Nations", "In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organisation and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.", "Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was the young Aung San Suu Kyi.Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Myanmar by consensus.", "But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Myanmar to end its systematic violations of human rights.In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition.", "South Africa also voted against the resolution, arguing that since there were no peace and security concerns raised by its neighbours, the question did not belong in the Security Council when there were other more appropriate bodies to represent it, adding, \"Ironically, should the Security Council adopt this resolution ... the Human Rights Council would not be able to address the situation in Myanmar while the Council remains seized with the matter.\"", "The issue had been forced onto the agenda against the votes of Russia and the China by the United States (veto power applies only to resolutions) claiming that the outflow from Myanmar of refugees, drugs, HIV-AIDS, and other diseases threatened international peace and security.The following September after the uprisings began and the human rights situation deteriorated, the Secretary-General dispatched his special envoy for the region, Ibrahim Gambari, to meet with the government.", "After seeing most parties involved, he returned to New York and briefed the Security Council about his visit.", "During this meeting, the ambassador said that the country \"indeed has experienced a daunting challenge.", "However, we have been able to restore stability.", "The situation has now returned to normalcy.", "Currently, people all over the country are holding peaceful rallies within the bounds of the law to welcome the successful conclusion of the national convention, which has laid down the fundamental principles for a new constitution, and to demonstrate their aversion to recent provocative demonstrations.On 11 October the Security Council met and issued a statement and reaffirmed its \"strong and unwavering support for the Secretary-General's good offices mission\", especially the work by Ibrahim Gambari (During a briefing to the Security Council in November, Gambari admitted that no timeframe had been set by the Government for any of the moves that he had been negotiating for.", ")Throughout this period the World Food Program has continued to organise shipments from the Mandalay Division to the famine-struck areas to the north.In December 2008, the United Nations General Assembly voted for a resolution condemning Myanmar's human rights record; it was supported by 80 countries, with 25 voting against and 45 abstaining." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Myanmar* List of diplomatic missions of Myanmar* United Nations Security Council Resolution 45" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar.", "(1974).", "''Anglo-Assamese relations, 1771–1826: a history of the relations of Assam with the East India Company from 1771 to 1826, based on original English and Assamese sources.''", "Lawyer's Book Stall.", "* Bingham, June.", "(1966).", "''U Thant; the Search for Peace''.", "Gollancz.", "* Byman, Daniel L., and Roger Clift.", "(1999) ''China's Arms Sales Motivations and Implications'' (RAND, 1999) online .", "* Kipgen, Nehginpao.", "(2014).", "''Democracy Movement in Myanmar: Problems and Challenges.''", "Ruby Press & Co.. * Laqueur, Walter.", "(1974).", "''A dictionary of politics.''", "Free Press.", "* Liang, Chi Shad.", "(1990).", "''Burma's foreign relations: neutralism in theory and practice.''", "Praeger.", "* Lintner, Bertil.", "(1990).", "''The rise and fall of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB)''.", "SEAP Publications.", "* Nanda, Prakesh.", "(2003).", "''Rediscovering Asia: evolution of India's look-east policy.''", "Lancer Publishers & Distributors.", "* Narayanan, Raviprasad.", "\"China and Myanmar: Alternating between ‘Brothers’ and ‘Cousins’.\"", "''China Report'' 46.3 (2010): 253-265 online.", "* Seekins, Donald M. (2006).", "''Historical dictionary of Burma (Myanmar).''", "Scarecrow Press.", "* * Singh, N. K. (2003).", "''Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh''.", "Anmol Publications PVT.", "LTD. * Silverstein, Josef.", "(1980).", "''Burmese politics: the dilemma of national unity''.", "Rutgers University Press.", "* South, Ashley.", "(2003).", "''Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake.''", "Routledge.", "* Swanström, Niklas.", "''Sino-Myanmar relations: Security and beyond'' (Institute for Security and Development Policy, 2012) online" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Myanmar* Reorienting strategies towards Burma/Myanmar, Opinion by Bernt Berger, May 2008, European Union Institute for Security Studies* History of Burma – U.S. relations* Thai-Myanmar relations returning to normal, Thaksin says* Documents on the Myanmar–Russia relationship at the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Schumacher" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Schumacher''' (; born 3 January 1969) is a German former racing driver who competed in Formula One for Jordan, Benetton, Ferrari, and Mercedes.", "Schumacher has a joint-record seven World Drivers' Championship titles (tied with Lewis Hamilton); at the time of his retirement from the sport in 2012, he also held the records for the most wins (91), pole positions (68), and podium finishes (155)—which have since been broken by Hamilton—while he maintains the record for consecutive Drivers' Championships and number of total fastest laps (77), among others.Born to working-class parents, Schumacher started his racing career in karting.", "He won his first karting championship aged six in a kart built from discarded parts.", "After having enjoyed success in karting—such as winning the 1987 European karting championship—and in several single-seater series, Schumacher made a one-off Formula One appearance with Jordan at the .", "He was signed by Benetton for the rest of the season.", "He won his first and second drivers' titles consecutively in and .", "Schumacher moved to the struggling Ferrari team in .", "During his first years at the team, Schumacher lost out on the title in the final race of the season in and , and suffered a broken leg from a brake failure in .", "He and Ferrari won five consecutive titles from to , including unprecedented sixth and seventh titles, breaking several records.", "After finishing third in and second in , Schumacher retired from the sport, although he later made a brief return with Mercedes from to .Schumacher was noted for pushing his car to the very limit for sustained periods during races, a pioneering fitness regimen, and ability to galvanise teams around him.", "He and his younger brother Ralf are the only siblings to win races in Formula One and the first siblings to finish first and second in the same race, a feat they repeated in four subsequent races.", "Schumacher was twice involved in collisions in the final race of a season that decided the title: first with Damon Hill at the , and later with Jacques Villeneuve at the .Appointed UNESCO Champion for Sport in 2002, Schumacher has been involved in humanitarian projects and has donated tens of millions of dollars to charity.", "In December 2013, Schumacher suffered a severe brain injury in a skiing accident.", "He was placed in a medically induced coma until June 2014.He left the hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the Lausanne University Hospital, before being relocated to his home to receive medical treatment and rehabilitation privately in September 2014." ], [ "Early years", "Michael Schumacher was born in the West German town of Hürth, North Rhine-Westphalia, on 3 January 1969, to working-class parents Rolf—a bricklayer who later ran the local kart track—and Elisabeth Schumacher (1948–2003), who operated the track's canteen.", "When Schumacher was four, his father modified his pedal kart by adding a small motorcycle engine.", "After he crashed it into a lamp post in Kerpen, his parents took him to the karting track at Kerpen-Horrem, where he became the youngest member of the karting club.", "His father built him a kart from discarded parts; at the age of six, Schumacher won his first club championship.", "To support his racing, Schumacher's father took on a second job renting and repairing karts, while his mother worked at the track's canteen.", "Nevertheless, when Schumacher needed a new engine costing 800 DM, his parents were unable to afford it; he was able to continue racing with support from local businessmen.Regulations in Germany require a driver to be at least 14 years old to obtain a kart license.", "To get around this, Schumacher obtained a license in Luxembourg at the age of 12.In 1983, he obtained his German license, a year after he won the German Junior Kart Championship.", "Schumacher joined Eurokart dealer Adolf Neubert in 1985, and by 1987 was the German and European kart champion, then he quit school and began working as a mechanic.", "In 1988, he made his first step into single-seat car racing by participating in the German Formula Ford and Formula König series, winning the latter.In 1989, Schumacher signed with Willi Weber's WTS Formula Three team.", "Funded by Weber, he competed in the German Formula Three Championship, winning the 1990 German Formula Three Championship.", "He also won the 1990 Macau Grand Prix under controversial circumstances.", "He placed second behind Mika Häkkinen in the first heat, three seconds behind.", "At the start of the second heat, he overtook Häkkinen, who only had to finish within three seconds of Schumacher to clinch the overall win.", "In the closing laps, Schumacher made a mistake, allowing Häkkinen to attempt to overtake.", "Schumacher changed his line immediately before Häkkinen did the same as the latter moved to overtake, and Häkkinen crashed into the back of Schumacher's car.", "While Häkkinen's race was ended, Schumacher drove to victory without a rear wing.", "Schumacher gave the prize money from winning the race to his family as they had debts.Schumacher's title-winning German Formula Three car from 1990During 1990, along with his Formula Three rivals Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Karl Wendlinger, Schumacher joined the Mercedes-Benz junior racing programme in the World Sportscar Championship.", "This was unusual for a young driver, as most of Schumacher's contemporaries competed in Formula 3000 on the way to Formula One.", "Weber advised Schumacher that being exposed to professional press conferences and driving powerful cars in long-distance races would help his career.", "In the 1990 World Sportscar Championship season, Schumacher won the season finale at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in a Sauber–Mercedes C11, and finished fifth in the Drivers' Championship despite only driving in three of the nine races.", "He continued with the team in the 1991 World Sportscar Championship season, winning again at the final race of the season at Autopolis in Japan with a Sauber–Mercedes-Benz C291, leading to a ninth-place finish in the Drivers' Championship.", "He also competed at the 1991 24 Hours of Le Mans, finishing fifth in a car shared with Wendlinger and Fritz Kreutzpointner.", "He further competed in one race in the 1991 Japanese Formula 3000 Championship, finishing second.During the 1991 430 km of Nürburgring, Schumacher was involved in an incident with Derek Warwick.", "While trying to set his flying lap in qualifying, Schumacher encountered Warwick's Jaguar XJR-14 on a slow lap resulting in lost time for Schumacher.", "As retaliation for Warwick being in his way, Schumacher swerved his Sauber into Warwick's car, hitting the Jaguar's nose and front wheel.", "Enraged by Schumacher's attitude, Warwick drove to the pits and chased Schumacher on foot.", "He eventually caught up with Schumacher, and it took intervention from several mechanics and Schumacher's teammate Jochen Mass to prevent Warwick physically assaulting Schumacher." ], [ "Formula One career", "===Profile===Schumacher (left) in 1991, the year he joined Formula OneSchumacher was noted throughout his career for his speed and racecraft, and his ability to produce fast laps at crucial moments in a race and to push his car to the very limit for sustained periods.", "He was also noted for his work ethic, pioneering fitness regimen, and ability to galvanise teams around him.", "In 2004, ''Slate'' magazine described Schumacher as \"the ultimate driving machine\" and \"the most dominant athlete in the world\" due to him having become \"quicker, stronger, and fitter than the competition by outworking them in the weight room\".", "The magazine also stated that Schumacher changed the sport as he set a new benchmark for other drivers and built the team and technologies around him.", "Schumacher exercised four hours a day, mostly to strengthen his neck muscles to better withstand G-forces during races.", "After his gym session, he would often head to the race track for testing.", "In 2003, Deutsche Welle highlighted Schumacher's \"natural talent\" for racing and his \"discipline and leadership\".", "In 2023, former Formula One rival Giancarlo Fisichella observed that Schumacher \"did not even seem to have sweated\" during races, adding that Schumacher is the greatest Formula One driver of all time and \"rewrote the history of Formula One\".In 2003, ''F1 Racing'' magazine analysed Schumacher's driving style using telemetry data.", "It was observed that Schumacher was \"very sensitively and flexibly\" on the gas and brakes.", "Compared with his Ferrari teammate Rubens Barrichello, who often either braked or accelerated in a corner, Schumacher usually braked later into a corner and stabilised his car by accelerating slightly, often using both the brake and accelerator pedals at the same time.", "Exiting a corner, Schumacher accelerated considerably and balanced his car by braking lightly.", "Martin Brundle talked about being in awe upon seeing Schumacher's telemetry showing he took turn one on full throttle at the Suzuka circuit.", "With his driving style, Schumacher also went 25 km/h faster through the hairpin corner of Suzuka compared to Barrichello, who lost 0.3 seconds to Schumacher in this corner.", "It was also observed that when needed, such as when the brakes started to overheat, Schumacher adapted his driving style to protect the brakes.", "''Motor Sport'' author Christopher Hilton observed in 2003 that a \"measure of a driver's capabilities is his performance in wet races, because the most delicate car control and sensitivity are needed\", and commented that, like other great drivers, Schumacher's record in wet conditions shows very few mistakes; up to the end of 2003, Schumacher won 17 of the 30 races in wet conditions he contested.", "Some of Schumacher's best performances occurred in such conditions, earning him the nicknames ''Regenkönig'' (\"Rain King\"), or ''Regenmeister'' (\"Rain Master\"), even in the non-German-language media.", "He is further known as \"the Red Baron\" because of his red Ferrari and in reference to the German Manfred von Richthofen, the famous flying ace of the First World War.", "Schumacher's nicknames also include \"Schumi\", \"Schuey\", and \"Schu\".Schumacher has often been credited with popularising Formula One worldwide, especially in Germany, where it was formerly considered a fringe sport.", "In a 2006 FIA survey, he was voted the most popular driver of the season among Formula One fans.", "Throughout his career, Schumacher was subject to anti-German prejudices, especially from the British media.", "About his collision with Schumacher in 1994, British driver Damon Hill wrote: \"There are two things that set Michael apart from the rest of the drivers in Formula One − his sheer talent and his attitude.", "I am full of admiration for the former, but the latter leaves me cold.\"", "In addition to Hill, Schumacher also had rivalries with Mika Häkkinen, whom he beat for his first World Championship at Ferrari and the team's first Drivers' Championship since the season, and Fernando Alonso, who ended Schumacher's five-consecutive titles in the 2000s.", "Despite only facing him during Schumacher's brief comeback in the 2010s, Lewis Hamilton is also seen a rival due to their similar achievements and driving styles, and cited him as inspiration.When Schumacher first retired in 2006, three of the top ten drivers in that year's Drivers' standings were German, more than any other nationality.", "Younger German drivers, such as Sebastian Vettel, felt Schumacher was key in their becoming Formula One drivers.", "In 2020, Vettel named Schumacher the greatest Formula One driver of all time.", "During a large part of his Formula One career, Schumacher was the president of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association, a representative body originally set up in 1961 that had been disbanded in 1982 and Schumacher had helped to relaunch in 1994.In 2006, Formula One rival David Coulthard hailed Schumacher as the greatest all-round racing driver in the history of the sport, while three-time World Champion Niki Lauda stated: \"He is the greatest.", "Nobody will ever beat him, as long as we are alive.\"", "In 2020, Schumacher was voted the most influential person in Formula One history.===Jordan (1991)===Schumacher made his Formula One debut with the Irish Jordan-Ford team at the , driving car number 32 as a replacement for the imprisoned Bertrand Gachot.", "Schumacher, still a contracted Mercedes driver, was signed by Eddie Jordan after Mercedes paid Jordan $150,000 for his debut.The week before the race, Schumacher impressed Jordan designer Gary Anderson and team manager Trevor Foster during a test drive at the Silverstone circuit.", "Schumacher's manager Weber assured Jordan that Schumacher knew the challenging Spa-Francorchamps circuit well, although in fact he had only seen it as a spectator.", "During the race weekend, teammate Andrea de Cesaris was meant to show Schumacher the circuit but was held up with contract negotiations.", "Schumacher then learned the track on his own, by cycling around the track on a fold-up bike he brought with him.In his debut, Schumacher impressed the paddock by qualifying seventh; he did so in a midfield car, the Jordan 191, which he drove half a day of testing and at a track he had never raced at.", "This also matched the team's season-best grid position, and Schumacher outqualified veteran de Cesaris.", "''Motor Sport'' journalist Joe Saward reported that, after qualifying, \"clumps of German journalists were talking about 'the best talent since Stefan Bellof.", "Schumacher retired on the first lap of the race with clutch problems.===Benetton (1991–1995)===Following his Belgian Grand Prix debut, despite an agreement in principle between Jordan and Schumacher's Mercedes management that would see the German race for the Irish team for the remainder of the season, Schumacher was engaged by Benetton-Ford for the next race.", "Jordan applied for an injunction in the British courts to prevent Schumacher driving for Benetton but lost the case as they had not yet signed a final contract.====1991–1993: first points, podiums, and wins====Schumacher finished the season with four points out of six races.", "His best finish was fifth in his second race, the , in which he finished ahead of his teammate and three-time World Champion Nelson Piquet.", "He also outqualified Piquet four times out of five in the season run-in, and scored only half a point less than him in the time they were together.Benetton in at the .", "In 1992, he achieved the first of his 91 wins.At the start of the season the Sauber team, planning their Formula One debut with Mercedes backing for the following year, invoked a clause in Schumacher's contract that stated that if Mercedes entered Formula One, Schumacher would drive for them.", "It was eventually agreed that Schumacher would stay with Benetton; Peter Sauber stated that \"Schumacher didn't want to drive for us.", "Why would I have forced him?\"", "The year was dominated by the Williams FW14B of Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese, featuring powerful Renault engines, semi-automatic gearboxes, and active suspension to control the car's ride height.", "In the conventional Benetton B192, Schumacher took his place on the podium for the first time, finishing third in the .", "Through what has been described as a tactical masterstroke, he went on to take his first victory at the , in a wet race at the Spa-Francorchamps circuit, which by 2003 he would call \"far and away my favourite track\".", "That also marked as the last Formula One car to win a Grand Prix while sporting a H-pattern manual gearbox.From the 1992 Portuguese Grand Prix to the 1998 Monaco Grand Prix, Schumacher was not beaten by his teammate when both cars finished.", "1992 was also the first of many times that Schumacher beat his teammate through a full season, and Martin Brundle was fired as a result.", "Benetton team boss Flavio Briatore later regretted this decision, saying that he had underestimated the ability of both his drivers.", "Schumacher finished third in the Drivers' Championship in 1992 with 53 points, three points behind runner-up Patrese and three in front of the Brazilian Ayrton Senna.", "According to Jo Ramírez, a close friend of Senna, the Brazilian considered Schumacher \"the next big threat, way ahead of all the other drivers around at the time\".The Williams FW15C of Damon Hill and Alain Prost dominated the season as well.", "Benetton introduced their own active suspension and traction control early in the season, last of the frontrunning teams to do so.", "Schumacher won one race, the where he beat Prost, and had nine podium finishes; he retired in seven of the other 16 races.", "He finished the season in fourth, with 52 points, beating Patrese as teammate, so much so that Briatore and his team thought that Patrese was washed up and that they had no problem with their car.====1994–1995: back-to-back World Championship years====Schumacher drove the Benetton B194 to his first World Championship in 1994.Schumacher won his first Drivers' Championship in .", "Driving the Benetton B194, which has been called the worst car to have won a Formula One World Championship and was difficult to drive, so much so that Schumacher had three different teammates (JJ Lehto, Jos Verstappen, and Johnny Herbert) due to crashes, Schumacher won the first four races and finished the season with eight wins.", "He won six of the first seven races, including the in which he lapped the entire field, and was leading the , before a gearbox failure left him stuck in fifth gear for most of the race.", "Schumacher made two pit stops without stalling and finished the race in second place.", "Benetton boss Flavio Briatore stated that Schumacher's drive was one of the best he had ever seen.The 1994 season was marred by the death of Ayrton Senna, which was witnessed by Schumacher who was directly behind Senna, and that of Roland Ratzenberger during the ; there were also allegations of cheating during the 1994 Formula One season involving several teams, most particularly Schumacher's Benetton, having allegedly broken the sport's technical regulations.", "Following the San Marino Grand Prix, the Benetton, Ferrari, and McLaren teams were investigated on suspicion of breaking the FIA-imposed ban on electronic aids.", "Benetton and McLaren initially refused to hand over their source code for investigation.", "When they did so, the FIA discovered hidden functionality in both teams' software but no evidence that it had been used in a race.", "Both teams were fined $100,000 for their initial refusal to cooperate.", "The McLaren software, which was a gearbox program that allowed automatic shifts, was deemed legal.", "By contrast, the Benetton software was deemed to be a form of launch control that would have allowed Schumacher to make perfect starts, which was explicitly outlawed by the regulations; Benetton and Willem Toet, a Formula One aerodynamicist for over thirty years who worked at Benetton until 1994, stated that traction control was legally achieved through rotational inertia.", "There was no evidence to suggest the software was used.At the , Schumacher was penalised for overtaking Hill on the formation lap.", "He and Benetton then ignored the penalty and the subsequent black flag, which indicates that the driver must immediately return to the pits, for which he was disqualified and later given a two-race ban.", "Benetton blamed the incident on a communication error between the stewards and the team.", "Schumacher was also disqualified after winning the , after his car was found to have illegal wear on its skid block, a measure used after the accidents at Imola to limit downforce and hence cornering speed.", "Benetton protested that the skid block had been damaged when Schumacher spun over a kerb; the FIA rejected their appeal because of the pattern of wear and damage visible on the block.", "The two-race ban punishment was seen by many observers as petty and insignificant, and that it was a result of Benetton feud with the FIA, with Schumacher being a victim and the FIA trying to deny him his first World Championship.", "These incidents helped Damon Hill close the points gap, and Schumacher led by a single point going into the final race at the .", "On lap 36, Schumacher hit the guardrail on the outside of the track while leading.", "Hill attempted to pass but as Schumacher's car returned to the track there was a collision on the corner causing them both to retire.", "As a result, Schumacher won the Drivers' Championship, the first German to do so—Jochen Rindt (the only posthumous Drivers' Champion) was German but raced under the Austrian flag, and whose domination in was later equalled by Schumacher.", "The race stewards judged it as a racing accident and took no action against either driver.", "Although the Drivers' Championship had been decided in a similar manner in 1989 and 1990, public opinion was divided over the incident, and Schumacher was vilified in the British media.", "At the FIA conference after the race, Schumacher dedicated his title to Senna.Schumacher driving for Benetton in 1995 at the .", "That year, he won his second World Championship.In , Schumacher successfully defended his title with Benetton, which now had the same Renault engine as Williams; according to ''Motor Sport'' author Marcus Simmons, Benetton had the better team, while Williams had the superior car.", "Schumacher accumulated 33 more points than second-placed Hill.", "With Herbert as teammate, he took Benetton to its first Constructors' Championship, breaking the dominance of McLaren and Williams, and became the youngest two-time World Champion in Formula One history.", "The season was marred by several collisions with Hill, in particular an overtaking manoeuvre by Hill took them both out of the on lap 45, and again on lap 23 of the ; it also saw one of his career's best ovetakes, with the one over Jean Alesi giving him the win at the , after he reduced the half a minute gap in the final dozen laps.", "Schumacher won 9 of the 17 races, including the , and finished on the podium 11 times.", "It was only once that he qualify worse than fourth; at the , he qualified 16th but nevertheless went on to win the wet-dry race, finishing 16 seconds ahead of Hill, with whom he had ferocious wheel-to-wheel racing and involved some crucial strategic calls.", "His bad qualifying was a result of a crash he had in the final free practice, and by the time his car was rebuilt, it had started to rain; this ended his 56-race streak of outqualifiyng his teammates that started in 1992, after he missed a gear in qualifying in Adelaide in 1991 and was outqualified by Nelson Piquet.===Ferrari (1996–2006)===In , Schumacher joined Ferrari, a team that had last won the Drivers' Championship in and the Constructors' Championship in , for a salary of $60 million over two years.", "He left Benetton a year before his contract with them expired; he later cited the team's damaging actions in 1994 as his reason for opting out of his deal.", "A year later, Schumacher lured Benetton employees Rory Byrne (designer) and Ross Brawn (technical director) to Ferrari.", "Ferrari had previously come close to the championship in and .", "The team had suffered a disastrous downturn in the early 1990s, partially as its famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller, lighter, and more fuel-efficient V10s of its competitors.", "Various drivers, notably Alain Prost, had given the vehicles disparaging labels, such as \"truck\", \"pig\", and \"accident waiting to happen\".", "Furthermore, the poor performance of the Ferrari pit crews was considered a running joke.", "At the end of 1995, although the team had improved into a solid competitor, it was still considered inferior to front-running teams like Benetton and Williams.", "Schumacher declared the Ferrari F310 good enough to win a championship, although afterwards his teammate Eddie Irvine labelled the F310 \"an awful car\", a \"piece of junk\", and \"almost undriveable\", while designer John Barnard admitted that the car \"wasn't very good\".", "Irvine also later commented: \"The '96 Ferrari car was a disaster and was nearly undriveable.", "Only someone of Michael Schumacher's ability − and maybe Senna – could have driven it.", "\"During winter testing, Schumacher first drove a Ferrari, their 1995 Ferrari 412 T2, and was two seconds faster than former regulars Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger had been.", "Alesi and Berger were allowed to drive Schumacher's Benetton B195 with which he won the World Championship in 1995, and they could not believe how Schumacher had won with it, calling it \"the ugly ducking\" for being so ugly to drive and having many crashes.", "In a 1999 interview with his 1994 and 1995 World Championship rival Damon Hill, Schumacher recalled: \"You remember when I left Benetton, and Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger took their first steps in that Benetton?", "You remember how many crashes they had?", "...", "I mean, that car was really unbelievable.", "Really difficult to drive.", "It was so edgy.", "But it was fast when you just drove it exactly on that edge.", "Now, though, there have been a lot of aerodynamic improvements to the cars and so the cars I have driven have been a lot more stable.", "And that applies to most of the cars today.", "\"Schumacher, Brawn, Byrne, and Jean Todt have been credited as turning the struggling team into the most successful team in Formula One history, Schumacher became the byword for Formula One and motorsports in general.", "Three-time World Champion Jackie Stewart believed the transformation of the Ferrari team was Schumacher's greatest feat.", "At Ferrari, Schumacher scored 72 Grand Prix wins and won five consecutive Drivers' titles from 2000 to 2004.As of 2022, only Lewis Hamilton and Mercedes, both of whom were Schumacher's successor and his career last team, were considered in the same ballpark in terms of dominance and sustained success.", "According to Brawn, had Schumacher not retired in 2012 and not suffered a skii injury in 2013, he would have had a shot at winning his eight World Championship in .", "In 2023, Williams team principal James Vowles, who was Mercedes chief strategist during Schumacher's time at the team between 2010 and 2012 and was instrumental in the team's success in the mid-to-late 2010s, said that Schumacher brought Mercedes together.", "Vowles added: \"Schumacher also knew his performance was perhaps not quite at the same level, but he made up for it in terms of the amount of work and dedication he put in.", "From that, Nico learned a lot and conversely, Lewis learned a lot from Nico.", "\"====1996–1999: World Championship challenges====In 1996, Schumacher finished third in the Drivers' Championship and helped Ferrari to second place in the Constructors' Championship ahead of his old team Benetton.", "During the season, the car had reliability problems; Schumacher did not finish in 7 of the 16 races.", "At the , Schumacher took pole position but suffered engine failure on the formation lap.", "He won three races, more than the team's total tally for the period from 1991 to 1995, despite a poor chassis.", "He took his first win for Ferrari at the , where he lapped the entire field up to third place in the wet.", "After a bad start, which saw him dropping from third to sixth place, before taking the lead on lap 19, he consistently lapped five seconds faster than the rest of the field in the difficult conditions.", "At the , he used well-timed pit stops to fend off Williams' Jacques Villeneuve.", "He also took first place at the to win in front of the ''tifosi'' (Ferrari fans).Schumacher celebrates a second-place finish at the in 1997, the year he brought Ferrari to a Drivers' Championship challenge.Schumacher and Villeneuve competed for the title in , despite never sharing a podium and almost never battling directly on the track, in what has been described as the sport's most dramatic and controversial season finale.", "Villeneuve, driving the superior Williams FW19, led the championship in the early part of the season.", "Schumacher first win of the season came at the wet , in which he took a six-second lead after one lap.", "By mid-season, despite possibily driving not even the second-fastest car on the grid, Schumacher had taken the championship lead, winning five races, and entered the season's finale (the at the Jerez circuit) with a one-point advantage.", "In qualifying, Schumacher set the same fastest lap as Villeneuve and Heinz-Harald Frentzenn.", "He started in second position as Villeneuve set his fastest lap first but was able to jump him at the start.", "Towards the end of the race, Schumacher's Ferrari developed a coolant leak and loss of performance indicating he might not finish the race.", "As Villeneuve approached to pass his rival on lap 48, Schumacher turned in on him but retired from the race.", "Villeneuve went on and scored four points to take the championship.", "Despite public outcry, the race stewards did not initially award any penalty, as they had deemed it a racing incident; two weeks after the race, in an unprecedented move, Schumacher was disqualified from the entire 1997 Drivers' Championship after an FIA disciplinary hearing found that his \"manoeuvre was an instinctive reaction and although deliberate not made with malice or premeditation, it was a serious error.\"", "Initially feeling wronged, Schumacher accepted the decision and admitted having made a mistake, upon seeing the footage when he got out of the car and adrenaline had worn off.", "His actions were widely condemned in British, German, and Italian newspapers.", "Another view is that Villeneuve went into the corner too fast; without Schumacher turning into him, he would have overshot the turn and ended up in the gravel.", "In later years, Villeneuve himself admitted that he \"would never have made that corner without Schumacher's push\", and Schumacher stated in 2009 that if he could have his career over again, he would \"do some things differently\", citing Jerez 1997 as something that he would have changed in his career.Schumacher battles with David Coulthard in 1998 at the .", "For the second consecutive year, Schumacher lost out the World Championship at the last race.In , Finnish driver Mika Häkkinen became Schumacher's main title rival.", "Driving the superior McLaren MP4/13, Häkkinen won the first two races of the season, gaining a 16-point advantage over Schumacher, who then won the .", "With the Ferrari improving significantly in the second half of the season, Schumacher took six victories and had five other podium finishes.", "One of his victories was at the , a track where overtaking is difficult and that favoured McLaren; Schumacher drove 19 consecutive qualifying-like laps to make Ross Brawn's alternative three-stop strategy work and to go from third to first place.", "Brawn had told him: \"Michael, you have 19 laps to pull out 25 seconds.", "We need 19 qualifying laps from you.\"", "Schumacher ultimately came 9 seconds ahead of David Coulthard.", "Häkkinen, who started on pole, achieved only a point due to reliability issues.", "Ferrari took a 1–2 finish at the , the first Ferrari 1–2 finish since 1990, and at the , which tied Schumacher with Häkkinen for the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 80 points.", "There were two controversies during the 1998 season.", "At the , Schumacher was leading on the last lap when he turned into the pit lane, crossed the start-finish line, and stopped to serve his ten-second stop-go penalty, which was a result of overtaking the lapped car of Alexander Wurz during a safety car period.", "There was some doubt whether this counted as serving the penalty; because he had crossed the finish line when he came into the pit lane, the win was valid.", "The FIA rescinded the penalty due to taking 31 minuites, rather than within the 25 minutes limit, and rejected McLaren's protest.", "At the , Schumacher was leading the race by 40 seconds in heavy spray but collided with Coulthard's McLaren when the Scot, a lap down, slowed on the racing line in poor visibility to let Schumacher past.", "His Ferrari lost a wheel but could return to the pits, although he was forced to retire.", "Schumacher leaped out of his car and headed to McLaren's garage in an infuriated manner and accused Coulthard of \"trying to kill\" him.", "Coulthard admitted five years later that the accident had been his mistake.", "From a possible three-point lead, Schumacher was still seven points behind Häkkinen.", "Heading into the final race, the , Häkkinen held a four-point advantage over Schumacher, who started on pole but stalled and caused the start to be aborted, which meant he had to start from the back of the field.", "He made a comeback up to third but retired after hitting debris from an accident.", "Häkkinen won the Drivers' Championship by winning the final two races despite Schumacher being the polesitter both times, continuing Ferrari's longest World Championship drought.In , Schumacher's efforts helped Ferrari win the Constructors' Championship, the team's first title since 1983.He lost his chance to win the Drivers' Championship at the at the high-speed Stowe Corner; his car's rear brake failed, sending him off the track into the barriers and resulting in a broken leg.", "During his 98-day absence, he was replaced by Finnish driver Mika Salo.", "About his return, Schumacher's Eddie Irvine teammate recalled: \"It was amazing.", "I remember me and Mika Salo were testing at Mugello, which is one of the hardest circuits in the world – and he Schumacher hadn't driven for eight months.", "He got in the car and within a lap he was a tenth or two tenths slower than I was.", "How do you do that?", "And then of course a couple of laps later he's half a second quicker and – it's just impossible.", "It's really really annoying, but it was an honour to be able to see his telemetry and see the things he could do with a car.\"", "After missing six races, he made his return at the inaugural , qualifying in pole position with his career's greatest pole margin, with his time faster than Eddie Irvine by almost a second.", "He then assumed the role of second driver, helping Irvine to victory and assisting his teammate's bid to win the Drivers' Championship for Ferrari, with Irvine leading the championship by one point.", "About Schumacher's role, Irvine stated: \"He is not only the best driver in the world, he is also the best number two in the world.\"", "In the last race of the season, the , Häkkinen won his second consecutive title after he beat him off the line.", "Schumacher later said that Häkkinen was \"the best opponent I've had\" and the one he respected the most.====2000–2004: five consecutive World Championships====Schumacher driving for Ferrari in 2001 at the .", "The year prior, he had won Ferrari's first Drivers' Championship since 1979.in , Schumacher won his third Drivers' Championship, his first with Ferrari, after a year-long battle with Häkkinen.", "Schumacher won the first three races of the season and five of the first eight.", "Midway through the year, Schumacher's chances suffered with three consecutive non-finishes, allowing Häkkinen to close the gap in the standings.", "At the qualifying session, which was largely decided in the opening 10 minutes of semi-dry weather, Schumacher was able to improve his time in the final seconds and qualified second.", "In the race, he reitired after crashing out at the start, as his new teammate Rubens Barrichello took his maiden win from 18th.", "Häkkinen then took another two victories, before Schumacher won at the , his 41th career win.", "At the post-race press conference, after equalling the number of wins won by his idol Ayrton Senna, Schumacher broke into tears.", "The championship fight came down to the penultimate race of the season, the .", "Starting from pole position, Schumacher lost the lead to Häkkinen at the start.", "After his second pit stop, Schumacher came out ahead of Häkkinen and went on to win the race and the Drivers' Championship; he later described it as the fight of his life.", "Although Schumacher won more than twice as many Grands Prix as Häkkinen, BBC Sport journalist Andrew Benson stated that \"the challenge from Mika Hakkinen and McLaren-Mercedes was far stronger than the raw statistics suggest\" and that the Adrian Newey-designed McLaren was \"the fastest car in F1 for the third straight year\".", "Benson also hailed Schumacher as \"unquestionably the greatest driver of his era\".In , Schumacher took his fourth Drivers' title.", "Four other drivers won races but none sustained a season-long challenge for the championship.", "Schumacher scored a record-tying nine wins and clinched the World Championship with four races yet to run.", "He finished the championship with 123 points, 58 ahead of runner-up Coulthard.", "Season highlights included the , where he won after Häkkinen retired on the last lap due to his car's engine blowing up leading Schumacher to say he was sorry for him and that they had been \"bloody lucky\"; , where Schumacher finished second to his brother Ralf, thus scoring the first-ever 1–2 finish by brothers in Formula One; and the , in which Schumacher scored his 52nd career win, breaking Alain Prost's record for most career wins that had stood since 1993.Schumacher driving the Ferrari F2002 at the .", "It was at this race that he clinched the Drivers' Championship, setting the record for the fewest races in locking up the title.In , Schumacher retained his Drivers' Championship.", "In winning the Drivers' Championship, he equalled the record set by Juan Manuel Fangio of five World Championships.", "Ferrari won 15 out of 17 races, and Schumacher won the title with six races remaining in the season, which is still the earliest point in the season for a driver to be crowned World Champion.", "Schumacher broke his own record, shared with Nigel Mansell, of nine race wins in a season, by winning 11 times and finishing every race on the podium.", "He finished with 144 points, a record-breaking 67 points ahead of the runner-up, his teammate Barrichello.", "This pair finished nine of the 17 races in the first two places.During the 2002 season, there was some controversy at the , where Barrichello was leading but in the final metres of the race, under team orders, slowed down to allow Schumacher to win the race.", "Although the switching of positions did not break any actual sporting or technical regulation, as Ferrari did the same at the the previous year where Schumacher finishe second and Barrichello third, it angered fans and it was claimed that the team's actions showed a lack of sportsmanship and respect to the spectators.", "Many argued that Schumacher did not need to be given wins in only the sixth race of the season, which he would have won anyway, a view also shared by Jean Todt and Ross Brawn in retrospect, particularly given that he had already won four of the previous five Grands Prix, and that Barrichello had dominated the race weekend up to that point.", "At the podium ceremony, Schumacher pushed Barrichello onto the top step, and the Ferrari team incurred a $1 million fine for this disturbance.", "Schumacher vowed to pay back Barrichello, and later that same year returned the favour in several races to help him finish second in the standings.", "At the , Schumacher returned the favour, by giving Barrichello the win by 0.011 seconds, the second-closest margin on the finishing line in Formula One history in a failed dead heat finish.", "In an unplanned finish, Schumacher's explanation varied between it being him \"returning the favour\" for Austria, or trying to engineer a formation finish—a feat derided as near-impossible in a sport where timings are taken to within a thousandth of a second.", "After the end of the season, the FIA banned \"team orders which interfere with the race result\"; the ban was lifted for the 2011 season because the ruling was difficult to enforce.Schumacher at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in 2004, where he won the .", "2004 would be the last of his seven Drivers' Championships (a record shared with Lewis Hamilton since 2020), five of which were won consecutively from 2000 to 2004.Schumacher broke Fangio's 46-year record of five Drivers' Championships by winning the drivers' title for the sixth time in , after a closely contested battle with his main rivals, which was also a result of lobbying regarding the Michelin tyres.", "Before the season started, the FIA introduced new regulations and a new points system to make the championship more open.", "The biggest competition came from the McLaren-Mercedes and Williams-BMW teams.", "In the first race, Schumacher was run off track, and he was involved in collisions in the following two.", "He fell 16 points behind McLaren's Kimi Räikkönen.", "Despite the death of his mother Elisabeth just hours before the race, Schumacher won the despite being losing the first position into turn one.", "He also won the next two races and closed within two points of Räikkönen.", "Aside from Schumacher's victory at the and Barrichello's victory at the , the mid-season was dominated by Williams drivers Ralf Schumacher and Juan Pablo Montoya, who each claimed two victories.", "After the , Schumacher led Montoya and Räikkönen by only one and two points, respectively.", "Ahead of the next race, the FIA announced changes to the way tyre widths were to be measured: this forced Michelin, supplier to Williams and McLaren among others, to rapidly redesign their tyres before the .", "Schumacher, running on Bridgestone tyres, won the next two races.", "After Montoya was penalised in the , only Schumacher and Räikkönen remained in contention for the title.", "At the final round, the , Schumacher needed only one point whilst Räikkönen needed to win.", "By finishing the race in eighth place, Schumacher took one point and assured his sixth Drivers' title, ending the season two points ahead of Räikkönen.In , Schumacher won a record 12 of the first 13 races of the season, including the inaugural and the , only failing to finish in Monaco after an accident with Montoya during a safety car period.", "In August 2004, Schumacher's win at the contributed to Ferrari's sixth consecutive Constructors' Championship, and he later clinched a seventh Drivers' Championship at the .", "Earlier in July at the , Schumacher beat polesitter Fernando Alonso with a four-stop strategy.", "He finished the season with a record 148 points, 34 points ahead of the runner-up Barrichello, and set a new record of 13 race wins out of a possible 18, surpassing his previous best of 11 wins from the 2002 season.", "Between 2000 and 2004, Schumacher achieved five Drivers' Championships, 48 wins, and almost all Formula One records.", "With his fifth Drivers' Championship in a row, he also broke Fangio's record of consecutive titles that had stood for nearly fifty years.====2005–2006: rule changes and first retirement====Schumacher battling with Kimi Räikkönen in 2005 during the .", "Due to rule changes, he achieved only one win that year.Rule changes for the season required tyres to last an entire race, tipping the overall advantage to teams using Michelins over teams like Ferrari that relied on Bridgestone tyres.", "The rule changes were partly in an effort to dent Ferrari's dominance and make the series more interesting.", "The most notable moment of the early season for Schumacher was his battle with Renault R25 driver Fernando Alonso at the , where he started 13th and finished only 0.2 seconds behind Alonso.", "Less than halfway through the season, Schumacher stated: \"I don't think I can count myself in this battle any more.", "It was like trying to fight with a blunted weapon.", "If your weapons are weak you don't have a chance.\"", "Schumacher's sole win in 2005 came at the in a 1–2 finish with Rubens Barrichello.", "Before that race, the Michelin tyres were found to have significant safety issues.", "When no compromise between the teams and the FIA could be reached, all but the three teams using Bridgestone tyres dropped out of the race after the formation lap, leaving only six drivers on the grid.", "Schumacher retired in 6 of the 19 races, and finished the season in third with 62 points, fewer than half the points of World Champion Alonso.Schumacher overtakes Kimi Räikkönen for fourth with three laps to go of the , in what was the last race of a competitive 2006 season and his final race for three years, having dropped to 19th early on.", "became the last season of Schumacher's Ferrari career.", "After three races, Schumacher had just 11 points and was already 17 points behind Alonso.", "He won the following two races; his pole position at was his 66th, breaking Ayrton Senna's 12-year-old record, which was described as perhaps the greatest record that stood in the sport, and was a reversal of the 2005 race.", "Schumacher was stripped of pole position at the and started the race at the back of the grid, as he stopped his car and blocked part of the circuit while Alonso was on his qualifying lap; he still managed to work his way up to fifth place on the notoriously cramped Monaco circuit.", "Before the , the fourteenth race of the season, the FIA banned Renault's mass damper, with the superior Renault R26 suddenly no longer as competitive.", "By the , the ninth race of the season, Schumacher was 25 points behind Alonso; he then won the following three races, including at Hockenheim, to reduce his disadvantage to 11, and to 10 by Turkey.", "Since Canada, Ferrari won six out of seven races, including at Monza, with Schumacher winning in five of them.", "After further victories at the , where he announced his retirement at the end of the season, and at the , in what would be his 91th and final career win, Schumacher led in the championship standings for the first time during the season.", "After his win in Italy, Ferrari issued a press release stating that Schumacher would retire from racing at the end of the 2006 season but would continue working for the team.", "The ''tifosi'' and the Italian press, who did not always take to Schumacher's relatively cold public persona, displayed an affectionate response after he announced his retirement.BMW Sauber with \"Thanks Michael\" messages towards Schumacher on the back of their cars.", "He and Peter Sauber had worked together in sports cars before entering Formula One in 1992.After qualifying second, Schumacher led the in what could have seen him heading into the season finale with two points ahead of Alonso.", "With only 16 laps to go, his car suffered an engine failure for the first time since the , ending a 58-race sequence without a mechanical retirement, handing Alonso the victory.", "He also conceded the title; to win the Drivers' Championship, Schumacher would have had to win the final race and Alonso had to fail to score any point, and he did not wish to win the title like that.", "During the pre-race ceremonies of the season's last race, the , former football player Pelé presented a trophy to Schumacher for his achievements in Formula One.", "A fuel pressure problem prevented Schumacher from completing a single lap during the third qualifying session, forcing him to start the race in tenth position.", "Early in the race, Schumacher moved up to sixth place but suffered a puncture caused by the front wing of Giancarlo Fisichella's Renault.", "Schumacher fell to 19th place, 70 seconds behind teammate and race leader Felipe Massa.", "Schumacher recovered and overtook both Fisichella and Räikkönen, his successor at Ferrari following his retirement, to secure fourth place.", "His performance was praised, as he had the pace to win the race by a lap, and was variously classified in the press as \"heroic\", an \"utterly breath-taking drive\", and a \"performance that ... sums up his career\".At the time, Schumacher's 91 wins were 40 more than Alain Prost, who was his nearest rival.", "Schumacher held at least thirty-one records, including for most championship titles (7), consecutive titles (5), race victories (91), consecutive wins 7 (2004), wins with one team (72, Ferrari), wins at same Grand Prix (8, France), wins at different Grands Prix (20), time between first and last wins (14 years, 1 month, and 2 days), second places (43), podiums (154), consecutive podium finishes (19, 2001–2002), points finishes (190), laps leading (4.741, or 22,155 km), pole positions (68), front row starts (115), fastest laps (76), doubles (pole and win, 40), hat-tricks (pole, fastest lap, and win, 22), championship points (1,369), consecutive race finishes (24, 2001–2003), consecutive points finishes (24), points in a season for the runner-up (121 out of 180, 2006), wins in a season for the runner-up (7, 2006), races for same car and engine builder (180, Ferrari), wins at Indianapolis (5), wins at Monza (5), wins in a season (13, 2004), fastest laps in a season (10, 2004), points scored in a season (148, 2004), podium finishes in a season (17, 2002), championship won with most races left (6, 2002), and consecutive years with a win (15).====2007–2009: new roles at Ferrari, motorcycle racing, and injury====Schumacher at Finali Mondiali celebrations in the Ferrari F2007.It is the last Ferrari to have won the Driver's Championship since Schumacher.During the season, Schumacher acted as Ferrari's adviser and Jean Todt's super assistant.", "Schumacher also helped Ferrari with their development programme at the Jerez circuit.", "He focused on testing electronics and tyres for the season.", "During 2008, Schumacher also competed in motorcycle racing in the IDM Superbike series.", "At a Superbike cup race at the Pannónia-Ring, Schumacher finished third out of twenty-seven—behind professional motorcycle racers Martin Bauer and Andreas Meklau—riding a Honda CBR1000RR.At the on 25 July 2009, Ferrari's Felipe Massa was seriously injured after being struck by a suspension spring during qualifying.", "Ferrari announced that they planned to draft in Schumacher for the and subsequent Grands Prix until Massa was able to race again.", "Schumacher tested a modified Ferrari F2007 to prepare himself as he had been unable to test the Ferrari F60 due to testing restrictions.", "Ferrari appealed for special permission for Schumacher to test in a season spec car; Williams, Red Bull, and Toro Rosso were against this test.", "In the end, Schumacher was forced to call off his return due to the severity of the neck injury he had received in a motorcycle accident earlier in the year.", "Instead, Massa's place was first filled by Luca Badoer and later on by Giancarlo Fisichella.", "Schumacher described this aborted return to Formula One as his \"toughest moment\".===Mercedes (2010–2012)===In December 2009, Schumacher announced his return to Formula One for the season alongside fellow German driver and 24-years-old Nico Rosberg in the new Mercedes GP team.", "The season had ended with Brawn GP (taking over from Honda) winning both titles, after winning six of the first seven races.", "For the 2010 season, Mercedes returned to the sport as a constructor for the first time since 1955, and Schumacher rejoined team principal Ross Brawn, who was behind all of his seven World Championships.", "Schumacher stated that his preparations to replace the injured Massa had initiated a renewed interest in Formula One, which, combined with the opportunity to fulfil a long-held ambition to drive for Mercedes and to be working again with team principal Ross Brawn, led Schumacher to accept the offer once he was passed fit.Schumacher signed a three-year contract, reportedly worth £20 million.", "Schumacher's comeback was the most high profile in Formula One since Niki Lauda came out of a two-year retirement for the season to race for McLaren and went on to win a third world title in .", "He turned 41 in 2010, the same age Nigel Mansell won the 1994 Australian Grand Prix after having stepped in as a substitute following the death of Ayrton Senna, and his prospects with Mercedes were compared with Nigel Mansell, who had won a title at 39 and last competed aged 41; Damon Hill, who competed his final season at 39; and Juan Manuel Fangio, Formula One's oldest champion who was 46 when he won his fifth title.Although Schumacher ultimately did not win any race or title, his conduct during his comeback was for the most part with humility and dignity, even as fans and pundits criticised Schumacher's lack of pace, wailed for him to stop, and argued that he should never have come back in the first place.", "In the three seasons before he retired again, Schumacher finished ninth, eighth, and 13th in the standings, led three laps, and notched one podium over 58 races.", "Despite a difficult start, which included adaptation to significant different regulations and new Pirelli tyres, as well as rust, and being bested by his teammate, he improved in the next two years where he arguably outraced Rosberg but bad luck and mechanical failures did not reflect it at the standings.", "Speaking to the BBC in December 2009, he said: \"I want to have fun out there and I feel as fresh as ever.", "I've recharged myself after a three-year break.", "The challenge is what I look for – I want to know it.\"", "It has been argued that it was his 2009 motorcycle accident the reason why the comeback was not successful.", "In the words of Mark Hughes, \"I believe his motorcycle accident, and the damaged neurons from a neck injury that in 90 per cent of cases is fatal, was probably more responsible for his lack of form second time around than age or length of absence.", "\"====2010: return from retirement====After having impressed in the free practices, Schumacher finished sixth in the first race of the season at the , 1,239 days after his previous Formula One race.", "He finished behind teammate Nico Rosberg in each of the first four qualifying sessions and races; former driver Stirling Moss suggested that Schumacher might be \"past it\".", "Several other former Formula One drivers thought otherwise, including former rival Damon Hill, who warned \"you should never write Schumacher off\".", "GrandPrix.com identified the inherent understeer of the Mercedes car, exacerbated by the narrower front tyres introduced for the 2010 season, as contributing to Schumacher's difficulties.", "Jenson Button would later claim that Mercedes's car was designed for him, as he would initially drive for the team, and that their differing driving styles may have contributed to Schumacher's difficulties.Mercedes upgraded their car for the where Schumacher finished fourth.", "At the , Schumacher finished sixth after passing Ferrari's Fernando Alonso on the final corner before the finish line when the safety car returned to the pits.", "Mercedes held that \"the combination of the race control messages 'Safety Car in this lap' and 'Track Clear' and the green flags and lights shown by the marshals after safety car line one indicated that the race was not finishing under the safety car and all drivers were free to race.\"", "An FIA investigation found Schumacher guilty of breaching safety car regulations and awarded him a 20-seconds penalty, dropping him to 12th.", "In doing so, the FIA sought to clarify the regulations post-race, as the new and old rules appeared to be in conflict.At the , Schumacher qualified fifth and finished fourth in the race, both his best results since his return.", "At the in Valencia, Schumacher finished 15th, the lowest recorded finish in his career.", "At the , Rubens Barrichello attempted to pass Schumacher down the inside on the main straight.", "Schumacher closed the inside line to force Barrichello onto the outside; Barrichello persisted on the inside at despite the close proximity of a concrete wall and Schumacher leaving him only inches to spare.", "Schumacher, who finished 12th, was found guilty of dangerous driving and was demoted ten places on the grid for the following race, the , where he finished seventh despite starting 21st after his grid penalty.", "At the , Schumacher was involved in a major accident on the first lap, after Vitantonio Liuzzi's car collided with Schumacher's, barely missing his head.", "Schumacher finished the season in ninth place with 72 points.", "For the first time since 1991, Schumacher finished a year without a win, pole position, podium, or fastest lap.====2011–2012: final podium and second retirement====In 2011, Schumacher finished fourth in the .", "It was his best result for the season.After starting the season with a retirement, Schumacher's first points were scored at the where he finished ninth; Schumacher later came sixth in Spain, and he took fourth place at the , after running as high as second in a wet race; his Canadian race was seen at the time as his most convincing performance since he came out of retirement.", "Despite starting last at the , twenty years after his debut, Schumacher finished fifth.", "The saw Schumacher lead three laps during the race, marking the first time he had led a race since 2006.In doing so, he became the oldest driver to lead a race since Jack Brabham in 1970.Schumacher finished the season in eighth place in the Drivers' Championship, with 76 points.In 2012, Schumacher qualified fastest at the .", "It was the first time he did so since 2006.Schumacher at the in 2012.It was his penultimate career race.Schumacher was again partnered by Nico Rosberg at Mercedes for the season.", "After qualifying fourth in what was his best qualifying since his return, he retired from the season's inaugural , and scored a point in the second round at the with intermittent rain, after qualifying third.", "At the , Schumacher started on the front row but retired due to a loose wheel after a mechanic's error during a pit stop.After causing a collision with Bruno Senna at the , Schumacher received a five-place grid penalty for the .", "Twenty-one years into his career, Schumacher was fastest in qualifying in Monaco but started sixth owing to his penalty.", "He later retired from seventh place in the race.", "At the , Schumacher finished third, his only podium finish since his return to Formula One.", "At 43 years and 173 days, he became the oldest driver to achieve a podium since 1970, when Jack Brabham achieved second-place finish at the .", "At the , Schumacher set the fastest lap for the 77th time in his career.", "At the , Schumacher became the second driver in history (after Rubens Barrichello) to race in 300 Grands Prix; he took seventh place after starting 13th.Schumacher's indecision over his future plans led to him being replaced by Lewis Hamilton at Mercedes for the season.", "In October 2012, days before the , Schumacher announced he would retire for a second time, stating: \"There were times in the past few months in which I didn't want to deal with Formula One or prepare for the next Grand Prix.\"", "In what would be his 308th and last entry and 306th race start, Schuamcher concluded the season with a seventh-place finish at the , which was also the position he started his first Formula One race.", "During the race, he symbolically pulled over for fellow German Sebastian Vettel en route to his then third Drivers' Championship.Schumacher never won a race and never finished higher than eighth in the overall Formula One standings during his comeback, placing 13th in the 2012 Drivers' Championship, and closed his career with 91 wins,155 podiums, and 68 pole positions, which at the time were all records.", "Before it was surpassed by Hamilton in 2020, Schumacher's 91 wins were one short of the combined win totals of Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost; as of 2019, only 81 drivers in the history of the Formula One World Championship had started more races than he won.", "Although Schumacher did not win any race or title at Mercedes GP, which then went on to win a record-breaking (of Schumacher's Ferrari from 1999 to 2004) eight Constructors' Championships under Hamilton, Rosberg, and Valtteri Bottas from 2014 to , Ross Brawn said that \"Michael's contribution to our development and the future of our team has been significant\", and observed: \"In my opinion, he is the greatest Formula One driver, and the records which he holds in our sport speak volumes for his success and commitment.\"" ], [ "Helmet", "Schumacher, in conjunction with Schuberth, helped develop the first lightweight carbon fibre reinforced polymer helmet.", "In 2004, a prototype was publicly tested by being driven over by a tank; it survived intact.", "The helmet kept the driver cool by funneling directed airflow through fifty holes.", "Schumacher's original helmet sported the colours of the German flag and his sponsor's decals.", "On the top was a blue circle with white astroids.", "From the 2000 Monaco Grand Prix, in order to differentiate his colours from his new teammate Rubens Barrichello—whose helmet was predominantly white with a blue circle on top and a red ellipsis surrounding the visor—Schumacher changed the upper blue colour and some of the white areas to red.", "For the 2006 Brazilian Grand Prix, he wore an all-red helmet that included the names of his ninety-one Grand Prix victories.", "At the 2011 Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher's 20th anniversary in Formula One, he wore a commemorative gold-leafed helmet, which included the year of his debut and the seasons of his seven Drivers' titles.", "During his 300th Grand Prix appearance at the 2012 Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher wore a platinum-leafed helmet with a message of his achievement.File:Schumi 1994 Helmet.jpg|Helmet for the season (Benetton); Schumacher used the Bell Sports helmet for nine years in Formula One, from the to the .File:Michael Schumacher 1995 helmet 2015 Grand Prix Museum.jpg|Bell helmet for the season (Benetton); Schumacher kept using this white-coloured helmet after moving to Ferrari in until he switched its colour to red at the .File:Michael Schumacher helmet Museo Ferrari.jpg|Schuberth helmet for the season (Ferrari); at the , Schumacher switched his helmet from Bell to Schuberth, although there was a contract with Bell for the season.", "From the 2001 season, Schumacher continued to use the Schuberth helmet until his last race in Formula One.File:Michael Schumacher helmet.jpg|Schuberth helmet at the Museo Ferrari with the Marlboro logo, which sometimes had to be removed in countries where tobacco advertising was illegal.File:Schumacher 2011 helmet.jpg|Schuberth helmet for the season (Mercedes GP); Schumacher kept using a red-coloured helmet at Silver Arrows.", "Chinese dragon illustration and a Chinese character (力, which stands for \"power\") are inscribed on the back of the helmet." ], [ "Legacy", "Schumacher in 2007, the year after he first retired.", "By this time, he had achieved most of Formula One's records.Schumacher's career spanned three decades, or twenty-three years, and left a lasting impact on the sport, Formula One in particular but also motorsport as a whole, and his influence extended beyond his own racing career.", "By the time of his first retirement in 2006 and his final retirement in 2012, Schumacher was widely considered among the greatest Formula One drivers, a trend that continued into the 2020s.", "Several commentators and drivers, including among others multi-time World Champions Niki Lauda and Sebastian Vettel, former rival David Coulthard, former Formula One driver Giancarlo Fisichella, and Mercedes team bosses Ross Brawn and Toto Wolff, have at times described him as the greatest of his era and the greatest of all time.", "Schumacher was the sport's most dominant force in the 2000s, being described as statistically the most successful driver in Formula One history and the most complete Formula One driver ever.", "By 2004, Schumacher came to held most major Formula One records, and by 2006 his name was inscribed in almost all of Formula One's record books, including for most World Championships (7), most wins (91), most podiums (154), most pole positions (68), and most fastest laps (77), the latter a record he still holds.", "Although several of his records were later equalled or beaten, such as the most wins in a season at 13 (a record he first broke in 1995 and then equalled in 2000 and 2001, and further improved in 2002 and 2004), by multiple-time World Champions like Vettel, Lewis Hamilton, and Max Verstappen, others remain his, such as his 100 percent podium finish in 2002 (17), which included eleven wins, five second places, and one third place.As of 2006, Schumacher was the driver to have made the most starts with the same constructor (Ferrari, 180) and engine manufacturer (Ferrari, 180).", "He and Rubens Barrichello were the two drivers who have made the most starts as teammate (102, 2000–2005) and most 1–2 finishes (24 in the same period).", "In 2004, Schumacher tied Nigel Mansell for the record of most wins at the start of a season, and he tied Senna for most pole positions at the same circuit (eight, with Schumacher at Suzuka and Senna at Imola).", "At 15 seasons, he holds the record for most consecutive seasons of winning at least one race (shared with Hamilton), and he holds the record for most wins at the same venue (eight, at the Magny-Cours circuit in France) and also the record for the most wins in the same Grand Prix (eight, France).", "At the 2003 Italian Grand Prix, he set the record for the race win at the fastest ever average speed of 247.586 kph (153.843 mph).", "By 2006, he had spent a record 5,108 of his racing laps in the lead, and led 141 races.", "He also made the most starts from the front row (115), scored the most points (1,369) before the point-system was overhauled in 2010, finished the most races in the points consecutively (24, from 2001–2003), and held the record for most consecutive fastest laps at the same circuit (7).", "In 2002, he won the World Championship with six rounds to spare, which was earlier in the year than anyone before him (21 July).", "Objective mathematical models, such as Eichenberger and Stadelmann (2009, 3rd), original F1metrics (2014, 4th), Bell ''et al.''", "(2015, 3rd), ''FiveThirtyEight'' (2018, 2nd), and updated F1metrics (2019, 1st), put Schumacher consistenly among the top 10 and top 5 greatest Formula One drivers ever.Schumacher in 2010, the year he made his comeback at 40.Although he did not win any race or had any pole position, he set the fastest qualifying lap once, achieved his final podium, and became the second driver at the time to have started 300th Grands Prix.Schumacher, who dominated the sport in the 1990s and early 2000s becoming in 1995 the youngest back-to-back World Champion at the time, was noted for his ability in the rain, winning many of the wet races he took part in, most notability Spain in 1996, and for his race pace, being able to set consecutive qualifying fastest laps; due to refuelling, he missed out several pole positions, having set his race strategy through more fuel on board (from his debut in 1991 through to the end of 2002 before the introduction of race-fuel qualifying from 2003 onwards, Schumacher was only outqualified 13 times in 178 race entries), and won 23 percent more than his pole positions.", "He also respectively won 51 and 24 times without starting first or from the front row, and had 48 wins with fastest lap, all three being more than any other driver, and converted 40 of his pole positions to wins at 58 percent, a record number that was later beaten by Hamilton.", "By the time he first retired in 2006, with 91 wins in 248 starts out of 250 entries (only behind Riccardo Patrese), Schumacher had a win ratio of 36 percent of starts, ahead of Formula One legends Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost, both of them at 25 percent of starts.", "He also had 27 percent of pole positions, 30 percent of fastest laps, and the most victories from pole with fastest lap at 22.He also could have won even more races had he went to the dominant teams of the 1990s (Williams and McLaren) and not joined Ferrari in 1996, a view echoed by his former teammate Eddie Irvine, and could have become the first driver to win 100 races were it not for some situations that went beyond his control, such as reliability issues causing him to finish lower than first in 1994, one revoked win in 1994, two unfortunate collisions with Coulthard and Juan Pablo Montoya in 1998 and 2004, the two wins he gave to Irvine and Barrichello in 1999 and 2002, and retirements in 1994, 2006, and 2012.Schumacher was noted for beating all his teammates during his Formula One career, except for his debuting not-fully season against three-time World Champion Nelson Piquet, once for 1999 World Championship runner-up Eddie Irvine due to missing six races after a leg injury, and future 2016 World Champion Nico Rosberg when he was in his 40s.", "Schumacher was also noted for outperforming his cars and for his ability to operate at his peak on every lap, having won significant more races than he had either pole positions or fastest laps.", "Apart from dominating the 1995, 2001, 2002, and 2004 World Championships (with 2002 and 2004 being the sole years where he drove the clear-cut fastest car as Barrichello was the runner-up both years), he won the competitive 2003 World Championship and either won (three times) or narrowly missed (two times) World Championships despite arguably driving an inferior car (1994, 1995, 1997, 1998, and 2000), and arguably would have won in 1999 had it been for the injury, as the perfomance gap from McLaren was far smaller than in 1998.Since the 1994 death of Senna, Schumacher was widely regarded as the fastest driver in Formula One and the most dominant driver of his era.", "During his long career, Schumacher was also involved in several controversies, most notability the 1994 and 1997 World Championship seasons finale and the 2006 Monaco qualifying.", "These episodes have been seen as a result of Schumacher's will-to-win mentality.", "In 2020, Martin Brundle commented: \"The make-up of a champion is one of such inner self-belief that occasionally it shows up as flaws.", "The majority of the sporting greats I've met drive themselves forwards because they are always dissatisfied.", "But look at what Michael achieved, the speed at which he achieved it, and what he accomplished at two different teams.", "It's so hard to get to F1, to stay in it, to score podiums, and win races.", "And that guy won 91 of them, some of them in a class of one.\"" ], [ "Honours", "Turns 9 and 10 of the Nürburgring were renamed after Schumacher in 2007.Schumacher has been honoured many times.", "In 1992, the German Motor Sport Federation awarded him the ONS Cup, the highest accolade in German motorsport; he also won the trophy in 1994, 1995, and 2002.In 1993, he won a Bambi Award (Sports) and was the first racing driver to receive the Golden Steering Wheel.", "In 1994 and from 2001 to 2003, Schumacher was voted European Sportsperson of the Year by the International Sports Press Association.", "He was voted by Polish Press Agency the European Sportsperson of the Year from 2001 to 2003.In 1995 and from 2000 to 2002, he was named Autosport International Racing Driver of the Year.", "Schumacher was voted German Sportspersonality of the Year in 1995 and 2004.During the latter year, he was voted Germany's greatest sportsperson of the 20th century, beating Birgit Fischer and Steffi Graf to the accolade.", "For his sports achievements and his commitment to road safety, Schumacher was awarded Germany's highest sporting accolade, the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt, in 1997.In 2002, for his contributions to sport and his contributions in raising awareness of child education, Schumacher was named as one of the UNESCO Champions for Sport.Schumacher won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year in 2002 and 2004, received the Marca Leylenda award in 2001, was named L'Équipe Champion of Champions three times (from 2001 to 2003), won the Gazzetta World Sports Award twice (2001 and 2002), and won the 2003 Lorenzo Bandini Trophy.", "In honour of Schumacher's racing career and his efforts to improve road safety and the sport, he was awarded an FIA Gold Medal for Motor Sport in 2006.The same year, ahead of his final race for Ferrari at Interlagos on 22 October, football player Pelé presented a \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" to Schumacher.", "In 2007, he received the Prince of Asturias Award for Sport for his sporting prowess and his humanitarian record.", "Together with Sebastian Vettel, Schumacher won the Race of Champions Nations' Cup six times in a row for Germany, from 2007 to 2012.In 2017, Schumacher was inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame and Germany's Sports Hall of Fame.", "In 2020, Jean Todt honoured Schumacher with the FIA President Award, in recognition of Schumacher's seven World Championships and the \"inspiration his sporting and personal commitments brought to the world\".In Sarajevo, Schumacher was granted honorary citizenship, while the Assembly of the Sarajevo Canton renamed major city transversal street after him, and earlier a large street mural was painted in a city neighborhood of Dobrinja by a group of artists.", "Honorary citizenship was also granted by Maranello, Modena, and Spa.", "He was appointed Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, was honoured with the Commander of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, and was appointed an ambassador of San Marino.", "In 2008, the Swiss Football Association appointed Schumacher as the country's ambassador for UEFA Euro 2008, hosted by Switzerland and Austria.", "In recognition of his contribution to Formula One, the Nürburgring circuit renamed turns 9 and 10 as the Schumacher S in 2007.In 2014, the first corner of the Bahrain International Circuit was renamed in honour of Schumacher.", "He was awarded the State Prize of North Rhine-Westphalia in 2022." ], [ "Personal life and philanthropy", "In August 1995, Schumacher married Corinna Betsch.", "They have two children, a daughter Gina-Maria (born 20 February 1997) and a son, Mick (born 22 March 1999).", "Schumacher has always been very protective of his private life and is known to dislike the celebrity spotlight.", "From late 1991 until May 1996, Schumacher resided in Monaco.", "The family moved to a newly built mansion near Gland, Switzerland, in 2007, covering an area of with a private beach on Lake Geneva and featuring an underground garage and petrol station, with a vintage Shell fuel pump.", "Schumacher and his wife own horse ranches in Texas and Switzerland.", "Schumacher's younger brother Ralf, his son Mick, his nephew David and step-brother Sebastian Stahl have also been racing drivers.", "Ralf Schumacher competed in Formula One for ten years, starting from 1997 until the end of 2007.Mick became the third Schumacher to race in Formula One, having made his debut with Haas F1 Team in the season.Before his skiing accident, Schumacher's main hobbies included horse riding, motorcycle racing, and sky diving, and he played football for his local team FC Echichens.", "Schumacher appeared in several charity football games, and organised games between Formula One drivers.", "He is a supporter of 1.FC Köln, his local football club where he grew up, citing Pierre Littbarski and Harald Schumacher as his idols.", "He is a Roman Catholic.In 2006, Schumacher had a voice role in the Disney/Pixar film ''Cars''.", "His character is himself as a Ferrari F430 who visits the town of Radiator Springs to get new tires from Luigi and Guido at the recommendation of Lightning McQueen.", "During arrival, Luigi and Guido both faint in excitement when they see him.", "The French film ''Asterix at the Olympic Games'' features Schumacher in a cameo role as a chariot driver called Schumix.", "In 2009, Schumacher appeared on the BBC's motoring programme ''Top Gear'' as the Stig.", "Presenter Jeremy Clarkson hinted later in the programme that Schumacher was not the regular Stig, which the BBC subsequently confirmed.", "Schumacher was there because Ferrari would not allow anyone else to drive the unique black Ferrari FXX that was featured in the show.", "In July 2021, Netflix announced the first officially approved documentary film about Schumacher—called ''Schumacher''—which was released on 15 September 2021.Schumacher was a special ambassador to UNESCO and has donated €1.5 million to the organisation.", "Additionally, he paid for the construction of a school for poor children and for area improvements in Dakar, Senegal.", "He supported a hospital for child victims of the siege in Sarajevo, which specialises in caring for amputees.", "In Lima, Peru, he funded the Palace for the Poor, a centre for helping homeless street children obtain an education, clothing, food, medical attention, and shelter.", "Schumacher told ''F1 Magazine'': \"It's great if you can use your fame and the power your fame gives you to draw attention to things that really matter.\"", "For the 2002 European floods, Schumacher donated €1 million; years later, Schumacher did the same when he donated €500,000 after the 2013 European floods.", "He donated $10 million for aid after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which surpassed that of any other sports person, most sports leagues, many worldwide corporations and even some countries.", "From 2002 to 2006, he donated at least $50 million to various charities.", "In 2008, he donated between $5 million and $10 million to the Clinton Foundation.Since his participation in an FIA European road safety campaign, as part of his punishment after the collision at the 1997 European Grand Prix, Schumacher continued to support other campaigns, such as Make Roads Safe, which is led by the FIA Foundation and calls on G8 countries and the United Nations to recognise global road deaths as a major global health issue.", "In 2008, Schumacher was the figurehead of an advertising campaign by Bacardi to raise awareness about responsible drinking.", "He featured in an advertising campaign for television, cinema and online media, supported by consumer engagements, public relations and digital media across the world.===Finance and sponsorship===Schumacher was an advertising partner for watchmaker Omega SA.", "When he won his third title in 2000, which was the first with Ferrari, the ''Speedmaster Racing'' was issued in a ''Schumacher Edition'' having his signature on the back.In 1999 and 2000, ''Forbes'' magazine listed him as the highest paid athlete in the world.", "In 2005, ''EuroBusiness'' magazine identified Schumacher as the world's first billionaire athlete.", "In 2005, ''Forbes'' ranked him 17th in its \"The World's Most Powerful Celebrities\" list.", "A significant share of his income came from advertising; Deutsche Vermögensberatung paid him $8 million over three years from 1999 for wearing a 10 by 8 centimetre advertisement on his post-race cap.", "In 2010, his personal fortune was estimated at £515 million.", "In 2017, ''Forbes'' designated Schumacher as the athlete with the fifth highest career earnings of all-time.===2013 skiing accident===On 29 December 2013, Schumacher was skiing with his then 14-year-old son Mick, descending the Combe de Saulire below the Dent de Burgin above Méribel in the French Alps.", "An experienced skier, while crossing an unsecured off-piste area between Piste Chamois and Piste Mauduit, he fell and hit his head on a rock, sustaining a serious head injury despite wearing a ski helmet.", "According to his physicians, he would most likely have died had he not been wearing a helmet.", "He was airlifted to Grenoble Hospital where he underwent two surgical interventions.", "Schumacher was put into a medically induced coma because of traumatic brain injury.", "By March 2014, there were small encouraging signs.", "In early April 2014, he was showing moments of consciousness as he was gradually withdrawn from the medically induced coma.In June 2014, Schumacher left Grenoble Hospital for further rehabilitation at the Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland.", "In September 2014, Schumacher left the hospital and was brought back to his home for further rehabilitation.", "Since Schumacher's accident, there was little public information about his condition or recovery, with his family asking for privacy.", "In November 2014, it was reported that Schumacher was \"paralysed and in a wheelchair\", and that he \"cannot speak and has memory problems\".", "In May 2015, Schumacher's manager Sabine Kehm stated that his condition was slowly improving \"considering the severeness of the injury he had\".In September 2016, Felix Damm, lawyer for Schumacher, told a German court that his client \"cannot walk\", in response to reports from December 2015 in German publication ''Die Bunte'' that he could walk again.", "In July 2019, former Ferrari manager Jean Todt stated that Schumacher was making \"good progress\" but also \"struggles to communicate\".", "Todt also said that Schumacher was able to watch Formula One races on television at his home.", "In September 2019, ''Le Parisien'' reported that Schumacher had been admitted to the Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou in Paris for treatment by cardiovascular surgeon Philippe Menasché, described as a \"pioneer in cell surgery\".", "Following the treatment, which involved him receiving an anti-inflammatory stem cell perfusion, medical staff stated that Schumacher was \"conscious\".Schumacher's family maintains strict privacy about his condition; , he has not been seen in public since the accident.", "In April 2023, ''Die Aktuelle'' published what it advertised as a \"first interview\" with Schumacher, including alleged quotes from his about his health and family; it soon emerged that these responses had been invented by generative artificial intelligence.", "Schumacher's family said that they would sue the magazine, which fired the editor responsible." ], [ "Karting record", "===Karting career summary===SeasonSeriesTeamPosition1984CIK-FIA Junior World Cup — ICA NCGerman Karting Championship — Junior'''1st'''1985CIK-FIA Junior World Cup — ICA'''2nd'''German Karting Championship — Junior'''1st''' 1986German Karting Championship — Senior'''3rd'''1987German Karting Championship — Senior'''1st'''CIK-FIA European Championship — 100cc'''1st'''Sources:" ], [ "Racing record", "===Career summary===SeasonSeriesTeamRacesWinsPolesF/LapsPodiumsPointsPosition1988European Formula Ford 1600Eufra Racing4110350'''2nd'''German Formula Ford 1600730051246thFormula KönigHoecker Sportwagenservice1091110192'''1st'''1989German Formula ThreeWTS Racing122207163'''3rd'''FIA European Formula 3 Cup10000N/ANCMacau Grand Prix10000N/ANC1990World Sportscar ChampionshipTeam Sauber Mercedes31013215thGerman Formula ThreeWTS Racing115647148'''1st'''FIA European Formula 3 Cup10110N/ANCMacau Grand Prix11000N/A'''1st'''Deutsche Tourenwagen MeisterschaftHWA AG100000NC1991Formula OneTeam 7UP Jordan10000014thCamel Benetton Ford500004World Sportscar ChampionshipTeam Sauber Mercedes81022439thDeutsche Tourenwagen MeisterschaftZakspeed Racing400000NCJapanese Formula 3000Team LeMans10001612th1992Formula OneCamel Benetton Ford16102853'''3rd'''1993Formula OneCamel Benetton Ford161059524th1994Formula OneMild Seven Benetton Ford148681092'''1st'''1995Formula OneMild Seven Benetton Renault1794811102'''1st'''1996Formula OneScuderia Ferrari S.p.A.16342859'''3rd'''1997Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro17533878DSQ1998Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro166361186'''2nd'''1999Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro102356445th2000Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro1799212108'''1st'''2001Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro17911314123'''1st'''2002Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro17117717144'''1st'''2003Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro16655893'''1st'''2004Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro181381015148'''1st'''2005Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro19113562'''3rd'''2006Formula OneScuderia Ferrari Marlboro1874712121'''2nd'''2010Formula OneMercedes GP Petronas F1 Team190000729th2011Formula OneMercedes GP Petronas F1 Team190000768th2012Formula OneMercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team2000114913th===Complete German Formula Three results===(key) (Races in '''bold''' indicate pole position) (Races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 DC Pts 1989 WTS Racing VolkswagenHOCNÜRAVUBRN'''ZEL'''HOCWUNHOCDIENÜR'''NÜR'''HOC'''3rd''' 1990 WTS Racing '''ZOL''''''HOC'''NÜR''AVU'''''WUN'''NOR'''''ZEL'''''''DIE'''''''NÜR''''''''NÜR'''HOC'''1st''''''148'''===Complete World Sportscar Championship results===(key) (Races in '''bold''' indicate pole position; races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Class Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Pts 1990 Team Sauber Mercedes C Mercedes-Benz C11 Mercedes-Benz M119 5.0 V8 t SUZ MNZ SIL SPA DIJ NÜR DON CGV ''MEX'' 5th 21 1991 Team Sauber Mercedes C1 Mercedes-Benz C291 Mercedes-Benz M291 3.5 F12 SUZ MNZ SIL NÜR MAG ''MEX'' AUT 9th 43 C2 Mercedes-Benz C11 Mercedes-Benz M119 5.0 V8 t ''LMS''===Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft results=== Year Team Car 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Pts 1990 AMG Motorenbau GmbH Mercedes 190 E 2.5–16 Evo II ZOL1 ZOL2 HOC1 HOC2 NÜR1 NÜR2 AVU1 AVU2 MFA1 MFA2 WUN1 WUN2 NÜR1 NÜR2 NOR1 NOR2 DIE1 DIE2 NÜR1 NÜR2 HOC1 HOC2 NC 0 1991 Zakspeed Racing Mercedes 190 E 2.5–16 Evo II ZOL1 ZOL2 HOC1 HOC2 NÜR1 NÜR2 AVU1 AVU2 WUN1 WUN2 NOR1 NOR2 DIE1 DIE2 NÜR1 NÜR2 ALE1 ALE2 HOC1 HOC2 BRN1 BRN2 DON1 DON2 NC 0===24 Hours of Le Mans results=== Year Team Co-drivers Car Class Laps Team Sauber Mercedes Karl Wendlinger Fritz Kreutzpointner Mercedes-Benz C11 C2 355 5th 5th===Complete Japanese Formula 3000 Championship results===(key) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Pts 1991 Team LeMans Ralt RT23 Mugen SUZ AUT FUJ MIN SUZ SUG FUJ SUZ FUJ SUZ FUJ 12th 6===Complete Formula One results===(key) (Races in '''bold''' indicate pole position; races in ''italics'' indicate fastest lap)Year EntrantChassis Engine1234567891011121314151617181920 PtsTeam 7UP JordanJordan 191Ford HBB 4 3.5 V8USABRASMRMONCANMEXFRAGBRGERHUNBEL14th4Camel Benetton FordBenetton B191Ford HBA 5 3.5 V8ITAPORESPJPNAUSCamel Benetton FordBenetton B191BFord HB 3.5 V8RSAMEXBRA'''3rd''''''53'''Benetton B192ESPSMRMONCANFRAGBRGERHUN''BEL''ITAPORJPN''AUS''Camel Benetton FordBenetton B193Ford HB 3.5 V8RSA''BRA''4th52Benetton B193BEURSMR''ESP''MON''CAN''''FRA''GBR''GER''HUNBELITAPORJPNAUSMild Seven Benetton FordBenetton B194Ford Zetec-R 3.5 V8''BRA''''PAC''SMR'''''MON''''''''''ESP''''''''''CAN'''''FRAGBRGER'''''HUN'''''BELITAPOR'''''EUR''''''''JPN'''''AUS'''''1st''''''92'''Mild Seven Benetton RenaultBenetton B195Renault RS7 3.0 V10''BRA''''ARG'''''SMR''''''ESP'''MON'''''CAN'''''''FRA''GBR''GER''HUNBELITAPOR''EUR''''PAC'''''''JPN'''''AUS'''1st''''''102'''Scuderia Ferrari S.p.A.Ferrari F310Ferrari 046 3.0 V10AUSBRAARGEUR'''SMR''''''MON'''''ESP''CAN'''FRA'''GBRGER'''HUN'''BEL''ITA''PORJPN'''3rd''''''59'''Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F310BFerrari 046/2 3.0 V10AUSBRAARGSMR''MON''ESP'''CAN''''''''FRA'''''''GBR''GER'''HUN'''BELITAAUTLUXJPNEURDSQ‡78Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F300Ferrari 047 3.0 V10AUSBRAARG''SMR''ESPMON''CAN''FRA''GBR''AUTGER''HUN''''BEL'''''ITA''''''LUX''''''''JPN''''''''2nd''''''86'''Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F399Ferrari 048 3.0 V10''AUS''BRA''SMR''MON''ESP'''''CAN'''FRAGBRAUTGERHUNBELITAEUR'''''MAL''''''''''JPN'''''5th44Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F1-2000Ferrari 049 3.0 V10AUS''BRA''SMRGBR'''ESP'''''EUR'''''MON''''''CAN''''''FRA'''AUTGER'''HUN'''BEL'''ITA''''''USA''''''JPN''''''MAL''''''1st''''''108'''Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F2001Ferrari 050 3.0 V10'''''AUS''''''''MAL''''''BRA'''SMR'''''ESP''''''''AUT'''MON'''CAN''''''EUR'''FRA'''GBR'''GER'''HUN'''''BEL''ITA'''USA''''''JPN''''''1st''''''123'''Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F2001BFerrari 050 3.0 V10AUS'''MAL''''''1st''''''144'''Ferrari F2002Ferrari 051 3.0 V10BRA'''SMR''''''''ESP'''''''AUT''MONCAN''EUR''GBRFRA'''''GER'''''''HUN'''''''BEL'''''ITA'''USA''''''''JPN'''''Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F2002Ferrari 051 3.0 V10'''AUS'''''MAL''BRA'''''SMR''''''''1st''''''93'''Ferrari F2003-GAFerrari 052 3.0 V10'''ESP''''''''AUT'''''MONCANEURFRAGBRGERHUN'''''ITA'''''''USA''JPNScuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F2004Ferrari 053 3.0 V10'''''AUS''''''''MAL''''''''BHR'''''''SMR'''''''ESP'''''''MON'''''''EUR'''''CANUSA''FRA''''GBR'''''GER''''''''HUN'''''BELITA''CHN'''''JPN'''BRA'''1st''''''148'''Scuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari F2004MFerrari 053 3.0 V10AUSMAL'''3rd''''''62'''Ferrari F2005Ferrari 055 3.0 V10BHR''SMR''ESP''MON''EURCAN''USA''FRAGBRGER'''HUN'''TURITABELBRAJPNCHNScuderia Ferrari MarlboroFerrari 248 F1Ferrari 056 2.4 V8'''BHR'''MALAUS'''SMR'''''EUR''ESP''MON''GBRCAN'''''USA''''''''''FRA'''''''GER''HUN''TUR''ITACHNJPN''BRA'''''2nd''''''121'''Mercedes GP Petronas F1 TeamMercedes MGP W01Mercedes FO 108X 2.4 V8BHRAUSMALCHNESPMONTURCANEURGBRGERHUNBELITASINJPNKORBRAABU9th72Mercedes GP Petronas F1 TeamMercedes MGP W02Mercedes FO 108Y 2.4 V8AUSMALCHNTURESPMONCANEURGBRGERHUNBELITASINJPNKORINDABUBRA8th76Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 TeamMercedes F1 W03Mercedes FO 108Z 2.4 V8AUSMALCHNBHRESPMONCANEURGBR''GER''HUNBELITASINJPNKORINDABUUSABRA13th49 Schumacher was disqualified from the 1997 World Drivers' Championship due to dangerous driving in the , where he caused an avoidable accident with Jacques Villeneuve.", "His points tally would have placed him in second place in that year's standings.", "Driver did not finish the Grand Prix but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.===Formula One records===Schumacher holds the following Formula One records: Record Date first achieved Current record '''Most World Championship titles''' 7 '''Most consecutive titles''' – 5 '''Most races left in the season when becoming World Champion''' 6 '''Most wins at the same Grand Prix''' French Grand Prix (1994–1995, 1997–1998, 2001–2002, 2004, 2006) 8 '''Most wins at the same circuit'''Magny-Cours8 '''Most seasons with a win''' – 15 '''Most consecutive seasons with a win''' – 15 '''Most wins in a driver's home country'''German Grand Prix (1995, 2002, 2004, 2006)European Grand Prix (1995, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2006)9 '''Most wins not starting from pole position'''2002 Australian Grand Prix51'''Most wins with fastest lap'''2000 Brazilian Grand Prix48 '''Most consecutive top two finishes''' 2002 Brazilian Grand Prix – 2002 Japanese Grand Prix 15 '''Highest percentage of podium finishes in a season''' 100% '''Most consecutive podium finishes''' 2001 United States Grand Prix – 2002 Japanese Grand Prix 19'''Most consecutive podium finishes from first race of season'''2002 Australian Grand Prix – 2002 Japanese Grand prix17 '''Most fastest laps''' 2001 Australian Grand Prix 77 '''Most fastest laps in a season''' 10'''Most seasons with a fastest lap'''1992–2006, 201216'''Most consecutive seasons with a fastest lap'''1992–200615 '''Most hat-tricks (pole, win, and fastest lap)''' 2002 Japanese Grand Prix 22'''Footnotes'''" ], [ "See also", "* 15761 Schumi* ''Forbes'' list of the world's highest-paid athletes* Häkkinen–Schumacher rivalry* Hill–Schumacher rivalry* List of career achievements by Michael Schumacher* ''Michael Schumacher Racing World Kart 2002''* ''Schumacher''" ], [ "References", "'''Specific''''''General'''* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Kartcenter and Museum* Kartteam Kaiser-Schumacher-Muchow* Formula1.com Profile" ] ]
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[ [ "Muonium" ], [ "Introduction", "A muonium atom'''Muonium''' () is an exotic atom made up of an antimuon and an electron, which was discovered in 1960 by Vernon W. Hughes and is given the chemical symbol Mu.", "During the muon's lifetime, muonium can undergo chemical reactions.", "Because, like a proton, the antimuon's mass is vastly larger than that of the electron, muonium () is more similar to atomic hydrogen () than positronium ().", "Its Bohr radius and ionization energy are within 0.5% of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium, and thus it can usefully be considered as an exotic light isotope of hydrogen.Although muonium is short-lived, physical chemists study it using muon spin spectroscopy (μSR), a magnetic resonance technique analogous to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) or electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy.", "Like ESR, μSR is useful for the analysis of chemical transformations and the structure of compounds with novel or potentially valuable electronic properties.", "Muonium is usually studied by muon spin rotation, in which the Mu atom's spin precesses in a magnetic field applied transverse to the muon spin direction (since muons are typically produced in a spin-polarized state from the decay of pions), and by avoided level crossing (ALC), which is also called level crossing resonance (LCR).", "The latter employs a magnetic field applied longitudinally to the polarization direction, and monitors the relaxation of muon spins caused by \"flip/flop\" transitions with other magnetic nuclei.Because the muon is a lepton, the atomic energy levels of muonium can be calculated with great precision from quantum electrodynamics (QED), unlike in the case of hydrogen, where the precision is limited by uncertainties related to the internal structure of the proton.", "For this reason, muonium is an ideal system for studying bound-state QED and also for searching for physics beyond the Standard Model." ], [ "Nomenclature", "Normally in the nomenclature of particle physics, an atom composed of a positively charged particle bound to an electron is named after the positive particle with \"-ium\" replacing an \"-on\" suffix, in this case \"muium\".", "Replacing \"-on\" with (or otherwise appending) \"-onium\" is mostly used for bound states of a particle with its own antiparticle.", "The exotic atom consisting of a muon and an antimuon (which is yet to be observed) is known as true muonium." ], [ "See also", "* Muonic hydrogen* Muon-catalyzed fusion" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Medicine man" ], [ "Introduction", "Ojibwe 'ceremonial leader' in a 'medicine lodge'A '''medicine man''' or '''medicine woman''' is a traditional healer and spiritual leader who serves a community of Indigenous people of the Americas.", "Individual cultures have their own names, in their respective languages, for spiritual healers and ceremonial leaders in their particular cultures." ], [ "Cultural context", "Yup'ik \"medicine man exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy\" in Nushagak, Alaska, 1890sIn the ceremonial context of Indigenous North American communities, \"medicine\" usually refers to ''spiritual'' healing.", "Medicine men/women should not be confused with those who employ Native American ethnobotany, a practice that is very common in a large number of Native American and First Nations households.The terms ''medicine people'' or ''ceremonial people'' are sometimes used in Native American and First Nations communities, for example, when Arwen Nuttall (Cherokee) of the National Museum of the American Indian writes, \"The knowledge possessed by medicine people is privileged, and it often remains in particular families.", "\"Native Americans tend to be quite reluctant to discuss issues about medicine or medicine people with non-Indians.", "In some cultures, the people will not even discuss these matters with American Indians from other tribes.", "In most tribes, medicine elders are prohibited from advertising or introducing themselves as such.", "As Nuttall writes, \"An inquiry to a Native person about religious beliefs or ceremonies is often viewed with suspicion.\"", "One example of this is the Apache medicine cord or whose purpose and use by Apache medicine elders was a mystery to nineteenth century ethnologists because \"the Apache look upon these cords as so sacred that strangers are not allowed to see them, much less handle them or talk about them.", "\"The 1954 version of ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language'' reflects the poorly-grounded perceptions of the people whose use of the term effectively defined it for the people of that time: \"a man supposed to have supernatural powers of curing disease and controlling spirits.\"", "In effect, such definitions were not explanations of what these \"medicine people\" are to their own communities but instead reported on the consensus of socially and psychologically remote observers when they tried to categorize the individuals.", "The term ''medicine man/woman'', like the term ''shaman'', has been criticized by Native Americans, as well as other specialists in the fields of religion and anthropology.While non-Native anthropologists often use the term ''shaman'' for Indigenous healers worldwide, including the Americas, ''shaman'' is the specific name for a spiritual mediator from the Tungusic peoples of Siberia and is not used in Native American or First Nations communities." ], [ "Frauds and scams", "There are many fraudulent healers and scam artists who pose as Cherokee \"shamans\", and the Cherokee Nation has had to speak out against these people, even forming a task force to handle the issue.", "In order to seek help from a Cherokee medicine person, a person needs to know someone in the community who can vouch for them and provide a referral.", "Usually one makes contact through a relative who knows the healer." ], [ "See also", "The Medicine Man'', an 1899 sculpture by Cyrus Dallin exhibited in Philadelphia* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Malay Peninsula" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Malay Peninsula''' (Malay: ''Semenanjung Tanah Melayu'' or ''Semenanjung Melayu'') is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia.", "The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland.", "The area contains Peninsular Malaysia, Southern Thailand, and the southernmost tip of Myanmar (Kawthaung).", "The island country of Singapore also has historical and cultural ties with the region.", "The indigenous people of the peninsula are Orang Asli and Malays, an Austronesian people.", "The Titiwangsa Mountains are part of the Tenasserim Hills system and form the backbone of the peninsula and the southernmost section of the central cordillera, which runs from Tibet through the Kra Isthmus, the peninsula's narrowest point, into the Malay Peninsula.", "The Strait of Malacca separates the Malay Peninsula from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, and the south coast is separated from the island of Singapore by the Straits of Johor." ], [ "Etymology", "The Malay term ''Tanah Melayu'' is derived from the word ''Tanah'' (land) and ''Melayu'' (Malays), thus it means \"the Malay land\".", "The term can be found in various Malay texts, of which the oldest dating back to the early 17th century.", "It is frequently mentioned in the ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', a well-known classic tale associated with the legendary heroes of Malacca Sultanate.", "''Tanah Melayu'' in the text is consistently employed to refer to the area under Malaccan dominance.In the early 16th century, Tomé Pires, a Portuguese apothecary who stayed in Malacca from 1512 to 1515, uses an almost identical term, ''Terra de Tana Malaio'', with which he referred to the southeastern part of Sumatra, where the deposed sultan of Malacca, Mahmud Shah, established his exiled government.", "The 17th century's account of Portuguese historian, Emanuel Godinho de Erédia, noted on the region of ''Malaios'' surrounded by the Andaman Sea in the north, the entire Strait of Malacca in the centre, a part of Sunda Strait in the south, and the western part of South China Sea in the east.Prior to the foundation of Malacca, ancient and medieval references to a Malay peninsula exist in various foreign sources.", "According to several Indian scholars, the word ''Malayadvipa'' (\"mountain-insular continent\"), mentioned in the ancient Indian text, ''Vayu Purana'', may possibly refer to the Malay Peninsula.", "Another Indian source, an inscription on the south wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, recorded the word ''Malaiur'', referring to a kingdom in the Malay Peninsula that had \"a strong mountain for its rampart\".", "Ptolemy's ''Geographia'' named a geographical region of the ''Golden Chersonese'' as ''Maleu-kolon'', a term thought to derive from Sanskrit ''malayakolam'' or ''malaikurram''.", "While the Chinese chronicle of the Yuan dynasty mentioned the word ''Ma-li-yu-er'', referring to a nation of the Malay Peninsula that was threatened by the southward expansion of the Sukhothai Kingdom under King Ram Khamhaeng.", "During the same era, Marco Polo made a reference to ''Malauir'' in his travelogue, as a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula, possibly similar to the one mentioned in the Yuan chronicle.", "The Malay Peninsula was conflated with Persia in old Japan, and was known by the same name.In the early 20th century, the term ''Tanah Melayu'' was generally used by the Malays of the peninsula during the rise of Malay nationalism to describe uniting all Malay states on the peninsula under one Malay nation, and this ambition was largely realised with the formation of ''Persekutuan Tanah Melayu'' (Malay for \"Federation of Malaya\") in 1948." ], [ "Ecology", "The Malay Peninsula is covered with tropical moist broadleaf forests.", "Lowland forests are dominated by dipterocarp trees, while montane forests are home to evergreen trees in the beech family (Fagaceae), Myrtle family (Myrtaceae), laurel family (Lauraceae), tropical conifers, and other plant families.The peninsula's forests are home to thousands of species of animals and plants.", "Several large endangered mammals inhabit the peninsula – Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus''), gaur (''Bos gaurus''), tiger (''Panthera tigris''), sun bear (''Helarctos malayanus''), Malayan tapir (''Tapirus indicus''), clouded leopard (''Neofelis nebulosa''), and siamang (''Symphalangus syndactylus'').", "The Sumatran rhinoceros (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis'') once inhabited the forests, but Malaysia's last rhinoceroses died in 2019, and the species' few remaining members survive only in Sumatra.The peninsula is home to several distinct ecoregions.", "The Tenasserim–South Thailand semi-evergreen rain forests cover the northern peninsula, including the Tenasserim Hills and the Isthmus of Kra, and extend to the coast on both sides of the isthmus.The Kangar-Pattani floristic boundary crosses the peninsula in southern Thailand and northernmost Malaysia, marking the boundary between the large biogeographic regions of Indochina to the north and Sundaland and Malesia to the south.", "The forests north of the boundary are characterized by seasonally-deciduous trees, while the Sundaland forests have more year-round rainfall and the trees are mostly evergreen.", "Peninsular Malaysia is home to three terrestrial ecoregions.", "The Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests ecoregion covers the mountains above 1000 meters elevation.", "The lowlands and hills are in the Peninsular Malaysian rain forests ecoregion.", "The Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests include distinctive waterlogged forests in the lowlands on both sides of the peninsula.Extensive mangroves line both coasts.", "The Myanmar Coast mangroves are on the western shore of the peninsula, and the Indochina mangroves on the eastern shore." ], [ "List of areas by country", "===Malaysia===Map of Peninsular Malaysia Flag Emblem /Achievement State Capital Royal Capital Area (km2) Head of State Head of Government alt=Flag of Johor alt=Coat of arms of Johor Johor Johor Bahru Muar 19,166 Sultan Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Kedah alt=Coat of arms of Kedah Kedah Alor Setar Anak Bukit 9,492 Sultan Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Kelantan alt=Coat of arms of Kelantan Kelantan Kota Bharu Kubang Kerian 15,040 Sultan Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Malacca alt=Coat of arms of Malacca Malacca Malacca City — 1,712 (Governor) Chief Minister alt=Flag of Negeri Sembilan alt=Coat of arms of Negeri Sembilan Negeri Sembilan Seremban Seri Menanti 6,658 Yang di-Pertuan Besar(Grand Ruler) Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Pahang alt=Coat of arms of Pahang Pahang Kuantan Pekan 35,965 Sultan Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Penang alt=Coat of arms of Penang Penang George Town — 1,049 (Governor) Chief Minister alt=Flag of Perak alt=Coat of arms of Perak Perak Ipoh Kuala Kangsar 21,146 Sultan Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Perlis alt=Coat of arms of Perlis Perlis Kangar Arau 819 Raja Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Selangor alt=Coat of arms of Selangor Selangor* Shah Alam Klang 7,951 Sultan Menteri Besar alt=Flag of Terengganu alt=Coat of arms of Terengganu Terengganu Kuala Terengganu Kuala Terengganu 12,958 Sultan Menteri Besar* Two federal territories are embedded within Selangor, which are Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya.===Myanmar===* Tanintharyi Region===Thailand===* Chumphon* Krabi* Nakhon Si Thammarat* Narathiwat* Pattani* Phang Nga* Phatthalung* Phuket* Ranong* Satun* Songkhla* Surat Thani* Trang* Yala" ], [ "See also", "* Extreme points of Asia* Geography of Malaysia* Golden Chersonese* Malay Archipelago* Malaya (disambiguation)* Malaysia–Thailand border* Tenasserim Hills" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Miles Davis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Miles Dewey Davis III''' (May 26, 1926September 28, 1991) was an American jazz trumpeter, bandleader, and composer.", "He is among the most influential and acclaimed figures in the history of jazz and 20th-century music.", "Davis adopted a variety of musical directions in a roughly five-decade career that kept him at the forefront of many major stylistic developments in jazz.Born into a upper-middle-class family in Alton, Illinois, and raised in East St. Louis, Davis started on the trumpet in his early teens.", "He left to study at Juilliard in New York City, before dropping out and making his professional debut as a member of saxophonist Charlie Parker's bebop quintet from 1944 to 1948.Shortly after, he recorded the ''Birth of the Cool'' sessions for Capitol Records, which were instrumental to the development of cool jazz.", "In the early 1950s, Davis recorded some of the earliest hard bop music while on Prestige Records but did so haphazardly due to a heroin addiction.", "After a widely acclaimed comeback performance at the Newport Jazz Festival, he signed a long-term contract with Columbia Records, and recorded the album '''Round About Midnight'' in 1955.It was his first work with saxophonist John Coltrane and bassist Paul Chambers, key members of the sextet he led into the early 1960s.", "During this period, he alternated between orchestral jazz collaborations with arranger Gil Evans, such as the Spanish music-influenced ''Sketches of Spain'' (1960), and band recordings, such as ''Milestones'' (1958) and ''Kind of Blue'' (1959).", "The latter recording remains one of the most popular jazz albums of all time, having sold over five million copies in the U.S.Davis made several lineup changes while recording ''Someday My Prince Will Come'' (1961), his 1961 Blackhawk concerts, and ''Seven Steps to Heaven'' (1963), another commercial success that introduced bassist Ron Carter, pianist Herbie Hancock, and drummer Tony Williams.", "After adding saxophonist Wayne Shorter to his new quintet in 1964, Davis led them on a series of more abstract recordings often composed by the band members, helping pioneer the post-bop genre with albums such as ''E.S.P'' (1965) and ''Miles Smiles'' (1967), before transitioning into his electric period.", "During the 1970s, he experimented with rock, funk, African rhythms, emerging electronic music technology, and an ever-changing lineup of musicians, including keyboardist Joe Zawinul, drummer Al Foster, and guitarist John McLaughlin.", "This period, beginning with Davis's 1969 studio album ''In a Silent Way'' and concluding with the 1975 concert recording ''Agharta'', was the most controversial in his career, alienating and challenging many in jazz.", "His million-selling 1970 record ''Bitches Brew'' helped spark a resurgence in the genre's commercial popularity with jazz fusion as the decade progressed.After a five-year retirement due to poor health, Davis resumed his career in the 1980s, employing younger musicians and pop sounds on albums such as ''The Man with the Horn'' (1981) and ''Tutu'' (1986).", "Critics were often unreceptive but the decade garnered Davis his highest level of commercial recognition.", "He performed sold-out concerts worldwide, while branching out into visual arts, film, and television work, before his death in 1991 from the combined effects of a stroke, pneumonia and respiratory failure.", "In 2006, Davis was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, which recognized him as \"one of the key figures in the history of jazz\".", "''Rolling Stone'' described him as \"the most revered jazz trumpeter of all time, not to mention one of the most important musicians of the 20th century,\" while Gerald Early called him inarguably one of the most influential and innovative musicians of that period." ], [ "Early life", "Davis was born on May 26, 1926, to an affluent African-American family in Alton, Illinois, north of St. Louis.", "He had an older sister, Dorothy Mae (1925–1996), and a younger brother, Vernon (1929–1999).", "His mother, Cleota Mae Henry of Arkansas, was a music teacher and violinist, and his father, Miles Dewey Davis Jr., also of Arkansas, was a dentist.", "They owned a estate near Pine Bluff, Arkansas with a profitable pig farm.", "In Pine Bluff, he and his siblings fished, hunted, and rode horses.", "Davis's grandparents were the owners of an Arkansas farm where he would spend many summers.In 1927, the family moved to East St. Louis, Illinois.", "They lived on the second floor of a commercial building behind a dental office in a predominantly white neighborhood.", "Davis's father would soon become distant to his children as the Great Depression caused him to become increasingly consumed by his job; typically working six days a week.", "From 1932 to 1934, Davis attended John Robinson Elementary School, an all-black school, then Crispus Attucks, where he performed well in mathematics, music, and sports.", "Davis had previously attended Catholic school.", "At an early age he liked music, especially blues, big bands, and gospel.The house at 1701 Kansas Avenue in East St. Louis, Illinois, where Davis lived from 1939 to 1944In 1935, Davis received his first trumpet as a gift from John Eubanks, a friend of his father.", "He then took weekly lessons from \"the biggest influence on my life,\" Elwood Buchanan, a teacher and musician who was a patient of his father.", "His mother wanted him to play the violin instead.", "Against the fashion of the time, Buchanan stressed the importance of playing without vibrato and encouraged him to use a clear, mid-range tone.", "Davis said that whenever he started playing with heavy vibrato, Buchanan slapped his knuckles.", "In later years Davis said, \"I prefer a round sound with no attitude in it, like a round voice with not too much tremolo and not too much bass.", "Just right in the middle.", "If I can't get that sound I can't play anything.\"", "The family soon moved to 1701 Kansas Avenue in East St. Louis.In his autobiography, Davis stated, \"By the age of 12, music had become the most important thing in my life.\"", "On his thirteenth birthday his father bought him a new trumpet, and Davis began to play in local bands.", "He took additional trumpet lessons from Joseph Gustat, principal trumpeter of the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra.", "Davis would also play the trumpet in talent shows he and his siblings would put on.In 1941, the 15-year-old attended East St. Louis Lincoln High School, where he joined the marching band directed by Buchanan and entered music competitions.", "Years later, Davis said that he was discriminated against in these competitions due to his race, but he added that these experiences made him a better musician.", "When a drummer asked him to play a certain passage of music, and he couldn't do it, he began to learn music theory.", "\"I went and got everything, every book I could get to learn about theory.\"", "At Lincoln, Davis met his first girlfriend, Irene Birth (later Cawthon).", "He had a band that performed at the Elks Club.", "Part of his earnings paid for his sister's education at Fisk University.", "Davis befriended trumpeter Clark Terry, who suggested he play without vibrato, and performed with him for several years.With encouragement from his teacher and girlfriend, Davis filled a vacant spot in the Rhumboogie Orchestra, also known as the Blue Devils, led by Eddie Randle.", "He became the band's musical director, which involved hiring musicians and scheduling rehearsal.", "Years later, Davis considered this job one of the most important of his career.", "Sonny Stitt tried to persuade him to join the Tiny Bradshaw band, which was passing through town, but his mother insisted he finish high school before going on tour.", "He said later, \"I didn't talk to her for two weeks.", "And I didn't go with the band either.\"", "In January 1944, Davis finished high school and graduated in absentia in June.", "During the next month, his girlfriend gave birth to a daughter, Cheryl.In July 1944, Billy Eckstine visited St. Louis with a band that included Art Blakey, Dizzy Gillespie, and Charlie Parker.", "Trumpeter Buddy Anderson was too sick to perform, so Davis was invited to join.", "He played with the band for two weeks at Club Riviera.", "After playing with these musicians, he was certain he should move to New York City, \"where the action was\".", "His mother wanted him to go to Fisk University, like his sister, and study piano or violin.", "Davis had other interests." ], [ "Career", "===1944–1948: New York City and the bebop years===Tommy Potter, Charlie Parker, Max Roach, Miles Davis, Duke Jordan in August 1947In September 1944, Davis accepted his father's idea of studying at the Juilliard School of Music in New York City.", "After passing the audition, he attended classes in music theory, piano and dictation.", "Davis often skipped his classes.Much of Davis's time was spent in clubs seeking his idol, Charlie Parker.", "According to Davis, Coleman Hawkins told him \"finish your studies at Juilliard and forget Bird Parker\".", "After finding Parker, he joined a cadre of regulars at Minton's and Monroe's in Harlem who held jam sessions every night.", "The other regulars included J. J. Johnson, Kenny Clarke, Thelonious Monk, Fats Navarro, and Freddie Webster.", "Davis reunited with Cawthon and their daughter when they moved to New York City.", "Parker became a roommate.", "Around this time Davis was paid an allowance of $40 ().In mid-1945, Davis failed to register for the year's autumn term at Juilliard and dropped out after three semesters because he wanted to perform full-time.", "Years later he criticized Juilliard for concentrating too much on classical European and \"white\" repertoire, but he praised the school for teaching him music theory and improving his trumpet technique.Davis began performing at clubs on 52nd Street with Coleman Hawkins and Eddie \"Lockjaw\" Davis.", "He recorded for the first time on April 24, 1945, when he entered the studio as a sideman for Herbie Fields's band.", "During the next year, he recorded as a leader for the first time with the Miles Davis Sextet plus Earl Coleman and Ann Baker, one of the few times he accompanied a singer.Davis on piano with Howard McGhee (trumpet), Joe Albany (pianist, standing) and Brick Fleagle (guitarist, smoking), September 1947In 1945, Davis replaced Dizzy Gillespie in Charlie Parker's quintet.", "On November 26, he participated in several recording sessions as part of Parker's group Reboppers that also involved Gillespie and Max Roach, displaying hints of the style he would become known for.", "On Parker's tune \"Now's the Time\", Davis played a solo that anticipated cool jazz.", "He next joined a big band led by Benny Carter, performing in St. Louis and remaining with the band in California.", "He again played with Parker and Gillespie.", "In Los Angeles, Parker had a nervous breakdown that put him in the hospital for several months.", "In March 1946, Davis played in studio sessions with Parker and began a collaboration with bassist Charles Mingus that summer.", "Cawthon gave birth to Davis's second child, Gregory, in East St. Louis before reuniting with Davis in New York City the following year.", "Davis noted that by this time, \"I was still so much into the music that I was even ignoring Irene.\"", "He had also turned to alcohol and cocaine.Davis was a member of Billy Eckstine's big band in 1946 and Gillespie's in 1947.He joined a quintet led by Parker that also included Max Roach.", "Together they performed live with Duke Jordan and Tommy Potter for much of the year, including several studio sessions.", "In one session that May, Davis wrote the tune \"Cheryl\", for his daughter.", "Davis's first session as a leader followed in August 1947, playing as the Miles Davis All Stars that included Parker, pianist John Lewis, and bassist Nelson Boyd; they recorded \"Milestones\", \"Half Nelson\", and \"Sippin' at Bells\".", "After touring Chicago and Detroit with Parker's quintet, Davis returned to New York City in March 1948 and joined the Jazz at the Philharmonic tour, which included a stop in St. Louis on April 30.===1948–1950: Miles Davis Nonet and ''Birth of the Cool''===In August 1948, Davis declined an offer to join Duke Ellington's orchestra as he had entered rehearsals with a nine-piece band featuring baritone saxophonist Gerry Mulligan and arrangements by Gil Evans, taking an active role on what soon became his own project.", "Evans' Manhattan apartment had become the meeting place for several young musicians and composers such as Davis, Roach, Lewis, and Mulligan who were unhappy with the increasingly virtuoso instrumental techniques that dominated bebop.", "These gatherings led to the formation of the Miles Davis Nonet, which included atypical modern jazz instruments such as French horn and tuba, leading to a thickly textured, almost orchestral sound.", "The intent was to imitate the human voice through carefully arranged compositions and a relaxed, melodic approach to improvisation.", "In September, the band completed their sole engagement as the opening band for Count Basie at the Royal Roost for two weeks.", "Davis had to persuade the venue's manager to write the sign \"Miles Davis Nonet.", "Arrangements by Gil Evans, John Lewis and Gerry Mulligan\".", "Davis returned to Parker's quintet, but relationships within the quintet were growing tense mainly due to Parker's erratic behavior caused by his drug addiction.", "Early in his time with Parker, Davis abstained from drugs, chose a vegetarian diet, and spoke of the benefits of water and juice.In December 1948, Davis quit, saying he was not being paid.", "His departure began a period when he worked mainly as a freelancer and sideman.", "His nonet remained active until the end of 1949.After signing a contract with Capitol Records, they recorded sessions in January and April 1949, which sold little but influenced the \"cool\" or \"west coast\" style of jazz.", "The lineup changed throughout the year and included tuba player Bill Barber, alto saxophonist Lee Konitz, pianist Al Haig, trombone players Mike Zwerin with Kai Winding, French horn players Junior Collins with Sandy Siegelstein and Gunther Schuller, and bassists Al McKibbon and Joe Shulman.", "One track featured singer Kenny Hagood.", "The presence of white musicians in the group angered some black players, many of whom were unemployed at the time, yet Davis rebuffed their criticisms.", "Recording sessions with the nonet for Capitol continued until April 1950.The Nonet recorded a dozen tracks which were released as singles and subsequently compiled on the 1957 album ''Birth of the Cool''.In May 1949, Davis performed with the Tadd Dameron Quintet with Kenny Clarke and James Moody at the Paris International Jazz Festival.", "On his first trip abroad Davis took a strong liking to Paris and its cultural environment, where he felt black jazz musicians and people of color in general were better respected than in the U.S.", "The trip, he said, \"changed the way I looked at things forever\".", "He began an affair with singer and actress Juliette Gréco.=== 1949–1955: Signing with Prestige, heroin addiction, and hard bop ===After returning from Paris in mid-1949, he became depressed and found little work except a short engagement with Powell in October and guest spots in New York City, Chicago, and Detroit until January 1950.He was falling behind in hotel rent and attempts were made to repossess his car.", "His heroin use became an expensive addiction, and Davis, not yet 24 years old, \"lost my sense of discipline, lost my sense of control over my life, and started to drift\".", "In August 1950, Cawthon gave birth to Davis's second son, Miles IV.", "Davis befriended boxer Johnny Bratton which began his interest in the sport.", "Davis left Cawthon and his three children in New York City in the hands of one his friends, jazz singer Betty Carter.", "He toured with Eckstine and Billie Holiday and was arrested for heroin possession in Los Angeles.", "The story was reported in ''DownBeat'' magazine, which led to a further reduction in work, though he was acquitted weeks later.", "By the 1950s, Davis had become more skilled and was experimenting with the middle register of the trumpet alongside harmonies and rhythms.In January 1951, Davis's fortunes improved when he signed a one-year contract with Prestige after owner Bob Weinstock became a fan of the nonet.", "Davis chose Lewis, trombonist Bennie Green, bassist Percy Heath, saxophonist Sonny Rollins, and drummer Roy Haynes; they recorded what became part of ''Miles Davis and Horns'' (1956).", "Davis was hired for other studio dates in 1951 and began to transcribe scores for record labels to fund his heroin addiction.", "His second session for Prestige was released on ''The New Sounds'' (1951), ''Dig'' (1956), and ''Conception'' (1956).Davis supported his heroin habit by playing music and by living the life of a hustler, exploiting prostitutes, and receiving money from friends.", "By 1953, his addiction began to impair his playing.", "His drug habit became public in a ''DownBeat'' interview with Cab Calloway, whom he never forgave as it brought him \"all pain and suffering\".", "He returned to St. Louis and stayed with his father for several months.", "After a brief period with Roach and Mingus in September 1953, he returned to his father's home, where he concentrated on addressing his addiction.Davis lived in Detroit for about six months, avoiding New York City, where it was easy to get drugs.", "Though he used heroin, he was still able to perform locally with Elvin Jones and Tommy Flanagan as part of Billy Mitchell's house band at the Blue Bird club.", "He was also \"pimping a little\".", "However, he was able to end his addiction, and, in February 1954, Davis returned to New York City, feeling good \"for the first time in a long time\", mentally and physically stronger, and joined a gym.", "He informed Weinstock and Blue Note that he was ready to record with a quintet, which he was granted.", "He considered the albums that resulted from these and earlier sessions – ''Miles Davis Quartet'' and ''Miles Davis Volume 2'' – \"very important\" because he felt his performances were particularly strong.", "He was paid roughly $750 () for each album and refused to give away his publishing rights.During the 1950s, Davis started using a Harmon mute on his trumpet.", "It became part of his signature sound for the rest of his career.Davis abandoned the bebop style and turned to the music of pianist Ahmad Jamal, whose approach and use of space influenced him.", "When he returned to the studio in June 1955 to record ''The Musings of Miles'', he wanted a pianist like Jamal and chose Red Garland.", "''Blue Haze'' (1956), ''Bags' Groove'' (1957), ''Walkin''' (1957), and ''Miles Davis and the Modern Jazz Giants'' (1959) documented the evolution of his sound with the Harmon mute placed close to the microphone, and the use of more spacious and relaxed phrasing.", "He assumed a central role in hard bop, less radical in harmony and melody, and used popular songs and American standards as starting points for improvisation.", "Hard bop distanced itself from cool jazz with a harder beat and music inspired by the blues.", "A few critics consider ''Walkin' ''(April 1954) the album that created the hard bop genre.Davis gained a reputation for being cold, distant, and easily angered.", "He wrote that in 1954 Sugar Ray Robinson \"was the most important thing in my life besides music\", and he adopted Robinson's \"arrogant attitude\".", "He showed contempt for critics and the press.Davis had an operation to remove polyps from his larynx in October 1955.The doctors told him to remain silent after the operation, but he got into an argument that permanently damaged his vocal cords and gave him a raspy voice for the rest of his life.", "He was called the \"prince of darkness\", adding a patina of mystery to his public persona.=== 1955–1959: Signing with Columbia, first quintet, and modal jazz ===In July 1955, Davis's fortunes improved considerably when he played at the Newport Jazz Festival, with a lineup of Monk, Heath, drummer Connie Kay, and horn players Zoot Sims and Gerry Mulligan.", "The performance was praised by critics and audiences alike, who considered it to be a highlight of the festival as well as helping Davis, the least well known musician in the group, to increase his popularity among affluent white audiences.", "He tied with Dizzy Gillespie for best trumpeter in the 1955 ''DownBeat'' magazine Readers' Poll.George Avakian of Columbia Records heard Davis perform at Newport and wanted to sign him to the label.", "Davis had one year left on his contract with Prestige, which required him to release four more albums.", "He signed a contract with Columbia that included a $4,000 advance () and required that his recordings for Columbia remain unreleased until his agreement with Prestige expired.At the request of Avakian, he formed the Miles Davis Quintet for a performance at Café Bohemia.", "The quintet contained Sonny Rollins on tenor saxophone, Red Garland on piano, Paul Chambers on double bass, and Philly Joe Jones on drums.", "Rollins was replaced by John Coltrane, completing the membership of the first quintet.", "To fulfill Davis' contract with Prestige, this new group worked through two marathon sessions in May and October 1956 that were released by the label as four LPs: ''Cookin' with the Miles Davis Quintet'' (1957), ''Relaxin' with the Miles Davis Quintet'' (1958), ''Workin' with the Miles Davis Quintet'' (1960) and ''Steamin' with the Miles Davis Quintet'' (1961).", "Each album was critically acclaimed and helped establish Davis's quintet as one of the best.The style of the group was an extension of their experience playing with Davis.", "He played long, legato, melodic lines, while Coltrane contrasted with energetic solos.", "Their live repertoire was a mix of bebop, standards from the Great American Songbook and pre-bop eras, and traditional tunes.", "They appeared on '''Round About Midnight'', Davis's first album for Columbia.In 1956, he left his quintet temporarily to tour Europe as part of the Birdland All-Stars, which included the Modern Jazz Quartet and French and German musicians.", "In Paris, he reunited with Gréco and they \"were lovers for many years\".", "He then returned home, reunited his quintet and toured the US for two months.", "Conflict arose on tour when he grew impatient with the drug habits of Jones and Coltrane.", "Davis was trying to live a healthier life by exercising and reducing his alcohol.", "But he continued to use cocaine.", "At the end of the tour, he fired Jones and Coltrane and replaced them with Sonny Rollins and Art Taylor.In November 1957, Davis went to Paris and recorded the soundtrack to ''Ascenseur pour l'échafaud''.", "directed by Louis Malle and starring Jeanne Moreau.", "Consisting of French jazz musicians Barney Wilen, Pierre Michelot, and René Urtreger, and American drummer Kenny Clarke, the group avoided a written score and instead improvised while they watched the film in a recording studio.After returning to New York, Davis revived his quintet with Adderley and Coltrane, who was clean from his drug habit.", "Now a sextet, the group recorded material in early 1958 that was released on ''Milestones'', an album that demonstrated Davis's interest in modal jazz.", "A performance by Les Ballets Africains drew him to slower, deliberate music that allowed the creation of solos from harmony rather than chords.By May 1958, he had replaced Jones with drummer Jimmy Cobb, and Garland left the group, leaving Davis to play piano on \"Sid's Ahead\" for ''Milestones''.", "He wanted someone who could play modal jazz, so he hired Bill Evans, a young pianist with a background in classical music.", "Evans had an impressionistic approach to piano.", "His ideas greatly influenced Davis.", "But after eight months of touring, a tired Evans left.", "Wynton Kelly, his replacement, brought to the group a swinging style that contrasted with Evans's delicacy.", "The sextet made their recording debut on ''Jazz Track'' (1958).===1957–1963: Collaborations with Gil Evans and ''Kind of Blue''===By early 1957, Davis was exhausted from recording and touring and wished to pursue new projects.", "In March, the 30-year-old Davis told journalists of his intention to retire soon and revealed offers he had received to teach at Harvard University and be a musical director at a record label.", "Avakian agreed that it was time for Davis to explore something different, but Davis rejected his suggestion of returning to his nonet as he considered that a step backward.", "Avakian then suggested that he work with a bigger ensemble, similar to ''Music for Brass'' (1957), an album of orchestral and brass-arranged music led by Gunther Schuller featuring Davis as a guest soloist.Davis accepted and worked with Gil Evans in what became a five-album collaboration from 1957 to 1962.", "''Miles Ahead'' (1957) showcased Davis on flugelhorn and a rendition of \"The Maids of Cadiz\" by Léo Delibes, the first piece of classical music that Davis recorded.", "Evans devised orchestral passages as transitions, thus turning the album into one long piece of music.", "''Porgy and Bess'' (1959) includes arrangements of pieces from George Gershwin's opera.", "''Sketches of Spain'' (1960) contained music by Joaquín Rodrigo and Manuel de Falla and originals by Evans.", "The classical musicians had trouble improvising, while the jazz musicians couldn't handle the difficult arrangements, but the album was a critical success, selling over 120,000 copies in the US.", "Davis performed with an orchestra conducted by Evans at Carnegie Hall in May 1961 to raise money for charity.", "The pair's final album was ''Quiet Nights'' (1963), a collection of bossa nova songs released against their wishes.", "Evans stated it was only half an album and blamed the record company; Davis blamed producer Teo Macero and refused to speak to him for more than two years.", "The boxed set ''Miles Davis & Gil Evans: The Complete Columbia Studio Recordings'' (1996) won the Grammy Award for Best Historical Album and Best Album Notes in 1997.In March and April 1959, Davis recorded what some consider his greatest album, ''Kind of Blue''.", "He named the album for its mood.", "He called back Bill Evans, as the music had been planned around Evans's piano style.", "Both Davis and Evans were familiar with George Russell's ideas about modal jazz.", "But Davis neglected to tell pianist Wynton Kelly that Evans was returning, so Kelly appeared on only one song, \"Freddie Freeloader\".", "The sextet had played \"So What\" and \"All Blues\" at performances, but the remaining three compositions they saw for the first time in the studio.Released in August 1959, ''Kind of Blue'' was an instant success, with widespread radio airplay and rave reviews from critics.", "It has remained a strong seller over the years.", "In 2019, the album achieved 5× platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over five million copies in the US, making it one of the most successful jazz albums in history.", "In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution that honored it as a national treasure.In August 1959, during a break in a recording session at the Birdland nightclub in New York City, Davis was escorting a blonde-haired woman to a taxi outside the club when policeman Gerald Kilduff told him to \"move on\".", "Davis said that he was working at the club, and he refused to move.", "Kilduff arrested and grabbed Davis as he tried to protect himself.", "Witnesses said the policeman hit Davis in the stomach with a nightstick without provocation.", "Two detectives held the crowd back, while a third approached Davis from behind and beat him over the head.", "Davis was taken to jail, charged with assaulting an officer, then taken to the hospital where he received five stitches.", "By January 1960, he was acquitted of disorderly conduct and third-degree assault.", "He later stated the incident \"changed my whole life and whole attitude again, made me feel bitter and cynical again when I was starting to feel good about the things that had changed in this country\".Davis and his sextet toured to support ''Kind of Blue''.", "He persuaded Coltrane to play with the group on one final European tour in the spring of 1960.Coltrane then departed to form his quartet, though he returned for some tracks on Davis's album ''Someday My Prince Will Come'' (1961).", "Its front cover shows a photograph of his wife, Frances Taylor, after Davis demanded that Columbia depict black women on his album covers.===1963–1968: Second quintet===Davis performing in Antibes, France, in July 1963In December 1962, Davis, Kelly, Chambers, Cobb, and Rollins played together for the last time as the first three wanted to leave and play as a trio.", "Rollins left them soon after, leaving Davis to pay over $25,000 () to cancel upcoming gigs and quickly assemble a new group.", "Following auditions, he found his new band in tenor saxophonist George Coleman, bassist Ron Carter, pianist Victor Feldman, and drummer Frank Butler.", "By May 1963, Feldman and Butler were replaced by 23-year-old pianist Herbie Hancock and 17-year-old drummer Tony Williams who made Davis \"excited all over again\".", "With this group, Davis completed the rest of what became ''Seven Steps to Heaven'' (1963) and recorded the live albums ''Miles Davis in Europe'' (1964), ''My Funny Valentine'' (1965), and ''Four & More'' (1966).", "The quintet played essentially the same bebop tunes and standards that Davis's previous bands had played, but they approached them with structural and rhythmic freedom and occasionally breakneck speed.In 1964, Coleman was briefly replaced by saxophonist Sam Rivers (who recorded with Davis on ''Miles in Tokyo'') until Wayne Shorter was persuaded to leave the Jazz Messengers.", "The quintet with Shorter lasted through 1968, with Shorter becoming the group's principal composer.", "The album ''E.S.P.''", "(1965) was named after his composition.", "While touring Europe, the group made its first album, ''Miles in Berlin'' (1965).Davis performing at Töölö Sports Hall (Messuhalli) in Helsinki, Finland, in October 1964Davis needed medical attention for hip pain, which had worsened since his Japanese tour during the previous year.", "He underwent hip replacement surgery in April 1965, with bone taken from his shin, but it failed.", "After his third month in the hospital, he discharged himself due to boredom and went home.", "He returned to the hospital in August after a fall required the insertion of a plastic hip joint.", "In November 1965, he had recovered enough to return to performing with his quintet, which included gigs at the Plugged Nickel in Chicago.", "Teo Macero returned as his record producer after their rift over ''Quiet Nights'' had healed.In January 1966, Davis spent three months in the hospital with a liver infection.", "When he resumed touring, he performed more at colleges because he had grown tired of the typical jazz venues.", "Columbia president Clive Davis reported in 1966 his sales had declined to around 40,000–50,000 per album, compared to as many as 100,000 per release a few years before.", "Matters were not helped by the press reporting his apparent financial troubles and imminent demise.", "After his appearance at the 1966 Newport Jazz Festival, he returned to the studio with his quintet for a series of sessions.", "He started a relationship with actress Cicely Tyson, who helped him reduce his alcohol consumption.Material from the 1966–1968 sessions was released on ''Miles Smiles'' (1966), ''Sorcerer'' (1967), ''Nefertiti'' (1967), ''Miles in the Sky'' (1968), and ''Filles de Kilimanjaro'' (1968).", "The quintet's approach to the new music became known as \"time no changes\"—which referred to Davis's decision to depart from chordal sequences and adopt a more open approach, with the rhythm section responding to the soloists' melodies.", "Through ''Nefertiti'' the studio recordings consisted primarily of originals composed by Shorter, with occasional compositions by the other sidemen.", "In 1967, the group began to play their concerts in continuous sets, each tune flowing into the next, with only the melody indicating any sort of change.", "His bands performed this way until his hiatus in 1975.", "''Miles in the Sky'' and ''Filles de Kilimanjaro''—which tentatively introduced electric bass, electric piano, and electric guitar on some tracks—pointed the way to the fusion phase of Davis's career.", "He also began experimenting with more rock-oriented rhythms on these records.", "By the time the second half of ''Filles de Kilimanjaro'' was recorded, bassist Dave Holland and pianist Chick Corea had replaced Carter and Hancock.", "Davis soon took over the compositional duties of his sidemen.===1968–1975: The electric period===''In a Silent Way'' was recorded in a single studio session in February 1969, with Shorter, Hancock, Holland, and Williams alongside keyboardists Chick Corea and Joe Zawinul and guitarist John McLaughlin.", "The album contains two side-long tracks that Macero pieced together from different takes recorded at the session.", "When the album was released later that year, some critics accused him of \"selling out\" to the rock and roll audience.", "Nevertheless, it reached number 134 on the US ''Billboard'' Top LPs chart, his first album since ''My Funny Valentine'' to reach the chart.", "''In a Silent Way'' was his entry into jazz fusion.", "The touring band of 1969–1970—with Shorter, Corea, Holland, and DeJohnette—never completed a studio recording together, and became known as Davis's \"lost quintet\", though radio broadcasts from the band's European tour have been extensively bootlegged.Davis performing in 1971For the double album ''Bitches Brew'' (1970), he hired Jack DeJohnette, Airto Moreira, and Bennie Maupin.", "The album contained long compositions, some over twenty minutes, that were never played in the studio but were constructed from several takes by Macero and Davis via splicing and tape loops amid epochal advances in multitrack recording technologies.", "''Bitches Brew'' peaked at No.", "35 on the ''Billboard'' Album chart.", "In 1976, it was certified gold for selling over 500,000 records.", "By 2003, it had sold one million copies.In March 1970, Davis began to perform as the opening act for rock bands, allowing Columbia to market ''Bitches Brew'' to a larger audience.", "He shared a Fillmore East bill with the Steve Miller Band and Neil Young with Crazy Horse on March 6 and 7.Biographer Paul Tingen wrote, \"Miles' newcomer status in this environment\" led to \"mixed audience reactions, often having to play for dramatically reduced fees, and enduring the 'sell-out' accusations from the jazz world\", as well as being \"attacked by sections of the black press for supposedly genuflecting to white culture\".", "The 1970 tours included the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival on August 29 when he performed to an estimated 600,000 people, the largest of his career.", "Plans to record with Hendrix ended after the guitarist's death; his funeral was the last one that Davis attended.", "Several live albums with a transitional sextet/septet including Corea, DeJohnette, Holland, Moreira, saxophonist Steve Grossman, and keyboardist Keith Jarrett were recorded during this period, including ''Miles Davis at Fillmore'' (1970) and ''Black Beauty: Miles Davis at Fillmore West'' (1973).By 1971, Davis had signed a contract with Columbia that paid him $100,000 a year () for three years in addition to royalties.", "He recorded a soundtrack album (''Jack Johnson'') for the 1970 documentary film about heavyweight boxer Jack Johnson, containing two long pieces of 25 and 26 minutes in length with Hancock, McLaughlin, Sonny Sharrock, and Billy Cobham.", "He was committed to making music for African-Americans who liked more commercial, pop, groove-oriented music.", "By November 1971, DeJohnette and Moreira had been replaced in the touring ensemble by drummer Leon \"Ndugu\" Chancler and percussionists James Mtume and Don Alias.", "''Live-Evil'' was released in the same month.", "Showcasing bassist Michael Henderson, who had replaced Holland in 1970, the album demonstrated that Davis's ensemble had transformed into a funk-oriented group while retaining the exploratory imperative of ''Bitches Brew''.Davis's septet in November 1971; left to right: Gary Bartz, Davis, Keith Jarrett, Michael Henderson, Leon \"Ndugu\" Chancler, James Mtume, and Don AliasIn 1972, composer-arranger Paul Buckmaster introduced Davis to the music of avant-garde composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, leading to a period of creative exploration.", "Biographer J. K. Chambers wrote, \"The effect of Davis' study of Stockhausen could not be repressed for long ... Davis' own 'space music' shows Stockhausen's influence compositionally.\"", "His recordings and performances during this period were described as \"space music\" by fans, Feather, and Buckmaster, who described it as \"a lot of mood changes—heavy, dark, intense—definitely space music\".", "The studio album ''On the Corner'' (1972) blended the influence of Stockhausen and Buckmaster with funk elements.", "Davis invited Buckmaster to New York City to oversee the writing and recording of the album with Macero.", "The album reached No.", "1 on the ''Billboard'' jazz chart but peaked at No.", "156 on the more heterogeneous Top 200 Albums chart.", "Davis felt that Columbia marketed it to the wrong audience.", "\"The music was meant to be heard by young black people, but they just treated it like any other jazz album and advertised it that way, pushed it on the jazz radio stations.", "Young black kids don't listen to those stations; they listen to R&B stations and some rock stations.\"", "In October 1972, he broke his ankles in a car crash.", "He took painkillers and cocaine to cope with the pain.", "Looking back at his career after the incident, he wrote, \"Everything started to blur.", "\"After recording ''On the Corner'', he assembled a group with Henderson, Mtume, Carlos Garnett, guitarist Reggie Lucas, organist Lonnie Liston Smith, tabla player Badal Roy, sitarist Khalil Balakrishna, and drummer Al Foster.", "Only Smith was a jazz instrumentalist; consequently, the music emphasized rhythmic density and shifting textures instead of solos.", "This group was recorded live in 1972 for ''In Concert'', but Davis found it unsatisfactory, leading him to drop the tabla and sitar and play keyboards.", "He also added guitarist Pete Cosey.", "The compilation studio album ''Big Fun'' contains four long improvisations recorded between 1969 and 1972.Studio sessions throughout 1973 and 1974 led to ''Get Up with It'', an album which included four long pieces alongside four shorter recordings from 1970 and 1972.The track \"He Loved Him Madly\", a thirty-minute tribute to the recently deceased Duke Ellington, influenced Brian Eno's ambient music.", "In the United States, it performed comparably to ''On the Corner'', reaching number 8 on the jazz chart and number 141 on the pop chart.", "He then concentrated on live performance with a series of concerts that Columbia released on the double live albums ''Agharta'' (1975), ''Pangaea'' (1976), and ''Dark Magus'' (1977).", "The first two are recordings of two sets from February 1, 1975, in Osaka, by which time Davis was troubled by several physical ailments; he relied on alcohol, codeine, and morphine to get through the engagements.", "His shows were routinely panned by critics who mentioned his habit of performing with his back to the audience.", "Cosey later asserted that \"the band really advanced after the Japanese tour\", but Davis was again hospitalized, for his ulcers and a hernia, during a tour of the US while opening for Herbie Hancock.After appearances at the 1975 Newport Jazz Festival in July and the Schaefer Music Festival in New York in September, Davis dropped out of music.===1975–1980: Hiatus===In his autobiography, Davis wrote frankly about his life during his hiatus from music.", "He called his Upper West Side brownstone a wreck and chronicled his heavy use of alcohol and cocaine, in addition to sexual encounters with many women.", "He also stated that \"Sex and drugs took the place music had occupied in my life.\"", "Drummer Tony Williams recalled that by noon (on average) Davis would be sick from the previous night's intake.In December 1975, he had regained enough strength to undergo a much needed hip replacement operation.", "In December 1976, Columbia was reluctant to renew his contract and pay his usual large advances.", "But after his lawyer started negotiating with United Artists, Columbia matched their offer, establishing the Miles Davis Fund to pay him regularly.", "Pianist Vladimir Horowitz was the only other musician with Columbia who had a similar status.In 1978, Davis asked fusion guitarist Larry Coryell to participate in sessions with keyboardists Masabumi Kikuchi and George Pavlis, bassist T. M. Stevens, and drummer Al Foster.", "Davis played the arranged piece uptempo, abandoned his trumpet for the organ, and had Macero record the session without the band's knowledge.", "After Coryell declined a spot in a band that Davis was beginning to put together, Davis returned to his reclusive lifestyle in New York City.", "Soon after, Marguerite Eskridge had Davis jailed for failing to pay child support for their son Erin, which cost him $10,000 () for release on bail.", "A recording session that involved Buckmaster and Gil Evans was halted, with Evans leaving after failing to receive the payment he was promised.", "In August 1978, Davis hired a new manager, Mark Rothbaum, who had worked with him since 1972.===1980–1985: Comeback===Having played the trumpet little throughout the previous three years, Davis found it difficult to reclaim his embouchure.", "His first post-hiatus studio appearance took place in May 1980.A day later, Davis was hospitalized due to a leg infection.", "He recorded ''The Man with the Horn'' from June 1980 to May 1981 with Macero producing.", "A large band was abandoned in favor of a combo with saxophonist Bill Evans and bassist Marcus Miller.", "Both would collaborate with him during the next decade.", "''The Man with the Horn'' received a poor critical reception despite selling well.", "In June 1981, Davis returned to the stage for the first time since 1975 in a ten-minute guest solo as part of Mel Lewis's band at the Village Vanguard.", "This was followed by appearances with a new band.", "Recordings from a mixture of dates from 1981, including from the Kix in Boston and Avery Fisher Hall, were released on ''We Want Miles'', which earned him a Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance by a Soloist.Davis performing in 1985In January 1982, while Tyson was working in Africa, Davis \"went a little wild\" with alcohol and suffered a stroke that temporarily paralyzed his right hand.", "Tyson returned home and cared for him.", "After three months of treatment with a Chinese acupuncturist, he was able to play the trumpet again.", "He listened to his doctor's warnings and gave up alcohol and drugs.", "He credited Tyson with helping his recovery, which involved exercise, piano playing, and visits to spas.", "She encouraged him to draw, which he pursued for the rest of his life.", "Takao Ogawa, a Japanese jazz journalist who befriended Davis during this period, took pictures of his drawings and put them in his book along with the interviews of Davis at his apartment in New York.", "Davis told Ogawa: \"I'm interested in line and color, line is like phrase and coating colors is like code.", "When I see good paintings, I hear good music.", "That is why my paintings are the same as my music.", "They are different than any paintings.", "\"Davis resumed touring in May 1982 with a lineup that included percussionist Mino Cinelu and guitarist John Scofield, with whom he worked closely on the album ''Star People'' (1983).", "In mid-1983, he worked on the tracks for ''Decoy'', an album mixing soul music and electronica that was released in 1984.He brought in producer, composer, and keyboardist Robert Irving III, who had collaborated with him on ''The Man with the Horn''.", "With a seven-piece band that included Scofield, Evans, Irving, Foster, and Darryl Jones, he played a series of European performances that were positively received.", "In December 1984, while in Denmark, he was awarded the Léonie Sonning Music Prize.", "Trumpeter Palle Mikkelborg had written \"Aura\", a contemporary classical piece, for the event which impressed Davis to the point of returning to Denmark in early 1985 to record his next studio album, ''Aura''.", "Columbia was dissatisfied with the recording and delayed its release.In May 1985, one month into a tour, Davis signed a contract with Warner Bros. that required him to give up his publishing rights.", "''You're Under Arrest'', his final album for Columbia, was released in September.", "It included cover versions of two pop songs: \"Time After Time\" by Cyndi Lauper and Michael Jackson's \"Human Nature\".", "He considered releasing an album of pop songs, and he recorded dozens of them, but the idea was rejected.", "He said that many of today's jazz standards had been pop songs in Broadway theater and that he was simply updating the standards repertoire.Davis collaborated with a number of figures from the British post-punk and new wave movements during this period, including Scritti Politti.", "This period also saw Davis move from his funk inspired sound of the early 1970s to a more melodic style.===1986–1991: Final years===Davis performing in Strasbourg, 1987After taking part in the recording of the 1985 protest song \"Sun City\" as a member of Artists United Against Apartheid, Davis appeared on the instrumental \"Don't Stop Me Now\" by Toto for their album ''Fahrenheit'' (1986).", "Davis collaborated with Prince on a song titled \"Can I Play With U,\" which went unreleased until 2020.Davis also collaborated with Zane Giles and Randy Hall on the ''Rubberband'' sessions in 1985 but those would remain unreleased until 2019.Instead, he worked with Marcus Miller, and ''Tutu'' (1986) became the first time he used modern studio tools such as programmed synthesizers, sampling, and drum loops.", "Released in September 1986, its front cover is a photographic portrait of Davis by Irving Penn.", "In 1987, he won a Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist.", "Also in 1987, Davis contacted American journalist Quincy Troupe to work with him on his autobiography.", "The two men had met the previous year when Troupe conducted a two-day-long interview, which was published by ''Spin'' as a 45-page article.In 1988, Davis had a small part as a street musician in the Christmas comedy film ''Scrooged'' starring Bill Murray.", "He also collaborated with Zucchero Fornaciari in a version of ''Dune Mosse'' (''Blue's''), published in 2004 in ''Zu & Co.'' of the Italian bluesman.", "In November 1988 he was inducted into the Sovereign Military Order of Malta at a ceremony at the Alhambra Palace in Spain (this was part of the reasoning for his daughter's decision to include the honorific \"Sir\" on his headstone).", "Later that month, Davis cut his European tour short after he collapsed and fainted after a two-hour show in Madrid and flew home.", "There were rumors of more poor health reported by the American magazine ''Star'' in its February 21, 1989, edition, which published a claim that Davis had contracted AIDS, prompting his manager Peter Shukat to issue a statement the following day.", "Shukat said Davis had been in the hospital for a mild case of pneumonia and the removal of a benign polyp on his vocal cords and was resting comfortably in preparation for his 1989 tours.", "Davis later blamed one of his former wives or girlfriends for starting the rumor and decided against taking legal action.", "He was interviewed on ''60 Minutes'' by Harry Reasoner.", "In October 1989, he received a Grande Medaille de Vermeil from Paris mayor Jacques Chirac.", "In 1990, he received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "In early 1991, he appeared in the Rolf de Heer film ''Dingo'' as a jazz musician.Davis at the North Sea Jazz Festival, 1991Davis followed ''Tutu'' with ''Amandla'' (1989) and soundtracks to four films: ''Street Smart'', ''Siesta'', ''The Hot Spot'', and ''Dingo.''", "His last albums were released posthumously: the hip hop-influenced ''Doo-Bop'' (1992) and ''Miles & Quincy Live at Montreux'' (1993), a collaboration with Quincy Jones from the 1991 Montreux Jazz Festival where, for the first time in three decades, he performed songs from ''Miles Ahead'', ''Porgy and Bess'', and ''Sketches of Spain''.On July 8, 1991, Davis returned to performing material from his past at the 1991 Montreux Jazz Festival with a band and orchestra conducted by Quincy Jones.", "The set consisted of arrangements from his albums recorded with Gil Evans.", "The show was followed by a concert billed as \"Miles and Friends\" at the Grande halle de la Villette in Paris two days later, with guest performances by musicians from throughout his career, including John McLaughlin, Herbie Hancock, and Joe Zawinul.", "In Paris he was awarded a knighthood, the Chevalier of the Legion of Honour by French Culture Minister, Jack Lang, who called him \"the Picasso of Jazz.\"", "After returning to America, he stopped in New York City to record material for ''Doo-Bop and'' then returned to California to play at the Hollywood Bowl on August 25, his final live performance." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1957, Davis began a relationship with Frances Taylor, a dancer he had met in 1953 at Ciro's in Los Angeles.", "They married in December 1959 in Toledo, Ohio.", "The relationship was marred by numerous incidents of domestic violence against Taylor.", "He later wrote, \"Every time I hit her, I felt bad because a lot of it really wasn't her fault but had to do with me being temperamental and jealous.\"", "One theory for his behavior was that in 1963 he had increased his use of alcohol and cocaine to alleviate joint pain caused by sickle cell anemia.", "He hallucinated, \"looking for this imaginary person\" in his house while wielding a kitchen knife.", "Soon after the photograph for the album ''E.S.P.''", "(1965) was taken, Taylor left him for the final time.", "She filed for divorce in 1966; it was finalized in February 1968.In September 1968, Davis married 23-year-old model and songwriter Betty Mabry.", "In his autobiography, Davis described her as a \"high-class groupie, who was very talented but who didn't believe in her own talent\".", "Mabry, a familiar face in the New York City counterculture, introduced Davis to popular rock, soul, and funk musicians.", "Jazz critic Leonard Feather visited Davis's apartment and was shocked to find him listening to albums by The Byrds, Aretha Franklin, and Dionne Warwick.", "He also liked James Brown, Sly and the Family Stone, and Jimi Hendrix, whose group Band of Gypsys particularly impressed Davis.", "Davis filed for divorce from Mabry in 1969, after accusing her of having an affair with Hendrix.Davis and Cicely Tyson in 1982In October 1969, Davis was shot at five times while in his car with one of his two lovers, Marguerite Eskridge.", "The incident left him with a graze and Eskridge unharmed.", "In 1970, Marguerite gave birth to their son Erin.", "By 1979, Davis rekindled his relationship with actress Cicely Tyson, who helped him to overcome his cocaine addiction and regain his enthusiasm for music.", "The two married in November 1981, but their tumultuous marriage ended with Tyson filing for divorce in 1988, which was finalized in 1989.In 1984, Davis met 34-year-old sculptor Jo Gelbard.", "Gelbard would teach Davis how to paint; the two were frequent collaborators and were soon romantically involved.", "By 1985, Davis was diabetic and required daily injections of insulin.", "Davis became increasingly aggressive in his final year due in part to the medication he was taking, and his aggression manifested as violence towards Gelbard." ], [ "Death", "Woodlawn Cemetery, with headstone inscribed with the beginning notes of one of his compositions, \"Solar\"In early September 1991, Davis checked into St. John's Hospital near his home in Santa Monica, California, for routine tests.", "Doctors suggested he have a tracheal tube implanted to relieve his breathing after repeated bouts of bronchial pneumonia.", "The suggestion provoked an outburst from Davis that led to an intracerebral hemorrhage followed by a coma.", "According to Jo Gelbard, on September 26, Davis painted his final painting, composed of dark, ghostly figures, dripping blood and \"his imminent demise.\"", "After several days on life support, his machine was turned off and he died on September 28, 1991, in the arms of Gelbard.", "He was 65 years old.", "His death was attributed to the combined effects of a stroke, pneumonia, and respiratory failure.", "According to Troupe, Davis was taking azidothymidine (AZT), a type of antiretroviral drug used for the treatment of HIV and AIDS, during his treatments in the hospital.", "A funeral service was held on October 5, 1991, at St. Peter's Lutheran Church on Lexington Avenue in New York City that was attended by around 500 friends, family members, and musical acquaintances, with many fans standing in the rain.", "He was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City, with one of his trumpets, near the site of Duke Ellington's grave.", "At the time of his death, Davis's estate was valued at more than $1 million (equivalent to roughly $ million in ).", "In his will, Davis left 20 percent to his daughter Cheryl Davis; 40 percent to his son Erin Davis; 10 percent to his nephew Vincent Wilburn Jr. and 15 percent each to his brother Vernon Davis and his sister Dorothy Wilburn.", "He excluded his two sons Gregory and Miles IV." ], [ "Views on his earlier work", "Late in his life, from the \"electric period\" onwards, Davis repeatedly explained his reasons for not wishing to perform his earlier works, such as ''Birth of the Cool'' or ''Kind of Blue''.", "In his view, remaining stylistically static was the wrong option.", "He commented: So What' or ''Kind of Blue'', they were done in that era, the right hour, the right day, and it happened.", "It's over ... What I used to play with Bill Evans, all those different modes, and substitute chords, we had the energy then and we liked it.", "But I have no feel for it anymore, it's more like warmed-over turkey.\"", "When Shirley Horn insisted in 1990 that Miles reconsider playing the ballads and modal tunes of his ''Kind of Blue'' period, he said: \"Nah, it hurts my lip.\"", "Bill Evans, who played piano on ''Kind of Blue'', said: \"I would like to hear more of the consummate melodic master, but I feel that big business and his record company have had a corrupting influence on his material.", "The rock and pop thing certainly draws a wider audience.\"", "Throughout his later career, Davis declined offers to reinstate his 1960s quintet.Many books and documentaries focus on his work before 1975.According to an article by ''The Independent'', from 1975 onwards a decline in critical praise for Davis's output began to form, with many viewing the era as \"worthless\": \"There is a surprisingly widespread view that, in terms of the merits of his musical output, Davis might as well have died in 1975.\"", "In a 1982 interview in ''DownBeat'', Wynton Marsalis said: \"They call Miles's stuff jazz.", "That stuff is not jazz, man.", "Just because somebody played jazz at one time, that doesn't mean they're still playing it.\"", "Despite his contempt for Davis' later work, Marsalis' work is \"laden with ironic references to Davis' music of the '60s\".", "Davis did not necessarily disagree; lambasting what he saw as Marsalis's stylistic conservatism, Davis said \"Jazz is dead ... it's finito!", "It's over and there's no point apeing the shit.\"", "Writer Stanley Crouch criticized Davis's work from ''In a Silent Way'' onwards." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "World's first statue of Davis, unveiled in 2001, by Grzegorz Łagowski, in Kielce, PolandMiles Davis is considered one of the most innovative, influential, and respected figures in the history of music.", "''The Guardian'' described him as \"a pioneer of 20th-century music, leading many of the key developments in the world of jazz.\"", "He has been called \"one of the great innovators in jazz\", and had the titles Prince of Darkness and the Picasso of Jazz bestowed upon him.", "''The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll'' said, \"Miles Davis played a crucial and inevitably controversial role in every major development in jazz since the mid-'40s, and no other jazz musician has had so profound an effect on rock.", "Miles Davis was the most widely recognized jazz musician of his era, an outspoken social critic and an arbiter of style—in attitude and fashion—as well as music.", "\"William Ruhlmann of AllMusic wrote, \"To examine his career is to examine the history of jazz from the mid-1940s to the early 1990s, since he was in the thick of almost every important innovation and stylistic development in the music during that period ...", "It can even be argued that jazz stopped evolving when Davis wasn't there to push it forward.\"", "Francis Davis of ''The Atlantic'' noted that Davis's career can be seen as \"an ongoing critique of bebop: the origins of 'cool' jazz..., hard bop, or 'funky'..., modal improvisation..., and jazz-rock fusion... can be traced to his efforts to tear bebop down to its essentials.", "\"His approach, owing largely to the African-American performance tradition that focused on individual expression, emphatic interaction, and creative response to shifting contents, had a profound impact on generations of jazz musicians.", "In 2016, digital publication ''The Pudding'', in an article examining Davis's legacy, found that 2,452 Wikipedia pages mention Davis, with over 286 citing him as an influence.The westernmost part of 77th Street in New York City has been named Miles Davis Way.", "He once lived on the block.On November 5, 2009, U.S. Representative John Conyers of Michigan sponsored a measure in the United States House of Representatives to commemorate ''Kind of Blue'' on its 50th anniversary.", "The measure also affirms jazz as a national treasure and \"encourages the United States government to preserve and advance the art form of jazz music\".", "It passed with a vote of 409–0 on December 15, 2009.The trumpet Davis used on the recording is displayed on the campus of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.", "It was donated to the school by Arthur \"Buddy\" Gist, who met Davis in 1949 and became a close friend.", "The gift was the reason why the jazz program at UNCG is named the Miles Davis Jazz Studies Program.In 1986, the New England Conservatory awarded Davis an honorary doctorate for his contributions to music.", "Since 1960 the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS) honored him with eight Grammy Awards, a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, and three Grammy Hall of Fame Awards.In 2001, ''The Miles Davis Story'', a two-hour documentary film by Mike Dibb, won an International Emmy Award for arts documentary of the year.", "Since 2005, the Miles Davis Jazz Committee has held an annual Miles Davis Jazz Festival.", "Also in 2005, a London exhibition was held of his paintings, ''The Last Miles: The Music of Miles Davis, 1980–1991''' was released detailing his final years and eight of his albums from the 1960s and 1970s were reissued in celebration of the 50th anniversary of his signing to Columbia Records.", "In 2006, Davis was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "In 2012, the U.S.", "Postal Service issued commemorative stamps featuring Davis.", "''Miles Ahead'' was a 2015 American music film directed by Don Cheadle, co-written by Cheadle with Steven Baigelman, Stephen J. Rivele, and Christopher Wilkinson, which interprets the life and compositions of Davis.", "It premiered at the New York Film Festival in October 2015.The film stars Cheadle, Emayatzy Corinealdi as Frances Taylor, Ewan McGregor, Michael Stuhlbarg, and Lakeith Stanfield.", "That same year a statue of him was erected in his home city, Alton, Illinois and listeners of BBC Radio and Jazz FM voted Davis the greatest jazz musician.", "Publications such as ''The Guardian'' have also ranked Davis among the best of all jazz musicians.In 2018, American rapper Q-Tip played Miles Davis in a theater production, ''My Funny Valentine''.", "Q-Tip had previously played Davis in 2010.In 2019, the documentary ''Miles Davis: Birth of the Cool'', directed by Stanley Nelson, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival.", "It was later released on PBS' ''American Masters'' series.Davis has, however, been subject to criticism.", "In 1990, writer Stanley Crouch, a prominent critic of jazz fusion, labeled Davis \"the most brilliant sellout in the history of jazz,\" A 1993 essay by Robert Walser in ''The Musical Quarterly'' claims that \"Davis has long been infamous for missing more notes than any other major trumpet player.\"", "Also in the essay is a quote by music critic James Lincoln Collier who states that \"if his influence was profound, the ultimate value of his work is another matter,\" and calls Davis an \"adequate instrumentalist\" but \"not a great one.\"", "In 2013, ''The A.V.", "Club'' published an article titled \"Miles Davis beat his wives ''and'' made beautiful music\".", "In the article, writer Sonia Saraiya praises Davis as a musician, but criticizes him as a person, in particular, his abuse of his wives.", "Others, such as Francis Davis, have criticized his treatment of women, describing it as \"contemptible\"." ], [ "Awards and honors", "'''Grammy Awards'''* Miles Davis won eight Grammy Awards and received thirty-two nominations.", "Year Category Work 1960 Best Jazz Composition of More Than Five Minutes Duration ''Sketches of Spain'' 1970 Best Jazz Performance, Large Group or Soloist with Large Group ''Bitches Brew'' 1982 Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist ''We Want Miles'' 1986 Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist ''Tutu'' 1989 Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist ''Aura'' 1989 Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band ''Aura'' 1990 Lifetime Achievement Award 1992 Best R&B Instrumental Performance ''Doo-Bop'' 1993 Best Large Jazz Ensemble Performance ''Miles & Quincy Live at Montreux'' '''Other awards''' Year Award Source 1955 Voted Best Trumpeter, ''DownBeat'' Readers' Poll 1957 Voted Best Trumpeter, ''DownBeat'' Readers' Poll 1961 Voted Best Trumpeter, ''DownBeat'' Readers' Poll 1984 Sonning Award for Lifetime Achievement in Music 1986 Doctor of Music, ''honoris causa'', New England Conservatory 1988 Knight Hospitaller by the Order of St. John 1989 Governor's Award from the New York State Council on the Arts 1990 St. Louis Walk of Fame 1991 Australian Film Institute Award for Best Original Music Score for ''Dingo'', shared with Michel Legrand 1991 Knight of the Legion of Honor 1998 Hollywood Walk of Fame 2006 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 2006 Hollywood's Rockwalk 2008 Quadruple platinum certification for ''Kind of Blue'' 2019 Quintuple platinum certification for ''Kind of Blue''" ], [ "Discography", "The following list intends to outline Davis' major works, particularly studio albums.", "A more comprehensive discography can be found at the main article.# ''The New Sounds'' (1951)# ''Young Man with a Horn'' (1952)# ''Blue Period'' (1953)# ''The Compositions of Al Cohn'' (1953)# ''Miles Davis Volume 2'' (1954)# ''Miles Davis Volume 3'' (1954)# ''Miles Davis Quintet'' (1954)# ''With Sonny Rollins'' (1954)# ''Miles Davis Quartet'' (1954)# ''All-Stars, Volume 1'' (1955)# ''All-Stars, Volume 2'' (1955)# ''All Star Sextet'' (1955)# ''The Musings of Miles'' (1955)# ''Blue Moods'' (1955)# ''Miles Davis, Vol.", "1'' (1956)# ''Miles Davis, Vol.", "2'' (1956)# ''Dig'' (1956)# ''Miles: The New Miles Davis Quintet'' (1956)# ''Quintet/Sextet'' (1956)# ''Collectors' Items'' (1956)# ''Birth of the Cool'' (1957)# '''Round About Midnight'' (1957)# ''Walkin''' (1957)# ''Cookin''' (1957)# ''Miles Ahead'' (1957)# ''Relaxin''' (1958)# ''Milestones'' (1958)# ''Miles Davis and the Modern Jazz Giants'' (1959)# ''Porgy and Bess'' (1959)# ''Kind of Blue'' (1959)# ''Workin''' (1960)# ''Sketches of Spain'' (1960)# ''Steamin''' (1961)# ''Someday My Prince Will Come'' (1961)# ''Seven Steps to Heaven'' (1963)# ''Quiet Nights'' (1963)# ''E.S.P.''", "(1965)# ''Miles Smiles'' (1967)# ''Sorcerer'' (1967)# ''Nefertiti'' (1968)# ''Miles in the Sky'' (1968)# ''Filles de Kilimanjaro'' (1968)# ''In a Silent Way'' (1969)# ''Bitches Brew'' (1970)# ''Jack Johnson'' (1971)# ''Live-Evil'' (1971)# ''On the Corner'' (1972)# ''In Concert'' (1973)# ''Big Fun'' (1974)# ''Get Up with It'' (1974)# ''Agharta'' (1975)# ''Pangaea'' (1975)# ''Dark Magus'' (1977)# ''The Man with the Horn'' (1981)# ''We Want Miles'' (1982)# ''Star People'' (1983)# ''Decoy'' (1984)# ''You're Under Arrest'' (1985)# ''Tutu'' (1986)# ''Amandla'' (1989)# ''Aura'' (1989)# ''Doo-Bop'' (1992)# ''Rubberband'' (2019)" ], [ "Filmography", " Year Film Credited as Role Notes Composer Performer Actor 1958 ''Elevator to the Gallows'' — Described by critic Phil Johnson as \"the loneliest trumpet sound you will ever hear, and the model for sad-core music ever since.", "Hear it and weep.", "\"1968''Symbiopsychotaxiplasm'' —Music by Davis, from ''In a Silent Way''1970''Jack Johnson'' Basis for the 1971 album ''Jack Johnson'' 1972 ''Imagine'' Himself Cameo, uncredited 1985 ''Miami Vice'' Ivory Jones TV series (1 episode – \"Junk Love\") 1986 ''Crime Story'' Jazz musician Cameo, TV series (1 episode – \"The War\") 1987 ''Siesta'' — Only one song is composed by Miles Davis in cooperation with Marcus Miller (\"Theme For Augustine\").", "1988 ''Scrooged'' Street musician Cameo 1990 ''The Hot Spot'' Composed by Jack Nitzsche, also featuring John Lee Hooker 1991 ''Dingo'' Billy Cross Soundtrack is composed by Miles Davis in cooperation with Michel Legrand." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "M-theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''M-theory''' is a theory in physics that unifies all consistent versions of superstring theory.", "Edward Witten first conjectured the existence of such a theory at a string theory conference at the University of Southern California in 1995.Witten's announcement initiated a flurry of research activity known as the second superstring revolution.", "Prior to Witten's announcement, string theorists had identified five versions of superstring theory.", "Although these theories initially appeared to be very different, work by many physicists showed that the theories were related in intricate and nontrivial ways.", "Physicists found that apparently distinct theories could be unified by mathematical transformations called S-duality and T-duality.", "Witten's conjecture was based in part on the existence of these dualities and in part on the relationship of the string theories to a field theory called eleven-dimensional supergravity.Although a complete formulation of M-theory is not known, such a formulation should describe two- and five-dimensional objects called branes and should be approximated by eleven-dimensional supergravity at low energies.", "Modern attempts to formulate M-theory are typically based on matrix theory or the AdS/CFT correspondence.", "According to Witten, M should stand for \"magic\", \"mystery\" or \"membrane\" according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known.Investigations of the mathematical structure of M-theory have spawned important theoretical results in physics and mathematics.", "More speculatively, M-theory may provide a framework for developing a unified theory of all of the fundamental forces of nature.", "Attempts to connect M-theory to experiment typically focus on compactifying its extra dimensions to construct candidate models of the four-dimensional world, although so far none has been verified to give rise to physics as observed in high-energy physics experiments." ], [ "Background", "===Quantum gravity and strings===strings.", "One of the deepest problems in modern physics is the problem of quantum gravity.", "The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which is formulated within the framework of classical physics.", "However, nongravitational forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics, a radically different formalism for describing physical phenomena based on probability.", "A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics, but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity.String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to reconcile gravity and quantum mechanics.", "In string theory, the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings.", "String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other.", "In a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways.", "On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string will look just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string.", "In this way, all of the different elementary particles may be viewed as vibrating strings.", "One of the vibrational states of a string gives rise to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force.There are several versions of string theory: type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two flavors of heterotic string theory ( and ).", "The different theories allow different types of strings, and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries.", "For example, the type I theory includes both open strings (which are segments with endpoints) and closed strings (which form closed loops), while types IIA and IIB include only closed strings.", "Each of these five string theories arises as a special limiting case of M-theory.", "This theory, like its string theory predecessors, is an example of a quantum theory of gravity.", "It describes a force just like the familiar gravitational force subject to the rules of quantum mechanics.===Number of dimensions===compactification: At large distances, a two-dimensional surface with one circular dimension looks one-dimensional.In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions of space: height, width and depth.", "Einstein's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions; in general relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional spacetime, three spatial dimensions and one time dimension.", "In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime.In spite of the fact that the universe is well described by four-dimensional spacetime, there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions.", "In some cases, by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions, a theory becomes more mathematically tractable, and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily.", "There are also situations where theories in two or three spacetime dimensions are useful for describing phenomena in condensed matter physics.", "Finally, there exist scenarios in which there could actually be more than four dimensions of spacetime which have nonetheless managed to escape detection.One notable feature of string theory and M-theory is that these theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency.", "In string theory, spacetime is ''ten-dimensional'' (nine spatial dimensions, and one time dimension), while in M-theory it is ''eleven-dimensional'' (ten spatial dimensions, and one time dimension).", "In order to describe real physical phenomena using these theories, one must therefore imagine scenarios in which these extra dimensions would not be observed in experiments.Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory.", "In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed to \"close up\" on themselves to form circles.", "In the limit where these curled-up dimensions become very small, one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions.", "A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose.", "If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length.", "However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference.", "Thus, an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions.===Dualities===A diagram of string theory dualities.", "Yellow arrows indicate S-duality.", "Blue arrows indicate T-duality.", "These dualities may be combined to obtain equivalences of any of the five theories with M-theory.Theories that arise as different limits of M-theory turn out to be related in highly nontrivial ways.", "One of the relationships that can exist between these different physical theories is called S-duality.", "This is a relationship which says that a collection of strongly interacting particles in one theory can, in some cases, be viewed as a collection of weakly interacting particles in a completely different theory.", "Roughly speaking, a collection of particles is said to be strongly interacting if they combine and decay often and weakly interacting if they do so infrequently.", "Type I string theory turns out to be equivalent by S-duality to the heterotic string theory.", "Similarly, type IIB string theory is related to itself in a nontrivial way by S-duality.Another relationship between different string theories is T-duality.", "Here one considers strings propagating around a circular extra dimension.", "T-duality states that a string propagating around a circle of radius is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description.", "For example, a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle, and it can also wind around the circle one or more times.", "The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number.", "If a string has momentum and winding number in one description, it will have momentum and winding number in the dual description.", "For example, type IIA string theory is equivalent to type IIB string theory via T-duality, and the two versions of heterotic string theory are also related by T-duality.In general, the term ''duality'' refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical systems turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way.", "If two theories are related by a duality, it means that one theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the other theory.", "The two theories are then said to be ''dual'' to one another under the transformation.", "Put differently, the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena.===Supersymmetry===Another important theoretical idea that plays a role in M-theory is supersymmetry.", "This is a mathematical relation that exists in certain physical theories between a class of particles called bosons and a class of particles called fermions.", "Roughly speaking, fermions are the constituents of matter, while bosons mediate interactions between particles.", "In theories with supersymmetry, each boson has a counterpart which is a fermion, and vice versa.", "When supersymmetry is imposed as a local symmetry, one automatically obtains a quantum mechanical theory that includes gravity.", "Such a theory is called a supergravity theory.A theory of strings that incorporates the idea of supersymmetry is called a superstring theory.", "There are several different versions of superstring theory which are all subsumed within the M-theory framework.", "At low energies, the superstring theories are approximated by supergravity in ten spacetime dimensions.", "Similarly, M-theory is approximated at low energies by supergravity in eleven dimensions.===Branes===In string theory and related theories such as supergravity theories, a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions.", "For example, a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero, while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one.", "It is also possible to consider higher-dimensional branes.", "In dimension , these are called -branes.", "Branes are dynamical objects which can propagate through spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics.", "They can have mass and other attributes such as charge.", "A -brane sweeps out a -dimensional volume in spacetime called its ''worldvolume''.", "Physicists often study fields analogous to the electromagnetic field which live on the worldvolume of a brane.", "The word brane comes from the word \"membrane\" which refers to a two-dimensional brane.In string theory, the fundamental objects that give rise to elementary particles are the one-dimensional strings.", "Although the physical phenomena described by M-theory are still poorly understood, physicists know that the theory describes two- and five-dimensional branes.", "Much of the current research in M-theory attempts to better understand the properties of these branes." ], [ "History and development", "===Kaluza–Klein theory===In the early 20th century, physicists and mathematicians including Albert Einstein and Hermann Minkowski pioneered the use of four-dimensional geometry for describing the physical world.", "These efforts culminated in the formulation of Einstein's general theory of relativity, which relates gravity to the geometry of four-dimensional spacetime.The success of general relativity led to efforts to apply higher dimensional geometry to explain other forces.", "In 1919, work by Theodor Kaluza showed that by passing to five-dimensional spacetime, one can unify gravity and electromagnetism into a single force.", "This idea was improved by physicist Oskar Klein, who suggested that the additional dimension proposed by Kaluza could take the form of a circle with radius around cm.The Kaluza–Klein theory and subsequent attempts by Einstein to develop unified field theory were never completely successful.", "In part this was because Kaluza–Klein theory predicted a particle (the radion), that has never been shown to exist, and in part because it was unable to correctly predict the ratio of an electron's mass to its charge.", "In addition, these theories were being developed just as other physicists were beginning to discover quantum mechanics, which would ultimately prove successful in describing known forces such as electromagnetism, as well as new nuclear forces that were being discovered throughout the middle part of the century.", "Thus it would take almost fifty years for the idea of new dimensions to be taken seriously again.===Early work on supergravity===In the 1980s, Edward Witten contributed to the understanding of supergravity theories.", "In 1995, he introduced M-theory, sparking the second superstring revolution.New concepts and mathematical tools provided fresh insights into general relativity, giving rise to a period in the 1960s–70s now known as the golden age of general relativity.", "In the mid-1970s, physicists began studying higher-dimensional theories combining general relativity with supersymmetry, the so-called supergravity theories.General relativity does not place any limits on the possible dimensions of spacetime.", "Although the theory is typically formulated in four dimensions, one can write down the same equations for the gravitational field in any number of dimensions.", "Supergravity is more restrictive because it places an upper limit on the number of dimensions.", "In 1978, work by Werner Nahm showed that the maximum spacetime dimension in which one can formulate a consistent supersymmetric theory is eleven.", "In the same year, Eugène Cremmer, Bernard Julia, and Joël Scherk of the École Normale Supérieure showed that supergravity not only permits up to eleven dimensions but is in fact most elegant in this maximal number of dimensions.Initially, many physicists hoped that by compactifying eleven-dimensional supergravity, it might be possible to construct realistic models of our four-dimensional world.", "The hope was that such models would provide a unified description of the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and gravity.", "Interest in eleven-dimensional supergravity soon waned as various flaws in this scheme were discovered.", "One of the problems was that the laws of physics appear to distinguish between clockwise and counterclockwise, a phenomenon known as chirality.", "Edward Witten and others observed this chirality property cannot be readily derived by compactifying from eleven dimensions.In the first superstring revolution in 1984, many physicists turned to string theory as a unified theory of particle physics and quantum gravity.", "Unlike supergravity theory, string theory was able to accommodate the chirality of the standard model, and it provided a theory of gravity consistent with quantum effects.", "Another feature of string theory that many physicists were drawn to in the 1980s and 1990s was its high degree of uniqueness.", "In ordinary particle theories, one can consider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian.", "In string theory, the possibilities are much more constrained: by the 1990s, physicists had argued that there were only five consistent supersymmetric versions of the theory.===Relationships between string theories===Although there were only a handful of consistent superstring theories, it remained a mystery why there was not just one consistent formulation.", "However, as physicists began to examine string theory more closely, they realized that these theories are related in intricate and nontrivial ways.In the late 1970s, Claus Montonen and David Olive had conjectured a special property of certain physical theories.", "A sharpened version of their conjecture concerns a theory called supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory, which describes theoretical particles formally similar to the quarks and gluons that make up atomic nuclei.", "The strength with which the particles of this theory interact is measured by a number called the coupling constant.", "The result of Montonen and Olive, now known as Montonen–Olive duality, states that supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory with coupling constant is equivalent to the same theory with coupling constant .", "In other words, a system of strongly interacting particles (large coupling constant) has an equivalent description as a system of weakly interacting particles (small coupling constant) and vice versa by spin-moment.In the 1990s, several theorists generalized Montonen–Olive duality to the S-duality relationship, which connects different string theories.", "Ashoke Sen studied S-duality in the context of heterotic strings in four dimensions.", "Chris Hull and Paul Townsend showed that type IIB string theory with a large coupling constant is equivalent via S-duality to the same theory with small coupling constant.", "Theorists also found that different string theories may be related by T-duality.", "This duality implies that strings propagating on completely different spacetime geometries may be physically equivalent.===Membranes and fivebranes===String theory extends ordinary particle physics by replacing zero-dimensional point particles by one-dimensional objects called strings.", "In the late 1980s, it was natural for theorists to attempt to formulate other extensions in which particles are replaced by two-dimensional supermembranes or by higher-dimensional objects called branes.", "Such objects had been considered as early as 1962 by Paul Dirac, and they were reconsidered by a small but enthusiastic group of physicists in the 1980s.Supersymmetry severely restricts the possible number of dimensions of a brane.", "In 1987, Eric Bergshoeff, Ergin Sezgin, and Paul Townsend showed that eleven-dimensional supergravity includes two-dimensional branes.", "Intuitively, these objects look like sheets or membranes propagating through the eleven-dimensional spacetime.", "Shortly after this discovery, Michael Duff, Paul Howe, Takeo Inami, and Kellogg Stelle considered a particular compactification of eleven-dimensional supergravity with one of the dimensions curled up into a circle.", "In this setting, one can imagine the membrane wrapping around the circular dimension.", "If the radius of the circle is sufficiently small, then this membrane looks just like a string in ten-dimensional spacetime.", "In fact, Duff and his collaborators showed that this construction reproduces exactly the strings appearing in type IIA superstring theory.In 1990, Andrew Strominger published a similar result which suggested that strongly interacting strings in ten dimensions might have an equivalent description in terms of weakly interacting five-dimensional branes.", "Initially, physicists were unable to prove this relationship for two important reasons.", "On the one hand, the Montonen–Olive duality was still unproven, and so Strominger's conjecture was even more tenuous.", "On the other hand, there were many technical issues related to the quantum properties of five-dimensional branes.", "The first of these problems was solved in 1993 when Ashoke Sen established that certain physical theories require the existence of objects with both electric and magnetic charge which were predicted by the work of Montonen and Olive.In spite of this progress, the relationship between strings and five-dimensional branes remained conjectural because theorists were unable to quantize the branes.", "Starting in 1991, a team of researchers including Michael Duff, Ramzi Khuri, Jianxin Lu, and Ruben Minasian considered a special compactification of string theory in which four of the ten dimensions curl up.", "If one considers a five-dimensional brane wrapped around these extra dimensions, then the brane looks just like a one-dimensional string.", "In this way, the conjectured relationship between strings and branes was reduced to a relationship between strings and strings, and the latter could be tested using already established theoretical techniques.===Second superstring revolution===superstring theories, and eleven-dimensional supergravity.", "The shaded region represents a family of different physical scenarios that are possible in M-theory.", "In certain limiting cases corresponding to the cusps, it is natural to describe the physics using one of the six theories labeled there.Speaking at the string theory conference at the University of Southern California in 1995, Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study made the surprising suggestion that all five superstring theories were in fact just different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven spacetime dimensions.", "Witten's announcement drew together all of the previous results on S- and T-duality and the appearance of two- and five-dimensional branes in string theory.", "In the months following Witten's announcement, hundreds of new papers appeared on the Internet confirming that the new theory involved membranes in an important way.", "Today this flurry of work is known as the second superstring revolution.One of the important developments following Witten's announcement was Witten's work in 1996 with string theorist Petr Hořava.", "Witten and Hořava studied M-theory on a special spacetime geometry with two ten-dimensional boundary components.", "Their work shed light on the mathematical structure of M-theory and suggested possible ways of connecting M-theory to real world physics.===Origin of the term===Initially, some physicists suggested that the new theory was a fundamental theory of membranes, but Witten was skeptical of the role of membranes in the theory.", "In a paper from 1996, Hořava and Witten wroteIn the absence of an understanding of the true meaning and structure of M-theory, Witten has suggested that the ''M'' should stand for \"magic\", \"mystery\", or \"membrane\" according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known.", "Years later, he would state, \"I thought my colleagues would understand that it really stood for membrane.", "Unfortunately, it got people confused.\"" ], [ "Matrix theory", "===BFSS matrix model===In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other data.", "In physics, a matrix model is a particular kind of physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves the notion of a matrix in an important way.", "A matrix model describes the behavior of a set of matrices within the framework of quantum mechanics.One important example of a matrix model is the BFSS matrix model proposed by Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker, and Leonard Susskind in 1997.This theory describes the behavior of a set of nine large matrices.", "In their original paper, these authors showed, among other things, that the low energy limit of this matrix model is described by eleven-dimensional supergravity.", "These calculations led them to propose that the BFSS matrix model is exactly equivalent to M-theory.", "The BFSS matrix model can therefore be used as a prototype for a correct formulation of M-theory and a tool for investigating the properties of M-theory in a relatively simple setting.===Noncommutative geometry===In geometry, it is often useful to introduce coordinates.", "For example, in order to study the geometry of the Euclidean plane, one defines the coordinates and as the distances between any point in the plane and a pair of axes.", "In ordinary geometry, the coordinates of a point are numbers, so they can be multiplied, and the product of two coordinates does not depend on the order of multiplication.", "That is, .", "This property of multiplication is known as the commutative law, and this relationship between geometry and the commutative algebra of coordinates is the starting point for much of modern geometry.Noncommutative geometry is a branch of mathematics that attempts to generalize this situation.", "Rather than working with ordinary numbers, one considers some similar objects, such as matrices, whose multiplication does not satisfy the commutative law (that is, objects for which is not necessarily equal to ).", "One imagines that these noncommuting objects are coordinates on some more general notion of \"space\" and proves theorems about these generalized spaces by exploiting the analogy with ordinary geometry.In a paper from 1998, Alain Connes, Michael R. Douglas, and Albert Schwarz showed that some aspects of matrix models and M-theory are described by a noncommutative quantum field theory, a special kind of physical theory in which the coordinates on spacetime do not satisfy the commutativity property.", "This established a link between matrix models and M-theory on the one hand, and noncommutative geometry on the other hand.", "It quickly led to the discovery of other important links between noncommutative geometry and various physical theories." ], [ "AdS/CFT correspondence", "===Overview===tessellation of the hyperbolic plane by triangles and squaresThe application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field, which are extended in space and time, is known as quantum field theory.", "In particle physics, quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles, which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields.", "Quantum field theories are also used throughout condensed matter physics to model particle-like objects called quasiparticles.One approach to formulating M-theory and studying its properties is provided by the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence.", "Proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997, the AdS/CFT correspondence is a theoretical result which implies that M-theory is in some cases equivalent to a quantum field theory.", "In addition to providing insights into the mathematical structure of string and M-theory, the AdS/CFT correspondence has shed light on many aspects of quantum field theory in regimes where traditional calculational techniques are ineffective.In the AdS/CFT correspondence, the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein's equation called anti-de Sitter space.", "In very elementary terms, anti-de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points (the metric) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry.", "It is closely related to hyperbolic space, which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the left.", "This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares.", "One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior.Three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space is like a stack of hyperbolic disks, each one representing the state of the universe at a given time.", "One can study theories of quantum gravity such as M-theory in the resulting spacetime.Now imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time.", "The resulting geometric object is three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space.", "It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk.", "Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture.", "The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS/CFT correspondence.", "As with the hyperbolic plane, anti-de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface.This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space dimensions and one time dimension, but it can be generalized to any number of dimensions.", "Indeed, hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can \"stack up\" copies of hyperbolic space to get higher-dimensional models of anti-de Sitter space.An important feature of anti-de Sitter space is its boundary (which looks like a cylinder in the case of three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space).", "One property of this boundary is that, within a small region on the surface around any given point, it looks just like Minkowski space, the model of spacetime used in nongravitational physics.", "One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which \"spacetime\" is given by the boundary of anti-de Sitter space.", "This observation is the starting point for AdS/CFT correspondence, which states that the boundary of anti-de Sitter space can be regarded as the \"spacetime\" for a quantum field theory.", "The claim is that this quantum field theory is equivalent to the gravitational theory on the bulk anti-de Sitter space in the sense that there is a \"dictionary\" for translating entities and calculations in one theory into their counterparts in the other theory.", "For example, a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory.", "In addition, the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory, then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding.===6D (2,0) superconformal field theory===(2,0)-theory has been used to understand results from the mathematical theory of knots.One particular realization of the AdS/CFT correspondence states that M-theory on the product space is equivalent to the so-called (2,0)-theory on the six-dimensional boundary.", "Here \"(2,0)\" refers to the particular type of supersymmetry that appears in the theory.", "In this example, the spacetime of the gravitational theory is effectively seven-dimensional (hence the notation ), and there are four additional \"compact\" dimensions (encoded by the factor).", "In the real world, spacetime is four-dimensional, at least macroscopically, so this version of the correspondence does not provide a realistic model of gravity.", "Likewise, the dual theory is not a viable model of any real-world system since it describes a world with six spacetime dimensions.Nevertheless, the (2,0)-theory has proven to be important for studying the general properties of quantum field theories.", "Indeed, this theory subsumes many mathematically interesting effective quantum field theories and points to new dualities relating these theories.", "For example, Luis Alday, Davide Gaiotto, and Yuji Tachikawa showed that by compactifying this theory on a surface, one obtains a four-dimensional quantum field theory, and there is a duality known as the AGT correspondence which relates the physics of this theory to certain physical concepts associated with the surface itself.", "More recently, theorists have extended these ideas to study the theories obtained by compactifying down to three dimensions.In addition to its applications in quantum field theory, the (2,0)-theory has spawned important results in pure mathematics.", "For example, the existence of the (2,0)-theory was used by Witten to give a \"physical\" explanation for a conjectural relationship in mathematics called the geometric Langlands correspondence.", "In subsequent work, Witten showed that the (2,0)-theory could be used to understand a concept in mathematics called Khovanov homology.", "Developed by Mikhail Khovanov around 2000, Khovanov homology provides a tool in knot theory, the branch of mathematics that studies and classifies the different shapes of knots.", "Another application of the (2,0)-theory in mathematics is the work of Davide Gaiotto, Greg Moore, and Andrew Neitzke, which used physical ideas to derive new results in hyperkähler geometry.===ABJM superconformal field theory===Another realization of the AdS/CFT correspondence states that M-theory on is equivalent to a quantum field theory called the ABJM theory in three dimensions.", "In this version of the correspondence, seven of the dimensions of M-theory are curled up, leaving four non-compact dimensions.", "Since the spacetime of our universe is four-dimensional, this version of the correspondence provides a somewhat more realistic description of gravity.The ABJM theory appearing in this version of the correspondence is also interesting for a variety of reasons.", "Introduced by Aharony, Bergman, Jafferis, and Maldacena, it is closely related to another quantum field theory called Chern–Simons theory.", "The latter theory was popularized by Witten in the late 1980s because of its applications to knot theory.", "In addition, the ABJM theory serves as a semi-realistic simplified model for solving problems that arise in condensed matter physics." ], [ "Phenomenology", "===Overview===A cross section of a Calabi–Yau manifold In addition to being an idea of considerable theoretical interest, M-theory provides a framework for constructing models of real world physics that combine general relativity with the standard model of particle physics.", "Phenomenology is the branch of theoretical physics in which physicists construct realistic models of nature from more abstract theoretical ideas.", "String phenomenology is the part of string theory that attempts to construct realistic models of particle physics based on string and M-theory.Typically, such models are based on the idea of compactification.", "Starting with the ten- or eleven-dimensional spacetime of string or M-theory, physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions.", "By choosing this shape appropriately, they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics, together with additional undiscovered particles, usually supersymmetric partners to analogues of known particles.", "One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold.", "This is a special kind of geometric object named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing-Tung Yau.", "Calabi–Yau manifolds offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory.", "Other similar methods can be used to construct models with physics resembling to some extent that of our four-dimensional world based on M-theory.Partly because of theoretical and mathematical difficulties and partly because of the extremely high energies (beyond what is technologically possible for the foreseeable future) needed to test these theories experimentally, there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature.", "This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems.===Compactification on manifolds===In one approach to M-theory phenomenology, theorists assume that the seven extra dimensions of M-theory are shaped like a manifold.", "This is a special kind of seven-dimensional shape constructed by mathematician Dominic Joyce of the University of Oxford.", "These manifolds are still poorly understood mathematically, and this fact has made it difficult for physicists to fully develop this approach to phenomenology.For example, physicists and mathematicians often assume that space has a mathematical property called smoothness, but this property cannot be assumed in the case of a manifold if one wishes to recover the physics of our four-dimensional world.", "Another problem is that manifolds are not complex manifolds, so theorists are unable to use tools from the branch of mathematics known as complex analysis.", "Finally, there are many open questions about the existence, uniqueness, and other mathematical properties of manifolds, and mathematicians lack a systematic way of searching for these manifolds.===Heterotic M-theory===Because of the difficulties with manifolds, most attempts to construct realistic theories of physics based on M-theory have taken a more indirect approach to compactifying eleven-dimensional spacetime.", "One approach, pioneered by Witten, Hořava, Burt Ovrut, and others, is known as heterotic M-theory.", "In this approach, one imagines that one of the eleven dimensions of M-theory is shaped like a circle.", "If this circle is very small, then the spacetime becomes effectively ten-dimensional.", "One then assumes that six of the ten dimensions form a Calabi–Yau manifold.", "If this Calabi–Yau manifold is also taken to be small, one is left with a theory in four-dimensions.Heterotic M-theory has been used to construct models of brane cosmology in which the observable universe is thought to exist on a brane in a higher dimensional ambient space.", "It has also spawned alternative theories of the early universe that do not rely on the theory of cosmic inflation." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Popularization", "* BBC ''Horizon'': \"Parallel Universes\" – 2002 feature documentary by BBC ''Horizon'', episode \"Parallel Universes\" focuses on the history and emergence of M-theory, and scientists involved* PBS.org-NOVA: ''The Elegant Universe'' – 2003 Emmy Award-winning, three-hour miniseries by ''Nova'' with Brian Greene, adapted from his ''The Elegant Universe'' book (original PBS broadcast dates: October 28, 8–10 p.m. and November 4, 8–9 p.m., 2003)" ], [ "See also", "* F-theory* Multiverse" ], [ "External links", "* Superstringtheory.com – The \"Official String Theory Web Site\", created by Patricia Schwarz.", "References on string theory and M-theory for the layperson and expert.", "* Not Even Wrong – Peter Woit's blog on physics in general, and string theory in particular.", "* M-Theory - Edward Witten (1995)  - Witten's 1995 lecture introducing M-Theory." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Multicast" ], [ "Introduction", "250pxIn computer networking, '''multicast''' is group communication where data transmission is addressed to a group of destination computers simultaneously.", "Multicast can be one-to-many or many-to-many distribution.", "Multicast should not be confused with physical layer point-to-multipoint communication.Group communication may either be application layer multicast or network-assisted multicast, where the latter makes it possible for the source to efficiently send to the group in a single transmission.", "Copies are automatically created in other network elements, such as routers, switches and cellular network base stations, but only to network segments that currently contain members of the group.", "Network assisted multicast may be implemented at the data link layer using one-to-many addressing and switching such as Ethernet multicast addressing, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), point-to-multipoint virtual circuits (P2MP) or InfiniBand multicast.", "Network-assisted multicast may also be implemented at the Internet layer using IP multicast.", "In IP multicast the implementation of the multicast concept occurs at the IP routing level, where routers create optimal distribution paths for datagrams sent to a multicast destination address.Multicast is often employed in Internet Protocol (IP) applications of streaming media, such as IPTV and multipoint videoconferencing." ], [ "Ethernet", "Ethernet frames with a value of 1 in the least-significant bit of the first octet of the destination address are treated as multicast frames and are flooded to all points on the network.", "This mechanism constitutes multicast at the data link layer.", "This mechanism is used by IP multicast to achieve one-to-many transmission for IP on Ethernet networks.", "Modern Ethernet controllers filter received packets to reduce CPU load, by looking up the hash of a multicast destination address in a table, initialized by software, which controls whether a multicast packet is dropped or fully received.Ethernet multicast is available on all Ethernet networks.", "Multicasts span the broadcast domain of the network.", "Multiple Registration Protocol can be used to control Ethernet multicast delivery." ], [ "IP", "The relationship between the multicast group management protocol family and the multicast routing protocols family based on the network topology terms.IP multicast is a technique for one-to-many communication over an IP network.", "The destination nodes send Internet Group Management Protocol ''join'' and ''leave'' messages, for example in the case of IPTV when the user changes from one TV channel to another.", "IP multicast scales to a larger receiver population by not requiring prior knowledge of who or how many receivers there are.", "Multicast uses network infrastructure efficiently by requiring the source to send a packet only once, even if it needs to be delivered to a large number of receivers.", "The nodes in the network take care of replicating the packet to reach multiple receivers only when necessary.The most common transport layer protocol to use multicast addressing is User Datagram Protocol (UDP).", "By its nature, UDP is not ''reliable''—messages may be lost or delivered out of order.", "By adding loss detection and retransmission mechanisms, reliable multicast has been implemented on top of UDP or IP by various middleware products, e.g.", "those that implement the Real-Time Publish-Subscribe (RTPS) Protocol of the Object Management Group (OMG) Data Distribution Service (DDS) standard, as well as by special transport protocols such as Pragmatic General Multicast (PGM).IP multicast is always available within the local subnet.", "Achieving IP multicast service over a wider area requires multicast routing.", "Many networks, including the Internet, do not support multicast routing.", "Multicast routing functionality is available in enterprise-grade network equipment but is typically not available until configured by a network administrator.", "The Internet Group Management Protocol is used to control IP multicast delivery." ], [ "Application layer", "Application layer multicast overlay services are not based on IP multicast or data link layer multicast.", "Instead they use multiple unicast transmissions to simulate a multicast.", "These services are designed for application-level group communication.", "Internet Relay Chat (IRC) implements a single spanning tree across its overlay network for all conference groups.", "The lesser-known PSYC technology uses custom multicast strategies per conference.", "Some peer-to-peer technologies employ the multicast concept known as peercasting when distributing content to multiple recipients.Explicit multi-unicast (Xcast) is another multicast strategy that includes addresses of all intended destinations within each packet.", "As such, given maximum transmission unit limitations, Xcast cannot be used for multicast groups with many destinations.", "The Xcast model generally assumes that stations participating in the communication are known ahead of time, so that distribution trees can be generated and resources allocated by network elements in advance of actual data traffic." ], [ "Wireless networks", "Wireless communications (with exception to point-to-point radio links using directional antennas) are inherently broadcasting media.", "However, the communication service provided may be unicast, multicast as well as broadcast, depending on if the data is addressed to one, to a group or to all receivers in the covered network, respectively." ], [ "Television", "In digital television, the concept of multicast service sometimes is used to refer to content protection by broadcast encryption, i.e.", "encrypted pay television content over a simplex broadcast channel only addressed to paying viewers.", "In this case, data is broadcast to all receivers but only addressed to a specific group.The concept of ''interactive multicast'', for example using IP multicast, may be used over TV broadcast networks to improve efficiency, offer more TV programs, or reduce the required spectrum.", "Interactive multicast implies that TV programs are sent only over transmitters where there are viewers and that only the most popular programs are transmitted.", "It relies on an additional interaction channel (a back-channel or return channel), where user equipment may send join and leave messages when the user changes TV channel.", "Interactive multicast has been suggested as an efficient transmission scheme in DVB-H and DVB-T2 terrestrial digital television systems, A similar concept is ''switched broadcast'' over cable-TV networks, where only the currently most popular content is delivered in the cable-TV network.", "Scalable video multicast in an application of interactive multicast, where a subset of the viewers receive additional data for high-resolution video.TV gateways converts satellite (DVB-S, DVB-S2), cable (DVB-C, DVB-C2) and terrestrial television (DVB-T, DVB-T2) to IP for distribution using unicast and multicast in home, hospitality and enterprise applications Another similar concept is Cell-TV, and implies TV distribution over 3G cellular networks using the network-assisted multicasting offered by the Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service (MBMS) service, or over 4G/LTE cellular networks with the eMBMS (enhanced MBMS) service." ], [ "See also", "*Anycast*Any-source multicast*Content delivery network*Flooding algorithm*Mbone, experimental ''multicast backbone'' network*Multicast lightpaths*Narada multicast protocol*Non-broadcast multiple-access network*Push technology*Source-specific multicast*Broadcast, unknown-unicast and multicast traffic" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marie Curie" ], [ "Introduction", "birthplace, 16 Freta Street, Warsaw, Poland'''Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie''' (; ; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934), known simply as '''Marie Curie''' ( , ), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity.", "She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win a Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two scientific fields.", "Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner of her first Nobel Prize, making them the first-ever married couple to win the Nobel Prize and launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes.", "She was, in 1906, the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.She was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire.", "She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw.", "In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work.", "In 1895 she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory of \"radioactivity\"—a term she coined.", "In 1906 Pierre Curie died in a Paris street accident.", "Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes.", "Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms by the use of radioactive isotopes.", "She founded the Curie Institute in Paris in 1920, and the Curie Institute in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres.", "During World War I she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals.While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames, never lost her sense of Polish identity.", "She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.", "She named the first chemical element she discovered ''polonium'', after her native country.", "Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the sanatorium in Passy (), France, of aplastic anemia likely from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I.", "In addition to her Nobel Prizes, she received numerous other honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Paris , and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie during the International Year of Chemistry.", "She is the subject of numerous biographical works." ], [ "Life and career", "=== Early years ===Bronisława, and Helena, 1890Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Congress Poland in the Russian Empire, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, ''née'' Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.", "The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed ''Mania'') were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed ''Zosia''), (born 1863, nicknamed ''Józio''), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed ''Bronia'') and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed ''Hela'').On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863–65).", "This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life.", "Maria's paternal grandfather, , had been principal of the Lublin primary school attended by Bolesław Prus, who became a leading figure in Polish literature.Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw ''gymnasia'' (secondary schools) for boys.", "After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home and instructed his children in its use.", "He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house.", "Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born.", "She died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old.", "Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder.", "Maria's father was an atheist, her mother a devout Catholic.", "The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic.Bronisława, When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next, she attended a ''gymnasium'' for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.", "After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.", "Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as ''Floating University''), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.", "''Krakowskie Przedmiescie'' 66, Warsaw, where Maria did her first scientific work, 1890–91Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later.", "In connection with this, Maria took a position first as a home tutor in Warsaw, then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.", "While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician.", "His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them.", "Maria's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both.", "He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University.", "Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska that had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute, which she had founded in 1932.At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist—invited Maria to join them in Paris.", "Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds.", "She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again.", "All that time she continued to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself.", "In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw.", "She continued working as a governess and remained there until late 1891.She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890–91) in a chemistry laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at ''Krakowskie Przedmieście'' 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.", "The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.=== Life in Paris ===In late 1891, she left Poland for France.", "In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the University of Paris, where she enrolled in late 1891.She subsisted on her meagre resources, keeping herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the clothes she had.", "She focused so hard on her studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.", "Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep.", "In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Gabriel Lippmann.", "Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894.Skłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry.", "That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together.", "Pierre Curie was an instructor at The City of Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).", "They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.", "Though Curie did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.Pierre Curie and Marie Skłodowska-Curie, 1895Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another.", "Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country.", "Curie, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French.", "Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family.", "She was still labouring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism in academia.", "A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a PhD.", "At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School.", "A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska \"Pierre's biggest discovery\".On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux; neither wanted a religious service.", "Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit.", "They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer.", "In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.=== New elements ===Pierre and Marie Curie in the laboratory, 1904In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.", "In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.", "He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself.", "Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.She used an innovative technique to investigate samples.", "Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge.", "Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity.", "Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present.", "She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself.", "This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.In 1897, her daughter Irène was born.", "To support her family, Curie began teaching at the .", "The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to ESPCI.", "The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof.", "They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances.", "ESPCI did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments.Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite).", "Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active.", "She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium.", "She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive.", "Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work.", "By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her.Pierre, Irène, and Marie Curie, ca.", "1902She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority.", "Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the ''Académie des Sciences'' the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson.", "Curie chose the same rapid means of publication.", "Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the ''Académie'' on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann.", "Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin.At that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: \"The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium.\"", "She later would recall how she felt \"a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible.\"", "On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar.", "They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tonnes of the ore.In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element they named \"polonium\", in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires (Russian, Austrian, and Prussian).", "On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named \"radium\", from the Latin word for \"ray\".", "In the course of their research, they also coined the word \"radioactivity\".Pierre and Marie Curie, 1903To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form.", "Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task.", "The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore. Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements.", "By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.", "The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization.", "From a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902.In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.", "She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris.", "In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death.In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris.", "That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.", "Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium.", "The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.=== Nobel Prizes ===1903 Nobel Prize portrait1903 Nobel Prize diplomaMarie Curie's business card as professor at the Faculty of SciencesIn December 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, \"in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel.\"", "At first the committee had intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination.", "Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905.The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant.", "Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory.", "Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906.Vanity Fair'', December 1904In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève.", "She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident.", "Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, fracturing his skull and killing him instantly.", "Curie was devastated by her husband's death.", "On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and offer it to Marie.", "She accepted it, hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre.", "She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.Curie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however.", "In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (''Institut du radium'', now Curie Institute, ''Institut Curie''), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris.", "The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute.", "Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute.At the first Solvay Conference (1911), Curie (seated, second from right) confers with Henri Poincaré; standing nearby are Rutherford (fourth from right), Einstein (second from right), and Paul Langevin (far right).In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie.", "Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences failed, by one or two votes, to elect her to membership in the academy.", "Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.", "It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the academy.Despite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish.", "During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press as a foreigner and atheist.", "Her daughter later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes.In 1911 it was revealed that Curie was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's, a married man who was estranged from his wife.", "This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents.", "Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.", "When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo.1911 Nobel Prize diplomaInternational recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.", "This award was \"in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element.\"", "Because of the negative publicity due to her affair with Langevin, the chair of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance at the official ceremony for her Nobel Prize in Chemistry, citing her questionable moral standing.", "Curie replied that she would be present at the ceremony, because \"the prize has been given to her for her discovery of polonium and radium\" and that \"there is no relation between her scientific work and the facts of her private life\".She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each.", "A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country.", "Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government to support the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine.", "A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment.", "For most of 1912, she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton.", "She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months.In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).", "She was appointed director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, founded in 1914.She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities.", "The institute's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919.=== World War I ===alt=During World War I, Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible.", "She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons, including to obviate amputations when in fact limbs could be saved.", "After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, and auxiliary generators, and she developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as ''petites Curies'' (\"Little Curies\").", "She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914.Assisted at first by a military doctor and her 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war.", "Later, she began training other women as aides.In 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing \"radium emanation\", a colourless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon, to be used for sterilizing infected tissue.", "She provided the radium from her own one-gram supply.", "It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.", "Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period.", "In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government.Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them.", "She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money.", "She said:She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause.", "After the war, she summarized her wartime experiences in a book, ''Radiology in War'' (1919).=== Postwar years ===In 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur, who had died in 1895.In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium.", "Mrs. William Brown Meloney, after interviewing Curie, created a ''Marie Curie Radium Fund'' and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip.In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States, and the First Lady praised her as an example of a professional achiever who was also a supportive wife.", "Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused.", "In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine.", "She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia.Irène, 1925Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and her son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-Curie.", "Eventually it became one of the world's four major radioactivity-research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner.In August 1922 Marie Curie became a member of the League of Nations' newly created International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.", "She sat on the committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations' scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, and Henri Bergson.", "In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled ''Pierre Curie''.", "In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw's Radium Institute.", "Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director.", "These distractions from her scientific labours, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work.", "In 1930 she was elected to the International Atomic Weights Committee, on which she served until her death.", "In 1931, Curie was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh.=== Death ===1935 statue, facing the Radium Institute, WarsawCurie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934.A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died aged 66 at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute-Savoie, from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation, causing damage to her bone marrow.The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed.", "She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark.", "Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the First World War.", "When Curie's body was exhumed in 1995, the French ''Office de Protection contre les Rayonnements Ionisants'' (''OPRI'') \"concluded that she could not have been exposed to lethal levels of radium while she was alive\".", "They pointed out that radium poses a risk only if it is ingested, and speculated that her illness was more likely to have been due to her use of radiography during the First World War.She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre.", "Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Paris Panthéon.", "Their remains were sealed in a lead lining because of the radioactivity.", "She became the second woman to be interred at the Panthéon (after Sophie Berthelot) and the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits.Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle.", "Even her cookbooks are highly radioactive.", "Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing.", "In her last year, she worked on a book, ''Radioactivity'', which was published posthumously in 1935." ], [ "Legacy", "Marie Curie Monument in LublinThe physical and societal aspects of the Curies' work contributed to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.", "Cornell University professor L. Pearce Williams observes:In addition to helping to overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, Curie's work has had a profound effect in the societal sphere.", "To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman.She was known for her honesty and moderate lifestyle.", "Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep.", "She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates.", "In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered.", "She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her.", "She and her husband often refused awards and medals.", "Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame." ], [ "Commemoration and cultural depictions", "CERN Museum, Switzerland, 2015As one of the most famous scientists in history, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture.", "She also received many honorary degrees from universities across the world.Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences.", "Awards and honours that she received include:* Nobel Prize in Physics (1903, with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel)* Davy Medal (1903, with Pierre)* Matteucci Medal (1904, with Pierre)* Actonian Prize (1907)* Elliott Cresson Medal (1909)* Legion of Honour (1909, rejected)* Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)* Civil Order of Alfonso XII (1919)* Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society (1921)* Order of the White Eagle (2018, posthumously)Entities that have been named after Marie Curie include:* The curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie, or both).", "* The element with atomic number 96 was named curium (symbol Cm).", "* Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: curite, sklodowskite, and cuprosklodowskite.", "* The Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country* In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies.", "* The sole Polish nuclear reactor in operation, the research reactor Maria* The 7000 Curie asteroid* Marie Curie, a registered charitable organisation in the United Kingdom* The IEEE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Award, an international award presented for outstanding contributions to the field of nuclear and plasma sciences and engineering, was established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in 2008.", "* The Marie Curie Medal, an annual science award established in 1996 and conferred by the Polish Chemical Society* The Marie Curie-Sklodowska Medal and Prize, an annual award conferred by the London-based Institute of Physics for distinguished contributions to physics education*Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland*Pierre and Marie Curie University in Paris*Maria Skłodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology in Poland*École élémentaire Marie-Curie in London, Ontario, Canada; Curie Metropolitan High School in Chicago, United States; Marie Curie High School in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Lycée français Marie Curie de Zurich, Switzerland; see Lycée Marie Curie for a list of other schools named after herNumerous biographies are devoted to her, including:* Ève Curie (Marie Curie's daughter), ''Madame Curie'', 1938.", "* Françoise Giroud, ''Marie Curie: A Life'', 1987.", "* Barbara Goldsmith, ''Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie'', 2005.", "* Lauren Redniss, ''Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout'', 2011, adapted into the 2019 British film.Marie Curie has been the subject of a number of films:* 1943: ''Madame Curie'', a U.S. Oscar-nominated film by Mervyn LeRoy starring Greer Garson.", "* 1997: ''Les Palmes de M. Schutz'', a French film adapted from a play of the same title, and directed by Claude Pinoteau.", "Marie Curie is played by Isabelle Huppert.", "* 2014: ''Marie Curie, une femme sur le front'', a French-Belgian film, directed by and starring Dominique Reymond.", "* 2016: ''Marie Curie: The Courage of Knowledge'', a European co-production by Marie Noëlle starring Karolina Gruszka.", "* 2016: ''Super Science Friends'', an American Internet animated series created by Brett Jubinville featuring Hedy Gregor as Marie Curie.", "* 2019: ''Radioactive'', a British film by Marjane Satrapi starring Rosamund Pike.Curie is the subject of the 2013 play ''False Assumptions'' by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life.", "Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play, ''Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie'', a one-woman show which by 2014 had been performed in 30 U.S. states and nine countries.", "Lauren Gunderson's 2019 play ''The Half-Life of Marie Curie'' portrays Curie during the summer after her 1911 Nobel Prize victory, when she was grappling with depression and facing public scorn over the revelation of her affair with Paul Langevin." ], [ "See also", "* Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg, who sponsored Marie Curie's visit to the US* Eusapia Palladino: Spiritualist medium whose Paris séances were attended by an intrigued Pierre Curie and a skeptical Marie Curie* List of female Nobel laureates* List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize* List of Poles in Chemistry* List of Poles in Physics* List of Polish Nobel laureates* Timeline of women in science* ''Treatise on Radioactivity'', by Marie Curie* Women in chemistry" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "<!--" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Wojciech A. Wierzewski, \"''Mazowieckie korzenie Marii''\" (\"Maria's Mazowsze Roots\"), ''Gwiazda Polarna'' (Pole Star), a Polish-American biweekly, vol.", "100, no.", "13 (21 June 2008), pp. 16–17.", "* L. Pearce Williams, \"Curie, Pierre and Marie\", ''Encyclopedia Americana'', Danbury, Connecticut, Grolier, Inc., 1986, vol.", "8, pp. 331–332.", "* -->" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Nonfiction ===* * * * * * * * * * === Fiction ===* A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, and his ''Salpêtrière'' patient \"Blanche\" (Marie Wittman).", "The English translation was published in 2006." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MATLAB" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MATLAB''' (an abbreviation of \"MATrix LABoratory\") is a proprietary multi-paradigm programming language and numeric computing environment developed by MathWorks.", "MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages.Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numeric computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine allowing access to symbolic computing abilities.", "An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and model-based design for dynamic and embedded systems., MATLAB has more than four million users worldwide.", "They come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and economics.", ", more than 5000 global colleges and universities use MATLAB to support instruction and research." ], [ "History", "===Origins===MATLAB was invented by mathematician and computer programmer Cleve Moler.", "The idea for MATLAB was based on his 1960s PhD thesis.", "Moler became a math professor at the University of New Mexico and started developing MATLAB for his students as a hobby.", "He developed MATLAB's initial linear algebra programming in 1967 with his one-time thesis advisor, George Forsythe.", "This was followed by Fortran code for linear equations in 1971.Before version 1.0, MATLAB \"was not a programming language; it was a simple interactive matrix calculator.", "There were no programs, no toolboxes, no graphics.", "And no ODEs or FFTs.", "\"The first early version of MATLAB was completed in the late 1970s.", "The software was disclosed to the public for the first time in February 1979 at the Naval Postgraduate School in California.", "Early versions of MATLAB were simple matrix calculators with 71 pre-built functions.", "At the time, MATLAB was distributed for free to universities.", "Moler would leave copies at universities he visited and the software developed a strong following in the math departments of university campuses.In the 1980s, Cleve Moler met John N. Little.", "They decided to reprogram MATLAB in C and market it for the IBM desktops that were replacing mainframe computers at the time.", "John Little and programmer Steve Bangert re-programmed MATLAB in C, created the MATLAB programming language, and developed features for toolboxes.Since 1993 an open source alternative, GNU Octave (mostly compatible with matlab) and scilab (similar to matlab) have been available.===Commercial development===MATLAB was first released as a commercial product in 1984 at the Automatic Control Conference in Las Vegas.", "MathWorks, Inc. was founded to develop the software and the MATLAB programming language was released.", "The first MATLAB sale was the following year, when Nick Trefethen from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology bought ten copies.", "By the end of the 1980s, several hundred copies of MATLAB had been sold to universities for student use.", "The software was popularized largely thanks to toolboxes created by experts in various fields for performing specialized mathematical tasks.", "Many of the toolboxes were developed as a result of Stanford students that used MATLAB in academia, then brought the software with them to the private sector.Over time, MATLAB was re-written for early operating systems created by Digital Equipment Corporation, VAX, Sun Microsystems, and for Unix PCs.", "Version 3 was released in 1987.The first MATLAB compiler was developed by Stephen C. Johnson in the 1990s.In 2000, MathWorks added a Fortran-based library for linear algebra in MATLAB 6, replacing the software's original LINPACK and EISPACK subroutines that were in C. MATLAB's Parallel Computing Toolbox was released at the 2004 Supercomputing Conference and support for graphics processing units (GPUs) was added to it in 2010.===Recent history===Some especially large changes to the software were made with version 8 in 2012.The user interface was reworked and Simulink's functionality was expanded.", "By 2016, MATLAB had introduced several technical and user interface improvements, including the MATLAB Live Editor notebook, and other features." ], [ "Syntax", "The MATLAB application is built around the MATLAB programming language.", "Common usage of the MATLAB application involves using the \"Command Window\" as an interactive mathematical shell or executing text files containing MATLAB code.=== \"Hello, world!\"", "example ===An example of a \"Hello, world!\"", "program exists in MATLAB.disp('Hello, world!", "')It displays like so:Hello, world!===Variables===Variables are defined using the assignment operator, =.", "MATLAB is a weakly typed programming language because types are implicitly converted.", "It is an inferred typed language because variables can be assigned without declaring their type, except if they are to be treated as symbolic objects, and that their type can change.", "Values can come from constants, from computation involving values of other variables, or from the output of a function.", "For example:>> x = 17x = 17>> x = 'hat'x =hat>> x = 3*4, pi/2x = 12.0000 1.5708>> y = 3*sin(x)y = -1.6097 3.0000=== Vectors and matrices ===A simple array is defined using the colon syntax: ''initial'':''increment'':''terminator''.", "For instance:>> array = 1:2:9array = 1 3 5 7 9defines a variable named array (or assigns a new value to an existing variable with the name array) which is an array consisting of the values 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.That is, the array starts at 1 (the ''initial'' value), increments with each step from the previous value by 2 (the ''increment'' value), and stops once it reaches (or is about to exceed) 9 (the ''terminator'' value).The ''increment'' value can actually be left out of this syntax (along with one of the colons), to use a default value of 1.>> ari = 1:5ari = 1 2 3 4 5assigns to the variable named ari an array with the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, since the default value of 1 is used as the increment.Indexing is one-based, which is the usual convention for matrices in mathematics, unlike zero-based indexing commonly used in other programming languages such as C, C++, and Java.Matrices can be defined by separating the elements of a row with blank space or comma and using a semicolon to separate the rows.", "The list of elements should be surrounded by square brackets .", "Parentheses () are used to access elements and subarrays (they are also used to denote a function argument list).>> A = 16, 3, 2, 13 ; 5, 10, 11, 8 ; 9, 6, 7, 12 ; 4, 15, 14, 1A = 16 3 2 13 5 10 11 8 9 6 7 12 4 15 14 1>> A(2,3)ans = 11Sets of indices can be specified by expressions such as 2:4, which evaluates to 2, 3, 4.For example, a submatrix taken from rows 2 through 4 and columns 3 through 4 can be written as:>> A(2:4,3:4)ans = 11 8 7 12 14 1A square identity matrix of size ''n'' can be generated using the function eye, and matrices of any size with zeros or ones can be generated with the functions zeros and ones, respectively.>> eye(3,3)ans = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1>> zeros(2,3)ans = 0 0 0 0 0 0>> ones(2,3)ans = 1 1 1 1 1 1Transposing a vector or a matrix is done either by the function transpose or by adding dot-prime after the matrix (without the dot, prime will perform conjugate transpose for complex arrays):>> A = 1 ; 2, B = A.", "', C = transpose(A)A = 1 2B = 1 2C = 1 2>> D = 0, 3 ; 1, 5, D.'D = 0 3 1 5ans = 0 1 3 5Most functions accept arrays as input and operate element-wise on each element.", "For example, mod(2*J,n) will multiply every element in ''J'' by 2, and then reduce each element modulo ''n''.", "MATLAB does include standard for and while loops, but (as in other similar applications such as APL and R), using the vectorized notation is encouraged and is often faster to execute.", "The following code, excerpted from the function ''magic.m'', creates a magic square ''M'' for odd values of ''n'' (MATLAB function meshgrid is used here to generate square matrices and containing ):J,I = meshgrid(1:n);A = mod(I + J - (n + 3) / 2, n);B = mod(I + 2 * J - 2, n);M = n * A + B + 1;=== Structures ===MATLAB supports structure data types.", "Since all variables in MATLAB are arrays, a more adequate name is \"structure array\", where each element of the array has the same field names.", "In addition, MATLAB supports dynamic field names (field look-ups by name, field manipulations, etc.", ").=== Functions ===When creating a MATLAB function, the name of the file should match the name of the first function in the file.", "Valid function names begin with an alphabetic character, and can contain letters, numbers, or underscores.", "Variables and functions are case sensitive.=== Function handles ===MATLAB supports elements of lambda calculus by introducing function handles, or function references, which are implemented either in .m files or anonymous/nested functions.=== Classes and object-oriented programming ===MATLAB supports object-oriented programming including classes, inheritance, virtual dispatch, packages, pass-by-value semantics, and pass-by-reference semantics.", "However, the syntax and calling conventions are significantly different from other languages.", "MATLAB has value classes and reference classes, depending on whether the class has ''handle'' as a super-class (for reference classes) or not (for value classes).Method call behavior is different between value and reference classes.", "For example, a call to a method:object.method();can alter any member of ''object'' only if ''object'' is an instance of a reference class, otherwise value class methods must return a new instance if it needs to modify the object.An example of a simple class is provided below:classdef Hello methods function greet(obj) disp('Hello!')", "end endendWhen put into a file named hello.m, this can be executed with the following commands:>> x = Hello();>> x.greet();Hello!" ], [ "Graphics and graphical user interface programming", "{\t\"version\": 2,\t\"width\": 400,\t\"height\": 200,\t\"data\": \t\t{\t\t\t\"name\": \"table\",\t\t\t\"values\": \t\t\t\t{\t\t\t\t\t\"x\": 3,\t\t\t\t\t\"y\": 1\t\t\t\t},\t\t\t\t{\t\t\t\t\t\"x\": 1,\t\t\t\t\t\"y\": 3\t\t\t\t},\t\t\t\t{\t\t\t\t\t\"x\": 2,\t\t\t\t\t\"y\": 2\t\t\t\t},\t\t\t\t{\t\t\t\t\t\"x\": 3,\t\t\t\t\t\"y\": 4\t\t\t\t}\t\t\t\t\t}\t,\t\"scales\": \t\t{\t\t\t\"name\": \"x\",\t\t\t\"type\": \"ordinal\",\t\t\t\"range\": \"width\",\t\t\t\"zero\": false,\t\t\t\"domain\": {\t\t\t\t\"data\": \"table\",\t\t\t\t\"field\": \"x\"\t\t\t}\t\t},\t\t{\t\t\t\"name\": \"y\",\t\t\t\"type\": \"linear\",\t\t\t\"range\": \"height\",\t\t\t\"nice\": true,\t\t\t\"domain\": {\t\t\t\t\"data\": \"table\",\t\t\t\t\"field\": \"y\"\t\t\t}\t\t}\t,\t\"axes\": \t\t{\t\t\t\"type\": \"x\",\t\t\t\"scale\": \"x\"\t\t},\t\t{\t\t\t\"type\": \"y\",\t\t\t\"scale\": \"y\"\t\t}\t,\t\"marks\": \t\t{\t\t\t\"type\": \"rect\",\t\t\t\"from\": {\t\t\t\t\"data\": \"table\"\t\t\t},\t\t\t\"properties\": {\t\t\t\t\"enter\": {\t\t\t\t\t\"x\": {\t\t\t\t\t\t\"scale\": \"x\",\t\t\t\t\t\t\"field\": \"x\"\t\t\t\t\t},\t\t\t\t\t\"y\": {\t\t\t\t\t\t\"scale\": \"y\",\t\t\t\t\t\t\"field\": \"y\"\t\t\t\t\t},\t\t\t\t\t\"y2\": {\t\t\t\t\t\t\"scale\": \"y\",\t\t\t\t\t\t\"value\": 0\t\t\t\t\t},\t\t\t\t\t\"fill\": {\t\t\t\t\t\t\"value\": \"steelblue\"\t\t\t\t\t},\t\t\t\t\t\"width\": {\t\t\t\t\t\t\"scale\": \"x\",\t\t\t\t\t\t\"band\": \"true\",\t\t\t\t\t\t\"offset\": -1\t\t\t\t\t}\t\t\t\t}\t\t\t}\t\t}\t}MATLAB has tightly integrated graph-plotting features.", "For example, the function ''plot'' can be used to produce a graph from two vectors ''x'' and ''y''.", "The code:x = 0:pi/100:2*pi;y = sin(x);plot(x,y)produces the following figure of the sine function:350pxMATLAB supports three-dimensional graphics as well:X,Y = meshgrid(-10:0.25:10,-10:0.25:10);f = sinc(sqrt((X/pi).^2+(Y/pi).^2));mesh(X,Y,f);axis(-10 10 -10 10 -0.3 1)xlabel('{\\bfx}')ylabel('{\\bfy}')zlabel('{\\bfsinc} ({\\bfR})')hidden off    X,Y = meshgrid(-10:0.25:10,-10:0.25:10);f = sinc(sqrt((X/pi).^2+(Y/pi).^2));surf(X,Y,f);axis(-10 10 -10 10 -0.3 1)xlabel('{\\bfx}')ylabel('{\\bfy}')zlabel('{\\bfsinc} ({\\bfR})') This code produces a '''wireframe''' 3D plot of the two-dimensional unnormalized sinc function:     This code produces a '''surface''' 3D plot of the two-dimensional unnormalized sinc function:File:MATLAB mesh sinc3D.svg    File:MATLAB surf sinc3D.svgMATLAB supports developing graphical user interface (GUI) applications.", "UIs can be generated either programmatically or using visual design environments such as ''GUIDE'' and ''App Designer''." ], [ "MATLAB and other languages", "MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in the programming languages C or Fortran.", "A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned.", "MEX files (MATLAB executables) are the dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such functions.", "Since 2014 increasing two-way interfacing with Python was being added.Libraries written in Perl, Java, ActiveX or .NET can be directly called from MATLAB, and many MATLAB libraries (for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries.", "Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done with a MATLAB toolbox which is sold separately by MathWorks, or using an undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-MATLAB Interface), (which should not be confused with the unrelated Java Metadata Interface that is also called JMI).", "Official MATLAB API for Java was added in 2016.As alternatives to the MuPAD based Symbolic Math Toolbox available from MathWorks, MATLAB can be connected to Maple or Mathematica.Libraries also exist to import and export MathML." ], [ "Relations to US sanctions", "In 2020, MATLAB withdrew services from two Chinese universities as a result of US sanctions.", "The universities said this will be responded to by increased use of open-source alternatives and by developing domestic alternatives." ], [ "Release history", "MATLAB is updated twice per year.", "In addition to new features and other improvements, each release has new bug fixes and smaller changes.", "Version Release name Number Bundled JVM Year Release date Notes 1.0 1984 2.0 1986 3.0 1987 First Matlab toolbox introduced; support for ordinary differential equations added.", "3.5 1990 Ran on DOS, Lowest requirement is an Intel 8088; Math Processor is supported, however had compatibility issues with NEC v20 + Intel 8087 combination.", "4.0 1992 Ran on Windows 3.1x and Macintosh.", "4.2c 1994 Ran on Windows 3.1x; needed a math coprocessor.", "5.0 Volume 8 1996 December 1996 Unified releases across all platforms.", "5.1 Volume 9 1997 May 1997 5.1.1 R9.1 5.2 R10 1998 March 1998 Last version working on classic Macs.", "5.2.1 R10.1 5.3 R11 1999 January 1999 5.3.1 R11.1 November 1999 6.0 R1212 1.1.8 2000 November 2000 First release with bundled Java virtual machine (JVM).", "6.1 R12.1 1.3.0 2001 June 2001Last release for Windows 95.6.5 R1313 1.3.1 2002 July 2002 6.5.1 R13SP1 2003 6.5.2 R13SP2 Last release for Windows 98, Windows ME, IBM/AIX, Alpha/TRU64, and SGI/IRIX.", "7.0 R14 14 1.4.2 2004 June 2004 Introduced anonymous and nested functions, and integer and single-precision arithmetics; re-introduced for Mac (under Mac OS X).", "7.0.1 R14SP1 October 2004R14SP1+2004 November 2004 Parallel Computing Toolbox introduced.", "7.0.4 R14SP2 1.5.0 2005 March 7, 2005 Support added for memory-mapped files.", "7.1 R14SP3 1.5.0 September 1, 2005First 64-bit version available for Windows XP 64-bit.", "7.2 R2006a 15 1.5.0 2006 March 1, 2006 7.3 R2006b 16 1.5.0 September 1, 2006 HDF5-based MAT-file support added.", "7.4 R2007a 17 1.5.0_07 2007 March 1, 2007 New bsxfun function added to apply element-by-element binary operation with singleton expansion enabled.", "7.5 R2007b 18 1.6.0 September 1, 2007 Last release for Windows 2000 and PowerPC Mac; License Server support for Windows Vista; new internal format for P-code.", "7.6 R2008a 19 1.6.0 2008 March 1, 2008 Major enhancements to object-oriented programming abilities with a new class definition syntax; ability to manage namespaces with packages.", "7.7 R2008b 20 1.6.0_04 October 9, 2008 Last release for processors w/o SSE2; New Map data structure; upgrades to random number generators.", "7.8 R2009a 21 1.6.0_04 2009 March 6, 2009 First release for Microsoft 32-bit & 64-bit Windows 7; new external interface to .NET Framework.", "7.9 R2009b 22 1.6.0_12 September 4, 2009 First release for Intel 64-bit Mac, and last for Solaris SPARC; new use for the tilde operator (~) to ignore arguments in function calls.", "7.9.1 R2009bSP1 1.6.0_12 2010 April 1, 2010 Bug fixes.", "7.10 R2010a 23 1.6.0_12 March 5, 2010 Last release for Intel 32-bit Mac.", "7.11 R2010b24 1.6.0_17 September 3, 2010 Added support for enumerations; added features for running MATLAB code on NVIDIA CUDA-based GPUs.", "7.11.1 R2010bSP1 1.6.0_17 2011 March 17, 2011 Bug fixes and updates.", "7.11.2 R2010bSP2 1.6.0_17April 5, 2012 Bug fixes.", "7.12 R2011a 25 1.6.0_17 April 8, 2011 New rng function to control random number generation.", "7.13 R2011b 26 1.6.0_17 September 1, 2011 Added ability to access/change parts of variables directly in MAT-files, without loading into memory; increased maximum local workers with Parallel Computing Toolbox from 8 to 12.7.14 R2012a 27 1.6.0_17 2012 March 1, 2012 Last version with 32-bit Linux support.", "8.0 R2012b 28 1.6.0_17 September 11, 2012 First release with Toolstrip interface; MATLAB Apps introduced; redesigned documentation system.", "8.1 R2013a 29 1.6.0_17 2013 March 7, 2013 New unit testing framework.", "8.2 R2013b 30 1.7.0_11September 6, 2013 Built in Java Runtime Environment (JRE) updated to version 7; New table data type.", "8.3 R2014a 31 1.7.0_11 2014 March 7, 2014 Simplified compiler setup for building MEX-files; USB Webcams support in core MATLAB; number of local workers no longer limited to 12 with Parallel Computing Toolbox.", "8.4 R2014b 32 1.7.0_11 October 3, 2014 New class-based graphics engine (a.k.a.", "HG2); tabbing function in GUI; improved user toolbox packaging and help files; new objects for time-date manipulations; Git-Subversion integration in IDE; big data abilities with MapReduce (scalable to Hadoop); new py package for using Python from inside MATLAB; new engine interface to call MATLAB from Python; several new and improved functions: webread (RESTful web services with JSON/XML support), tcpclient (socket-based connections), histcounts, histogram, animatedline, and others.", "8.5 R2015a 33 1.7.0_60 2015 March 5, 2015 8.5.1 R2015aSP1 1.7.0_60 October 14, 2015 Last release supporting Windows XP and Windows Vista.", "8.6 R2015b 34 1.7.0_60 September 3, 2015 New MATLAB execution engine (a.k.a.", "LXE); graph and digraph classes to work with graphs and networks; MinGW-w64 as supported compiler on Windows; last version with 32-bit support.", "9.0 R2016a 35 1.7.0_60 2016 March 3, 2016 Released Live Scripts: interactive documents that combine text, code, and output (in the style of Literate programming); App Designer introduced: a new development environment for building apps (with new kind of UI figures, axes, and components); pause execution of running programs using a Pause Button.", "9.1 R2016b 36 1.7.0_60 September 15, 2016 Added ability to define local functions in scripts; automatic expansion of dimensions (previously provided via explicit call to bsxfun); tall arrays for Big data; new string type; new functions to encode/decode JSON; official MATLAB Engine API for Java.", "9.2 R2017a 37 1.7.0_60 2017 March 9, 2017 Released MATLAB Online: cloud-based MATLAB desktop accessed in a web browser; double-quoted strings; new memoize function for Memoization; expanded object properties validation; mocking framework for unit testing; MEX targets 64-bit by default; new heatmap function for creating heatmap charts.", "9.3 R2017b 38 1.8.0_121 September 21, 2017 new decomposition object for solving linear systems; new geobubble, wordcloud, and binscatter graphics functions; object-oriented C++ Engine API and MATLAB Data API; Introduced a GPU Coder that converts MATLAB code to CUDA code for Nvidia.", "9.4 R2018a 39 1.8.0_144 2018 March 15, 2018Live Functions in interactive documents; support for adding interactive controls in live scripts; create deployed intranet web apps using MATLAB Compiler; custom tab completion for user functions; C++ MEX API; interleaved storage for complex numbers in C MEX files.", "9.5 R2018b 40 1.8.0_152 September 12, 2018new stackedplot, scatterhistogram, and imtile graphics functions; more I/O functions support accessing remote data from cloud sources (like AWS, Azure, Hadoop); grid layout manager for uifigure apps; Neural Network Toolbox replaced with Deep Learning Toolbox.", "9.6R2019a411.8.0_181 2019 March 20, 2019MATLAB Projects; xcorr and xcov function are now in core MATLAB; new readmatrix, readvars, and readcell I/O functions as well as the write variants; new parallelplot graphics function; colors can be specified in hexadecimal format (#FF8800) in graphics objects; new clibgen package for generating wrapper interfaces to C++ libraries; out-of-process execution mode for MEX functions; added state machine programming with Stateflow.", "9.7R2019b421.8.0_202 September 11, 2019Live Editor Tasks; hexadecimal and binary literals; dot-indexing into function outputs; arguments block for function input validation; Bluetooth LE interface; new tiled chart layout functions (tiledlayout and nexttile); out-of-process execution mode for Python.", "9.8R2020a432020 March 19, 2020Improved Intel MKL support for AMD CPUs (AVX2); UTF-8 encoding by default for text files and I/O; new exportgraphics function; new boxchart graphics function; removal of Mupad notebook; ability to create stand-alone applications with Simulink.", "9.9R2020b44 September 17, 2020build pattern expressions similar to regular expressions for text; readstruct and writestruct I/O functions for structures in XML files; Bluetooth interface; new bubblechart and swarmchart graphics functions; new turbo colormap; new exportapp function; introduced custom UI component class; online version of Simulink.", "9.10R2021a452021 March 11, 2021new name=value syntax for passing function arguments; new Class Diagram tool; new MATLAB API for XML Processing (MAXP) matlab.io.xml.", "*; new bubblecloud graphics function.", "9.11R2021b46 September 22, 2021improvements to code editor (block editing, automatic suggestions/completions, refactoring, etc.", "); new sftp function.", "9.12R2022a472022 March 9, 2022Windows 7 is no longer supported; UTF-8 used as system encoding on Windows, including system calls made from MEX files; enhanced P-code obfuscation; support for .opus audio files; create custom Live Editor Tasks.", "9.13R2022b481.8.0_202 August 24, 2022 new dictionary data type (associative array); output validation in arguments block; build automation task runner using a buildfile.m file; support for both .NET (Core) and .NET Framework in MATLAB Interface to .NET and Engine API.", "9.14R2023a492023 March 16, 2023Live Editor Tasks: Import data in live scripts; interactively find and remove periodic and polynomial trends from data; pivot Function: Summarize tabular data in pivot tables; Python Interface: Support for conversions of Python and NumPy data types; use Python objects as keys in a MATLAB dictionary; Unit Testing Framework: Run tests using the Test browser; Java Interface: Support for Java 11 JDK and JRE 23.2R2023b September 13, 2023Added native support for Apple Silicon processors.", "The number (or release number) is the version reported by Concurrent License Manager program FLEXlm.", "For a complete list of changes of both MATLAB and official toolboxes, consult the MATLAB release notes." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of numerical-analysis software* List of numerical-analysis software" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meuse" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Meuse''' ( , , , ; ) or '''Maas''' ( , ; or ) is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea from the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta.", "It has a total length of ." ], [ "History", "From 1301 the upper Meuse roughly marked the western border of the Holy Roman Empire with the Kingdom of France, after Count Henry III of Bar had to receive the western part of the County of Bar (''Barrois mouvant'') as a French fief from the hands of King Philip IV.", "In 1408, a Burgundian army led by John the Fearless went to the aid of John III against the citizens of Liège, who were in open revolt.", "After the battle, which saw the men from Liège defeated, John ordered the drowning in the Meuse of suspicious burghers and noblemen in Liège.The border remained relatively stable until the annexation of the Three Bishoprics Metz, Toul and Verdun by King Henry II in 1552 and the occupation of the Duchy of Lorraine by the forces of King Louis XIII in 1633.Its lower Belgian (Walloon) portion, part of the sillon industriel, was the first fully industrialized area in continental Europe.Auguste Paul Charles Anastasi, '' Bank of the Meuse at Zwindrecht (Holland)'', , lithograph, Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington, DCThe Afgedamde Maas was created in the late Middle Ages, when a major flood made a connection between the Maas and the Merwede at the town of Woudrichem.", "From that moment on, the current Afgedamde Maas was the main branch of the lower Meuse.", "The former main branch eventually silted up and is today called the Oude Maasje.", "In the late 19th century and early 20th century the connection between the Maas and Rhine was closed off and the Maas was given a new, artificial mouth – the Bergse Maas.", "The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Maas reduced the risk of flooding and was considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works.", "The former main branch was, after the dam at its southern inlet was completed in 1904, renamed ''Afgedamde Maas'' and no longer receives water from the Maas.The Meuse and its crossings were a key objective of the Battle of France, the Battle of Sedan and also for the last major German WWII counter-offensive on the Western Front, the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944 and January 1945.The Meuse is represented in the documentary ''The River People'' released in 2012 by Xavier Istasse.In July 2021, the Meuse basin was one of the many regions in Europe to experience catastrophic flooding during the 2021 European floods." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Meuse'' is derived from the French name of the river, derived from its Latin name, ''Mosa'', which ultimately derives from the Celtic or Proto-Celtic name *''Mosā''.", "This probably derives from the same root as English \"maze\", referring to the river's twists and turns.The Dutch name ''Maas'' descends from Middle Dutch ''Mase'', which comes from the presumed but unattested Old Dutch form *''Masa'', from Proto-Germanic *''Masō''.", "Modern Dutch and German ''Maas'' and Limburgish ''Maos'' preserve this Germanic form.", "Despite the similarity, the Germanic name is not derived from the Celtic name, judging from the change from earlier ''o'' into ''a'', which is characteristic of the Germanic languages." ], [ "Geography", "SPOT satellite.", "The village in the lower right of the photo is Bogny-sur-Meuse; the village in the upper left is Revin.The Meuse rises in Pouilly-en-Bassigny, commune of Le Châtelet-sur-Meuse on the Langres plateau in France from where it flows northwards past Sedan (the head of navigation) and Charleville-Mézières into Belgium.At Namur it is joined by the Sambre.", "Beyond Namur the Meuse winds eastwards, skirting the Ardennes, and passes Liège before turning north.", "The river then forms part of the Belgian-Dutch border, except that at Maastricht the border lies further to the west.", "In the Netherlands it continues northwards through Venlo closely along the border to Germany, then turns towards the west, where it runs parallel to the Waal and forms part of the extensive Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta, together with the Scheldt to its south and the Rhine to the north.", "The river has been divided near Heusden into the Afgedamde Maas on the right and the Bergse Maas on the left.", "The Bergse Maas continues under the name of Amer, which is part of De Biesbosch.", "The Afgedamde Maas joins the Waal, the main stem of the Rhine at Woudrichem, and then flows under the name of Boven Merwede to Hardinxveld-Giessendam, where it splits into Nieuwe Merwede and Beneden Merwede.", "Near Lage Zwaluwe, the Nieuwe Merwede joins the Amer, forming the Hollands Diep, which splits into Grevelingen and Haringvliet, before finally flowing into the North Sea.The Meuse is crossed by railway bridges between the following stations (on the left and right banks respectively):* Belgium:** Hasselt (Belgium) – Maastricht (Netherlands)* Netherlands:** Weert - Roermond** Blerick – Venlo** Cuijk – Mook-Molenhoek** Ravenstein – Wijchen** 's-Hertogenbosch – ZaltbommelThere are also numerous road bridges and around 32 ferry crossings.The Meuse is navigable over a substantial part of its total length: In the Netherlands and Belgium, the river is part of the major inland navigation infrastructure, connecting the Rotterdam-Amsterdam-Antwerp port areas to the industrial areas upstream: 's-Hertogenbosch, Venlo, Maastricht, Liège, Namur.", "Between Maastricht and Maasbracht, an unnavigable section of the Meuse is bypassed by the Juliana Canal.", "South of Namur, further upstream, the river can only carry more modest vessels, although a barge as long as .", "can still reach the French border town of Givet.From Givet, the river is canalized over a distance of .", "The canalized Meuse used to be called the \"Canal de l'Est — Branche Nord\" but was recently rebaptized into \"Canal de la Meuse\".", "The waterway can be used by the smallest barges that are still in use commercially almost long and just over wide.", "Just upstream of the town of Commercy, the Canal de la Meuse connects with the Marne–Rhine Canal by means of a short diversion canal.The Cretaceous sea reptile Mosasaur is named after the river Meuse.", "The first fossils of it were discovered outside Maastricht in 1780." ], [ "Basin area", "The Meuse and the ''Rochers de Freÿr'', in front of the Castle of Freÿr south of DinantThe Meuse at Namur, capital of Belgium's WalloniaThe Meuse at Liège, third river port of EuropeThe Meuse (''Maas'') at MaastrichtMeuse near thumbGraveMeuse near thumbAn international agreement was signed in 2002 in Ghent, Belgium, about the management of the river amongst France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium.", "Also participating in the agreement were the Belgian regional governments of Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels (which is not in the basin of the Meuse but pumps running water into the Meuse).Most of the basin area (approximately 36,000 km2) is in Wallonia (12,000 km2), followed by France (9,000 km2), the Netherlands (8,000 km2), Germany (2,000 km2), Flanders (2,000 km2) and Luxembourg (a few km2).An International Commission on the Meuse has the responsibility of the implementation of the treaty.The costs of this Commission are met by all these countries, in proportion of their own territory in the basin of the Meuse: Netherlands 30%, Wallonia 30%, France 15%, Germany 14.5%, Flanders 5%, Brussels 4.5%, Kingdom of Belgium 0.5%, and Luxembourg 0.5%.The map of the basin area of Meuse was joined to the text of the treaty.As for culture, as a major communication route the River Meuse is the origin of Mosan art, principally (Wallonia and France).The first landscape painted in the Renaissance was the landscape of Meuse by Joachim Patinir.", "He was likely the uncle of Henri Blès, who is sometimes defined as a Mosan landscape painter active during the second third of the 16th century (i.e.", "second generation of landscape painters).===Tributaries===The main tributaries of the Meuse are listed below in downstream-upstream order, with the town where the tributary meets the river:* Dieze (near 's-Hertogenbosch)** Aa (in 's-Hertogenbosch)** Binnendieze (in 's-Hertogenbosch)** Dommel (in 's-Hertogenbosch)*** Gender (in Eindhoven)* Raam (in Grave)* Niers (in Gennep)* Swalm (in Swalmen)* Rur/Roer (in Roermond)** Wurm (in Heinsberg, Germany)** Merzbach (in Linnich, Germany)** Inde (in Jülich, Germany)* Kingbeek (near Illikhoven)* Geleenbeek (near Maasbracht)* Geul (near Meerssen)* Geer/Jeker (in Maastricht)* Voer/Fouron (in Eijsden)* Berwinne/Berwijn (near Moelingen, part of Voeren)* Ourthe (in Liège)** Weser/Vesdre (near Liège)** Amel/Amblève (in Comblain-au-Pont)*** Salm (in Trois-Ponts)*** Warche (near Malmedy)* Hoyoux (in Huy)* Mehaigne (in Wanze)* Sambre (in Namur)* Houyoux (in Namur)* Bocq (in Yvoir)* Molignée (in Anhée)* Lesse (in Anseremme, part of Dinant)* Viroin (in Vireux-Molhain)* Faux (in Revin)* Semois or Semoy (in Monthermé)* Sormonne (in Warcq)* Bar (near Dom-le-Mesnil)* Chiers (in Bazeilles)** Othain (in Montmédy)* Vair (in Maxey-sur-Meuse)* Mouzon (in Neufchâteau, Vosges)* Saônelle (in Coussey)" ], [ "Distributaries", "The lower part of the Rhine-Meuse DeltaThe mean annual discharge rate of the Meuse has been relatively stable over the last few thousand years.", "One recent study estimates that average flow has increased by about 10% since 2000 BC.", "The hydrological distribution of the Meuse changed during the later Middle Ages, when a major flood forced it to shift its main course northwards towards the river Merwede.", "From then on several stretches of the original Merwede were renamed \"Maas\" (i.e.", "Meuse) and served as the primary outflow of that river.", "Those branches are currently known as the Nieuwe Maas and Oude Maas.However during another series of severe floods the Meuse found an additional path towards the sea, resulting in the creation of the Biesbosch wetlands and Hollands Diep estuaries.", "Thereafter the Meuse split near Heusden into two main distributaries, one flowing north to join the Merwede and one flowing direct to the sea.", "The branch of the Meuse leading direct to the sea eventually silted up (and now forms the Oude Maasje stream), but in 1904 the canalised Bergse Maas was dug to take over the functions of the silted-up branch.", "At the same time the branch leading to the Merwede was dammed at Heusden (and has since been known as the Afgedamde Maas) so that little water from the Meuse entered the old Maas courses or the Rhine distributaries.", "The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Meuse is considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works.", "In 1970 the Haringvlietdam has been finished.", "Since then the reunited Rhine and Meuse waters have reached the North Sea either at this site or, during times of lower discharges of the Rhine, at Hook of Holland.A 2008 study notes that the difference between summer and winter flow volumes has increased significantly in the last 100–200 years.", "It points out that the frequency of serious floods (''i.e.''", "flows > 1000% of normal) has increased markedly.", "They predict that winter flooding of the Meuse may become a recurring problem in the coming decades." ], [ "Départements, provinces and towns", "The Meuse flows through the following departments of France, provinces of Belgium, provinces of the Netherlands and towns:* Haute-Marne* Vosges: Neufchâteau* Meuse: Commercy, Saint-Mihiel, Verdun, Stenay* Ardennes: Sedan, Charleville-Mézières, Givet* Namur: Dinant, Namur* Liège: Huy, Liège, Visé* Limburg: Eijsden, Maastricht, Stein, Maasbracht, Roermond, Venlo, Gennep* Limburg: Stokkem, Maaseik (between Stein and Maasbracht)* North Brabant: Boxmeer, Cuijk, Grave, Ravenstein, Lith, Heusden, Aalburg, Woudrichem* Gelderland: Maasdriel* South Holland: Dordrecht, Maassluis, Rotterdam" ], [ "Detailed route", "''Main cities and tributaries will be in '''bold'''.", "''RegionMunicipality on the left bankMunicipality on the right bankRoute FranceGrand Est RegionHaute-Marne DepartmentLe Châtelet-sur-MeuseLe Châtelet-sur-Meuse'''Source near Pouilly-en-Bassigny'''20x20px Le Châtelet-sur-Meuse20x20px ''Premier pont de la Meuse''Dammartin-sur-MeuseDammartin-sur-Meuse20x20px Malroy20x20px ''Pont de Malroy''20x20px ''Pont du Pâtis des Vannees''20x20px Ruisseau de Pré ChatenayVal-de-MeuseVal-de-Meuse20x20px Meuse20x20px ''Pont de Meuse (D429 Val-de-Meuse - Dombrot-le-Sec)''20x20px Ruisseau d'Avrecourt20x20px ''Railway bridge Culmont-Chalindrey - Toul line''20x20px Ru d'Ouette20x20px Ru des Fossés20x20px Ruisseau de Bocheret20x20px Provenchères-sur-Meuse20x20px ''Pont de Val-de-Meuse (D189)''20x20px Ruisseau des Aimeguenons20x20px ''Pont de l'A31 (A31 Nancy - Dijon)''20x20px Ruisseau de Joncourt20x20px ''Pont de D132''20x20px Ruisseau de l'Étange20x20px Ruisseau du Grand ÉtangeLavilleneuveVal-de-Meuse20x20px Ruisseau de Rangecourt20x20px ''Pont de Lavilleneuve (D132)''20x20px Le ViauVal-de-Meuse20x20px Lénizeul20x20px ''Pont de D228''BassoncourtBassoncourt20x20px Ruisseau du Soilleron20x20px ''Pont de Bassin Court sur la Meuse (D33)''Breuvannes-en-BassignyBreuvannes-en-Bassigny20x20px Ruisseau des Noues20x20px Meuvy20x20px ''Pont de Meuvy (D220)''ClefmontClefmont/AudeloncourtAudeloncourt20x20px Ruisseau du Grand PréLevécourtLevécourt20x20px Ruisseau de la Hourie20x20px Levécourt20x20px ''Pont de Levécourt (D131)''HuilliécourtDoncourt-sur-Meuse/HâcourtHâcourt20x20px ''Pont de Hâcourt''Bourg-Sainte-Marie20x20px Hâcourt20x20px Ruisseau de PiotBrainville-sur-Meuse20x20px ''Pont de Bourg-Sainte-Marie (D119)''Bourmont-entre-Meuse-et-MouzonBourmont-entre-Meuse-et-Mouzon20x20px BourmontSaint-Thiébault20x20px Saint-Thiébault20x20px ''Pont de Saint-Thiébault (D16)''20x20px Ruisseau d'IlloudBourmont-entre-Meuse-et-Mouzon20x20px ''Pont de Gonaincourt (D119)''20x20px Gonaincourt20x20px Le Mordé20x20px ''Pont de Bourmont sur la Meuse (D148)''20x20px GoncourtHarréville-les-ChanteursHarréville-les-Chanteurs20x20px ''Railway bridges Culmont-Chalindrey - Toul line (2x)''20x20px Harréville-les-Chanteurs20x20px ''Pont de Harréville-les-Chanteurs (D202)'' FranceGrand Est RegionVosges DepartmentBazoilles-sur-MeuseBazoilles-sur-Meuse20x20px ''Railway bridges Culmont-Chalindrey - Toul line (2x)''20x20px ''Pont de Bazoilles-sur-Meuse (D74 Langres - Neufchâteau)''20x20px Bazoilles-sur-MeuseNeufchâteauNeufchâteau20x20px ''Railway bridge Culmont-Chalindrey - Toul line''20x20px '''Neufchâteau'''20x20px ''Pont de Neufchâteau (D674 Chaumont - Neufchâteau)''20x20px '''Mouzon'''20x20px ''Railway bridge at Neufchâteau railway station''20x20px ''Pont All.", "Charles Péguy''FrebécourtFrebécourt''20x20px Pont de Frebécourt''20x20px Frebécourt20x20px La SaônelleCousseyCoussey20x20px Coussey''20x20px Pont de Coussey (D3)''Domrémy-la-PucelleDomrémy-la-Pucelle''20x20px Pont de Domrémy-la-Pucelle (D164 Neufchâteau - Greux)''20x20px Domrémy-la-PucelleGreuxMaxey-sur-Meuse'''20x20px Vair'''Maxey-sur-Meuse20x20px Maxey-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de D19'' FranceGrand Est RegionMeuse DepartmentBrixey-aux-ChanoinesBrixey-aux-Chanoines''20x20px Pont de Brixey-aux-Chanoines''SauvignySauvigny20x20px Ruisseau de Ruppes20x20px Sauvigny''20x20px Pont de Sauvigny''Montbras/Sauvigny''20x20px Pont de Traveron''20x20px TraveronPagny-la-Blanche-CôtePagny-la-Blanche-Côte20x20px Rivière de Chêtre''20x20px Pont de Pagny-la-Blanche-Côte (D32)''20x20px Rivière de ChêtreMontbrasChampougny/Taillancourt20x20px La Haute MeuseChampougny20x20px Champougny''20x20px Pont de Champougny''Maxey-sur-VaiseMaxey-sur-Vaise/Burey-en-VauxSepvigny/Sepvigny''20x20px Pont de Sepvigny (D145)''Neuville-lès-VaucouleursNeuville-lès-Vaucouleurs/VaucouleursChalaines20x20px Chalaines''20x20px Pont de Chalaines (D960 Toul - Bure)''20x20px La Haute MeuseUgny-sur-MeuseRigny-la-Salle20x20px Le Goulot de Meuse20x20px Ugny-sur-MeuseSaint-Germain-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Ugny-sur-Meuse (D36)''20x20px Saint-Germain-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Saint-Germain-sur-Meuse (D144A)''Ugny-sur-MeuseOurches-sur-Meuse20x20px Ourches-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de D144''Pagny-sur-MeusePagny-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Pagny-sur-Meuse (N4 Paris - Strasbourg)''20x20px Pagny-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de D36''TrousseyTroussey20x20px Troussey''20x20px Pont de D36C''20x20px Marne–Rhine Canal''20x20px Pont de Troussey (D36)''Void-VaconSorcy-Saint-Martin20x20px Ruisseau de Frasne20x20px Le VidusSorcy-Saint-Martin''20x20px Pont de Sorcy-Saint-Martin (D10)''20x20px Sorcy-Saint-Martin''20x20px Pont de D144''Sorcy-Saint-MartinEuville''20x20px Railway bridge Paris-Est–Strasbourg-Ville line''20x20px Issey''20x20px Pont d'Euville (D144)''20x20px Canal de l'EstCommercyCommercy20x20px Canal de l'Est''20x20px Pont de D36''20x20px Ruisseau de la NoueVignotVignot20x20px Ruisseau d'Aulnois''20x20px Pont de Vignot (D958 Commercy - Pont-à-Mousson)''20x20px VignotCommercyCommercy''20x20px Pont de Rte de Boncourt (D8A)''20x20px Canal de l'EstLérouvilleCommercy20x20px Canal de l'EstBoncourt-sur-MeuseBoncourt-sur-Meuse''20x20px Railway bridge Lérouville - Metz line''''20x20px Pont de Boncourt-sur-Meuse''Pont-sur-MeusePont-sur-Meuse20x20px Pont-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Pont-sur-Meuse (D12)''20x20px Ruisseau de ChonvilleVadonville/MécrinMécrin''20x20px Pont de Mécrin (D12A)''20x20px MécrinSampignyHan-sur-Meuse20x20px Rivière de MontHan-sur-Meuse20x20px Brasseitte''20x20px Pont du Moulin Blussot (D183)''20x20px Ally-sur-Meuse20x20px Han-sur-MeuseSaint-Mihiel''20x20px Pont de Han-sur-Meuse (D7A)''Kœur-la-PetiteBislée''20x20px Pont de D964 (Commercy - Verdun)''20x20px Canal de l'EstKœur-la-Grande''20x20px Pont de Bislée (D171)''20x20px BisléeChauvoncourt20x20px Canal de l'EstChauvoncourt20x20px MenonvilleSaint-MihielSaint-Mihiel20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px Saint-Mihiel''20x20px Pont de Saint-Mihiel (D901 Saint-Mihiel - Rumont)''Les ParochesMaizey20x20px Le Rehaut20x20px Canal de l'EstMaizey20x20px MaizyDompcevrin''20x20px Pont de Maizy (D101)''20x20px Dompcevrin20x20px Le HamboquinBannoncourtRouvrois-sur-Meuse/Bannoncourt20x20px La Petite Meuse''20x20px Pont de Bannoncourt (D109)''20x20px Bannoncourt''20x20px Railway bridge LGV Est high speed line (Paris - Strasbourg)''20x20px Ruisseau de RompierreLacroix-sur-Meuse20x20px La PrêleWoimbey/TroyonTroyon''20x20px Pont de Troyon''20x20px TroyonBouquemont/Tilly-sur-Meuse/Tilly-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Tilly-sur-Meuse''20x20px Tilly-sur-MeuseAmbly-sur-Meuse20x20px Ruisseau de RécourtVillers-sur-MeuseVillers-sur-Meuse20x20px Villers-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Villers-sur-Meuse (D21)''Les MonthaironsLes Monthairons''20x20px Pont de Rue du Lavoir''20x20px Les Monthairons20x20px Le Petit MonthaironDieue-sur-MeuseDieue-sur-Meuse20x20px Le Clair Fossé20x20px Ruisseau de la Dieue20x20px La Petite Meuse''20x20px Pont de Dieue-sur-Meuse (D159)''20x20px Dieue-sur-Meuse20x20px Ruisseau de Billonneau20x20px Ruisseau de la DieueDugny-sur-MeuseHaudainville''20x20px Pont de l'Autoroute A4 (Paris - Strasbourg)''20x20px Ruisseau du Franc BanBellerayBelleray''20x20px Pont de Belleray (D301)''20x20px Belleray20x20px Canal de l'EstVerdunVerdun20x20px Saint Vanne''20x20px Pont de D330''''20x20px Pont de Rued'Anthouard''20x20px '''Verdun'''20x20px Saint Vanne''20x20px Pont Fernand Legay''20x20px Canal du Puty''20x20px Pont Chaussée''''20x20px Pont de D603 (Verdun - Metz)''Belleville-sur-MeuseThierville-sur-Meuse''20x20px Railway bridge St-Hilaire-au-Temple-Hagondange line (Verdun-Metz)''20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px La Scance''20x20px Pont de D302B''Charny-sur-MeuseBras-sur-Meuse20x20px Charny-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Bras-sur-Meuse (D115)''VacherauvilleVacherauville20x20px VacherauvilleMarreChampneuville20x20px Ruisseau de la ClaireChattancourt/Champneuville''20x20px Pont de Champneuville (D214)''Cumières-le-Mort-Homme/Regnéville-sur-MeuseSamogneux20x20px Regnéville-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Samogneux''20x20px SamogneuxForges-sur-MeuseBrabant-sur-Meuse20x20px Ruisseau de ForgesConsenvoyeConsenvoye''20x20px Pont de Consenvoye''20x20px ConsenvoyeDannevouxSivry-sur-Meuse20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px Ruisseau de Guénoville20x20px Le Butel''20x20px Pont de Dannevoux''20x20px Ruisseau de BrouzelVilosnes-HaraumontVilosnes-Haraumont20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px Vilosnes-Haraumont''20x20px Pont de Vilosnes-Haraumont (D123B)''Brieulles-sur-MeuseBrieulles-sur-Meuse20x20px Ruisseau de Domfontaine20x20px Brieulles-sur-Meuse20x20px Le WassieuCléry-le-PetitLiny-devant-Dun20x20px Le Doua20x20px La TranchéeDun-sur-Meuse20x20px Canal de l'EstDoulcon20x20px Dun-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Dun-sur-Meuse (D998)''20x20px Doulcon20x20px L'AndonSassey-sur-MeuseMilly-sur-Bradon20x20px Ruisseau de Bradon20x20px Canal de l'EstSassey-sur-Meuse20x20px Sassey-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Sassey-sur-Meuse (D30)''20x20px Ruisseau des GaulesMont-devant-Sassey20x20px Ruisseau de Mont20x20px Ruisseau de LongvauxSaulmory-VillefrancheMouzay20x20px Ruisseau de Froide Fontaine20x20px Le Grand Mohat20x20px Le Petit MohatWiseppe/Stenay20x20px Canal de l'EstStenay''20x20px Pont de Stenay (D947 Stenay - Montmédy)''20x20px Stenay20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px La Wiseppe20x20px Ruisseau de CervizyMartincourt-sur-MeuseMartincourt-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Martincourt-sur-Meuse''20x20px Martincourt-sur-MeuseLuzy-Saint-MartinInor20x20px Ruisseau de Cesse''20x20px Pont de Luz''20x20px Inor20x20px Canal de l'EstPouilly-sur-Meuse20x20px Ruisseau du Fond de NouePouilly-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Pouilly-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pouilly-sur-Meuse /FranceGrand Est RegionArdennes Department / Meuse DepartmentLétanne Pouilly-sur-Meuse 20x20px La Wame20x20px Létanne FranceGrand Est RegionArdennes DepartmentLétanneMouzon20x20px Le Bras de Vincy20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px Canal de l'EstMouzon20x20px Mouzon''20x20px Pont de D19''Autrecourt-et-Pourron20x20px Yoncq20x20px Autrecourt20x20px Ruisseau de BrouhanVillers-devant-Mouzon20x20px Villers-devant-Mouzon20x20px Ruisseau de la Vignette20x20px Ruisseau des Trois Fontaines20x20px Coupure de RemillyRemilly-AillicourtDouzy/Remilly-Aillicourt20x20px Petit Remilly''20x20px Pont de Remilly-Aillicourt (D4)''20x20px RemillyBazeilles20x20px '''Chiers'''20x20px Aillicourt''20x20px Pont de Bazeilles (D129)''20x20px Coupure de RemillyNoyers-Pont-Maugis20x20px Ruisseau de Thélonne''20x20px Railway bridge Mohon-Thionville line (Sedan - Thionville)''20x20px Pont-MaugisBalan20x20px Ruisseau de BatelotteWadelincourt20x20px WadelincourtSedan''20x20px Pont de Sedan (N43 Sedan - Charleville-Mézières)''Sedan''20x20px Pont de l'Avenue Philippoteaux (D8043A)''20x20px Canal de l'Est ''20x20px Pont du Boulevard Fabert''20x20px '''Sedan'''''20x20px Pont de Meuse''''20x20px Passerelle Saint-Vincent de Paul''20x20px Canal de l'Est''20x20px Pont-Neuf de Sedan''GlaireFloing20x20px Ruz de Glaire20x20px Floing20x20px Glaire20x20px Tour à Glaire (Glaire)20x20px Ruisseau de Floing20x20px Igles (Glaire)Saint-Menges20x20px Ruisseau du Bas Caillou20x20px Saint-MengesDonchery20x20px Ruisseau de la Falizette20x20px Villette (Glaire)''20x20px Pont de Glaire (A34 Sedan - Charleville-Mézières)''''20x20px Railway bridge Mohon-Thionville line (Charleville-Mézières - Sedan)''Sedan20x20px Frénois (Sedan)Donchery''20x20px Pont de Donchery (D24)''20x20px DoncheryVillers-sur-Bar20x20px VrigneVrigne-Meuse20x20px Vrigne-Meuse20x20px '''Bar'''Dom-le-Mesnil20x20px '''Canal des Ardennes'''Nouvion-sur-Meuse20x20px Nouvion-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Nouvion-sur-Meuse (D33)''Flize20x20px Ruisseau des Trois Fontaines20x20px Flize20x20px Ruisseau de BoutancourtChalandry-Elaire20x20px Elaire (Chalandry-Elaire)Les AyvellesLumes20x20px LumesLumes''20x20px Railway bridge Mohon-Thionville line (Charleville-Mézières - Sedan)''Villers-Semeuse''20x20px Pont de Lumes (A34 Sedan - Charleville-Mézières)''20x20px Ruisseau de la Truie20x20px Dérivation de RomerySaint-Laurent20x20px Dérivation de RomeryCharleville-Mézières20x20px Le Theux (Charleville-Mézières)Charleville-Mézières20x20px Vence''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Reims)''20x20px Mohon (Charleville-Mézières)20x20px Canal de l'Est''20x20px Pont de la Victoire (D8043A)''20x20px Mézières (Charleville-Mézières)''20x20px Pont de Pierre''20x20px Saint-Julien (Charleville-Mézières)Prix-lès-Mézières''20x20px Pont de Manchester (N43 Charleville-Mézières - Sedan)''20x20px Ruisseau du Marbay20x20px Manchester (Charleville-Mézières)20x20px Prix-lès-Mézières20x20px Ruisseau des Rejets20x20px Ruisseau de PraëlleWarcq20x20px Warcq''20x20px Pont de Warcq (D16)''20x20px '''Sormonne'''Charleville-Mézières''20x20px Pont de N43 (Charleville-Mézières - Sedan)''''20x20px Passerelle Bayard''''20x20px Pont d'Arches (D8043A)''20x20px Canal de l'Est''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Reims)''''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''20x20px Canal de l'Est20x20px '''Charleville-Mézières'''''20x20px Pont de Mocy (D58)''20x20px Montcy-Saint-Pierre (Charleville-Mézières)''20x20px Passerelle du Mont Olympe''Montcy-Notre-Dame20x20px Ruisseau de la Fontaine du Prince20x20px Ruisseau de Soiru20x20px Montcy-Notre-Dame''20x20px Pont de Montcy-Notre-Dame (D58A)''20x20px Canal de l'EstAiglemont/Nouzonville/Nouzonville20x20px Nouzonville20x20px La Goutelle20x20px Ruisseau du Pré Allard''20x20px Pont de Nouzonville (D13)''Joigny-sur-MeuseJoigny-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Joigny-sur-Meuse (D1A)''20x20px Joigny-sur-MeuseBogny-sur-MeuseBogny-sur-Meuse20x20px Braux''20x20px Pont Jean-Rogissart (D1)''20x20px Levrézy20x20px Bogny-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont Rue Jourde (D1C)''20x20px Château RegnaultMonthermé''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''Monthermé20x20px '''Semois'''20x20px Monthermé''20x20px Pont de Monthermé (D989)''Deville20x20px Deville20x20px Ruisseau de MairuptLaifour20x20px Ruisseau de la LambrèqueRevin20x20px Ruisseau de la Grande Commune20x20px Ruisseau de la Petite Commune20x20px Laifour''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''''20x20px Pont de Laifour (D1)''Les Mazures/Anchamps''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''20x20px Anchamps ''20x20px Pont d'Anchamps (D1B)''20x20px Ru de la Pille20x20px Ruisseau des MeurtriersRevin20x20px Orzy''20x20px Pont d'Orzy''''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''20x20px Revin''20x20px Pont de la Bouverie (D988 Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''20x20px SartnizonRocroi''20x20px Pont de Saint-Nicolas''20x20px Saint-Nicolas (Rocroi)20x20px Faux20x20px Ruisseau de FalièresRevin''20x20px Pont de Fumay (D988 Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''20x20px Ruisseau des CochonsFumay20x20px Ruisseau de ComeFumay20x20px Ruisseau des Manises''20x20px Railway bridge Soissons - Givet line (Charleville-Mézières - Givet)''20x20px Ruisseau de la FolieHaybes20x20px Fumay''20x20px Pont de Fumay (D7)''20x20px Ri d'AlyseHaybes''20x20px Pont de la Guerre (D7B)''20x20px Haybes20x20px Ruisseau de MohronFépin20x20px Ruisseau d'Hargnies20x20px FépinMontigny-sur-MeuseVireux-Wallerand20x20px Risdoux20x20px Fond de la Mènerie20x20px Montigny-sur-MeuseVireux-Molhain20x20px Vireux-Molhain20x20px Vireux-Wallerand''20x20px Pont de Vireux (D989)''Hierges20x20px ViroinAubrivesAubrives20x20px AubrivesHam-sur-Meuse20x20px Ham-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Ham (D46DB)''Chooz20x20px Chooz Nuclear Power PlantChooz''20x20px Pont de Chemin de Mission''20x20px Chooz''20x20px Pont de Chooz''Rancennes20x20px Le Fond des Vaux20x20px Les Trois Fontaines (Chooz)Givet/Givet20x20px Ruisseau de Rancennes20x20px Givet''20x20px Pont des Américains (D949)''20x20px Houille / / /France / BelgiumGrand Est Region / Wallonia RegionArdennes Department / Namur ProvinceGivet Hastière 20x20px Ruisseau de Mon Idée20x20px Heer (Hastière) BelgiumWallonia RegionNamur ProvinceHastièreHastière20x20px Heer-Agimont''20x20px Pont de N909''20x20px Hermeton-sur-Meuse20x20px Hermeton20x20px Ruisseau de Féron20x20px Hastière-Lavaux20x20px Hastière-par-delà''20x20px Pont de Hastière-Lavaux (N915)''20x20px Fond des Vaux20x20px Ruisseau de Bonsoy20x20px Ruisseau de la Roule20x20px Waulsort20x20px Ruisseau du ChestiaDinant20x20px Freÿr (Hastière)20x20px Moniat (Hastière)Dinant20x20px Anseremme20x20px Noyon Pré''20x20px Railway bridge line 166 Libramont - Bertrix - Dinant''20x20px '''Lesse'''''20x20px Viaduc Charlemagne (N97 Ciney - Philippeville)''20x20px Neffe20x20px Saint-Paul20x20px '''Dinant'''''20x20px Pont Charles de Gaulle (N936)''20x20px Leffe20x20px Ruisseau de Leffe20x20px Bouvignes-sur-MeuseYvoir/Anhée20x20px Houx (Yvoir)''20x20px Railway bridge line 154 Dinant - Namur''20x20px Anhée20x20px Molignée''20x20px Pont d'Anhée (N92 Namur - Dinant)''20x20px Yvoir20x20px Bocq'''Bocq'''20x20px Hun (Anhée)20x20px Rouillon (Anhée)''20x20px Pont de Rouillon (N947a)''Profondeville20x20px Godinne (Yvoir)20x20px Rivière (Profondeville)Profondeville20x20px Burnot20x20px Burnot''20x20px Pont de Lustin (N947)''20x20px Profondeville20x20px Tailfer20x20px Ruisseau de TailferNamur20x20px Boreuville (Namur)Namur''20x20px Pont de Wépion''20x20px Grand Ry20x20px Dave20x20px Ruisseau de Dave20x20px Wépion20x20px Marlagne20x20px La Plante''20x20px Pont de Jambes''20x20px Jambes''20x20px Passerelle l'Enjambée''20x20px '''Sambre'''20x20px '''Namur'''''20x20px Pont des Ardennes (N90 Namur - Liège)''20x20px Houyoux''20x20px Railway bridge 'Pont de Luxembourg' line 154 Dinant - Namur''20x20px Bouge''20x20px Pont des Grands Malades (N905)''''20x20px Viaduc du Beez (E411 Namur - Arlon)''20x20px Beez20x20px Lives-sur-Meuse20x20px Brumagne20x20px Gelbresse20x20px Marche-les-DamesAndenneAndenne20x20px Samson20x20px Samson''20x20px Pont de Namêche (N942)''20x20px Namêche20x20px Sclayn''20x20px Pont de N968''20x20px Ruisseau de la Loysse20x20px Seilles20x20px '''Andenne'''''20x20px Pont d'Andenne (N921)''20x20px Andenelle BelgiumWallonia RegionLiège ProvinceWanzeHuy20x20px Gisves (Huy)20x20px Java (Wanze)20x20px Ben (Huy)20x20px Bas-Oha (Wanze)20x20px Solière''20x20px Pont Père Pire (N643)''20x20px Wanze20x20px MehaigneHuy20x20px Anhin''20x20px Railway bridge''''20x20px Pont Roi Baudouin (N64 Tienen - Huy)''20x20px '''Huy'''20x20px Hoyoux''20x20px Pont de l'Europe''Amay20x20px Tihange Nuclear Power Station20x20px Tihange (Huy)''20x20px Pont d'Ampsin (N684)''20x20px Ampsin (Amay)20x20px Neuville-sous-Huy (Huy)Amay''20x20px Pont d'Ombret (N696)''20x20px Amay20x20px Ombret-RawsaEngis20x20px Ruisseau d'Oxhe20x20px Flône (Amay)Saint-Georges-sur-Meuse''20x20px Pont de Hermalle''20x20px Hermalle-sous-Huy (Engis)20x20px Mallieue (Saint-Georges-sur-Meuse)Engis20x20px Engis''20x20px Pont d'Engis (N639)''FlémalleFlémalle20x20px Ramioul20x20px Ramet20x20px Chokier20x20px Ivoz''20x20px Pont barrage d'Ivoz-Ramet (N677)''20x20px FlémalleSeraing20x20px Ruisseau de Ville en Cour''20x20px Railway bridge line 125A (Liers - Liège - Flémalle-Haute)''20x20px ValSeraing20x20px Troque20x20px Jemeppe-sur-Meuse20x20px '''Seraing'''''20x20px Pont de Seraing (A604 highway Liège Airport - Seraing)''Saint-Nicolas20x20px Tilleur (Saint-Nicolas)Liège20x20px Ougrée (Seraing)20x20px Sclessin (Liège)20x20px Pont d'Ougrée (N63 Liège - Marche-en-Famenne)''20x20px Railway bridge cargo line''Liège20x20px Kinkempois''20x20px Pont de Liège (E25 highway Liège - Luxembourg City'' '')''''20x20px Railway bridge high speed line 3 (Liège - Aachen'' '')''20x20px Angleur20x20px Canal de l'Ourthe''20x20px Pont de Fragnée''20x20px '''Ourthe'''''20x20px Passerelle la Belle Liègeoise''''20x20px Pont du Roi Albert 1er (N30)''''20x20px Pont Kennedy''''20x20px Passerelle Saucy''20x20px '''Liège'''''20x20px Pont des Arches (N3 Liège – Germany '')''20x20px Pont Maghin''''20x20px Pont Atlas''20x20px Bressoux20x20px Jupille-sur-Meuse20x20px '''Albert Canal'''''20x20px Pont - Barrage de Monsin''Monsin Island20x20px Canal de MonsinHerstal20x20px Herstal20x20px Wandre (Liège)''20x20px Pont de Wandre (N667)''''20x20px Pont d'Autorute E40 (Liège - Aachen'' )OupeyeVisé20x20px Cheratte (Visé)20x20px Argenteau (Visé)20x20px Julienne20x20px Hermalle-sous-Argenteau (Oupeye)''20x20px Pont de Hermalle-sous-Argenteau''20x20px Richelle (Visé)''20x20px Pont Trilogiport''Visé20x20px Visé''20x20px Pont de Visé (N618)''20x20px Canal de Haccourt - Visé''20x20px Railway bridge 'Pont des Allemands'''''20x20px Pont et barrage de Lixhe (N602)'' / /BelgiumWallonia Region / Flanders RegionLiège Province / Limburg ProvinceVisé Voeren 20x20px Lixhe (Visé)20x20px Berwinne20x20px Nivelle (Visé) / / Belgium / NetherlandsWallonia Region / Limburg ProvinceLiège Province Visé Eijsden-Margraten 20x20px Voer42x42px Eijsden (Eijsden-Margraten)20x20px Lanaye (Visé)20x20px Bike ferry service Lanaye - Eijsden20x20px Canal de Lanaye20x20px Petit Lanaye (Visé) NetherlandsLimburg ProvinceMaastrichtMaastricht42x42px '''Maastricht'''''20x20px John F. Kennedybrug N278 (Maastricht - Aachen'' )20x20px Jeker'''Jeker'''''20x20px Pedestrial bridge 'Hoge Brug'''''20x20px Pedestrial bridge 'Sint-Servaasbrug'''''20x20px Wilhelminabrug''''20x20px Railway bridge Maastricht''''20x20px Noorderbrug''20x20px '''Zuid-Willemsvaart'''20x20px '''Juliana Canal'''42x42px Borgharen / / Belgium / NetherlandsFlanders Region / Limburg ProvinceLimburg Lanaken Maastricht 20x20px Smeermaas (Lanaken)42x42px Itteren (Maastricht)20x20px Neerharen (Lanaken)Maasmechelen Meerssen 20x20px Geul20x20px Uikhoven (Maasmechelen)20x20px Bike ferry service Uikhoven - Geulle aan de Maas42x42px Geulle aan de Maas (Meerssen)20x20px Oude BroekgraafStein 20x20px Kotem42x42px Elsloo''20x20px Scharbergbrug (E314 / A76 Genk '' ''- Heerlen - Aachen )''42x42px Stein42x42px Meers20x20px '''Maasmechelen'''20x20px Kirkbeek42x42px Maasband20x20px Leut (Maasmechelen)20x20px Ur42x42px Urmond (Stein)42x42px Berg aan de Maas (Stein)20x20px Car ferry service Meeswijk - Berg aan de MaasDilsen-Stokkem Sittard-Geleen 42x42px Obbicht (Sittard-Geleen)20x20px Boyen (Dilsen-Stokkem)20x20px Vrietselbeek20x20px Bike ferry service Rotem - Grevenbicht42x42px Grevenbicht (Sittard-Geleen)20x20px Kogbeek20x20px KingbeekEcht-Susteren 42x42px Illikhoven (Sittard-Geleen)42x42px Visserweert (Sittard-Geleen)Maaseik 20x20px Heppeneert (Maaseik)42x42px Kokkelert (Sittard-Geleen)20x20px Zanderbeek20x20px '''Maaseik'''''20x20px Pater Sangersbrug (N761 / N296 Maaseik - Susteren '')Maasgouw 42x42px Ohé en Laak (Maasgouw)20x20px Bosbeek20x20px Aldeneik (Maaseik)Kinrooi 20x20px Ophoven (Kinrooi)20x20px Bike ferry service Ophoven - Ohé en Laak20x20px Albeek42x42px Stevensweert (Maasgouw) NetherlandsLimburg ProvinceMaasgouwMaasgouw42x42px Maasbracht42x42px Wessem20x20px Bike ferry service Thorn - Wessem20x20px Bike ferry service Maasbracht - Wessem''20x20px Maasbrug bij Wessem (A2 Eindhoven - Maastricht)'' 20x20px '''Juliana Canal'''20x20px Wessem-Nederweert Canal20x20px Linne-Buggenum CanalRoermond20x20px Vlootbeek42x42px Linne (Maasgouw)Roermond42x42px Merum20x20px Bike ferry service Ool - Oolderhuuske42x42px Ool42x42px Herten42x42px '''Roermond'''20x20px '''Rur'''''20x20px Louis Raemaekersbrug (N280 Roermond - Weert)''20x20px Maasnielderbeek''20x20px Railway bridge Buggenum (Iron Rhine Weert - Roermond)''Leudal20x20px Linne-Buggenum Canal42x42px Buggenum (Leudal)20x20px Neerbeek20x20px '''Swalm'''Beesel20x20px Bike ferry service Neer - Rijkel42x42px Rijkel (Beesel)42x42px Neer (Leudal)Peel en Maas42x42px Beesel42x42px Kessel-Eik (Peel en Maas)20x20px Huilbeek 42x42px Kessel (Peel en Maas)20x20px Car ferry service Kessel - Beesel20x20px Tasbeek42x42px Reuver (Beesel)20x20px ScheikensbeekVenlo42x42px Oijen (Peel en Maas)42x42px Belfeld (Venlo)20x20px Aalsbeek42x42px Steyl (Venlo)20x20px Car ferry service Baarlo - SteylVenlo20x20px Engerbeek42x42px Tegelen20x20px Springbeek''20x20px Zuiderbrug (A73 Nijmegen - Venlo)''20x20px Wijlderbeek42x42px Blerick''20x20px Stadsbrug Venlo (N556)''''20x20px Railway bridge Venlo (Venlo–Eindhoven and Nijmegen–Venlo lines)''42x42px '''Venlo'''20x20px Rijnbeek20x20px Stepkensbeek''20x20px Noorderbrug (A67 Venlo - Duisburg )''Horst aan de Maas20x20px Stopbeek20x20px Baarsdonk20x20px Everlose Beek20x20px Vorstermolenbeek42x42px Grubbenvorst (Horst aan de Maas)42x42px Velden (Venlo)20x20px Car ferry service Grubbenvorst - Velden20x20px Latbeek42x42px Hasselt (Venlo)20x20px Salderbeek42x42px Houthuizen (Horst aan de Maas)20x20px Molenbeek van Lotum42x42px Lomm (Venlo)42x42px Wielder (Horst aan de Maas)20x20px Tassbeek42x42px Lottum (Horst aan de Maas)20x20px Car ferry service Lottum - Lomm20x20px Pedestrian ferry service Lottum - Arcen42x42px Arcen (Venlo)20x20px Aarsbeek42x42px Broekhuizen (Horst aan de Maas)20x20px Car ferry service Broekhuizen - Arcen20x20px Molenbeek42x42px Broekhuizenvorst (Horst aan de Maas)20x20px Rode BeekBergen20x20px Geldernsch-NierkanaalVenray42x42px Wellerlooi (Bergen)42x42px Blitterswijck (Venray)20x20px Bike ferry service Blitterswijck - Wellerlooi20x20px Sohr''20x20px Koninginnebrug N270 (Venray - Eindhoven)''42x42px Well (Bergen)42x42px Wanssum (Venray)20x20px Grote Molenbeek20x20px Oostrumsche Beek42x42px Geijsteren (Venray) /NetherlandsLimburg Province / North Brabant provinceLand van Cuijk Bergen 42x42px Maashees20x20px Ayensebeek42x42px Aijen (Bergen)42x42px Vierlingsbeek (Land van Cuijk)20x20px Car ferry service Vierlingsbeek - Bergen42x42px Bergen20x20px Molenbeek20x20px Heukelomsebeek42x42px Heukelom (Bergen)20x20px Eckeltse Beek20x20px Rekgraaf42x42px Afferden (Bergen)20x20px Car ferry service Sambeek - Afferden20x20px Sint-Jansbeek42x42px Sambeek (Land van Cuijk)Gennep 42x42px Boxmeer (Land van Cuijk)''20x20px Maasbrug van Boxmeer (A77 Boxmeer - Cologne )''42x42px Heijen (Gennep)42x42px Gennep''20x20px Maasbrug van Gennep (N264 Gennep - Veghel)''20x20px '''Niers'''20x20px Oeffeltsche Raam42x42px Milsbeek (Gennep)20x20px TielebeekMook en Middelaar 42x42px Sint-Agatha (Land van Cuijk)42x42px Middelaar (Mook en Middelaar)20x20px Virdsche Graaf42x42px Cuijk (Land van Cuijk)20x20px Car ferry service Cuijk - Middelaar20x20px Mooks Kanaal42x42px Mook (Mook en Middelaar)42x42px Katwijk (Land van Cuijk)''20x20px Railway bridge Mook (Nijmegen–Venlo line)''42x42px Molenhoek (Mook en Middelaar) /NetherlandsGelderland / North Brabant provinceHeumen 20x20px '''Maas–Waal Canal'''42x42px Heumen''20x20px Maasbrug van Heumen (A73 Nijmegen - Venlo)''42x42px Overasselt (Heumen)20x20px Tochtsloot42x42px Grave (Land van Cuijk)''20x20px John S. Thompsonbrug (N324 Grave - Nijmegen)''42x42px Nederasselt (Heumen)20x20px '''Raam'''Wijchen 42x42px Balgoij (Wijchen)Oss 42x42px Keent (Oss)42x42px Neerloon (Oss)42x42px Niftrik (Wijchen)''20x20px Maasbrug van Ravenstein (A50 Nijmegen - Eindhoven)''42x42px Ravenstein (Oss)20x20px Bike ferry service Ravenstein - Niftrik''20x20px Railway bridge 'Edithbrug' (Tilburg-Nijmegen line)''42x42px Neerlangel (Oss)42x42px Demen (Oss)42x42px Batenburg (Wijchen)20x20px Bike ferry service Demen - Batenburg42x42px Dieden (Oss)West Maas en Waal 20x20px Nieuwe Wetering42x42px Appeltern (West Maas en Waal)20x20px De Vliet20x20px Car ferry service Appeltern - Megen42x42px Megen (Oss)20x20px Car ferry service Maasbommel - Megen-West42x42px Maasbommel (West Maas en Waal)20x20px Burgemeester Delenkanaal42x42px Boveneind (Oss)42x42px Berghuizen (West Maas en Waal)42x42px Oijen (Oss)20x20px Car ferry service Oijen - Nieuwe Schans42x42px Greffeling (West Maas en Waal)42x42px Alphen (West Maas en Waal)42x42px Lithoijen (Oss)42x42px Lith (Oss)42x42px Moordhuizen (West Maas en Waal)20x20px Car ferry service Lith - MoordhuizenMaasdriel 42x42px Voorne (Maasdriel)42x42px Heerewaarden (Maasdriel)20x20px Bike ferry service Heerewaarden - Lithse Ham42x42px Maren-Kessel (Oss)20x20px Sint Andries canal20x20px Car ferry service Alem - Maren-Kessel42x42px 't Wild (Oss)42x42px Kerkdriel (Maasdriel)20x20px Hertogswetering20x20px Hoefgraaf's-Hertogenbosch 42x42px Gewande ('s-Hertogenbosch)42x42px Hoenzadriel (Maasdriel)20x20px Máxima Canal42x42px Empel ('s-Hertogenbosch)''20x20px Maasbrug van Empel (A2 's-Hertogenbosch - Utrecht)''42x42px ''''s-Hertogenbosch'''''20x20px Railway bridge 'Hedelse spoorbrug' (Utrecht–Boxtel line)''''20x20px Prinses Irenebrigadebrug''42x42px Hedel (Maasdriel)20x20px Oude Dieze'''20x20px Dieze'''42x42px Bokhoven ('s-Hertogenbosch)42x42px Ammerzoden (Maasdriel)Heusden 42x42px Well (Maasdriel)20x20px Zooislagen Buitendijkse LoopZaltbommel 20x20px Car ferry service Bern - Herpt42x42px Bern (Zaltbommel)42x42px Heusden20x20px Heusden Canal NetherlandsNorth Brabant provinceHeusdenAltena''20x20px Maasbrug van Heusden (N267 Heusden - Giessen)''42x42px Heesbeen (Heusden)42x42px Genderen (Altena)42x42px Doeveren (Heusden)Waalwijk20x20px Afwateringskanaal 's-Hertogenbosch - Drongelen42x42px Drongelen (Altena)42x42px '''Waalwijk'''20x20px Car ferry service Drongelen - Waalwijk20x20px Car ferry service Dussen - Capelle42x42px Dussen (Altena)Geertruidenberg42x42px Peerenboom (Altena)''20x20px Keizersveerbrug (A27 Breda - Utrecht)''42x42px Raamsdonksveer (Geertruidenberg)42x42px Geertruidenberg20x20px Nieuwe Merwede'''Mouth into the North Sea'''" ], [ "Mention in patriotic songs", "The Meuse (''Maas'') is mentioned in the first stanza of Germany's old national anthem, the .", "However, since its re-adoption as national anthem in 1952, only the third stanza of the ''Deutschlandlied'' has been sung as the German national anthem, the first and second stanzas being omitted.", "This was confirmed after German reunification in 1991 when only the third stanza was defined as the official anthem.", "The lyrics written in 1841 describe a then–disunited Germany with the river as its western boundary, where King William I of the Netherlands had joined the German Confederation with his Duchy of Limburg in 1839.Though the duchy's territory officially became an integral part of the Netherlands by the 1867 Treaty of London, the text passage remained unchanged when the ''Deutschlandlied'' was declared the national anthem of the Weimar Republic in 1922.The name of the rivers also forms part of the title of \"Le Régiment de Sambre et Meuse\", written after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and a popular patriotic song for the rest of the 19th century and into the 20th." ], [ "See also", "* 1930 Meuse Valley fog* Moulin de Rouvres* Rida (River)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Peace Palace Library's Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law regarding ''Meuse River''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Bentine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Bentine''', (born '''Michael James Bentin'''; 26 January 1922 – 26 November 1996) was a British comedian, comic actor and founding member of the Goons.", "His father was a Peruvian Briton." ], [ "Biography", "Bentine was born in Watford, Hertfordshire, to a Peruvian father, Adam Bentin, and a British mother, Florence Dawkins, and grew up in Folkestone, Kent.", "He was educated at Eton College.", "With the help of speech trainer, Harry Burgess, he learned to manage a stammer and subsequently developed an interest in amateur theatricals, along with the Tomlinson family, including the young David Tomlinson.", "He spoke fluent Spanish and French.His father was an early aeronautical engineer for the Sopwith Aviation Company during and after World War I and invented a tension meter for setting the tension on aircraft rigging wires.In World War II, Bentine volunteered for all services when the war broke out (the RAF was his first choice owing to the influence of his father's experience), but was initially rejected because of his father's nationality.He started his acting career in 1940, in a touring company in Cardiff playing a juvenile lead in ''Sweet Lavender''.", "He went on to join Robert Atkins' Shakespearean company in Regent's Park, London, until he was called up for service in the RAF.", "He was appearing in a Shakespearean play in doublet and hose in the open-air theatre in London's Hyde Park when two RAF Police NCOs marched on stage and arrested him for desertion.", "Unknown to him, an RAF conscription notice had been following him for a month as his company toured.Once in the RAF he went through flying training.", "He was the penultimate man going through a medical line receiving inoculations for typhoid with the other flight candidates in his class (they were going to Canada to receive new aircraft) when the vaccine ran out.", "They refilled the bottle to inoculate him and the other man as well.", "By mistake they loaded a pure culture of typhoid.", "The other man died immediately, and Bentine was in a coma for six weeks.", "When he regained consciousness his eyesight was ruined, leaving him myopic for the rest of his life.", "Since he was no longer physically qualified for flying, he was transferred to RAF Intelligence and seconded to MI9, a unit that was dedicated to supporting resistance movements and helping prisoners escape.", "His immediate superior was the Colditz escapee Airey Neave.At the end of the war, he took part in the liberation of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp.", "He said about this experience:Millions of words have been written about these horror camps, many of them by inmates of those unbelievable places.", "I've tried, without success, to describe it from my own point of view, but the words won't come.", "To me Belsen was the ultimate blasphemy.", "(''The Reluctant Jester'', Chapter 17.)" ], [ "Comedy career", "After the war Bentine decided to become a comedian and worked in the Windmill Theatre where he met Harry Secombe.", "He specialised in off-the-wall humour, often involving cartoons and other types of animation.", "His acts included giving lectures in an invented language called Slobodian, \"Imaginative Young Man with a Walking Stick\" and \"The Chairback\", with a broken chairback having a number of uses from comb to machine gun and taking on a demoniacal life of its own.", "Peter Sellers told him this was the inspiration for the prosthetic arm routine in ''Dr Strangelove''.", "This act led to his engagement by Val Parnell to appear in the Starlight Roof revues starring Vic Oliver, where he met and married his second wife Clementina, with whom he had four children.", "Also on the bill were Fred Emney and a young Julie Andrews.Bentine co-created ''The Goon Show'' radio show with Spike Milligan, Peter Sellers and Harry Secombe, but appeared in only the first 38 shows on the BBC Home Service from 1951 to 1952.The first of these shows were actually called ''Those Crazy People'' and subtitled \"The Junior Crazy Gang\"; the term \"Goon\" was used as the headline of a review of Bentine's act by ''Picture Post'' dated 5 November 1948.Only one of this first series (and very few of the following three in which he did not appear) has survived, the rest of the original disc recordings having apparently been destroyed or discarded as no longer usable, so there is almost no record of his work as a radio \"Goon\".", "He also appeared in the 1952 ''Goon Show'' film ''Down Among the Z Men''.In 1951 Bentine was invited to the United States to appear on ''The Ed Sullivan Show''.", "On his return he parted amicably from his partners and continued touring in variety, remaining close to Secombe and Sellers for the rest of his life.", "In 1972, Secombe and Sellers told Michael Parkinson that Bentine was \"always calling everyone a genius\" and, since he was the only one of the four with a \"proper education\", they always believed him.His first appearances on television were as presenter on a 13-part children's series featuring remote controlled puppets, ''The Bumblies'', which he also devised, designed and wrote.", "These were three small creatures from outer space who slept on \"Professor Bentine's\" ceiling and who had come to Earth to learn the ways of Earthling children.", "Angelo de Calferta modelled the puppets from Bentine's designs and Richard Dendy moulded them in latex rubber.", "He sold the series to the BBC for less than they had cost to make.", "He then spent two years touring in Australia (1954–55).On his return to Britain in 1954, he worked as a scriptwriter for Peter Sellers and then on 39 episodes of his own radio show ''Round the Bend in 30 Minutes'', which has also been wiped from the BBC archive.", "He then teamed up with Dick Lester to devise a series of six TV programmes ''Before Midnight'' for ABC Weekend TV in Birmingham in 1958.This led to a 13-programme series called ''After Hours'' in which he appeared alongside Dick Emery, Clive Dunn, David Lodge, Joe Gibbons and Benny Lee.", "The show featured the \"olde English sport of drats, later known as nurdling\".", "Some of the sketches were adapted into a stage revue at the Cambridge Theatre, ''Don't Shoot, We're English''.", "He also appeared in the film comedy ''Raising a Riot'', starring Kenneth More, which featured his five-year-old daughter \"Fusty\".", "He joked that she got better billing.From 1960 to 1964, he had a television series, ''It's a Square World'', which won a BAFTA award in 1962 and Grand Prix de la Presse at Montreux in 1963.A prominent feature of the series was the imaginary flea circus where plays were enacted on tiny sets using nothing but special effects to show the movement of things too small to see and sounds with Bentine's commentary.", "One, titled ''The Beast of the Black Bog Tarn'', was set in a (miniature) haunted house.He was the subject of ''This Is Your Life'' in April 1963 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre.In 1969–70 he was presenter of ''The Golden Silents'' on BBC TV, which attempted authentic showings of silent films, without the commentaries with which they were usually shown on television before then.From 1974 to 1980 he wrote, designed, narrated and presented the children's television programme ''Michael Bentine's Potty Time'' and made one-off comedy specials.From January to May 1984 Bentine put out 11 half-hour episodes, in two series, of ''The Michael Bentine Show'' on Radio 4.These have subsequently been repeated, several times, on the BBC's archive radio station BBC7 (now BBC Radio 4 Extra).He was the writer of 16 best-selling novels, comedies and non-fiction books.", "Four of his books, ''The Long Banana Skin'' (1975), ''The Door Marked Summer'' (1981), ''Doors of the Mind'' and ''The Reluctant Jester'' (1992) are autobiographical.===Other interests===In 1968, travelling on the British Hovercraft Corporation (BHC) SR.N6, ''GH–2012'', Bentine took part in the first hovercraft expedition up the River Amazon.In the 1995 New Year Honours, Bentine received a CBE from Queen Elizabeth II \"for services to entertainment\".", "In 1971, Bentine received the Order of Merit of Peru following his fund-raising work for the 1970 Great Peruvian earthquake.Bentine was a crack pistol shot and helped to start the idea of a counter-terrorist wing within 22 SAS Regiment.", "In doing so, he became the first non-SAS person ever to fire a gun inside the close-quarters battle training house at Hereford.His interests included parapsychology.", "This was as a result of his and his family's extensive research into the paranormal, which resulted in his writing ''The Door Marked Summer'' and ''Doors of the Mind''.", "He was, for the final years of his life, president of the Association for the Scientific Study of Anomalous Phenomena.On 14 December 1977, he appeared with Arthur C. Clarke on Patrick Moore's BBC ''The Sky at Night'' programme.", "The broadcast was entitled \"Suns, Spaceships and Bug-Eyed Monsters\" – a light-hearted look at how science fiction had become science fact, as well as how ideas of space travel had become reality through the 20th century.", "In the opening of the programme, Moore introduces Bentine with Bentine confirming that he was the possessor of a \"Reader's Digest Degree\".", "This remark was typical of Bentine's comic approach to most things in life that concealed his knowledge of science.", "Bentine appeared in a subsequent broadcast on a similar theme with Moore in 1980.Following the death of Arthur C. Clarke, ''BBC Sky at Night'' magazine released a copy of the 1977 archive programme on the cover of their May 2008 edition." ], [ "Family and health", "Bentine was married twice.", "With his first wife Marie Barradell, married 1941–1947, he had a daughter:* Elaine (1942–1983)In 1949, he married his second wife, Clementina Stuart, a Royal Ballet dancer.", "They had four children:* Marylla \"Fusty\" (1949–1987)* Stuart \"Gus\" (1950–1971)* Richard \"Peski\" (born 1959)* Serena \"Suki\" (born 1961)Of his five children, the two eldest daughters, Elaine and Marylla, died from cancer (breast cancer and lymphoma) in the 1980s.", "His elder son, Stuart, was killed with a pilot friend when a Piper PA-18 Super Cub crashed into a hillside at Ditcham Park Woods near Petersfield, Hampshire, on 28 August 1971.Their bodies and the aircraft were not found until October 1971.The AAIB after an 11-month investigation found that the aircraft went into clouds when taking action to avoid power cables while flying low in poor visibility, and subsequently, went out of control.", "Bentine's subsequent investigation into regulations governing private airfields resulted in his writing a report for Special Branch into the use of personal aircraft in smuggling operations.", "He fictionalised much of the material in his novel ''Lords of the Levels''.From 1975 until his death in 1996, he and his wife spent their winters at a second home in Palm Springs, California, US.Shortly before his death from prostate cancer at the age of 74, he was visited in hospital by Prince Charles." ], [ "Programmes", "Some of the programmes Bentine appeared in were:* ''The Goon Show'' (1951–1952) as himself* ''Goonreel'' (1952, TV movie)* ''The Bumblies'' (1954) as Prof. Michael Bentine / voices of the Bumblies* ''Yes, It's the Cathode-Ray Tube Show!''", "(1957) (voice)* ''After Hours'' (1958–1959)* ''Round the Bend in Thirty Minutes'' (1959)* ''It's a Square World'' (1960–1964)* ''All Square'' (1966)* ''The Golden Silents'' (1969–1970)* ''Michael Bentine's Potty Time'' (1972) as Prof. Bentine / voices of Pottys* ''The Sky at Night'' (1977-1979, Documentary) as himself* ''Creek Crawling'' (aka ''Creek Crawler Extraordinary'') (1980)* ''The Michael Bentine Show'' (1984, BBC Radio 2)* ''Terry Teo'' (1985) as Ray Vegas* ''The Great Bong'' (1993)" ], [ "Film", "* ''Cookery Nook'' (1951, Short) as the friend* ''London Entertains'' (1951, documentary) as himself* ''Down Among the Z Men'' (aka ''The Goon Movie'') (1952) as Prof. Osrick Purehart* ''Forces' Sweetheart'' (1953) as Flt-Lieut.", "John Robinson R.A.F.", "* ''Raising a Riot'' (1955) as the professor* ''John and Julie'' (1955) as paper tearing entertainer (uncredited)* ''I Only Arsked!''", "(1958) as Fred* ''The Do-It-Yourself Cartoon Kit'' (1961, short) (voice)* ''We Joined the Navy'' (1962) as psychologist (uncredited)* ''The Sandwich Man'' (1966) as the Sandwich Man* ''Bachelor of Arts'' (1971, short) as Miklos Durti* ''Rentadick'' (1972) as Hussein" ], [ "Books", "===Nonfiction===* ''Doors of The Mind'' – Granada – 1984 – * ''The Shy Person's Guide To Life'' – Grafton – 1984 – * ''Open Your Mind: The Quest for Creative Thinking'' – Bantam Press – 1990 – ====Autobiographical====* ''The Long Banana Skin'' – New English Library – 1976 – * ''The Door Marked Summer'' – Granada – 1981 – * ''The Reluctant Jester'' – Bantam Press – 1992 – ===Fiction and humour===* ''Square Games'' (1966) Wolfe SBN 072340080-6* ''The Potty Treasure Island'' (1973)* ''The Potty Khyber Pass'' (1974)* ''The Best of Bentine'' (1984) Panther* ''The Potty Encyclopedia'' (1985)* ''Madame's Girls and other stories'' (1980)* ''Smith & Son Removers'' – Corgi – 1981 – * ''Lords of The Levels'' – Grafton – 1986 – * ''The Condor and The Cross'' sub-title ''An Adventure Novel of the Conquistadors'' – Bantam Press – 1987 – * ''Templar'' – Bantam Press – 1988 – ====With John Ennis====* ''Michael Bentine's Book of Square Holidays'' M. Bentine & J. Ennis (1968) Wolfe SBN 72340019-9* ''Fifty Years on the Streets'' Michael Bentine & John Ennis (1964) New English Library, A Four Square Book" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Michael Bentine biography and credits at BFI Screenonline* The Spike Milligan Appreciation Society* Michael Bentine @ FashionState.com* The Bumblies Whirligig TV webpage" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mania" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mania''', also known as '''manic syndrome''', is a mental and behavioral disorder defined as a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or \"a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together with lability of affect.\"", "During a manic episode, an individual will experience rapidly changing emotions and moods, highly influenced by surrounding stimuli.", "Although mania is often conceived as a \"mirror image\" to depression, the heightened mood can be either euphoric or dysphoric.", "As the mania intensifies, irritability can be more pronounced and result in anxiety or anger.The symptoms of mania include elevated mood (either euphoric or irritable), flight of ideas and pressure of speech, increased energy, decreased need and desire for sleep, and hyperactivity.", "They are most plainly evident in fully developed hypomanic states.", "However, in full-blown mania, these symptoms become progressively exacerbated.", "In severe manic episodes, these symptoms may be obscured by other signs and symptoms characteristic of psychosis, such as delusions, hallucinations, fragmentation of behavior, and catatonia." ], [ "Causes and diagnosis", "Mania is a syndrome with multiple causes.", "Although the vast majority of cases occur in the context of bipolar disorder, it is a key component of other psychiatric disorders (such as schizoaffective disorder, bipolar type) and may also occur secondary to various general medical conditions, such as multiple sclerosis; certain medications may perpetuate a manic state, for example prednisone; or substances prone to abuse, especially stimulants, such as amphetamine and cocaine.", "In the current DSM-5, hypomanic episodes are separated from the more severe full manic episodes, which, in turn, are characterized as either mild, moderate, or severe, with certain diagnostic criteria (e.g.", "catatonia, psychosis).", "Mania is divided into three stages: hypomania, or stage I; acute mania, or stage II; and delirious mania (delirium), or stage III.", "This \"staging\" of a manic episode is useful from a descriptive and differential diagnostic point of view.", "Mania varies in intensity, from mild mania (hypomania) to delirious mania, marked by such symptoms as disorientation, acute psychosis, incoherence, and catatonia.", "Standardized tools such as Altman Self-Rating Mania Scale and Young Mania Rating Scale can be used to measure severity of manic episodes.", "Because mania and hypomania have also long been associated with creativity and artistic talent, it is not always the case that the clearly manic/hypomanic bipolar patient needs or wants medical help; such persons often either retain sufficient self-control to function normally or are unaware that they have \"gone manic\" severely enough to be committed or to commit themselves.", "Manic persons often can be mistaken for being under the influence of drugs." ], [ "Classification", "=== Mixed states ===In a mixed affective state, the individual, though meeting the general criteria for a hypomanic (discussed below) or manic episode, experiences three or more concurrent depressive symptoms.", "This has caused some speculation, among clinicians, that mania and depression, rather than constituting \"true\" polar opposites, are, rather, two independent axes in a unipolar—bipolar spectrum.A mixed affective state, especially with prominent manic symptoms, places the patient at a greater risk for suicide.", "Depression on its own is a risk factor but, when coupled with an increase in energy and goal-directed activity, the patient is far more likely to act with violence on suicidal impulses.=== Hypomania ===Hypomania, which means \"less than mania\", is a lowered state of mania that does little to impair function or decrease quality of life.", "Although creativity and hypomania have been historically linked, a review and meta-analysis exploring this relationship found that this assumption may be too general and empirical research evidence is lacking.", "In hypomania, there is less need for sleep and both goal-motivated behaviour and metabolism increase.", "Some studies exploring brain metabolism in subjects with hypomania, however, did not find any conclusive link; while there are studies that reported abnormalities, some failed to detect differences.", "Though the elevated mood and energy level typical of hypomania could be seen as a benefit, true mania itself generally has many undesirable consequences, including suicidal tendencies, and hypomania can, if the prominent mood is irritable as opposed to euphoric, be a rather unpleasant experience.", "In addition, the exaggerated case of hypomania can lead to problems.", "For instance, trait-based positivity for a person could make them more engaging and outgoing, and cause them to have a positive outlook in life.", "When exaggerated in hypomania, however, such a person can display excessive optimism, grandiosity, and poor decision making, often with little regard to the consequences.=== Associated disorders ===A single manic episode, in the absence of secondary causes, (i.e., substance use disorders, pharmacologics, or general medical conditions) is often sufficient to diagnose bipolar I disorder.", "Hypomania may be indicative of bipolar II disorder.", "Manic episodes are often complicated by delusions and/or hallucinations; and if the psychotic features persist for a duration significantly longer than the episode of typical mania (two weeks or more), a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is more appropriate.", "Certain obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders as well as impulse control disorders share the suffix \"-mania,\" namely, kleptomania, pyromania, and trichotillomania.", "Despite the unfortunate association implied by the name, however, no connection exists between mania or bipolar disorder and these disorders.", "Furthermore, evidence indicates a B12 deficiency can also cause symptoms characteristic of mania and psychosis.Hyperthyroidism can produce similar symptoms to those of mania, such as agitation, elevated mood, increased energy, hyperactivity, sleep disturbances and sometimes, especially in severe cases, psychosis.Postpartum psychosis can also cause manic episodes (unipolar mania)." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "A ''manic episode'' is defined in the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic manual as a \"distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy, lasting at least 1 week and present most of the day, nearly every day (or any duration, if hospitalization is necessary),\" where the mood is not caused by drugs/medication or a non-mental medical illness (e.g., hyperthyroidism), and: (a) is causing obvious difficulties at work or in social relationships and activities, or (b) requires admission to hospital to protect the person or others, or (c) the person has psychosis.To be classified as a manic episode, while the disturbed mood and an increase in goal-directed activity or energy is present, at least three (or four, if only irritability is present) of the following must have been consistently present: # Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity.", "# Decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after 3 hours of sleep).", "# More talkative than usual, or acts pressured to keep talking.# Flights of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing.", "# Increase in goal-directed activity, or psychomotor acceleration.", "# Distractibility (too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli).", "# Excessive involvement in activities with a high likelihood of painful consequences.", "(e.g., extravagant shopping, improbable commercial schemes, hypersexuality).Though the activities one participates in while in a manic state are not ''always'' negative, those with the potential to have negative outcomes are far more likely.If the person is concurrently depressed, they are said to be having a mixed episode.The World Health Organization's classification system defines ''a manic episode'' as one where mood is higher than the person's situation warrants and may vary from relaxed high spirits to barely controllable exuberance, is accompanied by hyperactivity, a compulsion to speak, a reduced sleep requirement, difficulty sustaining attention, and/or often increased distractibility.", "Frequently, confidence and self-esteem are excessively enlarged, and grand, extravagant ideas are expressed.", "Behavior that is out-of-character and risky, foolish or inappropriate may result from a loss of normal social restraint.Some people also have physical symptoms, such as sweating, pacing, and weight loss.", "In full-blown mania, often the manic person will feel as though their goal(s) are of paramount importance, that there are no consequences, or that negative consequences would be minimal, and that they need not exercise restraint in the pursuit of what they are after.", "Hypomania is different, as it may cause little or no impairment in function.", "The hypomanic person's connection with the external world, and its standards of interaction, remain intact, although intensity of moods is heightened.", "But those with prolonged unresolved hypomania do run the risk of developing full mania, and may cross that \"line\" without even realizing they have done so.One of the signature symptoms of mania (and to a lesser extent, hypomania) is what many have described as racing thoughts.", "These are usually instances in which the manic person is excessively distracted by objectively unimportant stimuli.", "This experience creates an absent-mindedness where the manic individual's thoughts totally preoccupy them, making them unable to keep track of time, or be aware of anything besides the flow of thoughts.", "Racing thoughts also interfere with the ability to fall asleep.Manic states are always relative to the normal state of intensity of the affected individual; thus, already irritable patients may find themselves losing their tempers even more quickly, and an academically gifted person may, during the hypomanic stage, adopt seemingly \"genius\" characteristics and an ability to perform and articulate at a level far beyond that which they would be capable of during euthymia.", "A very simple indicator of a manic state would be if a heretofore clinically depressed patient suddenly becomes inordinately energetic, enthusiastic, cheerful, aggressive, or \"over-happy\".", "Other, often less obvious, elements of mania include delusions (generally of either grandeur or persecution, according to whether the predominant mood is euphoric or irritable), hypersensitivity, hypervigilance, hypersexuality, hyper-religiosity, hyperactivity and impulsivity, a compulsion to over explain (typically accompanied by pressure of speech), grandiose schemes and ideas, and a decreased need for sleep (for example, feeling rested after only 3 or 4 hours of sleep).", "In the case of the latter, the eyes of such patients may both look and seem abnormally \"wide open\", rarely blinking, and may contribute to some clinicians' erroneous belief that these patients are under the influence of a stimulant drug, when the patient, in fact, is either not on any mind-altering substances or is actually on a depressant drug.", "Individuals may also engage in out-of-character behavior during the episode, such as questionable business transactions, wasteful expenditures of money (e.g., spending sprees), risky sexual activity, abuse of recreational substances, excessive gambling, reckless behavior (such as extreme speeding or other daredevil activity), abnormal social interaction (e.g.", "over-familiarity and conversing with strangers), or highly vocal arguments.", "These behaviours may increase stress in personal relationships, lead to problems at work, and increase the risk of altercations with law enforcement.", "There is a high risk of impulsively taking part in activities potentially harmful to the self and others.Although \"severely elevated mood\" sounds somewhat desirable and enjoyable, the experience of mania is ultimately often quite unpleasant and sometimes disturbing, if not frightening, for the person involved and for those close to them, and it may lead to impulsive behaviour that may later be regretted.", "It can also often be complicated by the individual's lack of judgment and insight regarding periods of exacerbation of characteristic states.", "Manic patients are frequently grandiose, obsessive, impulsive, irritable, belligerent, and frequently deny anything is wrong with them.", "Because mania frequently encourages high energy and decreased perception of need or ability to sleep, within a few days of a manic cycle, sleep-deprived psychosis may appear, further complicating the ability to think clearly.", "Racing thoughts and misperceptions lead to frustration and decreased ability to communicate with others.Mania may also, as earlier mentioned, be divided into three \"stages\".", "Stage I corresponds with hypomania and may feature typical hypomanic characteristics, such as gregariousness and euphoria.", "In stages II and III mania, however, the patient may be extraordinarily irritable, psychotic or even delirious.", "These latter two stages are referred to as acute and delirious (or Bell's), respectively." ], [ "Causes", "Various triggers have been associated with switching from euthymic or depressed states into mania.", "One common trigger of mania is antidepressant therapy.", "Studies show that the risk of switching while on an antidepressant is between 6-69 percent.", "Dopaminergic drugs such as reuptake inhibitors and dopamine agonists may also increase risk of switch.", "Other medications possibly include glutaminergic agents and drugs that alter the HPA axis.", "Lifestyle triggers include irregular sleep-wake schedules and sleep deprivation, as well as extremely emotional or stressful stimuli.Various genes that have been implicated in genetic studies of bipolar have been manipulated in preclinical animal models to produce syndromes reflecting different aspects of mania.", "CLOCK and DBP polymorphisms have been linked to bipolar in population studies, and behavioral changes induced by knockout are reversed by lithium treatment.", "Metabotropic glutamate receptor 6 has been genetically linked to bipolar, and found to be under-expressed in the cortex.", "Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide has been associated with bipolar in gene linkage studies, and knockout in mice produces mania like-behavior.", "Targets of various treatments such as GSK-3, and ERK1 have also demonstrated mania like behavior in preclinical models.Mania may be associated with strokes, especially cerebral lesions in the right hemisphere.Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease has been associated with mania, especially with electrodes placed in the ventromedial STN.", "A proposed mechanism involves increased excitatory input from the STN to dopaminergic nuclei.There are certain psychoactive substances that can induce a state of manic psychosis, including: amphetamine, cathinone, cocaine, MDMA, methamphetamine, methylphenidate, oxycodone, phencyclidine, designer drugs, etc.Mania can also be caused by physical trauma or illness.", "When the causes are physical, it is called secondary mania." ], [ "Mechanism", "The mechanism underlying mania is unknown, but the neurocognitive profile of mania is highly consistent with dysfunction in the right prefrontal cortex, a common finding in neuroimaging studies.", "Various lines of evidence from post-mortem studies and the putative mechanisms of anti-manic agents point to abnormalities in GSK-3, dopamine, Protein kinase C and Inositol monophosphatase.Meta analysis of neuroimaging studies demonstrate increased thalamic activity, and bilaterally reduced inferior frontal gyrus activation.", "Activity in the amygdala and other subcortical structures such as the ventral striatum tend to be increased, although results are inconsistent and likely dependent upon task characteristics such as valence.", "Reduced functional connectivity between the ventral prefrontal cortex and amygdala along with variable findings supports a hypothesis of general dysregulation of subcortical structures by the prefrontal cortex.", "A bias towards positively valenced stimuli, and increased responsiveness in reward circuitry may predispose towards mania.", "Mania tends to be associated with right hemisphere lesions, while depression tends to be associated with left hemisphere lesions.Post-mortem examinations of bipolar disorder demonstrate increased expression of Protein Kinase C (PKC).", "While limited, some studies demonstrate manipulation of PKC in animals produces behavioral changes mirroring mania, and treatment with PKC inhibitor tamoxifen (also an anti-estrogen drug) demonstrates antimanic effects.", "Traditional antimanic drugs also demonstrate PKC inhibiting properties, among other effects such as GSK3 inhibition.Manic episodes may be triggered by dopamine receptor agonists, and this combined with tentative reports of increased VMAT2 activity, measured via PET scans of radioligand binding, suggestsa role of dopamine in mania.", "Decreased cerebrospinal fluid levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA have been found in manic patients too, which may be explained by a failure of serotonergic regulation and dopaminergic hyperactivity.Limited evidence suggests that mania is associated with behavioral reward hypersensitivity, as well as with neural reward hypersensitivity.", "Electrophysiological evidence supporting this comes from studies associating left frontal EEG activity with mania.", "As left frontal EEG activity is generally thought to be a reflection of behavioral activation system activity, this is thought to support a role for reward hypersensitivity in mania.", "Tentative evidence also comes from one study that reported an association between manic traits and feedback negativity during receipt of monetary reward or loss.", "Neuroimaging evidence during acute mania is sparse, but one study reported elevated orbitofrontal cortex activity to monetary reward, and another study reported elevated striatal activity to reward omission.", "The latter finding was interpreted in the context of either elevated baseline activity (resulting in a null finding of reward hypersensitivity), or reduced ability to discriminate between reward and punishment, still supporting reward hyperactivity in mania.", "Punishment hyposensitivity, as reflected in a number of neuroimaging studies as reduced lateral orbitofrontal response to punishment, has been proposed as a mechanism of reward hypersensitivity in mania." ], [ "Diagnosis", "In the ICD-10 there are several disorders with the manic syndrome: organic manic disorder (), mania without psychotic symptoms (), mania with psychotic symptoms (), other manic episodes (), unspecified manic episode (), manic type of schizoaffective disorder (), bipolar disorder, current episode manic without psychotic symptoms (), bipolar affective disorder, current episode manic with psychotic symptoms ()." ], [ "Treatment", "Before beginning treatment for mania, careful differential diagnosis must be performed to rule out secondary causes.The acute treatment of a manic episode of bipolar disorder involves the utilization of either a mood stabilizer (carbamazepine, valproate, lithium, or lamotrigine) or an atypical antipsychotic (olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, aripiprazole, or cariprazine).", "The use of antipsychotic agents in the treatment of acute mania was reviewed by Tohen and Vieta in 2009.When the manic behaviours have gone, long-term treatment then focuses on prophylactic treatment to try to stabilize the patient's mood, typically through a combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy.", "The likelihood of having a relapse is very high for those who have experienced two or more episodes of mania or depression.", "While medication for bipolar disorder is important to manage symptoms of mania and depression, studies show relying on medications alone is not the most effective method of treatment.", "Medication is most effective when used in combination with other bipolar disorder treatments, including psychotherapy, self-help coping strategies, and healthy lifestyle choices.Lithium is the classic mood stabilizer to prevent further manic and depressive episodes.", "A systematic review found that long term lithium treatment substantially reduces the risk of bipolar manic relapse, by 42%.", "Anticonvulsants such as valproate, oxcarbazepine and carbamazepine are also used for prophylaxis.", "More recent drug solutions include lamotrigine and topiramate, both anticonvulsants as well.In some cases, long-acting benzodiazepines, particularly clonazepam, are used after other options are exhausted.", "In more urgent circumstances, such as in emergency rooms, lorazepam, combined with haloperidol, is used to promptly alleviate symptoms of agitation, aggression, and psychosis.Antidepressant monotherapy is not recommended for the treatment of depression in patients with bipolar disorders I or II, and no benefit has been demonstrated by combining antidepressants with mood stabilizers in these patients.", "Some atypical antidepressants, however, such as mirtazepine and trazodone have been occasionally used after other options have failed." ], [ "Society and culture", "In ''Electroboy: A Memoir of Mania'' by Andy Behrman, he describes his experience of mania as \"the most perfect prescription glasses with which to see the world... life appears in front of you like an oversized movie screen\".", "Behrman indicates early in his memoir that he sees himself not as a person with an uncontrollable disabling illness, but as a director of the movie that is his vivid and emotionally alive life.", "There is some evidence that people in the creative industries have bipolar disorder more often than those in other occupations.Winston Churchill had periods of ''manic symptoms'' that may have been both an asset and a liability.English actor Stephen Fry, who has bipolar disorder, recounts manic behaviour during his adolescence: \"When I was about 17 ... going around London on two stolen credit cards, it was a sort of fantastic reinvention of myself, an attempt to.", "I bought ridiculous suits with stiff collars and silk ties from the 1920s, and would go to the Savoy and Ritz and drink cocktails.\"", "While he has experienced suicidal thoughts, he says the manic side of his condition has had positive contributions on his life." ], [ "Etymology", "The nosology of the various stages of a manic episode has changed over the decades.", "The word derives from the Ancient Greek μανία (''manía''), \"madness, frenzy\" and the verb μαίνομαι (''maínomai''), \"to be mad, to rage, to be furious\"." ], [ "See also", "* Abnormal psychology* Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder* Bipolar disorder* Cyclothymia* Hyperthymia* Hypomania* People with bipolar disorder* International Society for Bipolar Disorders* Major depressive disorder* Monomania* Young Mania Rating Scale* Dancing mania" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Expert Opin Pharmacother''.", "2001 December;2(12):1963–73.", "* Schizoaffective Disorder.", "2007 September Mayo Clinic.", "Retrieved October 1, 2007.", "* Schizoaffective Disorder .", "2004 May.", "All Psych Online: Virtual Psychology Classroom.", "Retrieved October 2, 2007.", "* Psychotic Disorders.", "2004 May.", "All Psych Online: Virtual Psychology Classroom.", "Retrieved October 2, 2007.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Bipolar Mania Symptoms* Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Multimedia" ], [ "Introduction", " +'''Examples of individual content forms that can be combined in multimedia''' link=Writing link=Sound recording and reproduction link=Image link=Animation link=Footage link=Interactivity '''Multimedia''' is a form of communication that uses a combination of different content forms, such as writing, audio, images, animations, or video, into a single interactive presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media, such as printed material or audio recordings, which feature little to no interaction between users.", "Popular examples of multimedia include video podcasts, audio slideshows, and animated videos.", "Multimedia also contains the principles and application of effective interactive communication, such as the building blocks of software, hardware, and other technologies.", "The five main building blocks of multimedia are text, image, audio, video, and animation.", "The first building block of multimedia is the image, which dates back 15,000 to 10,000 B.C.", "with concrete evidence found in the Lascaux caves in France.", "The second building block of multimedia is writing, which was first scribed in stone or on clay tablets and was mostly about three things.", "Property, conquest, and religion.", "Writing was soon abstracted from visual images into symbols that represented the sounds we make with our mouths.", "Thanks to the Egyptians, writing was evolved and transferred from stone to Papyrus.", "A cheaper but more fragile canvas derived from strips of the papyrus root grown on the Nile River.", "Multimedia can be recorded for playback on computers, laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices.", "In the early years of multimedia, the term \"rich media\" was synonymous with interactive multimedia.", "Over time, hypermedia extensions brought multimedia to the World Wide Web, and streaming services became more common.There is also a more modern history of multimedia, starting from the 1960s around the time the term was widely popularized in usage." ], [ "Terminology", "The term ''multimedia'' was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later 'Bobb Goldsteinn') to promote the July 1966 opening of his \"Lightworks at L'Oursin\" show in Southampton, New York, Long Island.", "Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art-making he called \"intermedia\".On August 10, 1966, Richard Albarino of ''Variety'' borrowed the terminology, reporting: \"Brainchild of song scribe-comic Bob ('Washington Square') Goldstein, the 'Lightworks' is the latest ''multi-media'' music-cum-visuals to debut as discothèque fare.\"", "Two years later, in 1968, the term \"multimedia\" was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldstein's producers at L'Oursin.Multimedia (multi-image) setup for the 1988 Ford New Car Announcement Show, August 1987, Detroit, MI In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings.", "In the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track.", "However, by the 1990s, 'multimedia' had taken on its current meaning.In the 1993 first edition of ''Multimedia: Making It Work'', Tay Vaughan declared, \"Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer.", "When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what and when these elements are delivered, it is ''interactive multimedia''.", "When you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes ''hypermedia''.\"", "This book contained the ''Tempra Show'' software.", "This was a later, rebranded version of the 1985 DOS multimedia software ''VirtulVideo Producer,'' about which the Smithsonian declared, \"It is one of the first, if not the first, multi-media authoring systems on the market.\"", "The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the word's significance and ubiquitousness in the 1990s by awarding it the title of German 'Word of the Year' in 1995.The institute summed up its rationale by stating, \"Multimedia has become a central word in the wonderful new media world\".In common usage, ''multimedia'' refers to the usage of multiple media of communication, including video, still images, animation, audio, and text, in such a way that they can be accessed interactively.", "Video, still images, animation, audio, and written text are the building blocks on which multimedia takes shape.", "In the 1990s, some computers were called \"multimedia computers\" because they represented advances in graphical and audio quality, such as the Amiga 1000, which could produce 4096 colors (12-bit color), outputs for TVs and VCRs, and four-voice stereo audio.", "Changes in removable storage technology during this time were also important, as the standard CD-ROM can hold on average 700 megabytes of data, while the maximum size a 3.5-inch floppy disk can hold is 2.8 megabytes, with an average of 1.44 megabytes.", "Greater storage allowed for larger digital media files and therefore more complex multimedia.The term \"video\", if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology.", "''Video'' is often used to describe the file format, delivery format, or presentation format instead of ''\"footage\"'' which is used to distinguish motion photography from ''\"animation\"'' of rendered motion imagery.", "Multiple forms of information content are often not considered modern forms of presentation, such as audio or video.", "Likewise, single forms of information content with single methods of information processing (e.g., non-interactive audio) are often called multimedia, perhaps to distinguish static media from active media.", "In the fine arts, for example, Leda Luss Luyken's ModulArt brings two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture, making ''ModulArt'' an interactive multimedia form of art.", "Performing arts may also be considered multimedia, considering that performers and props are multiple forms of both content and media.In modern times, a multimedia device can be referred to as an electronic device, such as a smartphone, a video game system, or a computer.", "Each and every one of these devices has a main function but also has other uses beyond their intended purpose, such as reading, writing, recording video and audio, listening to music, and playing video games.", "This has led them to be called \"multimedia devices.\"", "While previous media was always local, many are now handled through web-based solutions, particularly streaming." ], [ "Major characteristics", "'''Multimedia presentations''' are presentations featuring multiple types of media.", "The different types of media can include text, graphics, audio, video and animations.", "These different types of media convey information to their target audience and effectively communicate with them.", "Videos are a great visual example to use in multimedia presentations because they can create visual aids to the presenter's ideas.", "They are commonly used among education and many other industries to benefit students and workers, as they effectively retain chunks of information in a limited amount of time and can be stored easily.", "Another example is charts and graphs, as the presenters can show their audience the trends using data associated with their researches.", "This provides the audience a visual idea of a company's capabilities and performances.", "Audio also helps people understand the message being presented, as most modern videos are combined with audio to increase its efficiency, while animations are made to simplify things from the presenter's perspective.", "These technological methods allow efficient communication and understanding across a wide range of audiences (with an even wider range of abilities) throughout different fields.", "'''Multimedia games and simulations''' may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, simulator, virtual reality, or augmented reality.The various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users' experience, for example, to make it easier and faster to convey information.", "Or in entertainment or art, combine an array of artistic insights that include elements from different art forms to engage, inspire, or captivate an audience.lasershow is a live multimedia performance.Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content.", "Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time.", "Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and titles (text) user-updated to simulations whose coefficients, events, illustrations, animations, or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia \"experience\" to be altered without reprogramming.", "In addition to seeing and hearing, haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt.", "Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience." ], [ "Categorization", "Multimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories:*Linear active content progresses often without any navigational control, only focusing on the user to watch the entire piece by involving higher levels of emotional and sensory stimulation based on what's being shown as a cinema presentation;*Non-linear uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer-based training so that the actions made will be based on how the user interacts within the simulated world.", "Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content.Multimedia presentations can be live or recorded:*A recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system;*A live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer." ], [ "Usage/application", "PowerPoint.", "Corporate presentations may combine all forms of media content.Multimedia finds its application in various areas, including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research, and spatial temporal applications.", "Several examples are as follows:=== Creative industries ===Creative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes, ranging from fine arts, entertainment, commercial art, journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below.", "An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career.", "Requests for their skills range from technical to analytical to creative.=== Commercial uses ===Much of the electronic, old, and new media used by commercial artists in multimedia.", "Advertising companies rely heavily on social interfaces and television to promote products.", "Using these platforms, they are able to express their message or persuade a targeted audience.", "Business to business and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven up training.", "Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well.", "In addition, the prominence of data mining within multimedia platforms in order to adjust marketing techniques based on the data they mine is a crucial and notable practice of commercial advertisement to efficiently understand the demographic of a target audience.", "In recent years, a new trend of multimedia has arrived: a new sort of digital billboard placed on the side of buildings and usually wrapped around the side of them.", "These clips are made at differing angles to trick the brain into seeing them as 3-dimensional, like they're leaving the billboard entirely.", "This makes them eye-catching and therefore more likely to draw people's attention, which is, of course, very good for commercial purposes.=== Entertainment and fine arts ===Multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.).", "Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online.", "Video games are considered multimedia, as they meld animation, audio, and interactivity to give the player an immersive experience.", "While video games can vary in terms of animation style or audio type, the element of interactivity makes them a striking example of ''interactive multimedia''.", "''Interactive multimedia'' refers to multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information.In the arts, there are multimedia artists who blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporate interaction with the viewer.", "Another approach entails the creation of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery.", "Video has become an intrinsic part of many concerts and theatrical productions in the modern era and has spawned content creation opportunities for many media professionals.", "Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional medium.=== Education ===In education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedias and almanacs.", "A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats.Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia.", "Several lines of research have evolved, e.g., cognitive load and multimedia learning.From multimedia learning (MML) theory, David Roberts has developed a large group lecture practice using PowerPoint and based on the use of full-slide images in conjunction with a reduction of visible text (all text can be placed in the notes view' section of PowerPoint).", "The method has been applied and evaluated in 9 disciplines.", "In each experiment, students' engagement and active learning have been approximately 66% greater than with the same material being delivered using bullet points, text, and speech, corroborating a range of theories presented by multimedia learning scholars like Sweller and Mayer.", "The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education.", "Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video that now share resources and interact with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world.", "Higher education has been implementing the use of social media applications such as Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, etc.", "to increase student collaboration and develop new processes in how information can be conveyed to students.==== Educational technology ====Interactive multimedia educational gameMultimedia provides students with an alternate means of acquiring knowledge designed to enhance teaching and learning through various media and platforms.", "In the 1960s, technology began to expand into classrooms through devices such as screens and telewriters.", "This technology allows students to learn at their own pace and gives teachers the ability to observe the individual needs of each student.", "The capacity for multimedia to be used in multi-disciplinary settings is structured around the idea of creating a hands-on learning environment through the use of technology.", "Lessons can be tailored to the subject matter as well as personalized to the students' varying levels of knowledge on the topic.", "Learning content can be managed through activities that utilize and take advantage of multimedia platforms.", "This kind of usage of modern multimedia encourages interactive communication between students and teachers and opens feedback channels, introducing an active learning process, especially with the prevalence of new media and social media.", "Technology has impacted multimedia as it is largely associated with the use of computers or other electronic devices and digital media due to its capabilities concerning research, communication, problem-solving through simulations, and feedback opportunities.", "The innovation of technology in education through the use of multimedia allows for diversification among classrooms to enhance the overall learning experience for students.Within education, video games, specifically fast-paced action games, are able to play a big role in improving cognitive abilities involving attention, task switching, and resistance to distractors.", "Research also shows that, though video games may take time away from schoolwork, implementing games into the school curriculum has an increased probability of moving attention from games to curricular goals.", "=== Social work ===Multimedia is a robust education methodology within the social work context.", "The five different types of multimedia that support the education process are narrative media, interactive media, communicative media, adaptive media, and productive media.", "Contrary to long-standing belief, multimedia technology in social work education existed before the prevalence of the internet.", "It takes the form of images, audio, and video into the curriculum.First introduced to social work education by Seabury & Maple in 1993, multimedia technology is utilized to teach social work practice skills, including interviewing, crisis intervention, and group work.", "In comparison with conventional teaching methods, including face-to-face courses, multimedia education shortens transportation time, increases knowledge and confidence in a richer and more authentic context for learning, generates interaction between online users, and enhances understanding of conceptual materials for novice students.In an attempt to examine the impact of multimedia technology on students' studies, A. Elizabeth Cauble & Linda P. Thurston conducted research in which Building Family Foundations (BFF), an interactive multimedia training platform, was utilized to assess social work students' reactions to multimedia technology on variables of knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy.", "The results state that respondents show a substantial increase in academic knowledge, confidence, and attitude.", "Multimedia also benefits students because it brings experts online, fits students' schedule, and allows students to choose courses that suit them.Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests that \"people learn more from words and pictures than from words alone.\"", "According to Mayer and other scholars, multimedia technology stimulates people's brains by implementing visual and auditory effects and thereby assists online users to learn efficiently.", "Researchers suggest that when users establish dual channels while learning, they tend to understand and memorize better.", "The mixed literature of this theory is still present in the fields of multimedia and social work.=== Language communication ===With the spread and development of the English language around the world, multimedia has become an important way of communicating between different people and cultures.", "Multimedia technology creates a platform where language can be taught.", "The traditional form of teaching English as a Second Language in classrooms has drastically changed with the prevalence of technology, making it easier for students to obtain language learning skills.", "Multimedia motivates students to learn more languages through audio, visual, and animation support.", "It also helps create English contexts since an important aspect of learning a language is developing their grammar, vocabulary, and knowledge of pragmatics and genres.", "In addition, cultural connections in terms of forms, contexts, meanings, and ideologies have to be constructed.", "By improving thought patterns, multimedia develops students' communicative competence by improving their capacity to understand the language.", "One of the studies, carried out by Izquierdo, Simard and Pulido, presented the correlation between \"Multimedia Instruction (MI) and learners' second language (L2)\" and its effects on learning behavior.", "Their findings, based on Gardner's theory of the \"socio-educational model of learner motivation and attitudes,\" show that there is easier access to language learning materials as well as increased motivation with MI along with the use of computer-assisted language learning.=== Journalism ===Newspaper companies all over the world are trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing its practices in their work.", "While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers like ''The New York Times'', ''USA Today,'' and ''The Washington Post'' are setting a precedent for the positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world.", "To keep up with the changing world of multimedia, journalistic practices are adopting and utilizing different multimedia functions through the inclusion of visuals such as varying audio, video, text, etc.", "in their writings.News reporting is not limited to traditional media outlets.", "Freelance journalists can use different new media to produce multimedia pieces for their news stories.", "It engages global audiences and tells stories with technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and consumers.", "The Common Language Project, later renamed The Seattle Globalist, is an example of this type of multimedia journalism production.Multimedia reporters who are mobile (usually driving around a community with cameras, audio and video recorders, and laptop computers) are often referred to as mojos, or ''mobile ''journalists.=== Engineering ===Software engineers may use multimedia in computer simulations for anything from entertainment to training, such as military or industrial training.", "Multimedia for software interfaces is often done as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers.", "Multimedia helps expand the teaching practices that can be found in engineering to allow for more innovative methods to not only educate future engineers but to help evolve the scope of understanding of where multimedia can be used in specialized engineer careers like software engineers.Multimedia is also allowing major car manufacturers, such as Ford and General Motors, to expand the design and safety standards of their cars.", "By using a game engine and virtual reality glasses, these companies are able to test the safety features and the design of the car before a prototype is even made.", "Building a car virtually reduces the time it takes to produce new vehicles, cutting down on the time needed to test designs and allowing the designers to make changes in real time.", "It also reduces expenses since, with a virtual car, making real-world prototypes is no longer needed.=== Mathematical and scientific research ===In mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation.", "For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance.", "Representative research can be found in journals such as the ''Journal of Multimedia''.", "One well-known example of this being applied would be in the movie Interstellar, where Executive Director Kip Thorne helped create one of the most realistic depictions of a black hole in film.", "The visual effects team under Paul Franklin took Kip Thorne's mathematical data and applied it into their own visual effects engine called \"Double Negative Gravitational Renderer,\" a.k.a.", "\"Gargantua,\" to create a \"real\" black hole used in the final cut.", "Later on, the visual effects team went on to publish a black hole study.=== Medicine ===Medical professionals and students have a wide variety of ways to learn new techniques and procedures through interactive media, online courses, and lectures.", "The methods of conveying information to students have drastically evolved with the help of multimedia.", "From the 1800s to today, lessons are commonly taught using chalkboards.", "Projected aids, such as the epidiascope and slide projectors, were introduced into classrooms around the 1960s.", "With the growing use of computers, the medical field has begun to incorporate new devices and procedures to assist in teaching students, performing procedures, and analyzing patient data.", "As well as providing that data in a meaningful way to the patients.=== Virtual reality ===Air force officer using a VR headset to simulate piloting an aircraftVirtual reality is a technology that creates a simulated environment, often using computer-generated imagery or a combination of real and virtual content, to immerse users in an interactive and lifelike experience.", "The aim of virtual reality is to make users feel as if they are physically present in a different environment, even though they are typically still physically located in the real world.", "Virtual reality finds applications across various fields, including gaming, education, healthcare, training, and entertainment.", "In gaming, users can be transported to fantastical worlds, experiencing games in a more immersive way.", "In education, VR can provide realistic simulations for training purposes, allowing users to practice skills in a risk-free environment.", "Healthcare professionals use VR for therapeutic purposes and medical training.", "The U.S. Air Force has shown using VR for training programs for their new pilots to simulate piloting an aircraft.", "This allows new pilots to learn in a safe environment and get comfortable before getting in a real aircraft.Head-mounted display (HMD): Users wear a headset that covers their eyes and ears, providing visual and auditory stimuli.", "These headsets are equipped with screens that display the virtual environment, and some may also have built-in speakers or headphones for audio.", "Motion tracking: Sensors track the user's movements, allowing them to interact with the virtual world.", "This can include head movements, hand gestures, and sometimes even full-body movements, enhancing the sense of immersion.Input devices: Controllers or other input devices are used to interact with the virtual environment.", "These devices can simulate hands or tools, enabling users to manipulate objects or navigate within the virtual space.Computer processing: Powerful computers or gaming consoles are often required to generate and render the complex graphics and simulations needed for a convincing virtual experience.=== Augmented reality ===Augmented reality overlays digital content or output onto the real world using media such as audio, animation, and text.", "Augmented reality became widely popular only in the 21st century; however, some of the earlier versions of such were things like the Sega Genesis Activator Controller back in 1992, which allowed users to literally stand in an octagon and control in-game movement with physical movement, or to stretch back even further, the R.O.B.", "NES Robot back in 1984, which, with its array of accessories, was able to also provide users with the sensation of holding a firearm.", "These multimedia input devices are among the earliest of the augmented reality devices, allowing users to input commands to facilitate a different user experience.", "A more modern example of augmented reality is Pokémon GO, a mobile game released on July 6, 2016, which allows users to see a Pokémon in a real-world environment." ], [ "See also", "* Animation* Artmedia* Audio* Audiovisual* Computer* Images* Internet* Kraftwerk* Multi-image* Multimedia cartography* Multimedia Messaging Service* Multimedia search* New media art* Non-linear media* Postliterate society* Social media* Text* Transmedia storytelling* Universal multimedia access* Video* Video Game* Virtual reality* Web documentary" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** History of Multimedia from the University of Calgary * Multimedia in Answers.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Max Headroom (TV series)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Max Headroom''''' is an American satirical science fiction television series by Chrysalis Visual Programming and Lakeside Productions for Lorimar-Telepictures that aired in the United States on ABC from March 31, 1987, to May 5, 1988.The series is set in a futuristic dystopia ruled by an oligarchy of television networks, and features the character and media personality Max Headroom.", "The story is based on the Channel 4 British TV film produced by Chrysalis, ''Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future''." ], [ "Premise", "In the future, an oligarchy of television networks rules the world.", "Even the government functions primarily as a puppet of the network executives, serving mainly to pass laws—such as banning \"off\" switches on televisions—that protect and consolidate the networks' power.", "Television technology has advanced to the point that viewers' physical movements and thoughts can be monitored through their television sets.", "Almost all non-television technology has been discontinued or destroyed.", "The only real check on the power of the networks is Edison Carter, a crusading investigative journalist who regularly exposes the unethical practices of his own employer, and the team of allies both inside and outside the system who assist him in getting his reports to air and protecting him from the forces that wish to silence or kill him." ], [ "Characters", "=== Edison Carter ===Edison Carter (Matt Frewer) is a hard-hitting reporter for Network 23, who sometimes uncovered things that his superiors in the network would have preferred be kept private.", "Eventually, one of these instances required him to flee his workspace, upon which he was injured in a motorcycle accident in a parking lot.The series depicted very little of the past described by Edison.", "He met a female televangelist (whom he had dated in college) when his reporting put him at odds with the Vu Age Church that she now headed.", "Edison was sent on a near-rampage to avenge a former colleague, who died as a result of a story on dream-harvesting.Edison cares about his co-workers, especially Theora Jones and Bryce Lynch, and he has a deep respect for his producer, Murray (although he rarely shows it).=== Max Headroom ===Max Headroom (Frewer) is a computer reconstruction of Carter, created after Bryce Lynch uploaded a copy of his mind.", "He appears as a computer-rendered bust of Carter superimposed on a wire-frame background.", "Since Carter's last sight before the motorcycle crash was the sign \"Max.", "headroom\" on a parking garage gate, these were the reconstruction's first words and ultimately his name.", "While Carter is a dedicated professional, Max is a wisecracking observer of human contradictions.Despite being the titular character, Max sparsely appeared on the show.", "While he occasionally played a significant part in a plot—sometimes by traveling through networks to gain information or by revealing secrets about Carter that Carter himself would not divulge—his most frequent role was as comic relief, delivering brief quips in reaction to certain events or giving a humorous soliloquy at the end of an episode.=== Theora Jones ===Theora Jones first appeared in the British-made television pilot film for the series.", "She was Network 23's star controller (\"stolen\" from the World One Network by Murray) and, working with Edison, the network's star reporter, she often helped save the day for everyone.", "She was also a potential love interest for Edison, but that subplot was not explored fully on the show before it was cancelled.Network 23's personnel files list her father as unknown, her mother as deceased, and her brother as Shawn Jones; Shawn is the focus on the second episode broadcast, \"Rakers\".Theora Jones was played by Amanda Pays, who along with Matt Frewer and W. Morgan Sheppard, was one of only three cast members to also appear in the American-made series that followed.=== Ben Cheviot ===Cheviot (George Coe), was one of the executives on Network 23's board of directors.", "He later becomes the board's new chairman after Ned Grossberg is fired in the wake of the Blipvert incident.", "He is mostly ethical and almost invariably backs Edison Carter, occasionally against the wishes of the Network 23 board of directors.", "However, he has compromised himself on a few occasions when he felt the ratings for the Network would rise using methods that were questionable such as allowing the network to copyright the exclusive news of a terrorist organization, and mixing sex and politics.", "He once had an affair with board member Julia Fornby, though by the start of the show they had ended it long ago.", "Cheviot, while usually rolling over for his greatest client, did not do so when they attempted to supplant television networks themselves.=== Bryce Lynch ===Bryce Lynch (Chris Young), a child prodigy and computer hacker, is Network 23's one-man technology research department.In the stereotypical hacker ethos, Bryce has few principles and fewer loyalties.", "He seems to accept any task, even morally questionable ones, as long as he is allowed to have the freedom to play with technology however he sees fit.", "This, in turn, makes him a greater asset to the technological needs and demands of the network, and the whims of its executives and stars.", "However, he also generally does not hurt or infringe on others, making him a rare neutral character in the Max Headroom universe.In the pilot episode of the series, Bryce is enlisted by evil network CEO Ned Grossberg (Charles Rocket) to investigate the mental patterns of unconscious reporter Edison Carter, to determine whether or not Carter has discovered the secrets of the \"Blipverts\" scandal.", "Bryce uploads the contents of Carter's memory into the Network 23 computer system, creating Max Headroom.", "It had been Bryce, following orders from Grossberg, who fought a hacking battle of sorts with Theora Jones that led to Edison hitting his head on a traffic barrier and falling unconscious.After the first episode, Bryce is generally recruited by Carter and his controller, Theora Jones, to provide technical aid to their investigative reporting efforts.=== Murray McKenzie ===Murray (Jeffrey Tambor), Carter's serious and high-strung producer, whose job often becomes a balancing act between supporting Carter's stories and pleasing Network 23's executives.", "In his younger years he was also a field reporter and may have had some experience with the systems of a controller, though the system in his younger years had changed since and would not be reliable to replace one.", "When creating the \"What I Want To Know Show\" it was a toss-up between Edison Carter and another reporter and Murray \"Choose The Best\" a decision that would have future repercussions.", "Murray is divorced and sees his kids on weekends.=== Blank Reg ===Reg (W. Morgan Sheppard) is a \"blank\", a person not indexed in the government's database.", "He broadcasts the underground Big Time Television Network from his bus.", "He is a good friend of Edison Carter, and saves him on more than one occasion.", "With colleague/lover Dominique, he operates and is the onscreen voice of Big Time television, \"All day every day, making tomorrow seem like yesterday.", "\"He dresses in a punk style and has a Mohawk haircut.", "He has an energetic personality and a strong nostalgic streak, defending antiquated music videos and printed books in equal measure, despite not having the ability to read.=== Ned Grossberg ===Ned Grossberg is a recurring villain on the series, played by former ''Saturday Night Live'' cast member Charles Rocket.In the pilot episode, Grossberg is the chairman of Network 23, a major city television station with the highest-rated investigative-news show in town, hosted by Edison Carter.", "In the Max Headroom world, real-time ratings equal advertising dollars, and advertisements have replaced stocks as the measure of corporate worth.Grossberg, with his secret prodigy Bryce Lynch, develops a high-speed advertising delivery method known as Blipverts, which condenses full advertisements into a few seconds.", "When Carter discovers that Blipverts are killing people, Grossberg orders Lynch to prevent Carter from getting out of the building.", "Knocked unconscious, Carter's memories are extracted into a computer by Lynch in order to determine whether Carter uncovered Grossberg's knowledge of the danger of Blipverts.", "The resulting computer file of the memory-extraction process becomes Max Headroom, making Grossberg directly responsible for the creation of the character.", "In the end, Grossberg is publicly exposed as responsible for the Blipverts scandal, and is removed as chairman of Network 23.A few episodes later, in \"Grossberg's Return\", Grossberg reappears as a board member of Network 66.Again, he invents a dubious advertising medium and convinces the chairman of the network to adopt it.", "When the advertising method is shown to be a complete fraud, the resulting public reaction against the network leads to the chairman being removed, and Grossberg manages to assume the chairmanship.When under stress, Grossberg exhibits a tic of slightly stretching his neck in his suit's collar, first seen in episode 1 when he confronts Lynch in his lab regarding Max retaining Carter's memory about the blipverts.In the UK telefilm ''Max Headroom: 20 Minutes Into the Future'' upon which the American series was based, the character was called Grossman and was played by Nickolas Grace.", "Rocket portrayed Grossberg as an American yuppie with a characteristic facial and neck-stretching twitch.===Other characters===*Dominique (Concetta Tomei), co-proprietor of Big Time TV along with Blank Reg, managing the business aspects of running the station.", "It is implied that she and Reg are romantically involved, if not husband and wife.", "Although Dominique may not be a blank like Reg, as she possesses credit tubes, she behaves culturally as one.", "*Breughel (Jere Burns), an intelligent, sociopathic criminal-for-hire who, along with Mahler, makes money disposing of corpses for other criminals by selling them to body banks around the city.", "However, he is not above selling out his employers if it means a big payoff, a fact which Edison Carter takes advantage of on several occasions while working on stories.", "*Mahler (Rick Ducommun), Breughel's accomplice, who serves primarily as the muscle of the duo's body-harvesting operation.", "In \"Dream Thieves\", it is revealed that Breughel killed Mahler and sold off his body during a slow night of business, and replaced him with a new man whom he nicknamed \"Mahler\" as a mocking tribute.", "*Rik (J.W.", "Smith), a streetwise pedicab driver whom Edison Carter frequently employs when looking for information about the city's underworld.", "*Blank Bruno (Peter Crook), Bryce's mentor, who is a revolutionary Blank who works to make life better for the city's Blank population by any means short of murder.", "He has a pet toad, which he calls \"Gob\".", "*Blank Traker (Brian Brophy, Season 1 / Michael Preston, Season 2), one of Bruno's fellow revolutionaries.", "*Martinez (Ricardo Gutierrez), one of Network 23's helicopter pilots, he often works with Carter when he is out on assignment.", "*Janie Crane (Lisa Niemi), one of Network 23's second-tier reporters, who ends up breaking a few important stories of her own throughout the series.", "*Angie Barry (Rosalind Chao), one of Network 23's second-tier reporters.", "She often fills-in for Carter when he is indisposed.", "*Joel Dung Po (Rob Narita), one of Network 23's second-tier reporters.", "*Julia Formby (Virginia Kiser), one of Network 23's board members.", "In \"Body Banks\", it is revealed that she once had an affair with Cheviot, for which she is blackmailed by a wealthy member of the Plantagenet family into stealing Max Headroom from Network 23 in the hope that Max's program might be used to preserve the mind of his mother.", "*Gene Ashwell (Hank Garrett), one of Network 23's board members, who frequently panics when the network faces a crisis.", "It is revealed in \"Deities\" that he is a member of the Vu-Age Church, and is responsible for kidnapping Max on behalf of the church's leader.*Ms.", "Lauren (Sharon Barr), one of Network 23's board members.", "Replaced Formby on the board after Formby grew weary of \"handling things at night\".*Mr.", "Edwards (Lee Wilkof), one of Network 23's board members.", "He has a groveling disposition, and regards ratings as more important than life itself.", "Once cried at the thought of no one watching the network, and compared the potential end of network television to the end of the world.", "*Simon Peller (Sherman Howard), a corrupt politician who receives financial backing from Network 23.He shares a mutual animosity with Carter, who despises Peller's underhanded political tactics.*Mr.", "Bartlett (Andreas Katsulas), one of the board members of Network 66.An incautious risk-taker, he frequently becomes directly involved in the network's shady projects, going behind even Ned Grossberg's back on occasion.", "*Chubb Shaw (James F. Dean), one of the board members of Network 66.", "*Dragul (John Durbin), a Network censor who disregards Blanks, and lives by the orders of computers even in defeat.", "*Ped Xing (Arsenio Trinidad, Season 1 / Sab Shimono, Season 2), the head of the Zik-Zak corporation, Network 23's primary sponsor.", "*Stew, Blipvert Victim (Brian Healy), a viewer whose head explodes from watching blipverts, impelling Edison Carter to investigate Network 23." ], [ "Development and production", "The series was based on the Channel 4 British TV film produced by Chrysalis, ''Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future''.", "Cinemax aired the UK pilot followed by a six-week run of highlights from ''The Max Headroom Show'', a UK music video show where Headroom appears between music videos.", "ABC took an interest in the pilot and asked Chrysalis/Lakeside to produce the series for American audiences.", "''Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future'' was re-shot as a pilot program for a new series broadcast by the U.S. ABC television network.", "The pilot featured plot changes and some minor visual touches, but retained the same basic storyline.", "The only original cast retained for the series were Matt Frewer (Max Headroom/Edison Carter) and Amanda Pays (Theora Jones); a third original cast member, W. Morgan Sheppard, joined the series as \"Blank Reg\" in later episodes.", "Among the non-original cast, Jeffrey Tambor co-starred as \"Murray\", Edison Carter's neurotic producer.The show went into production in late 1986 and ran for six episodes in the first season and eight in the second." ], [ "Episodes", "===Season 1 (1987)======Season 2 (1987–88)====== Notes ===*Although unaired as part of the original U.S run, \"Baby Grobags\" was shown as part of the Australian series run.", "*At least one unproduced script, \"Theora's Tale\", has surfaced, as have the titles of two other stories (\"The Trial\" and \"Xmas\").", "Currently, little is known of \"The Trial\" aside from its title; George R. R. Martin wrote \"Xmas\", in pre-production at cancellation time; \"Theora's Tale\" would have featured the \"Video Freedom Alliance\" kidnapping Theora, and war in Antarctica, between rival advertisers Zik Zak and Zlin." ], [ "Home media", "Shout!", "Factory (under license from Warner Bros. Home Entertainment) released ''Max Headroom: The Complete Series'' on DVD in the United States and Canada on August 10, 2010.The bonus features includes a round-table discussion with most of the major cast members (other than Matt Frewer), and interviews with the writers and producers." ], [ "Reception", "The series began as a mid-season replacement in spring of 1987, and did well enough to be renewed for the fall television season, but the viewer ratings could not be sustained in direct competition with CBS's Top 20 hit ''Dallas'' (also produced by Lorimar) and NBC's Top 30 hit ''Miami Vice.''", "''Max Headroom'' was canceled part-way into its second season.", "The entire series, along with two previously unbroadcast episodes, was rerun in spring 1988 during the Writers Guild of America strike.", "In the late 1990s, U.S. cable TV channels Bravo and the Sci-Fi Channel re-ran the series.", "Reruns also briefly appeared on TechTV in 2001.A cinema spin-off titled ''Max Headroom for President'' was announced with production intended to start in early 1988 in order to capitalize on the 1988 United States presidential election, but it was never made.", "''Max Headroom'' has been called \"the first cyberpunk television series\", with \"deep roots in the Western philosophical tradition\"." ], [ "See also", "*''The Max Headroom Show''*Max Headroom signal hijacking" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * The Max Headroom Chronicles—fan site*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Malaria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Malaria''' is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other vertebrates.", "Human malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches.", "In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death.", "Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected ''Anopheles'' mosquito.", "If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later.", "In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms.", "This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.Human malaria is caused by single-celled microorganisms of the ''Plasmodium'' group.", "It is spread exclusively through bites of infected female ''Anopheles'' mosquitoes.", "The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into a person's blood.", "The parasites travel to the liver where they mature and reproduce.", "Five species of ''Plasmodium'' commonly infect humans.", "The three species associated with more severe cases are ''P.", "falciparum'' (which is responsible for the vast majority of malaria deaths), ''P.", "vivax'', and ''P.", "knowlesi'' (a simian malaria that spills over into thousands of people a year).", "''P.", "ovale'' and ''P.", "malariae'' generally cause a milder form of malaria.", "Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films, or with antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests.", "Methods that use the polymerase chain reaction to detect the parasite's DNA have been developed, but they are not widely used in areas where malaria is common, due to their cost and complexity.The risk of disease can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites through the use of mosquito nets and insect repellents or with mosquito-control measures such as spraying insecticides and draining standing water.", "Several medications are available to prevent malaria for travellers in areas where the disease is common.", "Occasional doses of the combination medication sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine are recommended in infants and after the first trimester of pregnancy in areas with high rates of malaria.", "As of 2023, two malaria vaccines have been endorsed by the World Health Organization.", "The recommended treatment for malaria is a combination of antimalarial medications that includes artemisinin.", "The second medication may be either mefloquine, lumefantrine, or sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine.", "Quinine, along with doxycycline, may be used if artemisinin is not available.", "In areas where the disease is common, malaria should be confirmed if possible before treatment is started due to concerns of increasing drug resistance.", "Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications; for example, chloroquine-resistant ''P.", "falciparum'' has spread to most malarial areas, and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of Southeast Asia.The disease is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions that exist in a broad band around the equator.", "This includes much of sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America.", "In 2022, some 249 million cases of malaria worldwide resulted in an estimated 608000 deaths, with 80 percent being five years old or less.", "Around 95% of the cases and deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa.", "Rates of disease decreased from 2010 to 2014, but increased from 2015 to 2021.According to UNICEF, nearly every minute, a child under five died of malaria in 2021, and \"many of these deaths are preventable and treatable\".", "Malaria is commonly associated with poverty and has a significant negative effect on economic development.", "In Africa, it is estimated to result in losses of US$12 billion a year due to increased healthcare costs, lost ability to work, and adverse effects on tourism.", "script)" ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Main symptoms of malariaAdults with malaria tend to experience chills and fever – classically in periodic intense bouts lasting around six hours, followed by a period of sweating and fever relief – as well as headache, fatigue, abdominal discomfort, and muscle pain.", "Children tend to have more general symptoms: fever, cough, vomiting, and diarrhea.Initial manifestations of the disease—common to all malaria species—are similar to flu-like symptoms, and can resemble other conditions such as sepsis, gastroenteritis, and viral diseases.", "The presentation may include headache, fever, shivering, joint pain, vomiting, hemolytic anemia, jaundice, hemoglobin in the urine, retinal damage, and convulsions.The classic symptom of malaria is paroxysm—a cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by shivering and then fever and sweating, occurring every two days (tertian fever) in ''P.", "vivax'' and ''P.", "ovale'' infections, and every three days (quartan fever) for ''P. malariae''.", "''P.", "falciparum'' infection can cause recurrent fever every 36–48 hours, or a less pronounced and almost continuous fever.Symptoms typically begin 10–15 days after the initial mosquito bite, but can occur as late as several months after infection with some ''P.", "vivax'' strains.", "Travellers taking preventative malaria medications may develop symptoms once they stop taking the drugs.Severe malaria is usually caused by ''P.", "falciparum'' (often referred to as falciparum malaria).", "Symptoms of falciparum malaria arise 9–30 days after infection.", "Individuals with cerebral malaria frequently exhibit neurological symptoms, including abnormal posturing, nystagmus, conjugate gaze palsy (failure of the eyes to turn together in the same direction), opisthotonus, seizures, or coma.===Complications===Malaria has several serious complications, including the development of respiratory distress, which occurs in up to 25% of adults and 40% of children with severe ''P.", "falciparum'' malaria.", "Possible causes include respiratory compensation of metabolic acidosis, noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema, concomitant pneumonia, and severe anaemia.", "Although rare in young children with severe malaria, acute respiratory distress syndrome occurs in 5–25% of adults and up to 29% of pregnant women.", "Coinfection of HIV with malaria increases mortality.", "Kidney failure is a feature of blackwater fever, where haemoglobin from lysed red blood cells leaks into the urine.Infection with ''P.", "falciparum'' may result in cerebral malaria, a form of severe malaria that involves encephalopathy.", "It is associated with retinal whitening, which may be a useful clinical sign in distinguishing malaria from other causes of fever.", "An enlarged spleen, enlarged liver or both of these, severe headache, low blood sugar, and haemoglobin in the urine with kidney failure may occur.", "Complications may include spontaneous bleeding, coagulopathy, and shock.Malaria in pregnant women is an important cause of stillbirths, infant mortality, miscarriage, and low birth weight, particularly in ''P.", "falciparum'' infection, but also with ''P.", "vivax''." ], [ "Cause", "Malaria is caused by infection with parasites in the genus ''Plasmodium''.", "In humans, malaria is caused by six ''Plasmodium'' species: ''P.", "falciparum'', ''P.", "malariae'', ''P.", "ovale curtisi'', ''P.", "ovale wallikeri'', ''P.", "vivax'' and ''P. knowlesi''.", "Among those infected, ''P.", "falciparum'' is the most common species identified (~75%) followed by ''P.", "vivax'' (~20%).", "Although ''P.", "falciparum'' traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths, recent evidence suggests that ''P.", "vivax'' malaria is associated with potentially life-threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of ''P.", "falciparum'' infection.", "''P.", "vivax'' proportionally is more common outside Africa.", "Some cases have been documented of human infections with several species of ''Plasmodium'' from higher apes, but except for ''P.", "knowlesi''—a zoonotic species that causes malaria in macaques—these are mostly of limited public health importance.The life cycle of malaria parasites: Sporozoites are introduced by a mosquito bite.", "When they reach the liver, they multiply into thousands of merozoites.", "The merozoites infect red blood cells and replicate, infecting more and more red blood cells.", "Some parasites form gametocytes, which are taken up by a mosquito, continuing the life cycle.The ''Anopheles'' mosquitos initially get infected by ''Plasmodium'' by taking a blood meal from a previously ''Plasmodium'' infected person.", "Parasites are then typically introduced by the bite of an infected ''Anopheles'' mosquito.", "Some of these inoculated parasites, called \"sporozoites\", probably remain in the skin, but others travel in the bloodstream to the liver, where they invade hepatocytes.", "They grow and divide in the liver for 2–10 days, with each infected hepatocyte eventually harboring up to 40,000 parasites.", "The infected hepatocytes break down, releasing this invasive form of ''Plasmodium'' cells, called \"merozoites\" into the bloodstream.", "In the blood, the merozoites rapidly invade individual red blood cells, replicating over 24–72 hours to form 16–32 new merozoites.", "The infected red blood cell lyses, and the new merozoites infect new red blood cells, resulting in a cycle that continuously amplifies the number of parasites in an infected person.", "Over rounds of this infection cycle, a small portion of parasites do not replicate, but instead develop into early sexual stage parasites called male and female \"gametocytes\".", "These gametocytes develop in the bone marrow for 11 days, then return to the blood circulation to await uptake by the bite of another mosquito.", "Once inside a mosquito, the gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction, and eventually form daughter sporozoites that migrate to the mosquito's salivary glands to be injected into a new host when the mosquito bites.The liver infection causes no symptoms; all symptoms of malaria result from the infection of red blood cells.", "Symptoms develop once there are more than around 100,000 parasites per milliliter of blood.", "Many of the symptoms associated with severe malaria are caused by the tendency of ''P.", "falciparum'' to bind to blood vessel walls, resulting in damage to the affected vessels and surrounding tissue.", "Parasites sequestered in the blood vessels of the lung contribute to respiratory failure.", "In the brain, they contribute to coma.", "In the placenta they contribute to low birthweight and preterm labor, and increase the risk of abortion and stillbirth.", "The destruction of red blood cells during infection often results in anemia, exacerbated by reduced production of new red blood cells during infection.Only female mosquitoes feed on blood; male mosquitoes feed on plant nectar and do not transmit the disease.", "Females of the mosquito genus ''Anopheles'' prefer to feed at night.", "They usually start searching for a meal at dusk, and continue through the night until they succeed.", "However, in Africa, due to the extensive use of bed nets, they began to bite earlier, before bed-net time.", "Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by blood transfusions, although this is rare.===Recurrent malaria===Symptoms of malaria can recur after varying symptom-free periods.", "Depending upon the cause, recurrence can be classified as either recrudescence, relapse, or reinfection.", "Recrudescence is when symptoms return after a symptom-free period due to failure to remove blood-stage parasites by adequate treatment.", "Relapse is when symptoms reappear after the parasites have been eliminated from the blood but have persisted as dormant hypnozoites in liver cells.", "Relapse commonly occurs between 8 and 24 weeks after the initial symptoms and is often seen in ''P.", "vivax'' and ''P.", "ovale'' infections.", "''P.", "vivax'' malaria cases in temperate areas often involve overwintering by hypnozoites, with relapses beginning the year after the mosquito bite.", "Reinfection means that parasites were eliminated from the entire body but new parasites were then introduced.", "Reinfection cannot readily be distinguished from relapse and recrudescence, although recurrence of infection within two weeks of treatment ending is typically attributed to treatment failure.", "People may develop some immunity when exposed to frequent infections." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "Micrograph of a placenta from a stillbirth due to maternal malaria.", "H&E stain.", "Red blood cells are anuclear; blue/black staining in bright red structures (red blood cells) indicate foreign nuclei from the parasites.Electron micrograph of a ''Plasmodium falciparum''-infected red blood cell (center), illustrating adhesion protein \"knobs\"Malaria infection develops via two phases: one that involves the liver (exoerythrocytic phase), and one that involves red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythrocytic phase).", "When an infected mosquito pierces a person's skin to take a blood meal, sporozoites in the mosquito's saliva enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver where they infect hepatocytes, multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 8–30 days.After a potential dormant period in the liver, these organisms differentiate to yield thousands of merozoites, which, following rupture of their host cells, escape into the blood and infect red blood cells to begin the erythrocytic stage of the life cycle.", "The parasite escapes from the liver undetected by wrapping itself in the cell membrane of the infected host liver cell.Within the red blood cells, the parasites multiply further, again asexually, periodically breaking out of their host cells to invade fresh red blood cells.", "Several such amplification cycles occur.", "Thus, classical descriptions of waves of fever arise from simultaneous waves of merozoites escaping and infecting red blood cells.Some ''P.", "vivax'' sporozoites do not immediately develop into exoerythrocytic-phase merozoites, but instead, produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for periods ranging from several months (7–10 months is typical) to several years.", "After a period of dormancy, they reactivate and produce merozoites.", "Hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in ''P.", "vivax'' infections, although their existence in ''P.", "ovale'' is uncertain.The parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body's immune system because for most of its human life cycle it resides within the liver and blood cells and is relatively invisible to immune surveillance.", "However, circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the spleen.", "To avoid this fate, the ''P.", "falciparum'' parasite displays adhesive proteins on the surface of the infected blood cells, causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels, thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and the spleen.", "The blockage of the microvasculature causes symptoms such as those in placental malaria.", "Sequestered red blood cells can breach the blood–brain barrier and cause cerebral malaria.===Genetic resistance===According to a 2005 review, due to the high levels of mortality and morbidity caused by malaria—especially the ''P.", "falciparum'' species—it has placed the greatest selective pressure on the human genome in recent history.", "Several genetic factors provide some resistance to it including sickle cell trait, thalassaemia traits, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and the absence of Duffy antigens on red blood cells.The impact of sickle cell trait on malaria immunity illustrates some evolutionary trade-offs that have occurred because of endemic malaria.", "Sickle cell trait causes a change in the haemoglobin molecule in the blood.", "Normally, red blood cells have a very flexible, biconcave shape that allows them to move through narrow capillaries; however, when the modified haemoglobin S molecules are exposed to low amounts of oxygen, or crowd together due to dehydration, they can stick together forming strands that cause the cell to distort into a curved sickle shape.", "In these strands, the molecule is not as effective in taking or releasing oxygen, and the cell is not flexible enough to circulate freely.", "In the early stages of malaria, the parasite can cause infected red cells to sickle, and so they are removed from circulation sooner.", "This reduces the frequency with which malaria parasites complete their life cycle in the cell.", "Individuals who are homozygous (with two copies of the abnormal haemoglobin beta allele) have sickle-cell anaemia, while those who are heterozygous (with one abnormal allele and one normal allele) experience resistance to malaria without severe anaemia.", "Although the shorter life expectancy for those with the homozygous condition would tend to disfavour the trait's survival, the trait is preserved in malaria-prone regions because of the benefits provided by the heterozygous form.===Liver dysfunction===Liver dysfunction as a result of malaria is uncommon and usually only occurs in those with another liver condition such as viral hepatitis or chronic liver disease.", "The syndrome is sometimes called ''malarial hepatitis''.", "While it has been considered a rare occurrence, malarial hepatopathy has seen an increase, particularly in Southeast Asia and India.", "Liver compromise in people with malaria correlates with a greater likelihood of complications and death." ], [ "Diagnosis", "gold standard for malaria diagnosis.Ring-forms and gametocytes of ''Plasmodium falciparum'' in human bloodDue to the non-specific nature of malaria symptoms, diagnosis is typically suspected based on symptoms and travel history, then confirmed with a laboratory test to detect the presence of the parasite in the blood (parasitological test).", "In areas where malaria is common, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends clinicians suspect malaria in any person who reports having fevers, or who has a current temperature above 37.5 °C without any other obvious cause.", "Malaria should be suspected in children with signs of anemia: pale palms or a laboratory test showing hemoglobin levels below 8 grams per deciliter of blood.", "In areas of the world with little to no malaria, the WHO recommends only testing people with possible exposure to malaria (typically travel to a malaria-endemic area) and unexplained fever.In sub-Saharan Africa, testing is low, with only about one in four (28%) of children with a fever receiving medical advice or a rapid diagnostic test in 2021.There was a 10-percentage point gap in testing between the richest and the poorest children (33% vs 23%).", "Additionally, a greater proportion of children in Eastern and Southern Africa (36%) were tested than in West and Central Africa (21%).", "According to UNICEF, 61% of children with a fever were taken for advice or treatment from a health facility or provider in 2021.Disparities are also observed by wealth, with an 18 percentage point difference in care-seeking behaviour between children in the richest (71%) and the poorest (53%) households.Malaria is usually confirmed by the microscopic examination of blood films or by antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests (RDT).", "Microscopy – i.e.", "examining Giemsa-stained blood with a light microscope – is the gold standard for malaria diagnosis.", "Microscopists typically examine both a \"thick film\" of blood, allowing them to scan many blood cells in a short time, and a \"thin film\" of blood, allowing them to clearly see individual parasites and identify the infecting ''Plasmodium'' species.", "Under typical field laboratory conditions, a microscopist can detect parasites when there are at least 100 parasites per microliter of blood, which is around the lower range of symptomatic infection.", "Microscopic diagnosis is relatively resource intensive, requiring trained personnel, specific equipment, electricity, and a consistent supply of microscopy slides and stains.In places where microscopy is unavailable, malaria is diagnosed with RDTs, rapid antigen tests that detect parasite proteins in a fingerstick blood sample.", "A variety of RDTs are commercially available, targeting the parasite proteins histidine rich protein 2 (HRP2, detects ''P.", "falciparum'' only), lactate dehydrogenase, or aldolase.", "The HRP2 test is widely used in Africa, where ''P.", "falciparum'' predominates.", "However, since HRP2 persists in the blood for up to five weeks after an infection is treated, an HRP2 test sometimes cannot distinguish whether someone currently has malaria or previously had it.", "Additionally, some ''P.", "falciparum'' parasites in the Amazon region lack the ''HRP2'' gene, complicating detection.", "RDTs are fast and easily deployed to places without full diagnostic laboratories.", "However they give considerably less information than microscopy, and sometimes vary in quality from producer to producer and lot to lot.Serological tests to detect antibodies against ''Plasmodium'' from the blood have been developed, but are not used for malaria diagnosis due to their relatively poor sensitivity and specificity.", "Highly sensitive nucleic acid amplification tests have been developed, but are not used clinically due to their relatively high cost, and poor specificity for active infections.===Classification===Malaria is classified into either \"severe\" or \"uncomplicated\" by the World Health Organization (WHO).", "It is deemed severe when ''any'' of the following criteria are present, otherwise it is considered uncomplicated.", "* Decreased consciousness* Significant weakness such that the person is unable to walk* Inability to feed* Two or more convulsions* Low blood pressure (less than 70 mmHg in adults and 50 mmHg in children)* Breathing problems* Circulatory shock* Kidney failure or hemoglobin in the urine* Bleeding problems, or hemoglobin less than 50 g/L (5 g/dL)* Pulmonary oedema* Blood glucose less than 2.2 mmol/L (40 mg/dL)* Acidosis or lactate levels of greater than 5 mmol/L* A parasite level in the blood of greater than 100,000 per microlitre (μL) in low-intensity transmission areas, or 250,000 per μL in high-intensity transmission areasCerebral malaria is defined as a severe ''P.", "falciparum''-malaria presenting with neurological symptoms, including coma (with a Glasgow coma scale less than 11, or a Blantyre coma scale less than 3), or with a coma that lasts longer than 30 minutes after a seizure." ], [ "Prevention", "An ''Anopheles stephensi'' mosquito shortly after obtaining blood from a human (the droplet of blood is expelled as a surplus).", "This mosquito is a vector of malaria, and mosquito control is an effective way of reducing its incidence.Methods used to prevent malaria include medications, mosquito elimination and the prevention of bites.", "As of 2023, there are two malaria vaccines, approved for use in children by the WHO: RTS,S and R21.The presence of malaria in an area requires a combination of high human population density, high ''Anopheles'' mosquito population density and high rates of transmission from humans to mosquitoes and from mosquitoes to humans.", "If any of these is lowered sufficiently, the parasite eventually disappears from that area, as happened in North America, Europe, and parts of the Middle East.", "However, unless the parasite is eliminated from the whole world, it could re-establish if conditions revert to a combination that favors the parasite's reproduction.", "Furthermore, the cost per person of eliminating anopheles mosquitoes rises with decreasing population density, making it economically unfeasible in some areas.Prevention of malaria may be more cost-effective than treatment of the disease in the long run, but the initial costs required are out of reach of many of the world's poorest people.", "There is a wide difference in the costs of control (i.e.", "maintenance of low endemicity) and elimination programs between countries.", "For example, in China—whose government in 2010 announced a strategy to pursue malaria elimination in the Chinese provinces—the required investment is a small proportion of public expenditure on health.", "In contrast, a similar programme in Tanzania would cost an estimated one-fifth of the public health budget.", "In 2021, the World Health Organization confirmed that China has eliminated malaria.", "In 2023, the World Health Organization confirmed that Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, and Belize have eliminated Malaria.In areas where malaria is common, children under five years old often have anaemia, which is sometimes due to malaria.", "Giving children with anaemia in these areas preventive antimalarial medication improves red blood cell levels slightly but does not affect the risk of death or need for hospitalisation.===Mosquito control===Man spraying kerosene oil in standing water, Panama Canal Zone, 1912Vector control refers to methods used to decrease malaria by reducing the levels of transmission by mosquitoes.", "For individual protection, the most effective insect repellents are based on DEET or picaridin.", "However, there is insufficient evidence that mosquito repellents can prevent malaria infection.", "Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) are effective, have been commonly used to prevent malaria, and their use has contributed significantly to the decrease in malaria in the 21st century.", "ITNs and IRS may not be sufficient to eliminate the disease, as these interventions depend on how many people use nets, how many gaps in insecticide there are (low coverage areas), if people are not protected when outside of the home, and an increase in mosquitoes that are resistant to insecticides.", "Modifications to people's houses to prevent mosquito exposure may be an important long term prevention measure.", "Walls where indoor residual spraying of DDT has been applied.", "The mosquitoes remain on the wall until they fall down dead on the floor.====Insecticide-treated nets====A mosquito net in use.Mosquito nets help keep mosquitoes away from people and reduce infection rates and transmission of malaria.", "Nets are not a perfect barrier and are often treated with an insecticide designed to kill the mosquito before it has time to find a way past the net.", "Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets and offer greater than 70% protection compared with no net.", "Between 2000 and 2008, the use of ITNs saved the lives of an estimated 250,000 infants in Sub-Saharan Africa.", "According to UNICEF, only 36% of households had sufficient ITNs for all household members in 2019.In 2000, 1.7 million (1.8%) African children living in areas of the world where malaria is common were protected by an ITN.", "That number increased to 20.3 million (18.5%) African children using ITNs in 2007, leaving 89.6 million children unprotected and to 68% African children using mosquito nets in 2015.The percentage of children sleeping under ITNs in sub-Saharan Africa increased from less than 40% in 2011 to over 50% in 2021.Most nets are impregnated with pyrethroids, a class of insecticides with low toxicity.", "They are most effective when used from dusk to dawn.", "It is recommended to hang a large \"bed net\" above the center of a bed and either tuck the edges under the mattress or make sure it is large enough such that it touches the ground.", "ITNs are beneficial towards pregnancy outcomes in malaria-endemic regions in Africa but more data is needed in Asia and Latin America.In areas of high malaria resistance, piperonyl butoxide (PBO) combined with pyrethroids in mosquito netting is effective in reducing malaria infection rates.", "Questions remain concerning the durability of PBO on nets as the impact on mosquito mortality was not sustained after twenty washes in experimental trials.UNICEF notes that the use of insecticide-treated nets has been increased since 2000 through accelerated production, procurement and delivery, stating that \"over 2.5 billion ITNs have been distributed globally since 2004, with 87% (2.2 billion) distributed in sub-Saharan Africa.", "In 2021, manufacturers delivered about 220 million ITNs to malaria endemic countries, a decrease of 9 million ITNs compared with 2020 and 33 million less than were delivered in 2019\".", "As of 2021, 66% of households in sub-Saharan Africa had ITNs, with figures \"ranging from 31 per cent in Angola in 2016 to approximately 97 per cent in Guinea-Bissau in 2019\".", "Slightly more than half of the households with an ITN had enough of them to protect all members of the household, however.====Indoor residual spraying====Indoor residual spraying is the spraying of insecticides on the walls inside a home.", "After feeding, many mosquitoes rest on a nearby surface while digesting the bloodmeal, so if the walls of houses have been coated with insecticides, the resting mosquitoes can be killed before they can bite another person and transfer the malaria parasite.", "As of 2006, the World Health Organization recommends 12 insecticides in IRS operations, including DDT and the pyrethroids cyfluthrin and deltamethrin.", "This public health use of small amounts of DDT is permitted under the Stockholm Convention, which prohibits its agricultural use.", "One problem with all forms of IRS is insecticide resistance.", "Mosquitoes affected by IRS tend to rest and live indoors, and due to the irritation caused by spraying, their descendants tend to rest and live outdoors, meaning that they are less affected by the IRS.", "Communities using insecticide treated nets, in addition to indoor residual spraying with 'non-pyrethroid-like' insecticides found associated reductions in malaria.", "Additionally, the use of 'pyrethroid-like' insecticides in addition to indoor residual spraying did not result in a detectable additional benefit in communities using insecticide treated nets.==== Housing modifications ====Housing is a risk factor for malaria and modifying the house as a prevention measure may be a sustainable strategy that does not rely on the effectiveness of insecticides such as pyrethroids.", "The physical environment inside and outside the home that may improve the density of mosquitoes are considerations.", "Examples of potential modifications include how close the home is to mosquito breeding sites, drainage and water supply near the home, availability of mosquito resting sites (vegetation around the home), the proximity to live stock and domestic animals, and physical improvements or modifications to the design of the home to prevent mosquitoes from entering, such as window screens.", "'''Mass drug administration'''Mass drug administration (MDA) involves the administration of drugs to the entire population of an area regardless of disease status.", "A 2021 Cochrane review on the use of community administration of ivermectin found that, to date, low quality evidence shows no significant impact on reducing incidence of malaria transmission from the community administration of ivermectin.====Other mosquito control methods====People have tried a number of other methods to reduce mosquito bites and slow the spread of malaria.", "Efforts to decrease mosquito larvae by decreasing the availability of open water where they develop, or by adding substances to decrease their development, are effective in some locations.", "Electronic mosquito repellent devices, which make very high-frequency sounds that are supposed to keep female mosquitoes away, have no supporting evidence of effectiveness.", "There is a low certainty evidence that fogging may have an effect on malaria transmission.", "Larviciding by hand delivery of chemical or microbial insecticides into water bodies containing low larval distribution may reduce malarial transmission.", "There is insufficient evidence to determine whether larvivorous fish can decrease mosquito density and transmission in the area.===Medications===There are a number of medications that can help prevent or interrupt malaria in travellers to places where infection is common.", "Many of these medications are also used in treatment.", "In places where ''Plasmodium'' is resistant to one or more medications, three medications—mefloquine, doxycycline, or the combination of atovaquone/proguanil (''Malarone'')—are frequently used for prevention.", "Doxycycline and the atovaquone/proguanil are better tolerated while mefloquine is taken once a week.", "Areas of the world with chloroquine-sensitive malaria are uncommon.", "Antimalarial mass drug administration to an entire population at the same time may reduce the risk of contracting malaria in the population, however the effectiveness of mass drug administration may vary depending on the prevalence of malaria in the area.", "Other factors such as drug administration plus other protective measures such as mosquito control, the proportion of people treated in the area, and the risk of reinfection with malaria may play a role in the effectiveness of mass drug treatment approaches.The protective effect does not begin immediately, and people visiting areas where malaria exists usually start taking the drugs one to two weeks before they arrive, and continue taking them for four weeks after leaving (except for atovaquone/proguanil, which only needs to be started two days before and continued for seven days afterward).", "The use of preventive drugs is often not practical for those who live in areas where malaria exists, and their use is usually given only to pregnant women and short-term visitors.", "This is due to the cost of the drugs, side effects from long-term use, and the difficulty in obtaining antimalarial drugs outside of wealthy nations.", "During pregnancy, medication to prevent malaria has been found to improve the weight of the baby at birth and decrease the risk of anaemia in the mother.", "The use of preventive drugs where malaria-bearing mosquitoes are present may encourage the development of partial resistance.Giving antimalarial drugs to infants through intermittent preventive therapy can reduce the risk of having malaria infection, hospital admission, and anaemia.Mefloquine is more effective than sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in preventing malaria for HIV-negative pregnant women.", "Cotrimoxazole is effective in preventing malaria infection and reduce the risk of getting anaemia in HIV-positive women.", "Giving sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine for three or more doses as intermittent preventive therapy is superior than two doses for HIV-positive women living in malaria-endemic areas.Prompt treatment of confirmed cases with artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) may also reduce transmission.=== Research on malaria vaccines ===Malaria vaccines have been another goal of research.", "The first promising studies demonstrating the potential for a malaria vaccine were performed in 1967 by immunising mice with live, radiation-attenuated sporozoites, which provided significant protection to the mice upon subsequent injection with normal, viable sporozoites.", "Since the 1970s, there has been considerable progress in developing similar vaccination strategies for humans.In 2013, WHO and the malaria vaccine funders group set a goal to develop vaccines designed to interrupt malaria transmission with malaria eradication's long-term goal.", "The first vaccine, called RTS,S, was approved by European regulators in 2015.As of 2023, two malaria vaccine have been licensed for use.", "Other approaches to combat malaria may require investing more in research and greater primary health care.", "Continuing surveillance will also be important to prevent the return of malaria in countries where the disease has been eliminated.As of 2019 it is undergoing pilot trials in 3 sub-Saharan African countries – Ghana, Kenya and Malawi – as part of the WHO's Malaria Vaccine Implementation Programme (MVIP).", "Immunity (or, more accurately, tolerance) to ''P.", "falciparum'' malaria does occur naturally, but only in response to years of repeated infection.", "An individual can be protected from a ''P.", "falciparum'' infection if they receive about a thousand bites from mosquitoes that carry a version of the parasite rendered non-infective by a dose of X-ray irradiation.", "The highly polymorphic nature of many ''P.", "falciparum'' proteins results in significant challenges to vaccine design.", "Vaccine candidates that target antigens on gametes, zygotes, or ookinetes in the mosquito midgut aim to block the transmission of malaria.", "These transmission-blocking vaccines induce antibodies in the human blood; when a mosquito takes a blood meal from a protected individual, these antibodies prevent the parasite from completing its development in the mosquito.", "Other vaccine candidates, targeting the blood-stage of the parasite's life cycle, have been inadequate on their own.", "For example, SPf66 was tested extensively in areas where the disease was common in the 1990s, but trials showed it to be insufficiently effective.As of 2020, the RTS,S vaccine has been shown to reduce the risk of malaria by about 40% in children in Africa.", "A preprint study of the R21 vaccine has shown 77% vaccine efficacy.In 2021, researchers from the University of Oxford reported findings from a Phase IIb trial of a candidate malaria vaccine, R21/Matrix-M, which demonstrated efficacy of 77% over 12-months of follow-up.", "This vaccine is the first to meet the World Health Organization's Malaria Vaccine Technology Roadmap goal of a vaccine with at least 75% efficacy.Germany-based BioNTECH SE are developing an mRNA-based malaria vaccine BN165 which has recently initiated a Phase 1 study clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT05581641 in December 2022.The vaccine, based on the circumsporozite protein (CSP) is being tested in adults aged 18–55 yrs at 3 dose levels to select a safe and tolerable dose of a 3-dose schedule.", "Unlike GSK's RTS,S (AS01) and Serum Institute of India's R21/MatrixM, BNT-165 is being studied in adult age groups meaning it could be developed for Western travelers as well as those living in endemic countries.", "For the travelers profile, a recent commercial assessment forecast potential gross revenues of BNT-165 at $479m (2030) 5-yrs post launch, POS-adjusted revenues.===Others===Community participation and health education strategies promoting awareness of malaria and the importance of control measures have been successfully used to reduce the incidence of malaria in some areas of the developing world.", "Recognising the disease in the early stages can prevent it from becoming fatal.", "Education can also inform people to cover over areas of stagnant, still water, such as water tanks that are ideal breeding grounds for the parasite and mosquito, thus cutting down the risk of the transmission between people.", "This is generally used in urban areas where there are large centers of population in a confined space and transmission would be most likely in these areas.", "Intermittent preventive therapy is another intervention that has been used successfully to control malaria in pregnant women and infants, and in preschool children where transmission is seasonal." ], [ "Treatment", "An advertisement for quinine as a malaria treatment from 1927.Malaria is treated with antimalarial medications; the ones used depends on the type and severity of the disease.", "While medications against fever are commonly used, their effects on outcomes are not clear.", "Providing free antimalarial drugs to households may reduce childhood deaths when used appropriately.", "Programmes which presumptively treat all causes of fever with antimalarial drugs may lead to overuse of antimalarials and undertreat other causes of fever.", "Nevertheless, the use of malaria rapid-diagnostic kits can help to reduce over-usage of antimalarials.===Uncomplicated malaria===Simple or uncomplicated malaria may be treated with oral medications.", "Artemisinin drugs are effective and safe in treating uncomplicated malaria.", "Artemisinin in combination with other antimalarials (known as artemisinin-combination therapy, or ACT) is about 90% effective when used to treat uncomplicated malaria.", "The most effective treatment for ''P.", "falciparum'' infection is the use of ACT, which decreases resistance to any single drug component.", "Artemether-lumefantrine (six-dose regimen) is more effective than the artemether-lumefantrine (four-dose regimen) or other regimens not containing artemisinin derivatives in treating falciparum malaria.", "Another recommended combination is dihydroartemisinin and piperaquine.", "Artemisinin-naphthoquine combination therapy showed promising results in treating falciparum malaria but more research is needed to establish its efficacy as a reliable treatment.", "Artesunate plus mefloquine performs better than mefloquine alone in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria in low transmission settings.", "Atovaquone-proguanil is effective against uncomplicated falciparum with a possible failure rate of 5% to 10%; the addition of artesunate may reduce failure rate.", "Azithromycin monotherapy or combination therapy has not shown effectiveness in treating ''Plasmodium falciparum'' or ''Plasmodium vivax'' malaria.", "Amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine may achieve less treatment failures when compared to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine alone in uncomplicated falciparum malaria.", "There is insufficient data on chlorproguanil-dapsone in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria.", "The addition of primaquine with artemisinin-based combination therapy for falciparum malaria reduces its transmission at day 3-4 and day 8 of infection.", "Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus artesunate is better than sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine in controlling treatment failure at day 28.However, the latter is better than the former in reducing gametocytes in blood at day 7.Infection with ''P.", "vivax'', ''P.", "ovale'' or ''P.", "malariae'' usually does not require hospitalisation.", "Treatment of ''P.", "vivax'' malaria requires both elimination of the parasite in the blood with chloroquine or with artemisinin-based combination therapy and clearance of parasites from the liver with an 8-aminoquinoline agent such as primaquine or tafenoquine.", "These two drugs act against blood stages as well, the extent to which they do so still being under investigation.To treat malaria during pregnancy, the WHO recommends the use of quinine plus clindamycin early in the pregnancy (1st trimester), and ACT in later stages (2nd and 3rd trimesters).", "There is limited safety data on the antimalarial drugs in pregnancy.===Severe and complicated malaria===Cases of severe and complicated malaria are almost always caused by infection with ''P.", "falciparum''.", "The other species usually cause only febrile disease.", "Severe and complicated malaria cases are medical emergencies since mortality rates are high (10% to 50%).Recommended treatment for severe malaria is the intravenous use of antimalarial drugs.", "For severe malaria, parenteral artesunate was superior to quinine in both children and adults.", "In another systematic review, artemisinin derivatives (artemether and arteether) were as efficacious as quinine in the treatment of cerebral malaria in children.", "Treatment of severe malaria involves supportive measures that are best done in a critical care unit.", "This includes the management of high fevers and the seizures that may result from it.", "It also includes monitoring for poor breathing effort, low blood sugar, and low blood potassium.", "Artemisinin derivatives have the same or better efficacy than quinolones in preventing deaths in severe or complicated malaria.", "Quinine loading dose helps to shorten the duration of fever and increases parasite clearance from the body.", "There is no difference in effectiveness when using intrarectal quinine compared to intravenous or intramuscular quinine in treating uncomplicated/complicated falciparum malaria.", "There is insufficient evidence for intramuscular arteether to treat severe malaria.", "The provision of rectal artesunate before transfer to hospital may reduce the rate of death for children with severe malaria.", "In children with malaria and concomitant hypoglycaemia, sublingual administration of glucose appears to result in better increases in blood sugar after 20 minutes when compared to oral administration, based on very limited data.Cerebral malaria is the form of severe and complicated malaria with the worst neurological symptoms.", "There is insufficient data on whether osmotic agents such as mannitol or urea are effective in treating cerebral malaria.", "Routine phenobarbitone in cerebral malaria is associated with fewer convulsions but possibly more deaths.", "There is no evidence that steroids would bring treatment benefits for cerebral malaria.", "'''Managing Cerebral Malaria'''Cerebral malaria usually makes a patient comatose.", "If the cause of the coma is in doubt, testing for other locally prevalent causes of encephalopathy (bacterial, viral or fungal infection) should be carried out.", "In areas where there is a high prevalence of malaria infection (e.g.", "tropical region) treatment can start without testing first.", "To manage the cerebral malaria when confirmed the following can be done:* Patients in coma should be given meticulous nursing care ( monitor vital signs, turn patient every 2 hours, avoid lying the patient in a wet bed etc.", ")* A sterile urethral catheter should be inserted to help with urinating* To aspirate stomach content, a sterile nasogastric tube should be inserted.", "* In the occasion of convulsions, a slow intravenous injection of benzodiazepine is administered.There is insufficient evidence to show that blood transfusion is useful in either reducing deaths for children with severe anaemia or in improving their haematocrit in one month.", "There is insufficient evidence that iron chelating agents such as deferoxamine and deferiprone improve outcomes of those with malaria falciparum infection.===Monoclonal antibodies===A 2022 clinical trial shows that a monoclonal antibody mAb L9LS offers protection against malaria.", "It binds the ''Plasmodium falciparum'' circumsporozoite protein (CSP-1), essential to disease, and makes it ineffective.===Resistance===Drug resistance poses a growing problem in 21st-century malaria treatment.", "In the 2000s (decade), malaria with partial resistance to artemisins emerged in Southeast Asia.", "Resistance is now common against all classes of antimalarial drugs apart from artemisinins.", "Treatment of resistant strains became increasingly dependent on this class of drugs.", "The cost of artemisinins limits their use in the developing world.", "Malaria strains found on the Cambodia–Thailand border are resistant to combination therapies that include artemisinins, and may, therefore, be untreatable.", "Exposure of the parasite population to artemisinin monotherapies in subtherapeutic doses for over 30 years and the availability of substandard artemisinins likely drove the selection of the resistant phenotype.", "Resistance to artemisinin has been detected in Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, and there has been emerging resistance in Laos.", "Resistance to the combination of artemisinin and piperaquine was first detected in 2013 in Cambodia, and by 2019 had spread across Cambodia and into Laos, Thailand and Vietnam (with up to 80 percent of malaria parasites resistant in some regions).There is insufficient evidence in unit packaged antimalarial drugs in preventing treatment failures of malaria infection.", "However, if supported by training of healthcare providers and patient information, there is improvement in compliance of those receiving treatment." ], [ "Prognosis", "Disability-adjusted life year for malaria per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004When properly treated, people with malaria can usually expect a complete recovery.", "However, severe malaria can progress extremely rapidly and cause death within hours or days.", "In the most severe cases of the disease, fatality rates can reach 20%, even with intensive care and treatment.", "Over the longer term, developmental impairments have been documented in children who have had episodes of severe malaria.", "Chronic infection without severe disease can occur in an immune-deficiency syndrome associated with a decreased responsiveness to ''Salmonella'' bacteria and the Epstein–Barr virus.During childhood, malaria causes anaemia during a period of rapid brain development, and also direct brain damage resulting from cerebral malaria.", "Some survivors of cerebral malaria have an increased risk of neurological and cognitive deficits, behavioural disorders, and epilepsy.", "Malaria prophylaxis was shown to improve cognitive function and school performance in clinical trials when compared to placebo groups." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Deaths due to malaria per million persons in 2012 Past and current malaria prevalence in 2009Relative incidence of ''Plasmodium'' species by country of origin for imported cases to non-endemic countriesThe WHO estimates that in 2021 there were 247 million new cases of malaria resulting in 619,000 deaths.", "Children under five years old are the most affected, accounting for 67% of malaria deaths worldwide in 2019.About 125 million pregnant women are at risk of infection each year; in Sub-Saharan Africa, maternal malaria is associated with up to 200,000 estimated infant deaths yearly.", "Since 2015, the WHO European Region has been free of malaria.", "The last country to report an indigenous malaria case was Tajikistan in 2014.There are about 1300–1500 malaria cases per year in the United States.", "The United States eradicated malaria as a major public health concern in 1951, though small outbreaks persist.", "Locally acquired mosquito-borne malaria occurred in the United States in 2003, when eight cases of locally acquired ''P.", "vivax'' malaria were identified in Florida, and again in May 2023, in four cases, as well as one case in Texas, and in August in one case in Maryland.", "About 900 people died from the disease in Europe between 1993 and 2003.Both the global incidence of disease and resulting mortality have declined in recent years.", "According to the WHO and UNICEF, deaths attributable to malaria in 2015 were reduced by 60% from a 2000 estimate of 985,000, largely due to the widespread use of insecticide-treated nets and artemisinin-based combination therapies.", "Between 2000 and 2019, malaria mortality rates among all ages halved from about 30 to 13 per 100,000 population at risk.", "During this period, malaria deaths among children under five also declined by nearly half (47%) from 781,000 in 2000 to 416,000 in 2019.Malaria is presently endemic in a broad band around the equator, in areas of the Americas, many parts of Asia, and much of Africa; in Sub-Saharan Africa, 85–90% of malaria fatalities occur.", "An estimate for 2009 reported that countries with the highest death rate per 100,000 of population were Ivory Coast (86.15), Angola (56.93) and Burkina Faso (50.66).", "A 2010 estimate indicated the deadliest countries per population were Burkina Faso, Mozambique and Mali.", "The Malaria Atlas Project aims to map global levels of malaria, providing a way to determine the global spatial limits of the disease and to assess disease burden.", "This effort led to the publication of a map of ''P.", "falciparum'' endemicity in 2010 and an update in 2019.As of 2021, 84 countries have endemic malaria.The geographic distribution of malaria within large regions is complex, and malaria-afflicted and malaria-free areas are often found close to each other.", "Malaria is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because of rainfall, consistent high temperatures and high humidity, along with stagnant waters where mosquito larvae readily mature, providing them with the environment they need for continuous breeding.", "In drier areas, outbreaks of malaria have been predicted with reasonable accuracy by mapping rainfall.", "Malaria is more common in rural areas than in cities.", "For example, several cities in the Greater Mekong Subregion of Southeast Asia are essentially malaria-free, but the disease is prevalent in many rural regions, including along international borders and forest fringes.", "In contrast, malaria in Africa is present in both rural and urban areas, though the risk is lower in the larger cities.===Climate change===Climate change is likely to affect malaria transmission, but the degree of effect and the areas affected is uncertain.", "Greater rainfall in certain areas of India, and following an El Niño event is associated with increased mosquito numbers.Since 1900 there has been substantial change in temperature and rainfall over Africa.", "However, factors that contribute to how rainfall results in water for mosquito breeding are complex, incorporating the extent to which it is absorbed into soil and vegetation for example, or rates of runoff and evaporation.", "Recent research has provided a more in-depth picture of conditions across Africa, combining a malaria climatic suitability model with a continental-scale model representing real-world hydrological processes." ], [ "History", "Ancient malaria oocysts preserved in Dominican amberAlthough the parasite responsible for ''P.", "falciparum'' malaria has been in existence for 50,000–100,000 years, the population size of the parasite did not increase until about 10,000 years ago, concurrently with advances in agriculture and the development of human settlements.", "Close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees.", "Some evidence suggests that the ''P.", "falciparum'' malaria may have originated in gorillas.References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout history.", "Hippocrates described periodic fevers, labelling them tertian, quartan, subtertian and quotidian.", "The Roman Columella associated the disease with insects from swamps.", "Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire, and was so pervasive in Rome that it was known as the \"Roman fever\".", "Several regions in ancient Rome were considered at-risk for the disease because of the favourable conditions present for malaria vectors.", "This included areas such as southern Italy, the island of Sardinia, the Pontine Marshes, the lower regions of coastal Etruria and the city of Rome along the Tiber.", "The presence of stagnant water in these places was preferred by mosquitoes for breeding grounds.", "Irrigated gardens, swamp-like grounds, run-off from agriculture, and drainage problems from road construction led to the increase of standing water.British doctor Ronald Ross received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 for his work on malaria.The term malaria originates from Mediaeval —\"bad air\", a part of miasma theory; the disease was formerly called ''ague'' or ''marsh fever'' due to its association with swamps and marshland.", "The term appeared in English at least as early as 1768.Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America, where it is no longer endemic, though imported cases do occur.Malaria is not referenced in the medical books of the Mayans or Aztecs.", "Despite this, antibodies against malaria have been detected in some South American mummies, indicating that some malaria strains in the Americas might have a pre-Columbian origin.", "European settlers and the West Africans they enslaved likely brought malaria to the Americas starting in the 16th century.Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran—a French army doctor working in the military hospital of Constantine in Algeria—observed parasites inside the red blood cells of infected people for the first time.", "He, therefore, proposed that malaria is caused by this organism, the first time a protist was identified as causing disease.", "For this and later discoveries, he was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.", "A year later, Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor treating people with yellow fever in Havana, provided strong evidence that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans.", "This work followed earlier suggestions by Josiah C. Nott, and work by Sir Patrick Manson, the \"father of tropical medicine\", on the transmission of filariasis.Chinese medical researcher Tu Youyou received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 2015 for her work on the antimalarial drug artemisinin.In April 1894, a Scottish physician, Sir Ronald Ross, visited Sir Patrick Manson at his house on Queen Anne Street, London.", "This visit was the start of four years of collaboration and fervent research that culminated in 1897 when Ross, who was working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta, proved the complete life-cycle of the malaria parasite in mosquitoes.", "He thus proved that the mosquito was the vector for malaria in humans by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds.", "He isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.", "For this work, Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine.", "After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius.", "The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900.Its recommendations were implemented by William C. Gorgas in the health measures undertaken during construction of the Panama Canal.", "This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against the disease.In 1896, Amico Bignami discussed the role of mosquitoes in malaria.", "In 1898, Bignami, Giovanni Battista Grassi and Giuseppe Bastianelli succeeded in showing experimentally the transmission of malaria in humans, using infected mosquitoes to contract malaria themselves which they presented in November 1898 to the Accademia dei Lincei.", "''Artemisia annua'', source of the antimalarial drug artemisininThe first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree, which contains quinine.", "This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes, mainly in Peru.", "The indigenous peoples of Peru made a tincture of cinchona to control fever.", "Its effectiveness against malaria was found and the Jesuits introduced the treatment to Europe around 1640; by 1677, it was included in the London Pharmacopoeia as an antimalarial treatment.", "It was not until 1820 that the active ingredient, quinine, was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by the French chemists Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou.Quinine was the predominant malarial medication until the 1920s when other medications began to appear.", "In the 1940s, chloroquine replaced quinine as the treatment of both uncomplicated and severe malaria until resistance supervened, first in Southeast Asia and South America in the 1950s and then globally in the 1980s.The medicinal value of ''Artemisia annua'' has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years.", "In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his \"Compendium of Materia Medica\", however the efficacy of tea, made with ''A.", "annua'', for the treatment of malaria is dubious, and is discouraged by the World Health Organization (WHO).", "Artemisinins, discovered by Chinese scientist Tu Youyou and colleagues in the 1970s from the plant ''Artemisia annua'', became the recommended treatment for ''P.", "falciparum'' malaria, administered in severe cases in combination with other antimalarials.", "Tu says she was influenced by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine source, ''The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments'', written in 340 by Ge Hong.", "For her work on malaria, Tu Youyou received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "''Plasmodium vivax'' was used between 1917 and the 1940s for malariotherapy—deliberate injection of malaria parasites to induce a fever to combat certain diseases such as tertiary syphilis.", "In 1927, the inventor of this technique, Julius Wagner-Jauregg, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries.", "The technique was dangerous, killing about 15% of patients, so it is no longer in use.U.S.", "Marines with malaria in a field hospital on Guadalcanal, October 1942The first pesticide used for indoor residual spraying was DDT.", "Although it was initially used exclusively to combat malaria, its use quickly spread to agriculture.", "In time, pest control, rather than disease control, came to dominate DDT use, and this large-scale agricultural use led to the evolution of pesticide-resistant mosquitoes in many regions.", "The DDT resistance shown by ''Anopheles'' mosquitoes can be compared to antibiotic resistance shown by bacteria.", "During the 1960s, awareness of the negative consequences of its indiscriminate use increased, ultimately leading to bans on agricultural applications of DDT in many countries in the 1970s.", "Before DDT, malaria was successfully eliminated or controlled in tropical areas like Brazil and Egypt by removing or poisoning the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes or the aquatic habitats of the larval stages, for example by applying the highly toxic arsenic compound Paris Green to places with standing water.===Names===Various types of malaria have been called by the names below: Name Pathogen Notes algid malaria ''Plasmodium falciparum'' severe malaria affecting the cardiovascular system and causing chills and circulatory shock bilious malaria ''Plasmodium falciparum'' severe malaria affecting the liver and causing vomiting and jaundice cerebral malaria ''Plasmodium falciparum'' severe malaria affecting the cerebrum congenital malaria various plasmodia ''Plasmodium'' introduced from the mother via the fetal circulation pernicious malaria ''Plasmodium falciparum'' severe malaria leading to grave illness malignant malaria ''Plasmodium falciparum'' severe malaria leading to death falciparum malaria, ''Plasmodium falciparum'' malaria, ''Plasmodium falciparum'' ovale malaria, ''Plasmodium ovale'' malaria ''Plasmodium ovale'' quartan malaria, malariae malaria, ''Plasmodium malariae'' malaria ''Plasmodium malariae'' paroxysms every fourth day (quartan), counting the day of occurrence as the first day quotidian malaria ''Plasmodium falciparum'', ''Plasmodium vivax'', ''Plasmodium knowlesi'' paroxysms daily (quotidian) tertian malaria ''Plasmodium falciparum'', ''Plasmodium ovale'', ''Plasmodium vivax'' paroxysms every third day (tertian), counting the day of occurrence as the first transfusion malaria various plasmodia ''Plasmodium'' introduced by blood transfusion, needle sharing, or needlestick injury vivax malaria, ''Plasmodium vivax'' malaria ''Plasmodium vivax''" ], [ "Eradication efforts", "Members of the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations collecting larvae on the Danube delta, 1929Malaria has been successfully eliminated or significantly reduced in certain areas, but not globally.", "Malaria was once common in the United States, but the US eliminated malaria from most parts of the country in the early 20th century using vector control programs, which combined the monitoring and treatment of infected humans, draining of wetland breeding grounds for agriculture and other changes in water management practices, and advances in sanitation, including greater use of glass windows and screens in dwellings.", "The use of the pesticide DDT and other means eliminated malaria from the remaining pockets in southern states of the US the 1950s, as part of the National Malaria Eradication Program.", "Most of Europe, North America, Australia, North Africa and the Caribbean, and parts of South America, Asia and Southern Africa have also eliminated malaria.", "The WHO defines \"elimination\" (or \"malaria-free\") as having no domestic transmission (indigenous cases) for the past three years.", "They also define \"pre-elimination\" and \"elimination\" stages when a country has fewer than 5 or 1, respectively, cases per 1000 people at risk per year.", "In 2021, the total of international and national funding for malaria control and elimination was $3.5 billion – only half of what is estimated to be needed.", "According to UNICEF, to achieve the goal of a malaria-free world, annual funding would need to more than double to reach the US$6.8 billion target.In parts of the world with rising living standards, the elimination of malaria was often a collateral benefit of the introduction of window screens and improved sanitation.", "A variety of usually simultaneous interventions represents best practice.", "These include antimalarial drugs to prevent or treat infection; improvements in public health infrastructure to diagnose, sequester and treat infected individuals; bednets and other methods intended to keep mosquitoes from biting humans; and vector control strategies such as larvaciding with insecticides, ecological controls such as draining mosquito breeding grounds or introducing fish to eat larvae and indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides.===Initial WHO program (1955–1969)===1962 Pakistani postage stamp promoting malaria eradication programIn 1955 the WHO launched the Global Malaria Eradication Program (GMEP).", "The program relied largely on DDT for mosquito control and rapid diagnosis and treatment to break the transmission cycle.", "The program eliminated the disease in \"North America, Europe, the former Soviet Union\", and in \"Taiwan, much of the Caribbean, the Balkans, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific\" and dramatically reduced mortality in Sri Lanka and India.However, failure to sustain the program, increasing mosquito tolerance to DDT, and increasing parasite tolerance led to a resurgence.", "In many areas early successes partially or completely reversed, and in some cases rates of transmission increased.", "Experts tie malarial resurgence to multiple factors, including poor leadership, management and funding of malaria control programs; poverty; civil unrest; and increased irrigation.", "The evolution of resistance to first-generation drugs (e.g.", "chloroquine) and to insecticides exacerbated the situation.", "The program succeeded in eliminating malaria only in areas with \"high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission\".For example, in Sri Lanka, the program reduced cases from about one million per year before spraying to just 18 in 1963 and 29 in 1964.Thereafter the program was halted to save money and malaria rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969.The country resumed DDT vector control but the mosquitoes had evolved resistance in the interim, presumably because of continued agricultural use.", "The program switched to malathion, but despite initial successes, malaria continued its resurgence into the 1980s.Due to vector and parasite resistance and other factors, the feasibility of eradicating malaria with the strategy used at the time and resources available led to waning support for the program.", "WHO suspended the program in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease.", "Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation.", "Efforts shifted from spraying to the use of bednets impregnated with insecticides and other interventions.===Post-1969===Regions where malaria has been eliminated Target 6C of the Millennium Development Goals included reversal of the global increase in malaria incidence by 2015, with specific targets for children under five years old.", "Since 2000, support for malaria eradication increased, although some actors in the global health community (including voices within the WHO) view malaria eradication as a premature goal and suggest that the establishment of strict deadlines for malaria eradication may be counterproductive as they are likely to be missed.", "One of the targets of Goal 3 of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals is to end the malaria epidemic in all countries by 2030.In 2006, the organization Malaria No More set a public goal of eliminating malaria from Africa by 2015, and the organization claimed they planned to dissolve if that goal was accomplished.", "In 2007, World Malaria Day was established by the 60th session of the World Health Assembly.", "As of 2018, they are still functioning.", "Video recording of a set of presentations given in 2010 about humanity's efforts towards malaria eradication, The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria has distributed 230 million insecticide-treated nets intended to stop mosquito-borne transmission of malaria.", "The U.S.-based Clinton Foundation has worked to manage demand and stabilize prices in the artemisinin market.", "Other efforts, such as the Malaria Atlas Project, focus on analysing climate and weather information required to accurately predict malaria spread based on the availability of habitat of malaria-carrying parasites.", "The Malaria Policy Advisory Committee (MPAC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) was formed in 2012, \"to provide strategic advice and technical input to WHO on all aspects of malaria control and elimination\".In 2015 the WHO targeted a 90% reduction in malaria deaths by 2030, and Bill Gates said in 2016 that he thought global eradication would be possible by 2040.According to the WHO's World Malaria Report 2015, the global mortality rate for malaria fell by 60% between 2000 and 2015.The WHO targeted a further 90% reduction between 2015 and 2030, with a 40% reduction and eradication in 10 countries by 2020.However, the 2020 goal was missed with a slight increase in cases compared to 2015.Additionally, UNICEF reported that the number of malaria deaths for all ages increased by 10% between 2019 and 2020, in part due to service disruptions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, before experiencing a minor decline in 2021.Before 2016, the Global Fund against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria had provided 659 million ITN (insecticide treated bed nets), organise support and education to prevents malaria.", "The challenges are high due to the lack of funds, the fragile health structure and the remote indigenous population that could be hard to reach and educate.", "Most of indigenous population rely on self-diagnosis, self-treatment, healer, and traditional medicine.", "The WHO applied for fund to the Gates Foundation which favour the action of malaria eradication in 2007.Six countries, the United Arab Emirates, Morocco, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Sri Lanka managed to have no endemic cases of malaria for three consecutive years and certified malaria-free by the WHO despite the stagnation of the funding in 2010.The funding is essential to finance the cost of medication and hospitalisation cannot be supported by the poor countries where the disease is widely spread.", "The goal of eradication has not been met; nevertheless, the decrease rate of the disease is considerable.While 31 out of 92 endemic countries were estimated to be on track with the WHO goals for 2020, 15 countries reported an increase of 40% or more between 2015 and 2020.Between 2000 and 30 June 2021, twelve countries were certified by the WHO as being malaria-free.", "Argentina and Algeria were declared free of malaria in 2019.El Salvador and China were declared malaria-free in the first half of 2021.Regional disparities were evident: Southeast Asia was on track to meet WHO's 2020 goals, while Africa, Americas, Eastern Mediterranean and West Pacific regions were off-track.", "The six Greater Mekong Subregion countries aim for elimination of ''P.", "falciparum'' transmitted malaria by 2025 and elimination of all malaria by 2030, having achieved a 97% and 90% reduction of cases respectively since 2000.Ahead of World Malaria Day, 25 April 2021, WHO named 25 countries in which it is working to eliminate malaria by 2025 as part of its E-2025 initiative.A major challenge to malaria elimination is the persistence of malaria in border regions, making international cooperation crucial.In 2018, WHO announced that Paraguay was free of malaria, after a national malaria eradication effort that began in 1950.As of 2019, the eradication process is ongoing, but it will be difficult to achieve a world free of malaria with the current approaches and tools.In March 2023, the WHO certified Azerbaijan and Tajikistan as malaria-free, and Belize in June 2023.Cabo Verde, the latest country to eradicate Malaria, was certified in January 2024, bringing the total number of countries and territories certified malaria-free to 44." ], [ "Society and culture", "=== Economic impact ===Malaria clinic in TanzaniaMalaria is not just a disease commonly associated with poverty: some evidence suggests that it is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development.", "Although tropical regions are most affected, malaria's furthest influence reaches into some temperate zones that have extreme seasonal changes.", "The disease has been associated with major negative economic effects on regions where it is widespread.", "During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a major factor in the slow economic development of the American southern states.A comparison of average per capita GDP in 1995, adjusted for parity of purchasing power, between countries with malaria and countries without malaria gives a fivefold difference (US$1,526 versus US$8,268).", "In the period 1965 to 1990, countries where malaria was common had an average per capita GDP that increased only 0.4% per year, compared to 2.4% per year in other countries.Poverty can increase the risk of malaria since those in poverty do not have the financial capacities to prevent or treat the disease.", "In its entirety, the economic impact of malaria has been estimated to cost Africa US$12 billion every year.", "The economic impact includes costs of health care, working days lost due to sickness, days lost in education, decreased productivity due to brain damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism.", "The disease has a heavy burden in some countries, where it may be responsible for 30–50% of hospital admissions, up to 50% of outpatient visits, and up to 40% of public health spending.Child with malaria in EthiopiaCerebral malaria is one of the leading causes of neurological disabilities in African children.", "Studies comparing cognitive functions before and after treatment for severe malarial illness continued to show significantly impaired school performance and cognitive abilities even after recovery.", "Consequently, severe and cerebral malaria have far-reaching socioeconomic consequences that extend beyond the immediate effects of the disease.===Counterfeit and substandard drugs===Sophisticated counterfeits have been found in several Asian countries such as Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, and are a major cause of avoidable death in those countries.", "The WHO said that studies indicate that up to 40% of artesunate-based malaria medications are counterfeit, especially in the Greater Mekong region.", "They have established a rapid alert system to rapidly report information about counterfeit drugs to relevant authorities in participating countries.", "There is no reliable way for doctors or lay people to detect counterfeit drugs without help from a laboratory.", "Companies are attempting to combat the persistence of counterfeit drugs by using new technology to provide security from source to distribution.Another clinical and public health concern is the proliferation of substandard antimalarial medicines resulting from inappropriate concentration of ingredients, contamination with other drugs or toxic impurities, poor quality ingredients, poor stability and inadequate packaging.", "A 2012 study demonstrated that roughly one-third of antimalarial medications in Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa failed chemical analysis, packaging analysis, or were falsified.===War===World War II posterThroughout history, the contraction of malaria has played a prominent role in the fates of government rulers, nation-states, military personnel, and military actions.", "In 1910, Nobel Prize in Medicine-winner Ronald Ross (himself a malaria survivor), published a book titled ''The Prevention of Malaria'' that included a chapter titled \"The Prevention of Malaria in War\".", "The chapter's author, Colonel C. H. Melville, Professor of Hygiene at Royal Army Medical College in London, addressed the prominent role that malaria has historically played during wars: \"The history of malaria in war might almost be taken to be the history of war itself, certainly the history of war in the Christian era. ...", "It is probably the case that many of the so-called camp fevers, and probably also a considerable proportion of the camp dysentery, of the wars of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were malarial in origin.\"", "In British-occupied India the cocktail gin and tonic may have come about as a way of taking quinine, known for its antimalarial properties.Malaria was the most significant health hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II, where about 500,000 men were infected.", "According to Joseph Patrick Byrne, \"Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the African and South Pacific campaigns.", "\"Significant financial investments have been made to procure existing and create new antimalarial agents.", "During World War I and World War II, inconsistent supplies of the natural antimalaria drugs cinchona bark and quinine prompted substantial funding into research and development of other drugs and vaccines.", "American military organisations conducting such research initiatives include the Navy Medical Research Center, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, and the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases of the US Armed Forces.Additionally, initiatives have been founded such as Malaria Control in War Areas (MCWA), established in 1942, and its successor, the Communicable Disease Center (now known as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or CDC) established in 1946.According to the CDC, MCWA \"was established to control malaria around military training bases in the southern United States and its territories, where malaria was still problematic\"." ], [ "Research", "The Malaria Eradication Research Agenda (malERA) initiative was a consultative process to identify which areas of research and development (R&D) must be addressed for worldwide eradication of malaria.===Medications===Malaria parasites contain apicoplasts, organelles related to the plastids found in plants, complete with their own genomes.", "These apicoplasts are thought to have originated through the endosymbiosis of algae and play a crucial role in various aspects of parasite metabolism, such as fatty acid biosynthesis.", "Over 400 proteins have been found to be produced by apicoplasts and these are now being investigated as possible targets for novel antimalarial drugs.With the onset of drug-resistant ''Plasmodium'' parasites, new strategies are being developed to combat the widespread disease.", "One such approach lies in the introduction of synthetic pyridoxal-amino acid adducts, which are taken up by the parasite and ultimately interfere with its ability to create several essential B vitamins.", "Antimalarial drugs using synthetic metal-based complexes are attracting research interest.", "* (+)-SJ733: Part of a wider class of experimental drugs called spiroindolone.", "It inhibits the ATP4 protein of infected red blood cells that cause the cells to shrink and become rigid like the aging cells.", "This triggers the immune system to eliminate the infected cells from the system as demonstrated in a mouse model.", "As of 2014, a Phase 1 clinical trial to assess the safety profile in human is planned by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.", "* NITD246 and NITD609: Also belonged to the class of spiroindolone and target the ATP4 protein.On the basis of molecular docking outcomes, compounds 3j, 4b, 4h, 4m were exhibited selectivity towards PfLDH.", "The post docking analysis displayed stable dynamic behavior of all the selected compounds compared to Chloroquine.", "The end state thermodynamics analysis stated 3j compound as a selective and potent PfLDH inhibitor.===New targets===Targeting ''Plasmodium'' liver-stage parasites selectively is emerging as an alternative strategy in the face of resistance to the latest frontline combination therapies against blood stages of the parasite.In research conducted in 2019, using experimental analysis with knockout (KO) mutants of ''Plasmodium berghei'', the authors were able to identify genes that are potentially essential in the liver stage.", "Moreover, they generated a computational model to analyse pre–erytrocytic development and liver–stage metabolism.", "Combining both methods they identified seven metabolic subsystems that become essential compared to the blood stage.", "Some of these metabolic pathways are fatty acid synthesis and elongation, tricarboxylic acid, amino acid and heme metabolism among others.Specifically, they studied 3 subsystems: fatty acid synthesis and elongation, and amino sugar biosynthesis.", "For the first two pathways they demonstrated a clear dependence of the liver stage on its own fatty acid metabolism.They proved for the first time the critical role of amino sugar biosynthesis in the liver stage of ''P.", "berghei''.", "The uptake of N–acetyl–glucosamine appears to be limited in the liver stage, being its synthesis needed for the parasite development.These findings and the computational model provide a basis for the design of antimalarial therapies targeting metabolic proteins.===Other===A non-chemical vector control strategy involves genetic manipulation of malaria mosquitoes.", "Advances in genetic engineering technologies make it possible to introduce foreign DNA into the mosquito genome and either decrease the lifespan of the mosquito, or make it more resistant to the malaria parasite.", "Sterile insect technique is a genetic control method whereby large numbers of sterile male mosquitoes are reared and released.", "Mating with wild females reduces the wild population in the subsequent generation; repeated releases eventually eliminate the target population.Genomics is central to malaria research.", "With the sequencing of ''P.", "falciparum'', one of its vectors ''Anopheles gambiae'', and the human genome, the genetics of all three organisms in the malaria life cycle can be studied.", "Another new application of genetic technology is the ability to produce genetically modified mosquitoes that do not transmit malaria, potentially allowing biological control of malaria transmission.In one study, a genetically modified strain of ''Anopheles stephensi'' was created that no longer supported malaria transmission, and this resistance was passed down to mosquito offspring.Gene drive is a technique for changing wild populations, for instance to combat or eliminate insects so they cannot transmit diseases (in particular mosquitoes in the cases of malaria, zika, dengue and yellow fever).In a study conducted in 2015, researchers observed a specific interaction between malaria and co-infection with the nematode Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, a pulmonary migrating helminth, in mice.", "The co-infection was found to reduce the virulence of the ''Plasmodium'' parasite, the causative agent of malaria.", "This reduction was attributed to the nematode infection causing increased destruction of erythrocytes, or red blood cells.", "Given that ''Plasmodium'' has a predilection for older host erythrocytes, the increased erythrocyte destruction and ensuing erythropoiesis result in a predominantly younger erythrocyte population, which in turn leads to a decrease in ''Plasmodium'' population.", "Notably, this effect appears to be largely independent of the host's immune control of ''Plasmodium''.Finally, a review article published in December 2020 noted a correlation between malaria-endemic regions and COVID-19 case fatality rates.", "The study found that, on average, regions where malaria is endemic reported lower COVID-19 case fatality rates compared to regions without endemic malaria.In 2017, a bacterial strain of the genus Serratia was genetically modified to prevent malaria in mosquitos and in 2023, it has been reported that the bacterium Delftia tsuruhatensis naturally prevents the development of malaria by secreting a molecule called Harmane." ], [ "Other animals", "While none of the main four species of malaria parasite that cause human infections are known to have animal reservoirs, ''P.", "knowlesi'' is known to regularly infect both humans and non-human primates.", "Other non-human primate malarias (particularly ''P.", "cynomolgi'' and ''P.", "simium'') have also been found to have spilled over into humans.", "Nearly 200 ''Plasmodium'' species have been identified that infect birds, reptiles, and other mammals, and about 30 of them naturally infect non-human primates.", "Some malaria parasites of non-human primates (NHP) serve as model organisms for human malarial parasites, such as ''P.", "coatneyi'' (a model for ''P.", "falciparum'') and ''P.", "cynomolgi'' (a model for ''P. vivax'').", "Diagnostic techniques used to detect parasites in NHP are similar to those employed for humans.", "Malaria parasites that infect rodents are widely used as models in research, such as ''P. berghei''.", "Avian malaria primarily affects species of the order Passeriformes, and poses a substantial threat to birds of Hawaii, the Galapagos, and other archipelagoes.", "The parasite ''P.", "relictum'' is known to play a role in limiting the distribution and abundance of endemic Hawaiian birds.", "Global warming is expected to increase the prevalence and global distribution of avian malaria, as elevated temperatures provide optimal conditions for parasite reproduction." ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* WHO site on malaria* CDC site on malaria* PAHO site on malaria" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Lunar phase" ], [ "Introduction", "The lunar phases and librations in 2024 as viewed from the Northern Hemisphere at hourly intervals, with titles and supplemental graphicsThe lunar phases and librations in 2024 as viewed from the Southern Hemisphere at hourly intervals, with titles and supplemental graphicsA full moon sets behind San Gorgonio Mountain in California on a midsummer's morning.A '''lunar phase''' or '''Moon phase''' is the apparent shape of the Moon's directly sunlit portion as viewed from the Earth (because the Moon is tidally locked with the Earth, the same hemisphere is always facing the Earth).", "In common usage, the four major phases are the new moon, the first quarter, the full moon and the last quarter; the four minor phases are waxing crescent, waxing gibbous, waning gibbous, and waning crescent.", "A lunar month is the time between successive recurrences of the same phase: due to the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit, this duration is not perfectly constant but averages about 29.5 days.The appearance of the Moon (its phase) gradually changes over a lunar month as the relative orbital positions of the Moon around Earth, and Earth around the Sun, shift.", "The visible side of the Moon is sunlit to varying extents, depending on the position of the Moon in its orbit, with the sunlit portion varying from 0% (at new moon) to nearly 100% (at full moon)." ], [ "Phases of the Moon", "The phases of the Moon as viewed looking southward from the Northern Hemisphere.", "Each phase would be rotated 180° if seen looking northward from the Southern Hemisphere.", "The upper part of the diagram is not to scale, as the Moon, the Earth, and the Moon's orbit are all much smaller relative to the Earth's orbit than shown here.There are four ''principal'' (primary, or major) lunar phases: the new moon, first quarter, full moon, and last quarter (also known as third or final quarter), when the Moon's ecliptic longitude is at an angle to the Sun (as viewed from the center of the Earth) of 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° respectively.", "Each of these phases appears at slightly different times at different locations on Earth, and tabulated times are therefore always ''geocentric'' (calculated for the Earth's center).Between the principal phases are ''intermediate'' phases, during which the apparent shape of the illuminated Moon is either crescent or gibbous.", "On average, the intermediate phases last one-quarter of a synodic month, or 7.38 days.The term '''' is used for an intermediate phase when the Moon's apparent shape is thickening, from new to a full moon; and '''' when the shape is thinning.", "The duration from full moon to new moon (or new moon to full moon) varies from approximately to about .Due to lunar motion relative to the meridian and the ecliptic, in Earth's northern hemisphere:*A new moon appears highest at the summer solstice and lowest at the winter solstice.", "*A first-quarter moon appears highest at the spring equinox and lowest at the autumn equinox.", "*A full moon appears highest at the winter solstice and lowest at the summer solstice.", "*A last-quarter moon appears highest at the autumn equinox and lowest at the spring equinox.Non-Western cultures may use a different number of lunar phases; for example, traditional Hawaiian culture has a total of 30 phases (one per day)." ], [ "Lunar libration", "Animation showing progression of the Moon's phases.As seen from Earth, the Moon's eccentric orbit makes it both slightly change its apparent size, and to be seen from slightly different angles.", "The effect is subtle to the naked eye, from night to night, yet somewhat obvious in time-lapse photography.Lunar libration causes part of the back side of the Moon to be visible to a terrestrial observer some of the time.", "Because of this, around 59% of the Moon's surface has been imaged from the ground." ], [ "Principal and intermediate phases of the Moon", "Moon phaseIlluminated portionVisibilityAverage moonrise timeCulmination time (highest point)Average moonset timeIllustrationPhotograph (view from Northern Hemisphere) Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere New Moon Invisible (too close to Sun) except during a solar eclipse 06:00 12:00 18:00 Waxing crescent Right side, (0%–50%) lit disc Left side, (0%–50%) lit disc Late morning to post-dusk 09:00 15:00 21:00 200px First quarter Right side, 50.1% lit disc Left side, 50.1% lit disc Afternoon and early night 12:00 18:00 00:00 200px Waxing gibbous Right side, (50%–100%) lit disc Left side, (50%–100%) lit disc Late afternoon and most of night 15:00 21:00 03:00 200px Full Moon Sunset to sunrise (all night) 18:00 00:00 06:00 200px Waning gibbous Left side, (100%–50%) lit disc Right side, (100%–50%) lit disc Most of night and early morning 21:00 03:00 09:00 200px Last quarter Left side, 50.1% lit disc Right side, 50.1% lit disc Late night and morning 00:00 06:00 12:00 200px Waning crescent Left side, (50%–0%) lit disc Right side, (50%–0%) lit disc Pre-dawn to early afternoon 03:00 09:00 15:00 200pxThis video provides an illustration of how the Moon passes through its phases – a product of its orbit, which allows different parts of its surface to be illuminated by the Sun over the course of a month.", "The camera is locked to the Moon as Earth rapidly rotates in the foreground.===Waxing and waning===Diagram of the Moon's phases: The Earth is at the center of the diagram and the Moon is shown orbiting.When the Sun and Moon are aligned on the same side of the Earth (conjunct), the Moon is \"new\", and the side of the Moon facing Earth is not illuminated by the Sun.", "As the Moon ''waxes'' (the amount of illuminated surface as seen from Earth increases), the lunar phases progress through the new moon, crescent moon, first-quarter moon, gibbous moon, and full moon phases.", "The Moon then ''wanes'' as it passes through the gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, and crescent moon phases, before returning back to new moon.The terms ''old moon'' and ''new moon'' are not interchangeable.", "The \"old moon\" is a waning sliver (which eventually becomes undetectable to the naked eye) until the moment it aligns with the Sun and begins to wax, at which point it becomes new again.", "''Half moon'' is often used to mean the first- and third-quarter moons, while the term ''quarter'' refers to the extent of the Moon's cycle around the Earth, not its shape.When an illuminated hemisphere is viewed from a certain angle, the portion of the illuminated area that is visible will have a two-dimensional shape as defined by the intersection of an ellipse and circle (in which the ellipse's major axis coincides with the circle's diameter).", "If the half-ellipse is convex with respect to the half-circle, then the shape will be gibbous (bulging outwards), whereas if the half-ellipse is concave with respect to the half-circle, then the shape will be a crescent.", "When a crescent moon occurs, the phenomenon of earthshine may be apparent, where the night side of the Moon dimly reflects indirect sunlight reflected from Earth.===Orientation by latitude===The observed orientation of the Moon at different phases from different latitudes on Earth (the different orientation displayed between the phases at each latitude show merely the extremes of orientation due to libration)In the Northern Hemisphere, if the left side of the Moon is dark, then the bright part is thickening, and the Moon is described as waxing (shifting toward full moon).", "If the right side of the Moon is dark, then the bright part is thinning, and the Moon is described as waning (past full and shifting toward new moon).", "Assuming that the viewer is in the Northern Hemisphere, the right side of the Moon is the part that is always waxing.", "(That is, if the right side is dark, the Moon is becoming darker; if the right side is lit, the Moon is getting brighter.", ")In the Southern Hemisphere, the Moon is observed from a perspective inverted, or rotated 180°, to that of the Northern and to all of the images in this article, so that the opposite sides appear to wax or wane.Closer to the Equator, the lunar terminator will appear horizontal during the morning and evening.", "Since the above descriptions of the lunar phases only apply at middle or high latitudes, observers moving towards the tropics from northern or southern latitudes will see the Moon rotated anti-clockwise or clockwise with respect to the images in this article.The lunar crescent can open upward or downward, with the \"horns\" of the crescent pointing up or down, respectively.", "When the Sun appears above the Moon in the sky, the crescent opens downward; when the Moon is above the Sun, the crescent opens upward.", "The crescent Moon is most clearly and brightly visible when the Sun is below the horizon, which implies that the Moon must be above the Sun, and the crescent must open upward.", "This is therefore the orientation in which the crescent Moon is most often seen from the tropics.", "The waxing and waning crescents look very similar.", "The waxing crescent appears in the western sky in the evening, and the waning crescent in the eastern sky in the morning.===Earthshine===overexposed photograph of a crescent Moon reveals earthshine and stars.When the Moon (seen from Earth) is a thin crescent, Earth (as viewed from the Moon) is almost fully lit by the Sun.", "Often, the dark side of the Moon is dimly illuminated by indirect sunlight reflected from Earth, but is bright enough to be easily visible from Earth.", "This phenomenon is called earthshine, sometimes picturesquely described as \"the old moon in the new moon's arms\" or \"the new moon in the old moon's arms\"." ], [ "Timekeeping <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Calendar\"></span>", "Archaeologists have reconstructed methods of timekeeping that go back to prehistoric times, at least as old as the Neolithic.", "The natural units for timekeeping used by most historical societies are the day, the solar year and the lunation.", "The first crescent of the new moon provides a clear and regular marker in time and pure lunar calendars (such as the Islamic Hijri calendar) rely completely on this metric.", "The fact, however, that a year of twelve lunar months is ten or eleven days shorter than the solar year means that a lunar calendar drifts out of step with the seasons.", "Lunisolar calendars resolve this issue with a year of thirteen lunar months every few years, or by restarting the count at the first new (or full) moon after the winter solstice.", "The Sumerian calendar is the first recorded to have used the former method; Chinese calendar uses the latter, despite delaying its start until the second or even third new moon after the solstice.", "The Hindu calendar, also a lunisolar calendar, further divides the month into two fourteen day periods that mark the waxing moon and the waning moon.", "The ancient Roman calendar was broadly a lunisolar one; on the decree of Julius Caesar in the first century BCE, Rome changed to a solar calendar of twelve months, each of a fixed number of days except in a leap year.", "This, the Julian calendar (slightly revised in 1582 to correct the leap year rule), is the basis for the Gregorian calendar that is almost exclusively the civil calendar in use worldwide today." ], [ "Calculating phase", "A crescent Moon over Kingman, ArizonaEach of the four intermediate phases lasts approximately seven days (7.38 days on average), but varies ±11.25% due to lunar apogee and perigee.The number of days counted from the time of the new moon is the Moon's \"age\".", "Each complete cycle of phases is called a \"lunation\".The approximate age of the Moon, and hence the approximate phase, can be calculated for any date by calculating the number of days since a known new moon (such as 1 January 1900 or 11 August 1999) and reducing this modulo 29.53059 days (the mean length of a synodic month).", "The difference between two dates can be calculated by subtracting the Julian day number of one from that of the other, or there are simpler formulae giving (for instance) the number of days since 31 December 1899.However, this calculation assumes a perfectly circular orbit and makes no allowance for the time of day at which the new moon occurred and therefore may be incorrect by several hours.", "(It also becomes less accurate the larger the difference between the required date and the reference date).", "It is accurate enough to use in a novelty clock application showing lunar phase, but specialist usage taking account of lunar apogee and perigee requires a more elaborate calculation." ], [ "Effect of [[parallax]]", "The Earth subtends an angle of about two degrees when seen from the Moon.", "This means that an observer on Earth who sees the Moon when it is close to the eastern horizon sees it from an angle that is about 2 degrees different from the line of sight of an observer who sees the Moon on the western horizon.", "The Moon moves about 12 degrees around its orbit per day, so, if these observers were stationary, they would see the phases of the Moon at times that differ by about one-sixth of a day, or 4 hours.", "But in reality, the observers are on the surface of the rotating Earth, so someone who sees the Moon on the eastern horizon at one moment sees it on the western horizon about 12 hours later.", "This adds an oscillation to the apparent progression of the lunar phases.", "They appear to occur more slowly when the Moon is high in the sky than when it is below the horizon.", "The Moon appears to move jerkily, and the phases do the same.", "The amplitude of this oscillation is never more than about four hours, which is a small fraction of a month.", "It does not have any obvious effect on the appearance of the Moon.", "It does however affect accurate calculations of the times of lunar phases." ], [ "Misconceptions", "=== Orbital period ===It can be confusing that the Moon's orbital sidereal period is 27.3 days while the phases complete a cycle once every 29.5 days (synodic period).", "This is due to the Earth's orbit around the Sun.", "The Moon orbits the Earth 13.4 times a year, but only passes between the Earth and Sun 12.4 times.=== Eclipses ===As the Earth revolves around the Sun, approximate axial parallelism of the Moon's orbital plane (tilted five degrees to the Earth's orbital plane) results in the revolution of the lunar nodes relative to the Earth.", "This causes an eclipse season approximately every six months, in which a solar eclipse can occur at the new moon phase and a lunar eclipse can occur at the full moon phase.The ''lunar phase'' depends on the Moon's position in orbit around the Earth and the Earth's position in orbit around the Sun.", "This animation (''not to scale'') looks down on Earth from the north pole of the ecliptic.It might be expected that once every month, when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun during a new moon, its shadow would fall on Earth causing a solar eclipse, but this does not happen every month.", "Nor is it true that during every full moon, the Earth's shadow falls on the Moon, causing a lunar eclipse.", "Solar and lunar eclipses are not observed ''every'' month because the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5° with respect to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (the plane of the ecliptic).", "Thus, when new and full moons occur, the Moon usually lies to the north or south of a direct line through the Earth and Sun.", "Although an eclipse can only occur when the Moon is either new (solar) or full (lunar), it must also be positioned very near the intersection of Earth's orbital plane about the Sun and the Moon's orbital plane about the Earth (that is, at one of its nodes).", "This happens about twice per year, and so there are between four and seven eclipses in a calendar year.", "Most of these eclipses are partial; total eclipses of the Moon or Sun are less frequent." ], [ "See also", "* * * * .", "(Also known as a \"lunation\".", ")* * * * * *" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===** * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Six Millennium Catalog of Phases of the Moon: Moon Phases from -1999 to +4000 (2000 BCE to 4000 CE)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metonic cycle" ], [ "Introduction", "Depiction of the 19 years of the Metonic cycle as a wheel, with the Julian date of the Easter New Moon, from a 9th-century computistic manuscript made in St. Emmeram's Abbey (Clm 14456, fol.", "71r)For example, by the 19-year Metonic cycle, the full moon repeats on or near Christmas between 1711 and 2300.A small horizontal libration is visible comparing their appearances.", "A red color shows full moons that are also lunar eclipses.The '''Metonic cycle''' or '''enneadecaeteris''' (from , from ἐννεακαίδεκα, \"nineteen\") is a period of almost exactly 19 years after which the lunar phases recur at the same time of the year.", "The recurrence is not perfect, and by precise observation the Metonic cycle defined as 235 synodic months is just 2 hours, 4 minutes and 58 seconds longer than 19 tropical years.", "Meton of Athens, in the 5th century BC, judged the cycle to be a whole number of days, 6,940.Using these whole numbers facilitates the construction of a lunisolar calendar.A tropical year is longer than 12 lunar months and shorter than 13 of them.", "In a '''Metonic calendar''', 7 months are added over a cycle of 19 years to make up the necessary 235 (19×12+7 = 235)." ], [ "Application in traditional calendars", "In the Babylonian and Hebrew lunisolar calendars, the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are the long (13-month) years of the Metonic cycle.", "This cycle forms the basis of the Greek and Hebrew calendars.", "A 19-year cycle is used for the computation of the date of Easter each year.The Babylonians applied the 19-year cycle from the late sixth century BC.According to Livy, the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius (reigned 715–673 BC), inserted intercalary months in such a way that \"in the twentieth year the days should fall in with the same position of the sun from which they had started\".", "As \"the twentieth year\" takes place nineteen years after \"the first year\", this seems to indicate that the Metonic cycle was applied to Numa's calendar.Diodorus Siculus reports that Apollo is said to have visited the Hyperboreans once every 19 years.The Metonic cycle has been implemented in the Antikythera mechanism which offers unexpected evidence for the popularity of the calendar based on it.The (19-year) Metonic cycle is a '''lunisolar''' cycle, as is the (76-year) Callippic cycle.", "An important example of an application of the Metonic cycle in the Julian calendar is the 19-year '''lunar''' cycle insofar as provided with a Metonic structure.", "In the following century, Callippus developed the Callippic cycle of four 19-year periods for a 76-year cycle with a mean year of exactly 365.25 days.Around AD 260 the Alexandrian computist Anatolius, who became bishop of Laodicea in AD 268, was the first to devise a method for determining the date of Easter Sunday.", "However, it was some later, somewhat different, version of the Metonic 19-year lunar cycle which, as the basic structure of Dionysius Exiguus' and also of Bede's Easter table, would ultimately prevail throughout Christendom, at least until in the year 1582, when the Gregorian calendar was introduced.The Coligny calendar is a Celtic lunisolar calendar using the Metonic cycle.", "The bronze plaque on which it was found dates from c. AD 200, but the internal evidence points to the calendar itself being several centuries older, created in the Iron Age.The Runic calendar is a perpetual calendar based on the 19-year-long Metonic cycle.", "It is also known as a Rune staff or Runic Almanac.", "This calendar does not rely on knowledge of the duration of the tropical year or of the occurrence of leap years.", "It is set at the beginning of each year by observing the first full moon after the winter solstice.", "The oldest one known, and the only one from the Middle Ages, is the Nyköping staff, which is believed to date from the 13th century.The Bahá'í calendar, established during the middle of the 19th century, is also based on cycles of 19 solar years.===Hebrew calendar===A '''Small Maḥzor''' (Hebrew מחזור, , meaning \"cycle\") is a 19-year cycle in the lunisolar calendar system used by the Jewish people.", "It is similar to, but slightly different in usage from, the Greek Metonic cycle (being based on a month of days, giving a cycle of  ≈ 6939.69 days), and likely derived from or alongside the much earlier Babylonian calendar.Three ancient civilizations (Babylonia, China and Israel) used lunisolar calendars and knew of the rule of the intercalation from as early as 2000 BC.", "Whether or not the correlation indicates cause-and-effect relationship is an open question.===Polynesia===It is possible that the Polynesian kilo-hoku (astronomers) discovered the Metonic cycle in the same way Meton had, by trying to make the month fit the year.===Tidal Epoch===Sea level calculations also depend on the Metonic cycle.https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/Understanding_Sea_Level_Change.pdf" ], [ "Mathematical basis", "The Metonic cycle is the most accurate cycle of time less than 100 years for synchronizing the tropical year and the lunar month, when the method of synchronizing is the intercalation of a thirteenth lunar month in a calendar year from time to time.", ";Tropical year = 365.2422 days.", ":365.2422 × 19 = '''6,939.602''' days (every 19 years);Synodic month = 29.53059 days.", ":29.53059 × 235 = '''6,939.689''' days (every 235 months);19 years of 12 synodic months = :228 synodic months per cycle, 7 months short of the 235 months needed to achieve synchronization.The traditional lunar year of 12 synodic months is about 354 days, approximately 11 days short of the solar year.", "Thus, every 2–3 years there is an accumulated discrepancy of approximately a full synodic month.", "In order to 'catch up' to this discrepancy, to maintain seasonal consistency, and to prevent dramatic shifts over time, seven intercalary months are added (one at a time), at intervals of every 2–3 years during the course of 19 solar years.The difference between 19 solar years and 235 synodic months is only about two hours, or 0.087 days." ], [ "See also", "* Octaeteris (8-year cycle of antiquity)* Callippic cycle (76-year cycle from 330 BC)* Hipparchic cycle (304-year cycle from 2nd century BC)* Saros cycle of eclipses* Attic and Byzantine calendar* Julian day* Date of Easter (\"the Computus\")" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**** * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** Eclipses, Cosmic Clockwork of the Ancients" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "March 26" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 590 – Emperor Maurice proclaims his son Theodosius as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire.", "*1021 – The death of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, kept secret for six weeks, is announced, along with the succession of his son, al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah.", "*1027 – Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.", "*1169 – Saladin becomes the emir of Egypt.", "*1344 – The Siege of Algeciras, one of the first European military engagements where gunpowder was used, comes to an end.", "*1351 – Combat of the Thirty: Thirty Breton knights call out and defeat thirty English knights.", "*1484 – William Caxton prints his translation of ''Aesop's Fables''.", "*1552 – Guru Amar Das becomes the Third Sikh guru.===1601–1900===*1636 – Utrecht University is founded in the Netherlands.", "*1640 – The Royal Academy of Turku, the first university of Finland, is founded in the city of Turku by Queen Christina of Sweden at the proposal of Count Per Brahe.", "*1651 – Silver-loaded Spanish ship ''San José'' is pushed south by strong winds, subsequently it wrecks in the coast of southern Chile and its surviving crew is killed by indigenous Cuncos.", "*1697 – Safavid government troops take control of Basra.", "*1700 – William Dampier is the first European to circumnavigate New Britain, discovering it is an island (which he names Nova Britannia) rather than part of New Guinea.", "*1812 – An earthquake devastates Caracas, Venezuela.", "* 1812 – A political cartoon in the ''Boston-Gazette'' coins the term \"gerrymander\" to describe oddly shaped electoral districts designed to help incumbents win reelection.", "*1830 – The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, New York.", "*1839 – The first Henley Royal Regatta is held.", "*1871 – The elections of Commune council of the Paris Commune are held.", "*1885 – The Métis people of the District of Saskatchewan under Louis Riel begin the North-West Rebellion against Canada.", "*1896 – An explosion at the Brunner Mine near Greymouth, New Zealand kills 65 coal miners in the country's worst industrial accident.===1901–present===*1913 – First Balkan War: Bulgarian forces capture Adrianople.", "*1915 – The Vancouver Millionaires win the 1915 Stanley Cup Finals, the first championship played between the Pacific Coast Hockey Association and the National Hockey Association.", "*1917 – World War I: First Battle of Gaza: British troops are halted after 17,000 Turks block their advance.", "*1922 – The German Social Democratic Party is founded in Poland.", "*1931 – Swissair is founded as the national airline of Switzerland.", "* 1931 – Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union is founded in Vietnam.", "*1934 – The United Kingdom driving test is introduced.", "*1939 – Spanish Civil War: Nationalists begin their final offensive of the war.", "*1942 – World War II: The first female prisoners arrive at Auschwitz concentration camp in German-occupied Poland.", "*1945 – World War II: The Battle of Iwo Jima ends as the island is officially secured by American forces.", "*1954 – Nuclear weapons testing: The Romeo shot of Operation Castle is detonated at Bikini Atoll.", "Yield: 11 megatons.", "*1955 – Pan Am Flight 845/26 ditches in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Oregon, killing four.", "*1958 – The United States Army launches Explorer 3.", "* 1958 – The African Regroupment Party is launched at a meeting in Paris.", "*1967 – Ten thousand people gather for one of many Central Park be-ins in New York City.", "*1970 – South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu implements a land reform program to solve the problem of land tenancy.", "*1971 – East Pakistan declares its independence from Pakistan to form Bangladesh and the Bangladesh Liberation War begins.", "*1975 – The Biological Weapons Convention comes into force.", "*1979 – Anwar al-Sadat, Menachem Begin and Jimmy Carter sign the Egypt–Israel peace treaty in Washington, D.C.*1979 – An Interflug Ilyushin Il-18 crashes at Quatro de Fevereiro Airport during a rejected takeoff, killing 10.", "*1981 – Social Democratic Party (UK) is founded as a party.", "*1982 – A groundbreaking ceremony for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial is held in Washington, D.C.*1991 – Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay sign the Treaty of Asunción, establishing Mercosur, the South Common Market.", "*1997 – Thirty-nine bodies are found in the Heaven's Gate mass suicides.", "*1998 – During the Algerian Civil War, the Oued Bouaicha massacre sees fifty-two people, mostly infants, killed with axes and knives.", "*2005 – Around 200,000 to 300,000 Taiwanese demonstrate in Taipei in opposition to the Anti-Secession Law of China.", "*2010 – The South Korean Navy corvette ''Cheonan'' is torpedoed, killing 46 sailors.", "After an international investigation, the President of the United Nations Security Council blames North Korea.", "*2017 – Russia-wide anti-corruption protests in 99 cities.", "The Levada Center survey showed that 38% of surveyed Russians supported protests and that 67 percent held Putin personally responsible for high-level corruption." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1516 – Conrad Gessner, Swiss botanist and zoologist (d. 1565)*1554 – Charles of Lorraine, duke of Mayenne (d. 1611)*1584 – John II, duke of Zweibrücken (d. 1635)===1601–1900===*1633 – Mary Beale, British artist (d. 1699)*1634 – Domenico Freschi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1710)*1656 – Nicolaas Hartsoeker, Dutch mathematician and physicist (d. 1725)*1687 – Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, queen consort of Prussia (d. 1757)*1698 – Prokop Diviš, Czech priest, scientist and inventor (d. 1765)*1749 – William Blount, American politician (d. 1800)*1753 – Benjamin Thompson, American-French physicist and politician, Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies (d. 1814)*1773 – Nathaniel Bowditch, American mathematician and navigator (d. 1838)*1794 – Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, German painter (d. 1872)*1804 – David Humphreys Storer, American physician and academic (d. 1891)*1824 – Julie-Victoire Daubié, French journalist (d. 1874)*1829 – Théodore Aubanel, French poet (d. 1886)*1830 – Dewitt Clinton Senter, American politician, 18th Governor of Tennessee (d. 1898)*1842 – Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, French occultist (d. 1909)*1850 – Edward Bellamy, American author, socialist, and utopian visionary (d. 1898)*1852 – Élémir Bourges, French author (d. 1925)*1854 – Maurice Lecoq, French target shooter (d. 1925)*1856 – William Massey, Irish-New Zealand farmer and politician, 19th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1925)*1857 – Théodore Tuffier, French surgeon (d. 1929)*1859 – A. E. Housman, English poet and scholar (d. 1936)* 1859 – Adolf Hurwitz, German-Swiss mathematician and academic (d. 1919)*1860 – André Prévost, French tennis player (d. 1919)*1866 – Fred Karno, English producer and manager (d. 1941)*1868 – King Fuad I of Egypt (d. 1936)*1873 – Dorothea Bleek, South African-German anthropologist and philologist (d. 1948)*1874 – Robert Frost, American poet and playwright (d. 1963)*1875 – Max Abraham, Polish-German physicist and academic (d. 1922)* 1875 – Syngman Rhee, South Korean journalist and politician, 1st President of South Korea (d. 1965)*1876 – William of Wied, prince of Albania (d. 1945)* 1876 – Kate Richards O'Hare, American Socialist Party activist and editor (d. 1948)*1879 – Othmar Ammann, Swiss-American engineer, designed the George Washington Bridge and Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge (d. 1965)* 1879 – Waldemar Tietgens, German rower (d. 1917)*1881 – Guccio Gucci, Italian fashion designer, founded Gucci (d. 1953)*1882 – Hermann Obrecht, Swiss politician (d. 1940)*1884 – Wilhelm Backhaus, German pianist and educator (d. 1969)* 1884 – Georges Imbert, French chemical engineer and inventor (d. 1950)*1886 – Hugh Mulzac, Vincentian-American soldier and politician (d. 1971)*1888 – Elsa Brändström, Swedish nurse and philanthropist (d. 1948)*1893 – James Bryant Conant, American chemist, academic, and diplomat, 1st United States Ambassador to West Germany (d. 1978)* 1893 – Palmiro Togliatti, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (d. 1964)*1894 – Viorica Ursuleac, Ukrainian-Romanian soprano and actress (d. 1985)*1895 – Vilho Tuulos, Finnish triple jumper (d. 1967)*1898 – Rudolf Dassler, German businessman, founded Puma SE (d. 1974)* 1898 – Charles Shadwell, English conductor and bandleader (d. 1979)*1900 – Angela Maria Autsch, German nun, murdered in Auschwitz helping Jewish prisoners (d. 1941)===1901–present===*1904 – Joseph Campbell, American mythologist and author (d. 1987)* 1904 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1986)* 1904 – Attilio Ferraris, Italian footballer (d. 1947)* 1904 – Xenophon Zolotas, Greek economist and Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2004)*1905 – Monty Berman, English cinematographer and producer (d. 2006)* 1905 – André Cluytens, Belgian-French conductor and director (d. 1967)* 1905 – Viktor Frankl, Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist (d. 1997)* 1905 – Mona Williams, American novelist, short story writer and poet (d. 1991)*1906 – Rafael Méndez, Mexican trumpet player and composer (d. 1981)* 1906 – H. Radclyffe Roberts, American entomologist and museum administrator (d. 1982)*1907 – Azellus Denis, Canadian lawyer and politician, Postmaster General of Canada (d. 1991)* 1907 – Mahadevi Varma, Indian poet and activist (d. 1987)*1908 – Franz Stangl, Austrian-German SS officer (d. 1971)*1909 – Chips Rafferty, Australian actor (d. 1971)* 1909 – Héctor José Cámpora, former President of Argentina (d. 1980)*1910 – K. W. Devanayagam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 10th Sri Lankan Minister of Justice (d. 2002)*1911 – Lennart Atterwall, Swedish javelin thrower (d. 2001)* 1911 – J. L. Austin, English philosopher and academic (d. 1960)* 1911 – Bernard Katz, German-English biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003)* 1911 – Tennessee Williams, American playwright, and poet (d. 1983)*1913 – Jacqueline de Romilly, Franco-Greek philologist, author, and scholar (d. 2010)* 1913 – Paul Erdős, Hungarian-Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1996)*1914 – Toru Kumon, Japanese mathematician and academic (d. 1995)* 1914 – William Westmoreland, American general (d. 2005)*1915 – Lennart Strandberg, Swedish sprinter (d. 1989)* 1915 – Hwang Sun-won, North Korean author and poet (d. 2000)*1916 – Christian B. Anfinsen, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)* 1916 – Bill Edrich, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1986)* 1916 – Sterling Hayden, American actor and author (d. 1986)*1917 – Rufus Thomas, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 2001)*1919 – Strother Martin, American actor (d. 1980)* 1919 – Roger Leger, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1965)*1920 – Sergio Livingstone, Chilean footballer and journalist (d. 2012)*1922 – William Milliken, American politician, 44th Governor of Michigan (d. 2019)* 1922 – Oscar Sala, Italian-Brazilian physicist and academic (d. 2010)* 1922 – Guido Stampacchia, Italian mathematician and academic (d. 1978)*1923 – Gert Bastian, German general and politician (d. 1992)* 1923 – Bob Elliott, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2016)*1925 – Maqsood Ahmed, Pakistani cricketer (d. 1999)* 1925 – Pierre Boulez, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2016)* 1925 – Vesta Roy, American politician, Governor of New Hampshire (d. 2002)* 1925 – Edward Graham, Baron Graham of Edmonton, English soldier and politician (d. 2020)* 1925 – Ben Mondor, Canadian-American businessman (d. 2010)* 1925 – James Moody, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2010)*1927 – Harold Chapman, English photographer (d. 2022)*1929 – Edward Sorel, American illustrator and caricaturist* 1929 – Edwin Turney, American businessman, co-founded Advanced Micro Devices (d. 2008)*1930 – Gregory Corso, American poet (d. 2001)* 1930 – Sandra Day O'Connor, American lawyer and jurist (d. 2023)*1931 – Leonard Nimoy, American actor (d. 2015)*1932 – Leroy Griffith, American businessman* 1932 – James Andrew Harris, American chemist and academic (d. 2000)*1933 – Tinto Brass, Italian director and screenwriter*1934 – Alan Arkin, American actor (d. 2023)* 1934 – Edvaldo Alves de Santa Rosa, Brazilian footballer (d. 2002)*1937 – Wayne Embry, American basketball player and manager* 1937 – Barbara Jones, American sprinter* 1937 – James Lee, Canadian businessman and politician, 26th Premier of Prince Edward Island*1938 – Norman Ackroyd, English painter and illustrator* 1938 – Anthony James Leggett, English-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1940 – James Caan, American actor and singer (d. 2022)* 1940 – Nancy Pelosi, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives*1941 – Richard Dawkins, Kenyan-English ethologist, biologist, and academic* 1941 – Lella Lombardi, Italian racing driver (d. 1992)*1942 – Erica Jong, American novelist and poet*1943 – Mustafa Kalemli, Turkish physician and politician, Turkish Minister of the Interior* 1943 – Bob Woodward, American journalist and author*1944 – Diana Ross, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress *1945 – Paul Bérenger, Mauritian politician, Prime Minister of Mauritius* 1945 – Mikhail Voronin, Russian gymnast and coach (d. 2004)*1946 – Johnny Crawford, American actor and singer (d. 2021)* 1946 – Alain Madelin, French politician, French Minister of Finance*1947 – Subhash Kak, Indian-American professor and author* 1947 – John Rowles, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter*1948 – Kyung-wha Chung, South Korean violinist and educator* 1948 – Richard Tandy, English pianist and keyboard player* 1948 – Steven Tyler, American singer-songwriter and actor *1949 – Jon English, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2016)* 1949 – Rudi Koertzen, South African cricketer and umpire (d. 2022)* 1949 – Vicki Lawrence, American actress, comedian, talk show host, and singer* 1949 – Fran Sheehan, American bass player * 1949 – Patrick Süskind, German author and screenwriter* 1949 – Ernest Lee Thomas, American actor*1950 – Teddy Pendergrass, American singer-songwriter (d. 2010)* 1950 – Graham Barlow, English cricketer* 1950 – Martin Short, Canadian-American actor, screenwriter, and producer* 1950 – Alan Silvestri, American composer and conductor*1951 – Željko Pavličević, Croatian professional basketball coach and former professional player* 1951 – Carl Wieman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1952 – Didier Pironi, French racing driver (d. 1987)*1953 – Lincoln Chafee, American academic and politician, 74th Governor of Rhode Island* 1953 – Elaine Chao, Taiwanese-American banker and politician, 24th United States Secretary of Labor* 1953 – Tatyana Providokhina, Russian runner*1954 – Clive Palmer, Australian businessman and politician* 1954 – Curtis Sliwa, American talk show host and activist, founded Guardian Angels* 1954 – Dorothy Porter, Australian poet and playwright (d. 2008)*1956 – Charly McClain, American country music singer* 1956 – Park Won-soon, South Korean lawyer and politician, 35th Mayor of Seoul (d. 2020)*1957 – Fiona Bruce, Scottish lawyer and politician* 1957 – Leeza Gibbons, American talk show host and television personality* 1957 – Paul Morley, English journalist, producer, and author* 1957 – Shirin Neshat, Iranian visual artist*1958 – Elio de Angelis, Italian racing driver (d. 1986)*1960 – Marcus Allen, American football player and sportscaster* 1960 – Jennifer Grey, American actress and dancer* 1960 – Graeme Rutjes, Australian-Dutch footballer*1961 – William Hague, English historian and politician, First Secretary of State*1962 – Richard Coles, English pianist, saxophonist, and priest * 1962 – Kevin Seitzer, American baseball player and coach* 1962 – Yuri Gidzenko, Russian pilot and cosmonaut* 1962 – John Stockton, American basketball player and coach* 1962 – Eric Allan Kramer, American-Canadian actor*1963 – Natsuhiko Kyogoku, Japanese author*1964 – Martin Bella, Australian rugby league player* 1964 – Martin Donnelly, Irish racing driver* 1964 – Maria Miller, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport* 1964 – Ulf Samuelsson, Swedish-American ice hockey player and coach*1965 – Trey Azagthoth, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer * 1965 – Violeta Szekely, Romanian runner*1966 – Michael Imperioli, American actor and screenwriter*1967 – Jason Chaffetz, American politician*1968 – Laurent Brochard, French cyclist* 1968 – Kenny Chesney, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1968 – James Iha, American guitarist and songwriter*1969 – Alessandro Moscardi, Italian rugby player*1970 – Paul Bosvelt, Dutch footballer* 1970 – Jelle Goes, Dutch footballer and coach* 1970 – Thomas Kyparissis, Greek footballer* 1970 – Martin McDonagh, English-born Irish playwright, screenwriter, and director* 1971 – Martyn Day, Scottish politician* 1971 – Erick Morillo, Colombian-American disc jockey, record label owner, and music producer (d. 2020)* 1971 – Rennae Stubbs, Australian tennis player and sportscaster* 1971 – Paul Williams, English footballer and manager*1972 – Leslie Mann, American actress* 1972 – Jason Maxwell, American baseball player*1973 – Larry Page, American computer scientist and businessman, co-founder of Google* 1973 – T. R. Knight, American actor*1974 – Irina Spîrlea, Romanian tennis player* 1974 – Vadimas Petrenko, Lithuanian footballer* 1974 – Michael Peca, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1976 – Amy Smart, American actress and former model* 1976 – Alex Varas, Chilean footballer* 1976 – Eirik Verås Larsen, Norwegian sprint kayaker*1977 – Kevin Davies, English footballer* 1977 – Bianca Kajlich, American actress* 1977 – Sylvain Grenier, Canadian wrestler*1978 – Anastasia Kostaki, Greek basketball player*1979 – Nacho Novo, Spanish footballer* 1979 – Ben Blair, New Zealand rugby union footballer* 1979 – Hiromi Uehara, Japanese pianist and composer* 1979 – Pierre Womé, Cameroonian footballer* 1979 – Juliana Paes, Brazilian actress*1980 – Margaret Brennan, American journalist* 1980 – Son Ho-young, South Korean singer* 1980 – Richie Wellens, English footballer*1981 – Sébastien Centomo, Canadian ice hockey player*1981 – Zayar Thaw, Burmese rapper and politician* 1981 – Baruch Dego, Ethiopian-Israeli footballer* 1981 – Massimo Donati, Italian footballer* 1981 – Josh Wilson, American baseball player*1982 – Mikel Arteta, Spanish footballer* 1982 – Brendan Ryan, American baseball player* 1982 – Nate Kaeding, American football player*1983 – Andreas Hinkel, German footballer* 1983 – Floriana Lima, American actress* 1983 – Roman Bednář, Czech footballer* 1983 – Mike Mondo, American wrestler*1984 – Jimmy Howard, American ice hockey player* 1984 – Drew Mitchell, Australian rugby player* 1984 – Felix Neureuther, German skier* 1984 – Marco Stier, German footballer* 1984 – Gregory Strydom, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1984 – Sara Jean Underwood, American model, television host, and actress*1985 – Keira Knightley, English actress * 1985 – Matt Grevers, American swimmer* 1985 – Jonathan Groff, American actor and singer* 1985 – Prosper Utseya, Zimbabwean cricketer*1986 – Maxime Biset, Belgian footballer* 1986 – Rob Kearney, Irish rugby player* 1986 – Emma Laine, Finnish tennis player*1987 – Kim Dong-suk, South Korean footballer* 1987 – Jermichael Finley, American football player* 1987 – Steven Fletcher, Scottish footballer*1989 – Simon Kjær, Danish footballer* 1989 – Von Miller, American football player*1990 – Choi Woo-shik, South Korean actor* 1990 – Matteo Guidicelli, Filipino actor, model, singer and former kart racer* 1990 – Patrick Ekeng, Cameroonian footballer (d. 2016)* 1990 – Yuya Takaki, Japanese idol, singer, dancer, model and actor* 1990 – Xiumin, South Korean singer and actor*1991 – Matt Davidson, American baseball player*1992 – Nina Agdal, Danish model* 1992 – Stoffel Vandoorne, Belgian racing driver*1994 – Alison Van Uytvanck, Belgian tennis player* 1994 – Paige VanZant, American mixed martial artist and model* 1994 – Jed Wallace, English footballer* 1994 – Marcela Zacarías, Mexican tennis player*1996 – Zane Musgrove, New Zealand rugby league player* 1996 – Kathryn Bernardo, Filipino actress*1998 – Satoko Miyahara, Japanese figure skater*2003 – Bhad Bhabie, American rapper and social media personality*2004 – Awra Briguela, Filipino actor and comedian" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 752 – Pope-elect Stephen* 809 – Ludger, Frisian missionary* 903 – Sugawara no Michizane, Japanese poet* 908 – Ai, emperor of the Tang Dynasty (b.", "892)* 922 – Mansur Al-Hallaj, Persian mystic and poet (b.", "858)* 929 – Wang Du, Chinese warlord and governor (''jiedushi'')* 973 – Guntram (\"the Rich\"), Frankish nobleman* 983 – 'Adud al-Dawla, Iranian ruler (b.", "936)*1091 – Wallada bint al-Mustakfi, Andalusian poet*1130 – Sigurd the Crusader, Norwegian king (b.", "1090)*1132 – Geoffrey of Vendôme, French cardinal and theologian (b.", "1065)*1212 – Sancho I of Portugal (b.", "1154)*1242 – William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle*1324 – Marie de Luxembourg, Queen of France (b.", "1304)*1326 – Alessandra Giliani, anatomist (b. c. 1307)*1350 – Alfonso XI of Castile (b.", "1312)*1402 – David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, heir to the throne of Scotland (b.", "1378)*1437 – Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl, Scottish nobleman and regicide*1517 – Heinrich Isaac, Flemish composer (b.", "1450)*1535 – Georg Tannstetter, Austrian mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b.", "1482)*1546 – Thomas Elyot, English scholar and diplomat (b.", "1490)*1566 – Antonio de Cabezón, Spanish organist and composer (b.", "1510)===1601–1900===*1625 – Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b.", "1569)*1649 – John Winthrop, English lawyer and politician, 2nd Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony*1679 – Johannes Schefferus, Swedish historian and author (b.", "1621)*1697 – Godfrey McCulloch, Scottish politician (b.", "1640)*1726 – John Vanbrugh, English playwright and architect, designed Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard (b.", "1664)*1772 – Charles Pinot Duclos, French author and politician (b.", "1704)*1776 – Samuel Ward, American politician, 31st and 33rd Governor of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (b.", "1725)*1780 – Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (b.", "1713)*1793 – John Mudge, English physician and engineer (b.", "1721)*1797 – James Hutton, Scottish geologist and physician (b.", "1726)*1814 – Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, French physician and politician (b.", "1738)*1827 – Ludwig van Beethoven, German pianist and composer (b.", "1770)*1858 – John Addison Thomas, American lieutenant, engineer, and politician, 3rd United States Assistant Secretary of State (b.", "1811)*1862 – Uriah P. Levy, American commander (b.", "1792)*1881 – Roman Sanguszko, Polish general and activist (b.", "1800)*1881 – Old Abe, 8th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment Mascot (b.", "1861)*1885 – Anson Stager, American general and businessman, co-founded Western Union (b.", "1825)*1888 – Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar (b.", "1837)*1892 – Walt Whitman, American poet, essayist, and journalist (b.", "1819)===1901–present===*1902 – Cecil Rhodes, English-South African colonialist, businessman and politician, 6th Prime Minister of the Cape Colony (b.", "1853)*1905 – Maurice Barrymore, American actor (b.", "1849)*1910 – Auguste Charlois, French astronomer (b.", "1864)*1920 – William Chester Minor, American surgeon and lexicographer (b.", "1834)*1923 – Sarah Bernhardt, French actress and screenwriter (b.", "1844)*1926 – Constantin Fehrenbach, German lawyer and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b.", "1852)*1932 – Henry M. Leland, American machinist, inventor, engineer, automotive entrepreneur and founder of Cadillac and Lincoln (b.", "1843)*1934 – John Biller, American jumper and discus thrower (b.", "1877)*1940 – Wilhelm Anderson, German-Estonian astrophysicist (b.", "1880)* 1940 – Spyridon Louis, Greek runner (b.", "1873)*1942 – Jimmy Burke, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1874)* 1942 – Carolyn Wells, American novelist and poet (b.", "1862)*1945 – David Lloyd George, English-Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1863)*1951 – James F. Hinkle, American banker and politician, 6th Governor of New Mexico (b.", "1864)*1954 – Charles Perrin, French rower (b.", "1875)*1957 – Édouard Herriot, French politician, Prime Minister of France (b.", "1872)* 1957 – Max Ophüls, German-American director and screenwriter (b.", "1902)*1958 – Phil Mead, English cricketer and footballer (b.", "1887)*1959 – Raymond Chandler, American crime novelist and screenwriter (b.", "1888)*1966 – Victor Hochepied, French swimmer (b.", "1883)* 1966 – Cyril Hume, American novelist and screenwriter (b.", "1900)*1969 – John Kennedy Toole, American novelist (b.", "1937)*1973 – Noël Coward, English playwright, actor, and composer (b.", "1899)* 1973 – Johnny Drake, American football player (b.", "1916)*1979 – Beauford Delaney, American-French painter (b.", "1901)* 1979 – Jean Stafford, American author and academic (b.", "1915)*1980 – Roland Barthes, French linguist and critic (b.", "1915)*1983 – Anthony Blunt, English historian and spy (b.", "1907)*1984 – Ahmed Sékou Touré, Guinean politician, 1st President of Guinea (b.", "1922)*1987 – Eugen Jochum, German conductor (b.", "1902)* 1987 – Walter Abel, American actor (b.", "1898)*1990 – Halston, American fashion designer (b.", "1932)*1992 – Barbara Frum, American-Canadian journalist and radio host (b.", "1937)*1993 – Louis Falco, American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1942)*1995 – Eazy-E, American rapper and producer (b.", "1964)*1996 – Edmund Muskie, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 58th United States Secretary of State (b.", "1914)* 1996 – David Packard, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Hewlett-Packard (b.", "1912)* 1996 – John Snagge, English journalist (b.", "1904)*2000 – Alex Comfort, English physician and author (b.", "1920)*2002 – Randy Castillo, American drummer and songwriter (b.", "1950)*2003 – Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American sociologist and politician, 12th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b.", "1927)*2004 – Jan Sterling, American actress (b.", "1921)*2005 – James Callaghan, English lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1912)* 2005 – Frederick Rotimi Williams, Nigerian lawyer and politician (b.", "1920)*2006 – Anil Biswas, Indian journalist and politician (b.", "1944)* 2006 – Paul Dana, American racing driver (b.", "1975)* 2006 – Nikki Sudden, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1956)*2008 – Robert Fagles, American poet and academic (b.", "1933)* 2008 – Manuel Marulanda, Colombian rebel leader (b.", "1930)*2009 – Shane McConkey, Canadian skier and BASE jumper (b.", "1969)* 2009 – Arne Bendiksen, Norwegian singer and composer (b.", "1926)*2010 – Charles Ryskamp, American art collector and curator (b.", "1928)*2011 – Roger Abbott, English-Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1946)* 2011 – Geraldine Ferraro, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1935)* 2011 – Diana Wynne Jones, English author (b.", "1934)*2012 – Sisto Averno, American football player (b.", "1925)* 2012 – Michael Begley, Irish carpenter and politician (b.", "1932)* 2012 – Thomas M. Cover, American theorist and academic (b.", "1938)* 2012 – David Craighead, American organist and educator (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Manik Godghate, Indian poet and educator (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Helmer Ringgren, Swedish theologian and academic (b.", "1917)*2013 – Tom Boerwinkle, American basketball player and sportscaster (b.", "1945)* 2013 – Krzysztof Kozłowski, Polish journalist and politician, Polish Minister of Interior (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Dave Leggett, American baseball player (b.", "1933)* 2013 – Don Payne, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1964)*2014 – Roger Birkman, American psychologist and author (b.", "1919)* 2014 – Dick Guidry, American businessman and politician (b.", "1929)* 2014 – Marcus Kimball, Baron Kimball, English politician (b.", "1928)*2015 – Dinkha IV, Iraqi patriarch (b.", "1935)* 2015 – Friedrich L. Bauer, German mathematician, computer scientist, and academic (b.", "1924)* 2015 – Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet, translator, and psychologist Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1931)*2016 – Jim Harrison, American novelist, essayist, and poet (b.", "1937)*2018 – Fabrizio Frizzi, Italian television presenter (b.", "1958)*2023 – María Kodama, Argentine writer and translator (b.", "1937)* 2023 – Innocent Vareed Thekkethala, Indian actor and politician (b.", "1948)* 2023 – Jacob Ziv, Israeli electrical engineer, developed the LZ family of compression algorithms (b.", "1931)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast days:**Castulus**Emmanuel and companions**Felicitas**Harriet Monsell (Church of England)**Larissa**Ludger**Richard Allen (Episcopal Church (USA))**March 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Independence Day and National Day (Bangladesh), celebrates the declaration of independence from Pakistan in 1971.", "*Martyr's Day or Day of Democracy (Mali)*Prince Kūhiō Day (Hawaii, United States)*Purple Day (Canada and United States)*Synaxis of the Archangel Gabriel (Eastern Christianity)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on March 26" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marcello Malpighi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marcello Malpighi''' (10 March 1628 – 30 November 1694) was an Italian biologist and physician, who is referred to as the \"Founder of microscopical anatomy, histology & Father of physiology and embryology\".", "Malpighi's name is borne by several physiological features related to the biological excretory system, such as the Malpighian corpuscles and Malpighian pyramids of the kidneys and the Malpighian tubule system of insects.", "The splenic lymphoid nodules are often called the \"Malpighian bodies of the spleen\" or Malpighian corpuscles.", "The botanical family Malpighiaceae is also named after him.", "He was the first person to see capillaries in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded William Harvey.", "Malpighi was one of the earliest people to observe red blood cells under a microscope, after Jan Swammerdam.", "His treatise ''De polypo cordis'' (1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots.", "In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the heart.The use of the microscope enabled Malpighi to discover that insects do not use lungs to breathe, but small holes in their skin called tracheae.", "Malpighi also studied the anatomy of the brain and concluded this organ is a gland.", "In terms of modern endocrinology, this deduction is correct because the hypothalamus of the brain has long been recognized for its hormone-secreting capacity.Because Malpighi had a wide knowledge of both plants and animals, he made contributions to the scientific study of both.", "The Royal Society of London published two volumes of his botanical and zoological works in 1675 and 1679.Another edition followed in 1687, and a supplementary volume in 1697.In his autobiography, Malpighi speaks of his ''Anatome Plantarum'', decorated with the engravings of Robert White, as \"the most elegant format in the whole literate world.", "\"His study of plants led him to conclude that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silkworm (using his microscope, he probably saw the stomata, through which plants exchange carbon dioxide with oxygen).", "Malpighi observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he correctly interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being blocked above the ring." ], [ "Early years", "Malpighi was born on 10 March 1628 at Crevalcore near Bologna, Italy.", "The son of well-to-do parents, Malpighi was educated in his native city, entering the University of Bologna at the age of 17.In a posthumous work delivered and dedicated to the Royal Society in London in 1697, Malpighi says he completed his grammatical studies in 1645, at which point he began to apply himself to the study of peripatetic philosophy.", "He completed these studies in about 1649, where at the persuasion of his mother Frances Natalis, he began to study physics.", "When his parents and grandmother became ill, he returned to his family home near Bologna to care for them.", "Malpighi studied Aristotelian philosophy at the University of Bologna while he was very young.", "Despite opposition from the university authorities because he was non-Bolognese by birth, in 1653 he was granted doctorates in both medicine and philosophy.", "He later graduated as a medical doctor at the age of 25.Subsequently, he was appointed as a teacher, whereupon he immediately dedicated himself to further study in anatomy and medicine.", "For most of his career, Malpighi combined an intense interest in scientific research with a fond love of teaching.", "He was invited to correspond with the Royal Society in 1667 by Henry Oldenburg, and became a fellow of the society the next year.In 1656, Ferdinand II of Tuscany invited him to the professorship of theoretical medicine at the University of Pisa.", "There Malpighi began his lifelong friendship with Giovanni Borelli, mathematician and naturalist, who was a prominent supporter of the Accademia del Cimento, one of the first scientific societies.", "Malpighi questioned the prevailing medical teachings at Pisa, tried experiments on colour changes in blood, and attempted to recast anatomical, physiological, and medical problems of the day.", "Family responsibilities and poor health prompted Malpighi's return in 1659 to the University of Bologna, where he continued to teach and do research with his microscopes.", "In 1661 he identified and described the pulmonary and capillary network connecting small arteries with small veins.", "Malpighi's views evoked increasing controversy and dissent, mainly from envy and lack of understanding on the part of his colleagues." ], [ "Career", "Portrait of Marcello Malpighi in ''Opera Posthuma'', London 1696In 1653, his father, mother, and grandmother being dead, Malpighi left his family villa and returned to the University of Bologna to study anatomy.", "In 1656, he was made a reader at Bologna, and then a professor of physics at Pisa, where he began to abandon the disputative method of learning and apply himself to a more experimental method of research.", "Based on this research, he wrote some ''Dialogues against the Peripatetics and Galenists'' (those who followed the precepts of Galen and were spearheaded at the University Bologna by fellow physician but inveterate foe Giovanni Girolamo Sbaraglia), which were destroyed when his house burned down.", "Weary of philosophical disputation, in 1660, Malpighi returned to Bologna and dedicated himself to the study of anatomy.", "He subsequently discovered a new structure of the lungs which led him to several disputes with the learned medical men of the times.", "In 1662, he was made a professor of physics at the Academy of Messina.Retiring from university life to his villa in the country near Bologna in 1663, he worked as a physician while continuing to conduct experiments on the plants and insects he found on his estate.", "There he made discoveries of the structure of plants which he published in his ''Observations''.", "At the end of 1666, Malpighi was invited to return to the public academy at Messina, which he did in 1667.Although he accepted temporary chairs at the universities of Pisa and Messina, throughout his life he continuously returned to Bologna to practice medicine, a city that repaid him by erecting a monument in his memory after his death.As a physician, Malpighi's medical consultations with his patients, which were mostly those belonging to social elite classes, proved useful in better understanding the links between the human anatomy, disease pathology, and treatments for said diseases.", "Furthermore, Malpighi conducted his consultations not only by bedside, but also by post, using letters to request and conduct them for various patients.", "These letters served as social connections for the medical practices he performed, allowing his ideas to reach the public even in the face of criticism.", "These connections that Malpighi created in his practice became even more widespread due to the fact that he practised in various countries.", "However, long distances complicated consults for some of his patients.", "The manner in which Malpighi practised medicine also reveals that it was customary in his time for Italian patients to have multiple attending physicians as well as consulting physicians.", "One of Malpighi's principles of medical practice was that he did not rely on anecdotes or experiences concerning remedies for various illnesses.", "Rather, he used his knowledge of human anatomy and disease pathology to practice what he denoted as \"rational\" medicine (\"rational\" medicine was in contrast to \"empirics\").", "Malpighi did not abandon traditional substances or treatments, but he did not employ their use simply based on past experiences that did not draw from the nature of the underlying anatomy and disease process.", "Specifically in his treatments, Malpighi's goal was to reset fluid imbalances by coaxing the body to correct them on its own.", "For example, fluid imbalances should be fixed over time by urination and not by artificial methods such as purgatives and vesicants.", "In addition to Malpighi's \"rational\" approaches, he also believed in so-called \"miraculous,\" or \"supernatural\" healing.", "For this to occur, though, he argued that the body could not have attempted to expel any malignant matter, such as vomit.", "Cases in which this did occur, when healing could not be considered miraculous, were known as \"crises.", "\"In 1668, Malpighi received a letter from Mr. Oldenburg of the Royal Society in London, inviting him to correspond.", "Malpighi wrote his history of the silkworm in 1668, and sent the manuscript to Mr. Oldenburg.", "As a result, Malpighi was made a member of the Royal Society in 1669.In 1671, Malpighi's ''Anatomy of Plants'' was published in London by the Royal Society, and he simultaneously wrote to Mr. Oldenburg, telling him of his recent discoveries regarding the lungs, fibres of the spleen and testicles, and several other discoveries involving the brain and sensory organs.", "He also shared more information regarding his research on plants.", "At that time, he related his disputes with some younger physicians who were strenuous supporters of the Galenic principles and opposed all new discoveries.", "Following many other discoveries and publications, in 1691, Malpighi was invited to Rome by Pope Innocent XII to become a papal physician and professor of medicine at the Papal Medical School.", "He remained in Rome until his death.Marcello Malpighi is buried in the church of Santi Gregorio e Siro, in Bologna, where nowadays can be seen a marble monument to the scientist with an inscription in Latin remembering – among other things – his \"SUMMUM INGENIUM / INTEGERRIMAM VITAM / FORTEM STRENUAMQUE MENTEM / AUDACEM SALUTARIS ARTIS AMOREM\" (great genius, honest life, strong and tough mind, daring love for the medical art)." ], [ "Research", "Portrait of Marcello MalpighiAround the age of 38, and with a remarkable academic career behind him, Malpighi decided to dedicate his free time to anatomical studies.", "Although he conducted some of his studies using vivisection and others through the dissection of corpses, his most illustrative efforts appear to have been based on the use of the microscope.", "Because of this work, many microscopic anatomical structures are named after Malpighi, including a skin layer (Malpighi layer) and two different Malpighian corpuscles in the kidneys and the spleen, as well as the Malpighian tubules in the excretory system of insects.Although a Dutch spectacle maker created the compound lens and inserted it in a microscope around the turn of the 17th century, and Galileo had applied the principle of the compound lens to the making of his microscope patented in 1609, its possibilities as a microscope had remained unexploited for half a century, until Robert Hooke improved the instrument.", "Following this, Marcello Malpighi, Hooke, and two other early investigators associated with the Royal Society, Nehemiah Grew and Antoine van Leeuwenhoek were fortunate to have a virtually untried tool in their hands as they began their investigations.In 1661, Malpighi observed capillary structures in frog lungs.", "Malpighi's first attempt at examining circulation in the lungs was in September 1660, with the dissection of sheep and other mammals where he would inject black ink into the pulmonary artery.", "Tracing the inks distribution through the artery to the veins in the animal's lungs however, the chosen sheep/mammal's large size was limiting for his observation of capillaries as they were too small for magnification.", "Malpighi's frog dissection in 1661, proved to be a suitable size that could be magnified to display the capillary network not seen in the larger animals.", "In discovering and observing the capillaries in the frog's lungs, Malpighi studied the movement of the blood in a contained system.", "This contrasted the previous view of an open circulatory system in which blood would come from the liver/spleen and pool into open spaces in the body.", "This discovery of capillaries also contributed to William Harvey’s theory of blood circulation, with capillaries acting as the connection from veins to arteries and confirming a closed system of circulation in animals.Furthering his analysis of the lungs, Malpighi identified the airways branched into thin membraned spherical cavities which he likened to honeycomb holes surrounded by capillary vessels, in his 1661 work “De pulmonibus observationes anatomicae”.", "These lung structures now known as alveoli he used to describe the air pathway as continuous inhalation and exhalation with the alveoli at the ends of the pathway acting as a “imperfect sponge” for the air to enter the body.", "Extrapolating to humans, he offered an explanation for how air and blood mix in the lungs.", "Malpighi also used the microscope for his studies of the skin, kidneys, and liver.", "For example, after he dissected a black male, Malpighi made some groundbreaking headway into the discovery of the origin of black skin.", "He found that the black pigment was associated with a layer of mucus just beneath the skin.In the years 1663–1667, at the University of Messina where his research focus was on studying the human nervous system where he identified and described nerve endings in the body, structure of the brain, and optic nerve.", "All of his work in 1665 surrounding the nervous system he published in 3 separate works published in the same year titled, De Lingua about taste and the tongue, De Cerebro about the brain and De Externo Tactus Organo about feeling/touch sensation.", "In regards to his work on the tongue he discovered small muscle bumps, taste buds, which he called “papillae” and when examining them he described a linked connection to nerve endings that gave the taste sensation when eating.", "Furthermore, in 1686 through studying a bovine tongue Malpighi dividing the tongue papillae into separate “patches” on the tongues length.", "When studying the brain, he was one of the first to try to map the grey and white tissue and hypothesized a connection between the brain and spinal cord through nerve endings.Malpighi's work on plant anatomy was inspired in Messina when visiting his patron Visconte Ruffo's garden where a chestnut tree's split branch had a structure that intrigued him, this structure in modern literature being xylem.", "He examined the structure in different plans and noted the arrangement of xylem was in either a ring shape or in scattered groupings in the stem.", "This distinction was later used by biologists to separate the two major families of plants.A talented sketch artist, Malpighi seems to have been the first author to have made detailed drawings of individual organs of flowers.", "In his ''Anatome plantarum'' is a longitudinal section of a flower of ''Nigella'' (his Melanthi, literally honey-flower) with details of the nectariferous organs.", "He adds that it is strange that nature has produced on the leaves of the flower shell-like organs in which honey is produced.Malpighi had success in tracing the ontogeny of plant organs, and the serial development of the shoot owing to his instinct shaped in the sphere of animal embryology.", "He specialized in seedling development, and in 1679, he published a volume containing a series of exquisitely drawn and engraved images of the stages of development of Leguminosae (beans) and Cucurbitaceae (squash, melons).", "Later, he published material depicting the development of the date palm.", "The great Swedish botanist Linnaeus named the genus ''Malpighia'' in honour of Malpighi's work with plants; ''Malpighia'' is the type genus for the Malpighiaceae, a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants.Because Malpighi was concerned with teratology (the scientific study of the visible conditions caused by the interruption or alteration of normal development) he expressed grave misgivings about the view of his contemporaries that the galls of trees and herbs gave birth to insects.", "He conjectured (correctly) that the creatures in question arose from eggs previously laid in the plant tissue.Malpighi's investigations of the lifecycle of plants and animals led him to the topic of reproduction.", "He created detailed drawings of his studies of chick embryo development, starting from 2–3 days after fertilization with these drawings of embryos having a focus on the developmental timing of the limbs and organs.", "Additionally, seed development in plants (such as the lemon tree), and the transformation of caterpillars into insects.", "Malpighi also postulated about the embryotic growth of humans, written in a letter to Girolamo Correr, a patron of scientists, Malphighi suggested that all the components of the circulatory system would have been developed at the same time in embryo.", "His discoveries helped to illuminate philosophical arguments surrounding the topics of ''emboîtment'', pre-existence, preformation, epigenesis, and metamorphosis." ], [ "Years in Rome", "Malpighi's tomb in BolognaIn 1691 Pope Innocent XII invited him to Rome as papal physician.", "He taught medicine in the Papal Medical School and wrote a long treatise about his studies which he donated to the Royal Society of London.Marcello Malpighi died of apoplexy (an old-fashioned term for a stroke or stroke-like symptoms) in Rome on 30 November 1694, at the age of 66.In accordance with his wishes, an autopsy was performed.", "The Royal Society published his studies in 1696.Asteroid 11121 Malpighi is named in his honour." ], [ "Some of Malpighi's important works", "''Opera Omnia (Complete Works)'', London 1686* ''Anatome Plantarum'', two volumes published in 1675 and 1679, an exhaustive study of botany published by the Royal Society* ''De viscerum structura exercitatio''* ''De pulmonis epistolae''* ''De polypo cordis'', 1666* ''Dissertatio epistolica de formatione pulli in ovo'', 1673" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Adelmann, Howard (1966) ''Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology'' 5 vol., Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y. * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Some places and memories related to Marcello Malpighi*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Momentum" ], [ "Introduction", "In Newtonian mechanics, '''momentum''' (: '''momenta''' or '''momentums'''; more specifically '''linear momentum''' or '''translational momentum''') is the product of the mass and velocity of an object.", "It is a vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a direction.", "If is an object's mass and is its velocity (also a vector quantity), then the object's momentum (from Latin ''pellere'' \"push, drive\") is: In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement of momentum is the kilogram metre per second (kg⋅m/s), which is equivalent to the newton-second.Newton's second law of motion states that the rate of change of a body's momentum is equal to the net force acting on it.", "Momentum depends on the frame of reference, but in any inertial frame it is a ''conserved'' quantity, meaning that if a closed system is not affected by external forces, its total linear momentum does not change.", "Momentum is also conserved in special relativity (with a modified formula) and, in a modified form, in electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and general relativity.", "It is an expression of one of the fundamental symmetries of space and time: translational symmetry.Advanced formulations of classical mechanics, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics, allow one to choose coordinate systems that incorporate symmetries and constraints.", "In these systems the conserved quantity is '''generalized momentum''', and in general this is different from the '''kinetic''' momentum defined above.", "The concept of generalized momentum is carried over into quantum mechanics, where it becomes an operator on a wave function.", "The momentum and position operators are related by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.In continuous systems such as electromagnetic fields, fluid dynamics and deformable bodies, a momentum density can be defined, and a continuum version of the conservation of momentum leads to equations such as the Navier–Stokes equations for fluids or the Cauchy momentum equation for deformable solids or fluids." ], [ "Definition in classical mechanics", "Momentum is a vector quantity: it has both magnitude and direction.", "Since momentum has a direction, it can be used to predict the resulting direction and speed of motion of objects after they collide.", "Below, the basic properties of momentum are described in one dimension.", "The vector equations are almost identical to the scalar equations (see multiple dimensions).===Single particle===The momentum of a particle is conventionally represented by the letter .", "It is the product of two quantities, the particle's mass (represented by the letter ) and its velocity ():The unit of momentum is the product of the units of mass and velocity.", "In SI units, if the mass is in kilograms and the velocity is in meters per second then the momentum is in kilogram meters per second (kg⋅m/s).", "In cgs units, if the mass is in grams and the velocity in centimeters per second, then the momentum is in gram centimeters per second (g⋅cm/s).Being a vector, momentum has magnitude and direction.", "For example, a 1 kg model airplane, traveling due north at 1 m/s in straight and level flight, has a momentum of 1 kg⋅m/s due north measured with reference to the ground.===Many particles===The momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of their momenta.", "If two particles have respective masses and , and velocities and , the total momentum isThe momenta of more than two particles can be added more generally with the following:A system of particles has a center of mass, a point determined by the weighted sum of their positions:If one or more of the particles is moving, the center of mass of the system will generally be moving as well (unless the system is in pure rotation around it).", "If the total mass of the particles is , and the center of mass is moving at velocity , the momentum of the system is:This is known as Euler's first law.===Relation to force===If the net force applied to a particle is constant, and is applied for a time interval , the momentum of the particle changes by an amountIn differential form, this is Newton's second law; the rate of change of the momentum of a particle is equal to the instantaneous force acting on it,If the net force experienced by a particle changes as a function of time, , the change in momentum (or impulse ) between times and isImpulse is measured in the derived units of the newton second (1 N⋅s = 1 kg⋅m/s) or dyne second (1 dyne⋅s = 1 g⋅cm/s)Under the assumption of constant mass , it is equivalent to writehence the net force is equal to the mass of the particle times its acceleration.", "''Example'': A model airplane of mass 1 kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 6 m/s due north in 2 s. The net force required to produce this acceleration is 3 newtons due north.", "The change in momentum is 6 kg⋅m/s due north.", "The rate of change of momentum is 3 (kg⋅m/s)/s due north which is numerically equivalent to 3 newtons.===Conservation===In a closed system (one that does not exchange any matter with its surroundings and is not acted on by external forces) the total momentum remains constant.", "This fact, known as the '''law of conservation of momentum''', is implied by Newton's laws of motion.", "Suppose, for example, that two particles interact.", "As explained by the third law, the forces between them are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.", "If the particles are numbered 1 and 2, the second law states that and .", "Therefore,with the negative sign indicating that the forces oppose.", "Equivalently,If the velocities of the particles are and before the interaction, and afterwards they are and , thenThis law holds no matter how complicated the force is between particles.", "Similarly, if there are several particles, the momentum exchanged between each pair of particles adds to zero, so the total change in momentum is zero.", "The conservation of the total momentum of a number of interacting particles can be expressed as This conservation law applies to all interactions, including collisions (both elastic and inelastic) and separations caused by explosive forces.", "It can also be generalized to situations where Newton's laws do not hold, for example in the theory of relativity and in electrodynamics.===Dependence on reference frame===Momentum is a measurable quantity, and the measurement depends on the frame of reference.", "For example: if an aircraft of mass 1000 kg is flying through the air at a speed of 50 m/s its momentum can be calculated to be 50,000 kg.m/s.", "If the aircraft is flying into a headwind of 5 m/s its speed relative to the surface of the Earth is only 45 m/s and its momentum can be calculated to be 45,000 kg.m/s.", "Both calculations are equally correct.", "In both frames of reference, any change in momentum will be found to be consistent with the relevant laws of physics.Suppose is a position in an inertial frame of reference.", "From the point of view of another frame of reference, moving at a constant speed relative to the other, the position (represented by a primed coordinate) changes with time asThis is called a Galilean transformation.If a particle is moving at speed in the first frame of reference, in the second, it is moving at speedSince does not change, the second reference frame is also an inertial frame and the accelerations are the same:Thus, momentum is conserved in both reference frames.", "Moreover, as long as the force has the same form, in both frames, Newton's second law is unchanged.", "Forces such as Newtonian gravity, which depend only on the scalar distance between objects, satisfy this criterion.", "This independence of reference frame is called Newtonian relativity or Galilean invariance.A change of reference frame, can, often, simplify calculations of motion.", "For example, in a collision of two particles, a reference frame can be chosen, where, one particle begins at rest.", "Another, commonly used reference frame, is the center of mass frame – one that is moving with the center of mass.", "In this frame, the total momentum is zero.===Application to collisions===If two particles, each of known momentum, collide and coalesce, the law of conservation of momentum can be used to determine the momentum of the coalesced body.", "If the outcome of the collision is that the two particles separate, the law is not sufficient to determine the momentum of each particle.", "If the momentum of one particle after the collision is known, the law can be used to determine the momentum of the other particle.", "Alternatively if the combined kinetic energy after the collision is known, the law can be used to determine the momentum of each particle after the collision.", "Kinetic energy is usually not conserved.", "If it is conserved, the collision is called an ''elastic collision''; if not, it is an ''inelastic collision''.====Elastic collisions====Elastic collision of equal massesElastic collision of unequal massesAn elastic collision is one in which no kinetic energy is transformed into heat or some other form of energy.", "Perfectly elastic collisions can occur when the objects do not touch each other, as for example in atomic or nuclear scattering where electric repulsion keeps the objects apart.", "A slingshot maneuver of a satellite around a planet can also be viewed as a perfectly elastic collision.", "A collision between two pool balls is a good example of an ''almost'' totally elastic collision, due to their high rigidity, but when bodies come in contact there is always some dissipation.A head-on elastic collision between two bodies can be represented by velocities in one dimension, along a line passing through the bodies.", "If the velocities are and before the collision and and after, the equations expressing conservation of momentum and kinetic energy are:A change of reference frame can simplify analysis of a collision.", "For example, suppose there are two bodies of equal mass , one stationary and one approaching the other at a speed (as in the figure).", "The center of mass is moving at speed and both bodies are moving towards it at speed .", "Because of the symmetry, after the collision both must be moving away from the center of mass at the same speed.", "Adding the speed of the center of mass to both, we find that the body that was moving is now stopped and the other is moving away at speed .", "The bodies have exchanged their velocities.", "Regardless of the velocities of the bodies, a switch to the center of mass frame leads us to the same conclusion.", "Therefore, the final velocities are given byIn general, when the initial velocities are known, the final velocities are given byIf one body has much greater mass than the other, its velocity will be little affected by a collision while the other body will experience a large change.====Inelastic collisions====a perfectly inelastic collision between equal massesIn an inelastic collision, some of the kinetic energy of the colliding bodies is converted into other forms of energy (such as heat or sound).", "Examples include traffic collisions, in which the effect of loss of kinetic energy can be seen in the damage to the vehicles; electrons losing some of their energy to atoms (as in the Franck–Hertz experiment); and particle accelerators in which the kinetic energy is converted into mass in the form of new particles.In a perfectly inelastic collision (such as a bug hitting a windshield), both bodies have the same motion afterwards.", "A head-on inelastic collision between two bodies can be represented by velocities in one dimension, along a line passing through the bodies.", "If the velocities are and before the collision then in a perfectly inelastic collision both bodies will be travelling with velocity after the collision.", "The equation expressing conservation of momentum is:If one body is motionless to begin with (e.g.", "), the equation for conservation of momentum issoIn a different situation, if the frame of reference is moving at the final velocity such that , the objects would be brought to rest by a perfectly inelastic collision and 100% of the kinetic energy is converted to other forms of energy.", "In this instance the initial velocities of the bodies would be non-zero, or the bodies would have to be massless.One measure of the inelasticity of the collision is the coefficient of restitution , defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach.", "In applying this measure to a ball bouncing from a solid surface, this can be easily measured using the following formula:The momentum and energy equations also apply to the motions of objects that begin together and then move apart.", "For example, an explosion is the result of a chain reaction that transforms potential energy stored in chemical, mechanical, or nuclear form into kinetic energy, acoustic energy, and electromagnetic radiation.", "Rockets also make use of conservation of momentum: propellant is thrust outward, gaining momentum, and an equal and opposite momentum is imparted to the rocket.===Multiple dimensions===Two-dimensional elastic collision.", "There is no motion perpendicular to the image, so only two components are needed to represent the velocities and momenta.", "The two blue vectors represent velocities after the collision and add vectorially to get the initial (red) velocity.Real motion has both direction and velocity and must be represented by a vector.", "In a coordinate system with axes, velocity has components in the -direction, in the -direction, in the -direction.", "The vector is represented by a boldface symbol:Similarly, the momentum is a vector quantity and is represented by a boldface symbol:The equations in the previous sections, work in vector form if the scalars and are replaced by vectors and .", "Each vector equation represents three scalar equations.", "For example,represents three equations:The kinetic energy equations are exceptions to the above replacement rule.", "The equations are still one-dimensional, but each scalar represents the magnitude of the vector, for example,Each vector equation represents three scalar equations.", "Often coordinates can be chosen so that only two components are needed, as in the figure.", "Each component can be obtained separately and the results combined to produce a vector result.A simple construction involving the center of mass frame can be used to show that if a stationary elastic sphere is struck by a moving sphere, the two will head off at right angles after the collision (as in the figure).=== Objects of variable mass ===The concept of momentum plays a fundamental role in explaining the behavior of variable-mass objects such as a rocket ejecting fuel or a star accreting gas.", "In analyzing such an object, one treats the object's mass as a function that varies with time: .", "The momentum of the object at time is therefore .", "One might then try to invoke Newton's second law of motion by saying that the external force on the object is related to its momentum by , but this is incorrect, as is the related expression found by applying the product rule to :This equation does not correctly describe the motion of variable-mass objects.", "The correct equation iswhere is the velocity of the ejected/accreted mass ''as seen in the object's rest frame''.", "This is distinct from , which is the velocity of the object itself as seen in an inertial frame.This equation is derived by keeping track of both the momentum of the object as well as the momentum of the ejected/accreted mass ().", "When considered together, the object and the mass () constitute a closed system in which total momentum is conserved." ], [ "Relativistic", "===Lorentz invariance===Newtonian physics assumes that absolute time and space exist outside of any observer; this gives rise to Galilean invariance.", "It also results in a prediction that the speed of light can vary from one reference frame to another.", "This is contrary to what has been observed.", "In the special theory of relativity, Einstein keeps the postulate that the equations of motion do not depend on the reference frame, but assumes that the speed of light is invariant.", "As a result, position and time in two reference frames are related by the Lorentz transformation instead of the Galilean transformation.Consider, for example, one reference frame moving relative to another at velocity in the direction.", "The Galilean transformation gives the coordinates of the moving frame aswhile the Lorentz transformation giveswhere is the Lorentz factor:Newton's second law, with mass fixed, is not invariant under a Lorentz transformation.", "However, it can be made invariant by making the ''inertial mass'' of an object a function of velocity: is the object's invariant mass.The modified momentum,obeys Newton's second law:Within the domain of classical mechanics, relativistic momentum closely approximates Newtonian momentum: at low velocity, is approximately equal to , the Newtonian expression for momentum.===Four-vector formulation===In the theory of special relativity, physical quantities are expressed in terms of four-vectors that include time as a fourth coordinate along with the three space coordinates.", "These vectors are generally represented by capital letters, for example for position.", "The expression for the ''four-momentum'' depends on how the coordinates are expressed.", "Time may be given in its normal units or multiplied by the speed of light so that all the components of the four-vector have dimensions of length.", "If the latter scaling is used, an interval of proper time, , defined byis invariant under Lorentz transformations (in this expression and in what follows the metric signature has been used, different authors use different conventions).", "Mathematically this invariance can be ensured in one of two ways: by treating the four-vectors as Euclidean vectors and multiplying time by ; or by keeping time a real quantity and embedding the vectors in a Minkowski space.", "In a Minkowski space, the scalar product of two four-vectors and is defined asIn all the coordinate systems, the (contravariant) relativistic four-velocity is defined byand the (contravariant) four-momentum iswhere is the invariant mass.", "If (in Minkowski space), thenUsing Einstein's mass–energy equivalence, , this can be rewritten asThus, conservation of four-momentum is Lorentz-invariant and implies conservation of both mass and energy.The magnitude of the momentum four-vector is equal to :and is invariant across all reference frames.The relativistic energy–momentum relationship holds even for massless particles such as photons; by setting it follows thatIn a game of relativistic \"billiards\", if a stationary particle is hit by a moving particle in an elastic collision, the paths formed by the two afterwards will form an acute angle.", "This is unlike the non-relativistic case where they travel at right angles.The four-momentum of a planar wave can be related to a wave four-vectorFor a particle, the relationship between temporal components, , is the Planck–Einstein relation, and the relation between spatial components, , describes a de Broglie matter wave." ], [ "Generalized", "Newton's laws can be difficult to apply to many kinds of motion because the motion is limited by ''constraints''.", "For example, a bead on an abacus is constrained to move along its wire and a pendulum bob is constrained to swing at a fixed distance from the pivot.", "Many such constraints can be incorporated by changing the normal Cartesian coordinates to a set of ''generalized coordinates'' that may be fewer in number.", "Refined mathematical methods have been developed for solving mechanics problems in generalized coordinates.", "They introduce a ''generalized momentum'', also known as the ''canonical'' or ''conjugate momentum'', that extends the concepts of both linear momentum and angular momentum.", "To distinguish it from generalized momentum, the product of mass and velocity is also referred to as ''mechanical'', ''kinetic'' or ''kinematic momentum''.", "The two main methods are described below.===Lagrangian mechanics===In Lagrangian mechanics, a Lagrangian is defined as the difference between the kinetic energy and the potential energy :If the generalized coordinates are represented as a vector and time differentiation is represented by a dot over the variable, then the equations of motion (known as the Lagrange or Euler–Lagrange equations) are a set of equations:If a coordinate is not a Cartesian coordinate, the associated generalized momentum component does not necessarily have the dimensions of linear momentum.", "Even if is a Cartesian coordinate, will not be the same as the mechanical momentum if the potential depends on velocity.", "Some sources represent the kinematic momentum by the symbol .In this mathematical framework, a generalized momentum is associated with the generalized coordinates.", "Its components are defined asEach component is said to be the ''conjugate momentum'' for the coordinate .Now if a given coordinate does not appear in the Lagrangian (although its time derivative might appear), then is constant.", "This is the generalization of the conservation of momentum.Even if the generalized coordinates are just the ordinary spatial coordinates, the conjugate momenta are not necessarily the ordinary momentum coordinates.", "An example is found in the section on electromagnetism.===Hamiltonian mechanics===In Hamiltonian mechanics, the Lagrangian (a function of generalized coordinates and their derivatives) is replaced by a Hamiltonian that is a function of generalized coordinates and momentum.", "The Hamiltonian is defined aswhere the momentum is obtained by differentiating the Lagrangian as above.", "The Hamiltonian equations of motion areAs in Lagrangian mechanics, if a generalized coordinate does not appear in the Hamiltonian, its conjugate momentum component is conserved.===Symmetry and conservation===Conservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (position in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to momentum).", "That is, conservation of momentum is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not depend on position; this is a special case of Noether's theorem.", "For systems that do not have this symmetry, it may not be possible to define conservation of momentum.", "Examples where conservation of momentum does not apply include curved spacetimes in general relativity or time crystals in condensed matter physics." ], [ "Electromagnetic", "===Particle in a field===In Maxwell's equations, the forces between particles are mediated by electric and magnetic fields.", "The electromagnetic force (''Lorentz force'') on a particle with charge due to a combination of electric field and magnetic field is(in SI units).It has an electric potential and magnetic vector potential .In the non-relativistic regime, its generalized momentum iswhile in relativistic mechanics this becomesThe quantity is sometimes called the ''potential momentum''.", "It is the momentum due to the interaction of the particle with the electromagnetic fields.", "The name is an analogy with the potential energy , which is the energy due to the interaction of the particle with the electromagnetic fields.", "These quantities form a four-vector, so the analogy is consistent; besides, the concept of potential momentum is important in explaining the so-called hidden momentum of the electromagnetic fields.===Conservation===In Newtonian mechanics, the law of conservation of momentum can be derived from the law of action and reaction, which states that every force has a reciprocating equal and opposite force.", "Under some circumstances, moving charged particles can exert forces on each other in non-opposite directions.", "Nevertheless, the combined momentum of the particles and the electromagnetic field is conserved.====Vacuum====The Lorentz force imparts a momentum to the particle, so by Newton's second law the particle must impart a momentum to the electromagnetic fields.In a vacuum, the momentum per unit volume iswhere is the vacuum permeability and is the speed of light.", "The momentum density is proportional to the Poynting vector which gives the directional rate of energy transfer per unit area:If momentum is to be conserved over the volume over a region , changes in the momentum of matter through the Lorentz force must be balanced by changes in the momentum of the electromagnetic field and outflow of momentum.", "If is the momentum of all the particles in , and the particles are treated as a continuum, then Newton's second law givesThe electromagnetic momentum isand the equation for conservation of each component of the momentum isThe term on the right is an integral over the surface area of the surface representing momentum flow into and out of the volume, and is a component of the surface normal of .", "The quantity is called the Maxwell stress tensor, defined as ====Media====The above results are for the ''microscopic'' Maxwell equations, applicable to electromagnetic forces in a vacuum (or on a very small scale in media).", "It is more difficult to define momentum density in media because the division into electromagnetic and mechanical is arbitrary.", "The definition of electromagnetic momentum density is modified towhere the H-field is related to the B-field and the magnetization byThe electromagnetic stress tensor depends on the properties of the media." ], [ "Quantum mechanical", "In quantum mechanics, momentum is defined as a self-adjoint operator on the wave function.", "The Heisenberg uncertainty principle defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable system can be known at once.", "In quantum mechanics, position and momentum are conjugate variables.For a single particle described in the position basis the momentum operator can be written aswhere is the gradient operator, is the reduced Planck constant, and is the imaginary unit.", "This is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator, though the momentum operator in other bases can take other forms.", "For example, in momentum space the momentum operator is represented by the eigenvalue equationwhere the operator acting on a wave eigenfunction yields that wave function multiplied by the eigenvalue , in an analogous fashion to the way that the position operator acting on a wave function yields that wave function multiplied by the eigenvalue .For both massive and massless objects, relativistic momentum is related to the phase constant byElectromagnetic radiation (including visible light, ultraviolet light, and radio waves) is carried by photons.", "Even though photons (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum.", "This leads to applications such as the solar sail.", "The calculation of the momentum of light within dielectric media is somewhat controversial (see Abraham–Minkowski controversy)." ], [ "In deformable bodies and fluids", "===Conservation in a continuum===Motion of a material bodyIn fields such as fluid dynamics and solid mechanics, it is not feasible to follow the motion of individual atoms or molecules.", "Instead, the materials must be approximated by a continuum in which there is a particle or fluid parcel at each point that is assigned the average of the properties of atoms in a small region nearby.", "In particular, it has a density and velocity that depend on time and position .", "The momentum per unit volume is .Consider a column of water in hydrostatic equilibrium.", "All the forces on the water are in balance and the water is motionless.", "On any given drop of water, two forces are balanced.", "The first is gravity, which acts directly on each atom and molecule inside.", "The gravitational force per unit volume is , where is the gravitational acceleration.", "The second force is the sum of all the forces exerted on its surface by the surrounding water.", "The force from below is greater than the force from above by just the amount needed to balance gravity.", "The normal force per unit area is the pressure .", "The average force per unit volume inside the droplet is the gradient of the pressure, so the force balance equation isIf the forces are not balanced, the droplet accelerates.", "This acceleration is not simply the partial derivative because the fluid in a given volume changes with time.", "Instead, the material derivative is needed:Applied to any physical quantity, the material derivative includes the rate of change at a point and the changes due to advection as fluid is carried past the point.", "Per unit volume, the rate of change in momentum is equal to .", "This is equal to the net force on the droplet.Forces that can change the momentum of a droplet include the gradient of the pressure and gravity, as above.", "In addition, surface forces can deform the droplet.", "In the simplest case, a shear stress , exerted by a force parallel to the surface of the droplet, is proportional to the rate of deformation or strain rate.", "Such a shear stress occurs if the fluid has a velocity gradient because the fluid is moving faster on one side than another.", "If the speed in the direction varies with , the tangential force in direction per unit area normal to the direction iswhere is the viscosity.", "This is also a flux, or flow per unit area, of -momentum through the surface.Including the effect of viscosity, the momentum balance equations for the incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid areThese are known as the Navier–Stokes equations.The momentum balance equations can be extended to more general materials, including solids.", "For each surface with normal in direction and force in direction , there is a stress component .", "The nine components make up the Cauchy stress tensor , which includes both pressure and shear.", "The local conservation of momentum is expressed by the Cauchy momentum equation:where is the body force.The Cauchy momentum equation is broadly applicable to deformations of solids and liquids.", "The relationship between the stresses and the strain rate depends on the properties of the material (see Types of viscosity).===Acoustic waves===A disturbance in a medium gives rise to oscillations, or waves, that propagate away from their source.", "In a fluid, small changes in pressure can often be described by the acoustic wave equation:where is the speed of sound.", "In a solid, similar equations can be obtained for propagation of pressure (P-waves) and shear (S-waves).The flux, or transport per unit area, of a momentum component by a velocity is equal to .", "In the linear approximation that leads to the above acoustic equation, the time average of this flux is zero.", "However, nonlinear effects can give rise to a nonzero average.", "It is possible for momentum flux to occur even though the wave itself does not have a mean momentum." ], [ "History of the concept", "=== Impetus ======= John Philoponus ====In about 530 AD, John Philoponus developed a concept of momentum in ''On Physics'', a commentary to Aristotle's ''Physics''.", "Aristotle claimed that everything that is moving must be kept moving by something.", "For example, a thrown ball must be kept moving by motions of the air.", "Philoponus pointed out the absurdity in Aristotle's claim that motion of an object is promoted by the same air that is resisting its passage.", "He proposed instead that an impetus was imparted to the object in the act of throwing it.==== Ibn Sīnā ====Ibn Sīnā(980–1037)In 1020, Ibn Sīnā (also known by his Latinized name Avicenna) read Philoponus and published his own theory of motion in ''The Book of Healing''.", "He agreed that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower; but unlike Philoponus, who believed that it was a temporary virtue that would decline even in a vacuum, he viewed it as a persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it.==== Peter Olivi, Jean Buridan ====In the 13th and 14th century, Peter Olivi and Jean Buridan read and refined the work of Philoponus, and possibly that of Ibn Sīnā.", "Buridan, who in about 1350 was made rector of the University of Paris, referred to impetus being proportional to the weight times the speed.", "Moreover, Buridan's theory was different from his predecessor's in that he did not consider impetus to be self-dissipating, asserting that a body would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and gravity which might be opposing its impetus.=== Quantity of motion ======= René Descartes ====In ''Principles of Philosophy'' (''Principia Philosophiae'') from 1644, the French philosopher René Descartes defined \"quantity of motion\" (''Latin: quantitas motus'') as the product of size and speed, and claimed that the total quantity of motion in the universe is conserved.René Descartes(1596–1650)This should not be read as a statement of the modern law of conservation of momentum, since Descartes had no concept of mass as distinct from weight and size.", "(The concept of mass, as distinct from weight, was introduced by Newton in 1686.)", "More important, he believed that it is speed rather than velocity that is conserved.", "So for Descartes, if a moving object were to bounce off a surface, changing its direction but not its speed, there would be no change in its quantity of motion.", "Galileo, in his ''Two New Sciences'' (published in 1638), used the Italian word to similarly describe Descartes's quantity of motion.==== Christiaan Huygens ====Christiaan Huygens(1629–1695)In the 1600s, Christiaan Huygens concluded quite early that Descartes's laws for the elastic collision of two bodies must be wrong, and he formulated the correct laws.", "An important step was his recognition of the Galilean invariance of the problems.", "His views then took many years to be circulated.", "He passed them on in person to William Brouncker and Christopher Wren in London, in 1661.What Spinoza wrote to Henry Oldenburg about them, in 1666 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, was guarded.", "Huygens had actually worked them out in a manuscript in the period 1652–1656.The war ended in 1667, and Huygens announced his results to the Royal Society in 1668.He published them in the in 1669.=== Momentum ======= John Wallis ====In 1670, John Wallis, in , stated the law of conservation of momentum: \"the initial state of the body, either of rest or of motion, will persist\" and \"If the force is greater than the resistance, motion will result\".", "Wallis used ''momentum'' for quantity of motion, and for force.==== Gottfried Leibniz ====In 1686, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, in ''Discourse on Metaphysics'', gave an argument against Descartes' construction of the conservation of the \"quantity of motion\" using an example of dropping blocks of different sizes different distances.", "He points out that force is conserved but quantity of motion, construed as the product of size and speed of an object, is not conserved.==== Isaac Newton ====Isaac Newton(1642–1727)In 1687, Isaac Newton, in , just like Wallis, showed a similar casting around for words to use for the mathematical momentum.", "His Definition II defines , \"quantity of motion\", as \"arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly\", which identifies it as momentum.", "Thus when in Law II he refers to , \"change of motion\", being proportional to the force impressed, he is generally taken to mean momentum and not motion.==== John Jennings ====In 1721, John Jennings published ''Miscellanea'', where the momentum in its current mathematical sense is attested, five years before the final edition of Newton's .", "''Momentum'' or \"quantity of motion\" was being defined for students as \"a rectangle\", the product of and , where is \"quantity of material\" and is \"velocity\", .In 1728, the Cyclopedia states:" ], [ "See also", "* Angular momentum* Crystal momentum* Galilean cannon* Momentum compaction* Momentum transfer* Newton's cradle* Position and momentum space" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** Conservation of momentum – A chapter from an online textbook" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mood stabilizer" ], [ "Introduction", "A bottle of lithium capsules.", "Lithium is the prototypical mood stabilizer.A '''mood stabilizer''' is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense and sustained mood shifts, such as bipolar disorder and the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder." ], [ "Uses", "Mood stabilizers are best known for the treatment of bipolar disorder, preventing mood shifts to mania (or hypomania) and depression.", "Mood stabilizers are also used in schizoaffective disorder when it is the bipolar type." ], [ "Examples", "The term \"mood stabilizer\" does not describe a mechanism, but rather an effect.", "More precise terminology based on pharmacology is used to further classify these agents.", "Drugs commonly classed as mood stabilizers include:===Mineral===* Lithium – Lithium is the \"classic\" mood stabilizer, the first to be approved by the US FDA, and still popular in treatment.", "Therapeutic drug monitoring is required to ensure lithium levels remain in the therapeutic range: 0.6 or 0.8-1.2 mEq/L (or millimolar).", "Signs and symptoms of toxicity include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and ataxia.", "The most common side effects are lethargy and weight gain.", "The less common side effects of using lithium are blurred vision, a slight tremble in the hands, and a feeling of being mildly ill.", "In general, these side effects occur in the first few weeks after commencing lithium treatment.", "These symptoms can often be improved by lowering the dose.===Anticonvulsants===Many agents described as \"mood stabilizers\" are also categorized as anticonvulsants.", "The term \"anticonvulsant mood stabilizers\" is sometimes used to describe these as a class.", "Although this group is also defined by effect rather than mechanism, there is at least a preliminary understanding of the mechanism of most of the anticonvulsants used in the treatment of mood disorders.", "* Valproate – Available in extended release form.", "This drug can be very irritating to the stomach, especially when taken as a free acid.", "Liver function and CBC should be monitored.", "* Lamotrigine (aka Lamictal) – FDA approved for bipolar disorder maintenance therapy, not for acute mood problems like depression or mania/hypomania.", "The usual target dose is 100–200 mg daily, titrated to by 25 mg increments every 2 weeks.", "Lamotrigine can cause Stevens–Johnson syndrome, a very rare but potentially fatal skin condition.", "* Carbamazepine – FDA approved for the treatment of acute manic or mixed (i.e., both depressed and manic mood features) episodes in people with bipolar disorder type I. Carbamazepine can rarely cause a dangerous decrease in neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, called agranulocytosis.", "It interacts with many medications, including other mood stabilizers (e.g.", "lamotrigine) and antipsychotics (e.g.", "quetiapine).There is insufficient evidence to support the use of various other anticonvulsants, such as gabapentin and topiramate, as mood stabilizers.===Antipsychotics===* Some atypical antipsychotics (aripiprazole, asenapine, cariprazine, lurasidone, olanzapine, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone) also have mood stabilizing effects and are thus commonly prescribed even when psychotic symptoms are absent.===Other===* It is also conjectured that omega-3 fatty acids may have a mood stabilizing effect.", "Compared with placebo, omega-3 fatty acids appear better able to augment known mood stabilizers in reducing depressive (but perhaps not manic) symptoms of bipolar disorder; additional trials would be needed to establish the effects of omega-3 fatty acids alone.", "* It is known that even subclinical hypothyroidism can blunt a patient's response to both mood stabilizers and antidepressants.", "Furthermore, preliminary research into the use of thyroid augmentation in patients with refractory and rapid-cycling bipolar disorder has been positive, showing a slowing in cycle frequency and reduction in symptoms.", "Most studies have been conducted on an open-label basis.", "One large, controlled study of 300 mcg daily dose of levothyroxine (T4) found it superior to placebo for this purpose.", "In general, studies have shown T4 to be well tolerated and to show efficacy even in patients without overt hypothyroidism.===Combination therapy===In routine practice, monotherapy is often not sufficiently effective for acute and/or maintenance therapy and thus most patients are given combination therapies.", "Combination therapy (atypical antipsychotic with lithium or valproate) shows better efficacy over monotherapy in the manic phase in terms of efficacy and prevention of relapse.", "However, side effects are more frequent and discontinuation rates due to adverse events are higher with combination therapy than with monotherapy." ], [ "Relationship to antidepressants", "Most mood stabilizers are primarily antimanic agents, meaning that they are effective at treating mania and mood cycling and shifting, but are not effective at treating acute depression.", "The principal exceptions to that rule, because they treat both manic and depressive symptoms, are lamotrigine, lithium carbonate, olanzapine and quetiapine.Nevertheless, antidepressants are still often prescribed in addition to mood stabilizers during depressive phases.", "This brings some risks, however, as antidepressants can induce mania, psychosis, and other disturbing problems in people with bipolar disorder—in particular, when taken alone.", "The risk of antidepressant-induced mania when given to patients concomitantly on antimanic agents is not known for certain but may still exist.", "The majority of antidepressants appear ineffective in treating bipolar depression.Antidepressants cause several risks when given to bipolar patients.", "They are ineffective in treating acute bipolar depression, preventing relapse, and can cause rapid cycling.", "Studies have shown that antidepressants have no benefit versus a placebo or other treatment.", "Antidepressants can also lead to a higher rate of non-lethal suicidal behavior.", "Relapse can also be related to treatment with antidepressants.", "This is less likely to occur if a mood stabilizer is combined with an antidepressant, rather than an antidepressant being used alone.", "Evidence from previous studies shows that rapid cycling is linked to use of antidepressants.", "Rapid cycling is defined as the presence of four or more mood episodes within a year's time.", "Evidence suggests that rapid cycling and mixed symptoms have become more common since antidepressant medication has come into widespread use.", "There is a need for caution when treating bipolar patients with antidepressant medication due to the risks that they pose." ], [ "Pharmacodynamics", "The precise mechanism of action of lithium is still unknown, and it is suspected that it acts at various points of the neuron between the nucleus and the synapse.", "Lithium is known to inhibit the enzyme GSK-3B.", "This improves the functioning of the circadian clock—which is thought to be often malfunctioning in people with bipolar disorder—and positively modulates gene transcription of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).", "The resulting increase in neural plasticity may be central to lithium's therapeutic effects.", "How lithium works in the human body is not completely understood, but its benefits are most likely related to its effects on electrolytes such as potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium.All of the anticonvulsants routinely used to treat bipolar disorder are blockers of voltage-gated sodium channels, affecting the brain's glutamate system.", "For valproic acid, carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine, however, their mood-stabilizing effects may be more related to effects on the GABAergic system.", "Lamotrigine is known to decrease the patient's cortisol response to stress.One possible downstream target of several mood stabilizers such as lithium, valproate, and carbamazepine is the arachidonic acid cascade." ], [ "See also", "* Treatment of bipolar disorder===Categories===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Mere Christianity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Mere Christianity''''' is a Christian apologetical book by the British author C. S. Lewis.", "It was adapted from a series of BBC radio talks made between 1941 and 1944, originally published as three separate volumes: ''Broadcast Talks'' (1942), ''Christian Behaviour'' (1943), and ''Beyond Personality'' (1944).", "The book consists of four parts: the first presents Lewis's arguments for the existence of God; the second contains his defence of Christian theology, including his notable \"Liar, lunatic, or Lord\" trilemma; the third has him exploring Christian ethics, among which are cardinal and theological virtues; in the final, he writes on the Christian conception of God.", "''Mere Christianity'' was published in the United Kingdom by Geoffrey Bles on 7 July 1952.While initial reviews to the book were generally positive, modern reviewers were more critical of it, and its overall reception was relatively mixed.", "The praise was primarily directed to Lewis's humorous, straightforward style of writing; the criticism was primarily around the validity of his trilemma, which defends the Christian doctrine of the divinity of Jesus, and how he should have considered providing more choices.Deemed a classic in Lewis's career and religious literature, ''Mere Christianity'' has often received a wide readership decades following its release, and contributed to establishing its author's reputation as \"one of the most 'original' exponents of the Christian faith\" in the 20th century.", "The work, with Lewis's arguments for God's existence in it, continued to be examined in scholarly circles.", "''Mere Christianity'' has retained popularity among Christians from various denominations, and appeared in several lists of finest Christian books.", "Often used as a tool of evangelism, it has been translated into over thirty languages, and cited by a number of public figures as their influence to their conversion to Christianity.", "Several \"biographies\" of the book have also been written." ], [ "Background", "After reading Lewis's ''The Problem of Pain'' James Welch, the Director of Religious Broadcasting for the BBC, wrote Lewis the following:I write to ask whether you would be willing to help us in our work of religious broadcasting ...", "The microphone is a limiting, and rather irritating, instrument, but the quality of thinking and depth of conviction which I find in your book ought sure to be shared with a great many other people.", "Welch suggested two potential subjects.", "Lewis responded with thanks and observed that modern literature, the first, did not suit him, choosing instead the Christian faith as Lewis understood it.In the preface to later editions, Lewis described his desire to avoid contested theological doctrine by focusing on core beliefs of the Christian Faith.", "The succinct and pithy language employed by Lewis enabled him to impact broad audiences, while retaining intellectual substance for more studied readers.Every Wednesday from 7:45 pm to 8 pm during August 1941, Lewis gave live talks entitled \"Right or Wrong: A Clue to the Meaning of the Universe\" which would become the first book in ''Mere Christianity''.", "The first set of talks became very popular and flooded Lewis with responses from an adoring and irate public.", "This feedback led to Lewis going back on air to answer listeners' questions.The following January and February, Lewis gave the next set of talks on what would become \"What Christians Believe\".", "The talks remained popular and because of the success of the newly released ''The Screwtape Letters'', Lewis’s publisher was happy to publish the broadcast talks as books that year.In Autumn 1942, the third series of talks were, ironically, cut down from 15 to 10 minutes.", "Due to a miscommunication, Lewis had prepared for 15 minutes, but added the cut material back into the next book and added several more chapters.The fourth set of talks did not take place until 1944.The script drafts had a much wider scope originally, and Lewis prepared for 10-minute talks when the BBC was giving him 15.The timing of these talks was important and strictly adhered to due to technology and World War II, Germany would broadcast propaganda through the English-spoken \"Lord Hawhaw\" during any dead air.", "Due to the timing of the fourth set of talks (10:20 pm), Lewis said he could not do them all live and would have to record some.=== The Case for Christianity (Broadcast Talks in UK) ===The core of the first section centres on an argument from morality, the basis of which is the \"law of human nature\", a \"rule about right and wrong,\" which, Lewis maintained, is commonly available and known to all human beings.", "He cites, as an example, the case of Nazi Germany, writing: \"This law was called the Law of nature because people thought that everyone knew it by nature and did not need to be taught it.", "They did not mean, of course, that you might not find an odd individual here and there who did not know it, just as you find a few people who are colour-blind or have no ear for a tune.", "But taking the race as a whole, they thought that the human idea of decent behaviour was obvious to everyone.", "And I believe they were right.", "If they were not, then all the things we said about the war were nonsense.", "What was the sense in saying the enemy were in the wrong unless Right is a real thing which the Nazis at bottom knew as well as we did and ought to have practised?", "If they had had no notion of what we mean by right, then, though we might still have had to fight them, we could no more have blamed them for that than for the colour of their hair.On a mundane level, it is generally accepted that stealing is a violation of this moral law.", "Lewis argues that the moral law is like scientific laws (e.g.", "gravity) or mathematics in that it was not contrived by humans.", "However, it is unlike scientific laws in that it can be broken or ignored, and it is known intuitively, rather than through experimentation.", "After introducing the moral law, Lewis argues that thirst reflects the fact that people naturally need water, and there is no other substance which satisfies that need.", "Lewis points out that earthly experience does not satisfy the human craving for \"joy\" and that only God could fit the bill; humans cannot know to yearn for something if it does not exist.After providing reasons for his conversion to theism, Lewis explicates various conceptions of God.", "Pantheism, he argues, is incoherent, and atheism too simple.", "Eventually, he arrives at Jesus Christ, and invokes a well-known argument now known as ''Lewis's trilemma''.", "Lewis, arguing that Jesus was claiming to be God, uses logic to advance three possibilities: either he really was God, was deliberately lying, or was not God but thought himself to be (which would make him delusional and likely insane).", "The book goes on to say that the latter two possibilities are not consistent with Jesus' character and it was most likely that he was being truthful.=== Christian Behaviour ===The next third of the book explores the ethics resulting from Christian belief.", "He cites the four cardinal virtues: prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude.", "After touching on these, he goes into the three theological virtues: hope, faith, and charity.", "Lewis also explains morality as being composed of three ''layers'': relationships between man and man, the motivations and attitudes of the man himself, and contrasting worldviews.Lewis also covers such topics as social relations and forgiveness, sexual ethics and the tenets of Christian marriage, and the relationship between morality and psychoanalysis.", "He also writes about ''the great sin'': pride, which he argues to be the root cause of all evil and rebellion.His most important point is that Christianity mandates that one \"love your neighbour as yourself.\"", "He points out that all persons unconditionally love themselves.", "Even if one does not ''like'' oneself, one would still love oneself.", "Christians, he writes, must also apply this attitude to others, even if they do not like them.", "Lewis calls this one of the ''great secrets'': when one acts as if he loves others, he will presently come to love them." ], [ "Critical reception", "Initial reviews of ''Mere Christianity'' generally show enthusiasm, and most of them were from Christian publications.", "However, combining them with the reviews published decades later indicated a more mixed reception.", "The historian Stephanie L. Derrick observed that the book's literary elements, such as its eloquence, were the aspect most frequently noted by contemporary publications.", "The historian George M. Marsden summarised that ''Mere Christianity'' \"has been hated as well as loved.", "Nonetheless, as a popular presentation of the faith it has drawn less systematic criticism than would a book that purported to be a definitive treatise on Christian apologetics and theology.\"", "On the general reception to the book, the Lewis biographer Margaret Patterson Hannay described it as his \"most popular and ... most disparaged\" work, adding that \"probably because its fans have spoken of it as a profound piece of theology, while it is, as was designed to be, only a primer\".Describing the book as \"a rare gift\", Edward Skillin of the ''Commonweal'' magazine commented of Lewis's ability to make \"complicated matters\" more accessible especially to laypeople.", "On a passage of the book, Edward D. Myers of ''Theology Today'' noted, \"This is clear, it is simple, it is eminently Christian, and it is typical of the ease with which Mr. Lewis puts great matters into plain language.\"", "Joseph McSorley of ''The Catholic World'' found Lewis writing \"with his customary clarity and incisiveness, and with proofs that the average man will find convincing.", "It is a delight to see him demolish in a paragraph many of the heresies which have contributed to our present ghastly condition.\"", "''The Tablet'', a Catholic magazine, wrote:\"We have never read arguments better marshalled and handled so that they can be remembered, or any book more useful to the Christian, in the Army or elsewhere, who finds himself called upon to argue briefly from first premises, to say why morality is not herd-instinct, why there is a special and unique character attaching to the sense of obligation, why the conviction that there is a law of right and wrong and a transcendent morality is only intelligible if there is a God.", "\"''The Times Literary Supplement'' wrote of Lewis's \"quite unique power\" of making theology interesting, even \"exciting and (one might almost say) uproariously funny\".", "The reviewer added: \"No writer of popular apologetics today is more effective than Mr. C. S.", "Lewis.\"", "''The Clergy Review'' G. D. Smith opined that Lewis \"shows himself a master in the rare art of conveying profound truths in simple and compelling language\".", "J. H. Homes of the ''New York Herald Tribune Weekly Book Review'' wrote that \"his clarity of thought and simplicity of expression have a magic about them which makes plain the most abstruse problems of theological speculation\".", "''The Guardian'' said: \"His learning is abundantly seasoned with common sense, his humor and his irony are always at the service of the most serious purposes, and his originality is the offspring of enthusiastically loyal orthodoxy.", "\"The author Colin Duriez praised it as easy to understand, and the biographer Thomas C. Peters opined that his straightforward language makes the book fit to a wide audience.", "There had been also criticism, which was primarily directed towards Lewis's \"Liar, lunatic, or Lord\" trilemma.", "The Lewis biographer and Christian apologist Alister McGrath, while commending the book in general, felt that his trilemma is a weak defence for the doctrine of the divinity of Jesus, calling this the book's \"most obvious concern\".", "He wrote his argument is mostly unsupported by the modern biblical scholarship, and argued that others options such as that Jesus was mistaken about his identity should have gotten into consideration of alternatives.Scathing criticism came from the philosopher John Beversluis, in his book ''C.", "S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion'' (1985).", "Beversluis analysed Lewis's arguments for Christianity, arriving in the conclusion that each of them is built on faulty logic.", "He argued that Lewis made his arguments convincing by creating false analogies, with an instance in his trilemma.", "Beversluis said there are more alternatives in addition to Jesus being a liar or lunatic, one of which is that his disciples misinterpreted his words.", "The philosopher Victor Reppert replied to Beversluis in ''C.", "S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea'' (2003), noting that Beversluis was correct in pointing out that many of Lewis's arguments are not strictly logical but overestimating the degree to which Lewis rested his case for Christianity on reason alone.", "Reppert continued that Lewis, in his autobiography, ''Surprised by Joy'' (1955), realised Christianity rests on far more than solely reason." ], [ "Legacy", "''Mere Christianity'' has been referred to as a classic of Lewis's career, as well as of religious literature, particularly in the category of Christian apologetics.", "Commentators have also seen it as a guide to the basics of the Christian faith and to his theology.", "The book, along with his arguments for the existence of God, have frequently received academic evaluation, either complimenting or critical.", "Analysing Lewis's books, the Australian archeologist Warwick Ball believed ''Mere Christianity'' is perhaps his most influential and widely read apologetic work; the American philosopher C. Stephen Evans called his moral argument the \"most widely-convincing apologetic argument of the twentieth century\"; McGrath considered it \"perhaps as outstanding an example of a lucid and intelligent presentation of the rational and moral case for Christian belief as we are ever likely to see\".", "''Mere Christianity'' has retained popularity years after its publication, and has been compared to other well-known Christian works, including Augustine's ''The City of God'' and G. K. Chesterton's ''The Everlasting Man'' (1925).", "The BBC journalist Justin Phillips observed that it \"continues to transform the lives of those who read it.", "There is no reason why it won't continue to be potent for decades to come.\"", "According to the authors Roger Lancelyn Green and Walter Hooper, its success led to the acknowledgment of Lewis as \"one of the most 'original' exponents of the Christian faith\" of the 20th century.", "The book, Hooper continued, shows Lewis's ability of providing a comprehensible guidance of the Christian beliefs/theology to everyone, and \"has become synonymous with Lewis\".", "The academic Bruce L. Edwards noted that it contributes to shaping Lewis's reputation as \"a witty, articulate proponent of Christianity\".", "The author Marvin D. Hinten wrote: \"When people are asked which C. S. Lewis book has most influenced them spiritually, the most common answer is ''Mere Christianity''.", "\"According to Peters, the book is more popular among Christians of various denominations, including Catholic, Latter-day Saint, Orthodox, and Protestant, but less among non-Christians.", "It is often used as an evangelistic tool, predominantly in Christian-majority countries, including the United States, where its influence is most felt.", "Furthermore, its influence is strengthened by the publication of its translations; according to Marsden, it has been translated to about thirty-six languages.", "In the next decades, ''Mere Christianity'' is continued to be reprinted and sold by Christian and online booksellers.", "For instance, soon after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it was translated into the several native languages of its breakaway states, which was done by Orthodox Christians to rebuild their influence.", "As of 2010, the book had been in BookScan Religion Bestseller's list for 513 weeks, consecutively.", "There is also a considerable readership in China, with 60,000 copies had been sold there as of 2014.The book has also been cited by a number of public figures as their influence to their conversion, or re-conversion, to Christianity as well as other Christian denominations.", "The American geneticist Francis Collins related his story of conversion from atheism in his book, ''The Language of God'' (2006), and described ''Mere Christianity'' as having influenced him to embrace Christianity.", "The American attorney Charles Colson's conversion happened after him reading a copy of the book given by his friend, Thomas L. Phillips (the chairman of the board of the Raytheon Company).", "His story became popular, enhanced by the release of his autobiography in 1976, which was consequently declared the \"Year of the Evangelicals\" by the ''Newsweek'' magazine.", "Catholic converts include the British philanthropist Leonard Cheshire, the German economist E. F. Schumacher, the American author Sheldon Vanauken, the American columnist Ross Douthat, the American theologian Peter Kreeft, and the American philosopher Francis J.", "Beckwith.", "''Mere Christianity'' has been featured in several lists.", "It was included in the 2000 book, ''100 Christian Books That Changed the Century'', by William J. Petersen and Randy Petersen.", "In 2000 and 2006, the evangelical magazine ''Christianity Today'' editorial board included ''Mere Christianity'' in its \"Books of the Century\" and \"The Top 50 Books That Have Shaped Evangelicals\", respectively.", "In a 2013 article to ''Christianity Today'', McGrath ranked it the first among the five books by Lewis he liked the most.", "In the same year's \"The Best Christian Book of All Time Tournament\", run by InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, ''Mere Christianity'' was voted as the all-time, best Christian book, only after Augustine's autobiography ''Confessions''.", "In 2018, ''Christianity Today'' Greg Cootsona, a writer of the relationship between religion and science, featured it in his \"5 Books That Bring Science and Christianity Together\" listing.", "''Mere Christianity'' has influenced other Christian publications, with the scholar Gary L. Tandy noting that it remains the standard for assessing them, mainly the apologetic ones.", "Subsequent publications with allusion to the book in their titles include N. T. Wright's ''Simply Christian'' (2006) and McGrath's ''Mere Apologetics'' (2012).", "The American pastor Tim Keller referred to his apologetic ''The Reason for God'' (2012) as \"''Mere Christianity'' for dummies\".", "The bimonthly ecumenical Christian magazine ''Touchstone'', which started publication in 1986, is subtitled ''A Journal of Mere Christianity''.", "Paul McCusker's ''C.", "S. Lewis & Mere Christianity'', which provides insights to the work in its historical context, was published in 2014; it was praised for being well-researched but was criticised for its factual errors.", "Another \"biography\" of the book, ''C.", "S. Lewis's Mere Christianity'', written by Marsden, was released in 2016, and received a positive reception from critics, with some criticism to its conclusion." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Chapters'''* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Audio of the last remaining broadcast talk from bbc.co.uk* , originally from CSLewisClassics.com * Origin of the phrase \"Mere Christianity\"* Mere Christianity.", "Canadian public domain edition (PDF)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mathematical game" ], [ "Introduction", "The wagon must travel a path that is given by a mathematical function.A '''mathematical game''' is a game whose rules, strategies, and outcomes are defined by clear mathematical parameters.", "Often, such games have simple rules and match procedures, such as tic-tac-toe and dots and boxes.", "Generally, mathematical games need not be conceptually intricate to involve deeper computational underpinnings.", "For example, even though the rules of Mancala are relatively basic, the game can be rigorously analyzed through the lens of combinatorial game theory.Mathematical games differ sharply from mathematical puzzles in that mathematical puzzles require specific mathematical expertise to complete, whereas mathematical games do not require a deep knowledge of mathematics to play.", "Often, the arithmetic core of mathematical games is not readily apparent to players untrained to note the statistical or mathematical aspects.Some mathematical games are of deep interest in the field of recreational mathematics.When studying a game's core mathematics, arithmetic theory is generally of higher utility than actively playing or observing the game itself.", "To analyze a game numerically, it is particularly useful to study the rules of the game insofar as they can yield equations or relevant formulas.", "This is frequently done to determine winning strategies or to distinguish if the game has a solution.Additionally, mathematical games can aid children in grasping fundamental concepts such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, enhancing their arithmetic skills in an engaging manner." ], [ "List of games", "Sometimes it is not immediately obvious that a particular game involves chance.", "Often a card game is described as \"pure strategy\" and such, but a game with any sort of random shuffling or face-down dealing of cards should not be considered to be \"no chance\".", "Several abstract strategy games are listed below:=== Lattice board ===* Angels and Devils* Arimaa* Checkers (English draughts)**Checkers variants* Chess** Chess variants* Chomp* Domineering* Dots and boxes* Go** Go variants*Gomoku* Hex* Hexapawn* L game*Othello*Pente* Philosopher's football* Rhythmomachy*Tak* Tic-tac-toe** Tic-tac-toe variants=== Non-lattice boards and other games ===* Graph pebbling* Hackenbush* Chopsticks (hand game)*Mancala* Nim* Sim* Sprouts* Four fours=== Chance involved or imperfect information ===* 24* Prisoner's dilemma" ], [ "See also", "* Games of skill" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Martin Gardner" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Martin Gardner''' (October 21, 1914May 22, 2010) was an American popular mathematics and popular science writer with interests also encompassing magic, scientific skepticism, micromagic, philosophy, religion, and literatureespecially the writings of Lewis Carroll, L. Frank Baum, and G. K. Chesterton.", "He was also a leading authority on Lewis Carroll.", "''The Annotated Alice'', which incorporated the text of Carroll's two Alice books, was his most successful work and sold over a million copies.", "He had a lifelong interest in magic and illusion and in 1999, ''MAGIC'' magazine named him as one of the \"100 Most Influential Magicians of the Twentieth Century\".", "He was considered the doyen of American puzzlers.", "He was a prolific and versatile author, publishing more than 100 books.Gardner was best known for creating and sustaining interest in recreational mathematics—and by extension, mathematics in general—throughout the latter half of the 20th century, principally through his \"Mathematical Games\" columns.", "These appeared for twenty-five years in ''Scientific American'', and his subsequent books collecting them.Gardner was one of the foremost anti-pseudoscience polemicists of the 20th century.", "His 1957 book ''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science'' is a seminal work of the skeptical movement.", "In 1976, he joined with fellow skeptics to found CSICOP, an organization promoting scientific inquiry and the use of reason in examining extraordinary claims.He was a frequent contributor to ''The New York Review of Books''." ], [ "Biography", "Gardner as a high school senior, 1932===Youth and education===Martin Gardner was born into a prosperous family in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to James Henry Gardner, a prominent petroleum geologist, and his wife, Willie Wilkerson Spiers, a Montessori-trained teacher.", "His mother taught Martin to read before he started school, reading him ''The Wizard of Oz'', and this began a lifelong interest in the Oz books of L. Frank Baum.", "His fascination with mathematics started in his boyhood when his father gave him a copy of Sam Loyd's ''Cyclopedia of 5000 Puzzles, Tricks and Conundrums''.He attended the University of Chicago where he studied history, literature and sciences under their intellectually-stimulating Great Books curriculum and earned his bachelor's degree in philosophy in 1936.Early jobs included reporter on the ''Tulsa Tribune'', writer at the University of Chicago Office of Press Relations, and case worker in Chicago's Black Belt for the city's Relief Administration.", "During World War II, he served for four years in the U.S. Navy as a yeoman on board the destroyer escort USS ''Pope'' in the Atlantic.", "His ship was still in the Atlantic when the war came to an end with the surrender of Japan in August 1945.After the war, Gardner returned to the University of Chicago.", "He attended graduate school for a year there, but he did not earn an advanced degree.===Early career===In the late 1940s, Gardner moved to New York City and became a writer and editor at ''Humpty Dumpty magazine'', where for eight years, he wrote features and stories for it and several other children's magazines.", "His paper-folding puzzles at that magazine led to his first work at ''Scientific American.''", "For many decades, Gardner, his wife Charlotte, and their two sons, Jim and Tom, lived in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, where he earned his living as a freelance author, publishing books with several different publishers, and also publishing hundreds of magazine and newspaper articles.", "===Mid-career===In 1950, he wrote an article in the ''Antioch Review'' entitled \"The Hermit Scientist\".", "It was one of Gardner's earliest articles about junk science, and in 1952 a much-expanded version became his first published book: ''In the Name of Science: An Entertaining Survey of the High Priests and Cultists of Science, Past and Present''.", "The year 1960 saw the original edition of the best-selling book of his career, ''The Annotated Alice''.In 1957 Gardner started writing a column for ''Scientific American'' called \"Mathematical Games\".", "It ran for over a quarter century and dealt with the subject of recreational mathematics.", "The \"Mathematical Games\" column became the most popular feature of the magazine and was the first thing that many readers turned to.", "In September 1977 ''Scientific American'' acknowledged the prestige and popularity of Gardner's column by moving it from the back to the very front of the magazine.===Retirement and death===In 1979, Gardner left ''Scientific American''.", "He and his wife Charlotte moved to Hendersonville, North Carolina.", "He continued to write math articles, sending them to ''The Mathematical Intelligencer'', ''Math Horizons'', ''The College Mathematics Journal'', and ''Scientific American''.", "He also revised some of his older books such as ''Origami, Eleusis, and the Soma Cube''.", "Charlotte died in 2000 and in 2004 Gardner returned to Oklahoma, where his son, James Gardner, was a professor of education at the University of Oklahoma in Norman.", "He died there on May 22, 2010.An autobiography''Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner''was published posthumously." ], [ "Mathematical Games column", "The \"Mathematical Games\" column began with a free-standing article on hexaflexagons which ran in the December 1956 issue of Scientific American.", "Flexagons became a bit of a fad and soon people all over New York City were making them.", "Gerry Piel, the ''SA'' publisher at the time, asked Gardner, \"Is there enough similar material to this to make a regular feature?\"", "Gardner said he thought so.", "The January 1957 issue contained his first column, entitled \"Mathematical Games\".", "Almost 300 more columns were to follow.Solomon Golomb's Polyominoes were among the many recreational mathematics topics featured by Gardner in his column.", "The 35 hexominoes are depicted.It ran from 1956 to 1981 with sporadic columns afterwards and was the first introduction of many subjects to a wider audience, notably:* Flexagons (Dec 1956)* The Game of Hex (Jul 1957)* The Soma cube (Sep 1958)* Squaring the square (Nov 1958)* The Three Prisoners problem (Oct 1959)* Polyominoes (Nov 1960)* The Paradox of the unexpected hanging (Mar 1963)* Rep-tiles (May 1963)* The Superellipse (Sep 1965)* Pentominoes (Oct 1965)* The mathematical art of M. C. Escher (Apr 1966)* Fractals and the Koch snowflake curve (Mar 1967)* Conway's Game of Life (Oct 1970)* Intransitive dice (Dec 1970)* Newcomb's paradox (Jul 1973)* Tangrams (Aug 1974)* Penrose tilings (Jan 1977)* Public-key cryptography (Aug 1977)* Hofstadter's ''Godel, Escher, Bach'' (Jul 1979)* The Monster group (Jun 1980)Ironically, Gardner had problems learning calculus and never took a mathematics course after high school.", "While editing ''Humpty Dumpty Magazine'' he constructed many paper folding puzzles.", "At a magic show in 1956 fellow magician Royal Vale Heath introduced Gardner to the intricately folded paper shapes known as flexagons and steered him to the four Princeton University professors who had invented and investigated their mathematical properties.", "The subsequent article Gardner wrote on hexaflexagons led directly to the column.Gardner's son Jim once asked him what was his favorite puzzle, and Gardner answered almost immediately: \"The monkey and the coconuts\".", "It had been the subject of his April 1958 Games column and in 2001 he chose to make it the first chapter of his \"best of\" collection, ''The Colossal Book of Mathematics''.In the 1980s \"Mathematical Games\" began to appear only irregularly.", "Other authors began to share the column, and the June 1986 issue saw the final installment under that title.", "In 1981, on Gardner's retirement from ''Scientific American'', the column was replaced by Douglas Hofstadter's \"Metamagical Themas\", a name that is an anagram of \"Mathematical Games\".Virtually all of the games columns were collected in book form starting in 1959 with ''The Scientific American Book of Mathematical Puzzles & Diversions''.", "Over the next four decades fourteen more books followed.", "Donald Knuth called them the canonical books." ], [ "Influence", "Martin Gardner had a major impact on mathematics in the second half of the 20th century.", "His column ran for 25 years and was read avidly by the generation of mathematicians and physicists who grew up in the years 1956 to 1981.His writing inspired, directly or indirectly, many who would go on to careers in mathematics, science, and other related endeavors.Gardner's admirers included such diverse individuals as W. H. Auden, Arthur C. Clarke, Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, Richard Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, and the entire French literary group known as the Oulipo.", "Salvador Dalí once sought him out to discuss four-dimensional hypercubes.", "David Auerbach wrote: \"A case can be made, in purely practical terms, for Martin Gardner as one of the most influential writers of the 20th century.", "His popularizations of science and mathematical games in Scientific American, over the 25 years he wrote for them, might have helped create more young mathematicians and computer scientists than any other single factor prior to the advent of the personal computer.\"", "Colm Mulcahy described him as \"without doubt the best friend mathematics ever had.", "\"Gardner's column has been credited with introducing the public to works and problems that have become mainstays of popular mathematics including the secretary problem, Conway's Game of Life, the Mandelbrot set, Penrose tiles, public-key cryptosystems, and books such as A K Dewdney’s ''Planiverse'' and Douglas Hofstadter’s ''Gödel, Escher, Bach''.", "Gardner was instrumental in spreading the awareness and understanding of M. C. Escher’s work.", "Gardner wrote to Escher in 1961 to ask permission to use his Horseman tessellation in an upcoming column about H.S.M.", "Coxeter.", "Escher replied, saying that he knew Gardner as author of ''The Annotated Alice'', which had been sent to Escher by Coxeter.", "The correspondence led to Gardner introducing the previously unknown Escher's art to the world.His writing was credited as both broad and deep.", "Noam Chomsky once wrote, \"Martin Gardner's contribution to contemporary intellectual culture is uniquein its range, its insight, and understanding of hard questions that matter.\"", "Gardner repeatedly alerted the public (and other mathematicians) to recent discoveries in mathematics–recreational and otherwise.", "In addition to introducing many first-rate puzzles and topics such as Penrose tiles and Conway's Game of Life, he was equally adept at writing columns about traditional mathematical topics such as knot theory, Fibonacci numbers, Pascal's triangle, the Möbius strip, transfinite numbers, four-dimensional space, Zeno's paradoxes, Fermat's Last Theorem, and the four-color problem.Gardner set a new high standard for writing about mathematics.", "In a 2004 interview he said, \"I go up to calculus, and beyond that I don't understand any of the papers that are being written.", "I consider that that was an advantage for the type of column I was doing because I had to understand what I was writing about, and that enabled me to write in such a way that an average reader could understand what I was saying.", "If you are writing popularly about math, I think it's good not to know too much math.\"", "John Horton Conway called him \"the most learned man I have ever met.\"" ], [ "Gardner's mathematical grapevine", "Gardner maintained an extensive network of experts and amateurs with whom he regularly exchanged information and ideas.", "Doris Schattschneider would later term this circle of collaborators \"Gardner's mathematical grapevine\" or \"MG2\".Gardner's role as a hub of this network helped facilitate several introductions that led to further fruitful collaborations.", "Mathematicians Conway, Berlekamp, and Guy, who met as a result of Gardner's influence, would go on to write ''Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays'', a foundational book in combinatorial game theory that Gardner championed.", "Gardner also introduced Conway to Benoit Mandelbrot because he knew of their mutual interest in Penrose tiles.", "Gardner's network was also responsible for introducing Doris Schattschneider and Marjorie Rice, who worked together to document the newly discovered pentagon tilings.Gardner credited his network with generating further material for his columns: \"When I first started the column, I was not in touch with any mathematicians, and gradually mathematicians who were creative in the field found out about the column and began corresponding with me.", "So my most interesting columns were columns based on the material I got from them, so I owe them a big debt of gratitude.", "\"Gardner prepared each of his columns in a painstaking and scholarly fashion and conducted copious correspondence to be sure that everything was fact-checked for mathematical accuracy.", "Communication was often by postcard or telephone and Gardner kept meticulous notes of everything, typically on index cards.", "Archives of some of his correspondence stored at Stanford University occupy some 63 linear feet of shelf space.", "This correspondence led to columns about the rep-tiles and pentominos of Solomon W. Golomb; the space filling curves of Bill Gosper; the aperiodic tiles of Roger Penrose; the Game of Life invented by John H. Conway; the superellipse and the Soma cube of Piet Hein; the trapdoor functions of Diffie, Hellman, and Merkle; the flexagons of Stone, Tuckerman, Feynman, and Tukey; the geometrical delights in a book by H. S. M. Coxeter; the game of Hex invented by Piet Hein and John Nash; Tutte's account of squaring the square; and many other topics.The wide array of mathematicians, physicists, computer scientists, philosophers, magicians, artists, writers, and other influential thinkers who can be counted as part of Gardner's mathematical grapevine includes:* Robert Ammann* Mitsumasa Anno* Elwyn R. Berlekamp* Dmitri A. Borgmann* Gregory Chaitin* Fan Chung* John Horton Conway* H.S.M.", "Coxeter* Erik Demaine* Persi Diaconis* M. C. Escher* Solomon W. Golomb* Bill Gosper* Ronald Graham* Richard K. Guy* Frank Harary* Piet Hein* Douglas Hofstadter* Ray Hyman* Scott Kim* David A. Klarner* Donald Knuth* Harry Lindgren* Benoit Mandelbrot* Robert Nozick* Penn & Teller* Roger Penrose* James Randi* Marjorie Rice* Ron Rivest* Tom Rodgers* Rudy Rucker* Lee Sallows* Doris Schattschneider* Jeffrey Shallit* David Singmaster* Jerry Slocum* Raymond Smullyan* Ian Stewart* W. T. Tutte* Stanislaw Ulam* Samuel Yates* Nob Yoshigahara" ], [ "Public key cryptography", "In his August 1977 column, \"A new kind of cipher that would take millions of years to break\", Gardner described a new cryptographic system invented by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman.", "The system, based on trapdoor functions, was known as RSA (after the three researchers) and has become a component of the majority of secure data transmission schemes.", "Since RSA is a relatively slow algorithm it is not widely used to directly encrypt data.", "More often, it is used to transmit shared keys for symmetric-key cryptography.Gardner identified the memorandum that his column was based on and invited readers to write to Rivest to request a copy of it.", "Over seven thousand requests came pouring in, some of them from other countries.", "This caused significant consternation in the US defense agencies and possible legal problems for Gardner himself.", "The National Security Agency (NSA) asked the RSA team to stop distributing the report and one letter to the IEEE suggested that disseminating such information might be violating the Arms Export Control Act and the International Traffic in Arms Regulations.", "In the end the defense establishment could provide no legal basis for suppressing the new technology, and when a detailed paper about RSA was published in Communications of the ACM, the NSA’s crypto monopoly was effectively terminated." ], [ "Pseudoscience and skepticism", "Gardner was a critic of fringe science.", "His book ''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science'' (1952, revised 1957) launched the modern skeptical movement.", "It debunked dubious movements and theories including Fletcherism, Lamarckism, food faddism, Dowsing Rods, Charles Fort, Rudolf Steiner, Dianetics, the Bates method for improving eyesight, Einstein deniers, the Flat Earth theory, the lost continents of Atlantis and Lemuria, Immanuel Velikovsky's Worlds in Collision, the reincarnation of Bridey Murphy, Wilhelm Reich's orgone theory, the spontaneous generation of life, extra-sensory perception and psychokinesis, homeopathy, phrenology, palmistry, graphology, and numerology.", "This book and his subsequent efforts (''Science: Good, Bad and Bogus'', 1981; ''Order and Surprise'', 1983, ''Gardner's Whys & Wherefores'', 1989, etc.)", "provoked a lot of criticism from the advocates of alternative science and New Age philosophy.", "He kept up running dialogues (both public and private) with many of them for decades.In a review of ''Science: Good, Bad and Bogus'', Stephen Jay Gould called Gardner \"The Quack Detector\", a writer who \"expunged nonsense\" and in so doing had \"become a priceless national resource.", "\"In 1976 Gardner joined with fellow skeptics philosopher Paul Kurtz, psychologist Ray Hyman, sociologist Marcello Truzzi, and stage magician James Randi to found the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (now called the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry).", "Intellectuals including astronomer Carl Sagan, author and biochemist Isaac Asimov, psychologist B. F. Skinner, and journalist Philip J. Klass became fellows of the program.", "From 1983 to 2002 he wrote a monthly column called \"Notes of a Fringe Watcher\" (originally \"Notes of a Psi-Watcher\") for ''Skeptical Inquirer'', that organization's monthly magazine.", "These columns have been collected in five books starting with ''The New Age: Notes of a Fringe Watcher'' in 1988.Gardner was a critic of self-proclaimed Israeli psychic Uri Geller and wrote two satirical booklets about him in the 1970s using the pen name \"Uriah Fuller\" in which he explained how such purported psychics do their seemingly impossible feats such as mentally bending spoons and reading minds.Martin Gardner continued to criticize junk science throughout his life.", "His targets included not just safe subjects like astrology and UFO sightings, but topics such as chiropractic, vegetarianism, Madame Blavatsky, creationism, Scientology, the Laffer curve, Christian Science, and the Hutchins-Adler Great Books Movement.", "The last thing he wrote in the spring of 2010 (a month before his death) was an article excoriating the \"dubious medical opinions and bogus science\" of Oprah Winfreyparticularly her support for the thoroughly discredited theory that vaccinations cause autism; it went on to bemoan the \"needless deaths of children\" that such notions are likely to cause.", "''Skeptical Inquirer'' named him one of the Ten Outstanding Skeptics of the Twentieth Century.", "In 2010 he was posthumously honored with an award for his contributions in the skeptical field from the Independent Investigations Group.", "In 1982 the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry awarded Gardner its ''In Praise of Reason Award'' for his \"heroic efforts in defense of reason and the dignity of the skeptical attitude\", and in 2011 it added Gardner to its Pantheon of Skeptics." ], [ "Magic", "Martin Gardner held a lifelong fascination with magic and illusion that began when his father demonstrated a trick to him.", "He wrote for a magic magazine in high school and worked in a department store demonstrating magic tricks while he was at the University of Chicago.", "Gardner's first published writing (at the age of fifteen) was a magic trick in ''The Sphinx'', the official magazine of the Society of American Magicians.", "He focused mainly on micromagic (table or close-up magic) and, from the 1930s on, published a significant number of original contributions to this secretive field.", "Magician Joe M. Turner said, ''The Encyclopedia of Impromptu Magic'', which Gardner wrote in 1985, \"is guaranteed to show up in any poll of magicians' favorite magic books.\"", "His first magic book for the general public, ''Mathematics, Magic and Mystery'' (Dover, 1956), is still considered a classic in the field.", "He was well known for his innovative tapping and spelling effects, with and without playing cards, and was most proud of the effect he called the \"Wink Change\".Many of Gardner's lifelong friends were magicians.", "These included William Simon who introduced Gardner to Charlotte Greenwald, whom he married in 1952, Dai Vernon, Jerry Andrus, statistician Persi Diaconis, and polymath Raymond Smullyan.", "Gardner considered fellow magician James Randi his closest friend.", "Diaconis and Smullyan like Gardner straddled the two worlds of mathematics and magic.", "Mathematics and magic were frequently intertwined in Gardner's work.", "One of his earliest books, ''Mathematics, Magic and Mystery'' (1956), was about mathematically based magic tricks.", "Mathematical magic tricks were often featured in his \"Mathematical Games\" column–for example, his August 1962 column was titled \"A variety of diverting tricks collected at a fictitious convention of magicians.\"", "From 1998 to 2002 he wrote a monthly column on magic tricks called \"Trick of the Month\" in The Physics Teacher, a journal published by the American Association of Physics Teachers.In 1999 ''Magic magazine'' named Gardner one of the \"100 Most Influential Magicians of the Twentieth Century\".", "In 2005 he received a 'Lifetime Achievement Fellowship' from the Academy of Magical Arts.", "The last work to be published during his lifetime was a magic trick in the May 2010 issue of ''Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics''." ], [ "Theism and religion", "Gardner was raised as a Methodist (his mother was very religious) but rejected established religion as an adult.", "He considered himself a philosophical theist and a fideist.", "He believed in a personal God, in an afterlife, and prayer, but rejected established religion.", "Nevertheless, he had abiding fascination with religious belief.", "In his autobiography, he stated: \"When many of my fans discovered that I believed in God and even hoped for an afterlife, they were shocked and dismayed ...", "I do not mean the God of the Bible, especially the God of the Old Testament, or any other book that claims to be divinely inspired.", "For me God is a \"Wholly Other\" transcendent intelligence, impossible for us to understand.", "He or she is somehow responsible for our universe and capable of providing, how I have no inkling, an afterlife.", "\"Gardner described his own belief as philosophical theism inspired by the works of philosopher Miguel de Unamuno.", "While eschewing systematic religious doctrine, he retained a belief in God, asserting that this belief cannot be confirmed or disconfirmed by reason or science.", "At the same time, he was skeptical of claims that any god has communicated with human beings through spoken or telepathic revelation or through miracles in the natural world.", "Gardner has been quoted as saying that he regarded parapsychology and other research into the paranormal as tantamount to \"tempting God\" and seeking \"signs and wonders\".", "He stated that while he would expect tests on the efficacy of prayers to be negative, he would not rule out ''a priori'' the possibility that as yet unknown paranormal forces may allow prayers to influence the physical world.Gardner wrote repeatedly about what public figures such as Robert Maynard Hutchins, Mortimer Adler, and William F. Buckley, Jr. believed and whether their beliefs were logically consistent.", "In some cases, he attacked prominent religious figures such as Mary Baker Eddy on the grounds that their claims are unsupportable.", "His semi-autobiographical novel ''The Flight of Peter Fromm'' depicts a traditionally Protestant Christian man struggling with his faith, examining 20th century scholarship and intellectual movements and ultimately rejecting Christianity while remaining a theist.Gardner said that he suspected that the fundamental nature of human consciousness may not be knowable or discoverable, unless perhaps a physics more profound than (\"underlying\") quantum mechanics is some day developed.", "In this regard, he said, he belonged to \"a group of thinkers known as the 'mysterians'.\"", "His philosophical views in general are described and defended in his book ''The Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener'' (1983, revised 1999)." ], [ "Annotated works", "Gardner was considered a leading authority on Lewis Carroll.", "His annotated version of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' and ''Through the Looking Glass'', explaining the many mathematical riddles, wordplay, and literary references found in the Alice books, was first published as ''The Annotated Alice'' (Clarkson Potter, 1960).", "Sequels were published with new annotations as ''More Annotated Alice'' (Random House, 1990), and finally as ''The Annotated Alice: The Definitive Edition'' (Norton, 1999), combining notes from the earlier editions and new material.", "The original book arose when Gardner found the Alice books \"sort of frightening\" when he was young, but found them fascinating as an adult.", "He felt that someone ought to annotate them, and suggested to a publisher that Bertrand Russell be asked; when the publisher was unable to get past Russell's secretary, Gardner was asked to take on the project himself.There had long been annotated books written by scholars for other scholars, but Gardner was the first to write such a work for the general public, and soon many other writers followed his lead.", "Gardner himself went on to produce annotated editions of G. K. Chesterton's ''The Innocence Of Father Brown'' and ''The Man Who Was Thursday'', as well as of celebrated poems including ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'', ''Casey at the Bat'', ''The Night Before Christmas'', and ''The Hunting of the Snark''." ], [ "Novels and short stories", "Gardner wrote two novels.", "He was a fan of the Oz books written by L. Frank Baum, and in 1988 he published ''Visitors from Oz'', based on the characters in Baum's various Oz books.", "Gardner was a founding member of the International Wizard of Oz Club, and winner of its 1971 L. Frank Baum Memorial Award.", "His other novel was ''The Flight of Peter Fromm'' (1973), which reflected his lifelong fascination with religious belief and the problem of faith.His short stories were collected in ''The No-Sided Professor and Other Tales of Fantasy, Humor, Mystery, and Philosophy'' (1987)." ], [ "Autobiography", "At the age of 95 Gardner wrote ''Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner''.", "He was living in a one-room apartment in Norman, Oklahoma and, as was his custom, wrote it on a typewriter and edited it using scissors and rubber cement.", "He took the title from a poem, a so-called grook, by his good friend Piet Hein, which perfectly expresses Gardner's abiding sense of mystery and wonder about existence." ], [ "Word play", "Gardner's interest in wordplay led him to conceive of a magazine on recreational linguistics.", "In 1967 he pitched the idea to Greenwood Periodicals and nominated Dmitri Borgmann as editor.", "The resulting journal, ''Word Ways'', carried many of his articles—some of them posthumously—until publication ceased in 2020.He also wrote a \"Puzzle Tale\" column for ''Asimov's Science Fiction'' magazine from 1977 to 1986.Gardner was a member of the all-male literary banqueting club, the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers." ], [ "Pen names", "Gardner often used pen names.", "In 1952, while working for the children's magazine ''Humpty Dumpty'', he contributed stories written by \"Humpty Dumpty Jnr\".", "For several years starting in 1953 he was a managing editor of ''Polly Pigtails'', a magazine for young girls, and also wrote under that name.", "His ''Annotated Casey at the Bat'' (1967) included a parody of the poem, attributed to \"Nitram Rendrag\" (his name spelled backwards).", "Using the pen name \"Uriah Fuller\", he wrote two books attacking the alleged psychic Uri Geller.", "In later years, Gardner often wrote parodies of his favorite poems under the name \"Armand T. Ringer\", an anagram of his name.", "In 1983 one George Groth panned Gardner's book ''The Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener'' in the ''New York Review of Books''.", "Only in the last line of the review was it revealed that George Groth was Martin Gardner himself.In his January 1960 \"Mathematical Games\" column, Gardner introduced the fictitious \"Dr. Matrix\" and wrote about him often over the next two decades.", "Dr. Matrix was not exactly a pen name, although Gardner did pretend that everything in these columns came from the fertile mind of the good doctor.", "Then in 1979 Dr. Matrix himself published an article in the quite respectable ''Two-Year College Mathematics Journal''.", "It was called ''Martin Gardner: Defending the Honor of the Human Mind'' and contained a biography of Gardner and a history of his \"Mathematical Games\" column.", "It would be a further decade before Martin published an article in such a mathematics journal under his own name." ], [ "Philosophy of mathematics", "Gardner wrote on the philosophy of mathematics.", "He wrote negative reviews of ''The Mathematical Experience'' by Philip J. Davis and Reuben Hersh and ''What Is Mathematics, Really?''", "by Hersh, both of which were critical of aspects of mathematical Platonism, and the first of which was well received by the mathematical community.", "While Gardner was often perceived as a hard-core Platonist, his reviews demonstrated some formalist tendencies.", "Gardner maintained that his views are widespread among mathematicians, but Hersh has countered that in his experience as a professional mathematician and speaker, this is not the case." ], [ "Mathematics education", "In the August 1998 edition of ''Scientific American'', Gardner wrote his final piece for ''Scientific American'' titled, \"A Quarter Century of Recreational Mathematics.\"", "In it he said, \"For 40 years I have done my best to convince educators that recreational math should be incorporated into the standard curriculum.", "It should be regularly introduced as a way to interest young students in the wonders of mathematics.", "So far, though, movement in this direction has been glacial.\"", "He recalls how as a young boy a math teacher had scolded him for working on a bit of recreation mathematics and laments at how wrongheaded this attitude is.", "He notes that the magazine ''Mathematics Teacher'' published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, and specially dedicated to improving mathematics instruction for grades 8–14, often has articles on recreational topics but that most teachers do not use them." ], [ "Legacy and awards", "The numerous awards Gardner received include:* 1987 – Leroy P. Steele Prize for his many books and articles on mathematics* 1971 – L. Frank Baum Memorial Award from the International Wizard of Oz Club* 1980 – The main-belt asteroid ''2587 Gardner'' discovered by Edward L. G. Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station is named after Martin Gardner.", "* 1990 – Allendoerfer Award (along with Fan Chung & Ronald Graham) from The Mathematical Association of America (MAA)* 1994 – JPBM Communications Award from the Joint Policy Board for Mathematics* 1997 – became a Fellow (Class: Humanities and Arts, Section: Literature) of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "* 1998 – Trevor Evans Award from the MAA* 1999 – listed in the \"100 Most Influential Magicians of the Twentieth Century\" by Magic magazine.", "* 2011 – Houdini Hall of Honor award (posthumous) from the Independent Investigations GroupThe Mathematical Association of America has established a Martin Gardner Lecture to be given each year on the last day of MAA MathFest, the summer meeting of the MAA.", "The first annual lecture, ''Recreational Mathematics and Computer Science: Martin Gardner's Influence on Research'', was given by Erik Demaine of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on Saturday, August 3, 2019, at MathFest in Cincinnati.", "The 2021 lecture '' Surprising discoveries of three amateur mathematicians: M.C.", "Escher, Marjorie Rice, and Rinus Roelofs'' was virtual and was given by Doris Schattschneider.There are eight bricks honoring Gardner in the Paul R. Halmos Commemorative Walk, installed by The Mathematical Association of America (MAA) at their Conference Center in Washington, D.C. Gardner has an Erdös number of 1." ], [ "Gathering 4 Gardner", "Martin Gardner continued to write up until his death in 2010, and his community of fans grew to span several generations.", "Moreover, his influence was so broad that many of his fans had little or no contact with each other.", "This led Atlanta entrepreneur and puzzle collector Tom Rodgers to the idea of hosting a weekend gathering celebrating Gardner's contributions to recreational mathematics, rationality, magic, puzzles, literature, and philosophy.", "Although Gardner was famously shy, and would usually decline an honor if it required him to make a personal appearance, Rogers persuaded him to attend the first such \"Gathering 4 Gardner\" (G4G), held in Atlanta in January 1993.A second such get-together was held in 1996, again with Gardner in attendance.", "A video was made for the CBC Television program ''The Nature of Things with David Suzuki''.", "It featured Gardner along with many members of his circle and was called \"Martin Gardner: Mathemagician\" and broadcast on March 14, 1996.At this point Rogers and his friends decided to make the gathering a regular, bi-annual event.", "Participants over the years have ranged from long-time Gardner friends such as John Horton Conway, Elwyn Berlekamp, Ronald Graham, Donald Coxeter, and Richard K. Guy, to newcomers like mathematician and mathematical artist Erik Demaine, mathematical video maker Vi Hart, and Fields Medalist Manjul Bhargava.The program at the \"G4G\" meetings presents topics which Gardner had written about.", "The first gathering in 1993 was G4G1 and the 1996 event was G4G2.Since then it has been in even-numbered years, so far always in Atlanta.", "The 2018 event was G4G13." ], [ "Bibliography", "In a publishing career spanning 80 years (1930–2010), Gardner authored or edited over 100 books and countless articles, columns and reviews.", "A comprehensive bibliography of his works was published in 2023 by Dana Richards, with a foreword by Donald Knuth.All Gardner's works were non-fiction except for two novels''The Flight of Peter Fromm'' (1973) and ''Visitors from Oz'' (1998)and two collections of short pieces''The Magic Numbers of Dr. Matrix'' (1967, 1985) and ''The No-Sided Professor'' (1987)." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Albers, Don (2008). ''", "The Martin Gardner Interview'' (in five parts) with MAA Editorial Director Don Albers, fifteeneightyfour: the blog of Cambridge University Press* AMS Notices (2004). ''", "Interview with Martin Gardner'' Notices of the AMS, Vol.", "52, No.", "6, June/July 2005, pp.", "602–611* AMS Notices (2011). ''", "Memories of Martin Gardner'' Notices of the AMS, Vol.", "58, No.", "3, March 2011, p. 420* Antonick, Gary (2014). ''", "Ignited by Martin Gardner, Ian Stewart Continues to Illuminate'' The New York Times, October 27, 2014* Auerbach, David (2013). ''", "A Delville of a Tolkar: Martin Gardner’s “Undiluted Hocus-Pocus”'' Los Angeles Review of Books, November 4, 2013* BBC News (2014). ''", "Martin Gardner, puzzle master extraordinaire'' BBC News Magazine, October 21, 2014* Bhargava, Manjul (2018). ''", "An Interview with Manjul Bhargava'' with Colm Mulcahy, G4G13, April 2018* Bellos, Alex (2010). ''", "Martin Gardner obituary'' The Guardian, May 27, 2010* Berlekamp, Elwyn R (2014). ''", "The Mathematical Legacy of Martin Gardner'' Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), September 2, 2014* Berlekamp, Elwyn R., John H. Conway, and Richard K. Guy (1982). ''", "Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays'' Academic Press, .", "* Brown, Emma (2010). ''", "Martin Gardner, prolific math and science writer, dies at 95'' The Washington Post, May 24, 2010* * Case, James (2014). ''", "Martin Gardner’s Mathematical Grapevine'' By James Case, SIAM News, April 1, 2014* Costello, Matthew J.", "(1988). ''", "The Greatest Puzzles of All Time'' New York: Prentice Hall Press, * Crease, Robert P (2018). ''", "Martin Gardner would have smiled'' Physics World: Education and Outreach Blog, 16 April 2018* Demaine (2008).", "Edited by Erik D. Demaine, Martin L. Demaine, Tom Rodgers.", "''A lifetime of puzzles : a collection of puzzles in honor of Martin Gardner's 90th birthday'' A K Peters: Wellesley, MA, * Dirda, Michael (2009). ''", "Book review by Michael Dirda: 'When You Were a Tadpole and I Was a Fish' by Martin Gardner'' The Washington Post, October 22, 2009* The Economist (2010).", "Martin Gardner obituary Jun 3rd 2010* England, Jason (2014).", "''The puzzling life of Martin Gardner'' Cosmos Magazine, February 24, 2014* Friedel, Frederic (2018). ''", "Remembering Martin Gardner'', Jan 16, 2018* Gardner, Martin (1998).", "A Quarter Century of Recreational Mathematics by Martin Gardner, ''Scientific American'', August 1998* Gardner, Martin (2013). ''", "Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner'' Princeton University Press, .", "* Gardner, Martin (2016). ''", "The Recreational Mathematics of Piet Hein'' Piet Hein Website* Gathering 4 Gardner (2014).", "Martin GardnerMagician* Gould, Stephen Jay (1982). ''", "The Quack Detector'' The New York Review of Books, February 4, 1982* Groth, George (1983).", "Review of Gardner’s ''Game with God'' The New York Review of Books, December 8, 1983* Hofstadter, Douglas (2010). ''", "Martin Gardner: A Major Shaping Force in My Life'' Scientific American, May 24, 2010* Klarner, David A.", "(1998).", "''Mathematical Recreations: A Collection in Honor of Martin Gardner'', Dover Publications, New York, pp.", "140-166* Kindley, Evan (2015). ''", "Down the Rabbit Hole: The rise, and rise, of literary annotation'' By Evan Kindley, The New Republic, September 21, 2015* Kullman, David (1997). ''", "The Penrose Tiling at Miami University '' Presented at the Mathematical Association of America Ohio Section Meeting Shawnee State University, October 24, 1997* Lister, David (1995). ''", "Martin Gardner and Paperfolding'' British Origami Society, February 15, 1995.", "* MAA FOCUS (2010). ''", "Remembering Martin Gardner'' vol 30 (4), August/September 2010* MacTutor (2010). ''", "History of Mathematics archive: Martin Gardner''* Malkevitch, Joseph (2014). ''", "Magical Mathematics – A Tribute to Martin Gardner'' American Mathematical Society, March 2014* Martin, Douglas (2010). ''", "Martin Gardner, Puzzler and Polymath, Dies at 95'' ''The New York Times'', May 23, 2010* Martin GardnerMathematician (official website)* Mirsky, Steve (2010). ''", "Scholars and Others Pay Tribute to \"Mathematical Games\" Columnist Martin Gardner'' Scientific American, May 24, 2010* Mulcahy, Colm (2013). ''", "Celebrations of Mind Honor Math’s Best Friend, Martin Gardner'' Scientific American, October 29, 2013* Mulcahy, Colm (2014). ''", "The Top 10 Martin Gardner Scientific American Articles'' Scientific American, October 21, 2014* Mulcahy, Colm (2017). ''", "Martin Gardner – The Best Friend Mathematics Ever Had'' The Huffington Post, January 23, 2014* Peterson, Ivars (2014). ''", "Honoring a Century of Martin Gardner'' in MAA Focus, the newsmagazine of the Mathematical Association of America, Vol.", "34, No.", "5, Oct/Nov 2014* Propp, James (2015).", "Martin Gardner Testimonials Belmont, MA, July 29, 2015* Princeton University Press Reviews of ''Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner''* Richards, Dana (2014). ''", "Math Games of Martin Gardner Still Spur Innovation'' by Dana S. Richards & Colm Mulcahy, ''Scientific American'', October 1, 2014* Richards, Dana (2018). ''", "Martin Gardner, Annotator'' G4G13, April 2018 – video* Shermer, Michael (1997).", "Martin Gardner 1914–2010: Founder of the Modern Skeptical Movement Michael Shermer interviews Martin Gardner, Skeptic Magazine, Vol 5, No.", "2 (1997)* Suzuki, David (1996). ''", "Mystery and Magic of Mathematics: Martin Gardner and Friends'' The Nature of Things, March 14, 1996 – video* Teller (2014). ''", "‘Undiluted Hocus-Pocus,’ by Martin Gardner'' The New York Times: Sunday Book Review, January 3, 2014" ], [ "External links", "* – with Martin Gardner's Awards and Martin Gardner Appreciations* Works by and about Martin Gardner at The Center for Inquiry Libraries*" ] ]
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[ [ "MIDI timecode" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MIDI time code''' ('''MTC''') embeds the same timing information as standard SMPTE timecode as a series of small 'quarter-frame' MIDI messages.", "There is no provision for the user bits in the standard MIDI time code messages, and SysEx messages are used to carry this information instead.", "The quarter-frame messages are transmitted in a sequence of eight messages, thus a complete timecode value is specified every two frames.", "If the MIDI data stream is running close to capacity, the MTC data may arrive a little behind schedule which has the effect of introducing a small amount of jitter.", "In order to avoid this it is ideal to use a completely separate MIDI port for MTC data.", "Larger full-frame messages, which encapsulate a frame worth of timecode in a single message, are used to locate to a time while timecode is not running.Unlike standard SMPTE timecode, MIDI timecode's quarter-frame and full-frame messages carry a two-bit flag value that identifies the rate of the timecode, specifying it as either:* 24 frame/s (standard rate for film work)* 25 frame/s (standard rate for PAL video)* 29.97 frame/s (drop-frame timecode for NTSC video)* 30 frame/s (non-drop timecode for NTSC video)MTC distinguishes between film speed and video speed only by the rate at which timecode advances, not by the information contained in the timecode messages; thus, 29.97 frame/s dropframe is represented as 30 frame/s dropframe at 0.1% pulldown.MTC allows the synchronisation of a sequencer or DAW with other devices that can synchronise to MTC or for these devices to 'slave' to a tape machine that is striped with SMPTE.", "For this to happen a SMPTE to MTC converter needs to be employed.", "It is possible for a tape machine to synchronise to an MTC signal (if converted to SMPTE), if the tape machine is able to 'slave' to incoming timecode via motor control, which is a rare feature." ], [ "Time code format", "The MIDI time code is 32 bits long, of which 24 are used, while 8 bits are unused and always zero.", "Because the full-time code messages requires that the most significant bits of each byte are zero (valid MIDI data bytes), there are really only 28 available bits and 4 spare bits.Like most audiovisual timecodes such as SMPTE time code, it encodes only time of day, repeating each 24 hours.", "Time is given in units of hours, minutes, seconds, and frames.", "There may be 24, 25, or 30 frames per second.Unlike most other timecodes, the components are encoded in straight binary, not binary-coded decimal.Each component is assigned one byte:; Byte 0 : 0rrhhhhh: Rate (0–3) and hour (0–23).", ":* rr = 00: 24 frames/s:* rr = 01: 25 frames/s:* rr = 10: 29.97 frames/s (SMPTE drop-frame timecode):* rr = 11: 30 frames/s; Byte 1 : 00mmmmmm: Minute (0–59); Byte 2 : 00ssssss: Second (0–59); Byte 3 : 000fffff: Frame (0–29, or less at lower frame rates)=== Full time code ===When there is a jump in the time code, a single full-time code is sent to synchronize attached equipment.", "This takes the form of a special global system exclusive message:: F0 7F 7F 01 01 hh mm ss ff F7The manufacturer ID of 7F indicates a real-time universal message, the channel of 7F indicates it is a global broadcast.", "The following ID of 01 identifies this is a time code type message, and the second 01 indicates it is a full-time code message.", "The 4 bytes of time code follow.", "Although MIDI is generally little-endian, the 4 time code bytes follow in big-endian order, followed by a F7 \"end of exclusive\" byte.After a jump, the time clock stops until the first following quarter-frame message is received.=== Quarter-frame messages ===When the time is running continuously, the 32-bit time code is broken into 8 4-bit pieces, and one piece is transmitted each quarter frame.", "I.e.", "96—120 times per second, depending on the frame rate.", "Since it takes eight quarter frames for a complete time code message, the complete SMPTE time is updated every two frames.", "A quarter-frame messages consists of a status byte of 0xF1, followed by a single 7-bit data value: 3 bits to identify the piece, and 4 bits of partial time code.", "When time is running forward, the piece numbers increment from 0–7; with the time that piece 0 is transmitted is the coded instant, and the remaining pieces are transmitted later.If the MIDI data stream is being rewound, the piece numbers count backward.", "Again, piece 0 is transmitted at the coded moment.The time code is divided little-endian as follows:+MIDI time code pieces Piece # Data byte Significance 0 0000 ffff Frame number lsbits 1 0001 000f Frame number msbit 2 0010 ssss Second lsbits 3 0011 00ss Second msbits 4 0100 mmmm Minute lsbits 5 0101 00mm Minute msbits 6 0110 hhhh Hour lsbits 7 0111 0rrh Rate and hour msbit" ], [ "See also", "*AES-EBU embedded timecode*Burnt-in timecode*CTL timecode*DIN sync*Linear timecode*MIDI beat clock*Rewritable consumer timecode*Vertical interval timecode" ], [ "External links", "* MIDI Time Code information* MIDI time code specification 12 Feb 1987* Guide to the MIDI Software Specification" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mass transfer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mass transfer''' is the net movement of mass from one location (usually meaning stream, phase, fraction, or component) to another.", "Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption, evaporation, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation.", "Mass transfer is used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms.", "The phrase is commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive and convective transport of chemical species within physical systems.Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to the atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and the distillation of alcohol.", "In industrial processes, mass transfer operations include separation of chemical components in distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers or stripping, adsorbers such as activated carbon beds, and liquid-liquid extraction.", "Mass transfer is often coupled to additional transport processes, for instance in industrial cooling towers.", "These towers couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot water to flow in contact with air.", "The water is cooled by expelling some of its content in the form of water vapour." ], [ "Astrophysics", "In astrophysics, mass transfer is the process by which matter gravitationally bound to a body, usually a star, fills its Roche lobe and becomes gravitationally bound to a second body, usually a compact object (white dwarf, neutron star or black hole), and is eventually accreted onto it.", "It is a common phenomenon in binary systems, and may play an important role in some types of supernovae and pulsars." ], [ "Chemical engineering", "Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems.", "It is used in reaction engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and many other sub-disciplines of chemical engineering like electrochemical engineering.The driving force for mass transfer is usually a difference in chemical potential, when it can be defined, though other thermodynamic gradients may couple to the flow of mass and drive it as well.", "A chemical species moves from areas of high chemical potential to areas of low chemical potential.", "Thus, the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass transfer is typically determined by the point at which the chemical potential is uniform.", "For single phase-systems, this usually translates to uniform concentration throughout the phase, while for multiphase systems chemical species will often prefer one phase over the others and reach a uniform chemical potential only when most of the chemical species has been absorbed into the preferred phase, as in liquid-liquid extraction.While thermodynamic equilibrium determines the theoretical extent of a given mass transfer operation, the actual rate of mass transfer will depend on additional factors including the flow patterns within the system and the diffusivities of the species in each phase.", "This rate can be quantified through the calculation and application of mass transfer coefficients for an overall process.", "These mass transfer coefficients are typically published in terms of dimensionless numbers, often including Péclet numbers, Reynolds numbers, Sherwood numbers, and Schmidt numbers, among others." ], [ "Analogies between heat, mass, and momentum transfer", "There are notable similarities in the commonly used approximate differential equations for momentum, heat, and mass transfer.", "The molecular transfer equations of Newton's law for fluid momentum at low Reynolds number (Stokes flow), Fourier's law for heat, and Fick's law for mass are very similar, since they are all linear approximations to transport of conserved quantities in a flow field.", "At higher Reynolds number, the analogy between mass and heat transfer and momentum transfer becomes less useful due to the nonlinearity of the Navier-Stokes equation (or more fundamentally, the general momentum conservation equation), but the analogy between heat and mass transfer remains good.", "A great deal of effort has been devoted to developing analogies among these three transport processes so as to allow prediction of one from any of the others." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Crystal growth* Heat transfer* Fick's laws of diffusion* Distillation column* McCabe-Thiele method* Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium* Liquid-liquid extraction* Separation process* Binary star* Type Ia supernova* Thermodiffusion* Accretion (astrophysics)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Museum of Jurassic Technology" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Museum of Jurassic Technology''' at 9341 Venice Boulevard in the Palms district of Los Angeles, California, was founded by David Hildebrand Wilson and Diana Drake Wilson in 1988.It calls itself \"an educational institution dedicated to the advancement of knowledge and the public appreciation of the Lower Jurassic\", the relevance of the term \"Lower Jurassic\" to the museum's collections being left uncertain and unexplained.Museum of Jurassic Technology, 9341 Venice Boulevard, Los Angeles, served by the Culver City, California, post officeRotten Luck: Decaying Dice of Ricky JayFairly Safely Venture: String Figures and their Venerable CollectorsThe museum's collection includes a mixture of artistic, scientific, ethnographic, and historic items, as well as some unclassifiable exhibits; the diversity evokes the cabinets of curiosities that were the 16th-century predecessors of modern natural-history museums.", "The factual claims of many of the museum's exhibits strain credibility, provoking an array of interpretations.David Hildebrand Wilson received a MacArthur Foundation fellowship in 2001." ], [ "Overview", "The museum contains an unusual collection of exhibits and objects with varying and uncertain degrees of authenticity.", "''The New York Times'' critic Edward Rothstein described it as a \"museum about museums\", \"where the persistent question is: what kind of place is this?\"", "''Smithsonian'' magazine called it \"a witty, self-conscious homage to private museums of yore .", ".", ".", "when natural history was only barely charted by science, and museums were closer to Renaissance cabinets of curiosity.\"", "In a similar vein, ''The Economist'' said the museum \"captures a time chronicled in Richard Holmes's recent book ''The Age of Wonder'', when science mingled with poetry in its pursuit of answers to life's mysterious questions.", "\"Lawrence Weschler's 1995 book, ''Mr.", "Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, And Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology'', attempts to explain the mystery of the Museum of Jurassic Technology.", "Weschler deeply explores the museum through conversations with its founder, David Wilson, and through outside research on several exhibitions.", "His investigations into the history of certain exhibits led to varying results of authenticity; some exhibits seem to have been created by Wilson's imagination while other exhibits might be suitable for display in a natural history museum.", "The Museum of Jurassic Technology at its heart, according to Wilson, is \"a museum interested in presenting phenomena that other natural history museums are unwilling to present.", "\"The museum's introductory slideshow recounts that \"In its original sense, the term, 'museum' meant 'a spot dedicated to the Muses, a place where man's mind could attain a mood of aloofness above everyday affairs'\".", "In this spirit, the dimly lit atmosphere, wood and glass vitrines, and labyrinthine floorplan lead visitors through an eclectic range of exhibits on art, natural history, history of science, philosophy, and anthropology, with a special focus on the history of museums and the variety of paths to knowledge.", "The museum attracts approximately 25,000 visitors per year." ], [ "Exhibits", "The museum maintains more than thirty permanent exhibits, including:*The Delani/Sonnabend Halls: Recalling the intertwining story of an ill-fated opera singer, Madalena Delani, with a theoretician of memory, Geoffrey Sonnabend, whose three-part work ''Obliscence: Theories of Forgetting and the Problem of Matter'' suggests that memory is an elaborate construction that humankind has created \"to buffer ourselves against the intolerable knowledge of the irreversible passage of time and the irretrievability of its moments and events.\"", "There is only experience and the decay of experience, an idea he illustrates with a complex diagram of a plane intersecting a cone.", "*Tell the Bees: Belief, Knowledge, and Hypersymbolic Cognition: An exhibit of pre-scientific cures and remedies*The Garden of Eden on Wheels: Collections from Los Angeles Area Trailer Parks*The Unique World of Microminiatures of Hagop Sandaldjian: A collection of micro-miniature sculptures, each carved from a single human hair and placed within the eye of a needle.", "Currently on display: Goofy, Pope John Paul II, and Napoleon I.", "Other microminiatures include violins; dancers; a crucifix (made of a single strand of the artist's hair and gold); characters like Donald Duck, Pinocchio, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs; a self-portrait; a golf player; and a baseball player swinging his bat.", "*Micromosaics of Harold \"Henry\" Dalton: Microscopic mosaics from the 19th century depicting flowers, animals, and other objects, made entirely from individual butterfly wing scales and diatoms*The Stereofloral Radiographs of Albert G. Richards: A collection of stereographic radiographs of flowers*Rotten Luck: The Decaying Dice of Ricky Jay: A collection of decomposing antique dice once owned by magician Ricky Jay and documented in his book ''Dice: Deception, Fate, and Rotten Luck''*No One May Ever Have the Same Knowledge Again: Letters to Mt.", "Wilson Observatory : A small room dedicated to unusual letters and theories received by the Mount Wilson Observatory circa 1915–1935*The World is Bound with Secret Knots: The Life and Works of Athanasius Kircher: A survey of the fields of study, writings and inventions of the 17th-century Jesuit polymath who was the founder of the Kircherian Museum in Rome*The Lives of Perfect Creatures: The Dogs of the Soviet Space Program: An oil portrait gallery of the heroic cosmonaut canines*Fairly Safely Venture: String Figures from Many Lands and their Venerable CollectorsFrom 1992 to 2006, the museum's Foundation Collection was on display in its Tochtermuseum at the Karl Ernst Osthaus-Museum in Hagen, Germany.", "This exhibition was part of the Museum of Museums wing at the KEOM, which came into being under the stewardship of director Michael Fehr." ], [ "Auxiliary functions", "In 2005, the museum opened its Tula Tea Room, a Russian-style tea room where Georgian tea and accompanying cookies are served, the cost covered by the price of admission.", "This room is a miniature reconstruction of the study of Tsar Nicolas II from the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Russia.", "The tea room is shared with a number of live doves and other birds.The Borzoi Kabinet Theater screens a series of poetic documentaries produced by the Museum of Jurassic Technology in collaboration with the St. Petersburg–based arts and science collective Kabinet.", "The series of films, entitled ''A Chain of Flowers'', draws its name from the quotation by Charles Willson Peale: \"The Learner must be led always from familiar objects toward the unfamiliar, guided along, as it were, a chain of flowers into the mysteries of life\".", "The titles of the films are ''Levsha: The Cross-eyed Lefty from Tula and the Steel Flea'' (2001), ''Obshee Delo: The Common Task'' (2005), ''Bol'shoe Sovietskaia Zatmenie: The Great Soviet Eclipse'' (2008), ''The Book of Wisdom and Lies'' (2011), and ''Language of the Birds'' (2012)." ], [ "In popular culture", "The museum was the subject of a 1995 book by Lawrence Weschler entitled ''Mr.", "Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, and Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology'', which describes in detail many of its exhibits.", "The museum is mentioned in the 2008 novel ''The Museum of Innocence'', by Turkish Nobel-laureate Orhan Pamuk." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Roadtrip America: ''A Separate Reality''* NPR Archives:''Jurassic Genius David Wilson''* Jeanne Scheper, Interview with David Wilson, ''Other Voices'', vol.", "3, no.", "1* Mark Edward's Skeptiblog \"A Museum that makes you think\" 2010" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Men at Work" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Men at Work''' are an Australian rock band formed in Melbourne in 1978 and best known for breakthrough hits such as \"Down Under\", \"Who Can It Be Now?", "\", \"Be Good Johnny\", \"Overkill\", and \"It's a Mistake\".", "Its founding member and frontman is Colin Hay, who performs on lead vocals and guitar.", "After playing as an acoustic duo with Ron Strykert during 1978–1979, Hay formed the group with Strykert playing bass guitar and Jerry Speiser on drums.", "They were soon joined by Greg Ham on flute, saxophone, and keyboards and John Rees on bass guitar, with Strykert switching back to lead guitar.", "The group was managed by Russell Depeller, a friend of Hay, whom he met at La Trobe University.", "This line-up achieved national and international success during the early to mid-1980s.In January 1983, they were the first Australian artists to have a simultaneous No.", "1 album and No.", "1 single on the United States ''Billboard'' charts: ''Business as Usual'' (released on 9 November 1981) and \"Down Under\" (1981), respectively.", "With the same works, they achieved the distinction of a simultaneous No.", "1 album and No.", "1 single on the Australian, New Zealand, and United Kingdom charts.", "Their second album ''Cargo'' (2 May 1983) was No.", "1 in Australia, No.", "2 in New Zealand, No.", "3 in the US, and No.", "8 in the UK.", "Their third album ''Two Hearts'' (3 April 1985) reached the top 20 in Australia and top 50 in the US.They won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist in 1983, they were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 1994, and they have sold over 30 million albums worldwide.", "In May 2001, \"Down Under\" was listed at No.", "4 on the APRA Top 30 Australian songs and ''Business as Usual'' appeared in the book ''100 Best Australian Albums'' (October 2010).In 1984, Speiser and Rees were asked to leave the group, leaving Hay, Ham, and Strykert as a trio, accompanied by session musicians.", "During the recording of the ''Two Hearts'' album, Strykert decided to leave.", "Soon after the 1985 release of ''Two Hearts'', Ham left also, leaving Hay as the sole remaining member.", "Hay elected to work as a solo artist shortly thereafter in early 1986, and the Men at Work name was retired.From 1996 until 2002, Hay and Ham revived the name and toured the world as Men at Work (accompanied by new group members).", "On 19 April 2012, Ham was found dead at his home from an apparent heart attack.In 2019, Hay once again revived the Men at Work moniker and began touring with another new group of musicians.", "No other previous Men At Work members are involved in the current revival." ], [ "History", "===Origins===The nucleus of Men at Work formed in Melbourne around June 1979 with Colin Hay on lead vocals and guitar, Ron Strykert on bass guitar, and Jerry Speiser on drums.", "They were soon joined by Greg Ham on flute, sax and keyboards, and then John Rees on bass guitar, with Strykert switching to lead guitar.", "Hay had immigrated to Australia in 1967 from Scotland with his family.", "In 1978, he had formed an acoustic duo with Strykert, which expanded by mid-1979 with the addition of Speiser.", "Around this time as a side project, keyboardist Greg Sneddon (ex-Alroy Band), a former bandmate of Jerry Speiser, together with Speiser, Hay and Strykert, performed and recorded the music to 'Riff Raff\", a low budget stage musical, upon which Sneddon had worked.Hay asked Greg Ham to join the group, but Ham hesitated, as he was finishing his music degree.", "Ultimately, he decided to join the band in October 1979.John Rees, a friend of Jerry, joined soon after.", "The name Men At Work was thrown into the hat by Colin Hay, and was seconded by Ron Strykert, when a name was required to put on the blackboard outside The Cricketer's Arms Hotel, Richmond.", "The band built a \"grass roots\" reputation as a pub rock band.", "In 1980, the group issued their debut single, \"Keypunch Operator\" backed by \"Down Under\", with both tracks co-written by Hay and Strykert.", "It was \"self-financed\" and appeared on their own independent, M. A. W. label.", "Australian musicologist, Ian McFarlane, felt the A-side was \"a fast-paced country-styled rocker with a clean sound and quirky rhythm\".", "Despite not appearing in the top 100 on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart, by the end of that year the group had \"grown in stature to become the most in-demand and highly paid, unsigned band of the year\".===International success - ''Business as Usual'' and ''Cargo'' (1981–1983)===Early in 1981 Men at Work signed with CBS Records, the Australian branch of CBS Records International, (which became Sony Music) on the recommendation of Peter Karpin, the label's A&R person.", "The group's first single with CBS Records in Australia \"Who Can It Be Now?", "\", was released in June 1981 which reached No.", "2 and remained in the chart for 24 weeks.", "It had been produced by United States-based Peter McIan, who was also working on their debut album, ''Business as Usual''.McIan, together with the band worked on the arrangements for all the songs that appeared on ''Business As Usual''.", "Their next single was a re-arranged and \"popified\" version of \"Down Under\".", "It appeared in October that year and reached No.", "1 in November, where it remained for six weeks.", "''Business as Usual'' was also released in October and went to No.", "1 on the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart, spending a total of nine weeks at the top spot.", "''The Canberra Times'' Garry Raffaele opined that it \"generally stays at a high level, tight and jerky ...", "There is a delicacy about this music — and that is not a thing you can say about too many rock groups.", "The flute and reeds of Greg Ham do much to further that\".", "McFarlane noted that \"aside from the strength of the music, part of the album's appeal was its economy.", "The production sound was low-key, but clean and uncluttered.", "Indeed, the songs stood by themselves with little embellishment save for a bright, melodic, singalong quality\".By February the following year both \"Down Under\" and ''Business as Usual'' had reached No.", "1 on the respective Official New Zealand Music Charts – the latter was the first Australian album to reach that peak in New Zealand.", "Despite its strong Australian and New Zealand showing, and having an American producer (McIan), ''Business as Usual'' was twice rejected by Columbia's US parent company.", "Thanks to the persistence of Russell Depeller and Karpin, the album was finally released in the US and the United Kingdom in April 1982 – six months after its Australian release.", "Their next single, \"Be Good Johnny\", was issued in Australia in April 1982 and reached No.", "8 in Australia, and No.", "3 in New Zealand.Men at Work initially broke through to North American audiences in the western provinces of Canada with \"Who Can It Be Now?\"", "hitting the top 10 on radio stations in Winnipeg by May 1982.It peaked at No.", "8 on the Canadian ''RPM'' Top Singles Chart in July.", "In August the group toured Canada and the United States to promote the album and related singles, supporting Fleetwood Mac.", "The band became more popular on Canadian radio in the following months and also started receiving top 40 US airplay by August.", "In October \"Who Can It Be Now?\"", "reached No.", "1 on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100, while Canada was one single ahead with \"Down Under\" topping the Canadian charts that same month.", "In the following month ''Business as Usual'' began a 15-week run at No.", "1 on the ''Billboard'' 200.While \"Who Can It Be Now?\"", "was still in the top ten in the US, \"Down Under\" was finally released in that market.", "It entered the US charts at No.", "79 and ten weeks later, it was No.", "1.By January 1983 Men at Work had the top album and single in both the US and the UK – never previously achieved by an Australian act.", "\"Be Good Johnny\" received moderate airplay in the US; it reached the top 20 in Canada.", "\"Down Under\" gained international media exposure in September 1983 through television coverage of the Australian challenge for the America's Cup yacht trophy in September 1983 when it was adopted as the theme song by the crew of the successful ''Australia II''.The band released their second album, ''Cargo'', in April 1983, which also peaked at No.", "1 – for two weeks – on the Australian charts.", "In New Zealand it reached No.", "2.It had been finished in mid-1982 with McIan producing again, but was held back due to the success of their debut album on the international market, where ''Business as Usual'' was still riding high.", "''Cargo'' appeared at No.", "3 on the ''Billboard'' 200, and No.", "8 in the UK.", "The lead single, \"Overkill\", was issued in Australia ahead of the album in October 1982 and reached No.", "6, it peaked at No.", "3 in the US.", "\"Dr. Heckyll & Mr. Jive\" followed in March 1983 made it to No.", "5 in Australia, and No.", "28 in the US.", "\"It's a Mistake\" reached No.", "6 in the US.", "The band toured the world extensively in 1983.===''Two Hearts'' and break-up (1984–1986)===In 1984, long standing tensions between Hay and Speiser led to a split in the band.", "Both Rees and Speiser were told they were \"not required\", as Hay, Ham and Strykert used session musicians to record their third album, ''Two Hearts'' (23 April 1985).", "Hay later attributed the firing to a dispute over the band's manager, Russell Deppler, stating, \"The rhythm section got sacked because they wanted to sack the manager, who was my friend.\"", "Speiser opined, \"Russell was good for hustling gigs in Melbourne and Sydney but once the band became international and multi-million, the sheep farmer from Warrnambool had no idea.\"", "Studio musicians included Jeremy Alsop on bass guitar (ex-Ram Band, Pyramid, Broderick Smith Band); and Mark Kennedy on drums (Spectrum, Ayers Rock, Marcia Hines Band).", "''Two Hearts'' was produced by Hay and Ham.", "It was a critical and commercial failure compared to their previous albums and only peaked at No.", "16 in Australia, and No.", "50 on the US chart.", "Strykert had left during its production.Four tracks were released as singles, \"Everything I Need\" (May 1985), \"Man with Two Hearts\", \"Maria\" (August), and \"Hard Luck Story\" (October); only the lead single charted in Australia (No.", "37) and the US (No. 47).", "The album relied heavily on drum machines and synthesisers, and reduced the presence of Ham's saxophone, giving it a different feel compared to its predecessors.", "Hay and Ham hired new bandmates, to tour in support of ''Two Hearts'', with Alsop and Kennedy joined by James Black on guitar and keyboards (Mondo Rock, The Black Sorrows).", "Soon after a third guitarist, Colin Bayley (Mi-Sex), was added and Kennedy was replaced on drums by Chad Wackerman (Frank Zappa).", "Australian singers Kate Ceberano and Renée Geyer had also worked on the album and performed live as guest vocalists.On 13 July 1985 Men at Work performed three tracks for the Oz for Africa concert (part of the global Live Aid program)—\"Maria\", \"Overkill\", and an unreleased one, \"The Longest Night\".", "They were broadcast in Australia (on both Seven Network and Nine Network) and on MTV in the US.", "\"Maria\" and \"Overkill\" were also broadcast by American Broadcasting Company (ABC) during their Live Aid telecast.", "Ham left during the band's time touring behind the album.", "The final Men at Work performances during 1985 had jazz saxophonist Paul Williamson (The Black Sorrows), replacing Ham.", "As of October 1985, the band's official line-up was a sextet of Hay, Alsop, Bayley, Black, Wackerman and Williamson (as pictured on the Australia-only single \"Sail To You\"), but by early 1986 the band was defunct.", "At that time, Hay started recording his first solo album, ''Looking for Jack'' (January 1987), which had Alsop and Wackerman as session musicians.===Partial reunion and second break-up (1996–2002)===By mid-1996, after a ten-year absence, Hay and Ham reformed Men at Work to tour South America.", "They had enjoyed strong fan support there during their earlier career and demands for a reunion had persisted.", "The 1996 line up had Stephen Hadley on bass guitar and backing vocals (ex-The Black Sorrows, Paul Kelly Band); Simon Hosford on guitar and backing vocals (Colin Hay backing band); and John Watson on drums (The Black Sorrows).", "The tour culminated in a performance in São Paulo, which was recorded for the Brazilian release of a live album, ''Brazil '96'', in 1997, which was co-produced by Hay and Ham for Sony Music.", "It was re-released worldwide in 1998 as ''Brazil'' with a bonus track, \"The Longest Night\", the first new studio track since ''Two Hearts''.In 1997 drummer Tony Floyd replaced Watson but by 1998 the lineup was Hay, Ham, James Ryan (guitar, backing vocals), Rick Grossman (of the Hoodoo Gurus) on bass and Peter Maslen (ex-Boom Crash Opera) on drums.", "In 1999 Ryan, Grossman and Maslen were out and Hosford and Floyd were back in, along with bassist Stuart Speed.", "Rodrigo Aravena was brought in on bass in 2000, along with Heta Moses on drums.", "Moses was replaced by Warren Trout in 2001 as Stephen Hadley returned on bass.The band toured Australia, South America, Europe and the US from 1998 to 2000.Men at Work performed \"Down Under\" at the closing ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, alongside Paul Hogan of ''\"Crocodile\" Dundee'' (1986).One of their European tours for mid-2000 was cancelled and the group had disbanded once again by 2002, although Hay and Ham periodically reunited Men at Work with guest musicians (including an appearance in February 2009, when they performed \"Down Under\" as a duo at the Australia Unites Victorian Bushfire Appeal Telethon).=== Copyright lawsuit and the death of Greg Ham ===In February 2010, Larrikin Music Publishing won a case against Hay and Strykert, their record label (Sony BMG Music Entertainment) and music publishing company (EMI Songs Australia), arising from the uncredited appropriation of \"Kookaburra\", originally written in 1932 by Marion Sinclair, and for which Larrikin owned the publishing rights, as the flute line in the Men at Work song \"Down Under\".", "Back in early 2009 the Australian music-themed TV quiz, ''Spicks and Specks'', had posed a question which suggested that \"Down Under\" contained elements of \"Kookaburra\".Larrikin, then headed by Norman Lurie, filed suit after Larrikin was sold to another company and had demanded between 40% and 60% of the previous six years of earnings from the song.", "In February 2010, the judge ruled that \"Down Under\" did contain a flute riff based on \"Kookaburra\" but stipulated that neither was it necessarily the hook nor a substantial part of the hit song (Hay and Strykert had written the track years before the flute riff was added by Ham).", "In July 2010, a judge ruled that Larrikin should be paid 5% of past (since 2002) and future profits.", "Ham took the verdict particularly hard, feeling responsible for having performed the flute riff at the centre of the lawsuit and worried that he would only be remembered for copying someone else's music, resulting in depression and anxiety.", "Ham's body was found in his Carlton North home on 19 April 2012 after he suffered a fatal heart attack at age 58.===Post 2012===In June 2019, Hay toured Europe with a group of Los Angeles-based session musicians under the name Men at Work, despite the band featuring no other original members of the band.", "The new lineup consisted of Hay (vocals, guitar), Scheila Gonzalez (saxophone, keyboards, vocals, flute), San Miguel Perez (guitar, backing vocals), Yosmel Montejo (bass, backing vocals), Jimmy Branly (drums, percussion) and Cecilia Noël (backing vocals).In 2021 Australian producer Christian 'Luude' Benson (from the Tasmanian tech house dance duo Choomba) remixed \"Down Under\" as a drum and bass track, which became popular online.", "Hay re-recorded the vocal for the track's official release, now credited to Luude featuring Colin Hay, with the record charting at number 32 on the UK Singles chart on 7 January 2022 and at number 48 in Australia (on the ARIA Top 50 Singles for the week of 10 January 2022)." ], [ "Other projects", "Hay maintained a solo career and played with Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band.", "Strykert relocated to Hobart in 2009 from Los Angeles, and continued to play music and released his first solo album, ''Paradise'', in September that year.", "He expressed resentment towards Hay, mainly over royalties.", "Ham remained musically active and played sax with the Melbourne-based group The Nudist Funk Orchestra until his death.", "Rees was a music teacher in Melbourne and also played the violin and bass guitar for the band Beggs 2 Differ.", "Speiser played drums for the band The Afterburner." ], [ "Awards and nominations", "===ARIA Music Awards===The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music.", "They commenced in 1987.Men at Work were inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1994.ARIA Music Awards of 1994 Men at Work ARIA Hall of Fame ===Countdown Australian Music Awards===''Countdown'' is an Australian pop music TV series that aired on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974 to 1987, it presented music awards from 1979 to 1987, initially in conjunction with magazine ''TV Week''.", "The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards.1981 \"Down Under\" Best Australian Single ''Business as Usual'' Best Debut Album \"Who Can It Be Now?\"", "Best Debut Single Themselves Best New Talent Most Popular Group 1982 Colin Hay (Men At Work) Best Songwriter Themselves Most Popular Group Most Outstanding Achievement 1983 ''Cargo'' Best Australian Album Themselves Most Outstanding Achievement Most Popular Group ===Grammy Awards=== 1983 Men at Work Best New Artist ===Other awards===In August 1983 they were given a Crystal Globe Award for $100 million worth of record business by their US label.", "That same year in Canada they were awarded a Juno Award for \"International LP of the Year\".", "Men at Work has sold over 30 million albums worldwide.On 28 May 2001 \"Down Under\" was listed at No.", "4 on the APRA Top 30 Australian songs.", "In October 2010, ''Business as Usual'' was listed in the book, ''100 Best Australian Albums''." ], [ "Members", "Colin Hay has been the only constant member in all configurations.", "'''Present'''* Colin Hay – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass (1978–1986, 1996–2002; occasional performances until 2012; 2019–present)'''Current touring members'''* Jimmy Branly – drums (2019–present)* San Miguel Perez – guitar, backing vocals (2019–present)* Yosmel Montejo – bass, backing vocals (2019–present)* Scheila Gonzalez – saxophone, flute, keyboards, backing vocals (2019–present)* Cecilia Noël – backing vocals (2019–present)'''Former'''* Ron Strykert – lead guitar, bass, vocals (1978–1985)* Jerry Speiser – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1979–1984)* Greg Ham – keyboards, vocals, saxophone, harmonica, flute (1979–1985, 1996–2002; occasional performances until 2012; died 2012)* John Rees – bass, backing vocals (1980–1984)'''Former touring members'''* Jeremy Alsop – bass, backing vocals (1985–1986)* James Black – guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1985–1986)* Mark Kennedy – drums (1985)* Colin Bayley – guitar, backing vocals (1985–1986)* Chad Wackerman – drums, backing vocals (1985–1986)* Paul Williamson – saxophone, keyboards, backing vocals (1985–1986)* Simon Hosford – guitar, backing vocals (1996–1998, 1999–2001)* Stephen Hadley – bass, backing vocals (1996–1998, 2001)* John Watson – drums (1996–1997)* Tony Floyd – drums (1997–1998, 1999–2000)* Rick Grossman – bass, backing vocals (1998–1999)* James Ryan — guitar, backing vocals (1998–1999)* Peter Maslen – drums (1998–1999)* Stuart Speed — bass, backing vocals (1998–1999)* Rodrigo Aravena – bass, backing vocals (2000–2001)* Heta Moses – drums (2000–2001)* Warren Trout – drums (2001)" ], [ "Discography", "* ''Business as Usual'' (1981)* ''Cargo'' (1983)* ''Two Hearts'' (1985)" ], [ "See also", "* List of artists who have achieved simultaneous UK and US number-one hits" ], [ "References", ";General* Note: Archived on-line copy has limited functionality.", ";Specific" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meconium aspiration syndrome" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Meconium aspiration syndrome''' ('''MAS''') also known as '''neonatal aspiration of meconium''' is a medical condition affecting newborn infants.", "It describes the spectrum of disorders and pathophysiology of newborns born in meconium-stained amniotic fluid (MSAF) and have meconium within their lungs.", "Therefore, MAS has a wide range of severity depending on what conditions and complications develop after parturition.", "Furthermore, the pathophysiology of MAS is multifactorial and extremely complex which is why it is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in term infants.The word ''meconium'' is derived from the Greek word ''mēkōnion'' meaning ''juice from the opium poppy'' as the sedative effects it had on the foetus were observed by Aristotle.Meconium is a sticky dark-green substance which contains gastrointestinal secretions, amniotic fluid, bile acids, bile, blood, mucus, cholesterol, pancreatic secretions, lanugo, vernix caseosa and cellular debris.", "Meconium accumulates in the foetal gastrointestinal tract throughout the third trimester of pregnancy and it is the first intestinal discharge released within the first 48 hours after birth.", "Notably, since meconium and the whole content of the gastrointestinal tract is located 'extracorporeally,' its constituents are hidden and normally not recognised by the foetal immune system.For the meconium within the amniotic fluid to successfully cause MAS, it has to enter the respiratory system during the period when the fluid-filled lungs transition into an air-filled organ capable of gas exchange." ], [ "Causes", "The main theories of meconium passage into amniotic fluid are caused by fetal maturity or from foetal stress as a result of hypoxia or infection.", "Other factors that promote the passage of meconium ''in utero'' include placental insufficiency, maternal hypertension, pre-eclampsia and maternal drug use of tobacco and cocaine.", "However, the exact mechanism for meconium passage into the amniotic fluid is not completely understood and it may be a combination of several factors.=== Meconium passage as a result of foetal distress ===There may be an important association between foetal distress and hypoxia with MSAF.", "It is believed that foetal distress develops into foetal hypoxia causing the foetus to defecate meconium resulting in MSAF and then perhaps MAS.", "Other stressors which causes foetal distress, and therefore meconium passage, includes when umbilical vein oxygen saturation is below 30%.Foetal hypoxic stress during parturition can stimulate colonic activity, by enhancing intestinal peristalsis and relaxing the anal sphincter, which results in the passage of meconium.", "Then, because of intrauterine gasping or from the first few breaths after delivery, MAS may develop.", "Furthermore, aspiration of thick meconium leads to obstruction of airways resulting in a more severe hypoxia.The association between foetal distress and meconium passage is not a definite cause-effect relationship as over of infants with MSAF are vigorous at birth and do not have any distress or hypoxia.", "Additionally, foetal distress occurs frequently without the passage of meconium as well.=== Meconium passage as a result of foetal maturity ===Although meconium is present in the gastrointestinal tract early in development, MSAF rarely occurs before 34 weeks gestation.Peristalsis of the foetal intestines is present as early as 8 weeks gestation and the anal sphincter develops at about 20–22 weeks.", "The early control mechanisms of the anal sphincter are not well understood, however there is evidence that the foetus does defecate routinely into the amniotic cavity even in the absence of distress.", "The presence of fetal intestinal enzymes have been found in the amniotic fluid of women who are as early as 14–22 weeks pregnant.", "Thus, suggesting there is free passage of the intestinal contents into the amniotic fluid.Motilin is found in higher concentrations in post-term than pre-term foetal gastrointestinal tracts.", "Similarly, intestinal parasympathetic innervation and myelination also increases in later gestations.", "Therefore, the increased incidence of MAS in post-term pregnancies may reflect the maturation and development of the peristalsis within the gastrointestinal tract in the newborn." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "As MAS describes a spectrum of disorders of newborns born through MSAF, without any congenital respiratory disorders or other underlying pathology, there are numerous hypothesised mechanisms and causes for the onset of this syndrome.", "Long-term consequences may arise from these disorders, for example, infants that develop MAS have higher rates of developing neurodevelopmental defects due to poor respiration.=== Airway obstruction ===In the first 15 minutes of meconium aspiration, there is obstruction of larger airways which causes increased lung resistance, decreased lung compliance, acute hypoxemia, hypercapnia, atelectasis and respiratory acidosis.", "After 60 minutes of exposure, the meconium travels further down into the smaller airways.", "Once within the terminal bronchioles and alveoli, the meconium triggers inflammation, pulmonary edema, vasoconstriction, bronchoconstriction, collapse of airways and inactivation of surfactant.=== Foetal hypoxia ===The lung areas which do not or only partially participate in ventilation, because of obstruction and/or destruction, will become hypoxic and an inflammatory response may consequently occur.", "Partial obstruction will lead to air trapping and hyperinflation of certain lung areas and pneumothorax may follow.", "Chronic hypoxia will lead to an increase in pulmonary vascular smooth muscle tone and persistent pulmonary hypertension causing respiratory and circulatory failure.=== Infection ===Microorganisms, most commonly Gram-negative rods, and endotoxins are found in samples of MSAF at a higher rate than in clear amniotic fluid, for example 46.9% of patients with MSAF also had endotoxins present.", "A microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC) is more common in patients with MSAF and this could ultimately lead to an intra-amniotic inflammatory response.", "MIAC is associated with high concentrations of cytokines (such as IL-6), chemokines (such as IL-8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), complement, phospholipase A2 and matrix-degrading enzymes.", "Therefore, these aforementioned mediators within the amniotic fluid during MIAC and intra-amniotic infection could, when aspirated ''in'' ''utero'', induce lung inflammation within the foetus.=== Pulmonary inflammation ===Meconium has a complex chemical composition, so it is difficult to identify a single agent responsible for the several diseases that arise.", "As meconium is stored inside the intestines, and is partly unexposed to the immune system, when it becomes aspirated the innate immune system recognises as a foreign and dangerous substance.", "The immune system, which is present at birth, responds within minutes with a low specificity and no memory in order to try to eliminate microbes.", "Meconium perhaps leads to chemical pneumonitis as it is a potent activator of inflammatory mediators which include cytokines, complement, prostaglandins and reactive oxygen species.Meconium is a source of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukins (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8), and mediators produced by neutrophils, macrophages and epithelial cells that may injure the lung tissue directly or indirectly.", "For example, proteolytic enzymes are released from neutrophilic granules and these may damage the lung membrane and surfactant proteins.", "Additionally, activated leukocytes and cytokines generate reactive nitrogen and oxygen species which have cytotoxic effects.", "Oxidative stress results in vasoconstriction, bronchoconstriction, platelet aggregation and accelerated cellular apoptosis.", "Recently, it has been hypothesised that meconium is a potent activator of toll-like receptor (TLRs) and complement, key mediators in inflammation, and may thus contribute to the inflammatory response in MAS.Meconium contains high amounts of phospholipase A2 (PLA2), a potent proinflammatory enzyme, which may directly (or through the stimulation of arachidonic acid) lead to surfactant dysfunction, lung epithelium destruction, tissue necrosis and an increase in apoptosis.", "Meconium can also activate the coagulation cascade, production of platelet-activating factor (PAF) and other vasoactive substances that may lead to destruction of capillary endothelium and basement membranes.", "Injury to the alveolocapillary membrane results in leakage of liquid, plasma proteins, and cells into the interstitium and alveolar spaces.=== Surfactant inactivation ===Surfactant is synthesised by type II alveolar cells and is made of a complex of phospholipids, proteins and saccharides.", "It functions to lower surface tension (to allow for lung expansion during inspiration), stabilise alveoli at the end of expiration (to prevent alveolar collapse) and prevents lung oedema.", "Surfactant also contributes to lung protection and defence as it is also an anti-inflammatory agent.", "Surfactant enhances the removal of inhaled particles and senescent cells away from the alveolar structure.The extent of surfactant inhibition depends on both the concentration of surfactant and meconium.", "If the surfactant concentration is low, even very highly diluted meconium can inhibit surfactant function whereas, in high surfactant concentrations, the effects of meconium are limited.", "Meconium may impact surfactant mechanisms by preventing surfactant from spreading over the alveolar surface, decreasing the concentration of surfactant proteins (SP-A and SP-B), and by changing the viscosity and structure of surfactant.", "Several morphological changes occur after meconium exposure, the most notable being the detachment of airway epithelium from stroma and the shedding of epithelial cells into the airway.", "These indicate a direct detrimental effect on lung alveolar cells because of the introduction of meconium into the lungs.=== Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension ===Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) is the failure of the foetal circulation to adapt to extra-uterine conditions after birth.", "PPHN is associated with various respiratory diseases, including MAS (as 15-20% of infants with MAS develop PPHN), but also pneumonia and sepsis.", "A combination of hypoxia, pulmonary vasoconstriction and ventilation/perfusion mismatch can trigger PPHN, depending on the concentration of meconium within the respiratory tract.", "PPHN in newborns is the leading cause of death in MAS.=== Apoptosis ===Apoptosis is an important mechanism in the clearance of injured cells and in tissue repair, however too much apoptosis may cause harm, such as acute lung injury.", "Meconium induces apoptosis and DNA cleavage of lung airway epithelial cells, this is detected by the presence of fragmented DNA within the airways and in alveolar epithelial nuclei.", "Meconium induces an inflammatory reaction within the lungs as there is an increase of autophagocytic cells and levels of caspase 3 after exposure.", "After 8 hours of meconium exposure, in rabbit foetuses, the total amount of apoptotic cells is 54%.", "Therefore, the majority of meconium-induced lung damage may be due to the apoptosis of lung epithelium." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Release of meconium into the amniotic cavity and then intrauterine gasping of post-term neonates may cause meconium aspiration syndrome.Respiratory distress in an infant born through the darkly coloured MSAF as well as meconium obstructing the airways is usually sufficient enough to diagnose MAS.", "Additionally, newborns with MAS can have other types of respiratory distress such as tachypnea and hypercapnia.", "Sometimes it is hard to diagnose MAS as it can be confused with other diseases that also cause respiratory distress, such as pneumonia.", "Additionally, X-rays and lung ultrasounds can be quick, easy and cheap imaging techniques to diagnose lung diseases like MAS." ], [ "Prevention", "In general, the incidence of MAS has been significantly reduced over the past two decades as the number of post-term deliveries has minimized.=== Prevention during pregnancy ===Prevention during pregnancy may include amnioinfusion and antibiotics but the effectiveness of these treatments are questionable.=== Prevention during parturition ===As previously mentioned, oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal suctioning is not an ideal preventative treatment for both vigorous and depressed (not breathing) infants." ], [ "Treatment", "Most infants born through MSAF do not require any treatments (other than routine postnatal care) as they show no signs of respiratory distress, as only approximately 5% of infants born through MSAF develop MAS.", "However, infants which do develop MAS need to be admitted to a neonatal unit where they will be closely observed and provided any treatments needed.", "Observations include monitoring heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation and blood glucose (to detect worsening respiratory acidosis or the development of hypoglycemia).", "In general, treatment of MAS is more supportive in nature.=== Assisted ventilation techniques ===To clear the airways of meconium, tracheal suctioning can be used however, the efficacy of this method is in question and it can cause harm.In cases of MAS, there is a need for supplemental oxygen for at least 12 hours in order to maintain oxygen saturation of haemoglobin at 92% or more.", "The severity of respiratory distress can vary significantly between newborns with MAS, as some require minimal or no supplemental oxygen requirement and, in severe cases, mechanical ventilation may be needed.", "The desired oxygen saturation is between 90 and 95% and PaO2 may be as high as 90mmHg.", "In cases where there is thick meconium deep within the lungs, mechanical ventilation may be required.", "In extreme cases, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be utilised in infants who fail to respond to ventilation therapy.", "While on ECMO, the body can have time to absorb the meconium and for all the associated disorders to resolve.", "There has been an excellent response to this treatment, as the survival rate of MAS while on ECMO is more than 94%.Ventilation of infants with MAS can be challenging and, as MAS can affect each individual differently, ventilation administration may need to be customised.", "Some newborns with MAS can have homogenous lung changes and others can have inconsistent and patchy changes to their lungs.", "It is common for sedation and muscle relaxants to be used to optimise ventilation and minimise the risk of pneumothorax associated with dyssynchronous breathing.=== Inhaled nitric oxide ===Inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) acts on vascular smooth muscle causing selective pulmonary vasodilation.", "This is ideal in the treatment of PPHN as it causes vasodilation within ventilated areas of the lung thus, decreasing the ventilation-perfusion mismatch and thereby, improves oxygenation.", "Treatment utilising iNO decreases the need for ECMO and mortality in newborns with hypoxic respiratory failure and PPHN as a result of MAS.", "However, approximately 30-50% of infants with PPHN do not respond to iNO therapy.=== Antiinflammatories ===As inflammation is such a huge issue in MAS, treatment has consisted of anti-inflammatories.==== Glucocorticoids ====Glucocorticoids have a strong anti-inflammatory activity and works to reduce the migration and activation of neutrophils, eosinophils, mononuclear cells, and other cells.", "They reduce the migration of neutrophils into the lungs ergo, decreasing their adherence to the endothelium.", "Thus, there is a reduction in the action of mediators released from these cells and therefore, a reduced inflammatory response.Glucocorticoids also possess a genomic mechanism of action in which, once bound to a glucocorticoid receptor, the activated complex moves into the nucleus and inhibits transcription of mRNA.", "Ultimately, effecting whether various proteins get produced or not.", "Inhibiting the transcription of nuclear factor (NF-κB) and protein activator (AP-1) attenuates the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF etc.", "), enzymes (PLA2, COX-2, iNOs etc.)", "and other biologically active substances.", "The anti-inflammatory effect of glucocorticoids is also demonstrated by enhancing the activity of lipocortines which inhibit the activity of PLA2 and therefore, decrease the production of arachidonic acid and mediators of lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways.Anti-inflammatories need to be administered as quickly as possible as the effect of these drugs can diminish even just an hour after meconium aspiration.", "For example, early administration of dexamethasone significantly enhanced gas exchange, reduced ventilatory pressures, decreased the number of neutrophils in the bronchoalveolar area, reduced oedema formation and oxidative lung injury.", "However, glucocorticoids may increase the risk of infection and this risk increases with the dose and duration of glucocorticoid treatment.", "Other issues can arise, such as aggravation of diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, skin atrophy and growth retardation in children.==== Inhibitors of phosphodiesterase ====Phosphodiesterases (PDE) degrades cAMP and cGMP and, within the respiratory system of a newborn with MAS, various isoforms of PDE may be involved due to their pro-inflammatory and smooth muscle contractile activity.", "Therefore, non-selective and selective inhibitors of PDE could potentially be used in MAS therapy.", "However, the use of PDE inhibitors can cause cardiovascular side effects.", "Non-selective PDE inhibitors, such as methylxanthines, increase concentrations of cAMP and cGMP in the cells leading to bronchodilation and vasodilation.", "Additionally, methylxanthines decreases the concentrations of calcium, acetylcholine and monoamines, this controls the release of various mediators of inflammation and bronchoconstriction, including prostaglandins.", "Selective PDE inhibitors target one subtype of phosphodiesterase and in MAS the activities of PDE-3, PDE-4, PDE-5 and PDE-7 may become enhanced.", "For example, Milrinone (a selective PDE3 inhibitor) improved oxygenation and survival of neonates with MAS.==== Inhibitors of cyclooxygenase ====Arachidonic acid is metabolised, via cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase, to various substances including prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which exhibit potent pro-inflammatory and vasoactive effects.", "By inhibiting COX, and more specifically COX-2, (either through selective or non-selective drugs) inflammation and oedema can be reduced.", "However, COX inhibitors may induce peptic ulcers and cause hyperkalemia and hypernatremia.", "Additionally, COX inhibitors have not shown any great response in the treatment of MAS.=== Antibiotics ===Meconium is typically sterile however, it can contain various cultures of bacteria so appropriate antibiotics may need to be prescribed.=== Surfactant treatment ===Lung lavage with diluted surfactant has potential benefits depending on how early it is given in newborns with MAS.", "This treatment shows promise as it has an effect on air leaks, pneumothorax, the need for ECMO and death.", "Early intervention and using it on newborns with mild MAS is more effective.", "However, there are risks as a large volume of fluid instillation to the lung of a newborn can be dangerous (particularly in cases of severe MAS with pulmonary hypertension) as it can exacerbate hypoxia and lead to mortality.=== Previous treatments ===Originally, it was believed that MAS developed as a result of the meconium being a physical blockage of the airways.", "Thus, to prevent newborns, who were born through MSAF, from developing MAS, suctioning of the oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal area before delivery of the shoulders followed by tracheal aspiration was utilised for 20 years.", "This treatment was believed to be effective as it was reported to significantly decrease the incidence of MAS compared to those newborns born through MSAF who were not treated.", "This claim was later disproved and future studies concluded that oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal suctioning, before delivery of the shoulders in infants born through MSAF, does not prevent MAS or its complications.", "In fact, it can cause more issues and damage (e.g.", "mucosal damage), thus it is not a recommended preventative treatment.", "Suctioning may not significantly reduce the incidence of MAS as meconium passage and aspiration may occur ''in-utero.''", "Thereby making the suctioning redundant and useless as the meconium may already be deep within the lungs at the time of birth.Historically, amnioinfusion has been used when MSAF was present, which involves a transcervical infusion of fluid during labour.", "The idea was to dilute the thick meconium to reduce its potential pathophysiology and reduce cases of MAS, since MAS is more prevalent in cases of thick meconium.", "However, there are associated risks, such as umbilical cord prolapse and prolongation of labour.", "The UK National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) Guidelines recommend against the use of amnioinfusion in women with MSAF." ], [ "Prevalence", "1 in every 7 pregnancies have MSAF and, of these cases, approximately 5% of these infants develop MAS.", "MSAF is observed 23-52% in pregnancies at 42 weeks therefore, the frequency of MAS increases as the length of gestation increases, such that the prevalence is greatest in post-term pregnancies.", "Conversely, preterm births are not frequently associated with MSAF (only approximately 5% in total contain MSAF).", "The rate of MAS declines in populations where labour is induced in women that have pregnancies exceeding 41 weeks.", "There are many suspected pre-disposing factors that are thought to increase the risk of MAS.", "For example, the risk of MSAF is higher in African American, African and Pacific Islander mothers, compared to mothers from other ethnic groups." ], [ "Future research", "Research is being focused on developing both a successful method for preventing MAS as well as an effective treatment.", "For example, investigations are being made in the efficiency of anti-inflammatory agents, surfactant replacement therapy and antibiotic therapy.", "More research needs to be conducted on the pharmacological properties of, for example, glucocorticoids, including dosages, administration, timing or any drug interactions.", "Additionally, there is still research being conducted on whether intubation and suctioning of meconium in newborns with MAS is beneficial, harmful or is simply a redundant and outdated treatment.", "In general, there is still no generally accepted therapeutic protocol and effective treatment plan for MAS." ], [ "See also", "* Aspiration pneumonia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* eMedicine's article about meconium aspiration syndrome" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meconium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Meconium''' is the earliest stool of a mammalian infant resulting from defecation.", "Unlike later feces, meconium is composed of materials ingested during the time the infant spends in the uterus: intestinal epithelial cells, lanugo, mucus, amniotic fluid, bile, and water.", "Meconium, unlike later feces, is viscous and sticky like tar – its color usually being a very dark olive green and it is almost odorless.", "When diluted in amniotic fluid, it may appear in various shades of green, brown, or yellow.", "It should be completely passed by the end of the first few days after birth, with the stools progressing toward yellow (digested milk)." ], [ "Clinical significance", "=== Meconium in amniotic fluid ===Meconium is normally retained in the infant's bowel until after birth, but sometimes it is expelled into the amniotic fluid prior to birth or during labor and delivery.", "The stained amniotic fluid is recognized by medical staff as a possible sign of fetal distress.", "Some post-dates pregnancies (when they are more than 40 weeks pregnant) may also have meconium-stained amniotic fluid without fetal distress.", "Medical staff may aspirate the meconium from the nose and mouth of a newborn immediately after delivery in the event the baby shows signs of respiratory distress to decrease the risk of meconium aspiration syndrome, which can occur in meconium-stained amniotic fluid.Most of the time that the amniotic fluid is stained with meconium, it will be homogeneously distributed throughout the fluid, making it brown.", "This indicates that the fetus passed the meconium some time ago such that sufficient mixing occurred as to establish the homogeneous mixture.", "Terminal meconium occurs when the fetus passes the meconium a short enough time before birth/cesarean section that the amniotic fluid remains clear, but individual clumps of meconium are in the fluid.=== Failure to pass meconium ===The failure to pass meconium is a symptom of several diseases including Hirschsprung's disease and cystic fibrosis.The meconium sometimes becomes thickened and congested in the intestines, a condition known as '''meconium ileus'''.", "Meconium ileus is often the first sign of cystic fibrosis.", "In cystic fibrosis, the meconium can form a bituminous black-green mechanical obstruction in a segment of the ileum.", "Beyond this, there may be a few separate grey-white globular pellets.", "Below this level, the bowel is a narrow and empty micro-colon.", "Above the level of the obstruction, there are several loops of hypertrophied bowel distended with fluid.", "No meconium is passed, and abdominal distension and vomiting appear soon after birth.", "About 20% of cases of cystic fibrosis present with meconium ileus, while approximately 20% of one series of cases of meconium ileus did not have cystic fibrosis.", "The presence of meconium ileus is not related to the severity of the cystic fibrosis.", "The obstruction can be relieved in a number of ways.Meconium ileus should be distinguished from meconium plug syndrome, in which a tenacious mass of mucus prevents the meconium from passing and there is no risk of intestinal perforation.", "Meconium ileus has a significant risk of intestinal perforation.", "In a barium enema, meconium plug syndrome shows a normal or dilated colon as compared to micro-colon in meconium ileus.=== Testing meconium for drugs ===Meconium can be tested for various drugs, to check for ''in utero'' exposure.", "Using meconium, a Canadian research group showed that by measuring a by-product of alcohol, fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE), they could objectively detect excessive maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy.", "In the US, the results of meconium testing may be used by child protective services and other law enforcement agencies if the capacity of the parents to look after their child is in question.", "Meconium can also be analyzed to detect the tobacco use of mothers during their pregnancy, which is commonly under-reported." ], [ "Sterility", "The issue of whether meconium is sterile remains debated and is an area of ongoing research.", "Although some researchers have reported evidence of bacteria in meconium, this has not been consistently confirmed.", "Other researchers have raised questions about whether these findings may be due to contamination after sample collection and that meconium is, in fact, sterile until after birth.", "Further researchers have hypothesized that there may be bacteria in the womb, but these are a normal part of pregnancy and could have an important role in shaping the developing immune system and are not harmful to the baby." ], [ "Etymology", "The Latin term ''meconium'' derives from Greek , ''mēkōnion'', a diminutive of , ''mēkōn'' 'poppy', in reference either to its tar-like appearance that may resemble some raw opium preparations or to Aristotle's belief that it induces sleep in the fetus." ], [ "Other uses", "* In biology, meconium describes the metabolic waste product from the pupal stage of an insect that is expelled through the anal opening of the adult upon eclosion from the pupa.", "Other insects, such as beetles and some Hymenoptera (Aculeata) expel the meconium at the end of the larval stage, before becoming a pupa." ], [ "Gallery", "Image:Meconium_Diaper.jpg|Meconium from 13-hour-old newborn.File:Meconium vs poo.jpg|This image compares the appearance of meconium (from 48 hours after normal delivery at term) to the appearance of the same infant's feces after 1 week of breastfeeding." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''(Montreux) Convention regarding the Regime of the Straits''', often known simply as the '''Montreux Convention''', is an international agreement governing the Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits in Turkey.", "Signed on 20 July 1936 at the Montreux Palace in Switzerland, it went into effect on 9 November 1936, addressing the long running Straits Question over who should control the strategically vital link between the Black and Mediterranean seas.The Montreux Convention regulates maritime traffic through the Turkish Straits.", "It guarantees \"complete freedom\" of passage for all civilian vessels in times of peace.", "In peacetime, military vessels are limited in number, tonnage and weaponry, with specific provisions governing their mode of entry and duration of stay.", "If they want to pass through the Strait, warships must provide advance notification to the Turkish authorities, which, in turn, must inform the parties to the convention.", "In wartime, if Turkey is not involved in the conflict, warships of the nations at war may not pass through the Straits, except when returning to their base.", "When Turkey is at war, or feels threatened by a war, it may take any decision about the passage of warships as it sees fit.", "The USA is not a signatory to the Convention.", "While it was designed for a particular geopolitical context, and remains unchanged since its adoption, the Montreux Convention has endured as a \"solid example of a rules-based international order\", since most of its terms are still followed." ], [ "Background", " The convention was one of a series of agreements in the 19th and 20th centuries that sought to address the long-running Straits Question of who should control the strategically vital link between the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea.", "In 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne had demilitarised the Dardanelles and opened the Straits to unrestricted civilian and military traffic under the supervision of the International Straits Commission of the League of Nations.By the late 1930s, the strategic situation in the Mediterranean had altered with the rise of Fascist Italy, which controlled the Greek-inhabited Dodecanese islands off the west coast of Turkey and had constructed fortifications on Rhodes, Leros and Kos.", "The Turks feared that Italy would seek to exploit access to the Straits to expand its power into Anatolia and the Black Sea region.", "There were also fears of Bulgarian rearmament.", "Although Turkey was not legally permitted to refortify the Straits, it nonetheless did so secretly.In April 1935, the Turkish government dispatched a lengthy diplomatic note to the signatories of the Treaty of Lausanne proposing a conference to agree a new regime for the Straits and requested that the League of Nations authorise the reconstruction of the Dardanelles forts.", "In the note, Turkish Foreign Minister Tevfik Rüştü Aras explained that the international situation had changed greatly since 1923.Europe had then been moving towards disarmament and an international guarantee to defend the Straits.", "The Abyssinia Crisis of 1934–1935, the denunciation by Germany of the Treaty of Versailles and international moves towards rearmament meant that \"the only guarantee intended to guard against the total insecurity of the Straits has just disappeared in its turn\".", "Indeed, Aras said that \"the Powers most closely concerned are proclaiming the existence of a threat of general conflagration\".", "The key weaknesses of the present regime were that the machinery for collective guarantees were too slow and ineffective, and there was no contingency for a general threat of war and no provision for Turkey to defend itself.", "Turkey was therefore prepared to enter into negotiations with a view to arriving in the near future at the conclusion of agreements for regulations of the regime of the Straits under the conditions of security which are indispensable for the inviolability of Turkey's territory, in most liberal spirit, for the constant development of commercial navigation between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.The response to the note was generally favourable; Australia, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, Romania, the Soviet Union, Turkey, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia attended negotiations at Montreux, Switzerland, which began on 22 June 1936.Two major powers were notably absent: Italy, whose aggressively expansionist policies had prompted the conference, refused to attend, and the increasingly isolationist United States declined even to send an observer.Turkey, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union each put forward their own set of proposals, each aimed chiefly at protecting the proponent's own interests.", "The British favoured the continuation of a relatively restrictive approach, the Turks sought a more liberal regime that reasserted their control over the Straits and the Soviets proposed a regime that would guarantee absolute freedom of passage.", "The British, supported by France, sought to exclude the Soviet fleet from the Mediterranean Sea, where it might threaten the vital shipping lanes to India, Egypt and the Far East.", "In the end, the British conceded some of their requests, but the Soviets succeeded in ensuring that the Black Sea countries, including the Soviet Union, were given exemptions from the military restrictions imposed on non-Black Sea nations.", "The agreement was ratified by all of the conference attendees with the exception of Germany, which had not been a signatory to the Treaty of Lausanne, and with reservations by Japan, and came into force on 9 November 1936; it was registered with the ''League of Nations Treaty Series'' on 11 December 1936.Britain's willingness to make concessions has been attributed to a desire to avoid Turkey being driven to ally itself with or to fall under the influence of Adolf Hitler or Benito Mussolini.", "It was thus the first in a series of steps by Britain and France to ensure that Turkey would either remain neutral or tilt towards the Western Allies in the event of any future conflict with the Axis." ], [ "Terms", "As mentioned in its preamble, the Convention replaced the terms of the Lausanne Treaty of 1923 as regards the Straits.", "This had dictated the demilitarisation of the Greek islands of Lemnos and Samothrace, along with the demilitarisation of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara and the Bosporus, and the Turkish islands of İmroz, Bozcaada and Tavşan.The Convention consists of 29 Articles, four annexes and one protocol.", "Articles 2–7 consider the passage of merchant ships.", "Articles 8–22 consider the passage of war vessels.", "The key principle of freedom of passage and navigation is laid out in articles 1 and 2.Article 1 provides, \"The High Contracting Parties recognise and affirm the principle of freedom of passage and navigation by sea in the Straits\".", "Article 2 states, \"In time of peace, merchant vessels shall enjoy complete freedom of passage and navigation in the Straits, by day and by night, under any flag with any kind of cargo\".The International Straits Commission was abolished, thereby allowing the full resumption of Turkish military control over the Straits and the refortification of the Dardanelles.", "Turkey was authorised to close the Straits to all foreign warships during a war or when it was threatened by aggression.", "Also, Turkey was authorised to refuse transit from merchant ships belonging to countries at war with it.A number of highly specific restrictions in Article 14 and 18 were imposed on what type of warships are allowed passage.", "Non-Black Sea powers wishing to send a vessel must notify Turkey 15 days prior to the requested passing, and Black Sea states must notify 8 days prior to passage.", "Also, no more than nine foreign warships, with a total aggregate tonnage of 15,000 tons, may pass at any one time.", "Furthermore, no single ship heavier than 10,000 tonnes can pass.", "An aggregate tonnage of all non-Black Sea warships in the Black Sea must be no more than 45,000 tons, with no one nation exceeding 30,000 tons at any given time, and they are permitted to stay in the Black Sea for at most 21 days.", "Only Black Sea states may transit capital ships of any tonnage, escorted by no more than two destroyers.", "Any revision to articles 14 and 18 requires 3/4 majority of signatory countries and must include Turkey.Under Article 12, Black Sea states are also allowed to send submarines through the Straits with prior notice as long as the vessels have been constructed, purchased or sent for repair outside the Black Sea.", "The less restrictive rules applicable to Black Sea states were agreed as effectively a concession to the Soviet Union, the only Black Sea state other than Turkey with any significant number of capital ships or submarines.", "The passage of civil aircraft between the Mediterranean and the Black seas is permitted only along routes authorised by the Turkish government.In time of war, Turkey not being belligerent, warships of belligerent Powers shall not pass, except to return to their base.", "(art.", "19)" ], [ "Implementation", "The terms of the convention were largely a reflection of the international situation in the mid-1930s.", "They largely served Turkish and Soviet interests by enabling Turkey to regain military control of the Straits and assuring Soviet dominance of the Black Sea.", "Although the Convention restricted the Soviets' ability to send naval forces into the Mediterranean Sea, which satisfied British concerns about Soviet intrusion into what was considered a British sphere of influence, it also ensured that outside powers could not exploit the Straits to threaten the Soviet Union.", "That was to have significant repercussions during World War II when the Montreux regime prevented the Axis powers from sending naval forces through the Straits to attack the Soviet Union.", "The Axis powers were thus severely limited in naval capability in their Black Sea campaigns and relied principally on small vessels that had been transported overland by rail and canal networks.Auxiliary vessels and armed merchant ships occupied a grey area, however, and the transit of such vessels through the straits led to friction between the Allies and Turkey.", "Repeated protests from Moscow and London led to the Turkish government banning the movements of \"suspicious\" Axis ships with effect from June 1944 after a number of German auxiliary ships had been permitted to transit the Straits.=== Aircraft carriers ===Although the Montreux Convention is cited by the Turkish government as prohibiting aircraft carriers from transiting the Straits, the treaty actually contains no explicit prohibition on aircraft carriers.", "However, modern aircraft carriers are heavier than the 15,000-ton limit imposed on warships, which makes it impossible for non–Black Sea powers to transit modern aircraft carriers through the Straits.Under Article 11, Black Sea states are permitted to transit capital ships of any tonnage through the straits, but Annex II specifically excludes aircraft carriers from the definition of capital ship.", "In 1936, it was common for battleships to carry observation aircraft.", "Therefore, aircraft carriers were defined as ships that were \"designed or adapted primarily for the purpose of carrying and operating aircraft at sea\".", "The inclusion of aircraft on any other ship does not classify it as an aircraft carrier.The Soviet Union designated its ''Kiev''-class and ''Kuznetsov''-class ships as \"aircraft-carrying cruisers\" because the ships were armed with P-500 and P-700 cruise missiles, which also form the main armament of the ''Slava''-class cruiser and the ''Kirov''-class battlecruiser.", "The result was that the Soviet Navy could send its aircraft-carrying cruisers through the Straits in compliance with the convention, but at the same time, the Convention denied access to NATO aircraft carriers, which exceeded the 15,000-ton limit.", "While the Soviet Union built its aircraft-carrying cruisers in the Black Sea, neither the Soviet Union nor Russia has ever based them in the Black Sea.Turkey chose to accept the designation of the Soviet aircraft carrying cruisers as aircraft cruisers, as any revision of the convention could leave Turkey with less control over the Straits, and the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea had already established a more liberal passage through other straits.", "By allowing the Soviet aircraft-carrying cruisers to transit the Straits, Turkey could leave the more restrictive Montreux Convention in place." ], [ "Controversies", "=== Istanbul Canal ===If it comes to fruition, the long-proposed Kanal Istanbul (Istanbul Canal) project could, according to Turkey, circumvent the Montreux Convention in the 21st century and allow greater Turkish autonomy with respect to the passage of military ships, which are limited in number, tonnage, and weaponry, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara.", "The canal project would involve building a artificial waterway through Thrace to connect the Sea of Marmara with the Black Sea.", "That route would run nearly parallel to the Bosporus, but ships transiting it would arguably not be subject to the terms of the Montreux Convention.", "Currently, the Dardanelles is heavily congested with shipping and there are long waits to pass through the Bosporus.", "The Kanal project's stated purposes are to speed up shipping and boost revenue by providing an alternate maritime route.In January 2018, the Turkish Prime Minister and a former Transport Minister, Binali Yıldırım, announced that the Kanal would not be subject to the terms of the Montreux Convention.", "That announcement was received negatively by the Russian media and government, and many have disputed the Turkish government's interpretation of the convention.===Soviet Union===The convention was repeatedly challenged by the Soviet Union during World War II and the Cold War.", "As early as 1939, Joseph Stalin sought to reopen the Straits Question and proposed joint Turkish and Soviet control of the Straits, complaining that \"a small state Turkey supported by Great Britain held a great state by the throat and gave it no outlet\".", "After the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was signed by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov informed his German counterparts that the Soviet Union wished to take military control of the Straits and to establish its own military base there.The Soviets returned to the issue in 1945 and 1946, demanding a revision of the Montreux Convention at a conference excluding most of its signatories; their demands included a permanent Soviet military presence and joint control of the Straits.", "These demands were firmly rejected by Turkey, despite an ongoing Soviet \"strategy of tension\".", "For several years after World War II, the Soviets exploited the restriction on the number of foreign warships by ensuring that one of theirs was always in the Straits, thus effectively blocking any state other than Turkey from sending warships through the Straits.", "Soviet pressure expanded into a full demand to revise the Montreux Convention, which led to the 1946 Turkish Straits crisis and Turkey abandoning its policy of neutrality.", "In 1947, Turkey became the recipient of US military and economic assistance under the Truman Doctrine of containment and joined NATO along with Greece, in 1952.===United States===The United States has not signed the convention but has generally complied with it.", "The passage of US warships through the Straits has also raised controversy, as the convention forbids the transit of non-Black Sea nations' warships with guns of a calibre larger than .", "In the 1960s, the US sent warships carrying 420 mm calibre ASROC missiles through the Straits, prompting Soviet protests.", "The Turkish government rejected Soviet complaints, pointing out that guided missiles were not guns and that, since such weapons had not existed at the time of the convention, they were not restricted.According to Jason Ditz of Antiwar.com, the Montreux Convention is an obstacle to a US naval buildup in the Black Sea because of the stipulations regulating warship traffic by nations not sharing a Black Sea coastline.", "The US thinktank Stratfor has suggested that those stipulations place Turkey's relationship to the US and its obligations as a NATO member in conflict with Russia and the regulations of the Montreux Convention.=== Militarisation of Greek islands ===The Convention annulled the terms of the earlier Lausanne Treaty on the Straits, including the demilitarisation of the Greek islands of Lemnos and Samothrace.", "Turkey recognised Greece's right to militarise them via a letter sent to the Greek Prime Minister on 6 May 1936 by the Turkish Ambassador in Athens, Ruşen Eşref.", "The Turkish government reiterated this position when the Turkish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Rüştu Aras, in his address to the Turkish National Assembly on the occasion of the ratification of the Montreux Treaty, recognised Greece's legal right to deploy troops on Lemnos and Samothrace with the following statement: \"The provisions pertaining to the islands of Lemnos and Samothrace, which belong to our neighbour and friendly country Greece and were demilitarised in application of the 1923 Lausanne Treaty, were also abolished by the new Montreux Treaty, which gives us great pleasure\".As the relationship between Greece and Turkey deteriorated over the following decades, Turkey denied that the treaty affected the Greek islands and sought to bring back into force the relevant part of the Lausanne Treaty on the Straits.===1994 reforms===The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which entered into force in November 1994, has prompted calls for the Montreux Convention to be revised and adapted to make it compatible with UNCLOS's regime governing straits used for international navigation.", "However, Turkey's longstanding refusal to sign UNCLOS has meant that Montreux remains in force without further amendments.", "Furthermore, even if Turkey ratified UNCLOS, the Montreux Convention would continue to govern passage in the Straits given its status as a \"long-standing international convention\" under Article 35(c) of UNCLOS.", "The safety of vessels passing through the Bosporus has become more of a concern in recent years as the volume of traffic has increased greatly since the convention was signed: from 4,500 ships passing through in 1934 to 49,304 by 1998.As well as the obvious environmental concerns, the Straits bisect the city of Istanbul, with over 14 million people living on its shores, and so maritime incidents in the Straits pose a considerable risk to public safety.", "The Convention does not, however, make any provision for the regulation of shipping for the purposes of safety or environmental protection.", "In January 1994, the Turkish government adopted new \"Maritime Traffic Regulations for the Turkish Straits and the Marmara Region\" to introduce a new regulatory regime \"to ensure the safety of navigation, life and property and to protect the environment in the region\" but without violating the Montreux principle of free passage.", "The new regulations provoked controversy when Russia, Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Ukraine and Bulgaria raised objections.", "However, they were approved by the International Maritime Organisation on the grounds that they were not intended to prejudice \"the rights of any ship using the Straits under international law\".", "The regulations were revised in November 1998 to address Russian concerns.=== Russo-Ukrainian War ===After the Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, the Ukrainian government appealed to Turkey to exercise its authority under the Montreux Convention to limit the transit of Russian warships from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.", "At least six Russian warships and a submarine had crossed the Turkish straits in February.", "After initial reluctance, attributed to the country's close ties with both Russia and Ukraine, Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu announced on 27 February that his government would legally recognise the Russian invasion as a \"war\", which provides grounds for implementing the convention with respect to military vessels.", "This blockage of naval vessels also applies to NATO powers who cannot now move their vessels from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.", "However, Çavuşoğlu reiterated that pursuant to the terms of the agreement, Turkey cannot block Russian warships based in the Black Sea from returning to their registered base.", "Around 27–28 February, Turkey refused permission for three out of four Russian warships to enter the Black Sea as their home base was not on the Black Sea.Up until 2022, Russia had deployed its ''Kilo''-class submarines from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, arguing that these vessels were ultimately destined for \"maintenance\" at facilities in the Baltic Sea.", "There was criticism of this since the submarines would then remain deployed in the Mediterranean for an extensive period of time.", "Since this was becoming more difficult to justify, one analysis in May 2022 suggested that the Russians may have found a work-around to the problem, potentially using the country's internal waterways to permit transit to vessels up to the size of the ''Kilo''-class boats between the Black Sea and the Baltic.", "The ability to use the internal waterways to facilitate such a transit has yet to be confirmed.Two Russian Federation ships (the missile cruiser Varyag, the flagship of the Russian Pacific Fleet, and Admiral Tributs, a large anti-submarine destroyer) waited in the Mediterranean seeking to enter the Black Sea for nine months.", "In October 2022, they were refused permission and left the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal.On 2 January 2024 Turkey refused passage through the strait to two minehunters donated by the British Royal Navy to the Ukrainian Navy pursuant to the Convention." ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michael Jordan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michael Jeffrey Jordan''' (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials '''MJ''', is an American businessman and former professional basketball player.", "He played fifteen seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) between 1984 and 2003, winning six NBA championships with the Chicago Bulls.", "He was integral in popularizing basketball and the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s, becoming a global cultural icon.", "His profile on the NBA website states that \"by acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time.", "\"Jordan played college basketball for three seasons under coach Dean Smith with the North Carolina Tar Heels.", "As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels' national championship team in 1982.Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick and quickly emerged as a league star, entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring while gaining a reputation as one of the game's best defensive players.", "His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free-throw line in Slam Dunk Contests, earned him the nicknames \"'''Air Jordan'''\" and \"'''His Airness'''\".", "Jordan won his first NBA title with the Bulls in 1991 and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a three-peat.", "Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the 1993–94 NBA season to play Minor League Baseball but returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three more championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then-record 72 regular season wins in the 1995–96 NBA season.", "He retired for the second time in January 1999, returning for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Washington Wizards.", "During his professional career, he was selected to play for the United States national team, winning four gold medals—at the 1983 Pan American Games, 1984 Summer Olympics, 1992 Tournament of the Americas and 1992 Summer Olympics—while also being undefeated.Jordan's individual accolades and accomplishments include six NBA Finals Most Valuable Player (MVP) awards, ten NBA scoring titles (both all-time records), five NBA MVP awards, ten All-NBA First Team designations, nine All-Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All-Star Game selections, three NBA All-Star Game MVP awards, three NBA steals titles, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award.", "He holds the NBA records for career regular season scoring average (30.1 points per game) and career playoff scoring average (33.4 points per game).", "In 1999, he was named the 20th century's greatest North American athlete by ESPN and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press' list of athletes of the century.", "Jordan was twice inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, once in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team (\"The Dream Team\").", "He became a member of the United States Olympic Hall of Fame in 2009, a member of the North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame in 2010, and an individual member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015 and a \"Dream Team\" member in 2017.Jordan was named to the NBA 50th Anniversary Team in 1996 and to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021.One of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation, Jordan made many product endorsements.", "He fueled the success of Nike's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1984 and remain popular.", "He starred as himself in the live-action/animation hybrid film ''Space Jam'' (1996) and was the central focus of the Emmy-winning documentary series ''The Last Dance'' (2020).", "He became part-owner and head of basketball operations for the Charlotte Hornets (then named the Bobcats) in 2006 and bought a controlling interest in 2010, before selling his majority stake in 2023.He is also the owner of 23XI Racing in the NASCAR Cup Series.", "In 2016, he became the first billionaire player in NBA history.", "That year, President Barack Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom.", "As of 2023, his net worth is estimated at $3 billion by ''Forbes''." ], [ "Early life", "Michael Jeffrey Jordan was born at Cumberland Hospital in Brooklyn, New York City, on February 17, 1963, to bank employee Deloris (née Peoples) and equipment supervisor James R. Jordan Sr.", "He has two older brothers, James R. Jordan Jr. and fellow basketball player Larry Jordan, as well as an older sister named Deloris and a younger sister named Roslyn.", "James Jr. became command sergeant major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the U.S. Army's XVIII Airborne Corps and retired in 2006.In 1968, Jordan moved with his family to Wilmington, North Carolina.", "He attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football.", "He tried out for the basketball varsity team during his sophomore year, but at a height of , he was deemed too short to play at that level.", "His taller friend Harvest Leroy Smith was the only sophomore to make the team.Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney's junior varsity team and tallied some 40-point games.", "The following summer, he grew and trained rigorously.", "Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, he averaged more than 25 points per game (ppg) over his final two seasons of high school play.", "As a senior, he was selected to play in the 1981 McDonald's All-American Game and scored 30 points, after averaging 27 ppg, 12 rebounds (rpg), and six assists per game (apg) for the season.", "He was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia.", "In 1981, he accepted a basketball scholarship to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he majored in cultural geography.", "He chose this field of study because of its relationship to meteorology, as he was interested in a career as a meteorologist." ], [ "College career", "As a freshman in coach Dean Smith's team-oriented system, Jordan was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 ppg on 53.4% shooting (field goal percentage).", "He made the game-winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing.", "Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career.", "During his three seasons with the Tar Heels, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0% shooting and added 5.0 rpg and 1.8 apg.Jordan was selected by consensus to the NCAA All-American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons.", "After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft.", "Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986, when he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in cultural geography.", "In 2002, Jordan was named to the ACC 50th Anniversary men's basketball team honoring the 50 greatest players in ACC history." ], [ "Professional career", "=== Chicago Bulls (1984–1993; 1995–1998) ======= Early NBA years (1984–1987) ====The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick of the 1984 NBA draft after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers).", "One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center.", "Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center but more a matter of taking Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan.", "Citing Bowie's injury-laden college career, ESPN named the Blazers' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history.Jordan made his NBA debut at Chicago Stadium on October 26, 1984, and scored 16 points.", "In 2021, a ticket stub from the game sold at auction for $264,000, setting a record for a collectible ticket stub.", "During his rookie 1984–85 season with the Bulls, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5% shooting, and helped make a team that had won 35% of games in the previous three seasons playoff contenders.", "He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas.", "Roy S. Johnson of ''The New York Times'' described him as \"the phenomenal rookie of the Bulls\" in November, and Jordan appeared on the cover of ''Sports Illustrated'' with the heading \"A Star Is Born\" in December.", "The fans voted in Jordan as an All-Star starter during his rookie season.", "Controversy arose before the 1985 NBA All-Star Game when word surfaced that several veteran players, led by Isiah Thomas, were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving.", "This led to a so-called \"freeze-out\" on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him.", "The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted the NBA Rookie of the Year.", "The Bulls finished the season 38–44, and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.An often-cited moment was on August 26, 1985, when Jordan shook the arena during a Nike exhibition game in Trieste, Italy, by shattering the glass of the backboard with a dunk.", "The moment was filmed and is often referred to as an important milestone in Jordan's rise.", "The shoes Jordan wore during the game were auctioned in August 2020 for $615,000, a record for a pair of sneakers.", "Jordan's 1985–86 season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games.", "The Bulls made the playoffs despite Jordan's injury and a 30–52 record, at the time the fifth-worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history.", "Jordan recovered in time to participate in the postseason and performed well upon his return.", "On April 20 at the Boston Garden, in Game 2 of the First Round, a 135–131 double overtime loss to the eventual NBA Champion Boston Celtics, Jordan scored a playoff career-high 63 points, breaking Elgin Baylor's single-game playoff scoring record.", "A Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history swept the series in three games.Jordan completely recovered in time for the 1986–87 season, and had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history; he became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league-high 37.1 ppg on 48.2% shooting.", "In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season.", "Despite Jordan's success, Magic Johnson won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award.", "The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year but were again swept by the Celtics.==== Pistons roadblock (1987–1990) ====Jordan led the league in scoring during the 1987–88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5% shooting, and he won his first league MVP Award.", "He was named the NBA Defensive Player of the Year, as he averaged 1.6 blocks per game (bpg), a league-high 3.1 steals per game (spg), and led the Bulls defense to the fewest points per game allowed in the league.", "The Bulls finished 50–32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games.", "In the Eastern Conference Semifinals, the Bulls lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the \"Bad Boys\".In the 1988–89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8% shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 apg.", "During the season, Sam Vincent, Chicago's point guard, was having trouble running the offense, and Jordan expressed his frustration with head coach Doug Collins, who then put Jordan at point guard.", "In his time as a point guard, Jordan had 10 triple-doubles in 11 games, with averages of 33.6 ppg, 11.4 rpg, 10.8 apg, 2.9 spg, and 0.8 bpg on 51% shooting.The Bulls finished with a 47–35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way.", "The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit \"The Shot\" over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series.", "In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their \"Jordan Rules\" method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.The Bulls entered the 1989–90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson.", "On March 28, 1990, Jordan scored a career-high 69 points in a 117–113 road win over the Cavaliers.", "He averaged a league-leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6% shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg, in leading the Bulls to a 55–27 record.", "They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers; despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.==== First three-peat (1991–1993) ====Jordan being defended by Mookie Blaylock (number 10) during a Bulls–Nets game in 1991In the 1990–91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9% shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season.", "The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in sixteen years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season.", "With Scottie Pippen developing into an All-Star, the Bulls had elevated their play.", "The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs.", "They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them; this time, the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four-game sweep.The Bulls advanced to the Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents.", "The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled a 15–2 playoff record along the way.", "Perhaps the best-known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket.", "In his first Finals appearance, Jordan had 31.2 ppg on 56% shooting from the field, 11.4 apg, 6.6 rpg, 2.8 spg, and 1.4 bpg.", "Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the Finals trophy.Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991–92 season, establishing a 67–15 record, topping their franchise record from the 1990–91 campaign.", "Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 ppg, 6.4 rbg, and 6.1 apg on 52% shooting.", "After winning a physical seven-game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in six games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals.", "The media, hoping to recreate a Magic–Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between \"Air\" Jordan and Clyde \"The Glide\" during the pre-Finals hype.In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals-record 35 points in the first half, including a record-setting six three-point field goals.", "After the sixth three-pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside.", "Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying: \"I can't believe I'm doing this.\"", "The Bulls went on to win Game 1 and defeat the Blazers in six games.", "Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row, and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 52.6% from the floor.In the 1992–93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign, including a second-place finish in Defensive Player of the Year voting, Jordan's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended, as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley, which upset him.", "Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals.", "The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game-winning shot by John Paxson and a last-second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago's leader.", "He averaged a Finals-record 41.0 ppg during the six-game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards.", "He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in four consecutive games.", "With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven-year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.==== Gambling ====During the Bulls' 1993 NBA playoffs, Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before Game 2 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the New York Knicks.", "The previous year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book in 1993 claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course.", "David Stern, the commissioner of the NBA, denied in 1995 and 2006 that Jordan's 1993 retirement was a secret suspension by the league for gambling, but the rumor spread widely.In 2005, Jordan discussed his gambling with Ed Bradley of ''60 Minutes'' and admitted that he made reckless decisions.", "Jordan stated: Yeah, I've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I've pushed the envelope.", "Is that compulsive?", "Yeah, it depends on how you look at it.", "If you're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah.", "When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied: \"No.\"", "In 2010, Ron Shelton, director of ''Jordan Rides the Bus'', said that he began working on the documentary believing that the NBA had suspended him, but that research \"convinced him it was nonsense\".==== First retirement and stint in Minor League Baseball (1993–1995) ====On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, saying that he lost his desire to play basketball.", "Jordan later said that the murder of his father three months earlier helped shape his decision.", "James R. Jordan Sr. was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked his Lexus.", "His body, dumped in a South Carolina swamp, was not discovered until August 3.Green and Demery were found after they made calls on James Jordan's cell phone, convicted, and sentenced to life in prison.Jordan was close to his father; as a child, he imitated the way his father stuck out his tongue while absorbed in work.", "He later adopted it as his own signature, often displaying it as he drove to the basket.", "In 1996, he founded a Chicago-area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.", "In his 1998 autobiography ''For the Love of the Game'', Jordan wrote that he was preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992.The added exhaustion due to the \"Dream Team\" run in the 1992 Summer Olympics solidified Jordan's feelings about the game and his ever-growing celebrity status.", "Jordan's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.Jordan further surprised the sports world by signing a Minor League Baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994.He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team's minor league system on March 31, 1994.Jordan said that this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player.", "The White Sox were owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double-A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting .202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 bases on balls, and 11 errors.", "His strikeout total led the team and his games played tied for the team lead.", "His 30 stolen bases were second on the team only to Doug Brady.", "He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting .252 against the top prospects in baseball.", "On November 1, 1994, his 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as ''The Spirit'' outside the new United Center.==== Return to the NBA (1995) ====The Bulls went 55–27 in 1993–94 without Jordan in the lineup and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs.", "The 1994–95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier.", "Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31–31 at one point in mid-March; the team received help when Jordan decided to return to the Bulls.In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball because he feared he might become a replacement player during the Major League Baseball strike.", "On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA in a two-word press release: \"I'm back.\"", "The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points.", "The game had the highest Nielsen rating of any regular season NBA game since 1975.Although he could have worn his original number even though the Bulls retired it, Jordan wore No.", "45, his baseball number.Despite his eighteen-month hiatus from the NBA, Jordan played well, making a game-winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back.", "He scored 55 points in his next game, against the New York Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995.Boosted by Jordan's comeback, the Bulls went 13–4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic.", "At the end of Game 1, Orlando's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game-winning basket for the Magic; he later commented that Jordan \"didn't look like the old Michael Jordan\", and said that \"No.", "45 doesn't explode like No.", "23 used to\".Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won.", "Before the game, Jordan decided that he would immediately resume wearing his former No.", "23.The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA.", "Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white sneakers when the rest of the Bulls wore black.", "He averaged 31 ppg in the playoffs, but Orlando won the series in six games.==== Second three-peat (1996–1998) ====Jordan was freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, and he trained aggressively for the 1995–96 season.", "The Bulls were strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, and the team dominated the league, starting the season at 41–3.The Bulls eventually finished with the best regular season record in NBA history, 72–10, a mark broken two decades later by the 2015–16 Golden State Warriors.", "Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg, and he won the league's regular season and All-Star Game MVP awards.In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3–0, New York Knicks 4–1, and Orlando Magic 4–0), as they defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4–2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship.", "Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson's three Finals MVP awards; he achieved only the second sweep of the MVP awards in the All-Star Game, regular season, and NBA Finals after Willis Reed in the 1969–70 season.", "Upon winning the championship, his first since his father's murder, Jordan reacted emotionally, clutching the game ball and crying on the locker room floor.In the 1996–97 season, the Bulls stood at a 69–11 record but ended the season by losing their final two games to finish the year 69–13, missing out on a second consecutive 70-win season.", "The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced the Utah Jazz.", "That team included Karl Malone, who had beaten Jordan for the NBA MVP award in a tight race (986–957).", "The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan's career.", "He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer-beating jump shot.", "In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus.", "In what is known as \"The Flu Game\", Jordan scored 38 points, including the game-deciding 3-pointer with 25 seconds remaining.", "The Bulls won 90–88 and went on to win the series in six games.", "For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award.", "During the 1997 NBA All-Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple-double in All-Star Game history in a victorious effort, but the MVP award went to Glen Rice.Jordan with coach Phil Jackson in 1997Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62–20 record in the 1997–98 season.", "Jordan led the league with 28.7 ppg, securing his fifth regular season MVP award, plus honors for All-NBA First Team, First Defensive Team, and the All-Star Game MVP.", "The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven-game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the New York Knicks.", "After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3–2.Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history.", "With 41.9 seconds remaining and the Bulls trailing 86–83, Phil Jackson called a timeout.", "When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and sank a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting Utah's lead to 86–85.The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman.", "Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and stole the ball out of his hands.Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell.", "With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul.", "With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan made the climactic shot of his Bulls career, a top-key jumper over a stumbling Russell to give Chicago an 87–86 lead.", "Afterwards, the Jazz' John Stockton narrowly missed a game-winning three-pointer, and the buzzer sounded as Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship, achieving a second three-peat in the decade.", "Once again, Jordan was voted Finals MVP for a record sixth time, having led all scorers by averaging 33.5 ppg, including 45 in the deciding Game 6.The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history, and Game 6 holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.==== Second retirement (1999–2001) ====Plaque at the United Center that chronicles Jordan's career achievementsWith Phil Jackson's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner-induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999.On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player but as part owner and president of basketball operations for the Washington Wizards.", "Jordan's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive, as he controlled all aspects of the Wizards' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters; opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed.", "He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (like forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland) but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high school student Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.Despite his January 1999 claim that he was \"99.9% certain\" he would never play another NBA game, Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback in the summer of 2001, this time with his new team.", "Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation-only camps for NBA players in Chicago.", "Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.=== Washington Wizards (2001–2003) ===On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11 attacks.", "In an injury-plagued 2001–02 season, Jordan led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.4 spg), and was an MVP candidate, as he led the Wizards to a winning record and playoff contention; he would eventually finish 13th in the MVP ballot.", "After suffering torn cartilage in his right knee, and subsequent knee soreness, the Wizards missed the playoffs, and Jordan's season ended after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994–95 season.", "Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 ppg, 5.4 apg, and 6.0 rpg, and shooting 41.9% from the field in his 53 starts.", "His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.", "The Wizards finished the season with a 37–45 record, an 18-game improvement.Jordan as a member of the Washington Wizards, April 14, 2003Playing in his 14th and final NBA All-Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul-Jabbar as the all-time leading scorer in All-Star Game history, a record since broken by Kobe Bryant and LeBron James.", "That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them, and coming from off the bench in 15.He averaged 20.0 ppg, 6.1 rpg, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 spg per game.", "He also shot 45% from the field, and 82% from the free-throw line.", "Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times.", "On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40-year-old to tally 43 points in an NBA game.", "During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan's home games at the MCI Center were sold out and the Wizards were the second most-watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road.", "Jordan's final two seasons did not result in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and he was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him.", "At several points, he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of Kwame Brown, the number-one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft.==== Final retirement (2003) ====With the recognition that 2002–03 would be Jordan's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA.", "In his final game at the United Center in Chicago, which was his old home court, Jordan received a four-minute standing ovation.", "The Miami Heat retired the No.", "23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team.", "At the 2003 All-Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson but refused both; he accepted the spot of Vince Carter.", "Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003, in Philadelphia.", "After scoring 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers 75–56.Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting \"We want Mike!\"", "After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2:35 remaining.", "At 1:45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws.", "After the second foul shot, the 76ers in-bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench.", "Jordan received a three-minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials, and the crowd of 21,257 fans." ], [ "National team career", "Jordan on the \"Dream Team\" in 1992Jordan made his debut for the U.S. national basketball team at the 1983 Pan American Games in Caracas, Venezuela.", "He led the team in scoring with 17.3 ppg as the U.S., coached by Jack Hartman, won the gold medal.", "A year later, he won another gold medal in the 1984 Summer Olympics.", "The 1984 U.S. team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale.", "Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.In 1992, Jordan was a member of the star-studded squad that was dubbed the \"Dream Team\", which included Larry Bird and Magic Johnson.", "The team won two gold medals: the first in the 1992 Tournament of the Americas, and the second in the 1992 Summer Olympics.", "He was the only player to start all eight games in the Olympics, averaged 14.9 ppg, and finished second on the team in scoring.", "Jordan was undefeated in the four tournaments he played for the United States national team, winning all 30 games he took part in." ], [ "Player profile", "Jordan dunking the ball, 1987–88Jordan was a shooting guard who could also play as a small forward, the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards, and as a point guard.", "Jordan was known throughout his career as a strong clutch performer.", "With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests.", "His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash talk and well-known work ethic.", "Jordan often used perceived slights to fuel his performances.", "Sportswriter Wright Thompson described him as \"a killer, in the Darwinian sense of the word, immediately sensing and attacking someone's weakest spot\".", "As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not \"tough enough\" to compete with him in practice.", "To improve his defense, he spent hours studying film of opponents.", "On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvization.Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986–87 to 2001–02, when he injured his right knee.", "Of the 15 seasons Jordan was in the NBA, he played all 82 regular season games nine times.", "Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences.", "Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special \"Love of the Game Clause\" written into his contract, which was unusual at the time, and allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.Jordan had a versatile offensive game and was capable of aggressively driving to the basket as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate.", "His 8,772 free throw attempts are the 11th-highest total in NBA history.", "As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to avoid block attempts.", "According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable.", "Despite media criticism by some as a selfish player early in his career, Jordan was willing to defer to this teammates, with a career average of 5.3 apg and a season-high of 8.0 apg.", "For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder, finishing with 6.2 rpg.", "Defensively, he averaged 2.3 spg and 0.8 bpg.Three-point field goal was not Jordan's strength, especially in his early years.", "Later on in Jordan's career, he improved his three-point shooting, and finished his career with a respectable 32% success rate.", "His three-point field-goal percentages ranged from 35% to 43% in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three-pointers between 1989–90 and 1996–97.Jordan's effective field goal percentage was 50%, and he had six seasons with at least 50% shooting, five of which consecutively (1988–1992); he also shot 51% and 50%, and 30% and 33% from the three-point range, throughout his first and second retirements, respectively, finishing his Chicago Bulls career with 31.5 points per game on 50.5 FG% shooting and his overall career with 49.7 FG% shooting.Unlike NBA players often compared to Jordan, such as Kobe Bryant and LeBron James, who had a similar three-point percentage, he did not shoot as many threes as they did, as he did not need to rely on the three-pointer to be effective on offense.", "Three-point shooting was only introduced in 1979 and would not be a more fundamental aspect of the game until the first decades of the 21st century, with the NBA having to briefly shorten the line to incentivize more shots.", "Jordan's three-point shooting was better selected, resulting in three-point field goals made in important games during the playoffs and the Finals, such as hitting six consecutive three-point shots in Game 1 of the 1992 NBA Finals.", "Jordan shot 37%, 35%, 42%, and 37% in all the seasons he shot over 200 three-pointers, and also shot 38.5%, 38.6%, 38.9%, 40.3%, 19.4%, and 30.2% in the playoffs during his championship runs, improving his shooting even after the three-point line reverted to the original line.In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA Defensive Player of the Year and the Most Valuable Player awards, becoming the first NBA player to win both awards in a career let alone season.", "In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball-thieving ability to become a standout defensive player.", "He ranks fourth in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton, Jason Kidd and Chris Paul.", "Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan's defensive contributions than his offensive ones.", "Doc Rivers declared Jordan \"the best superstar defender in the history of the game\".Jordan was known to have strong eyesight.", "Broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a television clearly from about away.", "During the 2001 NBA Finals, Phil Jackson compared Jordan's dominance to Shaquille O'Neal, stating: \"Michael would get fouled on every play and still have to play through it and just clear himself for shots instead and would rise to that occasion.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Jordan's talent was clear from his first NBA season; by November 1984, he was being compared to Julius Erving.", "Larry Bird said that rookie Jordan was the best player he ever saw, and that he was \"one of a kind\", and comparable to Wayne Gretzky as an athlete.", "In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a near minute-long standing ovation.", "After establishing the single game playoff record of 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Bird described him as \"God disguised as Michael Jordan\".Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain's record of seven consecutive scoring titles.", "He was a fixture of the NBA All-Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett, and Kobe Bryant).", "Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 ppg, respectively.", "By 1998, the season of his Finals-winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer.", "In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs; he would always ask for the ball at crunch time.", "Jordan's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second-highest among NBA career playoff scoring leaders.", "He scored 32,292 points in the regular season, placing him fifth on the NBA all-time scoring list behind LeBron James, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Bryant.With five regular season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell—only Abdul-Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three NBA All-Star Game MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated player in NBA history.", "Jordan finished among the top three in regular season MVP voting 10 times.", "He was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996, and selected to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021.Jordan is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men's basketball teams).", "Since 1976, the year of the ABA–NBA merger, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team.", "In the All-Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.Many of Jordan's contemporaries have said that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time.", "In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century.", "Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press' December 1999 list of 20th century athletes.", "In addition, the Associated Press voted him the greatest basketball player of the 20th century.", "Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of ''Sports Illustrated'' a record 50 times.", "In the September 1996 issue of ''Sport'', which was the publication's 50th-anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.Jordan's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back-to-back Slam Dunk Contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many people with having influenced a generation of young players.", "Several NBA players, including James and Dwyane Wade, have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while they were growing up.", "In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next-generation players \"the next Michael Jordan\" upon their entry to the NBA, including Penny Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Bryant, Vince Carter, James, and Wade.", "Some analysts, such as The Ringer's Dan Devine, drew parallels between Jordan's experiment at point guard in the 1988–89 season and the modern NBA; for Devine, it \"inadvertently foreshadowed the modern game's stylistic shift toward monster-usage primary playmakers\", such as Russell Westbrook, James Harden, Luka Dončić, and James.", "Don Nelson stated: \"I would've been playing him at point guard the day he showed up as a rookie.", "\"Although Jordan was a well-rounded player, his \"Air Jordan\" image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented, saying: \"I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan.", "Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking.", "That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all-around game, but it was never really publicized.\"", "During his heyday, Jordan did much to increase the status of the game; television ratings increased only during his time in the league.", "The popularity of the NBA in the U.S. declined after his last title.", "As late as 2022, NBA Finals television ratings had not returned to the level reached during his last championship-winning season.In August 2009, the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers as well as from the 1992 \"Dream Team\"; the exhibit also has a batting baseball glove to signify Jordan's short career in the Minor League Baseball.", "After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him.", "As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels when growing up in North Carolina but greatly admired Thompson, who played for the rival NC State Wolfpack.", "In September, he was inducted into the Hall with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč.", "Dean Smith and Doug Collins, two of Jordan's former coaches, were also among those present.", "His emotional reaction during his speech when he began to cry was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later go viral on social media as the \"Crying Jordan\" Internet meme.", "In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.", "In October 2021, Jordan was named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team.", "In September 2022, Jordan's jersey in which he played the opening game of the 1998 NBA Finals was sold for $10.1 million, making it the most expensive game-worn sports memorabilia in history.", "In December 2022, the NBA unveiled a new MVP trophy, named in Jordan's honor, to be awarded beginning with the 2022–23 season.", "The \"Michael Jordan Trophy\" will replace the original trophy, named in honor of former NBA commissioner Maurice Podoloff, with a new Podoloff Trophy set to be awarded to the team with the best overall regular season record." ], [ "NBA career statistics", "=== Regular season ===Chicago'''82'''*'''82'''*38.3.515.173.8456.55.92.4.828.2Chicago18725.1.457.167.8403.62.92.11.222.7Chicago'''82'''*'''82'''*40.0.482.182'''.857'''5.24.62.91.5 '''37.1'''*Chicago'''82''''''82'''* '''40.4'''*.535.132.8415.55.9 '''3.2'''*'''1.6''' 35.0*Chicago8181 40.2*.538.276.850'''8.0''''''8.0'''2.9.8 32.5*Chicago'''82'''*'''82'''*39.0.526.376.8486.96.3 2.8*.7 33.6*†Chicago'''82'''*'''82'''*37.0'''.539'''.312.8516.05.52.71.0 31.5*†Chicago808038.8.519.270.8326.46.12.3.930.1*Chicago787839.3.495.352.8376.75.5 2.8*.832.6*Chicago171739.3.411'''.500'''.8016.95.31.8.826.9†Chicago'''82''''''82'''*37.7.495.427.8346.64.32.2.5 30.4*†Chicago'''82''''''82'''*37.9.486.374.8335.94.31.7.5 29.6*†Chicago'''82'''*'''82'''*38.8.465.238.7845.83.51.7.5 28.7*Washington605334.9.416.189.7905.75.21.4.422.9Washington'''82'''6737.0.445.291.8216.13.81.5.520.0Career1,0721,03938.3.497.327.8356.25.32.3.830.1All-Star131329.4.472.273.7504.74.22.8.520.2=== Playoffs ===1985Chicago4442.8.436.125.8285.8'''8.5''''''2.8'''1.029.31986Chicago33'''45.0'''.505'''1.000'''.8726.35.72.31.3'''43.7'''1987Chicago3342.7.417.400'''.897'''7.06.02.0'''2.3'''35.71988Chicago101042.7'''.531'''.333.8697.14.72.41.136.31989Chicago171742.2.510.286.7997.07.62.5.834.81990Chicago161642.1.514.320.8367.26.8'''2.8'''.936.71991†Chicago171740.5.524.385.8456.48.42.41.431.11992†Chicago'''22''''''22'''41.8.499.386.8576.25.82.0.734.51993†Chicago191941.2.475.389.8056.76.02.1.935.11995Chicago101042.0.484.367.8106.54.52.31.431.51996†Chicago181840.7.459.403.8184.94.11.8.330.71997†Chicago191942.3.456.194.831'''7.9'''4.81.6.931.11998†Chicago212141.5.462.302.8125.13.51.5.632.4Career17917941.8.487.332.8286.45.72.1.833.4" ], [ "Awards and honors", "James Worthy, Jordan, and Dean Smith in 2007 at a North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball game honoring the 1957 and 1982 men's basketball teams'''NBA'''* Six-time NBA champion – 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998* Six-time NBA Finals MVP – 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998* Five-time NBA MVP – 1988, 1991, 1992, 1996, 1998* NBA Defensive Player of the Year – * NBA Rookie of the Year – * 10-time NBA scoring leader – 1987–1993, 1996–1998* Three-time NBA steals leader – 1988, 1990, 1993* 14-time NBA All-Star – 1985–1993, 1996–1998, 2002, 2003* Three-time NBA All-Star Game MVP – 1988, 1996, 1998* 10-time All-NBA First Team – 1987–1993, 1996–1998* One-time All-NBA Second Team – 1985* Nine-time NBA All-Defensive First Team – 1988–1993, 1996–1998* NBA All-Rookie First Team – 1985* Two-time NBA Slam Dunk Contest champion – 1987, 1988* Two-time IBM Award winner – 1985, 1989* Named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996* Selected on the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021* No.", "23 retired by the Chicago Bulls* No.", "23 retired by the Miami Heat* Chicago Bulls Ring of Honor* NBA MVP trophy renamed in Jordan's honor (\"Michael Jordan Trophy\") in 2022'''USA Basketball'''* Two-time Olympic gold medal winner – 1984, 1992* Tournament of the Americas gold medal winner – 1992* Pan American Games gold medal winner – 1983* Two-time USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year – 1983, 1984'''NCAA'''* NCAA national championship – 1981–82* ACC Rookie of the Year – 1981–82* Two-time Consensus NCAA All-American First Team – 1982–83, 1983–84* ACC Men's Basketball Player of the Year – 1983–84* ACC Athlete of the Year – 1984* USBWA College Player of the Year – 1983–84* Naismith College Player of the Year – 1983–84* Adolph Rupp Trophy – 1983–84* John R. Wooden Award – 1983–84* Two-time ''Sporting News'' National Player of the Year (1983, 1984)* No.", "23 retired by the North Carolina Tar Heels'''High school'''* McDonald's All-American – 1981* ''Parade'' All-American First Team – 1981'''Halls of Fame'''* Two-time Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductee:** Class of 2009 – individual** Class of 2010 – as a member of the \"Dream Team\"* United States Olympic Hall of Fame – Class of 2009 (as a member of the \"Dream Team\")* North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame – Class of 2010* Two-time FIBA Hall of Fame inductee:** Class of 2015 – individual** Class of 2017 – as a member of the \"Dream Team\"'''Media'''* Three-time Associated Press Athlete of the Year – 1991, 1992, 1993* ''Sports Illustrated'' Sportsperson of the Year – 1991* Ranked No.", "1 by ''Slam'' magazine's \"Top 50 Players of All-Time\"* Ranked No.", "1 by ESPN ''SportsCentury''s \"Top North American Athletes of the 20th Century\"* 10-time ESPY Award winner (in various categories)* 1997 Marca Leyenda winner'''National'''* 2016 Presidential Medal of Freedom'''State/local'''* Statue inside the United Center* Section of Madison Street in Chicago renamed Michael Jordan Drive – 1994" ], [ "Post-retirement", "Jordan on a golf course in 2007After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards.", "His previous tenure had produced mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard \"Rip\" Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse, although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002.On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan from the role.", "Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he had known he would be fired upon retiring, he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.Over the next few years Jordan played golf in celebrity charity tournaments and spent time with his family in Chicago.", "He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles.", "Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed-course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season.=== Charlotte Bobcats/Hornets ===On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats (known as the Hornets since 2013), becoming the team's second-largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson.", "As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title Managing Member of Basketball Operations.", "Despite Jordan's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte's marketing campaigns.", "A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part-owner of Charlotte's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats.", "As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team.", "On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team from Johnson pending NBA approval.", "On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team.", "It also made him the league's only African-American majority owner.During the 2011 NBA lockout, ''The New York Times'' wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players' share of basketball-related income at 50 percent and as low as 47.Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then-owner Abe Pollin: \"If you can't make a profit, you should sell your team.\"", "Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan \"a hypocrite sellout who can easily betray the very people who made him a billionaire global icon\" for wanting \"current players to pay for his incompetence\".", "He cited Jordan's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.During the 2011–12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7–59 record.", "The team closed out the season with a 23-game losing streak; their .106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history.", "Before the next season, Jordan said: \"I'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year.", "It's very, very frustrating.", "\"During the 2019 NBA offseason, Jordan sold a minority piece of the Hornets to Gabe Plotkin and Daniel Sundheim, retaining the majority for himself, as well as the role of chairman.", "In 2023, Jordan finalized the sale of his majority stake to Gabe Plotkin and Rick Schnall, ending his 13-year tenure as majority owner, although he kept a minority stake.", "The sale was officially completed in August 2023 for approximately $3 billion, more than 10 times the $275 million Jordan had paid for the team.=== 23XI Racing ===On September 21, 2020, Jordan and NASCAR driver Denny Hamlin announced they would be fielding a NASCAR Cup Series team with Bubba Wallace driving, beginning competition in the 2021 season.", "On October 22, the team's name was confirmed to be 23XI Racing (pronounced twenty-three eleven) and the team's entry would bear No.", "23.After the team's inaugural season, it added a second car with No.", "45, driven by Kurt Busch in 2022 and Tyler Reddick in 2023.Ty Gibbs, John Hunter Nemechek, and Daniel Hemric also drove for 23XI as substitute drivers during the 2022 season.", "The team fielded a third car, No.", "67, driven by Travis Pastrana in the 2023 Daytona 500.23XI Racing has won five races, two by Wallace, two by Reddick, and one by Busch." ], [ "Personal life", "Jordan receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama at the White HouseJordan's nephew through his brother Larry, Justin Jordan, played NCAA Division I basketball for the UNC Greensboro Spartans and is a scout for the Charlotte Hornets.Jordan married Juanita Vanoy at A Little White Wedding Chapel in Las Vegas on September 2, 1989.They had two sons, Jeffrey and Marcus, and a daughter, Jasmine.", "The Jordans filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter.", "They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made \"mutually and amicably\".", "It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $ million in ), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, where he planned to build a 56,000-square-foot (5,200 m2) mansion.", "It was completed in 1995.He listed the mansion for sale in 2012.He also owns homes in North Carolina and Jupiter Island, Florida.On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim.", "Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret.", "Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991; a DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.Jordan proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban-American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda-by-the-Sea Episcopal Church.", "It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together.", "On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.", "In 2019, Jordan became a grandfather when his daughter Jasmine gave birth to a son, whose father is professional basketball player Rakeem Christmas." ], [ "Media figure and business interests", "=== Endorsements ===Jordan in 2008Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history.", "He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca-Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI.", "Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the \"Be Like Mike\" commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.Nike created a signature shoe for Jordan, called the Air Jordan, in 1984.One of Jordan's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon.", "In the commercials, Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan's abilities and became convinced that \"it's gotta be the shoes\".", "The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of \"shoe-jackings\", in which people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint.", "Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the \"Jordan Brand\".", "The company features a list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers.", "The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, UCLA, California, Oklahoma, Florida, Georgetown, and Marquette.Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters.", "A Nike commercial shown during 1992's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball.", "The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action/animated film ''Space Jam'', which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former's first retirement from basketball.", "They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI.", "Jordan also made an appearance in the music video for Michael Jackson's \"Jam\" (1992).Since 2008, Jordan's yearly income from endorsements is estimated to be over $40 million.", "In addition, when Jordan's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games.", "Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US$30 million per season.", "An academic study found that Jordan's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.Most of Jordan's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk.", "Jordan has described Falk as \"the best at what he does\" and that \"marketing-wise, he's great.", "He's the one who came up with the concept of 'Air Jordan'.", "\"=== Business ventures ===In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by ''Forbes'' as the 20th-most-powerful celebrity in the world, with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010.According to ''Forbes'', Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike.", "In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80% to 89.5%.", "On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the ''Charlotte Business Journal'''s Business Person of the Year for 2014.In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball.", "''Forbes'' designated Jordan as the athlete with the highest career earnings in 2017.From his Jordan Brand income and endorsements, Jordan's 2015 income was an estimated $110 million, the most of any retired athlete.", ", his net worth is estimated at $3 billion by ''Forbes'', making him the fifth-richest African-American, behind Robert F. Smith, David Steward, Oprah Winfrey, and Rihanna.Jordan co-owns an automotive group which bears his name.", "The company has a Nissan dealership in Durham, North Carolina, acquired in 1990, and formerly had a Lincoln–Mercury dealership from 1995 until its closure in June 2009.The company also owned a Nissan franchise in Glen Burnie, Maryland.", "The restaurant industry is another business interest of Jordan's.", "Restaurants he has owned include a steakhouse in New York City's Grand Central Terminal, among others; that restaurant closed in 2018.Jordan is the majority investor in a golf course, Grove XXIII in Hobe Sound, Florida.In September 2020, Jordan became an investor and advisor for DraftKings.=== Philanthropy ===From 2001 to 2014, Jordan hosted an annual golf tournament, the Michael Jordan Celebrity Invitational, that raised money for various charities.", "In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago's Hales Franciscan High School.", "The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.The Make-A-Wish Foundation named Jordan its Chief Wish Ambassador in 2008.In 2013, he granted his 200th wish for the organization.", "As of 2019, he has raised more than $5 million for the Make-A-Wish Foundation.", "In 2023, Jordan donated $10 million to the organization for his 60th birthday.In 2015, Jordan donated a settlement of undisclosed size from a lawsuit against supermarkets that had used his name without permission to 23 different Chicago charities.", "In 2017, Jordan funded two Novant Health Michael Jordan Family Clinics in Charlotte, North Carolina, by giving $7 million, the biggest donation he had made at the time.", "In 2018, after Hurricane Florence damaged parts of North Carolina, including his former hometown of Wilmington, Jordan donated $2 million to relief efforts.", "He gave $1 million to aid the Bahamas' recovery following Hurricane Dorian in 2019.On June 5, 2020, in the wake of the protests following the murder of George Floyd, Jordan and his brand announced in a joint statement that they would be donating $100 million over the next 10 years to organizations dedicated to \"ensuring racial equality, social justice and greater access to education\".", "In February 2021, Jordan funded two Novant Health Michael Jordan Family Clinics in New Hanover County, North Carolina, by giving $10 million.=== Film and television ===Jordan played himself in the 1996 comedy film ''Space Jam''.", "The film received mixed reviews, but it was a box office success, making $230 million worldwide, and earned more than $1 billion through merchandise sales.In 2000, Jordan was the subject of an IMAX documentary about his career with the Chicago Bulls, especially the 1998 NBA playoffs, titled ''Michael Jordan to the Max''.", "Two decades later, the same period of Jordan's life was covered in much greater and more personal detail by the Emmy Award-winning ''The Last Dance'', a 10-part TV documentary which debuted on ESPN in April and May 2020.", "''The Last Dance'' relied heavily on about 500 hours of candid film of Jordan's and his teammates' off-court activities which an NBA Entertainment crew had shot over the course of the 1997–98 NBA season for use in a documentary.", "The project was delayed for many years because Jordan had not yet given his permission for the footage to be used.", "He was interviewed at three homes associated with the production and did not want cameras in his home or on his plane, as according to director Jason Hehir \"there are certain aspects of his life that he wants to keep private\".Jordan granted rapper Travis Scott permission to film a music video for his single \"Franchise\" at his home in Highland Park, Illinois.", "Jordan appeared in the 2022 miniseries ''The Captain'', which follows the life and career of Derek Jeter.=== Books ===Jordan has authored several books focusing on his life, basketball career, and world view.", "* ''Rare Air: Michael on Michael'', with Mark Vancil and Walter Iooss (Harper San Francisco, 1993).", "* ''I Can't Accept Not Trying: Michael Jordan on the Pursuit of Excellence'', with Mark Vancil and Sandro Miller (Harper San Francisco, 1994).", "* ''For the Love of the Game: My Story'', with Mark Vancil (Crown Publishers, 1998).", "* ''Driven from Within'', with Mark Vancil (Atria Books, 2005)." ], [ "See also", "* Forbes' list of the world's highest-paid athletes* List of athletes who came out of retirement* List of NBA teams by single season win percentage* Michael Jordan's Restaurant* ''Michael Jordan: Chaos in the Windy City''* ''Michael Jordan in Flight''* ''NBA 2K11''* ''NBA 2K12''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Condor, Bob (1998).", "''Michael Jordan's 50 Greatest Games''.", "Carol Publishing Group.", ".", "* Halberstam, David (2000).", "''Playing for Keeps: Michael Jordan and the World He Made''.", "Broadway Books.", ".", "* Jordan, Michael (1998).", "''For the Love of the Game: My Story''.", "New York City: Crown Publishers.", ".", "* Kotler, Philip; Rein, Irving J.; Shields, Ben (2006).", "''The Elusive Fan: Reinventing Sports in a Crowded Marketplace''.", "The McGraw-Hill Companies.", ".", "* Kruger, Mitchell (2003).", "''One Last Shot: The Story of Michael Jordan's Comeback''.", "New York City: St. Martin's Paperbacks.", ".", "* Lazenby, Roland (2014).", "''Michael Jordan: The Life''.", "New York City: Little, Brown and Company.", ".", "* LaFeber, Walter (2002). ''", "Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism''.", "W. W. Norton.", ".", "* Markovits, Andrei S.; Rensman, Lars (June 3, 2010).", "''Gaming the World: How Sports are Reshaping Global Politics and Culture''.", "Princeton University Press.", ".", "* Porter, David L. (2007).", "''Michael Jordan: A Biography''.", "Greenwood Publishing Group.", ".", "* ''The Sporting News Official NBA Register 1994–95'' (1994).", "''The Sporting News''.", "." ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Musicology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Musicology''' (from Greek 'music' and , 'domain of study') is the scholarly study of music.", "Musicology is traditionally considered one of the humanities, although research often intersects with the fields of psychology, sociology, acoustics, neurology, and computer science.Musicology is traditionally divided into three branches: music history, systematic musicology, and ethnomusicology.", "Historical musicologists study the history of musical traditions, the origins of works, and the biographies of composers.", "Ethnomusicologists draw from anthropology (particularly field research) to understand how and why people make music.", "Systematic musicology includes music theory, aesthetics, pedagogy, musical acoustics, the science and technology of musical instruments, and the musical implications of physiology, psychology, sociology, philosophy and computing.", "Cognitive musicology is the set of phenomena surrounding the cognitive modeling of music.", "When musicologists carry out research using computers, their research often falls under the field of computational musicology.", "Music therapy is a specialized form of applied musicology which is sometimes considered more closely affiliated with health fields, and other times regarded as part of musicology proper." ], [ "Background", "The 19th-century philosophical trends that led to the re-establishment of formal musicology education in German and Austrian universities had combined methods of systematization with evolution.", "These models were established not only in the field of physical anthropology, but also cultural anthropology.", "This was influenced by Hegel's ideas on ordering \"phenomena\" from the simple to complex as the stages of evolution are classified from primitive to developed, and stages of history from ancient to modern.", "Comparative methods became more widespread in musicology beginning around 1880." ], [ "Parent disciplines", "The parent disciplines of musicology include:* General history* Cultural studies* Philosophy (particularly aesthetics and semiotics)* Ethnology and cultural anthropology* Archaeology and prehistory* Psychology and sociology* Physiology and neuroscience* Acoustics and psychoacoustics* Information sciences and mathematicsMusicology also has two central, practically oriented sub-disciplines with no parent discipline: performance practice and research, and the theory, analysis and composition of music.", "The disciplinary neighbors of musicology address other forms of art, performance, ritual, and communication, including the history and theory of the visual and plastic arts and architecture; linguistics, literature and theater; religion and theology; and sport.", "Musical knowledge is applied within medicine, education and music therapy—which, effectively, are parent disciplines of applied musicology." ], [ "Subdisciplines", "===Historical musicology===Music history or historical musicology is concerned with the composition, performance, reception and criticism of music over time.", "Historical studies of music are for example concerned with a composer's life and works, the developments of styles and genres (such as baroque concertos), the social function of music for a particular group of people, (such as court music), or modes of performance at a particular place and time (such as Johann Sebastian Bach's choir in Leipzig).", "Like the comparable field of art history, different branches and schools of historical musicology emphasize different types of musical works and approaches to music.", "There are also national differences in various definitions of historical musicology.", "In theory, \"music history\" could refer to the study of the history of any type or genre of music, such as the music of India or rock music.", "In practice, these research topics are more often considered within ethnomusicology and \"historical musicology\" is typically assumed to imply Western Art music of the European tradition.The methods of historical musicology include source studies (especially manuscript studies), palaeography, philology (especially textual criticism), style criticism, historiography (the choice of historical method), musical analysis (analysis of music to find \"inner coherence\") and iconography.", "The application of musical analysis to further these goals is often a part of music history, though pure analysis or the development of new tools of music analysis is more likely to be seen in the field of music theory.", "Music historians create a number of written products, ranging from journal articles describing their current research, new editions of musical works, biographies of composers and other musicians, book-length studies or university textbook chapters or entire textbooks.", "Music historians may examine issues in a close focus, as in the case of scholars who examine the relationship between words and music for a given composer's art songs.", "On the other hand, some scholars take a broader view and assess the place of a given type of music, such as the symphony in society using techniques drawn from other fields, such as economics, sociology or philosophy.===New musicology===''New musicology'' is a term applied since the late 1980s to a wide body of work emphasizing cultural study, analysis and criticism of music.", "Such work may be based on feminist, gender studies, queer theory or postcolonial theory, or the work of Theodor W. Adorno.", "Although New Musicology emerged from within historical musicology, the emphasis on cultural study within the Western art music tradition places New Musicology at the junction between historical, ethnological and sociological research in music.New musicology was a reaction against traditional historical musicology, which according to Susan McClary, \"fastidiously declares issues of musical signification off-limits to those engaged in legitimate scholarship.\"", "Charles Rosen, however, retorts that McClary, \"sets up, like so many of the 'new musicologists', a straw man to knock down, the dogma that music has no meaning, and no political or social significance.\"", "Today, many musicologists no longer distinguish between musicology and new musicology since it has been recognized that many of the scholarly concerns once associated with new musicology already were mainstream in musicology, so that the term \"new\" no longer applies.===Ethnomusicology===Ethnomusicology, formerly comparative musicology, is the study of music in its cultural context.", "It is often considered the anthropology or ethnography of music.", "Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of \"people making music\".", "Although it is most often concerned with the study of non-Western music, it also includes the study of Western music from an anthropological or sociological perspective, cultural studies and sociology as well as other disciplines in the social sciences and humanities.", "Some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, but the majority are involved in long-term participant observation or combine ethnographic, musicological, and historical approaches in their fieldwork.", "Therefore, ethnomusicological scholarship can be characterized as featuring a substantial, intensive fieldwork component, often involving long-term residence within the community studied.", "Closely related to ethnomusicology is the emerging branch of sociomusicology.", "For instance, Ko (2011) proposed the hypothesis of \"Biliterate and Trimusical\" in Hong Kong sociomusicology.===Popular music studies===Popular music studies, known, \"misleadingly\", as ''popular musicology'', emerged in the 1980s as an increasing number of musicologists, ethnomusicologists and other varieties of historians of American and European culture began to write about popular music past and present.", "The first journal focusing on popular music studies was ''Popular Music'' which began publication in 1981.The same year an academic society solely devoted to the topic was formed, the International Association for the Study of Popular Music.", "The association's founding was partly motivated by the interdisciplinary agenda of popular musicology though the group has been characterized by a polarized 'musicological' and 'sociological' approach also typical of popular musicology.===Music theory, analysis and composition===Music theory is a field of study that describes the elements of music and includes the development and application of methods for composing and for analyzing music through both notation and, on occasion, musical sound itself.", "Broadly, theory may include any statement, belief or conception of or about music (Boretz, 1995).", "A person who studies or practices music theory is a music theorist.Some music theorists attempt to explain the techniques composers use by establishing rules and patterns.", "Others model the experience of listening to or performing music.", "Though extremely diverse in their interests and commitments, many Western music theorists are united in their belief that the acts of composing, performing and listening to music may be explicated to a high degree of detail (this, as opposed to a conception of musical expression as fundamentally ineffable except in musical sounds).", "Generally, works of music theory are both descriptive and prescriptive, attempting both to define practice and to influence later practice.Musicians study music theory to understand the structural relationships in the (nearly always notated) music.", "Composers study music theory to understand how to produce effects and structure their own works.", "Composers may study music theory to guide their precompositional and compositional decisions.", "Broadly speaking, music theory in the Western tradition focuses on harmony and counterpoint, and then uses these to explain large scale structure and the creation of melody.===Music psychology===Music psychology applies the content and methods of psychology to understand how music is created, perceived, responded to, and incorporated into individuals' and societies' daily lives.", "Its primary branches include cognitive musicology, which emphasizes the use of computational models for human musical abilities and cognition, and the cognitive neuroscience of music, which studies the way that music perception and production manifests in the brain using the methodologies of cognitive neuroscience.", "While aspects of the field can be highly theoretical, much of modern music psychology seeks to optimize the practices and professions of music performance, composition, education and therapy.===Performance practice and research===Performance practice draws on many of the tools of historical musicology to answer the specific question of how music was performed in various places at various times in the past.", "Although previously confined to early music, recent research in performance practice has embraced questions such as how the early history of recording affected the use of vibrato in classical music or instruments in Klezmer.Within the rubric of musicology, performance practice tends to emphasize the collection and synthesis of evidence about how music should be performed.", "The important other side, learning how to sing authentically or perform a historical instrument is usually part of conservatory or other performance training.", "However, many top researchers in performance practice are also excellent musicians.Music performance research (or music performance science) is strongly associated with music psychology.", "It aims to document and explain the psychological, physiological, sociological and cultural details of how music is actually performed (rather than how it should be performed).", "The approach to research tends to be systematic and empirical and to involve the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data.", "The findings of music performance research can often be applied in music education." ], [ "Education and careers", "Music historian Jack Stewart lectures at a conference.Musicologists in tenure track professor positions typically hold a PhD in musicology.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, some musicologists obtained professor positions with an MA as their highest degree, but in the 2010s, the PhD is the standard minimum credential for tenure track professor positions.", "As part of their initial training, musicologists typically complete a BMus or a BA in music (or a related field such as history) and in many cases an MA in musicology.", "Some individuals apply directly from a bachelor's degree to a PhD, and in these cases, they may not receive an MA.", "In the 2010s, given the increasingly interdisciplinary nature of university graduate programs, some applicants for musicology PhD programs may have academic training both in music and outside of music (e.g., a student may apply with a BMus and an MA in psychology).", "In music education, individuals may hold an M.Ed and an Ed.D.Most musicologists work as instructors, lecturers or professors in colleges, universities or conservatories.", "The job market for tenure track professor positions is very competitive.", "Entry-level applicants must hold a completed PhD or the equivalent degree and applicants to more senior professor positions must have a strong record of publishing in peer-reviewed journals.", "Some PhD-holding musicologists are only able to find insecure positions as sessional lecturers.", "The job tasks of a musicologist are the same as those of a professor in any other humanities discipline: teaching undergraduate and/or graduate classes in their area of specialization and, in many cases some general courses (such as Music Appreciation or Introduction to Music History); conducting research in their area of expertise, publishing articles about their research in peer-reviewed journals, authors book chapters, books or textbooks; traveling to conferences to give talks on their research and learn about research in their field; and, if their program includes a graduate school, supervising MA and PhD students, giving them guidance on the preparation of their theses and dissertations.", "Some musicology professors may take on senior administrative positions in their institution, such as Dean or Chair of the School of Music." ], [ "Notable journals", "* ''19th-Century Music'' (1977–present)* ''Acta Musicologica'' (1928–2014) (International Musicological Society)* ''Asian Music'' (1968–2002)* ''BACH: Journal of the Riemenschneider Bach Institute'' (1970–present)* ''Black Music Research Journal'' (1980–2004)* ''Early Music History'' (1981–2002)* ''Ethnomusicology'' (1953–2003) (Society for Ethnomusicology)* ''Journal of Music Theory'' (1957–2002)* ''The Journal of Musicology'' (1982–2004)* ''Journal of the American Musicological Society'' (1948–present) (American Musicological Society)* ''Journal of the Royal Musical Association''* ''Journal of the Society for American Music''* ''Musica Disciplina'' (1946–present)* ''Music Educators Journal'' (1934–2007)* ''Music Theory Spectrum'' (1979–present) (Society for Music Theory)* ''The Musical Quarterly'' (1915–present)* ''Perspectives of New Music'' (1962–present)* ''The World of Music'' (1957−present)* ''Yearbook for Traditional Music'' (1981–2003)" ], [ "Role of women", "Rosetta Reitz (1924–2008) was an American jazz historian who established a record label producing 18 albums of the music of the early women of jazz and the blues.The vast majority of major musicologists and music historians from past generations have been men, as in the 19th century and early 20th century; women's involvement in teaching music was mainly in elementary and secondary music teaching.", "Nevertheless, some women musicologists have reached the top ranks of the profession.", "Carolyn Abbate (born 1956) is an American musicologist who did her PhD at Princeton University.", "She has been described by the ''Harvard Gazette'' as \"one of the world's most accomplished and admired music historians\".Susan McClary (born 1946) is a musicologist associated with new musicology who incorporates feminist music criticism in her work.", "McClary holds a PhD from Harvard University.", "One of her best known works is ''Feminine Endings'' (1991), which covers musical constructions of gender and sexuality, gendered aspects of traditional music theory, gendered sexuality in musical narrative, music as a gendered discourse and issues affecting women musicians.Other notable women scholars include:*Eva Badura-Skoda*Margaret Bent*Adrienne Fried Block*Marcia Citron*Suzanne Cusick*Sandra Jean Graham*Ursula Günther*Maud Cuney Hare*Amelia Ishmael*Tammy L. Kernodle*Liudmila Kovnatskaya*Gundula Kreuzer*Elizabeth Eva Leach*Ottalie Mark*Carol J. Oja*Rosetta Reitz*Elaine Sisman*Hedi Stadlen*Rose Rosengard Subotnik*Judith Tick*Anahit Tsitsikian*Sherrie Tucker*Helen Walker-Hill" ], [ "See also", "*Aesthetics of music*Choreomusicology*Computational musicology*List of musicologists*List of musicology topics*Music and emotion*Music and mathematics*Musical analysis*Musical temperament*Musical tuning*Prehistoric music*Psychoanalysis and music*Scale (music)*Set theory (music)*Tonality*World music*Virtual Library of Musicology" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Allen, Warren Dwight (1962).", "''Philosophies of Music History: a Study of General Histories of Music, 1600–1960''.", "New ... ed.", "New York: Dover Publications.", "''N.B''.", ": First published in 1939; expanded and updated for republication in 1962.", "* Babich, Babette (2003) \" Postmodern Musicology\" in Victor E. Taylor and Charles Winquist, eds., ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Postmodernism'', London: Routledge, 2003.pp. 153–159..", "*Brackett, David (1995).", "''Interpreting Popular Music''.", ".", "*Cook, Nicholas, \"What is Musicology?", "\", ''BBC Music Magazine'' 7 (May 1999), 31–33*Everett, Walter, ed.", "(2000).", "''Expression in Pop-Rock Music''.", ".", "*McCollum, Jonathan and David Hebert, eds.", "(2014).", "''Theory and Method in Historical Ethnomusicology''.", "Lanham, MD: Lexington.", ".", "* Honing, Henkjan (2006). \"", "On the growing role of observation, formalization and experimental method in musicology. \"", "''Empirical Musicology Review''.", "* Kerman, Joseph (1985).", "''Musicology''.", "London: Fontana.", ".", "* McClary, Susan, and Robert Walser (1988).", "\"Start Making Sense!", "Musicology Wrestles with Rock\" in ''On Record'' ed.", "by Frith and Goodwin (1990), pp. 277–292..", "* McClary, Susan (2000).", "\"Women and Music on the Verge of the New Millennium (Special Issue: Feminists at a Millennium)\", ''Signs'' 25/4 (Summer): 1283–1286.", "*Middleton, Richard (1990/2002).", "''Studying Popular Music''.", "Philadelphia: Open University Press.", ".", "*Moore, A. F. (2001).", "''Rock: The Primary Text'', 2nd edition, .", "* Parncutt, Richard.", "(2007). \"", "Systematic musicology and the history and future of Western musical scholarship\", ''Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies'', 1, 1–32.", "* Pruett, James W., and Thomas P. Slavens (1985).", "''Research Guide to Musicology.''", "Chicago: American Library Association.", ".", "* Randel, Don Michael, ed.", "(4th edition, 2003).", "''Harvard Dictionary of Music'', pp.", "452–454.The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.", ".", "* Sorce Keller, Marcello.", "\"The Emperor's New Clothes: Why Musicologies Do Not Always Wish to Know All They Could Know\", in Victoria Lindsay Levine and Philip V. Bohlman.", "''This Thing Called Music''.", "Essays in Honor of Bruno Nettl.", "Lanham, MD / Boulder, CO / New York City / London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, pp. 366–377.", "* Tagg, Philip (1979, ed.", "2000).", "''Kojak – 50 Seconds of Television Music: Toward the Analysis of Affect in Popular Music'', pp.", "38–45.The Mass Media Music Scholar's Press.", ".", "*Tagg, Philip (1982).", "\"Analysing Popular Music: Theory, Method and Practice\", ''Popular Music'', vol.", "2, Theory and Method, pp. 37–67.", "*van der Merwe, Peter (1989).", "''Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth Century Popular Music''.", "(1992).", "*Winkler, Peter (1978).", "\"Toward a theory of pop harmony\", ''In Theory Only'', 4, pp.", "3–26., cited in ." ], [ "External links", "* International Musicological Society (IMS)* The American Musicological Society* AMS: Web sites of interest to Musicologists * The Society for American Music* International Association for the Study of Popular Music* Society for Ethnomusicology* Society for Music Theory* The European Network for Theory & Analysis of Music===On-line journals===A list of open-access European journals in the domains of music theory and/or analysis is available on the website of the European Network for Theory & Analysis of Music.", "A more complete list of open-access journals in theory and analysis can be found on the website of the Société Belge d'Analyse Musicale (in French)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Film promotion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Film promotion''' is the practice of promotion specifically in the film industry, and usually occurs in coordination with the process of film distribution.", "Sometimes this is called the press junket or film junket.", "Film promotion generally includes press releases, advertising campaigns, merchandising, franchising, media and interviews with the key people involved in making the film, such as the films actors and directors.", "This process is an important part of any release because of the inherent high financial risk; film studios will invest in expensive marketing campaigns to maximize revenue early in the release cycle.", "Marketing budgets tend to equal about half the production budget.", "Publicity is generally handled by the distributor and exhibitors." ], [ "Techniques", "=== In theatres/cinemas ===Trailers are a mainstay of film promotion because they are delivered directly to movie-goers.", "These trailers are presented to the public at the theatre or on the television at home.", "Generally, they tell the story of the movie in a highly condensed fashion, compressing maximum appeal into two and half minutes.", "* Film posters* Slideshows - stills, trivia, and trivia games from the film, shown between movie showtimes.", "* Standees (freestanding paperboard life-size images of figures from the film)* Cardboard 3D displays, sometimes producing sound===Television and radio===* Hollywood movie distributors spend about $4 billion a year to buy paid advertising (30-second TV commercials, magazine/newspaper ads, etc.)", "and over half that total is placed on broadcast and cable TV, which are the main vehicles for advertising movies to audiences.", "TV is effective because it is an audio-visual medium – like film – and can deliver a vast audience quickly, which is crucial because films typically don’t linger in theaters more than 4–6 weeks, according to ''Marketing to Moviegoers: Second Edition''.", "* Product placement: paid active or passive insertion (as on-set posters, and action figures) of film brand in drama or sitcom shows, or as passing mentions in dialogue.", "For example, 20th Century Fox commissioned an ''I, Robot''-themed motorcycle, featured on two episodes (2:17, 2:18) of ''American Chopper''.", "The film ''Memoirs of a Geisha'' was placed throughout an episode of the TV show ''Medium''.", "* Extended placement: full episodes of television talkshows (''Oprah''), entertainment news programs (''ET''), or network news programs (''20/20''), devoted to compensated exposure of the film, stars, clips, director, etc.", "** In addition, interviews with actors and directors which are filmed in series at a hotel with local and national entertainment reporters which are featured on local news shows, programs on cable networks, and series such as Byron Allen's series of entertainment series like ''Entertainment Studios''.", "* Production and paid broadcast of behind-the-scenes documentary-style shows, the type of which are mainly produced for HBO, Showtime, and Starz* Advance trailers, longer previews, or behind-the-scenes footage on streaming media and Blu-ray/DVDs===Internet===* Virtual relationship hyperlink marketing, wherein a major search engine (like Yahoo or Bing's main page) offers articles seemingly presenting interesting news related items, but which are actually back-end loaded with a links page containing multiple \"mental references\" to film characters, storylines, or products.", "Example: Bond, Transformers, etc..., are connected to scientific invention news stories about advanced weaponry or robotics discoveries, which quickly leads the reader to pages loaded with the latest 007 or Megatron movie clip or art director's fantastical ideas and designs, thus hooking readers with a \"bait and switch\" story.", "* Creation of standalone studio-sponsored specific to a given film.", "* Online digital film screeners: screeners streamed over the Internet allow studios to send individually controlled copies of their film to various recipients with different expiry dates as a security measure against unauthorized distribution.", "* Viral marketing: free distribution of trailers on movie-oriented websites and video user-generated-content websites, and rapid dissemination of links to this content by email and blogs.", "Includes alleged leakage of supposed \"rushes\" and \"early trailers\" of film scenes.", "Sometimes, the efforts go further such as in the lead time to the successful premiere of the film, ''The Muppets'' which was preceded by several original film shorts on YouTube over a number of years while the film was in production.", "* Creation of Internet marketing campaign using paid advertisement and social media marketing.===Print===* Paid advertisement in newspapers, magazines, and inserts in books.", "* Cross-promotion of original book or novelization, including special printings, or new cover jackets (\"Now a major motion picture.", "\")* Comic special editions or special episodes===Merchandising===* Paid co-branding (''Eragon'' in ''American Chopper''-two episodes), or co-advertising (Aston Martin and James Bond films) of a product with the film* Promotional giveaways: branded drink cups, toys, or food combinations at fast food chains* Building a life-sized Barbie Dreamhouse that people can rent for stays on AirBnB===Promotional tours and interviews===Film actors, directors, and producers appear for television, cable, radio, print, and online media interviews, which can be conducted in person or remotely.", "During film production, these can take place ''on set''.", "After the film's premiere, key personnel make appearances in major market cities or participate remotely via satellite videoconference or telephone.", "The purpose of interviews is to encourage journalists to publish stories about their \"exclusive interviews\" with the film's stars, thereby creating \"marketing buzz\" around the film and stimulating audience interest in watching the film.When it comes to feature films picked up by a major film studio for international distribution, promotional tours are notoriously grueling.", "Key cast and crew are often contracted to travel to several major cities around the world to promote the film and sit for dozens of interviews.", "In every interview, they are supposed to stay \"on message\" by energetically expressing their enthusiasm for the film in a way that appears candid, fun, and fresh.", "They are expected to disclose just enough behind-the-scenes information about the filmmaking process or the filmmakers' artistic vision to make each journalist feel like he or she got a nice scoop, while at the same time tactfully avoiding disclosure of anything embarrassing, humiliating or truly negative that may be detrimental to the film's box office gross and profit or influence a critic's review as well as the public's opinion.===Audience research===There are seven distinct types of research conducted by film distributors in connection with domestic theatrical releases, according to \"Marketing to Moviegoers: Second Edition.\"", "Such audience research can cost $1 million per film, especially when scores of TV advertisements are tested and re-tested.", "The bulk of research is done by major studios for the roughly 170 major releases they mount each year that are supported by tens of millions of advertising buys for each film.", "Independent film distributors, which typically spend less than $10 million in media buys per film, don’t have the budget or breadth of advertising materials to analyze, so they spend little or nothing on pre-release audience research.When audience research is conducted for domestic theatrical release, it involves these areas:*Positioning studies versus other films that will premiere at the same time.", "*Test screenings of finished or nearly finished films; this is the most well-known.", "*Testing of audience response to advertising materials.", "*Tracking surveys of audience awareness of a film starting six weeks before premiere.", "*Exit surveys questioning film goers about their demographic makeup and effectiveness of marketing.", "*Title testing in an early stage.", "*Concept testing that would occur in development phase of a film before it is produced.Marketing can play a big role in whether or not a film gets the green light.", "Audience research is a strong factor in determining the ability of a film to sell in theaters, which is ultimately how films make their money.", "As part of a movie's Marketing strategy, audience research comes into account as producers create promotional materials.", "These promotional materials consistently change and evolve as a direct consequence of audience research up until the film opens in theaters.IBIS made a study with information using 97% of America's economy regarding the market size of movie and Video production.", "They calculated that the United States market size, measured by revenue of the Movie & Video Production industry, is $18.2bn in 2022." ], [ "See also", "* Film budgeting*''Junket Whore''" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maggie Out" ], [ "Introduction", "Margaret Thatcher, target of the chant\"'''Maggie Out'''\" was a chant popular during the miners' strike, student grant protests, poll tax protests and other public demonstrations that fell within the time when Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom." ], [ "Lyrics", "The chant called for her to be removed from that role.", "It was referred to, in that context, during a parliamentary session in 1982.When Margaret Thatcher felt compelled to resign some people had memories of chanting it for thirteen years.", "People were passionate about this group activity and associated it with varied political struggles from that time.It is a variant of the \"Oggy Oggy Oggy, Oi Oi Oi\" chant.", "When used in that format, the lyrics were:The Larks produced a track called \"Maggie, Maggie, Maggie (Out, Out, Out)\" which was included on the Miners' Benefit LP \"Here We Go\" on Sterile Records.Upon Thatcher's resignation, groups of opponents gathered at Downing Street, chanting a variation – replacing the word \"out\" with \"gone\".Following the death of Thatcher on 8 April 2013, this chant was revived in the format of \"Maggie, Maggie Maggie (Dead, Dead, Dead)\" at celebratory parties held in Glasgow, London and Reading." ], [ "See also", "* Let's Go Brandon – an anti-Biden chant which is a minced oath for \"Fuck Joe Biden\".", "* Thanks, Obama – a slogan that gained popular use through viral memes protesting the presidency of Barack Obama.", "* Putin khuylo!", "– an anti-Vladimir Putin chant that is popular in Ukraine after the annexation of Crimea.", "* FDT – hip-hop protest song whose title is an initialism for \"Fuck Donald Trump\".", "* Serzhik, go away!", "– Armenian political slogan protesting against Serzh Sargsyan" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "M25 motorway" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''M25''' or '''London Orbital Motorway''' is a major road encircling most of Greater London.", "The motorway is one of the most important roads in the UK and one of the busiest.", "Margaret Thatcher opened the final section in 1986, making the M25 the longest ring road in Europe upon opening.", "The Dartford Crossing completes the orbital route but is not classed as motorway; it is classed as a trunk road and designated as the A282.In some cases, including notable legal contexts such as the Communications Act 2003, the M25 is used as a ''de facto'' alternative boundary for Greater London.In the 1944 ''Greater London Plan'', Patrick Abercrombie proposed an orbital motorway around London.", "This evolved into the London Ringways project in the early 1960s, and by 1966, planning had started on two projects, Ringway 3 to the north and Ringway 4 to the south.", "By the time the first sections opened in 1975, it was decided the ringways would be combined into a single orbital motorway.", "The M25 was one of the first motorway projects to consider environmental concerns and almost 40 public inquiries took place.", "The road was built as planned despite some protests that included the section over the North Downs and around Epping Forest which required an extension of the Bell Common Tunnel.Although the M25 was popular during construction, it quickly became apparent that there was insufficient traffic capacity.", "Because of the public inquiries, several junctions merely served local roads where office and retail developments were built, attracting even more traffic onto the M25 than it was designed for.", "The congestion has led to traffic management schemes that include variable speed limit and smart motorway.", "Since opening, the M25 has been progressively widened, particularly near Heathrow Airport." ], [ "Description", "===Route===Map of the M25 showing the junction numbers and driver location signsThe M25 almost completely encircles Greater London and passes briefly through it, in the east and west.", "Junctions 1A–5 are in Kent, 6–13 are in Surrey, 14 and a small part of 15 are in Hillingdon, Greater London, 15–16 are in Buckinghamshire, 17–24 are in Hertfordshire, 25 is in Enfield, Greater London and 26–31 are in Essex.", "Policing of the road is carried out by an integrated group made up of the Metropolitan, Thames Valley, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey forces.", "Primary destinations signed ahead on the motorway include the Dartford Crossing, Sevenoaks, Gatwick Airport, Heathrow Airport, Watford, Stansted Airport and Brentwood.To the east of London the two ends of the M25 are joined to complete a loop by the non-motorway A282 Dartford Crossing of the River Thames between Thurrock and Dartford.", "The crossing consists of twin two-lane tunnels and the four-lane QE2 (Queen Elizabeth II) bridge, with a main span of .", "Passage across the bridge or through the tunnels is subject to a charge between 6 am and 10 pm, its level depending on the kind of vehicle.", "The road is not under motorway regulations so that other traffic can cross the Thames east of the Woolwich Ferry; the only crossing further to the east is a passenger ferry between Gravesend, Kent, and Tilbury, Essex.At junction 5, the clockwise carriageway of the M25 is routed off the main north–south dual carriageway onto the main east–west dual carriageway with the main north–south carriageway becoming the A21.In the opposite direction, to the east of the point where the M25 diverges from the main east–west carriageway, that carriageway becomes the M26 motorway.", "From here to junction 8, the M25 follows the edge of the North Downs close to several historic buildings such as Chevening, Titsey Place, Hever Castle and Chartwell.", "The interchange with the M23 motorway near Reigate is a four-level stack; one of only a few examples in Britain.", "Past this, the M25 runs close to the Surrey Hills AONB.To the west, the M25 passes close to the edge of Heathrow Airport, and within sight of Windsor Castle.", "North of this, it goes under the Chalfont Viaduct railway bridge, completed in 1906, which carries the Chiltern Main Line.", "Red kites can often be seen overhead to the north of this, up to junction 21.The northern section of the M25 passes close to All Saints Pastoral Centre near London Colney, Waltham Abbey and Copped Hall.", "This section also features two cut-and-cover tunnels, including the Bell Common Tunnel.", "The north-eastern section of the motorway passes close to North Ockendon, the only settlement of Greater London situated outside the M25.It then runs close to the Rainham Marshes Nature Reserve before reaching the northern end of the Dartford Crossing.In 2004, following an opinion poll, the London Assembly proposed aligning the Greater London boundary with the M25.", "\"Inside the M25\" and \"outside/beyond the M25\" are colloquial, looser alternatives to \"Greater London\" sometimes used in haulage.", "The Communications Act 2003 explicitly uses the M25 as the boundary in requiring a proportion of television programmes to be made outside the London area; it states a requirement of \"a suitable proportion of the programmes made in the United Kingdom\" to be made \"in the United Kingdom outside the M25 area\", defined in Section 362 as \"the area the outer boundary of which is represented by the London Orbital Motorway (M25)\".Sections of the M25 form part of two long-distance E-roads, designated by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.", "The E15, which runs from Inverness to Algeciras, follows the M25 and A282 clockwise from the A1(M) at junction 23 to the M20 at junction 3; while the E30 Cork to Omsk route runs from the M4 at junction 15, clockwise to the A12 at junction 28.The United Kingdom is formally part of the E-roads network but, unlike in other countries, these routes are not marked on any road signs.===Features===The M25 was originally built mostly as a dual three-lane motorway.", "Much of this has since been widened to dual four lanes for almost half, to a dual five-lanes section between junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane section between junctions 14 and 15.Further widening is in progress of minor sections with plans for smart motorways in many others.Two motorway service areas are on the M25, and two others are directly accessible from it.", "Those on the M25 are Clacket Lane between junctions 5 and 6 (in the south-east) and Cobham between junctions 9 and 10 (in the south-west).", "Those directly accessible from it are South Mimms off junction 23 (to the north of London) and Thurrock off junction 31 (to the east of London).As is common with other motorways, the M25 is equipped with emergency (\"SOS\") telephones.", "These connect to two National Highways operated control centres at Godstone (for junctions 1 to 15 inclusive) and South Mimms (for 16–31).", "The Dartford Crossing has a dedicated control centre.", "There is an extensive network of closed circuit television (CCTV) on the motorway so incidents can be easily identified and located.", "A number of 4×4 vehicles patrol the motorway, attempting to keep traffic moving where possible, and assisting the local police.", "They can act as a rolling roadblock when there are obstacles on the road.When completed, the M25 only had street lighting for of its length.", "Originally, low pressure sodium (SOX) lighting was the most prominent technology used, but this has been gradually replaced with high-pressure sodium (SON) lighting.", "the motorway has more than 10,000 streetlights.", "The M25 has a number of pollution control valves along its length, which can shut off drainage in the event of a chemical or fuel spill." ], [ "History", "===Plans===Map of Ringways 3 & 4 showing sections combined to form the M25The idea of a general bypass around London was first proposed early in the 20th century.", "An outer orbital route around the capital had been suggested in 1913, and was re-examined as a motorway route in Sir Charles Bressey's and Sir Edwin Lutyens' ''The Highway Development Survey, 1937''.", "Sir Patrick Abercrombie's ''County of London Plan, 1943'' and ''Greater London Plan, 1944'' proposed a series of five roads encircling the capital.", "The northern sections of the M25 follow a similar route to the Outer London Defence Ring, a concentric series of anti-tank defences and pillboxes designed to slow down a potential German invasion of the capital during World War II.", "This was marked as the D Ring on Abercombie's plans.", "Following the war, 11 separate county councils told the Ministry of Transport that an orbital route was \"first priority\" for London.Plans stalled because the route was planned to pass through several urban areas, which attracted criticism.", "The original D Ring through northwest London was intended to be a simple upgrade of streets.", "In 1951, Middlesex County Council planned a route for the orbital road through the county, passing through Eastcote and west of Bushey, connecting with the proposed M1 motorway, but it was rejected by the Ministry two years later.", "An alternative route via Harrow and Ealing was proposed, but this was abandoned after the council revealed the extent of property demolition required.In 1964, the London County Council announced the London Ringways plan, to consist of four concentric motorway rings around London.", "The following year, the transport minister Barbara Castle announced that the D Ring would be essential to build.", "The component parts of what became the M25 came from Ringway 3 / M16 motorway in the north and Ringway 4 in the south.The Ringways plan was controversial owing to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads, (Ringway 1 and Ringway 2).", "Parts of Ringway 1 were constructed (including the West Cross Route), despite stiff opposition, before the overall plan was postponed in February 1972.In April 1973, the Greater London Council elections resulted in a Labour Party victory; the party then formally announced the cancellation of the Ringways running inside Greater London.", "This did not affect the routes that would become the M25, because they were planned as central government projects from the outset.===Construction===Denham Fire Station at Tatling End on the A40 in July 1984, with the Chiltern Main Line five-arch 1906 Chalfont Viaduct, originally built to straddle the River Misbourne There was no individual public inquiry into the M25 as a whole.", "Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with 39 separate public inquiries relating to sections of the route.", "The need for the ministry to negotiate with local councils meant that more junctions with local traffic were built than originally proposed.", "A report in 1981 showed that the M25 had the potential to attract office and retail development along its route, negating the proposed traffic improvements and making Central London a less desirable place to work.", "None of the motorway was prevented from being built by objections at the public inquiries.", "However, as a consequence of the backlash against the Ringways, and criticism at the public inquiries, the motorway was built with environmental concerns in mind.", "New features included additional earth mounds, cuttings and fences that reduced noise, and over two million trees and shrubs to hide the view of the road.Construction of parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, began in 1973.The first section, between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire (junctions 23 to 24) opened in September 1975.It was provisionally known as the M16 and was given the temporary general-purpose road designation A1178.A section of the North Orbital Road between Rickmansworth and Hunton Bridge was proposed in 1966, with detailed planning in 1971.The road was constructed to motorway standards and opened in October 1976 as a section of the A405.It eventually became part of the M25's route.", "The section to the south, from Heathrow Airport to Rickmansworth had five separate routes proposed when a public inquiry was launched in 1974.The Department of Transport sent out 15,000 questionnaires about the preferred route, with 5,000 replies.", "A route was fixed in 1978, with objections delaying the start of construction in 1982.The southern section of what became the M25 through Surrey and Kent was first conceived to be an east–west road south of London to relieve the A25, and running parallel to it, with its eastern end following the route of what is now the M26.It was originally proposed as an all-purpose route, but was upgraded to motorway standard in 1966.It was the first section of the route announced as M25 from the beginning.", "The first section from Godstone to Reigate (junctions 6 to 8) was first planned in 1966 and opened in February 1976.A section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley (junctions 1 to 3) was constructed between May 1974 and April 1977.Bell Common Tunnel near EppingIn 1975, following extensive opposition to some parts of Ringway 3 through Middlesex and South London, the transport minister John Gilbert announced that the north section of Ringway 3 already planned would be combined with the southern section of Ringway 4, forming a single orbital motorway to be known as the M25, and the M16 designation was dropped.", "This scheme required two additional sections to join what were two different schemes, from Swanley to Sevenoaks in the south-east and Hunton Bridge to Potters Bar in the north-west.", "The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled.The section from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed in stages from June 1979 onwards, with the final section between Waltham Cross (junction 25) to Theydon Garnon (junction 27) opening in January 1984.This section, running through Epping Forest, attracted opposition and protests.", "In 1973, local residents had parked combine harvesters in Parliament Square in protest against the road, draped with large banners reading \"Not Epping Likely\".", "As a consequence of this, the Bell Common Tunnel that runs in this area is twice as long as originally proposed.The most controversial section of the M25 was that between Swanley and Sevenoaks (junctions 3 to 5) in Kent across the Darenth Valley, Badgers Mount and the North Downs.", "An 1,800-member group named Defend Darenth Valley and the North Downs Action Group (DANDAG) argued that the link was unnecessary, it would damage an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and it would be primarily used by local traffic as a bypass for the old A21 road between Farnborough and Sevenoaks.", "After a length inquiry process, chaired by George Dobry QC, the transport minister Kenneth Clarke announced the motorway would be built as proposed.The section from the M40 motorway to the 1970s North Orbital Road construction (junctions 16 to 17) opened in January 1985.The route under the Chalfont Viaduct meant the motorway was restricted to a width of three lanes in each direction.The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, officially opened the M25 on 29 October 1986, with a ceremony in the section between junctions 22 to 23 (London Colney and South Mimms).", "To avoid the threat of road protesters, the ceremony was held a quarter of a mile from the nearest bridge.", "The total estimated cost of the motorway was around £1billion.", "It required of concrete, of asphalt and involved the removal of of spoil.", "Upon completion, it was the longest orbital motorway in the world at .", "At the opening ceremony, Thatcher announced that had been constructed while the Conservative Party were in office, calling it \"a splendid achievement for Britain\".", "A 58-page brochure was published, commemorating the completion of the motorway.===Operational history===The M4/M25 motorway junction (junction 15), near Heathrow AirportThe M25 was initially popular with the public.", "In the 1987 general election, the Conservatives won in every constituency that the motorway passed through, in particular gaining Thurrock from Labour.", "Coach tours were organised for a trip around the new road.", "However, it quickly became apparent that the M25 suffered from chronic congestion.", "A report in ''The Economist'' said it \"had taken 70 years to plan the motorway, 12 to build it and just one to find it was inadequate\".", "Thatcher rebuked the negative response, calling it \"carping and criticism\".Traffic levels quickly exceeded the maximum design capacity.", "Two months before it opened, the government admitted that the three-lane section between junctions 11 and 13 was inadequate and that it would have to be widened to four.", "In 1990, the Secretary of State for Transport announced plans to widen the whole of the M25 to four lanes.", "By 1993 the motorway, designed for a maximum of 88,000 vehicles per day, was carrying 200,000.At that time, the M25 carried 15% of UK motorway traffic and there were plans to add six lanes to the section from junctions 12 to 15, as well as widening the rest of the motorway to four lanes.In parts, particularly the western third, that plan went ahead.", "Again, however, plans to widen further sections to eight lanes (four each way) were scaled back in 2009 in response to rising costs.", "The plans were reinstated in the agreed Highways Agency 2013–14 business plan.In June 1992, the Department for Transport (DfT) announced a proposal to widen the section close to Heathrow Airport to fourteen lanes by way of three additional link roads.", "That attracted fierce opposition from anti-motorway protesters who were critical of the Newbury Bypass and other schemes, but also from local authorities.", "Surrey County Council led a formal objection to the widening scheme, and it was cancelled shortly afterwards.", "In 1994, the Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Appraisal published a report saying that \"the M25 experience most probably does ... serve as an example of a case where roads generate traffic\" and that further improvements to the motorway were counter-productive.", "In April 1995, the Transport Minister Brian Mawhinney announced that the Heathrow link roads would be scrapped.MIDAS installed gantryIn 1995, a contract was awarded to widen the section between junctions 8 and 10 from six to eight lanes at a cost of £93.4million, and a Motorway Incident Detection and Automatic Signalling (MIDAS) system was introduced from junction 10 to junction 15 in 1995, at a cost of £13.5M.", "That was extended to junction 16 in 2002, at a cost of £11.7M.", "The system consists of a distributed network of traffic and weather sensors, speed cameras and variable-speed signs, that control traffic speeds with little human supervision.It has improved traffic flow slightly, reducing the amount of start-stop driving.After Labour won the 1997 election, the road budget was cut from £6billion to £1.4billion.", "However, the DfT announced new proposals to widen the section between junction 12 (M3) and junction 15 (M4) to 12 lanes.", "At the Heathrow Terminal 5 public inquiry, a Highways Agency official said that the widening was needed to accommodate traffic to the proposed new terminal, but the transport minister said that no such evidence had been given.", "Environmental groups objected to the decision to go ahead with a scheme to create the widest motorways in the UK, without holding a public inquiry.", "Friends of the Earth claimed the real reason for the widening was to support Terminal 5.The decision was again deferred.", "A ten-lane scheme was announced in 1998, and the £148million 'M25 Jct 12 to 15 Widening' contract was awarded to Balfour Beatty in 2003.The scheme was completed in 2005, with dual-five lanes between junctions 12 and 14 and dual-six lanes from junctions 14 to 15.In 2007, junction 25 (A10/Waltham Cross) was remodelled to increase capacity.", "The nearby Holmesdale Tunnel was widened to three lanes in an easterly direction, and an additional left-turn lane added from the A10 onto the motorway.", "The total cost was £75million.Work to widen the exit slip-roads in both directions at junction 28 (A12 / A1023) was completed in 2008.That was designed to reduce the amount of traffic queuing on the slip roads at busy periods, particularly traffic from the clockwise M25 joining the northbound A12.In 2018, a new scheme was proposed, because the junction had reached capacity, accommodating over 7,500 vehicles per hour.", "The scheme involved building a two-lane link road between the M25 and the A12.The work was expected to be completed around 2021/22.===Widening===Widening of the M25 Motorway near South MimmsIn 2006, the Highways Agency proposed widening of the M25 from six to eight lanes, between junctions 5 and 6, and 16 to 30, as part of a Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) project.", "A shortlist of contractors was announced in October 2006 for the project, which was expected to cost £4.5billion.", "Contractors were asked to resubmit their bids in January 2008, and in June 2009 the new transport minister indicated that the cost had risen to £5.5billion and the benefit to cost ratio had dropped considerably.", "In January 2009 the government announced that plans to widen the sections from junctions 5 to 7 and 23 to 27 had been 'scrapped' and that hard shoulder running would be introduced instead.", "However, widening to four lanes was reinstated in the 2013–14 Highways Agency Business Plan.In 2009, a £6.2billion M25 DBFO private finance initiative contract was awarded to Connect Plus to widen the sections between junctions 16 to 23 and 27 to 30, and maintain the M25 and the Dartford Crossing for a 30-year period.Work to widen the section between junctions 16 (M40) and 23 (A1(M)) to dual four lanes started in July 2009 at an estimated cost of £580million.", "The junction 16 to 21 (M1) section was completed by July 2011 and the junction 21 to 23 by June 2012.Works to widen the junctions 27 (M11) to 30 (A13) section to dual four lanes also started in July 2009.The junction 27 to 28 (A12) section was completed in July 2010, and the junction 28 to 29 (A127) in June 2011, and finally the junction 29 to 30 (A13) section opened in May 2012.Work to introduce smart motorway technology and permanent hard shoulder running on two sections of the M25 began in 2013.The first section between junctions 5 (A21/M26) and 7 (M23) started construction in May 2013 with the scheme being completed and opened in April 2014.The second section, between junctions 23 (A1/A1(M)) and 27 (M11), began construction in February 2013 and was completed and opened in November 2014.In December 2016, Highways England completed the capacity project at junction 30 (Thurrock) as part of the Thames Gateway Delivery Plan.", "The £100million scheme included widening the M25 to four lanes, adding additional link roads, and improvements to drainage.The plans to expand junction 10, where the M25 meets the A3, have resulted in concerns about the amount of woodland that would be required." ], [ "Traffic", "Near Heathrow Airport, the M25 is six lanes wide in each direction.The M25 is one of Europe's busiest motorways.", "In 2003, a maximum of 196,000 vehicles a day were recorded just south of Heathrow, between junctions 13 and 14.The stretch between the nearby junctions 14 and 15 consistently records the highest daily traffic counts on the British strategic road network, with the average flow in 2018 being 219,492 vehicles (lower than the record peak measured in 2014 of 262,842).A control room for the M25 junction 5-7 smart motorway schemeTraffic on the M25 is monitored by Connect Plus Services on behalf of National Highways.", "The company operates a series of transportable CCTV cameras that can be easily moved into congestion hotspots, allowing operators to have a clear view of the motorway and so assess what might be done to tackle particular areas of congestion.", "Prior to its liquidation in 2018, Carillion was subcontracted to manage traffic on the M25, delivering live alerts from body-worn cameras via 3G, 4G and Wi-Fi.Since 1995, sections of the M25 have been equipped with variable speed limits, which slow traffic in the event of congestion or an obstruction, and help manage the traffic flow.", "The scheme was originally trialled between junctions 10 and 16, and was made a permanent fixture in 1997.The Dartford Crossing is the only fixed vehicle crossing of the Thames east of Greater London.", "It is also the busiest crossing in the United Kingdom, and consequently puts pressure on M25 traffic.", "Users of the crossing do not pay a toll, but rather a congestion charge.", "The signs at the crossing are the same as those deployed over the London congestion charge zone.In 2009, the Department for Transport published options for a new Lower Thames Crossing to add capacity to the Dartford Crossing, or create a new road and crossing linking to the M2 and M20 motorways.", "Plans for that stalled, and were cancelled in 2013 by the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, being replaced by a proposed Gallions Reach Crossing.", "Initially seen as a straight ferry replacement for the Woolwich Ferry, it was later mooted as a bridge or tunnel.", "By 2019, the plans had changed, with the Docklands Light Railway to be extended to Thamesmead instead." ], [ "Incidents", "On 11 December 1984, nine people died and ten were injured in a multiple-vehicle collision between junctions 5 and 6.Twenty-six vehicles were involved when dense fog descended suddenly.On 16 December 1988, several vehicles were stolen and used as getaway for acts of murder and robbery, using the M25 to quickly move between targets.", "The M25 Three, including Raphael Rowe, were tried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1990.Their convictions were overturned in 2000 and Rowe, who studied journalism while in prison, became an investigative journalist for the BBC.In 1996, Kenneth Noye murdered Stephen Cameron in a road rage incident while stopped at traffic lights on an M25 junction in Kent.", "He was convicted in 2000 and sentenced to life imprisonment.", "He was released in June 2019.In November 2014, during overnight roadworks, a piece of road surface near junction 9 at Leatherhead failed to set correctly due to rain.", "This created a pothole in the road and caused a tailback.", "The Minister for Transport John Hayes criticised the work and the resulting traffic problems.The M25 has had problems with animals and birds on the carriageway.", "In 2009, the Highways Agency reported that they had been called out several times a week to remove a swan from the motorway around junction 13.There have been several crashes resulting in horses escaping their horseboxes onto the carriageway.===Racing===The motorway has attracted unofficial, and illegal, motor racing.", "At the end of the 1980s, before the advent of automated speed enforcement devices, owners of supercars would meet at night at service stations such as South Mimms and conduct time trials.", "Times below 1 hour were achieved – an average speed of over 117 mph (188 km/h), which included coming to a halt at the Dartford Tunnel road user charge payment booths.", "The winner received champagne rather than money.", "The ''Enfield Gazette'' referred to an \"M25 club\", and posters appeared near the M25 advertising the \"First London Cannonball Run\".", "The racing had mostly disappeared by the end of the 1980s after speed cameras were introduced.===Insulate Britain protests===In 2021, several sections of the M25 were disrupted after the home energy and insulation campaign group Insulate Britain blocked junctions including Nos.", "3 (Swanley), 6 (Godstone), 14 (Heathrow), 20 (Kings Langley) and 31 (Lakeside).", "A spokesman for the AA said the actions were counterproductive, as they would cause increased vehicle emissions owing to delays, as well having a negative effect on the economy.", "92 people were arrested following the first incident on 13 September, followed by a further 70 two days later.", "Insulate Britain said they would continue to disrupt the M25 until the government responded.On 29 October, two days before the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Insulate Britain protests blocked traffic from junctions 21 to 22 in Hertfordshire and 28 to 29 in Essex.", "19 arrests were made." ], [ "Cultural references", "The M25 and the Dartford Crossing are known for frequent traffic jams.", "This was noticed before the entire road had been completed; at the official opening ceremony Margaret Thatcher complained about \"those who carp and criticise\".", "The jams have inspired derogatory names, such as \"Britain's Biggest Car Park\" and songs (e.g., Chris Rea's \"The Road to Hell\").", "Nevertheless, coach tours around the M25 have continued to run into the 21st century.The M25 plays a role in the comedy-fantasy novel ''Good Omens'', as \"evidence for the hidden hand of Satan in the affairs of Man\".", "The demon character, Crowley, had manipulated the design of the M25 to resemble a Satanic sigil, and tried to ensure it would anger as many people as possible to drive them off the path of good.", "The lengthy series of public inquiries for motorways throughout the 1970s, particularly the M25, influenced the opening of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', where the Earth is destroyed to make way for a hyperspace bypass.The M25 enjoyed a more positive reputation among ravers in the late 1980s, when this new orbital motorway became a popular route to the parties that took place around the outskirts of London.", "Its use for these raves inspired the name of the electronic duo Orbital.Iain Sinclair's 2002 book and film ''London Orbital'' is based on a year-long journey around the M25 on foot.The \"Give Peas a chance\" graffiti on the Chalfont Viaduct, before its removal in 2018A piece of graffiti on the Chalfont Viaduct, clearly visible from the M25 and reading \"Give Peas a chance\" (parodying John Lennon's \"Give Peace a Chance\") became popular with the public, attracting its own Facebook group.", "The message originally read \"Peas\", supposedly the tag of a London graffiti artist; the rest of the wording is reported to have referred to his frequent clashes with the law.", "In September 2018, after almost 20 years, the graffiti was vandalised and then removed and replaced with the message \"Give Helch a break\".", "A spokesman for Network Rail sympathised with the requests to restore the \"much-loved graffiti\", but said they do not condone people putting their lives at risk by trespassing." ], [ "Junctions and services", "Data from driver location signs provide carriageway identifier information.", "The numbers on the signs are kilometres from a point on the north side of the Dartford Crossing, while the letter is \"A\" for the clockwise carriageway and \"B\" for the anticlockwise.", "They are spaced every .The M25 has been criticised for having too many junctions; 14 of them serve only local roads.", "In 2016, Edmund King, president of the Automobile Association, attributed congestion on the M25 to excessive junctions.", "This leads to \"junction hoppers\" who only use the motorway for a short distance before exiting; their difference in speed when entering and leaving the main carriageway causes a domino effect, resulting in all vehicles slowing down.", "Drivers who only use the M25 to travel a short distance are believed by some to have less overall driving experience, exacerbating traffic and safety issues.The M25 originally opened without any service areas.", "The first, at South Mimms, was opened by Margaret Thatcher in June 1987, a week before the election.", "Thatcher admired the practical and no-frills architecture of Charles Forte and praised him in her opening speech.", "The second, Clacket Lane, was opened by Robert Key, Minister for Roads and Traffic, on 21 July 1993.Construction was delayed as the remains of a Roman villa were found on the site, requiring archaeological research.", "The other service area between junctions is Cobham, which opened on 13 September 2012.A282 (Dartford Crossing) miles km Clockwise exits (A carriageway) Junction Anti-clockwise exits (B carriageway) Opening date0.00.0 Dartford Crossing South(Queen Elizabeth II Bridge)40px RiverThames Dartford Crossing North(Dartford Tunnels)40px November 1963 (west tunnel)May 1980 (east tunnel)October 1991 (bridge) ''Entering Kent'' ''Entering Essex'' 3.55.7 Swanscombe, Erith, Bluewater A206 J1A Swanscombe, Erith A206 September 19864.77.5 Dartford A225 J1B '''No Exit''' September 1986 M255.58.8 London (SE & C), Bexleyheath A2Canterbury ('''M2''')''Ebbsfleet International x15px''''Non Motorway Traffic'' J2 London (SE & C), Bexleyheath, Bluewater A2 Canterbury ('''M2''')Dartford (A225)''Ebbsfleet International x15px''September 1986 (northbound)April 1977 (southbound)8.714.0 Dover, Channel Tunnel, Maidstone '''M20'''London (SE), Swanley A20 J3 London (SE & C), Lewisham A20Channel Tunnel, Maidstone '''M20'''April 1977 (northbound)February 1986 (southbound)12.219.6 Bromley A21Orpington A224 J4 London (SE), Bromley A21Orpington A224 February 198616.316.426.226.4 Sevenoaks, Hastings A21 J5 Dover, Channel Tunnel, Maidstone'''M26''' ('''M20''')Sevenoaks, Hastings A21 July 1980 ''Entering Surrey'' ''Entering Kent'' 21.033.8Clacket Lane services ServicesClacket Lane servicesJuly 199325.841.6 Eastbourne, Godstone, Caterham A22Redhill, Westerham (A25) J6 Eastbourne, Godstone, Caterham A22Westerham (A25) November 1979 (eastbound)February 1976 (westbound)28.646.0 Brighton, CrawleyGatwick Croydon'''M23''' J7 CroydonBrighton, Gatwick '''M23''' February 197631.951.4 Reigate, Sutton A217Kingston (A240) J8 Sutton, Reigate A217 Redhill (A25) February 1976 (eastbound)October 1985 (westbound)38.539.562.063.5 Leatherhead A243Dorking (A24) J9 Leatherhead A243Dorking (A24) October 198542.643.268.669.5 Cobham services ServicesCobham servicesSeptember 201245.072.4 Portsmouth, Guildford, London (SW & C)'''A3''' J10 London (SW), Kingston, Guildford, Portsmouth'''A3''' October 1985 (eastbound)December 1983 (westbound)49.880.2 Woking A320Chertsey A317 J11 Chertsey A317Woking A320 December 1983 (southbound)October 1980 (northbound)52.183.8 Basingstoke, SouthamptonRichmond'''M3''' J12 The SOUTH WEST, SouthamptonLondon (SW & C), Richmond'''M3''' October 1980 (southbound)December 1976 (northbound) ''Entering Berkshire'' ''Entering Surrey'' ''Entering Surrey'' ''Entering Berkshire'' 55.288.8 London (W), Hounslow, Staines A30 J13 London (W), Hounslow, Staines A30 November 1981 (southbound)August 1982 (northbound) ''Entering Greater London'' ''Entering Surrey'' 57.091.8 Heathrow (T 4, 5 & Cargo) A3113 J14 Heathrow (T4, 5 and Cargo) A3113 August 1982 (southbound)September 1985 (northbound) ''Entering Buckinghamshire'' ''Entering Greater London'' 59.095.0 The WEST, Reading, SloughLondon (W & C), Heathrow (T1, 2 & 3)'''M4''' J15 London (W), Heathrow (T1, 2 & 3)The WEST, Slough, Reading'''M4''' September 198563.8102.6 Birmingham, OxfordUxbridge, London (W)'''M40''' J16 Uxbridge, London (W & C)Birmingham, Oxford'''M40''' September 1985 (southbound)January 1985 (northbound) ''Entering Hertfordshire'' ''Entering Buckinghamshire''68.7110.5 Rickmansworth, Maple Cross A412 J17 Maple Cross A412 January 1985 (southbound)February 1976 (northbound)69.9112.5 Amersham, Chorleywood A404 J18 Amersham, Chorleywood, Rickmansworth A404 February 197671.5116.4 Watford A41 J19 '''No Exit''' September 197673.5118.2 Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury A41 J20 Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury, Watford A41 August 198676.3122.8 The NORTHLuton & Airport '''M1''' J21 The NORTHLuton & Airport '''M1''' August 198676.9123.7 (M1 South)St Albans, London (NW & C) A405 J21A (M1 South)St Albans, London (NW & C), Watford A405 August 198680.6129.7 St Albans A1081 J22 St Albans A1081 August 198683.3134.0 Hatfield '''A1(M)'''London (N & C) A1Barnet A1081''South Mimms services'' J23 London (N & C) A1Barnet A1081Hatfield '''A1(M)'''''South Mimms services'' August 1986 (westbound)September 1975 (eastbound)85.9138.2 Potters Bar A111 J24 Potters Bar A111 September 1975 (westbound)June 1981 (eastbound) ''Entering Greater London'' ''Entering Hertfordshire'' 91.4147.1 London (N & C)Enfield, Hertford A10 J25 London (N & C)Enfield, Hertford A10 June 1981 (westbound)January 1984 (eastbound) ''Entering Essex'' ''Entering Greater London'' 94.9152.7 Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 J26 Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 January 198499.2159.7 Cambridge, Stansted , HarlowLondon (N & E)'''M11''' J27 London (NE & C)Cambridge, Harlow, Stansted '''M11''' January 1984 (westbound)April 1983 (eastbound) ''Entering Greater London'' ''Entering Essex'' 107.1172.4 Chelmsford, London (E & C), Romford A12 Brentwood A1023 J28 Chelmsford A12Brentwood A1023 April 1983 ''Entering Essex'' ''Entering Greater London'' ''Entering Greater London'' ''Entering Essex'' 109.9176.8 Southend, Southend Airport , Basildon A127 J29 London (E & C), Romford, Southend, Southend Airport , Basildon A127 April 1983 (northbound)December 1982 (southbound) ''Entering Essex'' ''Entering Greater London'' 115.2185.4 Tilbury, Thurrock, Lakeside, London (E & C) A13''Thurrock services'' J30 London (E & C), Tilbury, Thurrock, Lakeside A13''Thurrock services''''Non Motorway Traffic'' December 1982 A282 (Dartford Crossing)115.9186.6 '''No Exit''' J31 Thurrock, Lakeside A1306Purfleet (A1090)West Thurrock (A126)''Thurrock services'' December 1982 Dartford Crossing South(Queen Elizabeth II Bridge)40px RiverThames Dartford Crossing North(Dartford Tunnels)40px November 1963 (west tunnel)May 1980 (east tunnel)October 1991 (bridge) ''Entering Kent'' ''Entering Essex'' '''Notes'''*Distances in kilometres and carriageway identifiers are obtained from driver location signs/location marker posts.", "Where a junction spans several hundred metres and the data is available, both the start and finish values for the junction are shown." ], [ "References", "=== Explanatory notes ====== Citations ====== General and cited sources ===* * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* Highways Agency – Roadworks* Highways Agency – Current Traffic Information* Highways Agency – Dartford – Thurrock River Crossing* The Motorway Archive's M25 page* CBRD M25 Motorway Database* CBRD M25 Opening Booklet* Wonders of the M25 – Londonist" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mohs scale" ], [ "Introduction", "Mohs hardness kit, containing one specimen of each mineral on the ten-point hardness scaleThe '''Mohs scale''' of mineral hardness () is a qualitative ordinal scale, from 1 to 10, characterizing scratch resistance of minerals through the ability of harder material to scratch softer material.The scale was introduced in 1812 by the German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs, in his book ''\"Versuch einer Elementar-Methode zur naturhistorischen Bestimmung und Erkennung der Fossilien\"''; it is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science, some of which are more quantitative.The method of comparing hardness by observing which minerals can scratch others is of great antiquity, having been mentioned by Theophrastus in his treatise ''On Stones'', , followed by Pliny the Elder in his ''Naturalis Historia'', .", "The Mohs scale is useful for identification of minerals in the field, but is not an accurate predictor of how well materials endure in an industrial setting." ], [ "Reference minerals", "The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.", "The samples of matter used by Mohs are all different minerals.", "Minerals are chemically pure solids found in nature.", "Rocks are made up of one or more minerals.", "As the hardest known naturally occurring substance when the scale was designed, diamonds are at the top of the scale.", "The hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the hardest material that the given material can scratch, or the softest material that can scratch the given material.", "For example, if some material is scratched by apatite but not by fluorite, its hardness on the Mohs scale would be between 4 and 5.", "\"Scratching\" a material for the purposes of the Mohs scale means creating non-elastic dislocations visible to the naked eye.", "Frequently, materials that are lower on the Mohs scale can create microscopic, non-elastic dislocations on materials that have a higher Mohs number.", "While these microscopic dislocations are permanent and sometimes detrimental to the harder material's structural integrity, they are not considered \"scratches\" for the determination of a Mohs scale number.Each of the ten hardness values in the Mohs scale is represented by a ''reference mineral'', most of which are widespread in rocks.The Mohs scale is an ordinal scale.", "For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as topaz (8), but diamond (10) is four times as hard as corundum.", "The table below shows the comparison with the absolute hardness measured by a sclerometer, with pictorial examples.Mohs hardnessReference mineralChemical formulaAbsolute hardnessImage'''1'''TalcMg3Si4O10(OH)21100px'''2'''GypsumCaSO4·2H2O2100px'''3'''CalciteCaCO314100px'''4'''FluoriteCaF221100px'''5'''ApatiteCa5(PO4)3(OH−,Cl−,F−)48100px'''6'''Orthoclase feldsparKAlSi3O872100px'''7'''QuartzSiO2100100px'''8'''TopazAl2SiO4(OH−,F−)2200100px'''9'''CorundumAl2O3400100px'''10'''DiamondC1500100px" ], [ "Examples", "Below is a table of more materials by Mohs scale.", "Some of them have a hardness between two of the Mohs scale reference minerals.", "Some solid substances which are not minerals have been assigned a hardness on the Mohs scale.", "However, if the substance is actually a mixture of other substances, hardness can be difficult to determine or may be misleading or meaningless.", "For example, some sources have assigned a Mohs hardness of 6 or 7 to granite but it is a rock made of several minerals, each with its own Mohs hardness (e.g.", "topaz-rich granite contains: topaz - hardness 8, quartz - hardness 7, orthoclase feldspar - hardness 6, plagioclase feldspar - hardness 6 to 6.5, mica - hardness 2 to 4).HardnessSubstance0.2–0.4 Caesium, potassium, rubidium, butter0.5–0.6 Lithium, sodium, graphite, candle wax1 Talc1.5 Tin, lead, ice, todorokite, wakabayashilite, idrialite, dimorphite2 Gypsum, calcium, hardwood, dry ice (solid form of carbon dioxide)2–2.5 Bismuth, plastic2.5 Gold, silver, magnesium, zinc, pearl, amber, ivory, finger nail, galena, linarite, ulexite, kinoite, cylindrite2.5–3 Copper, aluminium, chalcocite, jet3 Calcite, thorium, dentin, chalk, brass, bronze3.5 Platinum, adamite, strontianite, roselite, ludlamite3.5-4 Sphalerite4 Fluorite, iron, nickel, heazlewoodite4–4.5 Ordinary steel4.5 Conichalcite, duftite, colemanite, lindgrenite5 Apatite, tooth enamel, zirconium, obsidian (volcanic glass)5-5.5 Goethite5.5 Cobalt, beryllium, glass, perovskite, chromite, bavenite, agrellite5.5-6 Opal, turquoise, anatase6 Orthoclase feldspar, titanium, uranium, rhodium6-6.5 Rutile, pyrite6.5 Silicon, iridium, baddeleyite, chloritoid, berlinite, cuprospinel6.5-7 Peridot, jadeite7 Quartz (including amethyst and citrine), porcelain, bowieite7-7.5 Garnet7.5 Tungsten, zircon, euclase, hambergite, grandidierite7.5-8 Beryl (including emerald and aquamarine)8 Topaz, cubic zirconia, spinel, hardened steel8.5 Chromium, silicon nitride, tantalum carbide, chrysoberyl, tongbaite9 Corundum (including ruby and sapphire), tungsten carbide, titanium nitride9–9.5 Moissanite, silicon carbide (carborundum), tantalum carbide, zirconium carbide, beryllium carbide, titanium carbide, aluminium boride, boron carbide.9.5–near 10 Boron, boron nitride, rhenium diboride (''a''-axis), titanium diboride, boron carbide10 Diamond" ], [ "Use", "Despite its lack of precision, the Mohs scale is relevant for field geologists, who use the scale to roughly identify minerals using scratch kits.", "The Mohs scale hardness of minerals can be commonly found in reference sheets.Mohs hardness is useful in milling.", "It allows assessment of which type of mill and grinding medium will best reduce a given product whose hardness is known.The scale is used at electronic manufacturers for testing the resilience of flat panel display components (such as cover glass for LCDs or encapsulation for OLEDs), as well as to evaluate the hardness of touch screens in consumer electronics." ], [ "Comparison with Vickers scale", "Comparison between Mohs hardness and Vickers hardness: Mineralname Hardness (Mohs) Hardness (Vickers)(kg/mm)Tin1.5VHN = 7–9Bismuth2–2.5VHN = 16–18Gold2.5VHN = 30–34Silver2.5VHN = 61–65Chalcocite2.5–3VHN = 84–87Copper2.5–3VHN = 77–99Galena2.5VHN = 79–104Sphalerite3.5–4VHN = 208–224Heazlewoodite4VHN = 230–254Goethite5–5.5VHN = 667Chromite5.5VHN = 1,278–1,456Anatase5.5–6VHN = 616–698Rutile6–6.5VHN = 894–974Pyrite6–6.5VHN = 1,505–1,520Bowieite7VHN = 858–1,288Euclase7.5VHN = 1,310Chromium8.5VHN = 1,875–2,000" ], [ "See also", "* Brinell scale* Geological Strength Index* Hardnesses of the elements (data page)* Knoop hardness test* Meyer hardness test* Pencil hardness* Rockwell scale* Rosiwal scale* Scratch hardness* Superhard material" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Murray Gell-Mann" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Murray Gell-Mann''' (; September 15, 1929 – May 24, 2019) was an American physicist who played a preeminent role in the development of the theory of elementary particles.", "Gell-Mann introduced the concept of quarks as the fundamental building blocks of the strongly interacting particles, and the renormalization groupas a foundational element of quantum field theory and statistical mechanics.", "He played key roles in developing the concept of chirality in the theory of the weak interactions and spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking in the strong interactions, which controls the physics of the light mesons.", "In the 1970s he was a co-inventor of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) which explains the confinement of quarks in mesons and baryons and forms a large part of the Standard Model of elementary particles and forces.Murray Gell-Mann received the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles." ], [ "Life and education", "Gell-Mann was born in Lower Manhattan to a family of Jewish immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, specifically from Czernowitz in present-day Ukraine.", "His parents were Pauline (née Reichstein) and Arthur Isidore Gelman, who taught English as a second language.Propelled by an intense boyhood curiosity and love for nature and mathematics, he graduated valedictorian from the Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School aged 14 and subsequently entered Yale College as a member of Jonathan Edwards College.", "At Yale, he participated in the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition and was on the team representing Yale University (along with Murray Gerstenhaber and Henry O. Pollak) that won the second prize in 1947.Gell-Mann graduated from Yale with a bachelor's degree in physics in 1948 and intended to pursue graduate studies in physics.", "He sought to remain in the Ivy League for his graduate education and applied to Princeton University as well as Harvard University.", "He was rejected by Princeton and accepted by Harvard, but the latter institution was unable to offer him needed financial assistance.He was accepted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and received a letter from Victor Weisskopf urging him to attend MIT and become Weisskopf's research assistant.", "This would provide Gell-Mann with the financial assistance he required.", "Unaware of MIT's eminent status in physics research, Gell-Mann was \"miserable\" with the fact that he would not be able to attend Princeton or Harvard and in characteristic dark irony, said heconsidered suicide.", "Gell-Mann stated that he realized he could try to first enter MIT and commit suicide afterwards if he found it to be truly terrible.", "However, he couldn't first choose suicide and then attend MIT; the two \"didn't commute\", as Gell-Mann said.He received his Ph.D. in physics from MIT in 1951 after completing a doctoral dissertation, titled \"Coupling strength and nuclear reactions\", under the supervision of Weisskopf.Subsequently, Gell-Mann was a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton in 1951, and a visiting research professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign from 1952 to 1953.He was a visiting associate professor at Columbia University and an associate professor at the University of Chicago in 1954–1955, before moving to the California Institute of Technology, where he taught from 1955 until he retired in 1993.He was on sabbatical at the ''Collège de France'' for the academic year 1958–1959.Gell-Mann married J. Margaret Dow in 1955; they had a daughter and a son.", "Margaret died in 1981, and in 1992 he married Marcia Southwick, whose son became his stepson.Gell-Mann's extensive interests outside of physics included archaeology, numismatics, birdwatching and linguistics.", "Along with S. A. Starostin, he established the Evolution of Human Languages project at the Santa Fe Institute.", "As a humanist and an agnostic, Gell-Mann was a Humanist Laureate in the International Academy of Humanism.", "Novelist Cormac McCarthy saw Gell-Mann as a polymath who \"knew more things about more things than anyone I've ever met...losing Murray is like losing the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "\"Gell-Mann died on May 24, 2019, at his home in Santa Fe, New Mexico." ], [ "Professional life", "Gell-Mann was the Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Theoretical Physics Emeritus at California Institute of Technology as well as a university professor in the physics and astronomy department of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and the Presidential Professor of Physics and Medicine at the University of Southern California.He was a member of the editorial board of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.Gell-Mann spent several periods at CERN, a nuclear research facility in Switzerland, among others as a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation fellow in 1972.In 1984 Gell-Mann was one of several co-founders of the Santa Fe Institute—a non-profit theoretical research institute in Santa Fe, New Mexico intended to study various aspects of a complex system and disseminate the notion of a separate interdisciplinary study of complexity theory.Murray Gell-Mann in Nice, 2012He wrote a popular science book about physics and complexity science, ''The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex'' (1994).", "The title of the book is taken from a line of a poem by Arthur Sze: \"The world of the quark has everything to do with a jaguar circling in the night\".The author George Johnson has written a biography of Gell-Mann, ''Strange Beauty: Murray Gell-Mann, and the Revolution in 20th-Century Physics'' (1999), which was shortlisted for the Royal Society Book Prize.", "Although Gell-Mann himself criticized ''Strange Beauty'' for some inaccuracies, with one interviewer reporting him wincing at the mention of it, the book was acclaimed by a number of his colleagues.", "A revised second edition was published in 2023 by the Santa Fe Institute Press with a foreword by Douglas Hofstadter.In 2012 Gell-Mann and his companion Mary McFadden published the book ''Mary McFadden: A Lifetime of Design, Collecting, and Adventure''." ], [ "Scientific contributions", "In 1958, Gell-Mann in collaboration with Richard Feynman, in parallel with the independent team of E. C. George Sudarshan and Robert Marshak, discovered the chiral structures of the weak interaction of physics and developed the V-A theory (vector minus axial vector theory).", "This work followed the experimental discovery of the violation of parity by Chien-Shiung Wu, as suggested theoretically by Chen-Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee.Gell-Mann's work in the 1950s involved recently discovered cosmic ray particles that came to be called kaons and hyperons.", "Classifying these particles led him to propose that a quantum number, called strangeness, would be conserved by the strong and the electromagnetic interactions, but not by the weak interaction.", "Another of Gell-Mann's ideas is the Gell-Mann–Okubo formula, which was, initially, a formula based on empirical results, but was later explained by his quark model.", "Gell-Mann and Abraham Pais were involved in explaining this puzzling aspect of the neutral kaon mixing.Murray Gell-Mann's fortunate encounter with mathematician Richard Earl Block at Caltech, in the fall of 1960, \"enlightened\" him to introduce a novel classification scheme, in 1961, for hadrons.", "A similar scheme had been independently proposed by Yuval Ne'eman, and has come to be explained by the quark model.", "Gell-Mann referred to the scheme as the ''eightfold way'', because of the ''octets'' of particles in the classification (the term is a reference to the Eightfold Path of Buddhism).Gell-Mann, along with Maurice Lévy, developed the sigma model of pions, which describes low-energy pion interactions.In 1964, Gell-Mann and, independently, George Zweig went on to postulate the existence of quarks, particles which make up the hadrons of this scheme.", "The name \"quark\" was coined by Gell-Mann, and is a reference to the novel ''Finnegans Wake'', by James Joyce (\"Three quarks for Muster Mark!\"", "book 2, episode 4).", "Zweig had referred to the particles as \"aces\", but Gell-Mann's name caught on.", "Quarks, antiquarks, and gluons were soon established as the underlying elementary objects in the study of the structure of hadrons.", "He was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1969 for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions.In the 1960s, he introduced current algebra as a method of systematically exploiting symmetries to extract predictions from quark models, in the absence of reliable dynamical theory.", "This method led to model-independent sum rules confirmed by experiment, and provided starting points underpinning the development of the Standard Model (SM), the widely accepted theory of elementary particles.In 1972 Gell-Mann, while on sabbatical leave to CERN, together with Harald Fritzsch, Heinrich Leutwyler and William A. Bardeen, considered a Yang-Mills theory of \"quark color,\" and coined the term quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as the gauge theory of the strong interaction.", "The quark model is a part of QCD, and it has been robust enough to accommodate in a natural fashion the discovery of new \"flavors\" of quarks, which has superseded the eightfold way scheme.Gell-Mann was responsible, with Pierre Ramond and Richard Slansky, and independently of Peter Minkowski, Rabindra Mohapatra, Goran Senjanović, Sheldon Glashow, and Tsutomu Yanagida, proposed the seesaw theory of neutrino masses.", "This produces masses at the large scale in any theory with a right-handed neutrino.", "He is also known to have played a role in keeping string theory alive through the 1970s and early 1980s, supporting that line of research at a time when it was a topic of niche interest.Gell-Mann was a proponent of the consistent histories approach to understanding quantum mechanics, which he advocated in papers with James Hartle." ], [ "Awards and honors", "Gell-Mann won numerous awards and honours including the following:* 1959 – Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics* 1960 – Elected member of the National Academy of Sciences* 1962 – American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award * 1964 – Elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences* 1966 – Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award* 1967 – Franklin Medal* 1968 – National Academy of Sciences – John J. Carty Award* 1969 – Research Corporation Award * 1969 – Nobel Prize in Physics * 1978 – Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS)* 1988 – United Nations Environment Programme Roll of Honor for Environmental Achievement (The Global 500) * 1993 – Elected member of The American Philosophical Society* 2005 – Albert Einstein Medal* 2005 – American Humanist Association – Humanist of the Year * 2014 – Helmholtz-Medal of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities Universities that gave Gell-Mann honorary doctorates include Cambridge, Columbia, the University of Chicago, Oxford and Yale." ], [ "See also", "* Complex adaptive system* Gell-Mann amnesia effect (Michael Crichton's perspective on inaccuracy in the media, which he named for Murray Gell-Mann)* Kaon* Non-linear sigma model* Omega baryon* Pseudoscalar meson* Random phase approximation* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' biography of Murray Gell-Mann* * * Murray Gell-Mann tells his life story at Web of Stories* * The Making of a Physicist: A Talk With Murray Gell-Mann* * The Man With Five Brains* The Simple and the Complex, Part I: The Quantum and the Quasi-Classical with Murray Gell-Mann, Ph.D.* Interview of Murray Gell-Mann by Lillian Hoddeson on 1982 July 27, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD USA, www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/32880 Retrieved 2023-06-20.", "* Interview of Murray Gell-Mann by Finn Aaserud on 1987 April 23, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD USA, www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/31110 Retrieved 2023-06-20.", "* Interview of Murray Gell-Mann by Dan Ford on 2017 January 15, Audio and video interviews about the life and work of Richard Garwin, 2004-2012 Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD USA, www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/40912-9 Retrieved 2023-06-20." ], [ "External links", "* * ** \"Beauty, truth and ...", "physics?\"", "(TED2007)** \"The ancestor of language\" (TED2007)* Murray Gell-Mann Video Interview with the Academy of Achievement in 1990* Murray Gell-Mann talks quarks (Video)* Membership at the Council on Foreign Relations*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magnetopause" ], [ "Introduction", " Artistic rendition of the Earth's magnetopause.", "The magnetopause is where the pressure from the solar wind and the planet's magnetic field are equal.", "The position of the Sun would be far to the left in this image.The '''magnetopause''' is the abrupt boundary between a magnetosphere and the surrounding plasma.", "For planetary science, the magnetopause is the boundary between the planet's magnetic field and the solar wind.", "The location of the magnetopause is determined by the balance between the pressure of the dynamic planetary magnetic field and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind.", "As the solar wind pressure increases and decreases, the magnetopause moves inward and outward in response.", "Waves (ripples and flapping motion) along the magnetopause move in the direction of the solar wind flow in response to small-scale variations in the solar wind pressure and to Kelvin–Helmholtz instability.The solar wind is supersonic and passes through a bow shock where the direction of flow is changed so that most of the solar wind plasma is deflected to either side of the magnetopause, much like water is deflected before the bow of a ship.", "The zone of shocked solar wind plasma is the magnetosheath.", "At Earth and all the other planets with intrinsic magnetic fields, some solar wind plasma succeeds in entering and becoming trapped within the magnetosphere.", "At Earth, the solar wind plasma which enters the magnetosphere forms the plasma sheet.", "The amount of solar wind plasma and energy that enters the magnetosphere is regulated by the orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field, which is embedded in the solar wind.The Sun and other stars with magnetic fields and stellar winds have a solar magnetopause or heliopause where the stellar environment is bounded by the interstellar environment." ], [ "Characteristics", "Schematic representation of a planetary dipole magnetic field in a vacuum (right side) deformed by a region of plasma with infinite conductivity.", "The Sun is to the left.", "The configuration is equivalent to an image dipole (green arrow) being placed at twice the distance from the planetary dipole to the interaction boundary.Prior to the age of space exploration, interplanetary space was considered to be a vacuum.", "The coincidence of the first observation of a solar flare and the geomagnetic storm of 1859 was evidence that plasma was ejected from the Sun during the flare event.", "Chapman and Ferraro proposed that a plasma was emitted by the Sun in a burst as part of a flare event which disturbed the planet's magnetic field in a manner known as a geomagnetic storm.", "The collision frequency of particles in the plasma in the interplanetary medium is very low and the electrical conductivity is so high that it could be approximated to an infinite conductor.", "A magnetic field in a vacuum cannot penetrate a volume with infinite conductivity.", "Chapman and Bartels (1940) illustrated this concept by postulating a plate with infinite conductivity placed on the dayside of a planet's dipole as shown in the schematic.", "The field lines on the dayside are bent.", "At low latitudes, the magnetic field lines are pushed inward.", "At high latitudes, the magnetic field lines are pushed backwards and over the polar regions.", "The boundary between the region dominated by the planet's magnetic field (i.e., the magnetosphere) and the plasma in the interplanetary medium is the magnetopause.", "The configuration equivalent to a flat, infinitely conductive plate is achieved by placing an image dipole (green arrow at left of schematic) at twice the distance from the planet's dipole to the magnetopause along the planet-Sun line.", "Since the solar wind is continuously flowing outward, the magnetopause above, below and to the sides of the planet are swept backward into the geomagnetic tail as shown in the artist's concept.", "The region (shown in pink in the schematic) which separates field lines from the planet which are pushed inward from those which are pushed backward over the poles is an area of weak magnetic field or day-side cusp.", "Solar wind particles can enter the planet's magnetosphere through the cusp region.", "Because the solar wind exists at all times and not just times of solar flares, the magnetopause is a permanent feature of the space near any planet with a magnetic field.The magnetic field lines of the planet's magnetic field are not stationary.", "They are continuously joining or merging with magnetic field lines of the interplanetary magnetic field.", "The joined field lines are swept back over the poles into the planetary magnetic tail.", "In the tail, the field lines from the planet's magnetic field are re-joined and start moving toward night-side of the planet.", "The physics of this process was first explained by Dungey (1961).If one assumed that magnetopause was just a boundary between a magnetic field in a vacuum and a plasma with a weak magnetic field embedded in it, then the magnetopause would be defined by electrons and ions penetrating one gyroradius into the magnetic field domain.", "Since the gyro-motion of electrons and ions is in opposite directions, an electric current flows along the boundary.", "The actual magnetopause is much more complex." ], [ "Estimating the standoff distance to the magnetopause", "If the pressure from particles within the magnetosphere is neglected, it is possible to estimate the distance to the part of the magnetosphere that faces the Sun.", "The condition governing this position is that the dynamic ram pressure from the solar wind is equal to the magnetic pressure from the Earth's magnetic field:where and are the density and velocity of the solar wind, and is the magnetic field strength of the planet in SI units ( in T, in H/m).Since the dipole magnetic field strength varies with distance as the magnetic field strength can be written as , where is the planet's magnetic moment, expressed in .Solving this equation for r leads to an estimate of the distanceThe distance from Earth to the subsolar magnetopause varies over time due to solar activity, but typical distances range from 6–15 R. Empirical models using real-time solar wind data can provide a real-time estimate of the magnetopause location.", "A bow shock stands upstream from the magnetopause.", "It serves to decelerate and deflect the solar wind flow before it reaches the magnetopause." ], [ "Solar System magnetopauses", "+ Overview of the Solar System magnetopauses Planet Number Magnetic moment Magnetopause distance Observed size of the magnetosphere variance of magnetosphere 10.0004 1.5 1.40 2 0 0 00 3 1 10 102 4 0 0 00 5 20000 42 7525 6 600 19 193 7 50 25 180 8 25 24 24.51.5Research on the magnetopause is conducted using the LMN coordinate system (which is set of axes like XYZ).", "N points normal to the magnetopause outward to the magnetosheath, L lies along the projection of the dipole axis onto the magnetopause (positive northward), and M completes the triad by pointing dawnward.Venus and Mars do not have a planetary magnetic field and do not have a magnetopause.", "The solar wind interacts with the planet's atmosphere and a void is created behind the planet.", "In the case of the Earth's moon and other bodies without a magnetic field or atmosphere, the body's surface interacts with the solar wind and a void is created behind the body." ], [ "See also", "* Heliopause* Geopause* Shock wave* Solar System* For applications to spacecraft propulsion, see magnetic sail" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magnetosphere" ], [ "Introduction", "A rendering of the magnetic field lines of the magnetosphere of the Earth.In astronomy and planetary science, a '''magnetosphere''' is a region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by that object's magnetic field.", "It is created by a celestial body with an active interior dynamo.", "In the space environment close to a planetary body, the magnetic field resembles a magnetic dipole.", "Farther out, field lines can be significantly distorted by the flow of electrically conducting plasma, as emitted from the Sun (i.e., the solar wind) or a nearby star.", "Planets having active magnetospheres, like the Earth, are capable of mitigating or blocking the effects of solar radiation or cosmic radiation, that also protects all living organisms from potentially detrimental and dangerous consequences.", "This is studied under the specialized scientific subjects of plasma physics, space physics, and aeronomy." ], [ "History", "Study of Earth's magnetosphere began in 1600, when William Gilbert discovered that the magnetic field on the surface of Earth resembled that of a terrella, a small, magnetized sphere.", "In the 1940s, Walter M. Elsasser proposed the model of dynamo theory, which attributes Earth's magnetic field to the motion of Earth's iron outer core.", "Through the use of magnetometers, scientists were able to study the variations in Earth's magnetic field as functions of both time and latitude and longitude.Beginning in the late 1940s, rockets were used to study cosmic rays.", "In 1958, Explorer 1, the first of the Explorer series of space missions, was launched to study the intensity of cosmic rays above the atmosphere and measure the fluctuations in this activity.", "This mission observed the existence of the Van Allen radiation belt (located in the inner region of Earth's magnetosphere), with the follow-up Explorer 3 later that year definitively proving its existence.", "Also during 1958, Eugene Parker proposed the idea of the solar wind, with the term 'magnetosphere' being proposed by Thomas Gold in 1959 to explain how the solar wind interacted with the Earth's magnetic field.", "The later mission of Explorer 12 in 1961 led by the Cahill and Amazeen observation in 1963 of a sudden decrease in magnetic field strength near the noon-time meridian, later was named the magnetopause.", "By 1983, the International Cometary Explorer observed the magnetotail, or the distant magnetic field." ], [ "Structure and behavior", "Magnetospheres are dependent on several variables: the type of astronomical object, the nature of sources of plasma and momentum, the period of the object's spin, the nature of the axis about which the object spins, the axis of the magnetic dipole, and the magnitude and direction of the flow of solar wind.The planetary distance where the magnetosphere can withstand the solar wind pressure is called the Chapman–Ferraro distance.", "This is usefully modeled by the formula wherein represents the radius of the planet, represents the magnetic field on the surface of the planet at the equator, and represents the velocity of the solar wind::A magnetosphere is classified as \"intrinsic\" when , or when the primary opposition to the flow of solar wind is the magnetic field of the object.", "Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Ganymede, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, for example, exhibit intrinsic magnetospheres.", "A magnetosphere is classified as \"induced\" when , or when the solar wind is not opposed by the object's magnetic field.", "In this case, the solar wind interacts with the atmosphere or ionosphere of the planet (or surface of the planet, if the planet has no atmosphere).", "Venus has an induced magnetic field, which means that because Venus appears to have no internal dynamo effect, the only magnetic field present is that formed by the solar wind's wrapping around the physical obstacle of Venus (see also Venus' induced magnetosphere).", "When , the planet itself and its magnetic field both contribute.", "It is possible that Mars is of this type." ], [ "Structure", "An artist's rendering of the structure of a magnetosphere: 1) Bow shock.", "2) Magnetosheath.", "3) Magnetopause.", "4) Magnetosphere.", "5) Northern tail lobe.", "6) Southern tail lobe.", "7) Plasmasphere.===Bow shock===Infrared image and artist's concept of the bow shock around R HydraeThe bow shock forms the outermost layer of the magnetosphere; the boundary between the magnetosphere and the ambient medium.", "For stars, this is usually the boundary between the stellar wind and interstellar medium; for planets, the speed of the solar wind there decreases as it approaches the magnetopause.", "Due to interactions with the bow shock, the stellar wind plasma gains a substantial anisotropy, leading to various plasma instabilities upstream and downstream of the bow shock.", "===Magnetosheath===The magnetosheath is the region of the magnetosphere between the bow shock and the magnetopause.", "It is formed mainly from shocked solar wind, though it contains a small amount of plasma from the magnetosphere.", "It is an area exhibiting high particle energy flux, where the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field varies erratically.", "This is caused by the collection of solar wind gas that has effectively undergone thermalization.", "It acts as a cushion that transmits the pressure from the flow of the solar wind and the barrier of the magnetic field from the object.===Magnetopause===The magnetopause is the area of the magnetosphere wherein the pressure from the planetary magnetic field is balanced with the pressure from the solar wind.", "It is the convergence of the shocked solar wind from the magnetosheath with the magnetic field of the object and plasma from the magnetosphere.", "Because both sides of this convergence contain magnetized plasma, the interactions between them are complex.", "The structure of the magnetopause depends upon the Mach number and beta of the plasma, as well as the magnetic field.", "The magnetopause changes size and shape as the pressure from the solar wind fluctuates.===Magnetotail===Opposite the compressed magnetic field is the magnetotail, where the magnetosphere extends far beyond the astronomical object.", "It contains two lobes, referred to as the northern and southern tail lobes.", "Magnetic field lines in the northern tail lobe point towards the object while those in the southern tail lobe point away.", "The tail lobes are almost empty, with few charged particles opposing the flow of the solar wind.", "The two lobes are separated by a plasma sheet, an area where the magnetic field is weaker, and the density of charged particles is higher.===Earth's magnetosphere===Artist's rendition of Earth's magnetosphereDiagram of Earth's magnetosphereOver Earth's equator, the magnetic field lines become almost horizontal, then return to reconnect at high latitudes.", "However, at high altitudes, the magnetic field is significantly distorted by the solar wind and its solar magnetic field.", "On the dayside of Earth, the magnetic field is significantly compressed by the solar wind to a distance of approximately .", "Earth's bow shock is about thick and located about from Earth.", "The magnetopause exists at a distance of several hundred kilometers above Earth's surface.", "Earth's magnetopause has been compared to a sieve because it allows solar wind particles to enter.", "Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities occur when large swirls of plasma travel along the edge of the magnetosphere at a different velocity from the magnetosphere, causing the plasma to slip past.", "This results in magnetic reconnection, and as the magnetic field lines break and reconnect, solar wind particles are able to enter the magnetosphere.", "On Earth's nightside, the magnetic field extends in the magnetotail, which lengthwise exceeds .", "Earth's magnetotail is the primary source of the polar aurora.", "Also, NASA scientists have suggested that Earth's magnetotail might cause \"dust storms\" on the Moon by creating a potential difference between the day side and the night side.===Other objects===Many astronomical objects generate and maintain magnetospheres.", "In the Solar System this includes the Sun, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Ganymede.", "The magnetosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary magnetosphere in the Solar System, extending up to on the dayside and almost to the orbit of Saturn on the nightside.", "Jupiter's magnetosphere is stronger than Earth's by an order of magnitude, and its magnetic moment is approximately 18,000 times larger.", "Venus, Mars, and Pluto, on the other hand, have no magnetic field.", "This may have had significant effects on their geological history.", "It is theorized that Venus and Mars may have lost their primordial water to photodissociation and the solar wind.", "A strong magnetosphere greatly slows this process.", "Artist impression of the magnetic field around Tau Boötis b detected in 2020.Magnetospheres generated by exoplanets are thought to be common, though the first discoveries did not come until the 2010s.", "In 2014, a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet.", "In 2019, the strength of the surface magnetic fields of 4 hot Jupiters were estimated and ranged between 20 and 120 gauss compared to Jupiter's surface magnetic field of 4.3 gauss.", "In 2020, a radio emission in the 14-30 MHz band was detected from the Tau Boötis system, likely associated with cyclotron radiation from the poles of Tau Boötis b a signature of a planetary magnetic field.", "In 2021 a magnetic field generated by HAT-P-11b became the first to be confirmed.", "The first unconfirmed detection of a magnetic field generated by a terrestrial exoplanet was found in 2023 on YZ Ceti b." ], [ "See also", "*Geospace*Plasma (physics)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Manama" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Manama''' ( '''', Bahrani pronunciation: ) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 200,000 as of 2020.Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is home to a very diverse population.", "After periods of Portuguese and Persian control and invasions from the ruling dynasties of Saudi Arabia and Oman, Bahrain established itself as an independent nation in 1971 following a period of British hegemony.Although the current twin cities of Manama and Muharraq appear to have been founded simultaneously in the 1800s, Muharraq took prominence due to its defensive location and was thus the capital of Bahrain until 1923.Manama became the mercantile capital and was the gateway to the main Bahrain Island.", "In the 20th century, Bahrain's oil wealth helped spur fast growth and in the 1990s a concerted diversification effort led to expansion in other industries and helped transform Manama into an important financial hub in the Middle East.", "Manama was designated as the 2012 capital of Arab culture by the Arab League, and a beta global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network in 2018." ], [ "Etymology", "The name is derived from the Arabic word الْمَنَامَة (''el-Menâme'') meaning \"the place of rest\" or \"the place of dreams\"." ], [ "History", "===Pre-modern history===There is evidence of human settlement on the northern coastline of Bahrain dating back to the Bronze Age.", "The Dilmun civilisation inhabited the area in 3000 BC, serving as a key regional trading hub between Mesopotamia, Magan and the Indus Valley civilisation.", "Approximately 100,000 Dilmun burial mounds were found across the north and central regions of the country, some originating 5,000 years ago.", "Despite the discovery of the mounds, there is no significant evidence to suggest heavy urbanisation took place during the Dilmun era.", "It is believed that the majority of the population lived in rural areas, numbering several thousand.", "Evidence of an ancient large rural population was confirmed by one of Alexander the Great's ship captains, during voyages in the Persian Gulf.", "A vast system of aqueducts in northern Bahrain helped facilitate ancient horticulture and agriculture.", "The Khamis Mosque in 1956The commercial network of Dilmun lasted for almost 2,000 years, after which the Assyrians took control of the island in 700 BC for more than a century.", "This was followed by Babylonian and Achaemenid rule, which later gave way to Greek influence during the time of Alexander the Great's conquests.", "In the first century AD, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder wrote of Tylos, the Hellenic name of Bahrain in the classical era, and its pearls and cotton fields.", "The island came under the control of the Parthian and Sassanid empires respectively, by which time Nestorian Christianity started to spread in Bahrain.", "By 410–420 AD, a Nestorian bishopric and monastery was established in Al Dair, on the neighbouring island of Muharraq.", "Following the conversion of Bahrain to Islam in 628 AD, work on one of the earliest mosques in the region, the Khamis Mosque, began as early as the seventh century AD.", "During this time, Bahrain was engaged in long distance marine trading, evident from the discovery of Chinese coins dating between 600 and 1200 AD, in Manama.Portuguese Fort, built by the Portuguese Empire while it ruled Bahrain from 1521 to 1602In 1330, under the Jarwanid dynasty, the island became a tributary of the Kingdom of Hormuz.", "The town of Manama was mentioned by name for the first time in a manuscript dating to 1345 AD.", "Bahrain, particularly Manama and the nearby settlement of Bilad Al Qadeem, became a centre of Shia scholarship and training for the ulema, it would remain so for centuries.", "The ulema would help fund pearling expeditions and finance grain production in the rural areas surrounding the city.", "In 1521, Bahrain fell to the expanding Portuguese Empire in the Persian Gulf, having already defeated Hormuz.", "The Portuguese consolidated their hold on the island by constructing the Bahrain Fort, on the outskirts of Manama.", "After numerous revolts and an expanding Safavid empire in Persia, the Portuguese were expelled from Bahrain and the Safavids took control in 1602.===Early modern history===The Safavids, sidelining Manama, designated the nearby town of Bilad Al Qadeem as the provincial capital.", "The town was also the seat of the Persian governor and the Shaikh al-Islam of the islands.", "The position of Shaikh al-Islam lay under the jurisdiction of the central Safavid government and as such, candidates were carefully vetted by the Isfahan courts.", "During the Safavid era, the islands continued to be a centre for Twelver Shi'ism scholarship, producing clerics for use in mainland Persia.", "Additionally, the rich agricultural northern region of Bahrain continued to flourish due to an abundance of date palm farms and orchards.", "The Portuguese traveler Pedro Teixeira commented on the extensive cultivation of crops like barley and wheat.", "The opening of Persian markets to Bahraini exports, especially pearls, boosted the islands' export economy.", "The yearly income of exported Bahraini pearls was 600,000 ducats, collected by around 2,000 pearling dhows.", "Another factor that contributed to Bahrain's agricultural wealth was the migration of Shia cultivators from Ottoman-occupied Qatif and al-Hasa, fearing religious persecution, in 1537.Sometime after 1736, Nader Shah constructed a fort on the southern outskirts of Manama (likely the Diwan Fort).Persian control over the Persian Gulf waned during the later half of the 18th century.", "At this time, Bahrain archipelago was a dependency of the emirate of Bushehr, itself a part of Persia.", "In 1783, the Bani Utbah tribal confederation invaded Bahrain and expelled the resident governor Nasr Al-Madhkur.", "As a result, the Al Khalifa family became the rulers of the country, and all political relations with Bushehr and Persia/Iran were terminated.", "Ahmed ibn Muhammad ibn Khalifa (later called Ahmed al-Fateh, lit.", "\"Ahmed the conqueror\") become the dynasty's first Hakim of Bahrain.", "Political instability in the 19th century had disastrous effects on Manama's economy; Invasions by the Omanis in 1800 and by the Wahhabis in 1810–11, in addition to a civil war in 1842 between Bahrain's co-rulers saw the town being a major battleground.", "The instability paralysed commercial trade in Manama; the town's port was closed, most merchants fled abroad to Kuwait and the Persian coast until hostilities ceased.", "The English scholar William Gifford Palgrave, on a visit to Manama in 1862, described the town as having a few ruined stone buildings, with a landscape dominated with the huts of poor fishermen and pearl-divers.The British political agency, The Pax Britannica of the 19th century resulted in British consolidation of trade routes, particularly those close to the British Raj.", "In response to piracy in the Persian Gulf region, the British deployed warships and forced much of the Persian Gulf States at the time (including Bahrain) to sign the General Maritime Treaty of 1820, which prohibited piracy and slavery.", "In 1861, the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship was signed between Britain and Bahrain, which placed the British in charge of defending Bahrain in exchange for British control over Bahraini foreign affairs.", "With the ascension of Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa as the Hakim of Bahrain in 1869, Manama became the centre of British activity in the Persian Gulf, though its interests were initially strictly commercial.", "Trading recovered fully by 1873 and the country's earnings from pearl exports increased by sevenfold between 1873 and 1900.Representing the British were native agents, usually from minorities such as Persians or Huwala who regularly reported back to British India and the British political residency in Bushehr.", "The position of native agent was later replaced by a British political agent, following the construction of the British political residency (locally referred to in ) in 1900, which further solidified Britain's position in Manama.===Modern history===Aerial view of Manama in 1936Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the British Raj used Manama as a military base of operations during the Mesopotamian campaign.", "Prompted by the presence of oil in the region, the British political agency in Bushire concluded an oil agreement with the Hakim to prohibit the exploration and exploitation of oil for a five-year period.", "In 1919, Bahrain was officially integrated into the British empire as an overseas imperial territory following the Bahrain order-in-council decree, issued in 1913.The decree gave the resident political agent greater powers and placed Bahrain under the residency of Bushire and therefore under the governance of the British Raj.", "The British pressured a series of administrative reforms in Bahrain during the 1920s (a move met with opposition from tribal leaders), during which the aging Hakim Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa was forced to abdicate in favour of his reform-minded son Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa.", "A municipal government was established in Manama in 1919, the Customs office was reorganised in 1923 and placed under the supervision of an English businessman, the pearling industry was later reformed in 1924.Earnings from the customs office would be kept in the newly created state treasury.", "Civil courts were established for the first time in 1923, followed by the establishment of the Department of Land Registration in 1924.Charles Belgrave, from the Colonial office, was appointed in 1926 by the British to carry on further reforms and manage administration as a financial advisor to the King.", "He later organised the State Police and was in charge of the Finance and Land departments of the government.In 1927, the country's pearling economy collapsed due to the introduction of Japanese cultured pearls in the world market.", "It is estimated that between 1929 and 1931, pearling entrepreneurs lost more than two-thirds of their income.", "Further aggravated by the Great Depression, many leading Bahraini businessmen, shopkeepers, and pearl-divers fell into debt.", "With the discovery of oil in 1932 and the subsequent production of oil exports in 1934, the country gained a greater significance in geopolitics.", "The security of oil supplies in the Middle East was a priority of the British, especially in the run-up to the Second World War.", "The discovery of oil led to gradual employment of bankrupt divers from the pearling industry in the 1930s, eventually causing the pearling industry to disappear.", "During the war, the country served as a strategic airbase between Britain and India as well as hosting RAF Muharraq and a naval base in Juffair.", "Bahrain was bombed by the Italian Air Force in 1940.In 1947, following the end of the war and subsequent Indian independence, the British residency of the Persian Gulf moved to Manama from Bushire.Overview of Manama, 1953Following the rise of Arab nationalism across the Middle East and sparked by the Suez Crisis in 1956, anti-British unrest broke out in Manama, organised by the National Union Committee.", "Though the NUC advocated peaceful demonstrations, buildings and enterprises belonging to Europeans (the British in particular) as well as the main Catholic church in the city and petrol stations, were targeted and set ablaze.", "Demonstrations held in front of the British political residency called for the dismissal of Charles Belgrave, who was later dismissed by the direct intervention of the Foreign Office the following year.", "A subsequent crackdown on the NUC led to the dissolution of the body.", "Another anti-British uprising erupted in March 1965, though predominately led by students aspiring for independence rather than by Arab nationalists.", "In 1968, the British announced their withdrawal from Bahrain by 1971.The newly independent State of Bahrain designated Manama as the capital city.Manama Souq in 1965Protesters at the Pearl Roundabout just before it was demolished.Post-independence Manama was characterised by the rapid urbanisation of the city and the swallowing-up of neighboring villages and hamlets into a single urbanised area, incorporating new neighbourhoods such as Adliya and Salmaniya.", "The construction boom attracted large numbers of foreigners from the Indian subcontinent and by 1981, foreigners outnumbered Bahrainis two-to-one.", "The construction of the Diplomatic Area district in the city's northeast helped facilitate diversification of the country's economy from oil by exploiting the lucrative financial industry.", "Financial institutions in the district numbered 187 by 1986.The scarcity of land suitable for construction led to land reclamation.", "Religious activism migrated from Manama to the suburban districts of Bani Jamra, Diraz and Bilad Al Qadeem, hotspots of unrest in the 1990s uprising that called for the reinstatement of an elected parliament.", "In 2001, the National Action Charter, presented by King Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa was approved by Bahrainis.", "The charter led to the first parliamentary and municipal elections in decades.", "Further elections in 2006 and 2010 led to the election of Islamist parties, Al Wefaq, Al Menbar, and Al Asalah, as well as independent candidates.", "In 2011, a month-long uprising led to the intervention of GCC forces and the proclamation of a three-month state of emergency.", "The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry published a 500-page report on the events of 2011." ], [ "Government", "Manama in 1926Historically, Manama has been restricted to what is now known as the Manama Souq and the Manama Fort (now the Ministry of Interior) to its south.", "However the city has now grown to include a number of newer suburban developments as well as older neighboring villages that have been engulfed by the growth of the city.", "The districts that make up Manama today include:Manama is part of the Capital Governorate, one of five Governorates of Bahrain.", "Until 2002 it was part of the municipality of Al-Manamah.", "Councils exist within the governorates; eight constituencies are voted upon within Capital Governorate in 2006." ], [ "Economy", "Central ManamaManama is the focal point of the Bahraini economy.", "While petroleum has decreased in importance in recent years due to depleting reserves and growth in other industries, it is still the mainstay of the economy.", "Heavy industry (e.g.", "aluminium smelting, ship repair), banking and finance, and tourism are among the industries which have experienced recent growth.", "Several multinationals have facilities and offices in and around Manama.", "The primary industry in Manama itself is financial services, with over two hundred financial institutions and banks based in the CBD and the Diplomatic Area.", "Manama is a financial hub for the Persian Gulf region and a center of Islamic banking.", "There is also a large retail sector in the shopping malls around Seef, while the center of Manama is dominated by small workshops and traders.Manama's economy in the early 20th century relied heavily on pearling; in 1907, the pearling industry was estimated to include 917 boats providing employment for up to 18,000 people.", "Shipbuilding also employed several hundred in both Manama and Muharraq.", "The estimated income earned from pearling in 1926 and subsequent years prior to the Great Depression was £1.5 million annually.", "Custom duties and tariffs served as the prime source of revenue for the government.", "With the onset of the Great Depression, the collapse of the pearling industry and the discovery of oil in 1932, the country's economy began to shift towards oil.Historically, the ports at Manama were of poor reputation.", "The British described the ports importing systems as being \"very bad – goods were exposed to the weather and there were long delays in delivery\", in 1911.Indians began maintaining the ports and new resources were built on site, improving the situation.", "As of 1920, Manama was one of the main exporters of Bahrain pearls, attracting steamships from India.", "During this time, they also imported goods from India and from other regional countries.", "They imported rice, textiles, ghee, coffee, dates, tea, tobacco, fuel, and livestock.", "They exported less of a variety, with a focus on pearls, oysters, and sailcloth.", "For the year of 1911–12, Manama was visited by 52 steamships, the majority being British and the rest Turkish-Arabian." ], [ "Demographics", "The role of Manama as a regional port city in the Persian Gulf made it a hub for migrant workers in search of a better living.", "As a result, Manama has often been described, both in the pre-oil and post-oil era, as a cosmopolitan city.", "In 1904, it was estimated that Manama's population numbered 25,000, out of which half were believed to have been foreigners from Basra, Najd, al-Hasa and Iran, as well as from India and Europe.===Religion===The two main branches of Islam, Shia Islam and Sunni Islam, coexisted in Manama for centuries and are represented by distinct ethnic groups.", "The Shia community is represented by the native Arab Baharna, the Hasawis and Qatifis of mainland Arabia and the Persian Ajam.", "The Sunni community is represented by Arab Bedouin tribes who migrated in the eighteenth century along with the Bani Utbah and the Huwala." ], [ "Transport", "=== Road network ===Areal view of Manama CityManama night viewBahrain Bay overviewSkyline of ManamaManama is the main hub of the country's road network.", "At the moment the city's road network is undergoing substantial development to ameliorate the situation of traffic in the city.", "Due to the fact that it is the capital and the main city in the country, where most of the government and the commercial offices and facilities are established, along with the entertainment centers, and the country's fast growth, vehicle population is increasing rapidly.The widening of roads in the old districts of Manama and the development of a national network linking the capital to other settlements commenced as early as the arrival of the first car in 1914.The continuous increase in the number of cars from 395 in 1944, to 3,379 in 1954 and to 18,372 cars in 1970 caused urban development to primarily focus on expanding the road network, widening carriageways and the establishment of more parking spaces.", "Many tracks previously laid in the pre-oil era (prior to the 1930s) were resurfaced and widened, turning them into 'road arteries'.", "Initial widening of the roads started in the Manama Souq district, widening its main roads by demolishing encroaching houses.A series of ring roads were constructed (Isa al Kabeer avenue in the 1930s, Exhibition avenue in the 1960s and Al Fateh highway in the 1980s), to push back the coastline and extend the city area in belt-like forms.", "To the north, the foreshore used to be around ''Government Avenue'' in the 1920s but it shifted to a new road, ''King Faisal Road'', in the early 1930s which became the coastal road.", "To the east, a bridge connected Manama to Muharraq since 1929, a new causeway was built in 1941 which replaced the old wooden bridge.", "Transits between the two islands peaked after the construction of the Bahrain International Airport in 1932.To the south of Manama, roads connected groves, lagoons and marshes of Hoora, Adliya, Gudaibiya and Juffair.", "Villages such as Mahooz, Ghuraifa, Seqaya served as the end of these roads.", "To the west, a major highway was built that linked Manama to the isolated village port of Budaiya, this highway crossed through the 'green belt' villages of Sanabis, Jidhafs and Duraz.", "To the south, a road was built that connected Manama to Riffa.", "The discovery of oil accelerated the growth of the city's road network.Manama citylineThe four main islands and all the towns and villages are linked by well-constructed roads.", "There were of roadways in 2002, of which were paved.", "A causeway stretching over , connect Manama with Muharraq Island, and another bridge joins Sitra to the main island.", "A four-lane highway atop a causeway, linking Bahrain with the Saudi Arabian mainland via the island of Umm an-Nasan was completed in December 1986, and financed by Saudi Arabia.", "In 2000, there were 172,684 passenger vehicles and 41,820 commercial vehicles.Bahrain's port of Mina Salman can accommodate 16 oceangoing vessels drawing up to .", "In 2001, Bahrain had a merchant fleet of eight ships of 1,000 GT or over, totaling 270,784 GT.", "Private vehicles and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city.=== Buses ===Bahrain International AirportManama has a bus service that launched on 1 April 2015, with a fleet of 141 MAN buses.", "Regulated by the Ministry of Transportation, bus routes extend across Bahrain and around Manama with fares of a minimum 200 Fils (BD0.200) (around $0.50(USD); £0.30).=== Air transport ===Bahrain International Airport is located on the nearby Muharraq Island, approximately from the CBD.", "It is a premier hub airport in the Middle East.", "Strategically located in the Northern Persian Gulf between the major markets of Saudi Arabia and Iran, the airport has one of the widest range and highest frequency of regional services with connections to major international destinations in Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America.Bahrain also has a military airbase, the Isa Air Base, located in the south at Sakhir.", "This is the base of the Bahrain Defence Force, or BDF." ], [ "Education", "Quranic schools were the only source of education in Bahrain prior to the 20th century; such schools were primarily dedicated to the study of the Qur'an.", "The first modern school to open in the country was a missionary elementary school set up in 1892 (according to one account) in Manama by the Reformed Church in America, with the school's syllabus comprising English, Mathematics and the study of Christianity.", "Leading merchants in the country sent their children to the school until it was closed down in 1933 due to financial difficulties.", "The school reopened some years later under the name of Al Raja School where it operates till the present day.", "In addition to the American Mission School, another foreign private school was opened in 1910; Al-Ittihad school, funded by the Persian community of Bahrain.Following the end of the First World War, Western ideas became more widespread in the country, culminating in the opening of the first public school of Bahrain, Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia Boys school, in the island of Muharraq in 1919.The school was founded by prominent citizens of Muharraq and was endorsed by the Bahraini royal family.", "The country's first Education Committee was established by several leading Bahraini merchants, headed by Shaikh Abdulla bin Isa Al-Khalifa, the son of the then-ruler of Bahrain Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa, who acted as the de facto Minister of Education.", "The Education Committee was also responsible for managing the Al-Hidaya Boys school.", "The school was, in fact, the brainchild of Shaikh Abdulla, who suggested the idea after returning from post-World War I celebrations in England.In 1926, a second public school for boys opened up in Manama called the Jafaria School.", "Two years later, in 1928, the first public school for girls was established.", "Due to financial constraints suffered by the Education Committee, the Bahraini government took control of the schools in 1930.Presently, Manama has a wide range of private and public universities and colleges such as Ahlia University, Applied Science University, Arab Open University, Arabian Gulf University, Bahrain Institute of Banking and Finance, and the College of Health and Sport Sciences.", "Other notable primary and secondary schools situated in the city include the Bahrain School, the Indian School, Al Raja School amongst others." ], [ "Geography", "The city is located in the north-eastern corner of Bahrain on a small peninsula.", "As in the rest of Bahrain, the land is generally flat (or gently rolling) and arid.=== Climate ===Manama has an arid climate.", "In common with the rest of Bahrain, Manama experiences extreme climatic conditions, with summer temperatures up to , and winter as low as with even hail on rare occasions.", "Average temperatures of the summer and winter seasons are generally from about 17 °C (63 °F) to about 34 °C (93 °F).", "The most pleasant time in Bahrain is autumn when sunshine is comparatively low, coupled with warm temperatures tempered by soft breezes." ], [ "Culture", "Bab Al BahrainThe country attracts a large number of foreigners and foreign influences, with just under one-third of the population hailing from abroad.", "Alcohol is legal in the country, with bars and nightclubs operating in the city.", "Bahrain gave women the right to vote in elections for the first time in 2002.Football is the most popular sport in Manama (and the rest of the country), with three teams from Manama participating in the Bahraini Premier League.Notable cultural sites within Manama include the Bab Al Bahrain and the adjacent souq area.", "In the 2010s, the historic core of Manama underwent revitalisation efforts alongside the Manama souq, which were due to be completed in 2020.The central areas of Manama are also the main location for Muharram processions in the country, attracting hundreds of thousands of people annually from Bahrain and across the Gulf." ], [ "Notable people", " *Hamad Al Fardan (born 1987), racing driver and musician*Mohamed Ali Al-Shaaban (born 1986), television personality and surgeon*Faisal Buressli (born 1961), former basketball player and current coach*Hussain Karimi (born 1983), racing driver" ], [ "Twin towns and sister cities", "*Kuwait City, Kuwait*Doha, Qatar*Tunis, Tunisia (1999)*Tripoli, Lebanon (1977)*Chicago, United States (2004)*Dubai, United Arab Emirates*Chiang Mai, Thailand*Amman, Jordan*Ta'if, Saudi Arabia*Singapore" ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Bahrain" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ======= Primary sources ====*==== Secondary sources ====*********" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Mance Lipscomb" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mance Lipscomb''' (April 9, 1895 – January 30, 1976) was an American blues singer, guitarist and songster.", "He was born '''Beau De Glen Lipscomb''' near Navasota, Texas.", "As a youth he took the name Mance (short for ''emancipation'') from a friend of his oldest brother, Charlie." ], [ "Biography", "Lipscomb was born April 9, 1895.His father had been born into slavery in Alabama; his mother was half African American and half Native American.", "His father left home when he was a child, so he had to leave school after the third grade to work in the fields alongside his mother.", "For most of his life, Lipscomb supported himself as a tenant farmer in Texas.", "His mother bought him a guitar and he taught himself to play by watching and listening.", "He became an accomplished performer then and played regularly for years at local gatherings, mostly what he called \"Saturday night suppers\" hosted by someone in the area.", "He and his wife regularly hosted such gatherings for a while.", "Until around 1960, most of his musical activity took place within what he called his \"precinct\", the area around Navasota, Texas.He was discovered and recorded by Mack McCormick and Chris Strachwitz in 1960, during a revival of interest in the country blues.", "He recorded many albums of blues, ragtime, Tin Pan Alley, and folk music (most of them released by Strachwitz's Arhoolie Records), singing and accompanying himself on acoustic guitar.", "Lipscomb had a \"dead-thumb\" finger-picking guitar technique and an expressive voice.", "He honed his skills by playing in nearby Brenham, Texas, with a blind musician, Sam Rogers.His first release was the album ''Texas Songster'' (1960).", "Lipscomb performed songs in a wide range of genres, from old songs such as \"Sugar Babe\" (the first he ever learned), to pop numbers like \"Shine On, Harvest Moon\" and \"It's a Long Way to Tipperary\".In 1961 he recorded the album ''Trouble in Mind'', released by Reprise Records.", "In May 1963, he appeared at the first Monterey Folk Festival, (which later became the Monterey Pop Festival) alongside other folk artists such as Bob Dylan, and Peter, Paul and Mary in California.Unlike many of his contemporaries, Lipscomb had not recorded in the early blues era.", "Michael Birnbaum recorded interviews with Mance in 1966 at his home in Navasota about his life and music.", "These recordings are in the Ethnomusicology library at University of California, Los Angeles.", "His life is well documented in his autobiography, ''I Say Me for a Parable: The Oral Autobiography of Mance Lipscomb, Texas Bluesman'', narrated to Glen Alyn (published posthumously).", "He was the subject of a short 1971 documentary film by Les Blank, called ''A Well Spent Life''.Following his discovery by McCormick and Strachwitz, Lipscomb became an important figure in the American folk music revival of the 1960s.", "He was a regular performer at folk festivals and folk-blues clubs around the United States, notably the Ash Grove in Los Angeles, California.", "He was known not only for his singing and intricate guitar style, but also as a storyteller and country \"sage\".Tombstone of Mance Lipscomb in the Oakland Cemetery of NavasotaHe died in Navasota, Texas, in 1976, two years after suffering a stroke.", "He is buried in Oakland Cemetery, Navasota." ], [ "Film", "*''A Well Spent Life'' (1971).", "Documentary directed by Les Blank and Skip Gerson.", "El Cerrito, California: Flower Films.", "Released on videotape in 1979..*''The Blues Accordin' to Lightnin' Hopkins'' (1970).", "Directed by Les Blank." ], [ "Honors", "Sculpture of Mance Lipscomb (2011)* An annual Navasota Blues Festival is held in his honor.", "* On August 12, 2011, a bronze sculpture of him was unveiled in Mance Lipscomb Park in Navasota.", "The statue was sculpted by the artist Sid Henderson of California and weighs almost 300 pounds.", "It portrays Lipscomb playing his guitar whilst seated on a bench, with room for fans to sit beside him and play their own guitars at his side." ], [ "See also", "*List of blues musicians*List of country blues musicians*List of guitarists by genre*List of people from Texas" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Illustrated Mance Lipscomb Discography* Lipscomb at Famoustexans.com* Photos of Lipscomb with Michael H. Birnbaum and of a handwritten fragment of Mance's autobiography" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Melbourne Cup" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Melbourne Cup''' is an annual Group 1 Thoroughbred horse race held in Melbourne, Australia, at the Flemington Racecourse.", "It is a 3200-metre race for three-year-olds and older, conducted by the Victoria Racing Club that forms part of the Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival.", "It is the richest two-mile handicap in the world and one of the richest turf races.", "The event starts at 3:00 pm on the first Tuesday of November and is known locally as \"the race that stops the nation\".The Melbourne Cup has cemented itself as a part of Melbourne and Australian culture, having being run every year since 1861 (except for an intermission during World War I and World War II).", "The day of the race has been a public holiday for much of Victoria since 1873.It was originally run over but was shortened to in 1972 when Australia adopted the metric system.", "This reduced the distance by , and Rain Lover's 1968 race record of 3:19.1 was accordingly adjusted to 3:17.9.The present record holder is the 1990 winner Kingston Rule with a time of 3:16.3.Archer, the inaugural winner of the Melbourne Cup" ], [ "Qualifying and race conditions", "Poseidon, 1906 winnerPeter Pan, 1932 and 1934 winnerDelta,1951 winner Rising Fast, 1954 winnerRussia, 1946 winnerDalray, 1952 winnerThe race is a quality handicap for horses three years old and older, run over a distance of 3200 metres, on the first Tuesday in November at Flemington Racecourse.", "The minimum handicap weight is 50kg.", "There is no maximum weight, but the top allocated weight must not be less than 57kg.", "The weight allocated to each horse is declared by the VRC Handicapper in early September.The Melbourne Cup race is a handicap contest in which the weight of the jockey and riding gear is adjusted with ballast to a nominated figure.", "Older horses carry more weight than younger ones and weights are adjusted further according to the horse's previous results.", "The field is selected based on a range of factors, including each horse's age, weight, and previous racing performance.Weights were theoretically calculated to give each horse an equal winning chance in the past, but in recent years the rules were adjusted to a \"quality handicap\" formula where superior horses are given less severe weight penalties than under pure handicap rules.===Weight penalties===After the declaration of weights for the Melbourne Cup, the winner of any handicap flat race of the advertised value of A$55,000 or over to the winner, or an internationally recognised Listed, Group, or Graded handicap flat race, shall carry such additional weight (if any), for each win, as the VRC Handicapper shall determine.===Fees===Entries for the Melbourne Cup usually close during the first week of August.", "The initial entry fee is $600 per horse.", "Around 300 to 400 horses are nominated each year, but the final field is limited to 24 starters.", "Following the allocation of weights, the owner of each horse must on the four occasions before the race in November declare the horse as an acceptor and pay a fee.", "First acceptance is $960, second acceptance is $1,450 and third acceptance is $2,420.The final acceptance fee, on the Saturday prior to the race, is $45,375.Should a horse be balloted out of the final field, the final declaration fee is refunded.===Balloting conditions===The race directors may exclude any horse from the race or exempt any horse from the ballot on the race, but in order to reduce the field to the safety limit of 24, horses are balloted out based on a number of factors which include prize money earned in the previous two years, wins or placings in certain lead-up races and allocated handicap weight.The winners of the following races are exempt from any ballot:*Lexus Stakes (formerly Saab Quality and registered as The Hotham Handicap)*LKS Mackinnon Stakes (until 2015)*Cox Plate*Caulfield Cup*The Bart Cummings (from 2015)*Andrew Ramsden Stakes (from 2019)*Doncaster Cup (UK)*Irish St. Leger (IRE)*Tenno Sho (Spring) (JPN)*Sankei Sho All Comers (JPN)*Arlington Million (USA)*San Juan Capistrano Handicap (USA)*Australian Stayers ChallengeThe limitation of 24 starters is stated explicitly to be for safety reasons.", "However, in the past far larger numbers were allowed – the largest field ever raced was 39 runners in 1890.===Quarantine===International horses (except from New Zealand) entering Australia must undergo quarantine in an approved premises in their own country for a minimum period of 14 days before travelling to Australia.", "Premises must meet the Australian Government Standards.", "The Werribee International Horse Centre at Werribee Racecourse is the Victorian quarantine station for international horses competing in the Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival.", "The facility has stabling for up to 24 horses in five separate stable complexes and is located 32 km from the Melbourne CBD." ], [ "Prize money and trophies", "=== Prize money ===The total prize money for the 2023 race was A$8,410,000, plus an 18-carat solid gold trophy valued at $250,000 to the winer.", "The first 12 past the post receive prize money, with the winner being paid $4.4 million, second $1.1 million, third $550,000, fourth $350,000, fifth $230,000, with sixth through to twelfth place earning $160,000.Prize money is distributed to the connections of each horse in the ratio of 85 percent to the owner, 10 percent to the trainer and 5 percent to the jockey.The 1985 Melbourne Cup, won by \"What a Nuisance\", was the first race run in Australia with prize money of $1 million.The Cup currently has a $500,000 bonus for the owner of the winner if it has also won the group one Irish St. Leger run the previous September.", "Year Prize Money 2023 $8,410,000 2022 $8,000,000 2021 2020 2019 2018 $7,300,000 2017 $6,200,000 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 $6,175,000 2010 $6,000,000 2009 $5,500,000 2008 2007 $5,000,000 2006 2005 2004 $4,600,000=== Trophies ===The 1976 cup won by Van der HumThe winner of the first Melbourne Cup in 1861 received a gold watch.", "The first Melbourne Cup trophy was awarded in 1865 and was an elaborate silver bowl on a stand that had been manufactured in England.", "This is currently owned by Australian wine personality Wolf Blass and is on display at the Wolf Blass Gallery & Museum/Adelaide Hills Wine Bar in Hahndorf, South Australia.", "The first existing and un-altered Melbourne Cup is from 1866, presented to the owners of The Barb; as of 2013, it is in the National Museum of Australia.", "The silver trophy presented in 1867, now also in the National Museum of Australia, was also made in England, but jewellers in Victoria complained to the Victorian Racing Club that the trophy should have been made locally.", "They believed the work of a Melburnian, William Edwards, to be superior in both design and workmanship to the English-made trophy.", "No trophy was awarded to the Melbourne Cup winner for the next eight years.In 1876, Edward Fischer, an immigrant from Austria, produced the first Australian-made trophy.", "It was an Etruscan shape with two handles.", "One side depicted a horse race with the grandstand and hill of Flemington in the background.", "The opposite side had the words \"Melbourne Cup, 1876\" and the name of the winning horse.", "A silver-plated base sporting three silver horses was added in 1888, but in 1891 the prize changed to being a , trophy showing a Victory figure offering an olive wreath to a jockey.", "From 1899, the trophy was in the form of silver galloping horse embossed on a plaque, although it was said to look like a greyhound by some people.The last Melbourne Cup trophy manufactured in England was made for the 1914 event.", "It was a chalice centred on a long base which had a horse at each end.", "The trophy awarded in 1916, the first gold trophy, was a three-legged, three-armed rose bowl.", "The three-handled loving cup design was first awarded in 1919.In that year, the Victorian Racing Club had commissioned James Steeth to design a trophy that would be in keeping with the prestige of the race, little realising that it would become the iconic Melbourne Cup still presented today.", "In the Second World War years (1942, 1943 and 1944), the winning owner received war bonds valued at 200 pounds.A new trophy is struck each year and becomes the property of the winning owner.", "In the event of a dead heat, a second cup is on hand.", "The present trophy is hand spun from 1.65 kg of 18-carat gold.", "The winning trainer and jockey also receive a miniature replica of the cup (since 1973) and the strapper is awarded the Tommy Woodcock Trophy, named after the strapper of Phar Lap.==== Melbourne Cup Tour ====In 2003, an annual tour of the Melbourne Cup trophy was initiated to provide communities across Australia and New Zealand with an opportunity to view the Cup trophy and highlight the contribution the Melbourne Cup has made to Australia's social, sporting and racing culture.", "Each year, communities in Australia and New Zealand apply for the cup to tour their community and the tour also takes in cities around the world as part of the Victoria Racing Club's strategy to promote the Melbourne Cup and the Melbourne Cup Carnival internationally.The Tour has visited schools and aged-care and hospital facilities, and participated in community events and celebrations including race days across Australia and New Zealand." ], [ "History", "Melbourne Cup in 1881, with engraving on the finish line=== Early years ===Frederick Standish, member of the Victorian Turf Club and steward on the day of the first Cup, was credited with forming the idea to hold a horse race and calling it the \"Melbourne Cup\".Seventeen horses contested the first Melbourne Cup on Thursday 7 November 1861, racing for the modest prize of 710 gold sovereigns (£710) cash and a hand-beaten gold watch, winner takes all.", "The prize was not, as some have suggested, the largest purse up to that time.", "A large crowd of 4,000 men and women watched the race, although it has been suggested this was less than expected because of news reaching Melbourne of the death of explorers Burke and Wills five days earlier on 2 November.", "Nevertheless, the attendance was the largest at Flemington on any day for the past two years, with the exception of the recently run Two Thousand Guinea Stakes.The winner of this first Melbourne Cup race was a 16.3 hand bay stallion by the name of Archer in a time of 3.52.00, ridden by John Cutts, trained by Etienne de Mestre, and leased (and consequently raced in his own name) by de Mestre.", "As a lessee de Mestre owned and was fully responsible for Archer during the lease.", "Archer was leased from the \"Exeter Farm\" of Jembaicumbene near Braidwood, New South Wales.", "His owners were Thomas John \"Tom\" Roberts (a good school-friend of de Mestre's), Rowland H. Hassall (Roberts' brother-in-law), and Edmund Molyneux Royds and William Edward Royds (Roberts' nephews).The inaugural Melbourne Cup of 1861 was an eventful affair when one horse bolted before the start, and three of the seventeen starters fell during the race, two of which died.", "Archer, a Sydney outsider who drew scant favour in the betting, spread-eagled the field and defeated the favourite, and Victorian champion, Mormon by six lengths.", "Dismissed by the bookies, Archer took a lot of money away from Melbourne, 'refuelling interstate rivalry' and adding to the excitement of the Cup.", "The next day, Archer was raced in and won another 2-mile long-distance race, the Melbourne Town Plate.It has become legend that Archer walked over 800 km (over 500 miles) to Flemington from de Mestre's stable at \"Terara\" near Nowra, New South Wales.", "However, newspaper archives of the day reveal that he had travelled south from Sydney to Melbourne on the steamboat ''City of Melbourne'', together with de Mestre, and two of de Mestre's other horses Exeter and Inheritor.", "Before being winched aboard the steamboat for the trip to Melbourne, the horses had arrived in Sydney in September 1861.Archer travelled to Melbourne by steamboat again the following year (1862) to run in the second Melbourne Cup.", "This time he won 810 gold sovereigns (£810) cash and a gold watch before a crowd of 7,000, nearly twice the size of the previous years large crowd in a time of 3.47.00, taking to two the number of Melbourne Cup wins by this horse.", "Archer had already won the 1862 AJC Queen Elizabeth Stakes in Randwick, Sydney, and returned to win his second Melbourne Cup carrying 10 stone 2 pounds.", "He defeated a field of twenty starters by eight lengths, a record that has never been beaten, and that was not matched for over 100 years.", "Mormon again running second.", "Winning the Melbourne Cup twice was a feat not repeated until more than seventy years later when Peter Pan won the race in 1932 and 1934, and winning the Melbourne Cup two years in a row was a feat not repeated until more than 30 years later when Rain Lover won in 1968 and 1969.Archer travelled to Melbourne by steamboat yet again the next year (1863).", "Despite his weight of 11 stone 4 pounds, Archer would have contested the third cup in 1863, but due to a Victorian public holiday trainer Etienne de Mestre's telegraphed acceptance form arrived late, and Archer was scratched on a technicality.", "In protest of this decision and in a show of solidarity, many of de Mestre's owners boycotted the third race and scratched their horses in sympathy.", "As a result, the Melbourne Cup of that year ran with only 7 starters, the smallest number in the history of the Cup.In 1865, Adam Lindsay Gordon wrote a verse in which the Melbourne Cup winner was called Tim Whiffler.", "Two years later in 1867 two horses with the name Tim Whiffler ran in the Melbourne Cup.", "(The year before in 1866 two horses with the same name, Falcon, also ran in the Melbourne Cup.)", "To distinguish between the two Tim Whifflers they were called \"Sydney\" Tim Whiffler and \"Melbourne\" Tim Whiffler.", "\"Sydney\" Tim Whiffler actually won the Cup.", "He was trained by Etienne de Mestre, and like Archer before him raced in de Mestre's name but was leased from the \"Exeter Farm\".As early as 1865, Cup day was a half-holiday in Melbourne for public servants and bank officials.", "Various businesses also closed at lunchtime.It took some years before the purpose of the declared holiday was acknowledged in the Victoria Government Gazette.", "The Gazette of 31 October 1873 announced that the following Thursday (Cup Day) be observed as a bank and civil (public) service holiday.The Melbourne Cup was first run on a Tuesday in 1875, the first Tuesday in that month.On 7 November 1876, the three-year-old filly, Briseis, owned and trained by James Wilson Snr., won in a time of 3.36.25.Briseis then went on to create a record that is never likely to be equalled, winning the VRC Derby, the Melbourne Cup and the VRC Oaks in the space of six days.", "She was ridden in the Melbourne Cup by the tiny featherweight figure of jockey Peter St Albans.", "In 1876 at the recorded age thirteen (he was actually twelve, being 8 days short of his thirteenth birthday), Peter St Albans is also the youngest person ever to win a Melbourne Cup.", "Before 75,000 at Flemington Briseis, with St Albans in the saddle, comfortably won by 1 length in the biggest field of all time.", "\"At 4 o'clock the starter released the 33 runners and they swept down the long Flemington straight in a thundering rush.", "Briseis, ridden by what one writer termed a mere child, (in the Cup) captured a rare double, the Victoria Race Club Derby and the Melbourne Cup.", "Shouts and hurrahs were heard, hats were thrown in the air and one excited individual fell on his back in the attempt to do a somersault.", "The boy who rode the winner was carried around the pack and is the hero of the day,\" reported the \"Australasian Sketcher\" in 1876.Both Peter St Albans and Briseis have now become racing legends, and Briseis is regarded as one of the greatest mares foaled in Australia.Briseis wasn't the only sensation surrounding the 1876 Melbourne Cup.", "Two months before the event, on Saturday 9 September, the ''City of Melbourne'' sailed for Melbourne from Sydney with a cargo including 13 racehorses, many of whom were considered serious contenders for the Melbourne Cup.", "The following day the ship ran into a savage storm and was hit by several rogue waves, with Nemesis (the winner of the 1876 AJC Metropolitan Handicap in Randwick, Sydney and favourite for the Cup, owned by John Moffat) and Robin Hood (another favourite, owned by Etienne de Mestre) being among the 11 horses that were killed.", "Betting on the big race was paralysed.", "To the dismay and anger of the public, bookmakers, showing no feeling, presented a purse (loaded with coins) to the captain as token of their appreciation for his part in saving them many thousands of pounds in bets already laid on the favourites who had perished.", "Perhaps they should have kept their money, however.", "The outsider Briseis comfortably won by 1 length in the biggest field of all time and in an extremely good time, so it is unlikely that the horses who perished could have beaten her.1877 is also the year that the trainer Etienne de Mestre won his fourth Melbourne Cup with Chester owned by Hon.", "James White.", "In 1878, as in previous years, De Mestre fielded more than one horse.", "He entered the favourite Firebell (owned by W.S.", "Cox) who finished last, Chester (owned by Hon.", "James White) the previous year's winner who fell, and Calamia (owned by de Mestre) who, though less fancied, won easily by two lengths.", "First prize was £1,790, the crowd was 80,000 and there were 30 starters.", "De Mestre's 1878 win with Calamia brought to 5 the number of Melbourne Cups he had won.", "This record was not to be matched for nearly 100 years when the trainer Bart Cummings won his fifth Melbourne Cup in 1975.Bart Cummings, regarded as the best Australian horse trainer of all time, went on to win 12 Melbourne Cups to 2008.Martini-Henry, the 1883 Melbourne Cup winnerIn 1883, the hardy New Zealand bred, Martini-Henry won the VRC Derby, the Melbourne Cup and on the following Monday retained his undefeated record by winning Mares' Produce Stakes.Phar Lap winning the Melbourne Cup Race from Second Wind and Shadow King on 5 November 1930Phar Lap, the most famous horse in the world of his day, won the 1930 Melbourne Cup at 11/8 odds on, the shortest-priced favourite in the history of the race.", "He had to be hidden away at Geelong before the race after an attempt was made to shoot him and only emerged an hour before the race time of the Cup.", "Phar Lap also competed in 1929 and 1931, but came 3rd and 8th respectively, despite heavy favouritism in both years.There are a few legends of the first Aboriginal jockey to ride in a Melbourne Cup.", "It was believed to be John Cutts who won the first and second cups in 1861 and 1862 riding archer.", "He was reputedly an Aboriginal stockman born in the area where Archer was trained but was actually John 'Cutts' Dillon, the son of a Sydney clerk, a jockey who rode for many trainers in his long career, and who was one of the best known, best-liked and most respected jockeys in New South Wales.", "It is thought that Peter St Albans was the first Aboriginal jockey to win the cup, on Briseis in 1876.Because St Albans was not quite 13 years old, the jockey was too young to ride in the cup.", "Thus, to allow him to race Briseis in the Cup, it was argued his birthdate and parents were unknown, and from this, the legend of him being Aboriginal grew.", "Both these legends, however, can definitely be disproved, and history had to wait nearly another 100 years.", "The first jockey of Indigenous heritage to ride a Melbourne Cup winner was Frank Reys in 1973 on Gala Supreme, who had a Filipino father and a half-Aboriginal mother.=== Recent years ===The race has undergone several alterations in recent years, the most visible being the entry of many foreign-trained horses.", "Most have failed to cope with the conditions; the three successful \"foreign raids\" include two by Irish trainer Dermot K. Weld successful in 1993 and 2002, and one in 2006 by Katsumi Yoshida of Japan's renowned Yoshida racing and breeding family.", "The attraction for foreigners to compete was, primarily, the low-profile change to the new \"quality handicap\" weighting system.", "The 1910 Melbourne Cup was won by Comedy King, the first foreign bred horse to do so.", "Subsequent foreign-bred horses to win Cup were Backwood, 1924; Phar Lap, 1930; Wotan, 1936; Beldale Ball, 1980; At Talaq, 1986; Kingston Rule, 1990; Vintage Crop, 1993; Jeune, 1994; Media Puzzle, 2002; Makybe Diva, 2003, 2004, 2005; Americain, 2010; and Dunaden, 2011.The 1938 Melbourne Cup was won by trainer Mrs. Allan McDonald, who conditioned Catalogue.", "Mrs McDonald was a successful trainer in New Zealand; however, at the time, women were not allowed to compete as trainers in Australia, so her husband's name was officially recorded as the winning trainer.", "The 2001 edition was won by New Zealand mare Ethereal, trained by Sheila Laxon, the first woman to formally train a Melbourne Cup winner.", "She also won the Caulfield Cup, a 2,400-metre race also held in Melbourne, and therefore has won the \"Cups Double\".Maree Lyndon became the first female to ride in the Melbourne Cup, when she partnered Argonaut Style in 1987, in which she ran second-last place in the 21-horse field.In 2004, Makybe Diva became the first mare to win two cups, and also the first horse to win with different trainers, after David Hall moved to Hong Kong and transferred her to the Lee Freedman stables.The 2005 Melbourne Cup was held before a crowd of 106,479.Makybe Diva made history by becoming the only horse to win the race three times.", "Trainer Lee Freedman said after the race, \"Go and find the youngest child on the course because that's the only person here who will have a chance of seeing this happen again in their lifetime.", "\"Due to the 2007 Australian equine influenza outbreak, believed to have been started by a horse brought into Australia from Japan, neither Delta Blues nor Pop Rock participated in the 2007 Melbourne Cup.", "Both horses had been stabled in Japan.", "Corowa, NSW-trained \"Leica Falcon\" also was not permitted to race in Victoria despite Corowa being close to the Victorian border.", "Leica Falcon was ordained as the new staying star of Australian racing in 2005 when he ran fourth in both the Caulfield Cup and in Makybe Diva's famous third Melbourne Cup victory.", "But serious leg injuries saw the horse not race for another 20 months.", "Efficient, the previous year's VRC Derby winner, won the race.In 2013, Damien Oliver returned from an eight-month ban, after betting against his own mount at a previous race meet, to win his 3rd Melbourne cup.The 2019 Melbourne Cup was overshadowed by recent news of the ill treatment of horses in the Australian racing industry, and by the pulling out of celebrities including Taylor Swift, Megan Gale, and X-Men actress Lana Condor.140-degree panorama of the racecourse" ], [ "The Cup", "In 2016, ABC Bullion, a Pallion company, was awarded the rights to make the Melbourne Cup.", "The winning trophy contains 1.65 kg of 18-carat gold estimated at over $200,000.The cup is produced by W.J.", "Sanders, a sister division within Pallion and takes over 250 hours to produce.", "W. J. Sanders has produced each Melbourne Cup from 2016 to present.===Timeline of notable events===* 1861 – The first Melbourne Cup, won by Archer, was contested by 17 runners.", "A horse bolted prior to the start and three horses fell during the running.", "Two were put down.", "* 1862 – Archer became the first horse to win the race twice.", "* 1863 – The smallest ever Melbourne Cup field of only seven runners contested the race after several horses were scratched in sympathy with Etienne de Mestre's champion Archer being ruled out of the race on a technicality.", "* 1869 – The Victorian Racing Club introduced the four-day Spring Racing Carnival format.", "* 1870 – The race was postponed a week.", "* 1875 – The first time the race was held on the first Tuesday in November.", "* 1876 – The youngest jockey in the history of the race Peter St Albans won on Briseis aged 13 (officially), but actually 12 years 11 months 23 days.", "* 1881 – Jockey John Dodd died as a result of injuries received while riding Suwarrow in the race* 1882 – The first bookmakers were licensed at Flemington.", "* 1888 – The first Gold whip was presented to the winning Cup jockey (Mick O'Brien).", "* 1890 – The largest ever Melbourne Cup field of 39 runners contested the race with the champion Carbine (horse) winning and setting a weight carrying record of 10 st 5 lb (66 kg), which is unlikely to ever be beaten.", "He carried 53 lb (24 kg) more than the second-placed horse Highborn.", "* 1894 – Strand starts were introduced to Flemington.", "* 1896 – ''The Melbourne Cup'' was first filmed.", "This race was won by Newhaven.", "*1915 – First woman owner to win was Mrs E.A.", "Widdis with Patrobas.", "*1916 – The race was postponed until the following Saturday.", "*1925 – The first radio broadcast of the Melbourne Cup was made by the Australian Broadcasting Company.", "*1930 – The legendary Phar Lap won his first Melbourne Cup (after a 3rd placing the previous year), as the shortest priced favourite in history and the only favourite to win at 'odds on' (8/11).", "*1931 – The first year the totalisator operated at the Melbourne Cup.", "The Totalisator Agency Board was introduced in 1961.It was also the last of 3 Melbourne Cups that Phar Lap contested, where the handicappers allotted him 10 st 10 lb (68 kg), the heaviest weight ever carried in the race.", "He only managed to finish 8th behind White Nose.", "*1941 – Skipton would become the final 3yo to win the race.", "At the time 3yo's had won more Melbourne Cups than any other age group, but changes to qualifying conditions resulted in less 3 yo's contesting the race.", "*1942–44 – The Melbourne Cup was run on Saturdays during the war years.", "*1948 – The photo finish camera was first used in Melbourne Cup.", "Rimfire beat Dark Marne.", "However, many on-course punters believe the result should have been reversed, and it was later found that the camera was incorrectly aligned.", "*1958 – The first Cup start from starting stalls.", "*1960 – For the first time the race was televised live to Sydney.", "*1962 – \"Fashions on the Field\" was first held at the Carnival.", "*1971 – For the first time the race was televised live internationally, to New Zealand.", "*1972 – The Melbourne Cup distance was updated to the metric 3,200 metres from the previous imperial distance of 2 miles which meant the race effectively became 18.6 metres shorter.", "The race was won by the George Hanlon trained 40-1 outsider Piping Lane ridden by John Letts and carrying only 48 kg.", "*1978 – For the first time the race was televised live in Victoria, its home state, through ATV-0*1985 – The first sponsored Melbourne Cup, and the first million-dollar Cup, with $650,000 for the winner.", "*1987 – First female jockey to ride in the cup was Maree Lyndon on Argonaut Style.Dunaden: 2011 Melbourne Cup winner, painted by Charles Church*1993 – The Dermot Weld trained Irish gelding Vintage Crop became the first Northern hemisphere trained horse to win the Melbourne Cup and the first Irish horse.", "*2001 – Sheila Laxon was the first woman trainer to officially win the Melbourne Cup.", "However, Mrs. A. McDonald (1938) with Catalogue was really the first woman trainer to win.", "Women then could not be registered as trainers in Australia, and it was her husband who was the registered trainer.", "Mrs. McDonald's win was as a female trainer of a female owned horse.", "*2003 – First Australian female jockey to ride in the cup was Clare Lindop on Debben.", "*2003 – The first Melbourne Cup Tour was conducted around Australia, and the biggest crowd, of 122,736, is recorded at Flemington.", "*2005 – Makybe Diva became the only horse so far to win the Melbourne Cup three times.", "*2008 – The \"Cup King\", Bart Cummings, took his 12th win in the Melbourne Cup with Viewed*2010 – 150th anniversary.", "Americain becomes the first French-trained horse to win the race, and Gerald Mosse the first French jockey.", "*2011 – French based horse Dunaden wins from Red Cadeaux in the closest finish ever.", "*2012 – The first seven finishers in the race were bred in Ireland.", "*2013 – Trainer Gai Waterhouse became the first Australian female trainer to train the winner of the race when Fiorente won.", "Her father, legendary trainer Tommy J. Smith was also a Melbourne Cup Winning trainer (Toparoa in 1955 and Just A Dash in 1981).", "*2014 – Two horses die due to racing in the 2014 Melbourne Cup.", "Cup favourite Admire Rakti, who was carrying the heaviest weight since Think Big (1975), died of heart failure in his stall after the race, and Araldo broke his leg and was euthanised after being spooked by a flag in the crowd after the race.", "*2015 – First woman jockey to win the cup was Michelle Payne on Prince of Penzance who became only the 4th horse to win at odds of 100–1.Red Cadeaux, the only horse to finish 2nd in the race on 3 occasions, and a public favourite, did not finish due to a fetlock injury and was euthanised 2 weeks later.", "*2016 – Lloyd Williams becomes the first owner to have five Melbourne Cup winners and jockey Kerrin McEvoy the jockey with the greatest timespan between his first and second Melbourne Cup winners (16 years between 2000 and 2016) as Almandin wins the cup narrowly over Heartbreak City.", "*2017 – Rekindling (foaled 23 March 2014) becomes the first three-year-old to win the Melbourne Cup since Skipton in 1941, however, was classed a four-year-old in the southern hemisphere.", "*2018 – Cross Counter, a four-year-old gelding (male) ridden by jockey Kerrin McEvoy and trained by Charlie Appleby from Great Britain wins.", "The CliffsofMoher was euthanised after it suffered a fractured right shoulder and couldn't be saved.", "*2021 – Verry Elleegant becomes the first horse in 161 runnings of the Melbourne Cup to win from barrier 18.Michelle Payne, was the first woman jockey to win the Melbourne Cup===Public holiday===Melbourne Cup day is a public holiday for all working within metropolitan Melbourne and some parts of regional Victoria, but not for some country Victorian cities and towns which hold their own spring carnivals.", "For federal public servants it is also observed as a holiday in the entire state of Victoria, and from 2007 to 2009 also in the Australian Capital Territory known as Family and Community Day replacing Picnic Day.", "The Melbourne cup captures the public's imagination to the extent that people, whether at work, home, school, or out and about, usually stop to watch or listen to the race.", "Many people from outside of Melbourne take a half or full day off work to celebrate the occasion.", "Many people feel that the day should be a national public holiday as sick leave is said to increase on the day and productivity wanes.As early as 1865, Cup Day was a half-holiday in Melbourne for public servants and bank officials.", "Various businesses also closed at lunchtime.It took some years before the purpose of the declared holiday was acknowledged in the Victoria Government Gazette.", "The Gazette of 31 October 1873 announced that the following Thursday (Cup Day) be observed as a bank and civil (public) service holiday.Horse Makybe Diva won three Melbourne Cups" ], [ "Results and records", "===Most wins by a horse===" ], [ "Results and records", "===Most wins by a horse===*3 – Makybe Diva (2003, 2004, 2005)*2 – Think Big (1974, 1975)*2 – Rain Lover (1968, 1969)*2 – Peter Pan (1932, 1934)*2 – Archer (1861, 1862)===Most wins by a jockey===*4 – Bobbie Lewis (1902, 1915, 1919, 1927)*4 – Harry White (1974, 1975, 1978, 1979)*3 – Glen Boss (2003, 2004, 2005)*3 – Jim Johnson (1963, 1968, 1969)*3 – Kerrin McEvoy (2000, 2016, 2018)*3 – William H. McLachlan (1909, 1910, 1917)*3 – Darby Munro (1934, 1944, 1946)*3 – Damien Oliver (1995, 2002, 2013)*3 – Jack Purtell (1947, 1953, 1954)===Most wins by a trainer===*12 – Bart Cummings (1965, 1966, 1967, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1990, 1991, 1996, 1999, 2008)*5 – Etienne de Mestre (1861, 1862, 1867, 1877, 1878)*5 – Lee Freedman (1989, 1992, 1995, 2004, 2005)===Most wins by an owner===*7 – Lloyd Williams (1981, 1985, 2007, 2012, 2016, 2017, 2020)*4 – John Tait (1866, 1868, 1871, 1872)*4 – Etienne de Mestre (1861*, 1862*, 1867*, 1878) *The winners of these years were leased.", "*4 – Dato Tan Chin Nam (1974, 1975, 1996, 2008)===Other records===*'''First woman winning jockey''' – Michelle Payne (2015)*'''Record winning time''' – 3.16.30 Kingston Rule (1990)*'''Widest winning margin''' – 8 lengths by Archer in 1862 and Rain Lover in 1968.", "*'''Heaviest weight carried by winner''' – Carbine in 1890 with Makybe Diva holds the record for a mare with 58 kg in 2005.The horse to carry the heaviest weight of all time was Phar Lap (10 stone 10 pounds, or 68 kg) in 1931 when he ran 8th.", "*'''Lightest weight carried by winner''' – Banker in 1863 with .", "*'''Longest odds winners''' – Four horses have won at 100–1 : The Pearl (1871), Wotan (1936), Old Rowley (1940), and Prince of Penzance (2015).", "*'''Shortest odds winner''' – Phar Lap at 8/11 in 1930.", "*'''Favourites record''' – 34 of 150 favourites (23%) have won the Melbourne Cup.", "*'''Most runners''' – 39 (1890)*'''Fewest runners''' – 7 (1863)*'''Most attempts''' – Shadow King made six attempts to win the cup in seven years between 1929 and 1935.He ran 6th, 3rd, 2nd, 3rd, 2nd, and 4th.", "*'''Oldest winner''' — 8yo, Toryboy in 1865, Catalogue in 1938 & Twilight Payment in 2020." ], [ "Attendance", "The horse show as well as fashion show of Melbourne Cup takes place on the lawnThe event is one of the most popular spectator events in Australia, with sometimes over 110,000 people in attendance, some dressed in traditional formal raceday wear and others in all manner of exotic and amusing costumes, attending the race.", "The record crowd was 122,736 in 2003.The 1926 running of the Cup was the first time the 100,000 mark had been passed.", "Today the record at Flemington is held by the 2006 Victoria Derby when almost 130,000 attended.In 2007, a limit was placed on the Spring Carnival attendance at Flemington Racecourse, and race-goers are now required to pre-purchase tickets.", "Every year more and more people travel to Flemington Racecourse; in 2016, there was a 7.8 per cent increase in the number of out-of-state individuals (80,472) attending the Melbourne Cup Carnival.The popularity of the Melbourne Cup has been declining in recent years; every Melbourne Cup after 2015 since has seen a decline in attendance, with the 2019 Melbourne Cup's crowd of 81,408 the race's smallest in decades.", "*2023 – 84,492 *2022 – 73,816*2021 – 10,000 (attendance restricted due to the COVID-19 pandemic)*2020 – 0 (due to the COVID-19 pandemic, general public and owners were not allowed to enter Flemington Racecourse)*2019 – 81,408 (lowest crowd on Melbourne Cup Day since 1995).", "*2018 – 83,471*2017 – 90,536*2016 – 97,479*2015 – 101,015*2014 – 100,794*2013 – 104,169*2012 – 106,162*2011 – 105,979*2010 – 110,223*2009 – 102,161*2008 – 107,280*2007 – 102,411*2006 – 106,691*2005 – 106,479*2004 – 98,161*2003 – 122,736 (record)*2002 – 102,533*2001 – 92,477*2000 – 121,015*1999 – 104,028*1998 – 100,607*1997 – 94,143*1996 – 90,149*1995 – 74,843*1994 – 81,650*1993 – 74,766*1992 – 86,206*1991 – 94,632*1990 – 92,536*1989 – 96,722*1988 – 93,440*1987 – 81,012*1986 – 87,129*1985 – 79,126*1984 – 82,740*1983 – 80,776*1982 – 91,152*1981 – 87,641*1980 – 101,261" ], [ "Television broadcast", "+ Australian free-to-air metropolitan television viewers since 2002YearMetro ViewersNetwork2002 2.503 million 4 Seven Network2003 2.244 million 102004 2.471 million 52005 2.506 million 62006 2.272 million 122007 2.191 million 82008 2.272 million 42009 2.673 million 42010 2.707 million 5 2011 2.667 million 62012 2.767 million 82013 2.310 million 102014 2.178 million 152015 2.130 million 102016 2.066 million 102017 1.824 million 152018 1.908 million 92019 1.441 million 15 Network 10 2020 1.412 million 14 2021 1.213 million 44 2022 1.024 million 2023 1.110 million TBA 2024TBATBANine Network" ], [ "Spring \"Fashions on the Field\"", "Finalists in ''Fashions on the Field'' at the 2013 raceABC news report on Jean Shrimpton's visit to the Melbourne Cup'Fashions on the Field' is a major focus of the day, with substantial prizes awarded for the best-dressed man and woman.", "The requirement for elegant hats, and more recently the alternative of a fascinator, almost single-handedly keeps Melbourne's milliners in business.", "Raceday fashion has occasionally drawn almost as much attention as the race itself.", "The miniskirt received worldwide publicity when model Jean Shrimpton wore a white shift version of one on Derby Day during Melbourne Cup week in 1965.Flowers, especially roses, are an important component of the week's racing at Flemington.", "The racecourse has around 12,000 roses within its large expanse.", "Over 200 varieties of the fragrant flower are nurtured by a team of up to 12 gardeners.", "Each of the major racedays at Flemington has an official flower.", "Victoria Derby Day has the Corn Flower, Melbourne Cup Day is for the Yellow Rose, Oaks Day highlights the Pink Rose, and Stakes Day goes to the Red Rose.In the Melbourne metropolitan area, the race day has been a gazetted public holiday since 1877, but around both Australia and New Zealand a majority of people watch the race on television and gamble, either through direct betting or participating in workplace cup \"sweeps\".", "In 2000, a betting agency claimed that 80 percent of the adult Australian population placed a bet on the race that year.", "In 2010 it was predicted that $183 million would be spent by 83,000 tourists during the Spring Racing Carnival.", "In New Zealand, the Melbourne Cup is the country's single biggest betting event, with carnival race-days held at several of the country's top tracks showing the cup live on big screens.It is commonly billed as ''The race that stops a nation'', but it is more accurately ''The race that stops two nations'', as many people in New Zealand, as well as Australia, pause to watch the race.", "*\"The Race That Stops The Nation\" is a poem about Australia's fascination with the Melbourne Cup.", "Sydney born writer Vivienne McCredie wrote it in 1986.It was read out on an evening poetry radio program run by Kel Richards at the time and later published (2005 ).", "Copies are in the State Library of NSW and the National Library of Australia." ], [ "See also", "*List of Melbourne Cup placings*List of Melbourne Cup winners*''Melbourne Cup Challenge'' / ''Frankie Dettori Racing'' video game*Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival*Thoroughbred racing in Australia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", "* Official Melbourne Cup Carnival website* Melbourne Cup Prize Money* Melbourne Cup Results Since 1861* Melbourne Cup Jockey Silks footyjumpers.com* Melbourne Cup 2022* Melbourne Cup Winners* Melbourne Cup Exemption Races* Flemington on Cup Day from the National Museum of Australia* New Zealand and the Melbourne Cup (NZHistory.net.nz)* The Melbourne Cup Research Guide* Melbourne Cup Highlights*Recordings of Ken Howard calling the 1941 and 1952 Melbourne Cup were added to the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia's Sounds of Australia registry in 2011.", "* Early silent films of the 1896 Melbourne Cup race provided by Australian Screen Online" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet''' is a rocket-powered interceptor aircraft primarily designed and produced by the German aircraft manufacturer Messerschmitt.", "It is the only operational rocket-powered fighter aircraft in history as well as the first piloted aircraft of any type to exceed in level flight.Development of what would become the Me 163 can be traced back to 1937 and the work of the German aeronautical engineer Alexander Lippisch and the ''Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug'' (DFS).", "Initially an experimental programme that drew upon traditional glider designs while integrating various new innovations such as the rocket engine, the development ran into organisational issues until Lippisch and his team were transferred to Messerschmitt in January 1939.Plans for a propeller-powered intermediary aircraft were quickly dropped in favour of proceeding directly to rocket propulsion.", "On 1 September 1941, the prototype performed its maiden flight, quickly demonstrating its unprecedented performance and the qualities of its design.", "Having been suitably impressed, German officials quickly enacted plans that aimed for the widespread introduction of Me 163 point-defence interceptors across Germany.", "During December 1941, work began on the upgraded ''Me 163B'', which was optimized for large-scale production.During early July 1944, German test pilot Heini Dittmar reached , an unofficial flight airspeed record that remained unmatched by turbojet-powered aircraft until 1953.That same year, the Me 163 began flying operational missions, being typically used to defend against incoming enemy bombing raids.", "As part of their alliance with Empire of Japan, Germany provided design schematics and a single Me 163 to the country; this led to the development of the Mitsubishi J8M.", "By the end of the conflict, roughly 370 Komets had been completed, most of which were being used operationally.", "Some of the aircraft's shortcomings were never addressed, and it was less effective in combat than predicted.", "Capable of a maximum of 7.5 minutes of powered flight, its range fell short of projections and greatly limited its potential.", "Efforts to improve the aircraft were made (most notably the development of the Messerschmitt Me 263), but many of these did not see actual combat due to the sustained advancement of the Allied powers into Germany in 1945.After being introduced into service the Me 163 was credited with the destruction of between nine and 18 Allied aircraft against ten losses.", "Aside from the actual combat losses incurred, numerous Me 163 pilots had been killed during testing and training flights.", "This high loss rate was, at least partially, a result of the later models' use of rocket propellant, which was not only highly volatile but also corrosive and hazardous to humans.", "One noteworthy fatality was that of Josef Pöhs, a German fighter ace and ''Oberleutnant'' in the ''Luftwaffe'', who was killed in 1943 through exposure to ''T-Stoff'' in combination with injuries sustained during a failed takeoff that ruptured a fuel line.", "Besides Nazi Germany, no nation ever made operational use of the Me 163; the only other operational rocket-powered aircraft was the Japanese Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka which was a manned flying bomb." ], [ "Development", "===Early work by Alexander Lippisch===Replica of Opel RAK's Lippisch Ente in ''Deutsches Segelflugmuseum'' as the world's first rocket-powered gliderThe world's first manned rocket flights were performed by the German vehicle manufacturer Opel RAK.", "The first flight of such an aircraft, a rocket-modified glider designed by Alexander Lippisch, took place at Wasserkuppe Mountain on 11 June 1928.Two black powder rockets, designed by Friedrich Wilhelm Sander, were fitted to the aircraft’s rear.", "Due to the use of a forward canard arrangement, Lippisch named the glider \"Ente\", German for duck.", "After a failed first attempt, one rocket finally ignited as intended and the Ente lifted off, test pilot Fritz Stamer flying it for 4,900 feet before making a controlled landing.", "Another flight using both rockets did not go as planned, as one of the two rockets exploded; the damaged aircraft took off due to the active intact rocket, but the control surfaces did not work and much of it aflame, Stamer barely survived while fire destroyed the Ente.After the Ente's loss, Fritz von Opel commissioned a dedicated rocket plane, the Opel RAK.1.It was designed by Julius Hatry, another early Wasserkuppe pioneer, and also equipped with Friedrich Sander's Opel RAK rockets.", "The first public flight of a rocket plane took place in Frankfurt on 30 September 1929.Lippisch also continued his independent design work over the following decades, and in particular using rocketry, leading eventually to the Me 163.===Background===Development of the Me 163HWK 109-509A enginePosition of the Walter HWK 109-509A-1 rocket motorDuring 1937, work on what would become the Me 163 commenced, the initial work was conducted under the aegis of the ''Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug'' (DFS)—the German Institute for the study of sailplane flight.", "Their first design was a conversion of the earlier Lippisch Delta IV known as the '''DFS 39''' and used purely as a glider testbed of the airframe.", "A larger follow-on version with a small propeller engine started as the DFS 194.This version used wingtip-mounted rudders that Lippisch felt would cause problems at high speed.", "Lippisch changed the system of vertical stabilization for the DFS 194's airframe from the earlier DFS 39's wingtip rudders, to a conventional vertical stabilizer at the rear of the aircraft.", "The design included a number of features from its origins as a glider, notably a skid used for landings, which could be retracted into the aircraft's keel in flight.", "For takeoff, a pair of wheels, each mounted onto the ends of a specially designed cross-axle, were needed due to the weight of the fuel, but the wheels, forming a takeoff dolly under the landing skid, were released shortly after takeoff.The designers planned to use the forthcoming Walter R-1-203 ''cold engine'' of thrust, which like the self-contained Walter HWK 109-500 ''Starthilfe'' RATO booster rocket unit, used a monopropellant consisting of stabilized HTP known by the name T-Stoff.", "Heinkel had also been working with Hellmuth Walter on his rocket engines, mounting them in the He 112R's tail for testing – this was done in competition with Wernher von Braun's bi-propellant, alcohol/LOX-fed rocket motors, also with the He 112 as a test airframe – and with the Walter catalyzed HTP propulsion format for the first purpose-designed, liquid-fueled rocket aircraft, the He 176.Heinkel had also been selected to produce the fuselage for the DFS 194 when it entered production, as it was felt that the monopropellant fuel's high reactivity with organic matter would be too dangerous in a wooden fuselage structure.", "Work continued under the code name ''Projekt X''.The division of work between DFS and Heinkel led to problems, notably that DFS seemed incapable of building even a prototype fuselage.", "Lippisch eventually asked to leave DFS and join Messerschmitt instead.", "On 2 January 1939, Lippisch moved with his team and the partly completed DFS 194 to the Messerschmitt works at Augsburg.", "The delays caused by this move allowed the engine development to catch up.", "Once at Messerschmitt, the team decided to abandon the propeller-powered version and move directly to rocket-power.", "The airframe was completed in Augsburg and in early 1940 was shipped to receive its engine at Peenemünde-West, one of the quartet of ''Erprobungsstelle''-designated military aviation test facilities of the Reich.", "Although the engine proved to be extremely unreliable, the aircraft had excellent performance, reaching a speed of in one test.It is important to note that the wing sweep incorporated in the design stemmed from its tailless nature and the need to balance Centre of Gravity and Centre of Lift positions for stability purposes.", "It is not possible for a straight winged tailless aircraft to fly, unless it uses a rear mounted wing and a forward canard arrangement for stability and pitch control.", "The sweep in both the Me-163 and ME-262 stemmed from these CofG and CofL issues (heavier than planned engines in the case of the ME-262) not from high speed aerodynamic requirements.In the Me 163B and -C subtypes, a ram-air turbine was installed on the extreme nose of the fuselage that, along with a backup lead–acid battery inside the fuselage that it charged, provided electrical power for various pieces of onboard equipment.", "Such apparatus included the radio, reflector gunsight (either Revi16B, -C, or -D), direction finder, compass, firing circuits for the twin cannons, as well as some of the lighting for the cockpit instrumentation.", "Due to the limited capacity of the battery, the fitting of an electrical generator had been necessary.The airspeed indicator averaged readings from two sources: the pitot tube on the leading edge of the port wing, and a small pitot inlet in the nose, just above the top edge of the underskid channel.", "There was a further tapping-off of pressure-ducted air from the pitot tube which also provided the rate of climb indicator with its source.The resistance group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier (later executed) had contacts with the Heinkelwerke in Jenbach in Tyrol, where important components for the Me 163 were also produced.", "The group supplied location sketches of the production facilities to the Allies, thus greatly aiding Allied bombers in carrying out targeted air strikes against them.===Me 163A===The Me 163A V4 (first prototype) in 1941In early 1941, production of a prototype series, known as the ''Me 163'', began.", "Secrecy was such that the RLM's \"GL/C\" airframe number, ''8-163'', was actually that of the earlier Messerschmitt Bf 163.Three Bf 163-prototypes (V1 to V3) had been built, and it was thought that foreign intelligence services would conclude any reference to the number \"163\" was for that earlier design.", "During May 1941, the first prototype '''Me 163A''', V4, was shipped to Peenemünde to receive the HWK RII-203 engine.", "By 2 October 1941, Me 163A V4, bearing the radio call sign letters, or ''Stammkennzeichen'', \"KE+SW\", set a new world speed record of , piloted by Heini Dittmar, with no apparent damage to the aircraft during the attempt.", "Some postwar aviation history publications stated that the Me 163A V3 was thought to have set the record.", "The record figure would not be officially surpassed until after the war, specifically by the American Douglas D-558-1 on 20 August 1947.Ten Me 163As (V4-V13) were built for pilot training and further tests, these were unarmed.jettisonable main gear \"dolly\" unitUse of the \"Scheuch-Schlepper\" before an Me 163B's flight (above) and after (below)During testing of the prototype (A-series) aircraft, the jettisonable undercarriage presented a serious problem.", "The original dollies possessed well-sprung independent suspension for each wheel, and as the aircraft took off, the large springs rebounded and threw the dolly upward, striking the aircraft.", "In comparison, the production (B-series) aircraft used much simpler, crossbeam-axled dollies, and relied on the landing skid's oleo-pneumatic strut to absorb ground-running impacts during the takeoff run, as well as to absorb the shock of landing.", "If the hydraulic cylinder was malfunctioning, or the skid mistakenly left during a landing procedure in the \"locked and lowered\" position (as it had to be for takeoff), the impact of a hard touchdown on the skid could cause back injuries to the pilot.Once on the ground, the aircraft had to be retrieved by a ''Scheuch-Schlepper'', a converted small agricultural vehicle, originally based on the concept of the two-wheel tractor, carrying a detachable third swiveling wheel at the extreme rear of its design for stability in normal use—this swiveling third wheel was replaced with a pivoting, special retrieval trailer that rolled on a pair of short, triple-wheeled continuous track setups (one per side) for military service wherever the ''Komet'' was based.", "This retrieval trailer usually possessed twin trailing lifting arms, that lifted the stationary aircraft off the ground from under each wing whenever it was not already on its twin-wheel dolly main gear, as when the aircraft had landed on its ventral skid and tailwheel after a mission.", "Another form of trailer, known also to have been trialled with the later B-series examples, was tried during the ''Komet''s test phase, which used a pair of sausage-shaped air bags in place of the lifting arms and could also be towed by the ''Scheuch-Schlepper'' tractor, inflating the air bags to lift the aircraft.", "The three-wheeled ''Scheuch-Schlepper'' tractor used for the task was originally meant for farm use, but such a vehicle with a specialized trailer—which could also lift the Me 163's airframe completely clear of the ground to effect the recovery as a normal part of the Me 163's intended use—was required as the ''Komet'' was unpowered after exhausting its rocket propellants, and lacked main wheels after landing, from the jettisoning of its \"dolly\" main gear at takeoff.During flight testing, the superior gliding capability of the ''Komet'' proved detrimental to safe landing.", "As the now un-powered aircraft completed its final descent, it could rise back into the air with the slightest updraft.", "Since the approach was unpowered, there was no opportunity to make another landing pass.", "For production models, a set of landing flaps allowed somewhat more controlled landings.", "This issue remained a problem throughout the program.", "Nevertheless, the overall performance was tremendous, and plans were made to put Me 163 squadrons all over Germany in around any potential target.", "However, while the development of an operational version was encouraged, the Me 163 programme was not assigned the highest priority due to competition from other projects; this lack of focus protracted its development.===Me 163B===Me 163 B-1a at the National Museum of Flight in ScotlandIn December 1941, work on an upgraded design began.", "A simplified construction format for the airframe was deemed necessary, as the Me 163A version was not truly optimized for large-scale production.", "The result was the '''Me 163B''' subtype that had the desired, more mass-producible fuselage, wing panel, retractable landing skid and tailwheel designs with the previously mentioned unsprung dolly takeoff gear, and a generally one-piece conical nose for the forward fuselage which could incorporate a turbine for supplementary electrical power while in flight, as well as a one-piece, perimeter frame-only hinged canopy for ease of production.Landing skid of a Messerschmitt Me 163B shown extended for takeoff, with the take-off dolly attached.Meanwhile, Walter had started work on the newer HWK 109-509 bipropellant ''hot engine'', which added a true fuel of hydrazine hydrate and methanol, designated ''C-Stoff'', that burned with the oxygen-rich exhaust from the T-Stoff, used as the oxidizer, for added thrust (see: List of Stoffs).", "The new powerplant and numerous detail design changes meant to simplify production over the general A-series airframe design resulted in the significantly modified '''Me 163B''' of late 1941.Due to the ''Reichsluftfahrtministerium'' requirement that it should be possible to throttle the engine, the original power plant grew complicated and lost reliability.The fuel system was particularly troublesome, as leaks incurred during hard landings easily caused fires and explosions.", "Metal fuel lines and fittings, which failed in unpredictable ways, were used as this was the best technology available.", "Both fuel and oxidizer were toxic and required extreme care when loading in the aircraft, yet there were occasions when ''Komets'' exploded on the tarmac from the propellants' hypergolic nature.", "Both propellants were clear fluids, and different tanker trucks were used for delivering each propellant to a particular ''Komet'' aircraft, usually the ''C-Stoff'' hydrazine/methanol-base fuel first.", "For safety purposes, the truck left the immediate area of the aircraft following its delivery and capping off of the ''Komet''s fuel tanks from a rear located dorsal fuselage filling point just ahead of the ''Komet''s vertical stabilizer.", "Then, the other tanker truck carrying the very reactive T-Stoff hydrogen peroxide oxidizer would deliver its load through a different filling point on the ''Komet''s dorsal fuselage surface, located not far behind the rear edge of the canopy.The corrosive nature of the liquids, especially for the T-Stoff oxidizer, required special protective gear for the pilots.", "To help prevent explosions, the engine and the propellant storage and delivery systems were frequently and thoroughly hosed down and flushed with water run through the propellant tanks and the rocket engine's propellant systems before and after flights, to clean out any remnants.", "The relative \"closeness\" to the pilot of some 120 litres (31.7 US gal) of the chemically active T-Stoff oxidizer, split between two auxiliary oxidizer tanks of equal volume to either side within the lower flanks of the cockpit area—besides the main oxidizer tank of some 1,040-litre (275 US gal) volume just behind the cockpit's rear wall, could present a serious or even fatal hazard to a pilot in a fuel-caused mishap.Two prototypes were followed by 30 '''Me 163 B-0''' pre-production aircraft armed with two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon and some 400 '''Me 163 B-1''' production aircraft armed with two 30 mm (1.18-inch) MK 108 cannons, but which were otherwise similar to the B-0.Early in the war, when German aircraft firms created versions of their aircraft for export purposes, the '''a''' was added to export (''ausland'') variants (B-1a) or to foreign-built variants (Ba-1) but for the Me 163, there were neither export nor a foreign-built version.", "Later in the war, the \"a\" and successive letters were used for aircraft using different engine types: as Me 262 A-1a with Jumo engines, Me 262 A-1b with BMW engines.", "As the Me 163 was planned with an alternative BMW P3330A rocket engine, it is likely the \"a\" was used for this purpose on early examples.", "Only one Me 163, the V10, was tested with the BMW engine, so this designation suffix was soon dropped.", "The Me 163 B-1a did not have any wingtip \"washout\" built into it, and as a result, it had a much higher critical Mach number than the Me 163 B-1.The Me 163B had very docile landing characteristics, mostly due to its integrated leading edge slots, located directly forward of the elevon control surfaces, and just behind and at the same angle as the wing's leading edge.", "It would neither stall nor spin.", "One could fly the ''Komet'' with the stick full back, and have it in a turn and then use the rudder to take it out of the turn, and not fear it snapping into a spin.", "It would also slip well.", "Because the Me 163B's airframe design was derived from glider design concepts, it had excellent gliding qualities, and the tendency to continue flying above the ground due to ground effect.", "On the other hand, making a too close turn from base onto final, the sink rate would increase, and one could quickly lose altitude and come in short.", "Another main difference from a propeller-driven aircraft is that there was no slipstream over the rudder.", "On takeoff, one had to attain the speed at which the aerodynamic controls become effective—about —and that was always a critical factor.", "Pilots accustomed to flying propeller-driven aircraft had to be careful that the control stick was not somewhere in the corner when the control surfaces began working.", "These, like many other specific Me 163 problems, would be resolved by specific training.The performance of the Me 163 far exceeded that of contemporary piston engine fighters.", "At a speed of over the aircraft would take off, in a so-called ''scharfer Start'' (\"sharp start\", with \"Start\" being the German word for \"take-off\") from the ground, from its two-wheeled dolly.", "The aircraft would be kept at level flight at low altitude until the best climbing speed of around was reached, at which point it would jettison the dolly, retract its extendable skid using a knob-topped release lever just forward of the throttle (as both levers were located atop the cockpit's portside 120-litre T-Stoff oxidizer tank) that engaged the aforementioned pneumatic cylinder, and then pull up into a 70° angle of climb, to a bomber's altitude.", "It could go higher if required, reaching in an unheard-of three minutes.", "Once there, it would level off and quickly accelerate to around or faster, which no Allied fighter could match.", "The usable Mach number was similar to that of the Me 262, but because of the high thrust-to-drag ratio, it was much easier for the pilot to lose track of the onset of severe compressibility and risk loss of control.", "A Mach warning system was installed as a result.", "The aircraft was remarkably agile and docile to fly at high speed.", "According to Rudolf Opitz, chief test pilot of the Me 163, it could \"fly circles around any other fighter of its time\".By this point, Messerschmitt was completely overloaded with production of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and attempts to bring the Me 210 into service.", "Production in a dispersed network was handed over to Klemm, but quality control problems were such that the work was later given to Junkers, who were, at that time, underworked.", "As with many German designs of World War II's later years, parts of the airframe (especially the wings) were made of wood by furniture manufacturers.", "The older Me 163A and first Me 163B prototypes were used for training.", "It was planned to introduce the '''Me 163S''', which removed the rocket engine and tank capacity and placed a second seat for the instructor above and behind the pilot, with his own canopy.", "The Me 163S would be used for glider landing training, which as explained above, was essential to operate the Me 163.It appears that the Me 163S was produced via the conversion of the earlier Me 163B series prototypes.In service, the Me 163 turned out to be difficult to use against enemy aircraft.", "Its tremendous speed and climb rate meant a target was reached and passed in a matter of seconds.", "Although the Me 163 was a stable gun platform, it required excellent marksmanship to bring down an enemy bomber.", "The ''Komet'' was equipped with two 30 mm (1.18 inch) MK 108 cannons that had a relatively low muzzle velocity of 540 meters per second (1,772 feet/sec), and were accurate only at short range, making it almost impossible to hit a slow moving bomber.", "Four or five hits were typically needed to take down a B-17.Innovative methods were employed to help pilots achieve kills.", "The most promising was a weapon called the ''Sondergerät 500 Jägerfaust''.", "This included 10 single-shot, short-barreled 50 mm (2-inch) guns pointing upwards, similar to ''Schräge Musik''.", "Five were mounted in the wing roots on each side of the aircraft.", "A photocell in the upper surface of the ''Komet'' triggered the weapons by detecting the change in brightness when the aircraft flew under a bomber.", "As each shell shot upwards, the disposable gun barrel that fired it was ejected downwards, thus making the weapon recoilless.", "It appears that this weapon was used in combat only once, resulting in the destruction of a Lancaster bomber on 10 April 1945.===Later versions===A preserved HWK 109-509B \"cruiser\" twin-chamber rocket motor (National Museum of the United States Air Force)Model of the Me 163CModel of the unbuilt Me 163D, erroneously marked with the Me 163B V18's markings for this airframe designThe biggest concern about the design was the short flight time, which never met the projections made by Walter.", "Being capable of a maximum of seven and a half minutes of powered flight - which was only roughly 25% of the 30-minute combat time that the \"light-class\" Heinkel He 162A ''Spatz'' single-BMW 003 jet fighter possessed, when the Komet entered combat in April 1945; the solely rocket-powered Me 163B fighter truly was a dedicated point defense interceptor.", "To improve this, the Walter firm began developing two more advanced versions of the 509A rocket engine, the 509B and C, each with two separate combustion chambers of differing sizes, one above the other, for greater efficiency.", "The B-version possessed a main combustion chamber—usually termed in German as a ''Hauptofen'' on these dual-chamber subtypes—with an exterior shape much like that on the single chamber 509A version, with the C-version having a forward chamber shape of a more cylindrical nature, designed for a higher top thrust level of some 2,000 kg (4,410 lb) of thrust, while simultaneously dropping the use of the cubic-shape frame for the forward engine propellant flow/turbopump mechanisms as used by the earlier -A and -B versions.", "The 509B and 509C rocket motors' main combustion chambers were supported by the thrust tube exactly as the 509A motor's single chamber had been.", "They were tuned for high power for takeoff and climb.", "The added, smaller volume lower chamber on the two later models, nicknamed the ''Marschofen'' with approximately of thrust at its top performance level, was intended for more efficient, lower power cruise flight.", "These HWK 109–509B and C motors would improve endurance by as much as 50%.", "Two 163 Bs, models V6 and V18, were experimentally fitted with the lower-thrust B-version of the new twin-chamber engine (mandating twin combustion chamber pressure gauges on the instrument panel of any ''Komet'' equipped with them), a retractable tailwheel, and tested in spring 1944.The main ''Hauptofen'' combustion chamber of the 509B engine used for the B V6 and V18 occupied the same location as the A-series' engine did, with the lower ''Marschofen'' cruise chamber housed within the retractable tailwheel's appropriately widened ventral tail fairing.", "On 6 July 1944, the Me 163B V18 (VA+SP), like the B V6 basically a standard production Me 163B airframe outfitted with the new, twin-chamber \"cruiser\" rocket motor with the aforementioned airframe modifications beneath the original rocket motor orifice to accept the extra combustion chamber, set a new unofficial world speed record of , piloted by Heini Dittmar, and landed with almost all of the vertical rudder surface broken away from flutter.", "This record was not broken in terms of absolute speed until 6 November 1947 by Chuck Yeager in flight number 58 that was part of the Bell X-1 test program, with a , or Mach 1.35 supersonic speed, recorded at an altitude of nearly .", "However, it is unclear if Dittmar's flight achieved sufficient altitude for its speed to be considered supersonic, as the X-1 did.The X-1 never exceeded Dittmar's speed from a normal runway ''scharfer Start'' liftoff.", "Heini Dittmar had reached the performance, after a normal \"hot start\" ground takeoff, without an air drop from a mother ship.", "Neville Duke exceeded Heini Dittmar's record mark roughly years after Yeager's achievement (and some 263 km/h short of it) on 31 August 1953 with the Hawker Hunter F Mk3 at a speed of , after a normal ground start.", "Postwar experimental aircraft of the aerodynamic configuration that the Me 163 used, were found to have serious stability problems when entering transonic flight, like the similarly configured, and turbojet powered, Northrop X-4 Bantam and de Havilland DH 108, which made the V18's record with the Walter 509B \"cruiser\" rocket motor more remarkable.Waldemar Voigt of Messerschmitt's ''Oberammergau'' project and development offices started a redesign of the 163 to incorporate the new twin-chamber Walter rocket engine, as well as fix other problems.", "The resulting '''Me 163C''' design featured a larger wing through the addition of an insert at the wing root, an extended fuselage with extra tank capacity through the addition of a plug insert behind the wing, a ventral fairing whose aft section possessed a retractable tailwheel design closely resembling that pioneered on the Me 163B V6, and a new pressurized cockpit topped with a bubble canopy for improved visibility, on a fuselage that had dispensed with the earlier B-version's dorsal fairing.", "The additional tank capacity and cockpit pressurization allowed the maximum altitude to increase to , as well as improving powered time to about 12 minutes, almost doubling combat time (from about five minutes to nine).", "Three '''Me 163 C-1a''' prototypes were planned, but it appears only one was flown, but without its intended engine.By this time the project was moved to Junkers.", "There, a new design effort under the direction of Heinrich Hertel at Dessau attempted to improve the ''Komet''.", "The Hertel team had to compete with the Lippisch team and their Me 163C.", "Hertel investigated the Me 163 and found it was not well suited for mass production and not optimized as a fighter aircraft, with the most glaring deficiency being the lack of retractable landing gear.", "To accommodate this, what would eventually become the Me 263 V1 prototype would be fitted with the desired tricycle gear, also accommodating the twin-chamber Walter rocket from the start—later it was assigned to the Ju 248 program.The resulting ''Junkers Ju 248'' used a three-section fuselage to ease construction.", "The V1 prototype was completed for testing in August 1944, and was glider-tested behind a Junkers Ju 188.Some sources state that the Walter 109–509C engine was fitted in September, but it was probably never tested under power.", "At this point the RLM reassigned the project to Messerschmitt, where it became the Messerschmitt Me 263.This appears to have been a formality only, with Junkers continuing the work and planning production.", "By the time the design was ready to go into production, the plant where it was to be built was overrun by Soviet forces.", "While it did not reach operational status, the work was briefly continued by the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich (MiG) design bureau as the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-270." ], [ "Operational history", "A Me 163 being shot down, as seen from USAAF P-47 gun cameraThe initial test deployment of the Me 163A, to acquaint prospective pilots with the world's first rocket-powered fighter, occurred with ''Erprobungskommando 16'' (Service Test Unit 16, EK 16), led by ''Major'' Wolfgang Späte and first established in late 1942, receiving their eight A-model service test aircraft by July 1943.Their initial base was as the ''Erprobungsstelle'' (test facility) at the Peenemünde-West field.", "They departed permanently the day after an RAF bombing raid on the area on 17 August 1943, moving southwards, to the base at Anklam, near the Baltic coast.", "Their stay was brief, as a few weeks later they were placed in northwest Germany, based at the military airfield at Bad Zwischenahn from August 1943 to August 1944.EK 16 received their first B-series armed Komets in January 1944, and was ready for action by May while at Bad Zwischenahn.", "''Major'' Späte flew the first-ever Me 163B combat sortie on 13 May 1944 from the Bad Zwischenahn base, with the Me 163B armed prototype (V41), bearing the ''Stammkennzeichen'' PK+QL.As EK 16 commenced small-scale combat operations with the Me 163B in May 1944, the Me 163B's unsurpassed velocity was something Allied fighter pilots were at a loss to counter.", "The ''Komets'' attacked singly or in pairs, often even faster than the intercepting fighters could dive.", "A typical Me 163 tactic was to fly vertically upward through the bombers at , climb to , then dive through the formation again, firing as they went.", "This approach afforded the pilot two brief chances to fire a few rounds from his cannons before gliding back to his airfield.", "The pilots reported it was possible to make four passes on a bomber, but only if it was flying alone.", "According to the historian Mano Ziegler, German officials were allegedly considering using the Me 163 to directly ram into enemy aircraft in suicide attacks; this desperate tactic was never actually used.", "During early 1944, routine aerial reconnaissance flights over German aerodromes had made the Allies aware of the existence of the Me 163.Glider pilots were the preferred trainees, using the ''Stummelhabicht'', with a wingspan, to mimic the handling characteristics of the Me 163.Training included gunnery practice with a machine pistol mounted in the glider nose.", "As the cockpit was unpressurized, the operational ceiling was limited by what the pilot could endure for several minutes while breathing oxygen from a mask, without losing consciousness.", "Pilots underwent altitude chamber training to harden them against the rigors of operating in the thin air of the stratosphere without a pressure suit.", "Special low fiber diets were prepared for pilots, as gas in the gastrointestinal tract would expand rapidly during ascent.Following the initial combat trial missions of the Me 163B with EK 16, during the winter and spring of 1944 ''Major'' Späte formed the Luftwaffe's first dedicated Me 163 fighter wing, ''Jagdgeschwader'' 400 (JG 400), in Brandis, near Leipzig.", "JG 400's purpose was to provide additional protection for the Leuna synthetic gasoline works which were raided frequently during almost all of 1944.A further group was stationed at Stargard near Stettin to protect the large synthetic fuel plant at Pölitz (today Police, Poland).", "Further defensive units of rocket fighters were planned for Berlin, the Ruhr, and the German Bight.Typical appearance of a ''Komet'' after landing, waiting for the airfield's ''Scheuch-Schlepper'' tractor and lifting trailer to tow it back for reattachment of its \"dolly\" maingearThe first actions involving the Me 163B in regular Luftwaffe active service occurred on 28 July 1944, from I./JG 400's base at Brandis, when two USAAF B-17 Flying Fortress were attacked without confirmed kills.", "Combat operations continued from May 1944 to spring 1945.During this time, there were nine confirmed kills with ten Me 163s lost.", "''Feldwebel'' Siegfried Schubert was the most successful pilot, with three bombers to his credit.", "Each engagement would see as many as a dozen Me 163s at a time launched to challenge the B-17s.Allied fighter pilots quickly observed the short duration of the Me 163's powered flight, and adapted their tactics to take advantage of this.", "The fighters would delay engaging until after the engine had exhausted its propellant before pouncing on the unpowered ''Komet''.", "Even with this handicap, the aircraft was extremely manoeuvrable in gliding flight and thus was not a straightforward target to down.", "Another Allied method of engagement was attack the airfields from which the Komets operated, performing strafing runs upon them after the Me 163s had landed.", "Due to the skid-based landing gear system, the Komet was immobile until the ''Scheuch-Schlepper'' tractor could back the trailer up to the nose of the aircraft, place its two rear arms under the wing panels, and jack up the trailer's arms to hoist the aircraft off the ground or place it back on its take-off dolly to tow it back to its maintenance area.At the end of 1944, 91 aircraft had been delivered to JG 400, but a persistent lack of fuel had kept most of them grounded.", "It was clear that the original plan for a huge network of Me 163 bases would never be realized.", "Up to that point, JG 400 had lost only six aircraft due to enemy action.", "Nine Me 163s had been lost to other causes, remarkably few for such a revolutionary and technologically advanced aircraft.", "Into early 1945, the type continued to be flown to defend high priority targets, such as the Daimler Benz tank factory in Berlin.", "In the final days of Nazi Germany, the Me 163 was given up in favor of the more successful Me 262.At the beginning of May 1945, Me 163 operations were stopped, the JG 400 disbanded, and many of its pilots sent to fly Me 262s.In any operational sense, the ''Komet'' was a failure.", "Although it shot down sixteen aircraft, mainly four-engined bombers, it did not warrant the effort put into the project.", "Due to fuel shortages late in the war, few went into combat, and it took an experienced pilot with excellent shooting skills to achieve kills.", "The ''Komet'' also inspired later rocket planes such as the vertical-launch Bachem Ba 349 Natter.", "Ultimately, the point defense role that the Me 163 played would be taken over by the surface-to-air missile, Messerschmitt's own example being the Enzian.===Postwar flight===Captain Eric Brown RN, Chief Naval Test Pilot and commanding officer of the Captured Enemy Aircraft Flight, who tested the Me 163 at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, said, \"The Me 163 was an aeroplane that you could not afford to just step into the aircraft and say 'You know, I'm going to fly it to the limit.'", "You had very much to familiarise yourself with it because it was state-of-the-art and the technology used.\"", "Acting unofficially, after a spate of accidents involving Allied personnel flying captured German aircraft resulted in official disapproval of such flights, Brown was determined to fly a powered Komet.", "On around 17 May 1945, he flew an Me 163B at Husum with the help of a cooperative German ground crew, after initial towed flights in an Me 163A to familiarise himself with the handling.The day before the flight, Brown and his ground crew had performed an engine run on the chosen Me 163B to ensure that everything was running correctly, the German crew being apprehensive should an accident befall Brown, until being given a disclaimer signed by him to the effect that they were acting under his orders.", "On the rocket-powered ''scharfer-start'' takeoff the next day, after dropping the takeoff dolly and retracting the skid, Brown later described the resultant climb as \"like being in charge of a runaway train\", the aircraft reaching 32,000 ft (9.76 km) altitude in 2 minutes, 45 seconds.", "During the flight, while practicing attacking passes at an American B-17 bomber, he was surprised at how well the Komet accelerated in the dive with the engine shut down.", "When the flight was over Brown had no problems on the approach to the airfield; apart from the rather restricted view from the cockpit due to the flat angle of glide, the aircraft touching down at .", "Once down safely, Brown and his much-relieved ground crew celebrated with a drink.Beyond Brown's unauthorised flight, the British never tested the Me 163 under power themselves; due to the danger of its hypergolic propellants it was only flown unpowered.", "Brown himself piloted RAE's Komet ''VF241'' on a number of occasions, the rocket motor being replaced with test instrumentation.", "When interviewed for a 1990s television programme, Brown said he had flown five tailless aircraft in his career (including the British de Havilland DH 108).", "Referring to the Komet, he said \"this is the only one that had good flight characteristics\"; he called the other four \"killers\"." ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "It has been claimed that at least 29 ''Komets'' were shipped out of Germany after the war and that of those at least 10 have been known to survive the war to be put on display in museums around the world.", "Most of the 10 surviving Me 163s were part of JG 400, and were captured by the British at Husum, the squadron's base at the time of Germany's surrender in 1945.According to the RAF museum, 48 aircraft were captured intact and 24 were shipped to the United Kingdom for evaluation, although only one, ''VF241'', was test flown (unpowered).===Australia===Me 163B, Werknummer 191907, is part of the collection of the Australian War Memorial in Canberra* Me 163B, Werknummer 191907 was part of JG 400, captured at Husum and was shipped to the RAE.", "It was allocated the RAF Air Ministry number of AM222 and was dispatched from Farnborough to No.", "6 MU, RAF Brize Norton, on 8 August 1945.On 21 March 1946, it was recorded in the Census of No.", "6 MU, and allocated to No.", "76 MU (Wroughton) on 30 April 1946 for shipment to Australia.", "For many years this aircraft was displayed at RAAF Williams Point Cook, but in 1986, the Me 163 was transferred to The Australian War Memorial for refurbishment.", "It was stored at the AWM Treloar Technology Annex Mitchell, refurbished and reassembled, and was later put up for display together with a Messerschmitt Me 262A-2a, Werknummer 500200 (AM81).===Canada===Me 163B, Werknummer 191914, at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum; the tiny propeller operates as a ram air turbine that provided electrical power* Me 163B, Werknummer 191659 (AM215) or 191914 (AM220), is held at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa.", "Like two of the British Komets, this aircraft was part of JG 400 and captured at Husum.", "It was shipped to Canada in 1946.: Werknummer 19116 (but more probable 191916) and 191095 (AM211) also seem to have been held at one time in this museum.===Germany===Messerschmitt Me 163 at the ''Luftwaffenmuseum'' in Berlin-Gatow* A Me 163B, Werknummer 191904, \"Yellow 25\", belonging to JG 400 was captured by the RAF at Husum in 1945.It was sent to England, arriving first at Farnborough, receiving the RAF Air Ministry number AM219 and then transferred to Brize Norton on 8 August 1945, before finally being placed on display at the Station Museum at Colerne.", "When the museum closed in 1975 the aircraft went to RAF St Athan, receiving the ground maintenance number 8480M.", "On 5 May 1988 the aircraft was returned to the Bundeswehr's ''Luftwaffe'' air arm, and moved to the ''Luftwaffe'' Alpha Jet factory at the air base in Oldenburg (JBG 43), not far from the JG 400 unit's wartime base at Bad Zwischenahn, now a golf course.", "The airframe was in good condition but the cockpit had been stripped and the rocket engine was missing.Eventually an elderly German woman came forward with Me 163 instruments that her late husband had collected after the war, and the engine was reproduced by a machine shop owned by Me 163 enthusiast Reinhold Opitz.", "The factory closed in the early 1990s and \"Yellow 25\" was moved to a small museum created on the site.", "The museum contained aircraft that had once served as gate guards, monuments and other damaged aircraft previously located on the air base.", "In 1997 \"Yellow 25\" was moved to the official ''Luftwaffe'' Museum located at the former RAF base at Berlin-Gatow, where it is displayed today alongside a restored Walter HWK 109–509 rocket engine.", "This particular Me 163B is one of the very few World War II–era German military aircraft, restored and preserved in a German aviation museum, to have a swastika marking, in a \"low visibility\" white outline form, currently displayed on the tailfin.", "* Me 163B, Werknummer 120370, \"Yellow 6\" of JG 400, is displayed at the Deutsches Museum, Munich.", "It was originally sent to Britain, where it had received the RAF Air Ministry number AM210.It was given to the Deutsches Museum by RAF Biggin Hill Station.", "Some claim this is ''191316'', but that is still at the London Science Museum.===United Kingdom===Of the 21 aircraft that were captured by the British, at least three have survived.", "They were assigned the British serial numbers AM200 to AM220.", "* Me 163B, Werknummer 191316, \"Yellow 6\", has been on display at the Science Museum in London, since 1964 with the Walter motor removed for separate display.", "A second Walter motor and a takeoff dolly are part of the museum's reserve collection and are not generally on display to the public.", "* Me 163B, Werknummer 191614, is now displayed at the RAF Museum London, where it was moved from the RAF Museum Cosford site at RAF Cosford, its former home since 1975.Before then, it was at the Rocket Propulsion Establishment at Westcott, Buckinghamshire.", "* Me 163B-1a, Werknummer 191659 and RAF Air Ministry serial number AM215, \"Yellow 15\", was captured at Husum in 1945 and was sent to the College of Aeronautics at Cranfield, England in 1947.After many years of touring airshows and various outdoor gatherings around the UK it was loaned to the National Museum of Flight at East Fortune Airfield, East Lothian, Scotland in 1976.===United States===Me 163B 191 301 at Wright Field display in October 1945 Unrestored Messerschmitt Me 163B ''Komet'' at the Udvar-Hazy centerMe 163B at Wright-Patterson National Air Force Museum* Five Me 163s were originally brought to the United States in 1945, receiving the Foreign Equipment numbers FE-495 and FE-500 to 503.An Me 163 B-1a, Werknummer (serial number) 191301, arrived at Freeman Field, Indiana, during mid-1945, and received the foreign equipment number FE-500.On 12 April 1946, it was flown aboard a cargo aircraft to the U.S. Army Air Forces facility at Muroc dry lake in California for flight testing.", "Testing began on 3 May 1946 in the presence of Dr. Alexander Lippisch and involved towing the unfueled ''Komet'' behind a Boeing B-29 Superfortress to an altitude of before it was released for a glide back to earth under the control of test pilot Major Gus Lundquist.", "Powered tests were planned, but not carried out after delamination of the aircraft's wooden wings was discovered.", "It was then stored at Norton AFB, California until 1954, when it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution.", "The aircraft remained on display in an unrestored condition at the museum's Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland, Maryland, until 1996, when it was lent to the Mighty Eighth Air Force Museum in Pooler, Georgia for restoration and display but has since been returned to the Smithsonian and as of 2011 is on display unrestored at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington D.C.* Me 163B, Werknummer 191 095, is on fully restored display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio.", "It was acquired from the Canadian National Aviation Museum (now the Canada Aviation and Space Museum), where it had been restored, and was placed on display 10 December 1999.", "''Komet'' test pilot was on hand for the dedication of the aircraft and discussed his experiences of flying the rocket-propelled fighter to a standing room only crowd.", "During the aircraft's restoration in Canada it was discovered that the aircraft had been assembled by French forced laborers who had deliberately sabotaged it by placing stones between the rocket's fuel tanks and its supporting straps.", "There are also indications that the wing was assembled with contaminated glue.", "Patriotic French writing was found inside the fuselage.", "The aircraft is displayed without any unit identification, but has its Werknummer restored to its normal fin location.", "Fully restored examples of both the Me 163B's single-chamber rocket motor, as well as the only known example in the United States of the experimental twin-chamber Walter 509B rocket motor, are each on display in front, one each to either side, of WkNr.", "191 095.191660 placed alongside a B-17 at Duxford in 1983.", "* Me 163B, Werknummer 191660, \"Yellow 3\", is owned by Paul Allen's Flying Heritage Collection.", "Between 1961 and 1976, this aircraft was displayed at the Imperial War Museum in London.", "In 1976, it was moved to the Imperial War Museum Duxford.", "It underwent a lengthy restoration, beginning in 1997, that was frequently halted as the restorers were diverted to more pressing projects.", "In May 2005, it was sold, reportedly for £800,000, to raise money for the purchase of a de Havilland/Airco DH.9 as the Duxford museum had no examples of a World War I bomber in its collection.", "Permission for export was granted by the British government's Department for Culture, Media and Sport as three other ''Komets'' were held in British museums." ], [ "Japanese versions", "As part of their alliance, Germany provided the Japanese Empire with plans and an example of the Me 163.One of the two submarines carrying Me 163 parts did not arrive in Japan, so at the time, the Japanese lacked all of the major parts and construction blueprints, including the turbopump, which they could not make themselves, forcing them to reverse-engineer their own design from information obtained in the Me 163 Erection & Maintenance manual obtained from Germany.", "The prototype J8M crashed on its first powered flight and was completely destroyed, but several variants were built and flown, including: trainers, fighters, and interceptors, with only minor differences between the versions.The Navy version, the Mitsubishi J8M1 ''Shūsui'', replaced the Ho 155 cannon with the Navy's 30 mm (1.18 in) Type 5 cannon.", "Mitsubishi also planned on producing a version of the 163C for the Navy, known as the J8M2 ''Shūsui'' Model 21.A version of the 163 D/263 was known as the J8M3 ''Shusui'' for the Navy with the Type 5 cannon, and a Ki-202 with the Ho 155-II for the Army.", "Trainers were planned, roughly the equivalent of the Me 163 A-0/S; these were known as the Kugisho/Yokosuka MXY8 (Yokoi Ki-13) (an unpowered glider trainer) and Kugisho/Yokosuka MXY9 (a Tsu-11-powered motorjet trainer).One complete example of the Japanese aircraft survives at the Planes of Fame Air Museum in California.", "The fuselage of a second aircraft is displayed at the Mitsubishi company's Komaki Plant Museum, at Komaki, Aichi in Japan." ], [ "Replicas", "The Me 163 replica glider, ''D-1636'', Aérodrome de La Ferté-Alais, France, 2009A flying replica Me 163 was constructed between 1994 and 1996 by Joseph Kurtz, a former ''Luftwaffe'' pilot who trained to fly Me 163s, but who never flew in combat.", "He subsequently sold the aircraft to EADS.", "The replica is an unpowered glider whose shape matches that of an Me 163, although its construction is completely different: the glider is built of wood with an empty weight of , a fraction of the weight of a wartime aircraft.", "Reportedly, it has excellent flying characteristics.", "The glider is painted red to represent the Me 163 flown by Wolfgang Späte.", "As of 2011, it was still flying with the civil registration D-1636.In the early 2000s, a rocket-powered airworthy replica, the ''Komet II'', was proposed by XCOR Aerospace, a former aerospace company that had previously built the XCOR EZ-Rocket rocket-plane.", "Although outwardly the same as a wartime aircraft, the ''Komet II''s design would have differed considerably for safety reasons.", "It would have been partially constructed with composite materials, powered by one of XCOR's own simpler and safer, pressure fed, liquid oxygen/alcohol engines, and retractable undercarriage would have been used instead of a takeoff dolly and landing skid.Several static replica Me 163s are exhibited in museums." ], [ "Specifications: Me 163B-1a", "Messerschmitt Me 163B 3-view drawings" ], [ "See also", "* Hanna Reitsch" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \t* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* \"Fastest Controlled Flight\", October 1944, ''Popular Science''.", "Earliest drawing released by USAAF to public about Me 163* \"Secrets of the German Jet Planes\".", "June 1945, ''Popular Science'' page 124—the first detailed drawing in a general public magazine* 8th Airforce engages ME-163s in air to air combat" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mohamed Atta" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mohamed Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta''' (; 1 September 1968 – 11 September 2001) was an Egyptian terrorist hijacker from al-Qaeda.", "Ideologically a pan-Islamist, he was the ringleader of the September 11 attacks and served as the hijacker-pilot of American Airlines Flight 11, which he crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center as part of the coordinated suicide attacks.", "Aged 33, he was the oldest of the 19 hijackers who took part in the mission.Born and raised in Egypt, Mohamed Atta studied architecture at Cairo University, graduating in 1990, and pursued postgraduate studies in Germany at the Hamburg University of Technology.", "In Hamburg, Atta became involved with the al-Quds Mosque where he met Marwan al-Shehhi, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, and Ziad Jarrah, together forming the Hamburg cell.", "Atta disappeared from Germany for periods of time, embarking on the hajj in 1995 but also meeting Osama bin Laden and other top al-Qaeda leaders in Afghanistan from late 1999 to early 2000.Atta and the other Hamburg cell members were recruited by bin Laden and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed for a \"planes operation\" in the United States.Atta returned to Hamburg in February 2000 and began inquiring about flight training in the United States, where he, Jarrah, and al-Shehhi arrived in June to learn how to pilot planes, obtaining instrument ratings in November.", "Beginning in May 2001, Atta assisted with the arrival of the \"muscle\" hijackers whose role was to subdue passengers and crew to enable the hijacker-pilots to take over.", "In July, Atta traveled to Spain to meet with bin al-Shibh to finalize the plot, then in August traveled as a passenger on \"surveillance\" flights to establish in detail how the attacks could be carried out.On the morning of 11 September 2001, Atta and his team boarded and hijacked American Airlines Flight 11, which Atta crashed into 1 World Trade Center (the North Tower).", "More than 1,600 people died as a result of the crash, ensuing fire, and subsequent collapse of the tower, making him responsible for the single deadliest air crash of all time, as well as the single deadliest terrorist attack of all time." ], [ "Aliases", "Mohamed Atta had varied his name on documents, also using \"Mehan Atta\", \"Mohammad El Amir\", \"Muhammad Atta\", \"Mohamed El Sayed\", \"Mohamed Elsayed\", \"Muhammad al-Amir\", \"Awag Al Sayyid Atta\", and \"Awad Al Sayad\".", "In Germany, he registered his name as \"Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta\", and went by the name Mohamed el-Amir at the Hamburg University of Technology.", "In his will, written in 1996, Atta gives his name as \"Mohamed the son of Mohamed Elamir awad Elsayed\".", "He was known as Abd al-Rahman al-Misri by al-Qaeda.", "Atta also claimed different nationalities, sometimes Egyptian and other times telling people he was from the United Arab Emirates." ], [ "Early life", "Atta was born on 1 September 1968, in Kafr el-Sheikh, located in the Nile Delta region of Egypt (then a part of the United Arab Republic).", "His father, Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta, was a lawyer, educated in both civil law and ''sharia''.", "His mother, Buthayna Mohamed Mustafa Shiraqi, came from a wealthy farming and trading family and was also educated.", "Buthayna and Mohamed married when she was 14, via an arranged marriage.", "The family had few relatives on the father's side and kept their distance from Buthayna's family.", "In-laws characterized Atta's father as \"austere, strict, and private\", and neighbors viewed the family as reclusive.", "Atta was the only son; he had two older sisters who are both well-educated and successful in their careers — one as a medical doctor and the other as a professor.When Atta was ten, his family moved to the Cairo neighborhood of Abdeen, situated near the city center.", "His father, who kept the family ever insulated, forbade young Atta to fraternize with the other children in their neighborhood.", "Having little else to do, he mostly studied at home and easily excelled in school.", "In 1985, Atta enrolled at Cairo University and focused his studies on engineering.", "He was among the highest-scoring students; by his senior year, he was admitted to an exclusive architecture program.", "After he graduated in 1990 with an architecture degree, he joined the Engineers Syndicate.", "He then worked for several months at the Urban Development Center in Cairo, where he joined various building projects and dispatched diverse architectural tasks.", "Also in 1990, Atta's family moved into the eleventh floor of an apartment building in the Egyptian city of Giza.Atta also got engaged to a woman lined up by his father and her family in Cairo, in late 1999, after coming back from Germany the same year.", "Although the marriage never happened, Atta's father said they liked each other." ], [ "Germany", "Mohamed Atta (left) as a student in Germany, 1993Atta graduated from Cairo University with marks insufficient for the graduate program.", "As his father insisted that he go abroad for graduate studies, Atta, to this end, entered a German-language program at the Goethe-Institut in Cairo.", "In 1992, his father overheard a German couple who were visiting Egypt's capital.", "The couple explained at dinner that they ran an exchange program and invited Atta to continue his studies in Germany; they also offered him room and board at their home in the city.", "Atta accepted and arrived in Germany two weeks later, in July.In Germany, he enrolled in the urban planning graduate program at the Hamburg University of Technology.", "Atta initially lived with two high school teachers; however, they eventually found his closed-mindedness and introverted personality to be too much for them.", "Atta began adhering to the strictest Islamic diet, frequenting the most conservative mosques, socializing seldom, and acting disdainfully towards the couple's unmarried daughter who had a young child.", "After six months, they asked him to leave.By early 1993, Atta had moved into university housing with two roommates, in Centrumshaus.", "He stayed there until 1998.During that period, his roommates grew annoyed with him.", "He seldom bathed, and they could not bear his \"complete, almost aggressive insularity\".", "He kept to himself to such an extent that he would often react to simple greetings with silence.===Academic studies===At the Hamburg University of Technology, Atta studied under the guidance of the department chair, Dittmar Machule, who specialized in the Middle East.", "Atta was averse to modern development.", "This included the construction of high-rise buildings in Cairo and other ancient cities in the region.", "He believed that the drab and impersonal apartment blocks, built in the 60s and 70s, ruined the beauty of old neighborhoods and robbed their people of privacy and dignity.", "Atta's family moved into an apartment block in 1990; it was to him but \"a shabby symbol of Egypt's haphazard attempts to modernize and its shameless embrace of the West.\"", "For his thesis, Atta concentrated on the ancient Syrian city of Aleppo.", "He researched the history of the urban landscape in relation to the general theme of conflict between Arab and modern civilization.", "He criticized how the newfangled skyscrapers and other modernizing projects disrupted the fabric of communities by blocking common streets and altering the skyline.Atta's professor, Dittmar Machule, brought him along on an archaeological expedition to Aleppo in 1994.The invitation had been for a three-day visit, but Atta ended up staying several weeks that August, only to visit Aleppo yet again that December.", "While in Syria, he met Amal, a young Palestinian woman who worked for a planning bureau in the city.", "Volker Hauth, who was traveling with Atta, described Amal as \"attractive and self-confident.", "She observed Muslim customs, taking taxis to and from the office so as not to come into close physical contact with men on buses.", "But she was also said to be 'emancipated' and 'challenging'.", "Atta and Amal appeared to be attracted to each other, but Atta soon decided that \"she had a quite different orientation and that the emancipation of the young lady did not fit.\"", "His nascent infatuation with her, begrudgingly realised, was the closest thing Atta knew to romance.In mid-1995, he stayed for three months in Cairo, on a grant from the Carl Duisberg Society, along with fellow students Volker Hauth and Ralph Bodenstein.", "The academic team inquired into the effects of redevelopment in the Islamic Cairo, the old quarter, which the government undertook to remodel for tourism.", "Atta stayed in Cairo awhile with his family after Hauth and Bodenstein flew back to Germany.While in Hamburg, Atta held several positions, including a part-time job at the urban planning firm Plankontor beginning in 1992.He was let go from the firm in 1997, however, because its business had declined and \"his draughtsmanship was not needed\" after it bought a CAD system.", "Among other odd jobs to supplement his income, Atta sometimes worked at a cleaning company and sometimes bought and sold cars.", "Atta had harbored a desire to return to his native city ever since he finished his studies in Hamburg, but he was prevented by the dearth of job prospects in Cairo, his family lacking the \"right connections\" to avail the customary nepotism.", "Further, after the Egyptian government had imprisoned droves of political activists, he knew better than to trust it not to target him too, with his social and political beliefs being such as they were.===Religious zeal and Hamburg cell===After coming to Hamburg in 1992, Atta grew more religiously fanatical and frequented the mosque with greater regularity.", "His friends in Germany described him as an intelligent man in whom religious convictions and political motives held equal sway.", "He harbored anger and resentment toward the U.S. for its policy in Islamic nations of the Middle East, with nothing inflaming his ire more than the Oslo Accords and the Gulf War in particular.", "He was also angry and bitter at the elite in his native Egypt, who he believed hoarded power for themselves, as well as at the Egyptian government, that cracked down on the dissident Muslim Brotherhood.", "Atta was anti-Semitic, believing that Jews controlled the world's media, financial, and political institutions from New York City.", "These beliefs were even stronger during Operation Infinite Reach, as he believed that Monica Lewinsky was a Jewish agent influencing American president Bill Clinton against aiding Palestine, which would later play a key role in creating the Hamburg cell.On 1 August 1995, Atta returned to Egypt for three months of study.", "Before this trip he grew out a beard to show himself as a devout Muslim and also to make a political gesture.", "Atta returned to Hamburg on 31 October 1995, only to join the pilgrimage to Mecca shortly thereafter.In Hamburg, Atta was intensely drawn to al-Quds Mosque which adhered to a \"harsh, uncompromisingly fundamentalist, and resoundingly militant\" version of Sunni Islam.", "He made acquaintances at al-Quds, some of whom visited him on occasion at Centrumshaus.", "He also began teaching classes both at Al-Quds and at a Turkish mosque near the Harburg district.", "Atta also started and led a prayer group, which Ahmed Maklat and Mounir El Motassadeq joined.", "Ramzi bin al-Shibh was also there, teaching occasional classes, and became Atta's friend.On 11 April 1996, Atta signed his last will and testament at the mosque, officially declaring his Muslim beliefs and giving 18 instructions regarding his burial.", "This was the same day that Israel, much to Atta's fury, attacked Lebanon in Operation Grapes of Wrath; signing the will \"offering his life\" was his response.", "The instructions in his last will and testament reflect both Sunni funeral practices along with some more puritanical demands from Salafism, including asking people not \"to weep and cry\" and to generally refrain from showing emotion.", "The will was signed by el-Motassadeq and a second person at the mosque.After leaving Plankontor in the summer of 1997, Atta disappeared again and did not return until 1998.He had made no progress on his thesis.", "Atta phoned his graduate advisor, Machule, and mentioned family problems at home, saying, \"Please understand, I don't want to talk about this.\"", "At the winter break in 1997, Atta left and did not return to Hamburg for three months.", "He said that he went on pilgrimage to Mecca again, just 18 months after his first time.", "This claim has been disputed; American journalist Terry McDermott has argued that it is unusual for someone to go on pilgrimage so soon after the first time and to spend three months there (more than Hajj requires).", "When Atta returned, he claimed that his passport was lost and applied for a new one, which is a common tactic to erase evidence of travel to places such as Afghanistan.", "When he returned in spring 1998, after disappearing for several months, he had grown a thick long beard, and \"seemed more serious and aloof\" than before to those who knew him.The apartment Atta, Bahaji, and bin al-Shibh shared from 1998 until 2001 in Marienstrasse, Hamburg, GermanyBy mid-1998, Atta was no longer eligible for university housing in Centrumshaus.", "Atta, Bahaji and Ramzi moved into a Hamburgian apartment, which they supposedly named .", "By early 1999, Atta had completed his thesis, and formally defended it in August 1999.In mid-1998, Atta worked alongside Shehhi, bin al-Shibh, and Belfas, at a warehouse, packing computers in crates for shipping.", "The Hamburg group did not stay in Wilhelmsburg for long.", "The next winter, they moved into an apartment at Marienstrasse 54 in the borough of Harburg, near the Hamburg University of Technology, at which they enrolled.", "It was here that the Hamburg cell developed and acted more as a group.", "They met three or four times a week to discuss their anti-American feelings and to plot possible attacks.", "Many al-Qaeda members lived in this apartment at various times, including hijacker Marwan al-Shehhi, Zakariya Essabar, and others.In late 1999, Atta, Shehhi, Jarrah, Bahaji, and bin al-Shibh decided to travel to Chechnya to fight against the Russians, but were convinced by Khalid al-Masri and Mohamedou Ould Salahi at the last minute to change their plans.", "They instead traveled to Afghanistan over a two-week period in late November.", "On 29 November 1999, Mohamed Atta boarded Turkish Airlines Flight TK1662 from Hamburg to Istanbul, where he changed to flight TK1056 to Karachi, Pakistan.", "After they arrived, they were selected by al-Qaeda leader Mohammed Atef as suitable candidates for the \"planes operation\" plot.", "They were all well-educated, had experience of living in western society, along with some English skills, and would be able to obtain visas.", "Even before bin al-Shibh had arrived, Atta, Shehhi, and Jarrah were sent to the House of Ghamdi near bin Laden's home in Kandahar, where he was waiting to meet them.", "Bin Laden asked them to pledge loyalty and commit to suicide missions, which Atta and the other three Hamburg men all accepted.", "Bin Laden sent them to see Atef to get a general overview of the mission, and then they were sent to Karachi to see Khalid Sheikh Mohammed to go over specifics.German investigators said that they had evidence that Mohamed Atta trained at al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan from late 1999 to early 2000.The timing of the Afghanistan training was outlined on 23 August 2002, by a senior investigator.", "The investigator, Klaus Ulrich Kersten, was the director of Germany's federal anticrime agency, the Bundeskriminalamt.", "He provided the first official confirmation that Atta and two other pilots had been in Afghanistan, and he also provided the first dates of the training.", "Kersten said in an interview at the agency's headquarters in Wiesbaden that Atta was in Afghanistan from late 1999 until early 2000, and that there was evidence that Atta met with Osama bin Laden there.A video surfaced in October 2006.The first chapter of the video showed bin Laden at Tarnak Farms on 8 January 2000.The second chapter showed Atta and Ziad Jarrah reading their wills together ten days later on January 18.On his return journey, Atta left Karachi on 24 February 2000, by flight TK1057 to Istanbul where he changed to flight TK1661 to Hamburg.", "Immediately after returning to Germany, Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah reported their passports stolen, possibly to discard travel visas to Afghanistan." ], [ "United States", "On 22 March 2000, Atta was still in Germany when he sent an e-mail to the Academy of Lakeland in Florida.", "He inquired about flight training, \"Dear sir, we are a small group of young men from different Arab countries.", "Now, we are living in Germany since a while for study purposes.", "We would like to start training for the career of airline professional pilots.", "In this field, we haven't yet any knowledge but we are ready to undergo an intensive training program (up to ATP and eventually higher).\"", "Atta sent 50–60 similar e-mails to other flight training schools in the United States.On 17 May Atta applied for a United States visa.", "The next day, he received a five-year B-1/B-2 (tourist/business) visa from the United States embassy in Berlin.", "Atta had lived in Germany for approximately five years and also had a \"strong record as a student\".", "He was therefore treated favorably and not scrutinized.", "After obtaining his visa, Atta took a bus on June 2 from Hamburg to Prague where he stayed overnight before traveling on to the United States the next day.", "Bin al-Shibh later explained that they believed it would contribute to operational security for Atta to fly out of Prague instead of Hamburg, where he traveled from previously.", "Likewise, Shehhi traveled from a different location, in his case via Brussels.On 6 June 2002, ABC's ''World News Tonight'' broadcast an interview with Johnelle Bryant, former loan officer at the U.S. Department of Agriculture in south Florida, who told about her encounter with Mohamed Atta.", "This encounter took place \"around the third week of April to the third week of May of 2000\", before Atta's official entry date into the United States (see below).", "According to Bryant, Atta wanted to finance the purchase of a crop-duster.", "\"He wanted to finance a twin-engine, six-passenger aircraft and remove the seats,\" Bryant told ABC's ''World News Tonight''.", "He insisted that she write his name as ATTA, that he originally was from Egypt but had moved to Afghanistan, that he was an engineer and that his dream was to go to a flight school.", "He asked about the Pentagon and the White House.", "He said he wanted to visit the World Trade Center and asked Bryant about the security there.", "He mentioned Al Qaeda and said the organization \"could use memberships from Americans\".", "He mentioned Osama bin Laden and said \"this man would someday be known as the world's greatest leader.\"", "Bryant said \"the picture that came out in the newspaper, that's exactly what that man looked like.\"", "Bryant contacted the authorities after recognising Atta in news reports.", "Law enforcement officials said Bryant passed a lie-detector exam.According to official reports, Atta flew from Prague to Newark International Airport, arriving on 3 June 2000.That month, Atta and Shehhi stayed in hotels and rented rooms in New York City on a short-term basis.", "Jarrah had arrived in the United States on 27 June 2000, after his flight landed at Newark, New Jersey, and Jarrah had decided to go with Shehhi and Atta to search for different flight schools in the US.", "They continued to inquire about flight schools and personally visited some, including Airman Flight School in Norman, Oklahoma, which they visited on 3 July 2000.Days later, Shehhi, Jarrah and Atta ended up in Venice, Florida.", "Atta and Shehhi established accounts at SunTrust Bank and received wire transfers from Ali Abdul Aziz Ali, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's nephew in the United Arab Emirates.", "On 6 July 2000, Atta, Jarrah and Shehhi enrolled at Huffman Aviation in Venice, where they entered the Accelerated Pilot Program.", "When Atta and Shehhi arrived in Florida, they initially stayed with Huffman's bookkeeper and his wife in a spare room of their house.", "After a week, they were asked to leave because they were rude.", "Atta and Shehhi then moved into a small house nearby in Nokomis where they stayed for six months.Atta's flight record from HuffmanAtta began flight training on 6 July 2000, and continued training nearly every day.", "By the end of July, both Atta and Shehhi did solo flights.", "Atta earned his private pilot certificate in September, and then he and Shehhi decided to switch flight schools.", "Both enrolled at Jones Aviation in Sarasota and took training there for a brief time.", "They had problems following instructions and were both very upset when they failed their Stage 1 exam.", "They inquired about multi-engine planes and told the instructor that \"they wanted to move quickly, because they had a job waiting in their country upon completion of their training in the U.S.\" In mid-October, Atta and Shehhi returned to Huffman Aviation to continue training.", "In November 2000, Atta earned his instrument rating, and then a commercial pilot's license in December from the Federal Aviation Administration.Atta continued with flight training that included solo flights and simulator time.", "On 22 December, Atta and Shehhi applied to Eagle International for large jet and simulator training for McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737-300 models.", "On 26 December, Atta and Shehhi needed a tow for their rented Piper Cherokee on a taxiway of Miami International Airport after the engine shut down.", "On 29 and 30 December, Atta and Marwan went to the Opa-locka Airport where they practiced on a Boeing 727 simulator, and they obtained Boeing 767 simulator training from Pan Am International on 31 December.", "Atta purchased cockpit videos for Boeing 747-200, Boeing 757-200, Airbus A320 and Boeing 767-300ER models via mail-order from Sporty's Pilot Shop in Batavia, Ohio, in November and December 2000.Records on Atta's cellphone indicated that he phoned the Moroccan embassy in Washington on 2 January 2001, just before Shehhi flew to the country.", "Atta flew to Spain two days later, on 4 January, to coordinate with bin al-Shibh, and returned to the United States on 10 January.", "He then traveled to Lawrenceville, Georgia, where he and Shehhi visited an LA Fitness Health Club.", "During that time Atta flew out of Briscoe Field in Lawrenceville with a pilot, and Atta and either the pilot or Shehhi flew around the Atlanta area.Mohamed Atta's Florida Driver's license, which he received on May 2, 2001On 11 April, Atta and Shehhi rented an apartment at 10001 Atlantic Blvd, Apt.", "122 in Coral Springs, Florida, for $840 per month, and assisted with the arrival of the muscle hijackers.", "On 16 April, Atta was given a citation for not having a valid driver's license, and he began steps to acquire one.", "On 2 May, Atta received his driver's license in Lauderdale Lakes, Florida.", "While in the United States, Atta owned a red 1989 Pontiac Grand Prix.On 27 June, Atta flew from Fort Lauderdale to Boston, Massachusetts, where he spent a day, and then continued to San Francisco for a short time, and from there to Las Vegas.", "On 28 June, Atta arrived at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas to meet with the three other pilots.", "He rented a Chevrolet Malibu from an Alamo Rent A Car agency.", "It is not known where he stayed that night, but on the 29th he registered at the Econo Lodge at 1150 South Las Vegas Boulevard.", "Here he presented an AAA membership for a discount, and paid cash for the $49.50/night room.", "During his trip to Las Vegas, he is thought to have used a video camera that he had rented from a Select Photo outlet back in Delray Beach, Florida.FBI operative Elie Assaad became suspicious of Atta in early 2001 as he was supposedly seen with al-Qaeda fugitive Adnan Shukrijumah.=== July 2001 summit in Spain ===In July 2001, Atta again left for Spain in order to meet with bin al-Shibh for the last time.", "On 7 July 2001, Atta flew on Swissair Flight 117 from Miami to Zürich, where he had a stopover.", "On 8 July, Atta was recorded on surveillance video when he withdrew 1700 Swiss francs from an ATM.", "He used his credit card to purchase two Swiss Army knives and some chocolate in a shop at the Zürich Airport.", "After the stopover in Zürich, he arrived in Madrid at 4:45 pm on Swissair Flight 656, and spent several hours at the airport.", "Then at 8:50 pm, he checked into the Hotel Diana Cazadora in Barajas, a town near the airport.", "That night and twice the next morning, he called Bashar Ahmad Ali Musleh, a Jordanian student in Hamburg who served as a liaison for bin al-Shibh.On the morning of 9 July, Mohamed Atta rented a silver Hyundai Accent, which he booked from SIXT Rent-A-Car for July 9 to 16, and later extended to the 19th.", "He drove east out of Madrid towards the Mediterranean beach area of Tarragona.", "On the way, Atta stopped in Reus to pick up Ramzi bin al-Shibh at the airport.", "They drove to Cambrils, where they spent a night at the Hotel Monica.", "They checked out the next morning, and spent the next few days at an unknown location in Tarragona.", "The absence of other hotel stays, signed receipts or credit card stubs has led investigators to believe that the men may have met in a safe house provided by other al-Qaeda operatives in Spain.", "There, Atta and bin al-Shibh held a meeting to complete the planning of the attacks.", "Several clues have been found to link their stay in Spain to Syrian-born Imad Eddin Barakat Yarkas (Abu Dahdah), and Amer el Azizi, a Moroccan in Spain.", "They may have helped arrange and host the meeting in Tarragona.", "Yosri Fouda, who interviewed bin al-Shibh and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (KSM) before the arrest, believes that Said Bahaji and KSM may have also been present at the meeting.", "Spanish investigators have said that Marwan al-Shehhi and two others later joined the meeting.", "Bin al-Shibh would not discuss this meeting with Fouda.During the meetings in Spain, Atta and bin al-Shibh had coordinated the details of the attacks.", "The 9/11 Commission obtained details about the meeting, based on interrogations of bin al-Shibh in the weeks after his arrest in September 2002.Bin al-Shibh explained that he passed along instructions from Osama bin Laden, including his desire for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible.", "Bin Laden was concerned about having so many operatives in the United States.", "Atta confirmed that all the muscle hijackers had arrived in the United States, without any problems, but said that he needed five to six more weeks to work out details.", "Bin Laden also asked that other operatives not be informed of the specific data until the last minute.", "During the meeting, Atta and bin al-Shibh also decided on the targets to be hit, ruling out a strike on a nuclear plant.", "Bin al-Shibh passed along bin Laden's list of targets; bin Laden wanted the United States Capitol, the Pentagon, and the World Trade Center to be attacked, as they were deemed \"symbols of America.\"", "If any of the hijackers could not reach their intended targets, Atta said, they were to crash the plane.", "They also discussed the personal difficulties Atta was having with fellow hijacker Ziad Jarrah.", "Bin al-Shibh was worried that Jarrah might even abandon the plan.", "The 9/11 Commission Report speculated that the now-convicted terrorist conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui was being trained as a possible replacement for Jarrah.From 13 to 16 July, Atta stayed at the Hotel Sant Jordi in Tarragona.", "After bin al-Shibh returned to Germany on 16 July 2001, Atta had three more days in Spain.", "He spent two nights in Salou at the beachside Casablanca Playa Hotel, then spent the last two nights at the Hotel Residencia Montsant.", "On 19 July, Atta returned to the United States, flying on Delta Air Lines from Madrid to Fort Lauderdale, via Atlanta.=== Final plans in the U.S. ===On 22 July 2001, Atta rented a Mitsubishi Galant from Alamo Rent a Car, putting on the vehicle before returning it on 26 July.", "On 25 July, Atta dropped Ziad Jarrah off at Miami International Airport for a flight back to Germany.", "On 26 July, Atta traveled via Continental Airlines to Newark, New Jersey, checked into the Kings Inn Hotel in Wayne, New Jersey, and stayed there until 30 July when he took a flight from Newark back to Fort Lauderdale.On 4 August, Atta is believed to have been at Orlando International Airport waiting to pick up suspected \"20th Hijacker\" Mohammed al-Qahtani from Dubai, who ended up being held by immigration as \"suspicious.\"", "Atta was believed to have used a payphone at the airport to phone a number \"linked to al-Qaeda\" after Qahtani was denied entry.On 6 August, Atta and Shehhi rented a white, four-door 1995 Ford Escort from Warrick's Rent-A-Car, which was returned on 13 August.", "On 6 August, Atta booked a flight on Spirit Airlines from Fort Lauderdale to Newark, leaving on 7 August and returning on 9 August.", "The reservation was not used and canceled on August 9 with the reason \"Family Medical Emergency\".", "Instead, he went to Central Office & Travel in Pompano Beach to purchase a ticket for a flight to Newark, leaving on the evening of 7 August and scheduled to return in the evening on 9 August.", "Atta did not take the return flight.", "On 7 August, Atta checked into the Wayne Inn in Wayne, New Jersey and checked out on 9 August.", "The same day, he booked a one-way first-class ticket via the Internet on America West Flight 244 from Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport to Las Vegas.", "Atta traveled twice to Las Vegas on \"surveillance flights\" rehearsing how the 9/11 attacks would be carried out.", "Other hijackers traveled to Las Vegas at different times in the summer of 2001.Throughout the summer, Atta met with Nawaf al-Hazmi to discuss the status of the operation on a monthly basis.On 23 August, Atta's driver license was revoked ''in absentia'' after he failed to show up in traffic court to answer the earlier citation for driving without a license.", "The same day, the Mossad gave his name to the CIA as one of 19 US residents suspected of planning an imminent attack against the United States; only four of the names are publicly known, the others being fellow 9/11 hijackers Marwan al-Shehhi, Nawaf al-Hazmi, and Khalid al-Mihdhar.", "It is not known if the 19 names were all those of the hijackers who carried out the 9/11 attacks or if the list length is just a coincidence." ], [ "9/11 attacks and death", "Atta (blue shirt) and Omari in the Portland International Jetport in Portland, Maine, on the morning of 11 SeptemberOn 10 September 2001, Atta picked up al-Omari from the Milner Hotel in Boston, Massachusetts, and the two drove their rented Nissan Altima to a Comfort Inn in South Portland, Maine.", "On the way, they were seen getting gasoline at an Exxon gas station and visited the Longfellow House in Portland that afternoon; they arrived at the hotel at 5:43 p.m. and spent the night in Room 233.While in South Portland, they were seen making two ATM withdrawals and stopping at Wal-Mart.", "The FBI also reported that \"two middle-eastern men\" were seen in the parking lot of a Pizza Hut, where Atta is known to have eaten that day.Atta and al-Omari arrived early the next morning, at 5:40 a.m., at the Portland International Jetport, where they left their rental car in the parking lot and boarded at 6:00 a.m. a Colgan Air (US Airways Express) BE-1900C flight to Logan International Airport in Boston.", "In Portland, Mohamed Atta was selected by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS), which required his checked bags to undergo extra screening for explosives but involved no extra screening at the passenger security checkpoint.The connection between the two flights at Logan International Airport was within Terminal B, but the two gates were not connected within security.", "Passengers must leave the secured area, go outdoors, cross a covered roadway, and enter another building before going through security once again.", "There are two separate concourses in Terminal B; the south concourse is mainly used by US Airways and the north one is mostly used by American Airlines.", "It had been overlooked that there would still be a security screen to pass in Boston because of this distinct detail of the terminal's arrangement.", "A ticket staffer at Portland Airport reported becoming uneasy with Atta's anger upon being told of the additional screening requirements in Boston, but that he did not act on his suspicions after becoming concerned that he was racially profiling Atta.", "At 6:45 a.m., while at the Boston airport, Atta took a call from Flight 175 hijacker Marwan al-Shehhi.", "This call was apparently to confirm that the attacks were ready to begin.", "Atta checked in for American Airlines Flight 11, passed through security again, and boarded the flight.", "Atta was seated in business class, in seat 8D.", "At 7:59 a.m., the plane departed from Boston to Los Angeles International Airport, carrying 81 passengers.The hijacking began fifteen minutes into the flight at approximately 8:14 a.m., when beverage service would be starting.", "As this was happening, the pilots stopped responding to air traffic control and the aircraft began deviating from its assigned route; the plane's transponder was switched off several minutes later at 8:21 a.m.", "The pilots of United Airlines Flight 175 picked up on a suspicious transmission while leaving the runway around the same time Flight 11 was being hijacked, reportedly hearing the words, \"Everyone, stay in your seats.\"", "Investigators later determined that this communication was made from the cockpit of Flight 11.This transmission was never heard by ATC, but the context suggests Atta was the one speaking.", "On the phone with American Airlines after the hijackers had assumed control of the plane, flight attendant Betty Ong reported that the cockpit was unresponsive and inaccessible.At 8:24:38 a.m., a voice believed to be Atta's was heard by air traffic controllers, saying: \"We have some planes.", "Just stay quiet and you will be OK. We are returning to the airport.\"", "Evidently, he tried to deliver a message instructing the passengers and crew to stay put over the cabin's PA system, but pressed the wrong switch and thereby tipped off ATC that the flight had been hijacked.", "Seconds later he transmitted another message: \"Nobody move, everything will be OK.", "If you try to make any moves you'll endanger yourself and the airplane.", "Just stay quiet.\"", "About a minute later, he turned the plane southbound, on a course pointed in the direction of New York City.", "Atta was not heard from again for nine minutes until 8:33:59 when he transmitted, \"Nobody move, please.", "We are going back to the airport.", "Don't try to make any stupid moves.\"", "This was the last transmission from Flight 11.The burning and catastrophically damaged North Tower just minutes after being struck by American Airlines Flight 11.Twelve minutes later, at 8:46:40 a.m., Atta crashed the plane into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City between floors 93 and 99, committing suicide and killing all passengers aboard the plane.", "Hundreds more inside the North Tower were also killed instantly, while the damage Atta had done to the building severed all escape routes from Floor 92 and higher, trapping more than 800 survivors of the crash in the upper floors of a burning quarter-mile high skyscraper, and ensuring that no one above the 91st floor was able to make it out alive before the tower collapsed 102 minutes later at 10:28 a.m.Because the flight from Portland to Boston had been delayed, Atta's luggage did not make it onto Flight 11.His bags were later recovered in Logan International Airport, and were found to have contained airline uniforms, flight manuals, and other items.", "The luggage included a copy of Atta's will, written in Arabic, as well as a list of instructions, called \"The Last Night\".", "This document is divided into three sections; the first is a fifteen point list providing detailed instructions for the last night of a martyr's life, the second gives instructions for travelling to the plane and the third from the time between boarding the plane and martyrdom.", "Almost all of these points discuss spiritual preparation, such as prayer and citing religious scripture." ], [ "Family reaction and denial", "Atta's father vehemently rejected allegations his son was involved in the 9/11 attacks, and instead accused the Mossad and the United States government of having a hand in framing his son.", "Atta Sr. rejected media reports that stated his son was drinking wildly, and instead described his son as a quiet boy uninvolved with politics, shy and devoted to studying architecture.", "The elder Mr. Atta said he had spoken with Mohamed by phone the day after on 12 September 2001.He held interviews with the German news magazine ''Bild am Sonntag'' in late 2002, saying his son was alive and hiding in fear for his life, and that American Christians were responsible for the attacks.", "In an interview on 24 September 2001, Atta Sr. stated, \"My son is gone.", "He is now with God.", "The Mossad killed him.", "\"In 2021, on the 20th anniversary of the attacks, Atta's mother was interviewed by a Spanish newspaper.", "His mother, aged 79 at the time, denied her son's involvement in the attacks and said that she feels he is in Afghanistan." ], [ "Mistaken identity", "In the aftermath of 9/11 attacks, the names of the hijackers were released.", "There was some confusion regarding who Mohamed Atta was, and cases of mistaken identity.", "Initially, Mohamed Atta's identity was confused with that of a native Jordanian, Mahmoud Mahmoud Atta, who bombed an Israeli bus in the West Bank in 1986, killing one and severely injuring three.", "Mahmoud Atta was 14 years older than Atta.", "Mahmoud Atta, a naturalized U.S. citizen, was subsequently deported from Venezuela to the United States, extradited to Israel, tried and sentenced to life in prison.", "The Israeli Supreme Court later overturned his extradition and set him free.", "After the attacks, there were also reports stating that Mohamed Atta had attended the International Officers School at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama.", "''The Washington Post'' quoted a United States Air Force official who explained, \"discrepancies in their biographical data, such as birth dates 20 years off, indicate we are probably not talking about the same people.", "\"=== Prague controversy ===In the months following the 11 September attacks, officials at the Czech Interior Ministry asserted that Atta made a trip to Prague on 8 April 2001, to meet with an Iraqi intelligence agent named Ahmed Khalil Ibrahim Samir al-Ani.", "This piece of information was passed on to the FBI as \"unevaluated raw intelligence\".", "Intelligence officials have concluded that such a meeting did not occur.", "A Pakistani businessman named Mohammed Atta had come to Prague from Saudi Arabia on 31 May 2000, with this second Atta possibly contributing to the confusion.", "The Egyptian Mohamed Atta arrived at the Florenc bus terminal in Prague, from Germany, on 2 June 2000.He left Prague the next day, flying on Czech Airlines to Newark, New Jersey, U.S.", "In the Czech Republic, some intelligence officials say the source of the purported meeting was an Arab informant who approached the Czech intelligence service with his sighting of Atta only after Atta's photograph had appeared in newspapers all over the world.", "United States and Czech intelligence officials have since concluded that the person seen with Ani was mistakenly identified as Atta, and the consensus of investigators is that Atta never attended a meeting in Prague.=== Able Danger ===In 2005, Army Lt. Col. Anthony Shaffer and Congressman Curt Weldon alleged that the Defense Department data mining project, Able Danger, produced a chart that identified Atta, along with Nawaf al-Hazmi, Khalid al-Mihdhar, and Marwan al-Shehhi, as members of a Brooklyn-based al-Qaeda cell in early 2000.Shaffer largely based his allegations on the recollections of Navy Captain Scott Phillpott, who later recanted his recollection, telling investigators that he was \"convinced that Atta was not on the chart that we had.\"", "Phillpott said that Shaffer was \"relying on my recollection 100 percent,\" and the Defense Department Inspector General's report indicated that Philpott \"may have exaggerated knowing Atta's identity because he supported using Able Danger's techniques to fight terrorism.", "\"Five witnesses who had worked on Able Danger and had been questioned by the Defense Department's Inspector General later told investigative journalists that their statements to the IG were distorted by investigators in the final IG's report, or the report omitted essential information that they had provided.", "The alleged distortions of the IG report centered around excluding any evidence that Able Danger had identified and tracked Atta years before 9/11.Lt.", "Col. Shaffer's book also clearly indicates direct identification of the Brooklyn cell, and Mohamed Atta." ], [ "Assessment and motivation", "There are multiple, conflicting explanations for Atta's behavior and motivation.", "Political psychologist Jerrold Post has suggested that Atta and his fellow hijackers were just following orders from al-Qaeda leadership, \"and whatever their destructive, charismatic leader Osama bin Laden said was the right thing to do for the sake of the cause was what they would do.\"", "American political scientist Robert Pape asserts that Atta was motivated by his commitment to the political cause, that he was psychologically normal, and that he was \"not readily characterized as depressed, not unable to enjoy life, not detached from friends and society.\"", "By contrast, criminal justice professor, Adam Lankford, has found evidence that indicated Atta was suicidal, and that his struggles with social isolation, depression, guilt, shame, hopelessness, and rage were extraordinarily similar to the struggles of those who commit conventional suicide and murder-suicide.", "By this view, Atta's political and religious beliefs affected the method of his suicide and his choice of target, but they were not the underlying causes of his behavior.On 1 October 2006, ''The Sunday Times'' released a video it had obtained \"through a previously tested channel\", purporting to show Mohamed Atta and Ziad Jarrah recording a martyrdom message at a training camp in Afghanistan.", "The video, bearing the date of 18 January 2000, is of good resolution but contains no sound track.", "Lip readers have failed to decipher it.", "Atta and Jarrah appear in high spirits, laughing and smiling in front of the camera.", "They had never been pictured together before.", "Unidentified sources from both Al-Qaeda and the United States confirmed the video's authenticity.", "A separate section of the video shows Osama bin Laden addressing his followers at a complex near Kandahar.", "Ramzi bin al-Shibh is also identified in the video.", "According to ''The Sunday Times'', \"American and German investigators have struggled to find evidence of Atta's whereabouts in January 2000 after he disappeared from Hamburg.", "The hour-long tape places him in Afghanistan at a decisive moment in the development of the conspiracy when he was given operational command.", "Months later both he and Jarrah enrolled at flying schools in America.\"" ], [ "See also", "* PENTTBOM" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ******* ''The 9/11 Commission Report'', (W.W. Norton & Company) * *" ], [ "External links", "* Interviews with those who interacted with Atta prior to 9/11 from Australian ABC TV's \"A Mission To Die For\" TV programme* October 2001 interview with Dittmar Machule – Machule was Atta's thesis supervisor at the University of Hamburg-Harburg* Atta's will, written in 1996* Atta's Odyssey – October 2001 biography of Atta printed in ''Time Magazine''* The Last Days of Muhammed Atta – a short story printed in ''The New Yorker''* Documentary series from Court TV (now TruTV) \"MUGSHOTS: Mohammed Atta - Soldier of Terror\" episode (2002) at ''FilmRise''* Last words of a terrorist from the Guardian" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Messerschmitt Me 262" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Messerschmitt Me 262''', nicknamed '''''Schwalbe''''' (German: \"Swallow\") in fighter versions, or '''''Sturmvogel''''' (German: \"Storm Bird\") in fighter-bomber versions, is a fighter aircraft and fighter-bomber that was designed and produced by the German aircraft manufacturer Messerschmitt.", "It was the world's first operational jet-powered fighter aircraft.The design of what would become the Me 262 started in April 1939, before World War II.", "It made its maiden flight on 18 April 1941 with a piston engine, and its first jet-powered flight on 18 July 1942.Progress was delayed by problems with engines, metallurgy, and interference from Luftwaffe chief Hermann Göring and Adolf Hitler.", "The German leader demanded that the Me 262, conceived as a defensive interceptor, be redesigned as ground-attack/bomber aircraft.", "The aircraft became operational with the Luftwaffe in mid-1944.The Me 262 was faster and more heavily armed than any Allied fighter, including the British jet-powered Gloster Meteor.", "The Allies countered by attacking the aircraft on the ground and during takeoff and landing.One of the most advanced WWII combat aircraft, the Me 262 operated as a light bomber, reconnaissance, and experimental night fighter.", "The Me 262 proved an effective dogfighter against Allied fighters; German pilots claimed 542 Allied aircraft shot down, although higher claims have sometimes been made.The aircraft had reliability problems because of strategic materials shortages and design compromises with its Junkers Jumo 004 axial-flow turbojet engines.", "Late-war Allied attacks on fuel supplies also reduced the aircraft's effectiveness.", "Armament production within Germany was focused on more easily manufactured aircraft.", "Ultimately, the Me 262 had little effect on the war because of its late introduction and the small numbers that entered service.Although German use of the Me 262 ended with World War II, the Czechoslovak Air Force operated a small number until 1951.Also, Israel may have used between two and eight Me 262s.", "These were supposedly built by Avia and supplied covertly, and there has been no official confirmations of their use.The aircraft heavily influenced several prototype designs, such as the Sukhoi Su-9 (1946) and Nakajima Kikka.", "Many captured Me 262s were studied and flight-tested by the major powers, and influenced the designs of production aircraft such as the North American F-86 Sabre, MiG-15, and Boeing B-47 Stratojet.", "Several aircraft have survived on static display in museums.", "Some privately built flying reproductions have also been produced; these are usually powered by modern General Electric CJ610 engines." ], [ "Design and development", "===Origins===Several years before World War II, the Germans saw the potential for aircraft powered by the jet engine constructed by Hans von Ohain in 1936.After the successful test flights of the world's first jet aircraft—the Heinkel He 178—within a week of the invasion of Poland which started the conflict, they adopted the jet engine for an advanced fighter aircraft.", "As a result, the Me 262 was already under development as ''Projekt'' 1065 (or P.1065) before the start of the war.", "The project had originated with a request by the ''Reichsluftfahrtministerium'' (RLM, Ministry of Aviation) for a jet aircraft capable of one hour's endurance and a speed of at least .", "Woldemar Voigt headed the design team, with Messerschmitt's chief of development, Robert Lusser, overseeing.During April 1939, initial plans were drawn up and, following their submission in June 1939, the original design was very different from the aircraft that eventually entered service.", "Specifically, it featured wing-root-mounted engines, rather than podded ones.", "The progression of the original design was delayed greatly by technical problems with the new jet engine.", "Originally designed with straight wings, problems arose when the long delayed engines proved heavier than originally promised.", "While waiting for the engines, Messerschmitt moved the engines from the wing roots to underwing pods, allowing them to be changed more readily if needed.", "That turned out to be important, both for availability and maintenance.When it became apparent that the BMW 003 jets would be significantly heavier than anticipated, on 1 March 1940, it was decided that instead of moving the wing backward on its mount, the outer wing would be swept slightly rearwards to 18.5 degrees, to accommodate the change in the centre of gravity and to position the centre of lift properly relative to the centre of mass.", "(The original 35° sweep, proposed by Adolf Busemann, was not adopted.", ")Initially the inboard leading edge retained the straight profile as did the trailing edge of the midsection of the wing.Based on data from the AVA Göttingen and wind tunnel results, the inboard section's leading edge (between the nacelle and wing root) was later swept to the same angle as the outer panels, from the \"V6\" sixth prototype onward throughout volume production.The shallow leading edge sweep of 18.5° may have inadvertently provided an advantage by slightly increasing the critical Mach number however, its Tactical (useable) Mach number remained a relatively modest at Mach 0.82 and both German and British test pilots found that it suffered severe controllability issues as it approached Mach 0.86.The jet engine program was waylaid by a lack of funding, which was primarily due to a prevailing attitude amongst high-ranking officials that the conflict could be won easily with conventional aircraft.", "Among these was Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, who cut the engine development program to just 35 engineers in February 1940 (the month before the first wooden mock-up was completed).", "The aeronautical engineer Willy Messerschmitt sought to maintain mass production of the piston-powered, 1935-origin Bf 109 and the projected Me 209.Major General Adolf Galland had supported Messerschmitt through the early development years, flying the Me 262 himself on 22 April 1943.By that time, the problems with engine development had slowed production of the aircraft considerably.", "One particularly acute problem was the lack of an alloy with a melting point high enough to endure the temperatures involved, a problem that had not been adequately resolved by the end of the war.", "After a November 1941 flight (with BMW 003s) ended in a double flameout, the aircraft made its first successful flight entirely on jet power on 18 July 1942, propelled by a pair of Jumo 004 engines.Hans Guido Mutke's Me 262 A-1a/R7 on display at the Deutsches MuseumLudwig Bölkow was the principal aerodynamicist assigned to work on the design of the Me 262.He initially designed the wing using NACA airfoils modified with an elliptical nose section.", "Later in the design process, these were changed to AVL derivatives of NACA airfoils, the NACA 00011-0.825-35 being used at the root and the NACA 00009-1.1-40 at the tip.The elliptical nose derivatives of the NACA airfoils were used on the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces.", "Wings were of single-spar cantilever construction, with stressed skins, varying from skin thickness at the root to at the tip.", "To expedite construction, save weight, and use fewer strategic materials late in the war, the wing interiors were not painted.", "The wings were fastened to the fuselage at four points, using a pair of and forty-two bolts.During mid-1943, Adolf Hitler envisioned the Me 262 as a ground-attack/bomber aircraft rather than a defensive interceptor.", "The configuration of a high-speed, light-payload ''Schnellbomber'' (\"fast bomber\") was intended to penetrate enemy airspace during the expected Allied invasion of France.", "His edict resulted in the development of (and concentration on) the ''Sturmvogel'' variant.", "Hitler's interference helped to extend the delay in bringing the ''Schwalbe'' into operation; (other factors contributed too; in particular, there were engine vibration problems which needed attention).", "In his memoirs, Albert Speer, then Minister of Armaments and War Production, claimed Hitler originally had blocked mass production of the Me 262, before agreeing in early 1944.Similar criticisms were voiced by Lieutenant General Adolf Galland.", "Hitler rejected arguments that the aircraft would be more effective as a fighter against the Allied bombers destroying large parts of Germany and wanted it as a bomber for revenge attacks.", "According to Speer, Hitler felt its superior speed compared to other fighters of the era meant it could not be attacked, and so preferred it for high altitude straight flying.===Test flights===Test flights began on 18 April 1941, with the Me 262 V1 example, bearing its ''Stammkennzeichen'' radio code letters of PC+UA, but since its intended BMW 003 turbojets were not ready for fitting, a conventional Junkers Jumo 210 engine was mounted in the V1 prototype's nose, driving a propeller, to test the Me 262 V1 airframe.", "When the BMW 003 engines were installed, the Jumo was retained for safety, which proved wise as both 003s failed during the first flight and the pilot had to land using the nose-mounted engine alone.", "The V1 through V4 prototype airframes all possessed what would become an uncharacteristic feature for most later jet aircraft designs, a fully retracting conventional gear setup with a retracting tailwheel—indeed, the very first prospective German \"jet fighter\" airframe design ever flown, the Heinkel He 280, used a retractable tricycle landing gear from its beginnings and flying on jet power alone as early as the end of March 1941.Silhouette of the V3 prototype – V1 through V4 similar.", "Note retracting conventional tail wheel gearThe V3 third prototype airframe, with the code PC+UC, became a true jet when it flew on 18 July 1942 in Leipheim near Günzburg, Germany, piloted by test pilot Fritz Wendel.", "This was almost nine months ahead of the British Gloster Meteor's first flight on 5 March 1943.Its retracting conventional tail wheel gear (similar to other contemporary piston-powered propeller aircraft), a feature shared with the first four Me 262 V-series airframes, caused its jet exhaust to deflect off the runway, with the wing's turbulence negating the effects of the elevators, and the first takeoff attempt was cut short.On the second attempt, Wendel solved the problem by tapping the aircraft's brakes at takeoff speed, lifting the horizontal tail out of the wing's turbulence.", "The first four prototypes (V1-V4) were built with the conventional gear configuration.", "Changing to a tricycle arrangement—a permanently fixed undercarriage on the fifth prototype (V5, code PC+UE), with the definitive fully retractable nosewheel gear on the V6 (with ''Stammkennzeichen'' code VI+AA, from a new code block) and subsequent aircraft corrected this problem.Me 262 cockpitTest flights continued over the next year, but engine problems continued to plague the project, the Jumo 004 being only marginally more reliable than the lower-thrust (7.83 kN/1,760 lbf) BMW 003.Early engines were so short-lived that they frequently needed replacement after only a single flight.", "Airframe modifications were complete by 1942 but, hampered by the lack of engines, serial production did not begin until 1944, and deliveries were low, with 28 Me 262s in June, 59 in July, but only 20 in August.By mid-1943, the Jumo 004A engine had passed several 100-hour tests, with a time between overhauls of 50 hours being achieved.", "However, the Jumo 004A engine proved unsuitable for full-scale production because of its considerable weight and its high utilization of strategic materials (nickel, cobalt, molybdenum), which were in short supply.", "Consequently, the 004B engine was designed to use a minimum amount of strategic materials.", "All high heat-resistant metal parts, including the combustion chamber, were changed to mild steel (SAE 1010) and were protected only against oxidation by aluminum coating.", "The engine represented a design compromise to minimize the use of strategic materials and to simplify manufacture.", "With the lower-quality steels used in the 004B, the engine required overhaul after just 25 hours for a metallurgical test on the turbine.", "If it passed the test, the engine was refitted for a further 10 hours of usage, but 35 hours marked the absolute limit for the turbine wheel.", "Frank Whittle concludes in his final assessment over the two engines: \"it was in the quality of high temperature materials that the difference between German and British engines was most marked\"Operationally, carrying of fuel in two tanks, one each fore and aft of the cockpit; and a ventral fuselage tank beneath, the Me 262 would have a total flight endurance of 60 to 90 minutes.", "Fuel was usually J2 (derived from brown coal), with the option of diesel or a mixture of oil and high octane B4 aviation petrol.", "Fuel consumption was double the rate of typical twin-engine fighter aircraft of the era, which led to the installation of a low-fuel warning indicator in the cockpit that notified pilots when remaining fuel fell below .Unit cost for an Me 262 airframe, less engines, armament, and electronics, was .", "To build one airframe took around 6,400-man-hours." ], [ "Operational history", "===Introduction===On 19 April 1944, ''Erprobungskommando'' 262 was formed at Lechfeld just south of Augsburg, as a test unit (''Jäger Erprobungskommando Thierfelder'', commanded by ''Hauptmann'' Werner Thierfelder) to introduce the Me 262 into service and train a corps of pilots to fly it.", "On 26 July 1944, Leutnant Alfred Schreiber with the 262 A-1a W.Nr.", "130 017 damaged a Mosquito reconnaissance aircraft of No.", "540 Squadron RAF PR Squadron, which was allegedly lost in a crash upon landing at an air base in Italy.", "Other sources state the aircraft was damaged during evasive manoeuvres and escaped.Me 262 A-1a on display at RAF Cosford.", "Major Walter Nowotny was assigned as commander after the death of Thierfelder in July 1944, and the unit redesignated ''Kommando Nowotny''.", "Essentially a trials and development unit, it mounted the world's first jet fighter operations.", "Trials progressed at a slow pace; it was not until August 1944 that initial operational missions were flown against the Allies; the unit made claims for 19 Allied aircraft in exchange for six Me 262s lost.", "Despite orders to stay grounded, Nowotny chose to fly a mission against an enemy bomber formation flying some above, on 8 November 1944.He claimed two P-51Ds destroyed before suffering engine failure at high altitude.", "Then, while diving and trying to restart his engines, he was attacked by other Mustangs, forced to bail out, and died.", "The ''Kommando'' was then withdrawn for further flight training and a revision of combat tactics to optimise the Me 262's strengths.On 26 November 1944, a Me 262A-2a Sturmvogel of III.", "''Gruppe''/KG 51 'Edelweiß' based at Rheine-Hopsten Air Base near Osnabrück was the first confirmed ground-to-air kill of a jet combat aircraft.", "The Me 262 was shot down by a Bofors gun of B.11 Detachment of 2875 Squadron RAF Regiment at the RAF forward airfield of Helmond, near Eindhoven.", "Others were lost to ground fire on 17 and 18 December when the same airfield was attacked at intervals by a total of 18 Me 262s and the guns of 2873 and 2875 Squadrons RAF Regiment damaged several, causing at least two to crash within a few miles of the airfield.", "In February 1945, a B.6 gun detachment of 2809 Squadron RAF Regiment shot down another Me 262 over the airfield of Volkel.", "The final appearance of Me 262s over Volkel was in 1945 when yet another fell to 2809's guns.By January 1945, ''Jagdgeschwader'' 7 (JG 7) had been formed as a pure jet fighter wing, partly based at Parchim, although it was several weeks before it was operational.", "In the meantime, a bomber unit—I ''Gruppe'', ''Kampfgeschwader'' 54 (KG(J) 54)—redesignated as such on 1 October 1944 through being re-equipped with, and trained to use the Me 262A-2a fighter-bomber for use in a ground-attack role.", "However, the unit lost 12 jets in action in two weeks for minimal returns.", "''Jagdverband 44'' (JV 44) was another Me 262 fighter unit, of squadron (''Staffel'') size given the low numbers of available personnel, formed in February 1945 by Lieutenant General Adolf Galland, who had recently been dismissed as Inspector of Fighters.", "Galland was able to draw into the unit many of the most experienced and decorated Luftwaffe fighter pilots from other units grounded by lack of fuel.Me 262 A in 1945During March, Me 262 fighter units were able, for the first time, to mount large-scale attacks on Allied bomber formations.", "On 18 March 1945, thirty-seven Me 262s of JG 7 intercepted a force of 1,221 bombers and 632 escorting fighters.", "They shot down 12 bombers and one fighter for the loss of three Me 262s.", "Although a 4:1 ratio was exactly what the Luftwaffe would have needed to make an impact on the war, the absolute scale of their success was minor, as it represented only 1% of the attacking force.In the last days of the conflict, Me 262s from JG 7 and other units were committed in ground assault missions, in an attempt to support German troops fighting Red Army forces.", "Just south of Berlin, halfway between Spremberg and the German capital, the Wehrmacht's 9th Army (with elements from the 12 Army and 4th Panzer Army) was assaulting the Red Army's 1st Ukrainian Front.", "To support this attack, on 24 April, JG 7 dispatched thirty-one Me 262s on a strafing mission in the Cottbus-Bautzen area.", "Luftwaffe pilots claimed six lorries and seven Soviet aircraft, but three German jets were lost.", "On the evening of 27 April, thirty-six Me 262s from JG 7, III.KG(J)6 and KJ(J)54 were sent against Soviet forces that were attacking German troops in the forests north-east of Baruth.", "They succeeded in strafing 65 Soviet lorries, after which the Me 262s intercepted low flying Il-2 Sturmoviks searching for German tanks.", "The jet pilots claimed six Sturmoviks for the loss of three Messerschmitts.", "During operations between 28 April and 1 May Soviet fighters and ground fire downed at least ten more Me 262s from JG 7.However, JG 7 managed to keep its jets operational until the end of the war.", "And on 8 May, at around 4:00 p.m.", "''Oblt.''", "Fritz Stehle of 2./JG 7, while flying a Me 262 on the Ore Mountains, attacked a formation of Soviet aircraft.", "He claimed a Yakovlev Yak-9, but the plane shot down was probably a P-39 Airacobra.", "Soviet records show that they lost two Airacobras, one of them probably downed by Stehle, who would thus have scored the last Luftwaffe air victory of the war.FuG 218 ''Neptun'' antennae in the nose and second seat for a radar operator.", "This airframe was surrendered to the RAF at Schleswig in May 1945 and tested in the UKSeveral two-seat trainer variants of the Me 262, the Me 262 B-1a, had been adapted through the ''Umrüst-Bausatz 1'' factory refit package as night fighters, complete with on-board FuG 218 ''Neptun'' high-VHF band radar, using ''Hirschgeweih'' (\"stag's antlers\") antennae with a set of dipole elements shorter than the ''Lichtenstein SN-2'' had used, as the B-1a/U1 version.", "Serving with 10.", "''Staffel'' ''Nachtjagdgeschwader'' 11, near Berlin, these few aircraft (alongside several single-seat examples) accounted for most of the 13 Mosquitoes lost over Berlin in the first three months of 1945.Intercepts were generally or entirely made using ''Wilde Sau'' methods, rather than AI radar-controlled interception.", "As the two-seat trainer was largely unavailable, many pilots made their first jet flight in a single-seater without an instructor.Despite its deficiencies, the Me 262 clearly marked the beginning of the end of piston-engined aircraft as effective fighting machines.", "Once airborne, it could accelerate to speeds over , about faster than any Allied fighter operational in the European Theater of Operations.The Me 262's top ace was probably ''Hauptmann'' Franz Schall with 17 kills, including six four-engine bombers and ten P-51 Mustang fighters, although fighter ace ''Oberleutnant'' Kurt Welter claimed 25 Mosquitos and two four-engine bombers shot down by night and two further Mosquitos by day.", "Most of Welter's claimed night kills were achieved by eye, even though Welter had tested a prototype Me 262 fitted with FuG 218 ''Neptun'' radar.", "Another candidate for top ace on the aircraft was ''Oberstleutnant'' Heinrich Bär, who is credited with 16 enemy aircraft while flying Me 262s out of his total of 240 aircraft shot down.===Anti-bomber tactics===The Me 262 was so fast that German pilots needed new tactics to attack Allied bombers.", "In a head-on attack, the combined closing speed of about was too high for accurate shooting with the relatively slow firing 30mm MK 108 cannon - at about 650 rounds/min this gave around 44 rounds per second from all four guns.", "Even from astern, the closing speed was too great to use the short-ranged cannon to maximum effect.", "A roller-coaster attack was devised, the Me 262s approached from astern and about than the bombers.", "From about behind, they went into a shallow dive that took them through the escort fighters with little risk of interception.", "When they were about astern and below the bombers, they pulled up sharply to reduce speed.", "On levelling off, they were astern and overtaking the bombers at about relative speed, well placed to attack them.Since the short barrels of the MK 108 cannon and low muzzle velocity - - rendered it inaccurate beyond , coupled with the jet's velocity, which required breaking off at to avoid colliding with the target, Me 262 pilots normally commenced firing at .", "Gunners of Allied bomber aircraft found their electrically powered gun turrets had problems tracking the jets.", "Aiming was difficult because the jets closed into firing range quickly and remained in firing position only briefly, using their standard attack profile, which proved more effective.Mock-up of an Me 262A-1a/R7 with R4M underwing rocket racks on display at the Technikmuseum Speyer, GermanyA prominent Royal Navy test pilot, Captain Eric Brown, chief naval test pilot and commanding officer of the Captured Enemy Aircraft Flight Royal Aircraft Establishment, who tested the Me 262 noted that:This was a Blitzkrieg aircraft.", "You whack in at your bomber.", "It was never meant to be a dogfighter, it was meant to be a destroyer of bombers...", "The great problem with it was it did not have dive brakes.", "For example, if you want to fight and destroy a B-17, you come in on a dive.", "The 30mm cannon were not so accurate beyond .", "So you normally came in at and would open fire on your B-17.And your closing speed was still high and since you had to break away at to avoid a collision, you only had two seconds firing time.", "Now, in two seconds, you can't sight.", "You can fire randomly and hope for the best.", "If you want to sight and fire, you need to double that time to four seconds.", "And with dive brakes, you could have done that.Eventually, German pilots developed new tactics to counter Allied bombers.", "Me 262s, equipped with up to 24 unguided folding-fin R4M rockets—12 in each of two underwing racks, outboard of the engine nacelles—approached from the side of a bomber formation, where their silhouettes were widest and while still out of range of the bombers' machine guns, fired a salvo of rockets.", "One or two hits with these rockets could shoot down even the famously rugged Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, from the \"metal-shattering\" brisant effect of the fast-flying rocket's explosive warhead.", "The much bigger BR 21 large-calibre rockets, fired from their tubular launchers under the nose of the Me 262A (one either side of the nosewheel well) were only as fast as MK 108 rounds.Though this broadside-attack tactic was effective, it came too late to have a real effect on the war and only small numbers of Me 262s were equipped with the rocket packs; most were Me 262A-1a models, of ''Jagdgeschwader'' 7.This method of attacking bombers became the standard and mass deployment of Ruhrstahl X-4 guided missiles was cancelled.", "Some nicknamed this tactic the Luftwaffe's Wolf Pack, as the fighters often made runs in groups of two or three, fired their rockets, then returned to base.", "On 1 September 1944, USAAF General Carl Spaatz expressed the fear that if greater numbers of German jets appeared, they could inflict losses heavy enough to force cancellation of the Allied bombing offensive by daylight.===Counter-jet tactics===This airframe, ''Wrknr.", "111711'', was the first Me 262 to come into Allied hands when its German test pilot defected on 31 March 1945.The aircraft was then shipped to the United States for testing.The Me 262 was difficult to counter because its high speed and rate of climb made it hard to intercept.", "However, as with other turbojet engines at the time, the Me 262's engines did not provide sufficient thrust at low airspeeds and throttle response was slow, so that in certain circumstances such as takeoff and landing the aircraft became a vulnerable target.", "Another disadvantage that pioneering jet aircraft of the World War II era shared, was the high risk of compressor stall and if throttle movements were too rapid, the engine(s) could suffer a flameout.", "The coarse opening of the throttle would cause fuel surging and lead to excessive jet pipe temperatures.", "Pilots were instructed to operate the throttle gently and avoid quick changes.", "German engineers introduced an automatic throttle regulator later in the war but it only partly alleviated the problem.The plane had, by contemporary standards, a high wing loading (294.0 kg/m2, 60.2 lbs/ft2) that required higher takeoff and landing speeds.", "Due to poor throttle response, the engines' tendency for airflow disruption that could cause the compressor to stall was ubiquitous.", "The high speed of the Me 262 also presented problems when engaging enemy aircraft, the high-speed convergence allowing Me 262 pilots little time to line up their targets or acquire the appropriate amount of deflection.", "This problem faces any aircraft that approaches another from behind at much higher speed, as the slower aircraft in front can always pull a tighter turn, forcing the faster aircraft to overshoot.Luftwaffe pilots eventually learned how to handle the Me 262's higher speed and the Me 262 soon proved a formidable air superiority fighter, with pilots such as Franz Schall managing to shoot down seventeen enemy fighters in the Me 262, ten of them American North American P-51 Mustangs.", "Me 262 aces included Georg-Peter Eder, with twelve enemy fighters (including nine P-51s) to his credit , Erich Rudorffer also with twelve enemy fighters to his credit, Walther Dahl with eleven (including three Lavochkin La-7s and six P-51s) and Heinz-Helmut Baudach with six (including one Spitfire and two P-51s) amongst many others.Pilots soon learned that the Me 262 was quite maneuverable despite its high wing loading and lack of low-speed thrust, especially if attention was drawn to its effective maneuvering speeds.", "The controls were light and effective right up to the maximum permissible speed and perfectly harmonised.", "The inclusion of full span automatic leading-edge slats, something of a \"tradition\" on Messerschmitt fighters dating back to the original Bf 109's outer wing slots of a similar type, helped increase the overall lift produced by the wing by as much as 35% in tight turns or at low speeds, greatly improving the aircraft's turn performance as well as its landing and takeoff characteristics.", "As many pilots soon found out, the Me 262's clean design also meant that it, like all jets, held its speed in tight turns much better than conventional propeller-driven fighters, which was a great potential advantage in a dogfight as it meant better energy retention in manoeuvres.Me 262 being shot down, as seen from USAAF P-51 Mustang gun camera, January 1945.Note the jettisoned canopy and empty cockpit.Too fast to catch for the escorting Allied fighters, the Me 262s were almost impossible to head off.", "As a result, Me 262 pilots were relatively safe from the Allied fighters, as long as they did not allow themselves to get drawn into low-speed turning contests and saved their maneuvering for higher speeds.", "Combating the Allied fighters could be effectively done the same way as the U.S. fighters fought the more nimble, but slower, Japanese fighters in the Pacific.Allied pilots soon found that the only reliable way to destroy the jets, as with the even faster Me 163B ''Komet'' rocket fighters, was to attack them on the ground or during takeoff or landing.", "As the Me 262A's pioneering Junkers Jumo 004 axial-flow jet engines needed careful nursing by their pilots, these jet aircraft were particularly vulnerable during takeoff and landing.", "Luftwaffe airfields identified as jet bases were frequently bombed by medium bombers, and Allied fighters patrolled over the fields to attack jets trying to land.", "The Luftwaffe countered by installing extensive \"''Flak'' alleys\" of anti-aircraft guns along the approach lines to protect the Me 262s from the ground—and by providing top cover during the jets' takeoff and landing with the most advanced Luftwaffe single-engined fighters, the Focke-Wulf Fw 190D and (just becoming available in 1945) Focke-Wulf Ta 152H.", "Nevertheless, in March–April 1945, Allied fighter patrol patterns over Me 262 airfields resulted in numerous jet losses.Lt.", "Chuck Yeager of the 357th Fighter Group was one of the first American pilots to shoot down an Me 262, which he caught during its landing approach.", "On 7 October 1944, Lt. Urban Drew of the 365th Fighter Group shot down two Me 262s that were taking off, while on the same day Lt. Col. Hubert Zemke, who had transferred to the Mustang equipped 479th Fighter Group, shot down what he thought was a Bf 109, only to have his gun camera film reveal that it may have been an Me 262.On 25 February 1945, Mustangs of the 55th Fighter Group surprised an entire ''Staffel'' of Me 262As at takeoff and destroyed six jets.The British Hawker Tempest scored several kills against the new German jets, including the Me 262.Hubert Lange, a Me 262 pilot, said: \"the Messerschmitt Me 262's most dangerous opponent was the British Hawker Tempest—extremely fast at low altitudes, highly manoeuvrable and heavily armed.\"", "Some were destroyed with a tactic known to the Tempest-equipped No.", "135 Wing RAF as the \"Rat Scramble\": Tempests on immediate alert took off when an Me 262 was reported airborne.", "They did not intercept the jet, but instead flew towards the Me 262 and Ar 234 base at Hopsten air base.", "The aim was to attack jets on their landing approach, when they were at their most vulnerable, travelling slowly, with flaps down and incapable of rapid acceleration.", "The German response was the construction of a \"flak lane\" of over 150 emplacements of the 20 mm ''Flakvierling'' quadruple autocannon batteries at Rheine-Hopsten to protect the approaches.", "After seven Tempests were lost to flak at Hopsten in a week, the \"Rat Scramble\" was discontinued.===High-speed research===Scale model of one of the Me 262 HG III versions at the Technikmuseum Speyer Adolf Busemann had proposed swept wings as early as 1935; Messerschmitt researched the topic from 1940.In April 1941, Busemann proposed fitting a 35° swept wing (''Pfeilflügel II'', literally \"arrow wing II\") to the Me 262, the same wing-sweep angle later used on both the North American F-86 Sabre and Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighter jets.", "Though this was not implemented, he continued with the projected HG II and HG III (''Hochgeschwindigkeit'', \"high-speed\") derivatives in 1944, designed with a 35° and 45° wing sweep, respectively.Interest in high-speed flight, which led him to initiate work on swept wings starting in 1940, is evident from the advanced developments Messerschmitt had on his drawing board in 1944.While the Me 262 V9 ''Hochgeschwindigkeit I'' (HG I) flight-tested in 1944 had only small changes compared to combat aircraft, most notably a low-profile canopy—tried as the ''Rennkabine'' (literally \"racing cabin\") on the ninth Me 262 prototype for a short time—to reduce drag, the HG II and HG III designs were far more radical.", "The projected HG II combined the low-drag canopy with a 35° wing sweep and a V-tail (butterfly tail).", "The HG III had a conventional tail, but a 45° wing sweep and turbines embedded in the wing roots.Messerschmitt also conducted a series of flight tests with the series production Me 262.Dive tests determined that the Me 262 went out of control in a dive at Mach 0.86, and that higher Mach numbers would cause a nose-down trim that the pilot could not counter.", "The resulting steepening of the dive would lead to even higher speeds and the airframe would disintegrate from excessive negative g loads.Messerschmitt believed the HG series of Me 262 derivatives was capable of reaching transonic Mach numbers in level flight, with the top speed of the HG III being projected as Mach 0.96 at altitude.", "After the war, the Royal Aircraft Establishment, at that time one of the leading institutions in high-speed research, re-tested the Me 262 to help with British attempts at exceeding Mach 1.The RAE achieved speeds of up to Mach 0.84 and confirmed the results from the Messerschmitt dive-tests.", "The Soviets ran similar tests.After Willy Messerschmitt's death in 1978, the former Me 262 pilot Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have exceeded Mach 1 on 9 April 1945 in a Me 262 in a \"straight-down\" 90° dive.", "This claim relies solely on Mutke's memory of the incident, which recalls effects other Me 262 pilots observed below the speed of sound at high indicated airspeed, but with no altitude reading required to determine the speed.", "The pitot tube used to measure airspeed in aircraft can give falsely elevated readings as the pressure builds up inside the tube at high speeds.", "The Me 262 wing had only a slight sweep, incorporated for trim (center of gravity) reasons and likely would have suffered structural failure due to divergence at high transonic speeds.", "The Me 262 V9, Werknummer 130 004, with ''Stammkennzeichen'' of VI+AD, was prepared as the HG I test airframe with the low-profile ''Rennkabine'' racing-canopy and may have achieved an unofficial record speed for a turbojet-powered aircraft of , altitude unspecified, even with the recorded wartime airspeed record being set on 6 July 1944, by another Messerschmitt design—the Me 163B V18 rocket fighter setting a record, but landing with a nearly disintegrated rudder surface.===Production===Underground manufacture of Me 262sAbout 1,400 planes were produced, however, less than a hundred Me 262s were in a combat-ready condition at any one time.", "According to sources they destroyed from 300 to 450 enemy planes, with the Allies destroying about one hundred Me 262s in the air.", "While Germany was bombed intensively, production of the Me 262 was dispersed into low-profile production facilities, sometimes little more than clearings in the forests of Germany and occupied countries.", "From the end of February to the end of March 1945, approximately sixty Me 262s were destroyed in attacks on Obertraubling and thirty at Leipheim; the Neuburg jet plant itself was bombed on 19 March 1945.Large, heavily protected underground factories were constructed – as with the partly-buried Weingut I complex for Jumo 004 jet engine production – to take up production of the Me 262, safe from bomb attacks.", "A disused mine complex under the Walpersberg mountain was adapted for the production of complete aircraft.", "These were hauled to the flat top of the hill where a runway had been cleared and flown out.", "Between 20 and 30 Me 262s were built here, the underground factory being overrun by Allied troops before it could reach a meaningful output.", "Wings were produced in Germany's oldest motorway tunnel at Engelberg, to the west of Stuttgart.", "At ''B8 Bergkristall-Esche II'', a vast network of tunnels was excavated beneath St. Georgen/Gusen, Austria, where slave labourers of concentration camp Gusen II produced fully equipped fuselages for the Me 262 at a monthly rate of 450 units on large assembly lines from early 1945.Gusen II was known as one of the harshest concentration camps; the typical life expectancy was six months.", "An estimated 35,000 to 50,000 people died on the forced labour details for the Me 262.===Postwar history===Reproduction of a Me 262 (A-1c) at the Berlin Air Show 2006After the end of the war, the Me 262 and other advanced German technologies were quickly swept up by the Soviets, British and Americans, as part of the USAAF's Operation Lusty.", "Many Me 262s were found in readily repairable condition and were confiscated.", "The Soviets, British and Americans wished to evaluate the technology, particularly the engines.During testing, the Me 262 was found to be faster than the British Gloster Meteor jet fighter, and had better visibility to the sides and rear (mostly due to the canopy frames and the discoloration caused by the plastics used in the Meteor's construction), and was a superior gun platform to the Meteor F.1 which had a tendency to snake at high speed and exhibited \"weak\" aileron response.", "The Me 262 had a shorter range than the Meteor and had less reliable engines.Captain Eric Brown, a British test pilot who flew 487 types of planes during his service, flew a captured Me 262 (as well as other German Second World War jets) after the end of the war.", "He referred to the Me 262 as \"the most formidable aircraft of WW2.\"", "He noted that it had a number of innovatory features, but in terms of performance, was a quantum jump ahead of other planes at the time.", "In particular he noted its swept back wings, its axial flow jet engine, and the four powerful 30mm cannons.", "He stated that it was significantly faster than the fastest Spitfire (at the time) and with that speed \"you could conduct combat totally on your own terms.", "If you didn't want to engage, you could go off and leave everyone standing.", "\"The USAAF compared the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star and Me 262, concluding that the Me 262 was superior in acceleration and speed, with similar climb performance.", "The Me 262 appeared to have a higher critical Mach number than any American fighter.The Americans also tested a Me 262A-1a/U3 unarmed photo reconnaissance version, which was fitted with a fighter nose and a smooth finish.", "Between May and August 1946, the aircraft completed eight flights, lasting four hours and forty minutes.", "Testing was discontinued after four engine changes were required during the course of the tests, culminating in two single-engine landings.", "These aircraft were extensively studied, aiding development of early American, British and Soviet jet fighters.", "The F-86, designed by engineer Edgar Schmued, used a slat design based on the Me 262's.Avia S-92, Kbely Museum, Prague, 2012The Czechoslovak aircraft industry continued to produce single-seat ('''Avia S-92''') and two-seat ('''Avia CS-92''') variants of the Me 262 after World War II.", "From August 1946, a total of nine S-92s and three two-seater CS-92s were completed and test flown.", "They were introduced in 1947 and in 1950 were supplied to the 5th Fighter Squadron, becoming the first jet fighters to serve in the Czechoslovak Air Force.", "These were kept flying until 1951, when they were replaced in service by Soviet jet fighters.", "Both versions are on display at the Prague Aviation museum in Kbely.===Flyable reproductions===Me 262 (A-1c) replica of (A1-a), Berlin Air Show, 2006In January 2003, the American Me 262 Project, based in Everett, Washington, completed flight testing to allow the delivery of partially updated spec reproductions of several versions of the Me 262 including at least two B-1c two-seater variants, one A-1c single-seater and two \"convertibles\" that could be switched between the A-1c and B-1c configurations.", "All are powered by General Electric CJ610 engines and feature additional safety features, such as upgraded brakes and strengthened landing gear.", "The \"c\" suffix refers to the new CJ610 powerplant and has been informally assigned with the approval of the Messerschmitt Foundation in Germany (the Werknummer of the reproductions picked up where the last wartime produced Me 262 left off – a continuous airframe serial number run with a near 60-year production break).Flight testing of the first newly manufactured Me 262 A-1c (single-seat) variant (Werknummer 501244) was completed in August 2005.The first of these machines (Werknummer 501241) went to a private owner in the southwestern United States, while the second (Werknummer 501244) was delivered to the Messerschmitt Foundation at Manching, Germany.", "This aircraft conducted a private test flight in late April 2006 and made its public debut in May at the ILA 2006.The new Me 262 flew during the public flight demonstrations.", "Me 262 Werknummer 501241 was delivered to the Collings Foundation as White 1 of JG 7; this aircraft offered ride-along flights starting in 2008.The third replica, a non-flyable Me 262 A-1c, was delivered to the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in May 2010.Collings Foundation's replica Me 262 B-1a, Marana, Arizona., 2013" ], [ "Variants", "Me 262 variants''Note:-'' U = ''Umrüst-Bausatz'' – conversion kit installed at factory level, denoted as a suffix in the form '''/U''n'''''.", "; Me 262 A-0: Pre-production aircraft fitted with two Jumo 004B turbojet engines, 23 built.", "; Me 262 A-1a \"''Schwalbe''\": Primary production version, usable as both fighter (interceptor) and fighter-bomber.", "; Me 262 A-1a/U1: Single prototype with a total of six nose mounted guns, two MG 151/20 cannon, two MK 103 cannon, and two MK 108 cannon.", "; Me 262 A-1a/U2: Single prototype with FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2 90 MHz radar transceiver and ''Hirschgeweih'' (stag's antlers) antenna array, for trials as a night-fighter.", "; Me 262 A-1a/U3: Reconnaissance version modified in small numbers, with Rb 20/30 cameras mounted in the nose or alternatively one Rb 20/20 and one Rb 75/30 (Rb – ''Reihenbildner'' – series-picture, topographic camera).", "Some retained one MK 108 cannon, but most were unarmed.", "; Me 262 A-1a/U4: Bomber destroyer version, two prototypes with an adapted MK 214 (intended armament) or BK 5 (test ordnance only) anti-tank gun in the nose.", "; Me 262 A-1a/U5: Heavy jet fighter with six MK 108 cannon in the nose.", "; Me 262 A-1b: Trio of A-1a evaluation versions, starting with ''Werknummer'' 170 078, re-engined with two BMW 003A turbojets in place of the Jumo 004s, maximum speed .", "; Me 262 A-2a \"Sturmvogel\": Definitive bomber version retaining only the two lower MK 108 cannon.", "; Me 262 A-2a/U1: Single prototype with advanced bombsight.", "; Me 262 A-2a/U2: Two prototypes with glazed nose for accommodating a bombardier.", "; Me 262 A-3a: Proposed ground-attack version.", "; Me 262 A-4a: Reconnaissance version.", "; Me 262 A-5a: Definitive reconnaissance version used in small numbers at end of the war.", "; Me 262 B-1a: Two-seat trainer.", "; Me 262 B-1a/U1: Me 262 B-1a trainers converted into provisional night fighters, FuG 218 ''Neptun'' radar, with ''Hirschgeweih'' (eng:antler) eight-dipole antenna array.", "; Me 262 B-2: Proposed night fighter version with stretched fuselage.", "; Me 262C: Proposed development prototypes in four differing designs, meant to augment or replace the Jumo 004 jets with liquid-fueled rocket propulsion, as the \"Home Protector\" (''Heimatschützer'') series.", "; Me 262 C-1a: Single prototype made from Me 262A ''Werknummer'' 130 186 of rocket-boosted interceptor (''Heimatschützer'' I) with Walter HWK 109-509 liquid-fuelled rocket in the tail, first flown with combined jet/rocket power on 27 February 1945.; Me 262 C-2b: Single prototype made from Me 262A ''Werknummer'' 170 074 of rocket-boosted interceptor (''Heimatschützer'' II) with two BMW 003R \"combined\" powerplants (BMW 003 turbojet, with a single thrust BMW 109-718 liquid-fuelled rocket engine mounted atop the rear of each jet exhaust) for boosted thrust, only flown once with combined jet/rocket power on 26 March 1945.;Me 262 C-3: ''Heimatschützer III'' – proposed version with Jumo 004 turbojet engines replaced with Walter HWK RII-211 Liquid-fuelled rocket engines.", "; Me 262 C-3a: ''Heimatschützer IV'' - a rocket-boosted interceptor with a Walter HWK 109-509S-2 rocket motor housed in a permanent belly pack.", "Prototypes and initial production aircraft were captured before completion.", "; Me 262 D-1: Proposed variant to carry ''Jagdfaust'' mortars.", "; Me 262 E-1: Proposed variant based on A-1a/U4 with a MK 114 cannon.", "; Me 262 E-2: Proposed rocket-armed variant carrying up to 48 × R4M rockets.", "; Me 262 HG-I: \"High Speed\" variant, modified A-1a with new \"racing\" style cockpit and additional pieces were added to wing roots at the front.", "; Me 262 HG-II: Second \"High Speed\" variant, more heavily modified A-1a with \"racing\" style cockpit and wings swept at 35-degree angle and engine nacelles were moved closer to fuselage.", "A new butterfly V-shaped tail was tested but was too unstable in wind tunnel tests, so normal tail was kept.", "; Me 262 HG-III: Proposed Third \"High Speed\" variant, only progressed to wind tunnel model stage.", "This was the last and the pinnacle of the Me 262 aerodynamical possibility, which would have been built from the ground up as a new Me 262 instead of modifying older ones.", "In the Me 262 HG-III, its wings were swept at 45 degrees, it also had the \"racing\" style cockpit, but the largest change was the moving of the engine nacelles right into the fuselage side and changing the engines to the more powerful Heinkel HeS 011 engines.", "; Me 262 S: Zero-series model for Me 262 A-1a; Me 262 W-1: Provisional designation for Me 262 with 2x Argus As 014 pulse jet engines; Me 262 W-3: Provisional designation for Me 262 with 2x \"square-intake\" Argus As 044 pulse jet engines; Me 262 Lorin: Provisional designation for Me 262 with 2x ''Lorin'' ramjet booster engines in \"over-wing\" mounts, one above each of the Jumo turbojet nacelles.===Rüstsätze (field modification kits)===Rüstsatze may be applied to various sub-types of their respective aircraft type, denoted as a suffix in the form '''/R''n'''''.Data from: Messerschmitt Me 262A Schwalbe:'''/R1''': Underfuselage pylon for external fuel tank.", ":'''/R2''': Ratog installation for two Rheinmetall 109-502 solid rocket engines.", ":'''/R3''': BMW 003R rocket boosted turbojet installation.", ":'''/R4''': Installation of the FuG 350 Zc Naxos radar warning receiver / detector.", ":'''/R5''': The standard 4x MK 108 cannon installation.", ":'''/R6''': Jabo (JagdBomber) equipment, such as bombsights and bomb racks.", ":'''/R7''': Underwing installation of 12x R4M rockets carried on wooden racks.", ":'''/R8''': R110BS Air to air rocket installation.", ":'''/R9''': Ruhrstahl Ru 344 X-4 air-to-air missile installation.===Postwar variants===; Avia S-92: Czech-built Me 262 A-1a (fighter); Avia CS-92: Czech-built Me 262 B-1a (fighter trainer, two seats)===Reproductions===A series of reproductions was constructed by American company Legend Flyers (later Me 262 Project) of Everett, Washington.", "The Jumo 004 engines of the original are replaced by more reliable General Electric CJ610 engines.", "The first Me 262 reproduction (a two-seater) took off for the first time in December 2002 and the second one in August 2005.This one was delivered to the Messerschmitt Foundation and was presented at the ILA airshow in 2006.:'''A-1c''': American privately built, based on A-1a configuration.", ":'''B-1c''': American privately built, based on B-1a configuration.", ":'''A/B-1c''': American privately built, convertible between A-1c and B-1c configuration.==Operators==* Luftwaffe* Czechoslovak Air Force (postwar, nine S-92 and three CS-92)" ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "Me 262A-2a (Black X), Australia, 2012Me 262B-1a/U1 (Red 8), South Africa, 2008Me 262 B-1a (White 35), at Willow Grove, Pa., in 2007; relocated to and on display in Pensacola, FloridaMe 262A and its Junkers Jumo 004 turbojet engine (Yellow 5), NMUSAF-Dayton, 2007; Me 262 A-1a/R7, W.Nr.500071 ''White 3'', III./JG 7: Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany.", "This aircraft, flown by Hans Guido Mutke while a pilot of 9.Staffel/''JG'' 7, was confiscated by Swiss authorities on 25 April 1945 after Mutke made an emergency landing in Switzerland due to lack of fuel (80 litres were remaining, 35 litres were usually burnt in one minute).", "; Me 262 A-1a: Reconstructed from parts of crashed and incomplete Me 262s.", "Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, Germany.", "; Me 262 A-1a W.Nr.501232 ''Yellow 5'', 3./KG(J)6: National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, US.", "; Me 262 A-1a/U3 W.Nr.500453: Flying Heritage Collection, Everett, Washington, United States, currently undergoing restoration to flying condition.", "It is intended to fly using its original Jumo 004 engines.", "The aircraft was bought from the Planes of Fame Air Museum, Chino, California.", "; Me 262 A-1a/R7 W.Nr.500491 ''Yellow 7'', II./JG 7: National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., United States.", "Possesses twin original underwing racks for 24 R4M unguided rockets.", "Flown by ''Oberfeldwebel'' Heinz Arnold; Me 262 A-1a W.Nr.112372: Royal Air Force Museum Cosford RAF Cosford, Cosford, United Kingdom.", "; Me 262 A-2a W.Nr.500200 ''Black X 9K+XK'', 2 ''Staffel''./KG 51: Australian War Memorial, Canberra, Australia.", "Built at Regensburg in March 1945, same batch from which the Deutsches Museum ''White 3'' was built.", "Flown by Fahnenjunker Oberfeldwebel Fröhlich and surrendered at Fassberg.", "It remains the only Me 262 left in existence wearing original (albeit worn, as seen in the picture) colours.", "Its markings show both the Unit signatures along with the Air Ministry colours applied at Farnborough, where it was allocated reference ''Air Min 81''.", "Restoration was completed in 1985 and the aircraft was put up on display.", "The Australian War Memorial's website states that the aircraft \"is the only Me 262 bomber variant to survive, and is the only remaining Me 262 wearing its original paint\".", "; Me 262 B-1a/U1, W.Nr.110305 ''Red 8'': South African National Museum of Military History, Johannesburg, South Africa.", "; Me 262 B-1a, W.Nr.110639 ''White 35'': National Museum of Naval Aviation, Pensacola, Florida (previously at NAS/JRB Willow Grove, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, US); Avia S-92: Prague Aviation Museum, Kbely, Prague, Czech Republic.", "; Avia CS-92: Prague Aviation Museum, Kbely, Prague, Czech Republic." ], [ "Specifications (Messerschmitt Me 262 A-1a)", "3-view drawing of the Me 262" ], [ "Notable appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Gun camera footage of US 8th Airforce engagements against Me-262s" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Masuria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Masuria''' (, , Masurian: ''Mazurÿ'') is an ethnographic and geographic region in northern and northeastern Poland, known for its 2,000 lakes.", "Masuria occupies much of the Masurian Lake District.", "Administratively, it is part of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (administrative area/province).", "Its biggest city, often regarded as its capital, is Ełk.", "The region covers a territory of some 10,000 km2 which is inhabited by approximately 500,000 people.Masuria is bordered by Warmia, Powiśle and Chełmno Land in the west, Mazovia in the south, Podlachia and Suwałki Region in the east, and Lithuania Minor in the north." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory and early history ===Some of the earliest archeological finds in Masuria were found at Dudka and Szczepanki sites and belonged to the subneolithic Zedmar culture.", "Indo-European settlers first arrived in the region during the 4th millennium BC, which in the Baltic would diversify into the satem Balto-Slavic branch which would ultimately give rise to the Balts as the speakers of the Baltic languages.", "The Balts would have become differentiated into Western and Eastern Balts in the late 1st millennium BC.", "The region was inhabited by ancestors of Western Balts – Old Prussians, Sudovians/Jotvingians, Scalvians, Nadruvians, and Curonians while the eastern Balts settled in what is now Lithuania, Latvia and Belarus.The Greek explorer Pytheas (4th century BC) may have referred to the territory as ''Mentenomon'' and to the inhabitants as ''Guttones'' (neighbours of the ''Teutones'', probably referring to the Goths).", "In AD 98 Tacitus described one of the tribes living near the Baltic Sea () as ''Aestiorum gentes'' and amber-gatherers.=== Old Prussians ===Before the 13th century, the territory was inhabited by Old (Baltic) Prussians, a Baltic ethnic group that lived in Prussia (the area of the southeastern coastal region of the Baltic Sea neighbouring of the Baltic Sea around the Vistula Lagoon and the Curonian Lagoon).", "The territory later called Masuria was then known as Galindia and was probably a peripheral, deeply forested and lightly populated area.", "Its inhabitants spoke a language now known as Old Prussian and had their own mythology.", "Although a 19th-century German political entity bore their name, they were not Germans.", "They were converted to Roman Catholicism in the 13th century, after conquest by the Knights of the Teutonic Order.Estimates range from about 170,000 to 220,000 Old Prussians living in the whole of Prussia around 1200.The wilderness was their natural barrier against attack by would-be invaders.", "During the Northern Crusades of the early 13th century, the Old Prussians used this wide forest as a broad zone of defence.", "They did so again against the Knights of the Teutonic Order, who had been invited to Poland by Konrad I of Masovia in 1226.The order's goal was to convert the native population to Christianity and baptise it by force if necessary.", "In the subsequent conquest, which lasted over 50 years, the original population was partly exterminated, particularly during the major Prussian rebellion of 1261–83.But several Prussian noble families also accommodated the Knights in order to hold their power and possessions.=== Teutonic Order ===Brick Gothic Saint George Basilica in Kętrzyn, northern MasuriaAfter the Order's acquisition of Prussia, Poles (or more specifically, Mazurs, that is inhabitants of the adjacent region of Mazovia) began to settle in the southeastern part of the conquered region.", "German, Dutch, Flemish, and Danish colonists entered the area afterward, from the northwest.", "The number of Polish settlers grew significantly again at the beginning of the 15th century, especially after the first and the second treaties of Thorn (Toruń), in 1411 and 1466 respectively, following the Thirteen Years' War and the final defeat of the order.", "The Battle of Grunwald took place in western Masuria in 1410.It was one of the largest battles of medieval Europe and ended in a Polish-Lithuanian victory over the Teutonic Knights.", "In 1440 the anti-Teutonic Prussian Confederation was founded, and various towns of Masuria joined it.", "Western Masuria with Ostróda, was, next to the Chełmno Land, the place of the most widespread participation of the nobility in the foundation of the Confederation.", "In 1454 upon the Confederation's request King Casimir IV of Poland signed the act of incorporation of the entire region including Masuria to Poland and after the subsequent Thirteen Years' War Masuria became a part of Poland as a fief held by the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order.", "Later assimilation of the German settlers as well as the Polish immigrants and native Prussian inhabitants created the new Prussian identity, although the subregional difference between the German- and Polish-speaking part remained.The Battle of Grunwald was fought in Masuria in 1410=== Ducal Prussia ===The secularization of the Teutonic Order in Prussia and the conversion of Albert of Prussia to Lutheranism in 1525 brought Prussia including the area later called Masuria to Protestantism.", "The Knights untied their bonds to the Catholic Church and became land-owning noblemen and the Duchy of Prussia was established as a vassal state of Poland.", "The Polish language predominated due to the many immigrants from Mazovia, who additionally settled the southern parts of Ducal Prussia, till then virgin part of (later Masuria) in the 16th century.", "While the southern countryside was inhabited by these - meanwhile Protestant - Polish-speakers, the very small southern towns constituted a mixed Polish and German-speaking population.", "The ancient Old Prussian language survived in parts of the countryside in the northern and central parts of Ducal Prussia until the early 18th century.", "At that time they proved to be assimilated into the mass of German-speaking villagers and farmers.", "Areas that had many Polish language speakers were known as the Polish Departments.Saint Mary's Sanctuary in Święta Lipka at the border of historical Warmia and Masuria was consecrated by Jesuits in 1619.It was once the site of apparitions and miracles and is one of Poland's finest examples of Baroque architecture, listed as a Historic Monument of Poland.Masuria became one of the leading centers of Polish Protestantism.", "In the mid-16th century Lyck (Ełk) and Angerburg (Węgorzewo) became significant Polish printing centers.", "A renowned Polish high school, which attracted Polish students from different regions, was founded in Ełk in eastern Masuria in 1546 by Hieronim Malecki, Polish translator and publisher, who contributed to the creation of the standards and patterns of the Polish literary language.", "The westernmost part of Masuria, the Osterode (Ostróda) county, in 1633 came under the administration of one of the last dukes of the Piast dynasty, John Christian of Brieg.In 1656, during the Battle of Prostki, the forces of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, including 2,000 Tatar raiders, beat the allied Swedish and Brandenburg army capturing Bogusław Radziwiłł.", "The war resulted in the destruction of most towns, 249 villages and settlements, and 37 churches were destroyed.", "Over 50% of the population of Masuria died within the years 1656–1657, 23,000 were killed, another 80,000 died of diseases and famine, and 3,400 people were enslaved and deported to Russia.", "'''^''' Jacek Płosiński, ''Potop szwedzki na Podlasiu 1655-1657'', Inforteditions Publishing, 2006.From 1709 to 1711, in all of Ducal Prussia between 200,000 and 245,000 out of 600,000 inhabitants died from the Black Death.", "In Masuria the death toll varied regionally; while 6,789 people died in the district of Rhein (Ryn) only 677 died in Seehesten (Szestno).", "In Lötzen (Giżycko) 800 out of 919 people died.", "Losses in population were compensated by migration of Protestant settlers or refugees from Scotland, Salzburg (expulsion of Protestants 1731), France (Huguenot refugees after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685), and especially from the counterreformed Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, including Polish brethren expelled from Poland in 1657.The last group of refugees to emigrate to Masuria were the Russian Philipons (as 'Old Believers' opposed to the State Church) in 1830, when King Frederick William III of Prussia granted them asylum.Węgobork (now Węgorzewo), a typical Masurian townAfter the death of Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia in 1618, his son-in-law John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg, inherited the duchy (including Masuria), combining the two territories under a single dynasty and forming Brandenburg-Prussia.", "The Treaty of Wehlau revoked the sovereignty of the King of Poland in 1657.=== Kingdom of Prussia ===The region became part of the Kingdom of Prussia with the coronation of King Frederick I of Prussia in 1701 in Königsberg.", "Masuria became part of a newly created administrative province of East Prussia upon its creation in 1773.The name ''Masuria'' began to be used officially after new administrative reforms in Prussia after 1818.Masurians referred to themselves during that period as \"Polish Prussians\" or as \"Staroprusaki\" (Old Prussians) During the Napoleonic Wars and Polish national liberation struggles, in 1807, several towns of northern and eastern Masuria were taken over by Polish troops under the command of generals Jan Henryk Dąbrowski and Józef Zajączek.", "Some Masurians showed considerable support for the Polish uprising in 1831, and maintained many contacts with Russian-held areas of Poland beyond the border of Prussia, the areas being connected by common culture and language; before the uprising people visited each other's country fairs and much trade took place, with smuggling also widespread.", "Nevertheless, their Lutheran belief and a traditional adherence to the Prussian royal family kept Masurians and Poles separated.", "Some early writers about Masurians - like Max Toeppen - postulated Masurians in general as mediators between German and Slav cultures.Germanisation policies in Masuria included various strategies, first and foremost they included attempts to propagate the German language and to eradicate the Polish (Masurian) language as much as possible; German became the obligatory language in schools from 1834 on.", "The Lutheran churches and their vicars principally exerted their spiritual care in Masurian as concerned to Masurian mother tongue parishioners.Polish secret resistance was active and smuggled weapons through the region to the Russian Partition of Poland during the January Uprising of 1863–1864.Polish insurgents fled from the Russians to Masuria and found shelter in various towns and villages.", "Some insurgents reorganized in Masuria to return to the Russian Partition of Poland and continue the fight.", "Newly formed Polish units from the Prussian Partition of Poland also passed through Masuria, and even clashed with Prussian troops in the region.", "Several local resistance members, smugglers and insurgents were arrested and imprisoned by the Prussians.", "Local residents protested against the deportation of insurgents to the Russian Partition.==== Ethno-linguistic structure ====Mother tongue of the inhabitants of Masuria, by county, during the first half of the 19th century:+Ethno-linguistic structure of Masurian counties in the first half of the 19th century, according to German dataCounty (German name)Year'''Polish-speakers''''''%''''''German-speakers''''''%''''''Lithuanian-speakers''''''%'''Total populationPisz (Johannisburg)182528,552'''93%'''2,146'''7%'''0'''0%'''30,698Nidzica (Neidenburg)182527,467'''93%'''2,149'''7%'''1'''0%'''29,617Szczytno (Ortelsburg)182534,928'''92%'''3,100'''8%'''0'''0%'''38,028Ełk (Lyck)183229,246'''90%'''3,413'''10%'''4'''0%'''32,663Giżycko ('''Lötzen)'''183220,434'''89%'''2,528'''11%'''25'''0%'''22,987Mrągowo (Sensburg)182522,391'''86%'''3,769'''14%'''5'''0%'''26,165Olecko (Oletzko)183223,302'''84%'''4,328'''16%'''22'''0%'''27,652Ostróda (Osterode)182823,577'''72%'''9,268'''28%'''0'''0%'''32,845Węgorzewo (Angerburg)182512,535'''52%'''11,756'''48%'''60'''0%'''24,351Gołdap '''(Goldap)'''18253,940'''16%'''17,412'''70%'''3,559'''14%'''24,911TOTAL1825-32'''226,372'''78%59,86921%3,6761%289,917The Darkehmen/Darkiejmy (now Ozyorsk) and Gołdap counties, as transitional counties between Masuria and the Lithuania Minor region to the north, were inhabited by notable numbers of both ethnic Poles and Lithuanians.=== German Empire ===After the Unification of Germany into the German Empire in 1871, the last lessons that made use of the Polish language were removed from schools in 1872.Masurians who expressed sympathy for Poland were deemed \"national traitors\" by German public opinion, especially after 1918 when the new Polish republic laid claims to, up to then German, areas inhabited by Polish speakers.", "According to Stefan Berger, after 1871 the Masurians in the German Empire were seen in a view that while acknowledging their \"objective\" Polishness (in terms of culture and language) they felt \"subjectively\" German and thus should be tightly integrated into the German nation-state; Berger concludes that such arguments of German nationalists were aimed at integrating Masurian (and Silesian) territory firmly into the German Reich.Prussia with the Masurian region in purple.During the period of the German Empire, the Germanisation policies in Masuria became more widespread; children using Polish in playgrounds and classrooms were widely punished by corporal punishment, and authorities tried to appoint Protestant pastors who would use only German instead of bilinguality and this resulted in protests of local parishioners.", "According to Jerzy Mazurek, the native Polish-speaking population, like in other areas with Polish inhabitants, faced discrimination of Polish language activities from Germanised local administration.", "In this climate a first resistance defending the rights of rural population was organized, according to Jerzy Mazurek usually by some teachers engaged in publishing Polish language newspapers.The town of Kętrzyn was named after Wojciech Kętrzyński in 1946 as part of the region's Polonisation.", "Its previous Polish name was \"Rastembork\".Despite anti-Polish policies, such Polish language newspapers as the ''Pruski Przyjaciel Ludu'' (Prussian Friend of People) or the ''Kalendarz Królewsko-Pruski Ewangelicki'' (Royal Prussian Evangelical Calendar) or bilingual journals like the ''Oletzkoer Kreisblatt - Tygodnik Obwodu Oleckiego'' continued to be published in Masuria.", "In contrast to the Prussian-oriented periodicals, in the late 19th century such newspapers as ''Przyjaciel Ludu Łecki'' and ''Mazur'' were founded by members of the Warsaw-based ''Komitet Centralny dla Śląska, Kaszub i Mazur'' (Central Committee for Silesia, Kashubia and Masuria), influenced by Polish politicians like Antoni Osuchowski or Juliusz Bursche, to strengthen the Polish identity in Masuria.", "The ''Gazeta Ludowa'' (The Folk's Newspaper) was published in Lyck in 1896–1902, with 2,500 copies in 1897 and the ''Mazur'' in Ortelsburg (Szczytno) after 1906 with 500 copies in 1908 and 2,000 prior to World War I.Wojciech Kętrzyński was a Polish historian born in Masuria who expressed that ethnic Masurs are closely related to Poles and emphasized Polish claims on the Masuria region.Polish activists started to regard Masurians as \"Polish brothers\" after Wojciech Kętrzyński had published his pamphlet ''O Mazurach'' in 1872 and Polish activists engaged in active self-help against repressions by the German state Kętrzyński fought against attempts to Germanise MasuriaHowever, the attempts to create a Masurian Polish national consciousness, largely originating from nationalist circles of Province of Posen (Poznań) in the Prussian Partition of Poland, faced the resistance of the Masurians, who, despite having similar folk traditions and linguistics to Poles, regarded themselves as Prussians and later Germans.", "and were loyal to the Hohenzollern dynasty, the Prussian and German state.", "After World War I the editor of the Polish language ''Mazur'' described the Masurians as \"not nationally conscious, on the contrary, the most loyal subjects of the Prussian king\".", "However, a minority of Masurians did exist who expressed Polish identityAfter 1871 there appeared resistance among the Masurians towards Germanisation efforts, the so-called Gromadki movement was formed which supported use of Polish language and came into conflict with German authorities; while most of its members viewed themselves as loyal to the Prussian state, a part of them joined the Pro-Polish faction of Masurians.", "The programme of Germanisation started to unite and mobilise Polish people in Polish-inhabited territories held by Germany including Masuria A Polish-oriented party, the ''Mazurska Partia Ludowa'' (\"People's Party of Masuria\"), was founded in 1897.The eastern areas of the German Empire were systematically Germanised with changing of names and public signs, and the German state fostered cultural imperialism, in addition to giving financial and other support to German farmers, officials, and teachers to settle in the east.The German authorities in their efforts of Germanisation tried to claim the Masurian language separate from Polish by classifying it as a non-Slavic language different from Polish one, this was reflected in official census Thus the Masurian population in 1890, 143,397 was reported to the Prussian census as having German as their language (either primary or secondary), 152,186 Polish and 94,961 Masurian.", "In 1910, the German language was reported by German authorities as used by 197,060, Polish by 30,121 and Masurian by 171,413.Roman Catholics generally opted for the Polish language, Protestants appreciated Masurian.", "In 1925, German authorities reported 40,869 inhabitants as having declared Masurian as their native tongue and 2,297 as Polish.", "However, the last result may have been a result of politics at the time, the desire of the population to be German after the trauma evoked by the 1920 plebiscite.", "So the province could be presented as - so-called - 'purely German'; in reality, the Masurian dialect was still in use among bilinguals.Throughout industrialisation in the late 19th century about 10 percent of the Masurian populace emigrated to the Ruhr Area, where about 180,000 Masurians lived in 1914.Wattenscheid, Wanne and Gelsenkirchen were the centers of Masurian emigration and Gelsenkirchen-Schalke was even called Klein (little)-Ortelsburg before 1914.Masurian newspapers like the ''Przyjaciel Ewangeliczny'' and the ''Gazeta Polska dla Ludu staropruskiego w Westfalii i na Mazurach'' but also the German language ''Altpreußische Zeitung'' were published.Arys (Orzysz)During World War I, the Battle of Tannenberg and the First and Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes between Imperial Germany and the Russian Empire took place within the borders of Masuria in 1914.After the war, the League of Nations held the East Prussian plebiscite on 11 July 1920 to determine if the people of the southern districts of East Prussia wanted to remain within East Prussia or to join the Second Polish Republic.", "The German side terrorised the local population before the plebiscite using violence, Polish organisations and activists were harassed by German militias, and those actions included attacks and some supposed murders of Polish activists; Masurs who supported voting for Poland were singled out and subjected to terror and repressions.Names of those Masurs supporting the Polish side were published in German newspapers, and their photos presented in German shops; afterwards regular hunts were organised after them by German militias terrorizing the Polish minded population.", "At least 3,000 Warmian and Masurian activists who were engaged for the Polish side decided to flee the region.", "At the same time also local police officials were engaged in active surveillance of the Polish minority and attacks against Polish activists.", "Before the plebiscite Poles started to flee the region to escape the German harassment and Germanisation policies.The results determined that 99.32% of the voters in Masuria proper chose to remain with the province of East Prussia.", "Notwithstanding national German agitation and intimidation, these results reflect that majority Masurians had adopted a German national identity next to a regional identity.", "Their traditional religious belief in Lutheranism kept them away from Polish national consciousness, dominated by Roman Catholicism.", "In fact almost only Catholics voted for Poland in the plebiscite.", "They were to be found as a majority in the villages around the capital Allenstein (Olsztyn) in Warmia, the same were Polish cultural activism got hold between 1919 and 1932.However, the contemporary Polish ethnographer Adam Chętnik accused the German authorities of abuses and falsifications during the plebiscite.", "Moreover, the plebiscite took place during the time when Polish–Soviet War threatened to erase the Polish state.", "As a result, even many Poles of the region voted for Germany out of fear that if the area was allocated to Poland it would fall under Soviet rule.", "After the plebiscite in German areas of Masuria attacks on Polish population commenced by German mobs, and Polish priests and politicians were driven from their homes After the plebiscite at least 10,000 Poles had to flee German held Masuria to Poland.=== Interbellum ======= Polish Masuria — the Działdowo county ====Aerial view of DziałdowoThe region of Działdowo (Soldau), where according to the official German census of 1910 ethnic Germans formed a minority of 37.3%, was excluded from the plebiscite and became part of Poland.", "This was reasoned with placing the railway connection between Warsaw and Danzig (Gdańsk), of vital importance to Poland as it connected central Poland with its recently obtained seacoast, completely under Polish sovereignty.", "Działdowo itself counted about 24,000 people of which 18,000 were Masurians.According to the municipal administration of Rybno, after World War I Poles in Działdowo believed that they will be quickly joined with Poland, they organised secret gatherings during which the issue of rejoining Polish state with help of Polish military was discussed.", "According to the Rybno administration, most active Poles in that subregion included Jóżwiakowscy, Wojnowscy, Grzeszczowscy families working under the guidance of politician Leon Wojnowski who protested German attempts to remain Działdowo a part of Germany after the war; other local pro-Polish activists were Alfred Wellenger, Paczyński, Tadeusz Bogdański, Jóźwiakowski.The historian Andreas Kossert describes that the incorporation happened despite protests of the local populace, the municipal authorities and the German Government, According to Kossert, 6,000 inhabitants of the region soon left the area.In 1920, the candidate of the German Party in Poland, Ernst Barczewski, was elected to the Sejm with 74.6 percent of votes and to the Polish Senate with 34.6% of votes for the Bloc of National Minorities in 1928.During the Polish–Soviet War Działdowo was briefly occupied by the Red Army regarded as liberator from the Polish authority by the local German population, which hoisted the German flag, but it was soon recovered by the Polish Army.During the interwar period many native inhabitants of Działdowo subregion left and migrated to Germany.==== Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany ====Fish treating and smoking in Nikolaiken (Mikołajki), 1920sMasuria was the only region of Germany directly affected by the battles of World War I.", "Damaged towns and villages were reconstructed with the aid of several twin towns from western Germany like Cologne to Neidenburg (Nidzica), Frankfurt to Lötzen (Giżycko) and even Vienna to Ortelsburg (Szczytno).", "The architecture still is surprisingly distinct, being of modern Central European character.", "However, Masuria was still largely agrarian-oriented and suffered from the economic decline after World War I, additionally badly affected by the creation of the so-called Polish Corridor, which raised freight costs to the traditional markets in Germany.", "The later implemented Osthilfe had only a minor influence on Masuria as it privileged larger estates, while Masurian farms were generally small.The interwar period was characterised by ongoing Germanisation policies, intensified especially under the Nazis.In the 1920s Masuria remained a heartland of conservatism with the German National People's Party as strongest party.", "The Nazi Party, having absorbed the conservative one, became the strongest party already in the Masurian constituencies in the elections of 1930 and received its best results in the poorest areas of Masuria with the highest rate of Polish speakers.", "Especially in the elections of 1932 and 1933 they reached up to 81 percent of votes in the district of Neidenburg and 80 percent in the district of Lyck.", "The Nazis used the economic crisis, which had significant effects in far-off Masuria, as well as traditional anti-Polish sentiments while at the same time Nazi political rallies were organised in the Masurian dialect during the campaigning.In 1938, the Nazi government (1933–1945) changed thousands of still existing toponyms (especially names of cities and villages) of Old Prussian, Lithuanian and Polish origin to newly created German names; six thousand, that meant about 50% of the existing names were changed, but the countryside population stuck to their traditional names.", "Another renaming would take place after Masuria passed to Poland in 1945, with the bulk of the historic Polish names restored.", "German tourists sailing near Angerburg (Węgorzewo), 1929According to German author Andreas Kossert, Polish parties were financed and aided by the Polish government in Warsaw, and remained splintergroups without any political influence, e.g.", "in the 1932 elections the Polish Party received 147 votes in Masuria proper.", "According to Wojciech Wrzesiński (1963), the Polish organisations in Masuria had decided to lower their activity in order to escape acts of terror performed against Polish minority activists and organisations by Nazi activists.", "Jerzy Lanc, a teacher and Polish national who had moved to Masuria in 1931 to establish a Polish school in Piassutten (Piasutno), died in his home of carbon monoxide poisoning, most likely murdered by local German nationalists.Due to severe persecution, from 1936 Polish organizations carried out their activities partly in conspiracy.", "Before the war the Nazi German state sent undercover operatives to spy on Polish organisations and created lists of people that were to be executed or sent to concentration camps.", "Information was gathered on who sent children to Polish schools, bought Polish press or took part in Polish ceremonies and organised repressions against these people were executed by Nazi militias.", "Polish schools, printing presses and headquarters of Polish institutions were attacked as well as homes of the most active Poles; shops owned by Poles were vandalised or demolished.", "Polish masses were dispersed, and Polish teachers were intimidated as members of the SS gathered under their locals performing songs like \"Wenn das Polenblut vom Messer spritzt, dann geht's noch mal so gut\" (\"When Polish blood spurts from the knife, everything will be better\").Ethnic Masurian children and Masurian farmhouse near a lake in 1931The Nazi anti-Polish activities further intensified in 1939.Those Poles who were most active in politics were evicted from their own homes, while Polish newspapers and cultural houses were closed down in the region.", "In an attempt to rig the results of an upcoming census and understate the number of Poles in the region, the Germans terrorized the Polish population and attacked Polish organizations.", "In summer 1939 the German terror against the Poles even exceeded the terror from the period of the 1920 plebiscite.", "Polish church masses were banned between June and July in Warmia and Masuria.", "In August 1939, Germany introduced martial law in the region, which allowed for even more blatant persecution of Poles.In the final moments of August 1939 all remains of political and cultural life of Polish minority was eradicated by the Nazis, with imprisonment of Polish activists and liquidation of Polish institutions.", "Seweryn Pieniężny, the chief editor of ''Gazeta Olsztyńska'', who opposed Germanisation of Masuria, was interned, and other Polish activists in Masuria were also arrested.Directors of Polish schools and teachers were imprisoned, as was the staff of Polish pre-schools in the Masuria region.", "They were often forced to destroy Polish signs, emblems and symbols of Polish institutions.=== World War II ===Baltic German settlers from occupied Lithuania arriving in German-occupied Działdowo, 1941With the start of the German invasion of Poland and World War II on 1 September 1939, the German minority in the parts of Masuria attached to Poland after World War I organised themselves in paramilitary formations called ''Selbstschutz'' (selfdefense) and begun to engage in massacres of local Polish population; Poles were imprisoned, tortured and murdered while Masurians were sometimes forcefully placed on Volksliste.From now on conscripted Masurians had to serve without exception in the German army invading Poland, and Russia two years later on.", "In addition, the ''Einsatzgruppe V'' Nazi paramilitary death squads entered German-occupied Dziadowo to commit crimes against the Polish population.", "Only some of the Polish activists from Działdowo County were caught by the Germans, as most managed to flee and hide under assumed names in the General Government (German-occupied central Poland).", "Arrested Polish activists from the pre-war German part of Masuria were mostly deported to concentration camps, incl.", ", Soldau, Stutthof, Sachsenhausen, Gusen and Ravensbrück.In 1939, the German occupiers established a prisoner-of-war camp for captured Polish soldiers in Działdowo.", "In December 1939 it was converted into a camp for Polish civilians arrested during the ''Intelligenzaktion'', and afterwards converted into the Soldau concentration camp, where 13,000 people were murdered by the Nazi German state during the war.", "Notable victims included the Polish bishops Antoni Julian Nowowiejski and Leon Wetmański, as well as the nun Mieczysława Kowalska.", "Additionally, almost 1,900 mentally ill patients from East Prussia and annexed areas of Poland were murdered there as well, in what was known as Action T4.Polish resistance in Masuria was organised by Paweł Nowakowski \"Leśnik\" commander of the Home Army's Działdowo district.", "The resistance operated one of the region's main smuggling points for Polish underground press in Ełk.Remnants of the Wolf's Lair in GierłożThe Nazis believed that in future, the Masurians, as a separate non-German entity, would 'naturally' disappear in the end, while those who would cling to their \"foreigness\" as one Nazi report mentioned, would be deported.", "Local Jews were considered by the Nazis to be subhuman and were to be exterminated.", "The Nazi authorities also executed Polish activists in Masuria and those who remained alive were sent to concentration camps.In Masuria, Germany also established and operated the Stalag I-B and Oflag 63 prisoner-of-war camps for Polish, Belgian, French, Italian, Serbian and Soviet POWs, and built the Wolf's Lair, Adolf Hitler's first Eastern Front military headquarters where the 20 July assassination attempt occurred in 1944.In August 1943 the Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe attacked the village of Mittenheide (Turośl) in southern Masuria.In 1943, \"Związek Mazurski\" was reactivated secretly by Masurian activists of the Polish Underground State in Warsaw and led by Karol Małłek.", "Związek Mazurski opposed Nazi Germany and asked Polish authorities during the war to liquidate German large landowners after the victory over Nazi Germany to help in agricultural reform and settlement of Masurian population, Masurian iconoclasts opposed to Nazi Germany requested to remove German heritage sites \"regardless of their cultural value\".", "Additionally a Masurian Institute was founded by Masurian activists in Radość near Warsaw in 1943.In the final stages of World War II, Masuria was partially devastated by the retreating German and advancing Soviet armies during the Vistula-Oder Offensive.", "Already on May 23, 1945, the Soviets granted that a Polish administration be established in the region, which aroused British and American protest.However, per the decisions made at the earlier Yalta Conference and the Potsdam Conference the region passed to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, pending a final peace conference with Germany.", "Most of the population fled to Germany or was killed during or after the war, while those which stayed were subject to a \"nationality verification\", organised by the communist government of Poland.", "As a result, the number of native Masurians remaining in Masuria was initially relatively high, while most of the population was subsequently expelled.", "Poles from central Poland and the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union as well as Ukrainians expelled from southern Poland throughout the Operation Vistula, were resettled in Masuria.=== Masuria after World War II ===A reconstructed Masurian house in an open-air museum near WęgorzewoAccording to the Masurian Institute, the Masurian members of resistance against Nazi Germany who survived the war became active in 1945 in the region, working in Olsztyn in cooperation with new state authorities in administration, education and cultural affairs.", "Historic Polish names for most of towns of Masuria were restored, but for some places new names were determined even if there were historic Polish names.German author Andreas Kossert describes the post-war process of \"national verification\" as based on an ethnic racism which categorised the local populace according to their alleged ethnic background.", "A Polish-sounding last name or a Polish-speaking ancestor was sufficient to be regarded as \"autochthonous\" Polish.In October 1946, 37,736 persons were \"verified\" as Polish citizens while 30,804 remained \"unverified\".", "A center of such \"unverified\" Masurians was the district of Mrągowo, where in early 1946 out of 28,280 persons, 20,580 were \"unverified\", while in October, 16,385 still refused to adopt Polish citizenship.", "However, even those who complied with the often used pressure by Polish authorities were in fact treated as Germans because of their Lutheran faith and their often rudimentary knowledge of Polish.", "Names were \"Polonised\" and the usage of the German language in public was forbidden.", "In the late 1940s the pressure to sign the \"verification documents\" grew and in February 1949 the former chief of the stalinist secret Police (UB) of Łódź, Mieczysław Moczar, started the \"Great verification\" campaign.", "Many unverified Masurians were imprisoned and accused of pro-Nazi or pro-American propaganda, even former pro-Polish activists and inmates of Nazi concentration camps were jailed and tortured.", "After the end of this campaign in the district of Mrągowo only 166 Masurians were still \"unverified\".In 1950, 1,600 Masurians left the country and in 1951, 35,000 people from Masuria and Warmia managed to obtain a declaration of their German nationality by the embassies of the United States and Great Britain in Warsaw.", "Sixty-three percent of the Masurians in the district of Mrągowo received such a document.", "In December 1956, Masurian pro-Polish activists signed a memorandum to the Communist Party leadership:\"The history of the people of Warmia and Masuria is full of tragedy and suffering.", "Injustice, hardship and pain often pressed on the shoulders of Warmians and Masurians... Dislike, injustice and violence surrounds us...They (Warmians and Masurians) demand respect for their differentness, grown in the course of seven centuries and for freedom to maintain their traditions\".An active Lutheran church in PasymSoon after the political reforms of 1956, Masurians were given the opportunity to join their families in West Germany.", "The majority (over 100 thousand) gradually left, and after the improvement of Germano-Polish relations by the German Ostpolitik of the 1970s, 55,227 persons from Warmia and Masuria moved to West Germany in between 1971 and 1988.Today, between 5,000 and 6,000 Masurians still live in the area, about 50 percent of them members of the German minority in Poland; the remaining half is ethnic Polish.", "As the Polish journalist Andrzej K. Wróblewski stated, the Polish post-war policy succeeded in what the Prussian state never managed: the creation of a German national consciousness among the Masurians.Most of the originally Protestant churches in Masuria are now used by the Polish Roman Catholic Church as the number of Lutherans in Masuria declined from 68,500 in 1950 to 21,174 in 1961 and further to 3,536 in 1981.Sometimes, like on 23 September 1979 in the village of Spychowo, the Lutheran Parish was even forcefully driven out of their church while liturgy was held.=== Modern Masuria ===In modern Masuria the native population has virtually disappeared.", "Masuria was incorporated into the voivodeship system of administration in 1945.In 1999 Masuria was constituted with neighbouring Warmia as a single administrative province through the creation of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship.Today, numerous summer music festivals take place in Masuria, including the largest reggae festival in Poland in Ostróda, the largest country music festival in Poland in Mrągowo, and one of Poland's largest hip hop music festivals in Giżycko and Ełk.The Masurian Szczytno-Szymany International Airport gained international attention as press reports alleged the airport to be a so-called ''\"black site\"'' involved in the CIA's network of extraordinary renditions." ], [ "Landscape", "Kayaking on the Krutynia riverMasuria and the Masurian Lake District are known in Polish as ''Kraina Tysiąca Jezior'', meaning \"land of a thousand lakes.\"", "These lakes were ground out of the land by glaciers during the Pleistocene ice age around 14,000 - 15,000 years ago, when ice covered northeastern Europe.", "From that period originates the horn of a reindeer found in the vicinity of Giżycko.", "By 10,000 BC this ice started to melt.", "Great geological changes took place and even in the last 500 years the maps showing the lagoons and peninsulas on the Baltic Sea have greatly altered in appearance.", "More than in other parts of northern Poland, such as from Pomerania (from the River Oder to the River Vistula), this continuous stretch of lakes is popular among tourists.", "The terrain is rather hilly, with connecting lakes, rivers and streams.", "Forests account for about 30% of the area.", "The northern part of Masuria is covered mostly by the broadleaved forest, while the southern part is dominated by pine and mixed forests.Two largest lakes of Poland, Śniardwy and Mamry, are located in Masuria." ], [ "Cities and towns", "EłkOstróda* Biała Piska* Działdowo* Ełk* Giżycko* Gołdap* Kętrzyn* Mikołajki* Mrągowo* Nidzica* Olecko* Olsztynek* Orzysz* Ostróda* Pasym* Pisz* Ruciane-Nida* Ryn* Szczytno* Węgorzewo* WielbarkGiżyckoSzczytnoNidzica" ], [ "Notable people from Masuria", "*Richard Altmann (1852–1900), pathologist*Leszek Błażyński (1949–1992), boxer*Kurt Blumenfeld (1884–1963), politician*Abraham Calovius (1612–1686), Lutheran theologian*Roman Czepe (born 1956), politician*Lucas David (1503–1583), historian*Ferdinand Gregorovius (1821–1891), historian*Lothar Gall (born 1936) historian *Gustaw Gizewiusz (1810–1848), Protestant pastor, supporter of Polish language teaching and resistance against Germanisation*Georg Andreas Helwing (1666–1748), botanist*Paul Hensel (1867–1944), politician*Andreas Hillgruber (1925–1989), historian*Wojciech Kętrzyński (1838–1918), activist and historian*Hans Hellmut Kirst (1914–1989), author*Georg Klebs (1857–1913), botanist*Walter Kollo (1878–1940), composer*Horst Kopkow (1910–1996), spy*Udo Lattek (1935-2015), football coach*Siegfried Lenz (1926-2014), author*Wolf Lepenies (born 1941), political scientist*Johannes von Leysen (1310–1388), founder and first mayor of Allenstein*Albert Lieven (1906–1971), actor*Krzysztof Celestyn Mrongovius (1764–1855), Protestant pastor and philosopher*Celestyn Myślenta (1588–1653), Lutheran theologian and rector of the University of Königsberg*Rodolphe Radau (1835–1911), astronomer*Karl Bogislaus Reichert (1811–1883), anatomist*Nicholas von Renys (1360-1411), knight*Fritz Richard Schaudinn (1871–1906), zoologist*Paweł Sobolewski (born 1979), footballer*Helmuth Stieff (1901–1944), general*Bethel Henry Strousberg (1823–1884), industrialist*Arno Surminski (born 1934), writer*Kurt Symanzik (1923–1983), physicist*August Trunz (1875–1963), founder of the Prussica-Sammlung Trunz*Ernst Wiechert (1887–1950), poet and writer*Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928), physicist, Nobel Prize winner" ], [ "See also", "* Masurians*Masurian dialects*Śniardwy Lake*Dylewska Góra" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Mazury Entry on the region in Polish PWN Encyclopedia.", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magnus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Magnus''', meaning \"Great\" in Latin, was used as cognomen of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus in the first century BC.", "The best-known use of the name during the Roman Empire is for the fourth-century Western Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus.", "The name gained wider popularity in the Middle Ages among various European peoples and their royal houses, being introduced to them upon being converted to the Latin-speaking Catholic Christianity.", "This was especially the case with Scandinavian royalty and nobility.As a Scandinavian forename, it was extracted from the Frankish ruler Charlemagne's Latin name \"Carolus Magnus\" and re-analyzed as Old Norse ''magn-hús'' = \"power house\"." ], [ "People", "===Given name==='''Kings of Hungary'''* Géza I (1074–1077), also known by his baptismal name Magnus.====Kings of Denmark====* Magnus the Good (1042–1047), also Magnus I of Norway====King of Livonia====* Magnus, Duke of Holstein (1540–1583)====King of Mann and the Isles====* Magnús Óláfsson (died 1265)====Kings of Norway====* Magnus I of Norway (1024–1047)* Magnus II of Norway (1048–1069)* Magnus III of Norway (1073–1103)* Magnus IV of Norway (c. 1115–1139)* Magnus V of Norway (1156–1184)* Magnus VI of Norway (1238–1280)* Magnus VII of Norway, also Magnus IV of Sweden (1316–1374)====Kings of Sweden====* Magnus I of Sweden (c. 1106–1134)* Magnus II of Sweden (died 1161)* Magnus III of Sweden (1240–1290)* Magnus IV of Sweden (1316–1374), also Magnus VII of Norway====Dukes====* Magnus, Duke of Saxony (c. 1045–1106)* Magnus the Pious, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (before 1318–1369)* Magnus II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1324–1373), also known as Magnus with the Necklace* Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (1488–1543)====Saints====* Albert Magnus (c.1200–1280), German bishop, philosopher, and scientist* Magnus (bishop of Milan), bishop of Milan from 518 to c.530* Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney, Earl of Orkney 1106–c.1117) * Magnus of Anagni (2nd century)* Magnus of Avignon (died 660), bishop and governor of Avignon* Magnus of Cuneo (3rd century) * Magnus of Füssen, missionary saint of southern Germany, seventh or eighth century===Family name===* Désiré Magnus, Belgian pianist* Elisabeth von Magnus, Austrian singer* Finn Magnus, Danish-American founder of Magnus Harmonica Corporation* Heinrich Gustav Magnus, German chemist and physicist who discovered the Magnus effect* Kurt Magnus (1912–2003), German scientist, expert in the field of applied mechanics, a pioneer of mechatronics* Kurt Magnus (radio personality) (1887–1962), German lawyer and politician, a pioneer of German radio broadcasting* Laurie Magnus (1872–1933), English author, journalist, and publisher* Laurie Magnus (executive), (born 1955), British executive, appointed UK Prime Minister's Independent Adviser on Ministers' Interests in 2022* Ludwig Immanuel Magnus, German mathematician* Philip Magnus (1906–1988), British historian* Paul Wilhelm Magnus, German botanist* Siobhan Magnus, American singer* Thomas Magnus (d. 1550), English churchman and diplomat* Wilhelm Magnus, German mathematician===Ancient Romans===* Pompey Magnus, Roman consul and general who was given the honorific \"Magnus\"* Magnus Maximus, Roman usurper and Western Roman Emperor (died 388)* Montius Magnus, 4th-century Roman quaestor=== Pseudonyms, pen names and ring names ===* Magnus, pseudonym of American magician Jeff McBride* Magnus, pen name of Italian comic book artist Roberto Raviola* Magnus (formerly Brutus Magnus), ring name of English professional wrestler Nick Aldis (born 1986)" ], [ "Fictional characters", "* Magnus Bane, in ''The Mortal Instruments'' series by Cassandra Clare, and character in the TV Series Shadowhunters.", "* Magnus Burnsides, one of the main protagonists in The Adventure Zone Dungeons & Dragons podcast* Magnus Chase, the main protagonist in the fantasy series Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard* Magnus Eisengrim, in the ''Deptford Trilogy''* Magnus Gallant, a main character in ''Ogre Battle 64''* Magnus Greel, a villain in the 1977 Doctor Who serial The Talons of Weng-Chiang* Magnus Hammersmith, an antagonist in ''Metalocalypse''*Magnus Murchie, Margaret's insane uncle and advisor in Muriel Spark's ''Symposium''* Magnus Pym, the protagonist of John le Carré's novel ''A Perfect Spy''* Magnus Powermouse, the title character of the children's book of the same name* Magnus, Robot Fighter, a comic book character published by Gold Key and Valiant comics* Magnus von Grapple, a boss in ''Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door''* Magnus (The Vampire Chronicles), in ''The Vampire Chronicles'' by Anne Rice* Magnus, the real name of the ''Doctor Who'' character the Master* Ultra Magnus, several characters in the ''Transformers'' universe* Magnus Lehnsherr, an alternate reality Marvel Comics character; son of Rogue and Magneto* Magnus the Red, Primarch of the Thousand Sons Space Marines in the Warhammer 40,000 universe* Magnus the Sorcerer, a Marvel Universe character* Magnus, in the video game ''Kid Icarus: Uprising''* Magnus Fossbakken, in the Norwegian TV show ''Skam''* Magnus Nielsen, a character from the TV series Dark* Magnus the Rogue, a supporting character in the video game ''Minecraft Story Mode''* Magnus, the mascot of the Cleveland State Vikings* Magnus, the god of magic from ''The Elder Scrolls'' universe.", "* Will Magnus, a DC Comics scientist* Count Magnus, the antagonist in the M.R.", "James story \"Count Magnus.", "\"*Jonah Magnus, founder of the titular institute in the horror fiction podcast ''The Magnus Archives''* Magnus au Grimmus, a character in the ''Red Rising'' series*Ultra Magnus, a supporting character in ''Transformers: Animated'', in which \"magnus\" is a high rank amongst Autobots.", "He also appears in ''Transformers Prime''" ], [ "See also", "** Manus (disambiguation)* Magnes (disambiguation)* Magnusson (disambiguation)* List of people known as The Great" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Médecins Sans Frontières" ], [ "Introduction", "Introduction of Médecins Sans Frontières'''''' ('''MSF'''; pronounced ), also known as '''Doctors Without Borders''', is a charity that provides humanitarian medical care.", "It is a non-governmental organisation (NGO) of French origin known for its projects in conflict zones and in countries affected by endemic diseases.", "The organisation provides care for diabetes, drug-resistant infections, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C, tropical and neglected diseases, tuberculosis, vaccines and COVID-19.In 2019, the charity was active in 70 countries with over 35,000 personnel; mostly local doctors, nurses and other medical professionals, logistical experts, water and sanitation engineers, and administrators.", "Private donors provide about 90% of the organisation's funding, while corporate donations provide the rest, giving MSF an annual budget of approximately US$1.63 billion.MSF was founded in 1971, in the aftermath of the Biafran famine of the Nigerian Civil War, by a small group of French doctors and journalists who sought to expand accessibility to medical care across national boundaries and irrespective of race, religion, creed or political affiliation.", "MSF's principles and operational guidelines are highlighted in its Charter, the Chantilly Principles, and the later La Mancha Agreement.", "Governance is addressed in Section 2 of the Rules portion of this final document.", "MSF has an associative, rather chaotic structure, where operational decisions are made, independently, by the six operational centres (Amsterdam, Barcelona-Athens, Brussels, Geneva , Paris and West and Central Africa - with Headquarter office in Abidjan, Ivory Coast).", "Common policies on core issues are coordinated by the International Council, in which each of the 24 sections (national offices) is represented.", "The International Council meets in Geneva, Switzerland, where the International Office, which coordinates international activities common to the operational centres, is based.MSF has general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council.", "It received the 1999 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of its members' continued efforts to provide medical care in acute crises, as well as raising international awareness of potential humanitarian disasters.", "James Orbinski, who was the president of the organisation at the time, accepted the prize on behalf of MSF.", "Prior to this, MSF also received the 1996 Seoul Peace Prize.", "Christos Christou succeeded Joanne Liu as international president in June 2019." ], [ "History", "===1967 to 1970 Biafra===A child with kwashiorkor during the Nigerian Civil WarDuring the Nigerian Civil War of 1967 to 1970, the Nigerian military formed a blockade around the nation's newly independent south-eastern region, Biafra.", "At this time, France was one of the few major countries supportive of the Biafrans (the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States sided with the Nigerian government), and the conditions within the blockade were unknown to the world.", "A number of French doctors volunteered with the French Red Cross to work in hospitals and feeding centers in besieged Biafra.", "One of the co-founders of the organisation was Bernard Kouchner, who later had a career in French politics, rising to the position of Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs, which he held 2007–2010.After entering the country, the volunteers, in addition to Biafran health workers and hospitals, were subjected to attacks by the Nigerian Armed Forces, and witnessed civilians being murdered and starved by the blockading forces.", "The doctors publicly criticised the Nigerian government and the Red Cross for their seemingly complicit behaviour.", "These doctors concluded that a new aid organisation was needed that would ignore political/religious boundaries and prioritise the welfare of survivors.Apart from Nigeria, MSF exists in several African countries including Benin, Zambia, Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Rwanda, Sudan, Sierra Leone, and others.===1971 establishment===The (\"Emergency Medical and Surgical Intervention Group\") was formed in 1971 by French doctors who had worked in Biafra, to provide aid and to emphasize the importance of survivors' rights.", "At the same time, Raymond Borel, the editor of the French medical journal ''TONUS'', had started a group called (\"French Medical Relief\") in response to the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed at least 625,000 in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).", "Borel had intended to recruit doctors to provide aid to survivors of natural disasters.", "On 22 December 1971, the two groups of colleagues merged to form ''Médecins Sans Frontières''.MSF's first mission was to the Nicaraguan capital, Managua, where a 1972 earthquake had destroyed most of the city and killed between 10,000 and 30,000 people.", "The organisation, today known for its quick response in an emergency, arrived three days after the Red Cross had set up a relief mission.", "On 18 and 19 September 1974, Hurricane Fifi caused major flooding in Honduras and killed thousands of people (estimates vary), and MSF set up its first long-term medical relief mission.Between 1975 and 1979, after South Vietnam had fallen to North Vietnam, millions of Cambodians immigrated to Thailand to avoid the Khmer Rouge.", "In response, MSF set up its first refugee camp missions in Thailand.", "When Vietnam withdrew from Cambodia in 1989, MSF started long-term relief missions to help survivors of the mass killings and reconstruct the country's health care system.", "Although its missions to Thailand to help victims of war in Southeast Asia could arguably be seen as its first wartime mission, MSF saw its first mission to a true war zone, including exposure to hostile fire, in 1976.MSF spent nine years (1976–1984) assisting surgeries in the hospitals of various cities in Lebanon, during the Lebanese Civil War, and established a reputation for its neutrality and willingness to work under fire.", "Throughout the war, MSF helped both Christian and Muslim soldiers alike, helping whichever group required the most medical aid at the time.", "In 1984, as the situation in Lebanon deteriorated further and security for aid groups was minimised, MSF withdrew its volunteers.==== Original founders ====* Jacques Bérès* Philippe Bernier* Raymond Borel* Jean Cabrol* Marcel Delcourt* Xavier Emmanuelli* Pascal Grellety Bosviel* Gérard Illiouz* Bernard Kouchner* Gérard Pigeon* Vladan Radoman* Max Récamier=== 1970s ===Claude Malhuret was elected as the new president of Médecins Sans Frontières in 1977, and soon after debates began over the future of the organisation.", "In particular, the concept of ''témoignage'' (\"witnessing\"), which refers to speaking out about the suffering that one sees as opposed to remaining silent, was being opposed or played down by Malhuret and his supporters.", "Malhuret thought MSF should avoid criticism of the governments of countries in which they were working, while Kouchner believed that documenting and broadcasting the suffering in a country was the most effective way to solve a problem.In 1979, after four years of refugee movement from South Vietnam and the surrounding countries by foot and by boat, French intellectuals made an appeal in ''Le Monde'' for \"A Boat for Vietnam\", a project intended to provide medical aid to the refugees.", "Although the project did not receive support from the majority of MSF, some, including later Minister Bernard Kouchner, chartered a ship called ''L'Île de Lumière'' (\"The Island of Light\"), and, along with doctors, journalists and photographers, sailed to the South China Sea and provided some medical aid to the boat people.", "The splinter organisation that undertook this, Médecins du Monde, later developed the idea of humanitarian intervention as a duty, in particular on the part of Western nations such as France.", "In 2007 MSF clarified that for nearly 30 years MSF and Kouchner have had public disagreements on such issues as the right to intervene and the use of armed force for humanitarian reasons.", "Kouchner is in favour of the latter, whereas MSF stands up for an impartial humanitarian action, independent from all political, economic and religious powers.===1980s===In 1982, Malhuret and Rony Brauman (who became the organisation's president in 1982) brought increased financial independence to MSF by introducing fundraising-by-mail to better collect donations.", "The 1980s also saw the establishment of the other operational sections from MSF-France (1971): MSF-Belgium (1980), MSF-Switzerland (1981), MSF-Holland (1984), and MSF-Spain (1986).", "MSF-Luxembourg was the first support section, created in 1986.The early 1990s saw the establishment of the majority of the support sections: MSF-Greece (1990), MSF-USA (1990), MSF-Canada (1991), MSF-Japan (1992), MSF-UK (1993), MSF-Italy (1993), MSF-Australia (1994), as well as Germany, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Hong Kong (MSF-UAE was formed later).", "Malhuret and Brauman were instrumental in professionalising MSF.", "In December 1979, after the Soviet army had invaded Afghanistan, field missions were immediately set up to provide medical aid to the mujahideen, and in February 1980, MSF publicly denounced the Khmer Rouge.", "During the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia, MSF set up nutrition programmes in the country in 1984, but was expelled in 1985 after denouncing the abuse of international aid and the forced resettlements.", "MSF's explicit attacks on the Ethiopian government led to other NGOs criticizing their abandonment of their supposed neutrality and contributed to a series of debates in France around humanitarian ethics.", "The group also set up equipment to produce clean drinking water for the population of San Salvador, capital of El Salvador, after the 10 October 1986 earthquake that struck the city.===1990s===The early 1990s saw MSF open a number of new national sections, and at the same time, set up field missions in some of the most dangerous and distressing situations it had ever encountered.In 1990, MSF first entered Liberia to help civilians and refugees affected by the Liberian Civil War.", "Constant fighting throughout the 1990s and the Second Liberian Civil War have kept MSF volunteers actively providing nutrition, basic health care, and mass vaccinations, and speaking out against attacks on hospitals and feeding stations, especially in Monrovia.Field missions were set up to provide relief to Kurdish refugees who had survived the al-Anfal Campaign, for which evidence of atrocities was being collected in 1991.1991 also saw the beginning of the civil war in Somalia, during which MSF set up field missions in 1992 alongside a UN peacekeeping mission.", "Although the UN-aborted operations by 1993, MSF representatives continued with their relief work, running clinics and hospitals for civilians.MSF first began work in Srebrenica (in Bosnia and Herzegovina) as part of a UN convoy in 1993, one year after the Bosnian War had begun.", "The city had become surrounded by the Bosnian Serb Army and, containing about 60,000 Bosniaks, had become an enclave guarded by a United Nations Protection Force.", "MSF was the only organisation providing medical care to the surrounded civilians, and as such, did not denounce the genocide for fear of being expelled from the country (it did, however, denounce the lack of access for other organisations).", "MSF was forced to leave the area in 1995 when the Bosnian Serb Army captured the town.", "40,000 Bosniak civilian inhabitants were deported, and approximately 7,000 were killed in mass executions.====1994 Rwandan Genocide====When the genocide in Rwanda began in April 1994, some delegates of MSF working in the country were incorporated into the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) medical team for protection.", "Both groups succeeded in keeping all main hospitals in Rwanda's capital Kigali operational throughout the main period of the genocide.", "MSF, together with several other aid organisations, had to leave the country in 1995, although many MSF and ICRC volunteers worked together under the ICRC's rules of engagement, which held that neutrality was of the utmost importance.", "These events led to a debate within the organisation about the concept of balancing neutrality of humanitarian aid workers against their witnessing role.", "As a result of its Rwanda mission, the position of MSF with respect to neutrality moved closer to that of the ICRC, a remarkable development in the light of the origin of the organisation.Aerial photograph of a Mihanda, Zaire refugee camp in 1996.Pictured are 500+ tents set up in the Mitumba Mountains.The ICRC lost 56 and MSF lost almost one hundred of their respective local staff in Rwanda, and MSF-France, which had chosen to evacuate its team from the country (the local staff were forced to stay), denounced the murders and demanded that a French military intervention stop the genocide.", "MSF-France introduced the slogan \"One cannot stop a genocide with doctors\" to the media, and the controversial Opération Turquoise followed less than one month later.", "This intervention directly or indirectly resulted in movements of hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees to Zaire and Tanzania in what became known as the Great Lakes refugee crisis, and subsequent cholera epidemics, starvation and more mass killings in the large groups of civilians.", "MSF-France returned to the area and provided medical aid to refugees in Goma.At the time of the genocide, competition between the medical efforts of MSF, the ICRC, and other aid groups had reached an all-time high, but the conditions in Rwanda prompted a drastic change in the way humanitarian organisations approached aid missions.", "The ''Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief Programmes'' was created by the ICRC in 1994 to provide a framework for humanitarian missions and MSF is a signatory of this code.", "The code advocates the provision of humanitarian aid only, and groups are urged not to serve any political or religious interest, or be used as a tool for foreign governments.", "MSF has since still found it necessary to condemn the actions of governments, such as in Chechnya in 1999, but has not demanded another military intervention since then.===2020s=======2020 accusations of racism====More than a thousand staffers accused the charity of white supremacy when they voiced their concerns in a 2020 petition.", "One staffer from Cameroon detailed her experiences with racism from the group's leaders.", "Many concerns involved different treatment of expatriate staff from Europe and North America, who are typically white, compared to national staff.", "In an interview with NPR, the president of the organisation acknowledged Doctors Without Borders was founded in racism and pledged to do better.====Snakebite prioritisation in WHO====MSF played an important role for including snakebite as a WHO Category A Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) status in, a WHO resolution and development of global strategy to decrease burden of snakebite.", "MSF highlighted the scarcity of anti-venom in Africa due to stoppage of manufacturing and brought urgency to the scenario and led media advocacy efforts." ], [ "Activities by location", "Countries where MSF had missions in 2015In 1999, the organisation spoke out about the lack of humanitarian support in Kosovo and Chechnya, having set up field missions to help civilians affected by the respective political situations.", "Although MSF had worked in the Kosovo region since 1993, the onset of the Kosovo War prompted the movement of tens of thousands of refugees, and a decline in suitable living conditions.", "MSF provided shelter, water and health care to civilians affected by NATO's strategic bombing campaigns.A serious crisis within MSF erupted in connection with the organisation's work in Kosovo when the Greek section of MSF was expelled from the organisation.", "The Greek MSF section had gained access to Serbia at the cost of accepting Serb government imposed limits on where it could go and what it could seeterms that the rest of the MSF movement had refused.", "A non-MSF source alleged that the exclusion of the Greek section happened because its members extended aid to both Albanian and Serbian civilians in Pristina during NATO's bombing.The rift was healed only in 2005 with the re-admission of the Greek section to MSF.A similar situation was found in Chechnya, whose civilian population was largely forced from their homes into unhealthy conditions and subjected to the violence of the Second Chechen War.MSF has been working in Haiti since 1991, but since President Jean-Bertrand Aristide was forced from power, the country has seen a large increase in civilian attacks and rape by armed groups.", "In addition to providing surgical and psychological support in existing hospitalsoffering the only free surgery available in Port-au-Princefield missions have been set up to rebuild water and waste management systems and treat survivors of major flooding caused by Hurricane Jeanne; patients with HIV/AIDS and malaria, both of which are widespread in the country, also receive better treatment and monitoring.", "As a result of 12 January 2010 Haiti earthquake, reports from Haiti indicated that all three of the organisation's hospitals had been severely damaged; one collapsing completely and the other two having to be abandoned.", "Following the quake, MSF sent about nine planes loaded with medical equipment and a field hospital to help treat the victims.", "However, the landings of some of the planes had to be delayed due to the massive number of humanitarian and military flights coming in.The Kashmir Conflict in northern India resulted in a more recent MSF intervention (the first field mission was set up in 1999) to help civilians displaced by fighting in Jammu and Kashmir, as well as in Manipur.", "Psychological support is a major target of missions, but teams have also set up programmes to treat tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and malaria.", "Mental health support has been of significant importance for MSF in much of southern Asia since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.MSF went through a long process of self-examination and discussion in 2005–2006.Many issues were debated, including the treatment of \"nationals\" as well as \"fair employment\" and self-criticism.MSF issued a statement for safe abortion following Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization.===Sub-Saharan Africa===Darfur (2005)MSF has been active in a large number of African countries for decades, sometimes serving as the sole provider of health care, food, and water.", "Although MSF has consistently attempted to increase media coverage of the situation in Africa to increase international support, long-term field missions are still necessary.", "Treating and educating the public about HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa, which sees the most deaths and cases of the disease in the world, is a major task for volunteers.", "Of the 14.6 million people in need of anti-retroviral treatment the WHO estimated that only 5.25 million people were receiving it in developing countries, and MSF continues to urge governments and companies to increase research and development into HIV/AIDS treatments to decrease cost and increase availability.====Sierra Leone====In the late 1990s, MSF missions were set up to treat tuberculosis and anaemia in residents of the Aral Sea area, and look after civilians affected by drug-resistant disease, famine, and epidemics of cholera and AIDS.", "They vaccinated 3 million Nigerians against meningitis during an epidemic in 1996 and denounced the Taliban's neglect of health care for women in 1997.Arguably, the most significant country in which MSF set up field missions in the late 1990s was Sierra Leone, which was involved in a civil war at the time.", "In 1998, volunteers began assisting in surgeries in Freetown to help with an increasing number of amputees, and collecting statistics on civilians (men, women and children) being attacked by large groups of men claiming to represent ECOMOG.", "The groups of men were travelling between villages and systematically chopping off one or both of each resident's arms, raping women, gunning down families, razing houses, and forcing survivors to leave the area.", "Long-term projects following the end of the civil war included psychological support and phantom limb pain management.==== Sudan ====Since 1979, MSF has been providing medical humanitarian assistance in Sudan, a nation plagued by starvation and the civil war, prevalent malnutrition and one of the highest maternal mortality rates in the world.", "In March 2009, it is reported that MSF has employed 4,590 field staff in Sudan tackling issues such as armed conflicts, epidemic diseases, health care and social exclusion.", "MSF's continued presence and work in Sudan is one of the organisation's largest interventions.", "MSF provides a range of health care services including nutritional support, reproductive healthcare, Kala-Azar treatment, counselling services and surgery to the people living in Sudan.", "Common diseases prevalent in Sudan include tuberculosis, kala-azar also known as visceral leishmaniasis, meningitis, measles, cholera, and malaria.=====Kala-Azar in Sudan=====Kala-azar, also known as visceral leishmaniasis, has been one of the major health problems in Sudan.", "After the Comprehensive Peace Agreement between North and Southern Sudan on 9 January 2005, the increase in stability within the region helped further efforts in healthcare delivery.", "Médicins Sans Frontières tested a combination of sodium stibogluconate and paromomycin, which would reduce treatment duration (from 30 to 17 days) and cost in 2008.In March 2010, MSF set up its first Kala-Azar treatment centre in Eastern Sudan, providing free treatment for this otherwise deadly disease.", "If left untreated, there is a fatality rate of 99% within 1–4 months of infection.", "Since the treatment centre was set up, MSF has cured more than 27,000 Kala-Azar patients with a success rate of approximately 90–95%.", "There are plans to open an additional Kala-Azar treatment centre in Malakal, Southern Sudan, to cope with the overwhelming number of patients that are seeking treatment.", "MSF has been providing necessary medical supplies to hospitals and training Sudanese health professionals to help them deal with Kala-Azar.", "MSF, Sudanese Ministry of Health and other national and international institutions are combining efforts to improve on the treatment and diagnosis of Kala-Azar.", "Research on its cures and vaccines are currently being conducted.", "In December 2010, South Sudan was hit with the worst outbreak of Kala-Azar in eight years.", "The number of patients seeking treatment increased eight-fold as compared to the year before.=====Health care infrastructure in Sudan=====Sudan's latest civil war began in 1983 and ended in 2005 when a peace agreement was signed between North Sudan and South Sudan.", "MSF medical teams were active throughout and prior to the civil war, providing emergency medical humanitarian assistance in multiple locations.", "The situation of poor infrastructure in the South was aggravated by the civil war and resulted in the worsening of the region's appalling health indicators.", "An estimated 75 percent of people in the nascent nation has no access to basic medical care and 1 in seven women dies during childbirth.", "Malnutrition and disease outbreaks are perennial concerns as well.", "In 2011, MSF clinic in Jonglei State, South Sudan, was looted and attacked by raiders.", "Hundreds, including women and children were killed.", "Valuable items including medical equipment and drugs were lost during the raid and parts of the MSF facilities were destroyed in a fire.", "The incident had serious repercussions as MSF is the only primary health care provider in this part of Jonglei State.====Democratic Republic of the Congo====Although active in the Congo region of Africa since 1985, the First and Second Congo War brought increased violence and instability to the area.", "MSF has had to evacuate its teams from areas such as around Bunia, in the Ituri district due to extreme violence, but continues to work in other areas to provide food to tens of thousands of displaced civilians, as well as treat survivors of mass rapes and widespread fighting.", "The treatment and possible vaccination against diseases such as cholera, measles, polio, Marburg fever, sleeping sickness, HIV/AIDS, and bubonic plague is also important to prevent or slow down epidemics.==== Uganda ====MSF has been active in Uganda since 1980, and provided relief to civilians during the country's guerrilla war during the Second Obote Period.", "However, the formation of the Lord's Resistance Army saw the beginning of a long campaign of violence in northern Uganda and southern Sudan.", "Civilians were subjected to mass killings and rapes, torture, and abductions of children, who would later serve as sex slaves or child soldiers.", "Faced with more than 1.5 million people displaced from their homes, MSF set up relief programmes in internally displaced person (IDP) camps to provide clean water, food and sanitation.", "Diseases such as tuberculosis, measles, polio, cholera, ebola, and HIV/AIDS occur in epidemics in the country, and volunteers provide vaccinations (in the cases of measles and polio) and/or treatment to the residents.", "Mental health is also an important aspect of medical treatment for MSF teams in Uganda since most people refuse to leave the IDP camps for constant fear of being attacked.==== Ivory Coast ====MSF first camp set up a field mission in Côte d'Ivoire in 1990, but ongoing violence and the 2002 division of the country by rebel groups and the government led to several massacres, and MSF teams have even begun to suspect that an ethnic cleansing is occurring.", "Mass measles vaccinations, tuberculosis treatment and the re-opening of hospitals closed by fighting are projects run by MSF, which is the only group providing aid in much of the country.MSF has strongly promoted the use of contraception in Africa.===== West African Ebola outbreak =====A Médecins Sans Frontières staff member adjusts Dr. Joel Montgomery, Team Lead for CDC's Ebola Response Team in Liberia, goggles before Montgomery enters the Ebola treatment unit (ETU), ELWA 3.MSF operates the ELWA 3 ETU, which opened on August 17.During the Ebola outbreak in West Africa in 2014, MSF met serious medical demands largely on its own, after the organisation's early warnings were largely ignored.===== Burundi =====MSF-Burundi has aided in attending to casualties suffered in the 2019 Burundi landslides.===Asia=======Sri Lanka====MSF is involved in Sri Lanka, where a 26-year civil war ended in 2009 and MSF has adapted its activities there to continue its mission.", "For example, it helps with physical therapy for patients with spinal cord injuries.", "It conducts counseling sessions, and has set up an \"operating theatre for reconstructive orthopaedic surgery and supplied specialist surgeons, anaesthetists and nurses to operate on patients with complicated war-related injuries\".====Cambodia====MSF first provided medical help to civilians and refugees who have escaped to camps along the Thai-Cambodian border in 1979.Due to long decades of war, a proper health care system in the country was severely lacking and MSF moved inland in 1989 to help restructure basic medical facilities.In 1999, Cambodia was hit with a malaria epidemic.", "The situation of the epidemic was aggravated by a lack of qualified practitioners and poor quality control which led to a market of fake antimalarial drugs.", "Counterfeit antimalarial drugs were responsible for the deaths of at least 30 people during the epidemic.", "This has prompted efforts by MSF to set up and fund a malaria outreach project and utilise Village Malaria Workers.", "MSF also introduced a switching of first-line treatment to a combination therapy (Artesunate and Mefloquine) to combat resistance and fatality of old drugs that were used to treat the disease traditionally.Cambodia is one of the hardest hit HIV/AIDS countries in Southeast Asia.", "In 2001, MSF started introducing antiretroviral (ARV) therapy to AIDS patients for free.", "This therapy prolongs the patients' lives and is a long-term treatment.", "In 2002, MSF established chronic diseases clinics with the Cambodian Ministry of Health in various provinces to integrate HIV/AIDS treatment, alongside hypertension, diabetes, and arthritis which have high prevalence rate.", "This aims to reduce facility-related stigma as patients are able to seek treatment in a multi-purpose clinic in contrast to a HIV/AIDS specialised treatment centre.MSF also provided humanitarian aid in times of natural disaster such as a major flood in 2002 which affected up to 1.47 million people.", "MSF introduced a community-based tuberculosis programme in 2004 in remote villages, where village volunteers are delegated to facilitate the medication of patients.", "In partnership with local health authorities and other NGOs, MSF encouraged decentralized clinics and rendered localized treatments to more rural areas from 2006.Since 2007, MSF has extended general health care, counselling, HIV/AIDS and TB treatment to prisons in Phnom Penh via mobile clinics.", "However, poor sanitation and lack of health care still prevails in most Cambodian prisons as they remain as some of the world's most crowded prisons.In 2007, MSF worked with the Cambodian Ministry of Health to provide psychosocial and technical support in offering pediatric HIV/AIDS treatment to affected children.", "MSF also provided medical supplies and staff to help in one of the worst dengue outbreaks in 2007, which had more than 40,000 people hospitalized, killing 407 people, primarily children.In 2010, Southern and Eastern provinces of Cambodia were hit with a cholera epidemic and MSF responded by providing medical support that were adapted for usage in the country.Cambodia is one of 22 countries listed by WHO as having a high burden of tuberculosis.", "WHO estimates that 64% of all Cambodians carry the tuberculosis mycobacterium.", "Hence, MSF has since shifted its focus away from HIV/AIDS to tuberculosis, handing over most HIV-related programs to local health authorities.=== Middle East and North Africa =======Libya====The 2011 Libyan civil war has prompted efforts by MSF to set up a hospital and mental health services to help locals affected by the conflict.", "The fighting created a backlog of patients that needed surgery.", "With parts of the country slowly returning to livable, MSF has started working with local health personnel to address the needs.", "The need for psychological counseling has increased and MSF has set up mental health services to address the fears and stress of people living in tents without water and electricity.", "Currently MSF is the only International Aid organisation with actual presence in the country.====Search and Rescue in the Mediterranean Sea====MSF is providing Maritime Search And Rescue (SAR) services on the Mediterranean Sea to save the lives of migrants attempting to cross with unseaworthy boats.", "The Mission started in 2015 after the EU ended its major SAR operation Mare Nostrum severely diminishing much needed SAR capacities in the Mediterranean.", "Throughout the mission MSF has operated its own vessels like the ''Bourbon Argos'' (2015–2016), ''Dignity 1'' (2015–2016) and ''VOS Prudence'' (2016–2017).", "MSF has also provided medical teams to support other NGOs and their ships like the MOAS ''Phoenix'' (2015) or the ''Aquarius'' (2017–2018) and ''Ocean Viking'' (2019–2020) with SOS Méditerranée and Mediterranea Saving Humans.", "In August 2017 MSF decided to suspend the activities of the ''VOS Prudence'' protesting restrictions and threats by the Libyan \"Coast Guard\".In December 2018 MSF and SOS Méditerranée were forced to end operations of the ''Aquarius'', at that date the last remaining vessel supported by MSF.", "This came after attacks by EU states that stripped the vessel of its registration and produced criminal accusations against MSF.", "Up to then 80,000 people had been rescued or assisted since the beginning of the mission.", "Operations resumed with ''Ocean Viking'' in July 2019, but the ship was seized in Sicily in July 2020.In May 2021, MSF returned to refugee rescue operations in the Mediterranean with a new vessel, the ''Geo Barents''.", "Within a month this resulted in the rescue of some 400 people.====Yemen====MSF is involved in trying to help with the humanitarian crisis caused by the Yemeni Civil War.", "The organisation operates eleven hospitals and health centres in Yemen and provides support to another 18 hospitals or health centres.", "According to MSF, since October 2015, four of its hospitals and one ambulance have been destroyed by Saudi-led coalition airstrikes.", "In August 2016, an airstrike on Abs hospital killed 19 people, including one MSF staff member, and wounded 24.According to MSF, the GPS coordinates of the hospital were repeatedly shared with all parties to the conflict, including the Saudi-led coalition, and its location was well-known.===Europe=======The Netherlands====In August and September 2022, MSF provided medical care to asylum seekers staying outside the overcrowded migration centre in Ter Apel, the Netherlands." ], [ "Organisation of activities", "Before a field mission is established in a country, an MSF team visits the area to determine the nature of the humanitarian emergency, the level of safety in the area and what type of aid is needed (this is called an \"exploratory mission\").Medical aid is the main objective of most missions, although some missions help in such areas as water purification and nutrition.===Field mission team===MSF logistician in Nigeria showing plansA field mission team usually consists of a small number of coordinators to head each component of a field mission, and a \"head of mission\".", "The head of mission usually has the most experience in humanitarian situations of the members of the team, and it is their job to deal with the media, national governments and other humanitarian organisations.", "The head of mission does not necessarily have a medical background.Medical volunteers include physicians, surgeons, nurses, and various other specialists.", "In addition to operating the medical and nutrition components of the field mission, these volunteers are sometimes in charge of a group of local medical staff and provide training for them.Although the medical volunteers almost always receive the most media attention when the world becomes aware of an MSF field mission, there are a number of non-medical volunteers who help keep the field mission functioning.", "Logisticians are responsible for providing everything that the medical component of a mission needs, ranging from security and vehicle maintenance to food and electricity supplies.", "They may be engineers and/or foremen, but they usually also help with setting up treatment centres and supervising local staff.", "Other non-medical staff are water/sanitation specialists, who are usually experienced engineers in the fields of water treatment and management and financial/administration/human resources experts who are placed with field missions.===Medical component===CDC put on protective gear before entering an Ebola treatment ward in Liberia, August 2014.Vaccination campaigns are a major part of the medical care provided during MSF missions.", "Diseases such as diphtheria, measles, meningitis, tetanus, pertussis, yellow fever, polio, and cholera, all of which are uncommon in developed countries, may be prevented with vaccination.", "Some of these diseases, such as cholera and measles, spread rapidly in large populations living in close proximity, such as in a refugee camp, and people must be immunised by the hundreds or thousands in a short period of time.", "For example, in Beira, Mozambique, in 2004, an experimental cholera vaccine was received twice by approximately 50,000 residents in about one month.An equally important part of the medical care provided during MSF missions is AIDS treatment (with antiretroviral drugs), AIDS testing, and education.", "MSF is the only source of treatment for many countries in Africa, whose citizens make up the majority of people with HIV and AIDS worldwide.", "Because antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) are not readily available, MSF usually provides treatment for opportunistic infections and educates the public on how to slow transmission of the disease.In most countries, MSF increases the capabilities of local hospitals by improving sanitation, providing equipment and drugs, and training local hospital staff.", "When the local staff is overwhelmed, MSF may open new specialised clinics for treatment of an endemic disease or surgery for victims of war.", "International staff start these clinics but MSF strives to increase the local staff's ability to run the clinics themselves through training and supervision.", "In some countries, like Nicaragua, MSF provides public education to increase awareness of reproductive health care and venereal disease.Since most of the areas that require field missions have been affected by a natural disaster, civil war, or endemic disease, the residents usually require psychological support as well.", "Although the presence of an MSF medical team may decrease stress somewhat among survivors, often a team of psychologists or psychiatrists help people who have depression, survivors of domestic violence and those with substance use disorder.", "The doctors may also train local mental health staff.", "Such cases include Palestinian refugee camps, where long-term displacement and geopolitical circumstances have left many residents without long-term purpose or clear strategies for action.", "Humanitarian actors, like Médecins Sans Frontières, have sometimes responded by proferring coping skills to residents as a humanitarian aim and outcome.", "In the late 2000s, Médecins Sans Frontières launched a mental health program in Burj al Barajneh camp in Lebanon, providing sexual and reproductive health services, mental health support, and health promotion activities.===Nutrition===Often in situations where an MSF mission is set up, there is moderate or severe malnutrition as a result of war, drought, or government economic mismanagement.", "Intentional starvation is also sometimes used during a war as a weapon, and MSF, in addition to providing food, brings awareness to the situation and insists on foreign government intervention.", "Infectious diseases and diarrhoea, both of which cause weight loss and weakening of a person's body (especially in children), must be treated with medication and proper nutrition to prevent further infections and weight loss.", "A combination of the above situations, as when a civil war is fought during times of drought and infectious disease outbreaks, can create famine.An MSF health worker examines a malnourished child in Ethiopia, July 2011.In emergency situations where there is a lack of nutritious food, but not to the level of a true famine, protein-energy malnutrition is most common among young children.", "Marasmus, a form of calorie deficiency, is the most common form of childhood malnutrition and is characterised by severe wasting and often fatal weakening of the immune system.", "Kwashiorkor, a form of calorie and protein deficiency, is a more serious type of malnutrition in young children, and can negatively affect physical and mental development.", "Both types of malnutrition can make opportunistic infections fatal.", "In these situations, MSF sets up ''Therapeutic Feeding Centres'' for monitoring the children and any other malnourished individuals.A Therapeutic Feeding Centre (or Therapeutic Feeding Programme) is designed to treat severe malnutrition through the gradual introduction of a special diet intended to promote weight gain after the individual has been treated for other health problems.", "The treatment programme is split between two phases:* Phase 1 lasts for 24 hours and involves basic health care and several small meals of low energy/protein food spaced over the day.", "* Phase 2 involves monitoring of the patient and several small meals of high energy/protein food spaced over each day until the individual's weight approaches normal.MSF uses foods designed specifically for treatment of severe malnutrition.", "During phase 1, a type of therapeutic milk called F-75 is fed to patients.", "F-75 is a relatively low energy, low fat/protein milk powder that must be mixed with water and given to patients to prepare their bodies for phase 2.During phase 2, therapeutic milk called F-100, which is higher in energy/fat/protein content than F-75, is given to patients, usually along with a peanut butter mixture called Plumpy'nut.", "F-100 and Plumpy'nut are designed to quickly provide large amounts of nutrients so that patients can be treated efficiently.", "Other special food fed to populations in danger of starvation includes enriched flour and porridge, as well as a high protein biscuit called BP5.BP5 is a popular food for treating populations because it can be distributed easily and sent home with individuals, or it can be crushed and mixed with therapeutic milk for specific treatments.Dehydration, sometimes due to diarrhoea or cholera, may also be present in a population, and MSF set up rehydration centres to combat this.", "A special solution called Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS), which contains glucose and electrolytes, is given to patients to replace fluids lost.", "Antibiotics are also sometimes given to individuals with diarrhoea if it is known that they have cholera or dysentery.===Water and sanitation===Clean water is essential for hygiene, for consumption and for feeding programmes (for mixing with powdered therapeutic milk or porridge), as well as for preventing the spread of water-borne disease.", "As such, MSF water engineers and volunteers must create a source of clean water.", "This is usually achieved by modifying an existing water well, by digging a new well and/or starting a water treatment project to obtain clean water for a population.", "Water treatment in these situations may consist of storage sedimentation, filtration and/or chlorination depending on available resources.Sanitation is an essential part of field missions, and it may include education of local medical staff in proper sterilisation techniques, sewage treatment projects, proper waste disposal, and education of the population in personal hygiene.", "Proper wastewater treatment and water sanitation are the best way to prevent the spread of serious water-borne diseases, such as cholera.", "Simple wastewater treatment systems can be set up by volunteers to protect drinking water from contamination.", "Garbage disposal could include pits for normal waste and incineration for medical waste.", "However, the most important subject in sanitation is the education of the local population, so that proper waste and water treatment can continue once MSF has left the area.===Statistics===In order to accurately report the conditions of a humanitarian emergency to the rest of the world and to governing bodies, data on a number of factors are collected during each field mission.", "The rate of malnutrition in children is used to determine the malnutrition rate in the population, and then to determine the need for feeding centres.", "Various types of mortality rates are used to report the seriousness of a humanitarian emergency, and a common method used to measure mortality in a population is to have staff constantly monitoring the number of burials at cemeteries.", "By compiling data on the frequency of diseases in hospitals, MSF can track the occurrence and location of epidemic increases (or \"seasons\") and stockpile vaccines and other drugs.", "For example, the \"Meningitis Belt\" (sub-Saharan Africa, which sees the most cases of meningitis in the world) has been \"mapped\" and the meningitis season occurs between December and June.", "Shifts in the location of the Belt and the timing of the season can be predicted using cumulative data over many years.In addition to epidemiological surveys, MSF also uses population surveys to determine the rates of violence in various regions.", "By estimating the scopes of massacres, and determining the rate of kidnappings, rapes, and killings, psychosocial programmes can be implemented to lower the suicide rate and increase the sense of security in a population.", "Large-scale forced migrations, excessive civilian casualties and massacres can be quantified using surveys, and MSF can use the results to put pressure on governments to provide help, or even expose genocide.", "MSF conducted the first comprehensive mortality survey in Darfur in 2004.However, there may be ethical problems in collecting these statistics.=== Innovation and use of technology ===In 2014 MSF partnered with satellite operator SES, other NGOs Archemed, Fondation Follereau, Friendship Luxembourg and German Doctors, and the Luxembourg government in the pilot phase of SATMED, a project to use satellite broadband technology to bring eHealth and telemedicine to isolated areas of developing countries.", "SATMED was first deployed in Sierra Leone in support of the fight against Ebola." ], [ "Governance and structure", "List of international presidents:* 1991–1992 Rony Brauman* 1992 Reginald Moreels* 1992–1994 Rony Brauman* 1994–1995 Jacques De Milliano* 1995–1996 Doris Schopper* 1996–1997 Philippe Biberson* 1997–1998 Doris Schopper* 1998–2000 James Orbinski* 2000–2003 Morten Rostrup* 2004–2006 Rowan Gillies* 2006–2010 Christophe Fournier* 2010–2013 Unni Karunakara* 2013–2019 Joanne Liu* 2019–Present Christos ChristouIn addition to the Geneva global headquarters and five regional operational centers, as of 2020 MSF had national offices as follows:# MSF Australia# MSF Austria# MSF Belgium# MSF Brazil# MSF Canada# MSF Czech Republic# MSF Denmark# MSF Eastern Africa# MSF Finland# MSF France# MSF Germany# MSF Greece# MSF Hong Kong# MSF Ireland# MSF Italy# MSF Japan# MSF Republic of Korea# MSF Lat (Spanish Speaking South America)# MSF Luxembourg# MSF Mexico# MSF Netherlands# MSF Norway# MSF South Africa# MSF SARA (South Asia Regional Association: India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh)# MSF Spain# MSF Sweden# MSF Switzerland# MSF Taiwan# MSF United Kingdom# MSF United States# MSF West and Central Africa" ], [ "In-house organisations", "===Epicentre===In 1986, MSF created Epicentre, an in-house research organisation, to support its activities.", "Epicentre conducts training, publishes scientific papers and develops new techniques for MSF.", "It performs epidemiological research, conducts clinical vaccine trials during outbreaks MSF is responding to, experiments on vaccine stability, and analysis of vaccine deployment strategy.===Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines===The Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines was initiated in 1999 to increase access to essential medicines in developing countries.", "\"Essential medicines\" are those drugs that are needed in sufficient supply to treat a disease common to a population.", "However, most diseases common to populations in developing countries are no longer common to populations in developed countries; therefore, pharmaceutical companies find that producing these drugs is no longer profitable and may raise the price per treatment, decrease development of the drug (and new treatments) or even stop production of the drug.", "MSF often lacks effective drugs during field missions, and started the campaign to put pressure on governments and pharmaceutical companies to increase funding for essential medicines.In 2006, MSF tried to use its influence to urge the drug maker Novartis to drop its case against India's patent law that prevents Novartis from patenting its drugs in India.", "A few years earlier, Novartis also sued South Africa to prevent it from importing cheaper AIDS drugs.", "On 1 April 2013, it was announced that the Indian court invalidated Novartis's patent on imatinib (Gleevec).", "This decision makes the drug available via generics on the Indian market at a considerably lower price.In March 2017, Els Torreele who had been leading the campaign from 1999 to 2003 returned to MSF as the executive director of the Access Campaign.", "For the following three years she led a global analysis and advocacy team whose goal was to guarantee that appropriate medicines, vaccines and diagnostics are developed, available, affordable and adapted to people's needs.As of 2022, the most critical subjects of the campaign were rising antimicrobial resistance and outbreaks of epidemic diseases such as Ebola and COVID.", "Still, a lot of vaccines, diagnostics and medicines were inaccessible for people in need." ], [ "Security risks to staff", "MSF staff are sometimes attacked or kidnapped.", "In some countries, humanitarian-aid organisations are viewed as helping the enemy.", "If an aid mission is perceived to be exclusively set up for victims on one side of the conflict, it may come under attack.", "However, the War on Terrorism has generated attitudes among some groups in US-occupied countries that non-governmental aid organisations such as MSF are allied with or even work for the Coalition forces.", "Insecurity in cities in Afghanistan and Iraq rose significantly following United States operations, and MSF has declared that providing aid in these countries was too dangerous.", "The organisation was forced to evacuate its teams from Afghanistan on 28 July 2004, after five staff (Afghans Fasil Ahmad and Besmillah, Belgian Hélène de Beir, Norwegian Egil Tynæs, and Dutchman Willem Kwint) were killed on 2 June in an ambush by unidentified militia near Khair Khāna in Badghis Province.", "In June 2007, Elsa Serfass, a staff member with MSF-France, was killed in the Central African Republic and in January 2008, two expatriate staff (Damien Lehalle and Victor Okumu) and a national staff member (Mohammed Bidhaan Ali) were killed in an organised attack in Somalia resulting in the closing of the project.Arrests and abductions in politically unstable regions can also occur for volunteers, and in some cases, MSF field missions can be expelled entirely from a country.", "Arjan Erkel, Head of Mission in Dagestan in the North Caucasus, was kidnapped and held hostage in an unknown location by unknown abductors from 12 August 2002 until 11 April 2004.Paul Foreman, head of MSF-Holland, was arrested in Sudan in May 2005 for refusing to divulge documents used in compiling a report on rapes carried out by the pro-government Janjaweed militias (see Darfur conflict).", "Foreman cited the privacy of the women involved, and MSF alleged that the Sudanese government had arrested him because it disliked the bad publicity generated by the report.===Incidents===Below is a partial list of notable incidents of direct violence against MSF staff or facilities, in chronological order:* 14 August 2013: MSF announced that it was closing all of its programmes in Somalia due to attacks on its staff by Al-Shabaab militants and perceived indifference or inurement to this by the governmental authorities and wider society.", "* 3 October 2015: Fourteen staff and 28 others died when an MSF hospital was bombed by American forces during the Battle of Kunduz.", "** On 7 October 2015, US President Barack Obama issued an apology.", "Doctors Without Borders was not satisfied by Obama's apology.", "* 27 October 2015: An MSF hospital in Sa'dah, Yemen, was bombed by the Saudi Arabia-led military coalition.", "* 28 November 2015: An MSF-supported hospital was barrel-bombed by a Syrian Air Force helicopter, killing seven and wounding forty-seven people near Homs, Syria.", "* 10 January 2016: An MSF-supported hospital in Sa'dah was bombed by the Saudi Arabia-led military coalition, killing six people.", "* 15 February 2016: Two MSF-supported hospitals in Idlib District and Aleppo, Syria, were bombed, killing at least 20 and injuring dozens of patients and medical personnel.", "Both Russia and the United States denied responsibility or being in the area at the time.", "* 28 April 2016: An MSF hospital in Aleppo was bombed, killing 50, including six staff and patients.", "* 12 May 2020: an MSF-supported hospital in Dasht-e-Barchi, Kabul, Afghanistan, was attacked by an unknown assailant.", "The attack left 24 people dead and at least 20 more injured.", "* 25 June 2021: Three MSF employees were reported killed in Tigray, Ethiopia." ], [ "Awards", "===1999 Nobel Peace Prize===James Orbinski speaking about MSF in 2015The then president of MSF, James Orbinski, gave the Nobel Peace Prize speech on behalf of the organisation.", "In the opening, he discusses the conditions of the victims of the Rwandan genocide and focuses on one of his woman patients:Orbinski affirmed the organisation's commitment to publicising the issues MSF encountered, stating===Other awards===* '''2015''' Lasker-Bloomberg Public Service Award, from the New York based Lasker Foundation.", "* '''2016''' Hamdan Award for Volunteers in Humanitarian Medical Services, from Hamdan Medical Award." ], [ "Namesakes", "A number of other unrelated non-governmental organisations have adopted names ending in \"\" or \"Without Borders\", inspired by , for example: Engineers Without Borders, ('Lawyers Without Borders'), ('Reporters Without Borders'), ('Clowns Without Borders'), ('Libraries Without Borders'), and Homeopaths Without Borders.The French game show ('Games Without Borders') is older than MSF, being first broadcast in Europe in 1965." ], [ "Ethical concerns and criticism", "Questions about the ethical treatment of MSF staff, clients and communities by MSF as a result of some of its policies and practices have arisen, with issues being canvassed by employees, others in the development sector, and the media.MSF has maintained separate employment conditions and pay for its \"national staff\" (those employed locally for field missions) and its \"international staff\" (those deployed from regional or national units to field missions in other countries).", "The international staff tend to hold the senior posts on a mission, with the national staff most often reporting to the senior staff who have come from elsewhere.", "There are ongoing complaints from national staff that they are treated less favourably, employed on more dangerous tasks, paid considerably less, and are without access to benefits of housing, health care, and other advantages afforded incoming expatriate staff.", "MSF stated in 2020 that this policy would be reviewed with the intent to eliminate differential treatment.", "These practices, amongst other concerns, were the catalyst for a 2020 statement by 1,000 of its current and former employees outlining their concerns regarding the organisation's perceived structural racism.", "Included in the collective staff statement was testimony of personal experiences of racism within MSF, both in the form of adverse treatment in the workplace, and what is perceived as a white supremacist and colonial mindset expressed in the formation and implementation of programmes.While MSF hires ninety percent of its staff for missions \"in-country\", the organisation continues to have a preponderance of Europeans in its higher management.", "Despite the percentage of its international programme coordinators originating from the Global South rising from 24 percent to 46 percent over the decade 2012−2022, the international president Christos Christou acknowledged that the highest echelons of MSF were still dominated by those from the Global North.", "With its headquarters and five operational units located in western Europe, MSF's policies and operations were characterised in the 2020 MSF-staff statement as \"Eurocentric\".In 2018, there were revelations of sexual misconduct by MSF employees, including sexual harassment and abuse of patients, local community members or other MSF staff.", "Nineteen people were fired as a result of MSF's investigations of complaints.", "The complaints ranged from sexual harassment by MSF colleagues; exploitation of local (and possibly underage or solely \"survival sex\") sex workers by field staff, against MSF policy; and disparaging attitudes and remarks from staff regarding the supposed sexual availability of patients or community members, or an expressed intent to barter medical treatment for sex.", "Nearly all the resulting dismissals related to inter-staff sexual misconduct.Another controversy involved images taken without informed consent of vulnerable patients, some of whom were minors without adult guardians.", "Some images were criticised as exploitative and objectifying.", "They included a photograph of a mother mourning the death of her baby, with the boy's body visible; child rape survivors and sexual and domestic abuse survivors, with details of their experiences included.", "Intended to increase awareness of dire conditions prevailing in places where MSF works and the need for their programmes, the images were used on MSF and community websites and in print publications.", "Licensing of the images were available for sale to image databases.", "The ethics of exposing devastated or victimised individuals, sometimes with partially identifying information was questioned.", "Following the criticism, MSF decided to cease use of the images.", "The removal of the images was in turn also criticised.MSF's funding model has come under scrutiny after BlackRock donated $500,000 towards its COVID-19 crisis fund, leading to calls of hypocrisy from staff and other humanitarian organisations." ], [ "Selected non-fiction works about MSF", "* ''Hope in Hell'', 2006 book by Dan Bortolotti* A doctor's memoir of his first MSF posting on the medical frontlines in Angola, Mozambique, and South Sudan* ''The Photographer: Into War-torn Afghanistan with Doctors Without Borders'', graphic 'novel' (a memoir in graphic-novel format) by Guibert, Emmanuel (2009); photography and narration by Didier Lefèvre; colourist: Frédéric Lemercier.", "New York: First Second Books.", "* ''Living in Emergency: Stories of Doctors Without Borders'', 2008 documentary film by Mark N. Hopkins that tells the story of four MSF volunteer doctors confronting the challenges of medical work in war-torn areas of Liberia and Congo* ''Six Months in Sudan,'' 2009 memoir by doctor James Maskalyk* ''An Imperfect Offering'', 2008 memoir by former MSF president James Orbinski* ''Triage: Dr. James Orbinski's Humanitarian Dilemma'' 2007 documentary" ], [ "See also", "=== Relevant topics ===* Attacks on humanitarian workers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moose" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''moose''' (: 'moose'; used in North America) or '''elk''' (: 'elk' or 'elks'; used in Eurasia) ('''''Alces alces''''') is the only species in the genus '''''Alces'''''.", "The moose is the tallest, and the second-largest, land animal in North America, falling short only of the American bison in body mass.", "It is the world's tallest, largest and heaviest extant species of deer.", "Most adult male moose have broad, palmate (\"open-hand shaped\") antlers; other members of the deer family have antlers with a dendritic (\"twig-like\"), pointed configuration.", "Moose inhabit the circumpolar boreal forests or temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere, thriving in cooler, temperate areas as well as subarctic climates.Hunting has shaped the relationship between moose and humans, both in Eurasia and North America; prior to the colonial era (around 1600-1700 CE), moose were one of many valuable sources of sustenance for tribal groups and First Nations.", "Hunting and habitat loss have reduced the moose's range and led to sightings of \"urban moose\" in some areas.", "There have been many reports of moose walking down city streets and of bulls sparring in suburban driveways.", "Females with young calves have been documented chasing vehicles to 'defend' their young, as well as relaxing in public parks or browsing plants in home gardens.The moose has been reintroduced to some of its former habitats.", "Currently, the highest numbers occur in Canada, where they can be found in all provinces (excepting Nunavut and Prince Edward Island); additionally, substantial numbers of moose are found in Alaska, New England (with Maine having the most of the contiguous United States), New York State, Fennoscandia, the Baltic states, the Caucasus region, Belarus, Poland, Eastern Europe, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and Russia.", "In the United States (outside of Alaska and New England), most moose are found further to the north, west and northeast (including Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin and Wyoming), and they have been documented as far south as western Oklahoma, northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico.Predominantly a browser, the moose's diet consists of both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation, depending on the season, with branches, twigs and dead wood being a large portion of their winter diet.", "Predators of moose include wolves, bears, humans, wolverines (rarely, though may take calves), and (rarely, if swimming in the ocean) orcas.", "Unlike most other deer species, moose do not form herds and are solitary animals, aside from calves who remain with their mother until the cow begins estrus again (typically 18 months after the birth of a calf), at which point the cow chases them away.", "Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become defensively aggressive, and move very quickly if angered or startled.", "Their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female." ], [ "Etymology and naming", "''Alces alces'' is called a \"moose\" in North American English, but an \"elk\" in British English.", "The word \"elk\" in North American English refers to a completely different species of deer, ''Cervus canadensis'', also called the wapiti.", "A mature male moose is called a bull, a mature female a cow, and an immature moose of either sex a calf.According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the etymology of the species is \"of obscure history\".", "In Classical Antiquity, the animal was known as ''álkē'' in Greek and in Latin, words probably borrowed from a Germanic language or another language of northern Europe.", "By the 8th century, during the Early Middle Ages, the species was known as derived from the Proto-Germanic: ''*elho-'', ''*elhon-'' and possibly connected with the .", "Later, the species became known in Middle English as ''elk'', ''elcke'', or ''elke'', appearing in the Latinized form ''alke'', with the spelling ''alce'' borrowed directly from .", "Noting that ''elk'' \"is not the normal phonetic representative\" of the Old English ''elch'', the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' derives ''elk'' from , itself from .The word \"elk\" has cognates in other Indo-European languages, e.g.", "''elg'' in Danish/Norwegian; ''älg'' in Swedish; ''alnis'' in Latvian; ''eland'' in Dutch/Frisian; and ''Elch'' in German.", "In the continental European languages, these forms of the word \"elk\" always refer to ''Alces alces''.The youngest elk bones in Great Britain were found in Scotland and are roughly 3,900 years old.", "The elk was probably extinct on the island before 900 AD.", "The word \"elk\" remained in usage because of English-speakers' familiarity with the species in Continental Europe; however, without any living animals around to serve as a reference, the meaning became rather vague, and by the 17th century \"elk\" had a meaning similar to \"large deer\".", "Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described \"elk\" as a deer that was \"as large as a horse\".Confusingly, the word \"elk\" is used in North America to refer to a different animal, ''Cervus canadensis'', which is also called by the Algonquian indigenous name, \"wapiti\".", "The British began colonizing America in the 17th century, and found two common species of deer for which they had no names.", "The wapiti appeared very similar to the red deer of Europe (which itself was then almost extinct in Southern Britain) although it was much larger and was not red; the two species are indeed closely related, though distinct behaviorally and genetically.", "The moose was a rather strange-looking deer to the colonists, and they often adopted local names for both.", "In the early days of American colonization, the wapiti was often called a gray moose and the moose was often called a black moose, but early accounts of the animals varied wildly, adding to the confusion.The word \"moose\" had first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the Algonquian languages (compare the Narragansett ''moos'' and Eastern Abenaki ''mos''; according to early sources, these were likely derived from ''moosu'', meaning \"he strips off\"), and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another.", "The Proto-Algonquian form was ''*mo·swa''.Early European explorers in North America, particularly in Virginia where there were no moose, called the wapiti \"elk\" because of its size and resemblance to familiar-looking deer like the red deer.", "The moose resembled the \"German elk\" (the moose of continental Europe), which was less familiar to the British colonists.", "For a long time neither species had an official name, but were called a variety of things.", "Eventually, in North America the wapiti became known as an elk while the moose retained its indigenous name.", "In 1736, Samuel Dale wrote to the Royal Society of Great Britain:The common light-grey moose, called by the Indians, Wampoose, and the large or black-moose, which is the beast whose horns I herewith present.", "As to the grey moose, I take it to be no larger than what Mr. John Clayton, in his account of the Virginia Quadrupeds, calls the Elke ... was in all respects like those of our red-deer or stags, only larger ...", "The black moose is (by all that have hitherto writ of it) accounted a very large creature.", "...", "The stag, buck, or male of this kind has a palmed horn, not like that of our common or fallow-deer, but the palm is much longer, and more like that of the ''German elke.''" ], [ "Description and anatomy", "Skull of a moose===Antlers===Growing antlers are covered with a soft, furry covering called \"velvet\".", "Blood vessels in the velvet transport nutrients to support antler growth.Bull moose have antlers like other members of the deer family.", "The size and growth rate of antlers is determined by diet and age; symmetry reflects health.", "Size and symmetry in the number of antler points signals bull moose quality; cows may select mates based on antler size and symmetry.", "Bull moose use dominant displays of antlers to discourage competition and will spar or fight rivals.The male's antlers grow as cylindrical beams projecting on each side of the head at right angles to the midline of the skull, and then fork.", "The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening.", "Most moose have antlers that are broad and palmate (flat) with tines (points) along the outer edge.", "Within the ecologic range of the moose in Europe, those in northerly locales display the palmate pattern of antlers, while the antlers of European moose over the southerly portion of its range are typically of the cervina dendritic pattern and comparatively small, perhaps due to evolutionary pressures of hunting by humans, who prize the large palmate antlers.", "European moose with antlers intermediate between the palmate and the dendritic form are found in the middle of the north–south range.", "Moose with antlers have more acute hearing than those without antlers; a study of trophy antlers using a microphone found that the palmate antler acts as a parabolic reflector, amplifying sound at the moose's ear.The antlers of mature Alaskan adult bull moose (5 to 12 years old) have a normal maximum spread greater than .", "By the age of 13, moose antlers decline in size and symmetry.", "The widest spread recorded was across.", "An Alaskan moose also holds the record for the heaviest weight at .Antler beam diameter, not the number of tines, indicates age.", "In North America, moose (''A.", "a. americanus'') antlers are usually larger than those of Eurasian moose and have two lobes on each side, like a butterfly.", "Eurasian moose antlers resemble a seashell, with a single lobe on each side.", "In the North Siberian moose (''A.", "a. bedfordiae''), the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening.", "In the common moose (''A.", "a. alces'') this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base and a number of smaller snags on the free border.", "There is, however, a Scandinavian breed of the common moose in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the East Siberian animals.", "The palmation appears to be more marked in North American moose than in the typical Scandinavian moose.Young female (''A.", "a. americana'') in early June.After the mating season males drop their antlers to conserve energy for the winter.", "A new set of antlers will then regrow in the spring.", "Antlers take three to five months to fully develop, making them one of the fastest growing animal organs.", "Antler growth is \"nourished by an extensive system of blood vessels in the skin covering, which contains numerous hair follicles that give it a 'velvet' texture.\"", "This requires intense grazing on a highly-nutritious diet.", "By September the velvet is removed by rubbing and thrashing which changes the colour of the antlers.", "Immature bulls may not shed their antlers for the winter, but retain them until the following spring.", "Birds, carnivores and rodents eat dropped antlers as they are full of protein and moose themselves will eat antler velvet for the nutrients.If a bull moose is castrated, either by accidental or chemical means, he will shed his current set of antlers within two weeks and then immediately begin to grow a new set of misshapen and deformed antlers that he will wear the rest of his life without ever shedding again; similarly deformed antlers can result from a deficiency of testosterone caused by cryptorchidism or old age.", "These deformed antlers are composed of living bone which is still growing or able to grow, since testosterone is needed to stop antler growth; they may take one of two forms.", "\"Cactus antlers\" or velericorn antlers usually retain the approximate shape of a normal moose's antlers but have numerous pearl-shaped exostoses on their surface; being made of living bone, they are easily broken but can grow back.", "Perukes () are constantly growing, tumor-like antlers with a distinctive appearance similar to coral.", "Like roe deer, moose are more likely to develop perukes, rather than cactus antlers, than the more developed cervine deer, but unlike roe deer, moose do not suffer fatal decalcification of the skull as a result of peruke growth, but rather can support their continued growth until they become too large to be fully supplied with blood.", "The distinctive-looking perukes (often referred to as \"devil's antlers\") are the source of several myths and legends among many groups of Inuit as well as several other tribes of indigenous peoples of North America.In extremely rare circumstances, a cow moose may grow antlers.", "This is usually attributed to a hormone imbalance.===Proboscis and olfaction===The moose proboscis is distinctive among living cervids due to its large size; it also features nares that can be sealed shut when the moose is browsing aquatic vegetation.", "The moose proboscis likely evolved as an adaptation to aquatic browsing, with loss of the rhinarium, and development of a superior olfactory column separate from an inferior respiratory column.", "This separation contributes to the moose's keen sense of smell, which they employ to detect water sources, to find food under snow, and to detect mates or predators.===Hooves===Long legs allow moose to wade easily through deep water or snow.As with all members of the order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates), moose feet have two large keratinized hooves corresponding to the third and fourth toe, with two small posterolateral dewclaws (vestigial digits), corresponding to the second and fifth toe.", "The hoof of the fourth digit is broader than that of the third digit, while the inner hoof of the third digit is longer than that of the fourth digit.", "This foot configuration may favor striding on soft ground.", "The moose hoof splays under load, increasing surface area, which limits sinking of the moose foot into soft ground or snow, and which increases efficiency when swimming.", "The body weight per footprint surface area of the moose foot is intermediate between that of the pronghorn foot, (which have stiff feet lacking dewclaws—optimized for high-speed running) and the caribou foot (which are more rounded with large dewclaws, optimized for walking in deep snow).", "The moose's body weight per surface area of footprint is about twice that of the caribou.===Skin and fur===Moose skin is typical of the deer family.", "Moose fur consists of four types of hair: eyelashes, whiskers, guard hairs and wool hairs.", "Hair length and hair density varies according to season, age, and body region.", "The coat has two layers—a top layer of long guard hairs and a soft wooly undercoat.", "The guard hairs are hollow and filled with air for better insulation, which also helps them stay afloat when swimming.===Dewlap===Both male and female moose have a dewlap or bell, which is a fold of skin under the chin.", "Its exact function is unknown, but some morphologic analyses suggest a cooling (thermoregulatory) function.", "Other theories include a fitness signal in mating, as a visual and olfactory signal, or as a dominance signal by males, as are the antlers.===Tail===The tail is short (6 cm to 8 cm in length) and vestigial in appearance; unlike other ungulates the moose tail is too short to swish away insects.===Size===Crossing a riverOn average, an adult moose stands high at the shoulder, which is more than higher than the next-largest deer on average, the wapiti.", "Males (or \"bulls\") normally weigh from and females (or \"cows\") typically weigh , depending on racial or clinal as well as individual age or nutritional variations.", "The head-and-body length is , with the vestigial tail adding only a further .", "The largest of all the races is the Alaskan subspecies (''A.", "a. gigas''), which can stand over at the shoulder, has a span across the antlers of and averages in males and in females.", "Typically, however, the antlers of a mature bull are between .", "The largest confirmed size for this species was a bull shot at the Yukon River in September 1897 that weighed and measured high at the shoulder.", "There have been reported cases of even larger moose, including a bull killed in 2004 that weighed , and a bull that reportedly scaled , but none are authenticated and some may not be considered reliable.", "Among extant terrestrial animal species in North America, Europe, and Siberia, the moose is dwarfed only by two species of bison." ], [ "Ecology and biology", "===Diet===Moose mateThe moose is a browsing herbivore and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit.", "The average adult moose needs to consume per day to maintain its body weight.", "Much of a moose's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of forbs and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as willow and birch.", "As these terrestrial plants are rather low in sodium, as much as half of its diet usually consists of aquatic plants, including lilies and pondweed, which while lower in energy content, provide the moose with its sodium requirements.", "In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that is used as a snow and ice melter.", "A typical moose, weighing , can eat up to of food per day.Moose lack upper front teeth, but have eight sharp incisors on the lower jaw.", "They also have a tough tongue, lips and gums, which aid in the eating of woody vegetation.", "Moose have six pairs of large, flat molars and, ahead of those, six pairs of premolars, to grind up their food.", "A moose's upper lip is very sensitive, to help distinguish between fresh shoots and harder twigs, and is prehensile, for grasping their food.", "In the summer, moose may use this prehensile lip for grabbing branches and pulling, stripping the entire branch of leaves in a single mouthful, or for pulling forbs, like dandelions, or aquatic plants up by the base, roots and all.", "A moose's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer the new growths from deciduous trees with a high sugar content, such as white birch, trembling aspen and striped maple, among many others.", "To reach high branches, a moose may bend small saplings down, using its prehensile lip, mouth or body.", "For larger trees a moose may stand erect and walk upright on its hind legs, allowing it to reach branches up to or higher above the ground.Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants.", "This trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of black flies.", "Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in.", "Moose have been known to dive over to reach plants on lake bottoms, and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding.", "Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater.", "As an adaptation for feeding on plants underwater, the nose is equipped with fatty pads and muscles that close the nostrils when exposed to water pressure, preventing water from entering the nose.", "Other species can pluck plants from the water too, but these need to raise their heads in order to swallow.Moose are not grazing animals but browsers (concentrate selectors).", "Like giraffes, moose carefully select foods with less fiber and more concentrations of nutrients.", "Thus, the moose's digestive system has evolved to accommodate this relatively low-fiber diet.", "Unlike most hooved, domesticated animals (ruminants), moose cannot digest hay, and feeding it to a moose can be fatal.", "The moose's varied and complex diet is typically expensive for humans to provide, and free-range moose require a lot of forested hectarage for sustainable survival, which is one of the main reasons moose have never been widely domesticated.File:Alces alces bark stripping.jpg|left|Bark strippingFile:Bull moose close up feeding on fireweed.JPG|Bull moose eating a fireweed plantFile:Moose 983 LAB.jpg|Bull moose browses a beaver pond=== Natural predators ===Iron Age saddle from Siberia, depicting a moose being hunted by a Siberian tiger.Moose attacked by wolvesA full-grown moose has few enemies except Siberian tigers (''Panthera tigris tigris'') which regularly prey on adult moose, but a pack of gray wolves (''Canis lupus'') can still pose a threat, especially to females with calves.", "Brown bears (''Ursus arctos'') are also known to prey on moose of various sizes and are the only predator besides the wolf to attack moose both in Eurasia and North America.", "In Western Russia, moose provide about 15% annual estimated dietary energy content for brown bears and are the most important food source for these predators during spring.", "However, Brown bears are more likely to scavenge a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own.", "Black bears (''Ursus americanus'') and cougars (''Puma concolor'') can be significant predators of moose calves in May and June and can, in rare instances, prey on adults (mainly cows rather than the larger bulls).", "Wolverines (''Gulo gulo'') are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the large ungulates are weakened by harsh winter conditions.", "Orcas (''Orcinus orca'') are the moose's only confirmed marine predator as they have been known to prey on moose swimming between islands out of North America's Northwest Coast, however, there is at least one recorded instance of a moose preyed upon by a Greenland shark (''Somniosus microcephalus'').Moose with calves being approached by a brown bear, Denali National Park, AlaskaIn some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves.", "Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves.", "Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of , occasionally at a distance of .", "Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults.", "Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility is greatly impeded.", "Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves.", "Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and perineum, causing massive blood loss.", "Occasionally, a wolf may immobilize a moose by biting its sensitive nose, the pain of which can paralyze a moose.", "Wolf packs primarily target calves and elderly animals, but can and will take healthy, adult moose.", "Moose between the ages of two and eight are seldom killed by wolves.", "Though moose are usually hunted by packs, there are cases in which single wolves have successfully killed healthy, fully-grown moose.Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual.", "In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in the past but are now rebounding.", "These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens.Moose are also subject to various diseases and forms of parasitism.", "In northern Europe, the moose botfly is a parasite whose range seems to be spreading.===Parasites===Moose typically carry a heavy burden of parasites, both externally and internally.", "Parasitosis is an important cause of moose morbidity and mortality and also contributes to vulnerability to predators.====Ectoparasites====Ectoparasites of moose include the moose nose bot fly, and winter ticks.====Endoparasites====Endoparasites of moose include dog tapeworm, meningeal worm, lungworm, and roundworm.===Social structure and reproduction===Display at the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge of the skulls of two bulls who apparently died after their antlers became locked during a fight.Moose are mostly diurnal.", "They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf.", "Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during the mating season.Rutting and mating occurs in September and October.", "During the rut, mature bulls will cease feeding completely for a period of approximately two weeks; this fasting behavior has been attributed to neurophysiological changes related to redeployment of olfaction for detection of moose urine and moose cows.", "The males are polygynous and will seek several females to breed with.", "During this time both sexes will call to each other.", "Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to away, while females produce wail-like sounds.", "Males will fight for access to females.", "Initially, the males assess which of them is dominant and one bull may retreat, however, the interaction can escalate to a fight using their antlers.Female moose have an eight-month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful, in May or June.", "Twinning can run as high as 30% to 40% with good nutrition Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult.", "The young will stay with the mother until just before the next young are born.", "The life span of an average moose is about 15–25 years.", "Moose populations are stable at 25 calves for every 100 cows at 1 year of age.", "With availability of adequate nutrition, mild weather, and low predation, moose have a huge potential for population expansion.File:Moose calves nursing.jpg|(newborn)Calves nursing in spring.File:Cowcalflyingdown.JPG|(3 months)Calves stay near their mothers at all times.File:Ninemomoose.JPG|(9 months)This calf is almost ready to leave its mother.File:Mainstmoose.JPG|(10–11 months)This yearling was probably recently chased away by its pregnant mother.===Aggression===Moose are not typically aggressive towards humans, but will be aggressive when provoked or frightened.", "Moose attack more people than bears and wolves combined, but usually with only minor consequences.", "In the Americas, moose injure more people than any other wild mammal; worldwide, only hippopotamuses injure more.", "When harassed or startled by people or in the presence of a dog, moose may charge.", "Also, as with bears or most wild animals, moose accustomed to being fed by people may act aggressively when denied food.", "During the fall mating season, bulls may be aggressive toward humans.", "Cows are protective of young calves and will attack humans who come close, especially if they come between mother and calf.", "Moose are not territorial, and do not view humans as food, and usually will not pursue humans who run away.A bull, disturbed by the photographer, lowers his head and raises his hackles.Moose are unpredictable.", "They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if approached too closely.", "A moose that has been harassed may vent its anger on anyone in the vicinity, and they often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passersby.", "Moose are very limber animals with highly flexible joints and sharp, pointed hooves, and are capable of kicking with both front and back legs.", "Unlike other large, hoofed mammals, such as horses, moose can kick in all directions, including sideways.", "Thus, there is no safe side from which to approach.", "Moose often give warning signs prior to attacking, displaying aggression by means of body language.", "Maintained eye contact is usually the first sign of aggression, while laid-back ears or a lowered head is a sign of agitation.", "When the hairs on the back of the moose's neck and shoulders (hackles) stand up, a charge is usually imminent.", "The Anchorage Visitor Centers warn tourists that \"...a moose with its hackles raised is a thing to fear.", "\"Moose cows are more likely to emit protest moans when courted by small males.", "This attracts the attention of large males, promotes male-male competition and violence, reduces harassment of cows by small males, and increases mating opportunities with large males.", "This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with.Moose often show aggression to other animals as well, especially predators.", "Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults.", "Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from both black and brown bears.", "Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to the wolves.", "Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves.", "In one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves.", "A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal.", "European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of a predator.", "However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color, with the darkest coloring usually in areas facing the opponent, thus serving as a natural warning to other animals." ], [ "Habitat, range, and distribution", "===Habitat===Thermal image of a cow moose in the winter.", "Her thick, coarse fur with hollow hairs only measures an average of 8.3 °C above the ambient temperature of -23 °C, showing low heat-loss.Moose require habitat with adequate edible plants (e.g., pond grasses, young trees and shrubs), cover from predators, and protection from extremely hot or cold weather.", "Moose travel among different habitats with the seasons to address these requirements.", "Moose are cold-adapted mammals with thickened skin, dense, heat-retaining coat, and a low surface:volume ratio, which provides excellent cold tolerance but poor heat tolerance.", "Moose survive hot weather by accessing shade or cooling wind, or by immersion in cool water.", "In hot weather, moose are often found wading or swimming in lakes or ponds.", "When heat-stressed, moose may fail to adequately forage in summer and may not gain adequate body fat to survive the winter.", "Also, moose cows may not calve without adequate summer weight gain.", "Moose require access to both young forest for browsing and mature forest for shelter and cover.", "Forest disturbed by fire and logging promotes the growth of fodder for moose.", "Moose also require access to mineral licks, safe places for calving and aquatic feeding sites.Moose avoid areas with little or no snow as this increases the risk of predation by wolves and avoid areas with deep snow, as this impairs mobility.", "Thus, moose select habitat on the basis of trade-offs between risk of predation, food availability, and snow depth.", "With reintroduction of bison into boreal forest, there was some concern that bison would compete with moose for winter habitat, and thereby worsen the population decline of moose.", "However, this does not appear to be a problem.", "Moose prefer sub-alpine shrublands in early winter, while bison prefer wet sedge valley meadowlands in early winter.", "In late winter, moose prefer river valleys with deciduous forest cover or alpine terrain above the tree line, while bison preferred wet sedge meadowlands or sunny southern grassy slopes.===North America===After expanding for most of the 20th century, the moose population of North America has been in steep decline since the 1990s.", "Populations expanded greatly with improved habitat and protection, but now the moose population is declining rapidly.", "This decline has been attributed to opening of roads and landscapes into the northern range of moose, allowing deer to become populous in areas where they were not previously common.", "This encroachment by deer on moose habitat brought moose into contact with previously unfamiliar pathogens, including brainworm and liver fluke, and these parasites are believed to have contributed to the population decline of moose.In North America, the moose range includes almost all of Canada (excluding the arctic and Vancouver Island), most of Alaska, northern and eastern North Dakota, northern New England, the Adirondack Mountain region and Taconic highlands of northeast New York State, the upper Rocky Mountains, northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Michigan's Upper Peninsula, and Isle Royale in Lake Superior.", "This massive range, containing diverse habitats, contains four of the six North American subspecies.", "In the West, moose populations extend across Canada (British Columbia and Alberta).", "Isolated groups have been verified as far south as the mountains of Utah and Colorado and as far west as the Lake Wenatchee area of the Washington Cascades.", "In the northwestern US, the range includes Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and smaller areas of Washington, and Oregon.", "Moose have extended their range southwards in the western Rocky Mountains, with initial sightings in Yellowstone National Park in 1868, and then to the northern slope of the Uinta Mountains in Utah in the first half of the twentieth century.", "This is the southernmost naturally established moose population in the United States.", "In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state's moose population is now more than 2,400.In northeastern North America, the Eastern moose's history is very well documented: moose meat was a staple in the diet of indigenous peoples for centuries.", "The common name \"moose\" was brought into English from the word used by those who lived in present day coastal Rhode Island.", "The indigenouspeople often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in pemmican, a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys.The historical range of the subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of Pennsylvania in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the Hudson River in the south.", "The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U.S. for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in the mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within of present-day Manhattan.", "However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20% of suitable habitat remained.Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources, abandonment of farmland, better land management, clean-up of pollution, and natural dispersal from the Canadian Maritimes and Quebec.", "South of the Canada–US border, Maine has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose.", "Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in Vermont and New Hampshire, notably near bodies of water and as high up as above sea level in the mountains.", "In Massachusetts, moose had gone extinct by 1870, but re-colonized the state in the 1960s, with the population expanding from Vermont and New Hampshire; by 2010, the population was estimated at 850–950.Moose reestablished populations in eastern New York and Connecticut and appeared headed south towards the Catskill Mountains, a former habitat.In the Midwest U.S., moose are primarily limited to the upper Great Lakes region, but strays, primarily immature males, have been found as far south as eastern Iowa.", "For unknown reasons, the moose population is declining rapidly in the Midwest.Moose were successfully introduced on Newfoundland in 1878 and 1904, where they are now the dominant ungulate, and somewhat less successfully on Anticosti Island in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.File:Alaskan moose pair (6862339335).jpg|Cow and bull mooseFile:Cow moose.jpg|Cow mooseFile:Alces alces (juvenile).jpg|Moose calf====Decline in population====Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of temperate North America, although they remain stable in Arctic and subarctic regions.", "The exact causes of specific die-offs are not determined, but most documented mortality events were due to wolf predation, bacterial infection due to injuries sustained from predators, and parasites from white-tailed deer to which moose have not developed a natural defense, such as liver flukes, brain worms and winter tick infestations.", "Predation of moose calves by brown bear is also significant.", "Landscape change from salvage logging of forest damage caused by the mountain pine beetle has resulted in greater foraging in logged areas by female moose, and this is the lead hypothesis as to why the moose population is declining in eastern North American forests, as this likely leads to increased predation.", "An alternate hypotheses among biologists for generalized, nonhunting declines in moose populations at the southern extent of their range is increasing heat stress brought on by the rapid seasonal temperature upswings as a result of human-induced climate change.", "Biologists studying moose populations typically use warm-season, heat-stress thresholds of between .", "However, the minor average temperature increase of 0.83–1.11 °C (1.5–2 °F), over the last 100 years, has resulted in milder winters that induce favorable conditions for ticks, parasites and other invasive species to flourish within the southern range of moose habitat in North America.", "The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a 2014 estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200 from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005.Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick, which, between 2017 and 2019, accounted for 74% of all winter mortality and 91% of winter calf deaths in Vermont.", "Moose with heavy tick infections will rub their fur down to the skin raw trying to get the ticks off, making them look white when their outer coat rubs off.", "Locals call them ghost moose.", "Loss of the insulating winter coat through attempts to rid the moose of winter tick increases the risk of hypothermia in winter.===Europe and Asia===''A.", "a. alces'' calfBiebrzański Park Narodowy, PolandStaged picture of a moose hunt in Norway, date unknownIn Europe, moose are currently found in large numbers throughout Norway, Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, with more modest numbers in the southern Czech Republic, Belarus, and northern Ukraine.", "They are also widespread through Russia on up through the borders with Finland south towards the border with Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine and stretching far away eastwards to the Yenisei River in Siberia.", "The European moose was native to most temperate areas with suitable habitat on the continent and even Scotland from the end of the last Ice Age, as Europe had a mix of temperate boreal and deciduous forest.", "Up through Classical times, the species was certainly thriving in both Gaul and Magna Germania, as it appears in military and hunting accounts of the age.", "However, as the Roman era faded into medieval times, the beast slowly disappeared: soon after the reign of Charlemagne, the moose disappeared from France, where its range extended from Normandy in the north to the Pyrenees in the south.", "Farther east, it survived in Alsace and the Netherlands until the 9th century as the marshlands in the latter were drained and the forests were cleared away for feudal lands in the former.", "It was gone from Switzerland by the year 1000, from the western Czech Republic by 1300, from Mecklenburg in Germany by c. 1600, and from Hungary and the Caucasus since the 18th and 19th century, respectively.By the early 20th century, the last strongholds of the European moose appeared to be in Fennoscandian areas and patchy tracts of Russia, with a few migrants found in what is now Estonia and Lithuania.", "The USSR and Poland managed to restore portions of the range within its borders (such as the 1951 reintroduction into Kampinos National Park and the later 1958 reintroduction in Belarus), but political complications limited the ability to reintroduce it to other portions of its range.", "Attempts in 1930 and again in 1967 in marshland north of Berlin were unsuccessful.", "At present in Poland, populations are recorded in the Biebrza river valley, Kampinos, and in Białowieża Forest.", "It has migrated into other parts of Eastern Europe and has been spotted in eastern and southern Germany.", "Unsuccessful thus far in recolonizing these areas via natural dispersal from source populations in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Czech Republic, and Slovakia, it appears to be having more success migrating south into the Caucasus.", "It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.In 2008, two moose were reintroduced into the Scottish Highlands in Alladale Wilderness Reserve.", "The moose disappeared as a breeding species from Denmark about 4,500 years ago (in the last century, a very small number have lived for periods in Zealand without establishing a population after swimming across the Øresund from Sweden), but in 2016-17 ten were introduced to Lille Vildmose from Sweden.", "In 2020, this population had increased to about 25 animals.The East Asian moose populations confine themselves mostly to the territory of Russia, with much smaller populations in Mongolia and Northeastern China.", "Moose populations are relatively stable in Siberia and increasing on the Kamchatka Peninsula.", "In Mongolia and China, where poaching took a great toll on moose, forcing them to near extinction, they are protected, but enforcement of the policy is weak and demand for traditional medicines derived from deer parts is high.", "In 1978, the Regional Hunting Department transported 45 young moose to the center of Kamchatka.", "These moose were brought from Chukotka, home to the largest moose on the planet.", "Kamchatka now regularly is responsible for the largest trophy moose shot around the world each season.", "As it is a fertile environment for moose, with a milder climate, less snow, and an abundance of food, moose quickly bred and settled along the valley of the Kamchatka River and many surrounding regions.", "The population in the past 20 years has risen to over 2,900 animals.The size of the moose varies.", "Following Bergmann's rule, population in the south (''A.", "a. cameloides'') usually grow smaller, while moose in the north and northeast (''A.", "a. buturlini'') can match the imposing sizes of the Alaskan moose (''A.", "a. gigas'') and are prized by trophy hunters.===New Zealand===In 1900, an attempt to introduce moose into the Hokitika area failed; then in 1910 ten moose (four bulls and six cows) were introduced into Fiordland.", "This area is considered a less than suitable habitat, and subsequent low numbers of sightings and kills have led to some presumption of this population's failure.", "The last proven sighting of a moose in New Zealand was in 1952.However, a moose antler was found in 1972, and DNA tests showed that hair collected in 2002 was from a moose.", "There has been extensive searching, and while automated cameras failed to capture photographs, evidence was seen of bedding spots, browsing, and antler marks." ], [ "Evolutionary history", "Libralces gallicus''Antlers of ''Cervalces latifrons''stag-moose skeletonMoose are members of the subfamily Capreolinae.", "Members of the moose lineage extend back into the Pliocene-Early Pleistocene.", "Some scientists group the moose and all its extinct relatives into one genus, ''Alces'', while others, such as Augusto Azzaroli, restrict ''Alces'' to the living species, placing the fossil species into the genera ''Cervalces'' (stag moose) and ''Libralces''.The earliest known species in the moose lineage is ''Libralces gallicus'', which lived in the Pliocene-Early Pleistocene.", "''Libralces gallicus'' came from the warm savannas of Pliocene Europe, with the best-preserved skeletons being found in southern France.", "''L.", "gallicus'' was 1.25 times larger than the Alaskan moose in linear dimensions, making it nearly twice as massive.", "''L.", "gallicus'' had many striking differences from its modern descendants.", "It had a longer, narrower snout and a less-developed nasal cavity, more resembling that of a modern deer, lacking any sign of the modern moose-snout.", "Its face resembled that of the modern wapiti.", "However, the rest of its skull structure, skeletal structure and teeth bore strong resemblance to those features that are unmistakable in modern moose, indicating a similar diet.", "Its antlers consisted of a horizontal bar long, with no tines, ending in small palmations.", "Its skull and neck structure suggest an animal that fought using high-speed impacts, much like the Dall sheep, rather than locking and twisting antlers the way modern moose combat.", "Their long legs and bone structure suggest an animal that was adapted to running at high speeds over rough terrain.", "''Libralces gallicus'' was followed by ''Cervalces carnutorum'' during the first half of the Early Pleistocene.", "''Cervalces carnutorum'' was soon followed by a much larger species called ''Cervalces latifrons'' (broad-fronted stag-moose), which first appeared during the late Early Pleistocene.", "Many fossils of ''Cervalces latifrons'' have been found across Eurasia.", "Like its descendants, it inhabited mostly northern latitudes, and was probably well-adapted to the cold.", "''C.", "latifrons'' was the largest deer known to have ever existed, standing more than tall at the shoulders.", "This is bigger than even the Irish elk, which was tall at the shoulders.", "Its antlers were smaller than the Irish elk's, but comparable in size to those of ''L.", "gallicus''.", "However, the antlers had a shorter horizontal bar and larger palmations, more resembling those of a modern moose.", "Probably sometime in the Middle Pleistocene, ''Cervalces latifrons'' migrated into North America, giving rise to the stag moose (''Cervalces scotti'').", "The modern moose is thought to have evolved from ''Cervalces latifrons'' at around the end of the Middle Pleistocene to the beginning of the Late Pleistocene, probably somewhere in East Asia, with the earliest fossils of the species in Europe dating to the early Late Pleistocene.", "The modern moose only arrived in North America around 15,000 years ago, at the end of the Late Pleistocene." ], [ "Populations", "'''North America:'''* ''In Canada'': There are an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 moose, with 150,000 in Newfoundland in 2007 descended from just four that were introduced in the 1900s.", "* ''In United States'': There are estimated to be around 300,000:** Alaska: The state's Department of Fish and Game estimated 200,000 in 2011.", "** Northeast: A wildlife ecologist estimated 50,000 in New York and New England in 2007, with expansion expected.", "** Rocky Mountain states: Wyoming is said to have the largest share in its six-state region, and its Fish and Game Commission estimated 7,692 in 2009.", "** Upper Midwest: Michigan 2000 on Isle Royale (2019) and an estimated 433 (in its Upper Peninsula) in 2011, Wisconsin, 20–40 (close to its border with Michigan) in 2003, Minnesota 5600 in its northeast in 2010, and under 100 in its northwest in 2009; North Dakota closed, due to low moose population, one of its moose-hunting geographic units in 2011, and issued 162 single-kill licenses to hunters, each restricted to one of the remaining nine units.", "'''Europe and Asia''':* ''Finland'': In 2009, there was a summer population of 115,000.", "* ''Norway'': In 2009, there were a winter population of around 120,000.In 2015 31,131 moose were shot.", "In 1999, a record number of 39,422 moose were shot.", "* ''Latvia'': in 2015, there were 21,000.", "* ''Estonia'': 13,260* ''Lithuania'': around 14,000 in 2016* ''Poland'': 28,000* ''Czech Republic'': maximum of 50* ''Russia'': In 2007, there were approximately 600,000.", "* ''Sweden'': Summer population is estimated to be 300,000–400,000.Around 100,000 are shot each fall.", "About 10,000 are killed in traffic accidents yearly.===Subspecies=== European elk150 px ''A.", "a. alces'' Finland, Sweden, Norway, Latvia, Estonia and Russia.", "No longer present in central and western Europe except for Poland, Lithuania and Belarus, with a certain population in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and northern Ukraine, including Bohemia since the 1970s; recently sighted in eastern Germany (the range formerly included France, Switzerland and the Benelux nations).", "Population increasing and regaining territory.", "Males weigh about and females weigh in this mid-sized subspecies.", "Shoulder height ranges from .", "Yakutia, Mid-Siberian or Lena elk150 px ''A.", "a. pfizenmayeri'' Eastern Siberia, Mongolia and Manchuria.", "Mostly found in the forests of eastern Russia.", "The most common elk subspecies in Asia.", "Its range goes from the Yenisei River in the west and most of Siberia.", "Its range excludes the ranges of the Chukotka and Ussuri elk to the east and northern Mongolia.", "Similar in size to the western moose of Canada and the United States.", "Ussuri, Amur or Manchurian elk ''A.", "a. cameloides'' Ranges from the Amur-Ussuri region of far eastern Russia, as well as the northeastern part of China.", "Ussuri elk are different from other elk subspecies in that their antler size is much smaller, or they lack antlers entirely.", "Even adult bulls' antlers are small and cervine, with little palmation.", "The smallest subspecies in both Eurasia and the world, with both males and females standing only at the shoulder and weighing between .", "Chukotka or East Siberian elk150 px ''A.", "a. buturlini'' Ranges from northeastern Siberia from the Alazeya River basin east to the Kolyma and Anadyr basins and south through the Koryak range and the Kamchatka Peninsula.", "The largest subspecies in Eurasia.", "Males can grow up to tall and weigh between ; females are somewhat smaller.", "Eastern moose150 px ''A.", "a. americana'' Eastern Canada, including eastern Ontario, all of Quebec and the Atlantic Provinces and the northeastern United States, including Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and northern New York near the Adirondack Mountains.", "Population increasing.", "This is a fairly small-bodied subspecies, females weighing an average of , males weighing an average of and males standing up to approximately at the shoulder.", "Western moose150 px ''A.", "a. andersoni'' British Columbia to western Ontario, the eastern Yukon, the Northwest Territories, southwestern Nunavut, Michigan (the Upper Peninsula), northern Wisconsin, northern Minnesota and northeastern North Dakota.", "A middle-sized subspecies that weighs in adult females and in adult males on average.", "Alaskan moose150 px ''A.", "a. gigas'' Alaska and the western Yukon.", "The largest subspecies in North America and the world and the largest living deer in the world; the largest one shot on record weighed , and was tall at the shoulder.", "Shiras' moose or Yellowstone moose150 px ''A.", "a. shirasi''Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming.", "The smallest subspecies in North America, weighing about at maturity.", "† Caucasian elk150 px ''A.", "a. caucasicus'' The Caucasus Mountains.", "Extinct due to habitat loss and overhunting.", "Its range would have included European Russia, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey." ], [ "Relationship with humans", "===History===A moose and its reflectionTwo young moose wearing radio tracking collarsEuropean rock drawings and cave paintings reveal that moose have been hunted since the Stone Age.", "Excavations in Alby, Sweden, adjacent to the Stora Alvaret have yielded moose antlers in wooden hut remains from 6000 BCE, indicating some of the earliest moose hunting in northern Europe.", "In northern Scandinavia one can still find remains of trapping pits used for hunting moose.", "These pits, which can be up to in area and deep, would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves.", "They would have had steep sides lined with planks, making it impossible for the moose to escape once it fell in.", "The pits are normally found in large groups, crossing the moose's regular paths and stretching over several km.", "Remains of wooden fences designed to guide the animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peat.", "In Norway, an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around 3700 BC.", "Trapping elk in pits is an extremely effective hunting method.", "As early as the 16th century the Norwegian government tried to restrict their use; nevertheless, the method was in use until the 19th century.The earliest recorded description of the moose is in Julius Caesar's ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'', where it is described thus:There are also animals, which are called ''alces'' (moose).", "The shape of these, and the varied color of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up.", "Trees serve as beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing.", "When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them.In book 8, chapter 16 of Pliny the Elder's ''Natural History'' from 77 CE, the elk and an animal called achlis, which is presumably the same animal, are described thus: ... there is, also, the moose, which strongly resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the length of the ears and of the neck.", "There is also the achlis, which is produced in the land of Scandinavia; it has never been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of it from many persons; it is not unlike the moose, but has no joints in the hind leg.", "Hence, it never lies down, but reclines against a tree while it sleeps; it can only be taken by previously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness.", "Its upper lip is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go backwards when grazing; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip would get doubled up.===As food===trophy headscat is commonly found on trails.", "Some souvenir shops sell bags of it, sealed with shellac and labeled with humorous names.Moose are hunted as a game species in many of the countries where they are found.", "Moose meat tastes, wrote Henry David Thoreau in \"The Maine Woods\", \"like tender beef, with perhaps more flavour; sometimes like veal\".", "While the flesh has protein levels similar to those of other comparable red meats (e.g.", "beef, deer and wapiti), it has a low fat content, and the fat that is present consists of a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fats than saturated fats.Dr.", "Valerius Geist, who emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union, wrote in his 1999 book ''Moose: Behaviour, Ecology, Conservation'':Boosting moose populations in Alaska for hunting purposes is one of the reasons given for allowing aerial or airborne methods to remove wolves in designated areas, e.g., Craig Medred: \"A kill of 124 wolves would thus translate to the survival of 1488 moose or 2976 caribou or some combination thereof\".", "Some scientists believe that this artificial inflation of game populations is actually detrimental to both caribou and moose populations as well as the ecosystem as a whole.", "This is because studies have shown that when these game populations are artificially boosted, it leads to both habitat destruction and a crash in these populations.==== Consumption of offal====Cadmium levels are high in Finnish moose liver and kidneys, with the result that consumption of these organs from moose more than one year old is prohibited in Finland.", "As a result of a study reported in 1988, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources recommended against the consumption of moose and deer kidneys and livers.", "Levels of cadmium were found to be considerably higher than in Scandinavia.", "The New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources advises hunters not to consume cervid offal.Cadmium intake has been found to be elevated amongst all consumers of moose meat, though the meat was found to contribute only slightly to the daily cadmium intake.", "However the consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, with the study revealing that heavy consumers of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin below the levels which would probably cause adverse health effects.===Vehicle collisions===The center of mass of a moose is above the hood of most passenger cars.", "In a collision, the impact crushes the front roof beams and individuals in the front seats.", "Collisions of this type are frequently fatal; seat belts and airbags offer little protection.", "In collisions with higher vehicles (such as trucks), most of the deformation is to the front of the vehicle and the passenger compartment is largely spared.", "Moose collisions have prompted the development of a vehicle test referred to as the \"moose test\" (, ).", "A Massachusetts study found that moose–vehicular collisions had a very high human fatality rate and that such collisions caused the death of 3% of the Massachusetts moose population annually.Moose warning signs are used on roads in regions where there is a danger of collision with the animal.", "The triangular warning signs common in Sweden, Norway, and Finland have become coveted souvenirs among tourists traveling in these countries, causing road authorities so much expense that the moose signs have been replaced with imageless generic warning signs in some regions.In Ontario, Canada, an estimated 265 moose die each year as a result of collision with trains.", "Moose–train collisions were more frequent in winters with above-average snowfall.", "In January 2008, the Norwegian newspaper ''Aftenposten'' estimated that some 13,000 moose had died in collisions with Norwegian trains since 2000.The state agency in charge of railroad infrastructure (Jernbaneverket) plans to spend 80 million Norwegian kroner to reduce collision rate in the future by fencing the railways, clearing vegetation from near the tracks, and providing alternative snow-free feeding places for the animals elsewhere.In the Canadian province of New Brunswick, collisions between automobiles and moose are frequent enough that all new highways have fences to prevent moose from accessing the road, as has long been done in Finland, Norway, and Sweden.", "A demonstration project, Highway 7 between Fredericton and Saint John, which has one of the highest frequencies of moose collisions in the province, did not have these fences until 2008, although it was and continues to be extremely well signed.", "Newfoundland and Labrador recommended that motorists use caution between dusk and dawn because that is when moose are most active and most difficult to see, increasing the risk of collisions.", "Local moose sightings are often reported on radio stations so that motorists can take care while driving in particular areas.", "An electronic \"moose detection system\" was installed on two sections of the Trans-Canada Highway in Newfoundland in 2011, but the system proved unreliable and was removed in 2015.In Sweden, a road will not be fenced unless it experiences at least one moose accident per km per year.In eastern Germany, where the scarce population is slowly increasing, there were two road accidents involving moose since 2000.File:NO road sign 146.1.svg|Norwegian road sign.File:Moosecrossingkenaiak.JPG|Warning sign in Alaska where trees and brush are trimmed along high moose crossing areas so that moose can be seen as they approach the road.File:Moose crossing a road.jpg|Moose (''A.", "a. gigas'') crossing a road in Alaska.File:Moose crossing warning sign.jpg|Canadian road sign.===Domestication===Domestication of moose was investigated in the Soviet Union before World War II.", "Early experiments were inconclusive, but with the creation of a moose farm at Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve in 1949, a small-scale moose domestication program was started, involving attempts at selective breeding of animals on the basis of their behavioural characteristics.", "Since 1963, the program has continued at Kostroma Moose Farm, which had a herd of 33 tame moose as of 2003.Although at this stage the farm is not expected to be a profit-making enterprise, it obtains some income from the sale of moose milk and from visiting tourist groups.", "Its main value, however, is seen in the opportunities it offers for the research in the physiology and behavior of the moose, as well as in the insights it provides into the general principles of animal domestication.In Sweden, there was a debate in the late 18th century about the national value of using the moose as a domestic animal.", "Among other things, the moose was proposed to be used in postal distribution, and there was a suggestion to develop a moose-mounted cavalry.", "Such proposals remained unimplemented, mainly because the extensive hunting for moose that was deregulated in the 1790s nearly drove it to extinction.", "While there have been documented cases of individual moose being used for riding and/or pulling carts and sleds, Björklöf concludes no wide-scale usage has occurred outside fairy tales.===Heraldry===A moose in the coat of arms of Hirvensalmi, FinlandAs one of the Canadian national symbols, the moose occurs on several Canadian coats of arms, including Newfoundland and Labrador, and Ontario.", "Moose is also a common coat of arms in Europe as well; for example, in Finland, it appears on the coats of arms of Hirvensalmi and Mäntsälä municipalities.", "The Seal of Michigan features a moose." ], [ "See also", "* Älgen Stolta, a rare example of a domesticated moose" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* '' Alces: A journal devoted to the biology and management of moose (Alces alces)'' Centre for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research.", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * A moose in the National Nature Park \"Losinyj Ostrov\" (\"Moose\" or \"Elk\" Island) in Russia* from the National Museum of Natural History" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Medieval warfare" ], [ "Introduction", "The Battle of Crécy (1346) between the English and the French in the Hundred Years' War.", "'''Medieval warfare''' is the warfare of the Middle Ages.", "Technological, cultural, and social advancements had forced a severe transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery (see military history).", "In terms of fortification, the Middle Ages saw the emergence of the castle in Europe, which then spread to the Holy Land (modern day Israel and Palestine)." ], [ "Organization", "The medieval knight was usually a mounted and armoured soldier, often connected with nobility or royalty, although (especially in north-eastern Europe) knights could also come from the lower classes, and could even be enslaved persons.", "The cost of their armour, horses, and weapons was great; this, among other things, helped gradually transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors.", "During the crusades, holy orders of Knights fought in the Holy Land (see Knights Templar, the Hospitallers, etc.", ").The light cavalry consisted usually of lighter armed and armoured men, who could have lances, javelins or missile weapons, such as bows or crossbows.", "In much of the Middle Ages, light cavalry usually consisted of wealthy commoners.", "Later in the Middle Ages, light cavalry would also include sergeants who were men who had trained as knights but could not afford the costs associated with the title.", "Light cavalry was used as scouts, skirmishers or outflankers.", "Many countries developed their styles of light cavalries, such as Hungarian mounted archers, Spanish jinetes, Italian and German mounted crossbowmen and English currours.The infantry was recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army.", "Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries.", "Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers.===Recruiting===Hungarian raids in the 10th century.", "Before the battle of Lechfeld in 955 Medieval Europeans were vulnerable from the Nomadic style of war that came from the Hungarians.In the earliest Middle Ages, it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his equipment, archers, and infantry.", "This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities.", "The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be.Typically the feudal armies consisted of a core of highly skilled knights and their household troops, mercenaries hired for the time of the campaign and feudal levies fulfilling their feudal obligations, who usually were little more than rabble.", "They could, however, be efficient in disadvantageous terrain.", "Towns and cities could also field militias.As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen and mercenary armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool.", "It was estimated that the best infantrymen came from the younger sons of free land-owning yeomen, such as the English archers and Swiss pikemen.", "England was one of the most centralized states in the Late Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the Hundred Years' War were mostly paid professionals.In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days.", "Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent.", "Thus the scutage was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army.", "However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early 12th century.As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region.", "These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate.", "Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy, they came to dominate the armies of the city-states.", "This made them problematic; while at war they were considerably more reliable than a standing army, at peacetime they proved a risk to the state itself like the Praetorian Guard had once been.Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manoeuvre as on battles, since the condottieri recognized it was more efficient to attack the enemy's ability to wage war rather than his battle forces, discovering the concept of indirect warfare 500 years before Sir Basil Liddell Hart, and attempting to attack the enemy supply lines, his economy and his ability to wage war rather than risking an open battle, and manoeuvre him into a position where risking a battle would have been suicidal.", "Machiavelli understood this indirect approach as cowardice." ], [ "Fortifications", "The Château de Falaise in France.Celje Castle in Slovenia.In Europe, breakdowns in centralized power led to the rise of several groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income.", "Most notably the Vikings, Arabs, Mongols, Huns, Cumans, Tartars, and Magyars raided significantly.", "As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly, building fortifications was a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region.These fortifications evolved throughout the Middle Ages, the most important form being the castle, a structure which has become almost synonymous with the Medieval era in the popular eye.", "The castle served as a protected place for the local elites.", "Inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the enemy from the area, or to disrupt the efforts of larger armies to supply themselves in the region by gaining local superiority over foraging parties that would be impossible against the whole enemy host.Fortifications were a very important part of warfare because they provided safety to the lord, his family, and his servants.", "They provided refuge from armies too large to face in open battle.", "The ability of the heavy cavalry to dominate a battle on an open field was useless against fortifications.", "Building siege engines was a time-consuming process, and could seldom be effectively done without preparations before the campaign.", "Many sieges could take months, if not years, to weaken or demoralize the defenders sufficiently.", "Fortifications were an excellent means of ensuring that the elite could not be easily dislodged from their lands – as Count Baldwin of Hainaut commented in 1184 on seeing enemy troops ravage his lands from the safety of his castle, \"they can't take the land with them\".===Siege warfare===In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of siege engines including: scaling ladders; battering rams; siege towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel, onager, ballista, and trebuchet.", "Siege techniques also included mining in which tunnels were dug under a section of the wall and then rapidly collapsed to destabilize the wall's foundation.", "Another technique was to bore into the enemy walls, however, this was not nearly as effective as other methods due to the thickness of castle walls.The Walls of Dubrovnik are a series of defensive stone walls, never breached by a hostile army, that have surrounded and protected the maritime city-state of Dubrovnik (Ragusa), situated in southern Croatia.Advances in the prosecution of sieges encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures.", "In particular, Medieval fortifications became progressively stronger – for example, the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades – and more dangerous to attackers – witness the increasing use of machicolations, as well the preparation of hot or incendiary substances.", "Arrow slits, concealed doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege at this time.", "Designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances, protecting gates with drawbridges, portcullises and barbicans.", "Wet animal skins were often draped over gates to repel fire.", "Moats and other water defences, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders.In the Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls – Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is a well-preserved example – and more important cities had citadels, forts or castles.", "Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege.", "In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city.", "In other cases, such as the Ottoman siege of Shkodra, Venetian engineers had designed and installed cisterns that were fed by rain water channeled by a system of conduits in the walls and buildings.", "Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia.", "Against these would be matched the mining skills of teams of trained sappers, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies.Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics favoured the defender.", "With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defence became less and less effective against a determined siege." ], [ "Relics", "The practice of carrying relics into battle is a feature that distinguishes medieval warfare from its predecessors or early modern warfare and possibly inspired by biblical references.", "The presence of relics was believed to be an important source of supernatural power that served both as a spiritual weapon and a form of defence; the relics of martyrs were considered by Saint John Chrysostom much more powerful than \"walls, trenches, weapons and hosts of soldiers\"In Italy, the ''carroccio'' or ''carro della guerra'', the \"war wagon\", was an elaboration of this practice that developed during the 13th century.", "The ''carro della guerra'' of Milan was described in detail in 1288 by Bonvesin de la Riva in his book on the \"Marvels of Milan\".", "Wrapped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen that were caparisoned in white with the red cross of Saint Ambrose, the city's patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship's mast." ], [ "Naval warfare", "The Byzantine fleet repels the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941.The Byzantine dromons are rolling over the Rus' vessels and smashing their oars with their spurs.The waters surrounding Europe can be grouped into two types which affected the design of craft that traveled and therefore the warfare.", "The Mediterranean and Black Seas were free of large tides, generally calm, and had predictable weather.", "The seas around the north and west of Europe experienced stronger and less predictable weather.", "The weather gauge, the advantage of having a following wind, was an important factor in naval battles, particularly to the attackers.", "Typically westerlies (winds blowing from west to east) dominated Europe, giving naval powers to the west an advantage.", "Medieval sources on the conduct of medieval naval warfare are less common than those about land-based war.", "Most medieval chroniclers had no experience of life on the sea and generally were not well informed.", "Maritime archaeology has helped provide information.Turkish armor during battles of Marica and Kosovo in 1371 and 1389Early in the medieval period, ships in the context of warfare were used primarily for transporting troops.", "In the Mediterranean, naval warfare in the Middle Ages was similar to that under late Roman Empire: fleets of galleys would exchange missile fire and then try to board bow first to allow marines to fight on deck.", "This mode of naval warfare remained the same into the early modern period, as, for example, at the Battle of Lepanto.", "Famous admirals included Roger of Lauria, Andrea Doria and Hayreddin Barbarossa.Late medieval maritime warfare was divided in two distinct regions.", "In the Mediterranean, galleys were used for raiding along coasts, and in the constant fighting for naval bases.", "In the Atlantic and Baltic there was greater focus on sailing ships that were used mostly for troop transport, with galleys providing fighting support.", "Galleys were still widely used in the north and were the most numerous warships used by Mediterranean powers with interests in the north, especially the French and Iberian kingdoms.Bulkier ships were developed which were primarily sail-driven, although the long lowboard Viking-style rowed longship saw use well into the 15th century.", "Their main purpose in the north remained the transportation of soldiers to fight on the decks of the opposing ship (as, for example, at the Battle of Svolder or the Battle of Sluys).Late medieval sailing warships resembled floating fortresses, with towers in the bows and at the stern (respectively, the forecastle and aftcastle).", "The large superstructure made these warships quite unstable, but the decisive defeats that the more mobile but considerably lower boarded longships suffered at the hands of high-boarded cogs in the 15th century ended the issue of which ship type would dominate northern European warfare.===Introduction of guns===The introduction of guns was the first step towards major changes in naval warfare, but it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat.", "The first guns on ships were introduced in the 14th century and consisted of small wrought-iron pieces placed on the open decks and in the fighting tops, often requiring only one or two men to handle them.", "They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock and frighten the enemy before boarding.leftAs guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just their crews.", "Since these guns were much heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships, and fire from gunports, to avoid ships becoming unstable.", "In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with clinker planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull; clinker-built (or clench-built) ships had much of their structural strength in the outer hull.", "The solution was the gradual adoption of carvel-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship.The first ships to actually mount heavy cannon capable of sinking ships were galleys, with large wrought-iron pieces mounted directly on the timbers in the bow.", "The first example is known from a woodcut of a Venetian galley from 1486.Heavy artillery on galleys was mounted in the bow which fit conveniently with the long-standing tactical tradition of attacking head-on and bow-first.", "The ordnance on galleys was quite heavy from its introduction in the 1480s, and capable of quickly demolishing medieval-style stone walls that still prevailed until the 16th century.This temporarily upended the strength of older seaside fortresses, which had to be rebuilt to cope with gunpowder weapons.", "The addition of guns also improved the amphibious abilities of galleys as they could assault supported with heavy firepower, and could be even more effectively defended when beached stern-first.", "Galleys and similar oared vessels remained uncontested as the most effective gun-armed warships in theory until the 1560s, and in practice for a few decades more, and were considered a grave risk to sailing warships." ], [ "Rise of infantry", "A battle between the Venetian and Holy Roman fleets.", "Detail of a fresco by Spinello Aretino 1407–1408.In the Medieval period, the mounted cavalry long held sway on the battlefield.", "Heavily armoured mounted knights represented a formidable foe for reluctant peasant draftees and lightly armoured freemen.", "To defeat mounted cavalry, infantry used swarms of missiles or a tightly packed phalanx of men, techniques honed in antiquity by the Greeks.===Swiss pikemen===The use of long pikes and densely packed foot troops was not uncommon in the Middle Ages.", "The Flemish footmen at the Battle of the Golden Spurs met and overcame French knights in 1302, as the Lombards did in Legnano in 1176 and the Scots held their own against heavily armoured English cavalry.", "During the St. Louis crusade, dismounted French knights formed a tight lance-and-shield phalanx to repel Egyptian cavalry.", "The Swiss used pike tactics in the late medieval period.", "While pikemen usually grouped and awaited a mounted attack, the Swiss developed flexible formations and aggressive manoeuvring, forcing their opponents to respond.", "The Swiss won at Morgarten, Laupen, Sempach, Grandson and Murten, and between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe (except the English and Scottish) hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons (e.g., the German Landsknechte).A modern replica of an English longbow.===Welsh and English longbowmen===The Welsh and English longbowmen used a single-piece longbow (but some bows later developed a composite design) to deliver arrows that could penetrate contemporary mail and damage/dent plate armour.", "The longbow was a difficult weapon to master, requiring long years of use and constant practice.", "A skilled longbowman could shoot about 12 shots per minute.", "This rate of fire was far superior to competing weapons like the crossbow or early gunpowder weapons.", "The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow, used often by urban militias and mercenary forces.", "The crossbow had greater penetrating power and did not require the extended years of training.", "However, it lacked the rate of fire of the longbow.At Crécy and Agincourt bowmen unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights.", "At Crécy, even 5,000 Genoese crossbowmen could not dislodge them from their hill.", "At Agincourt, thousands of French knights were brought down by armour-piercing bodkin point arrows and horse-maiming broadheads.", "Longbowmen decimated an entire generation of the French nobility." ], [ "Transition to gunpowder warfare", "In 1326 the earliest known European picture of a gun appeared in a manuscript by Walter de Milemete.", "In 1350, Petrarch wrote that the presence of cannons on the battlefield was 'as common and familiar as other kinds of arms'.Early artillery played a limited role in the Hundred Years' War, and it became indispensable in the Italian Wars of 1494–1559, marking the beginning of early modern warfare.", "Charles VIII, during his invasion of Italy, brought with him the first truly mobile siege train: culverins and bombards mounted on wheeled carriages, which could be deployed against an enemy stronghold immediately after arrival." ], [ "Strategy and tactics", "Medieval campaigns were planned with strategy in mind, such as maintaining unity in morale, planning troop movements, and mount offensives with numerical advantages.", "Medieval armies used strategic deception, such as misleading troop movements, to take opposing armies by surprise.", "They would also spread misinformation regarding army size and provisions.One common tactic used in medieval warfare was raiding; this benefitted the attacking army by with new supplies and wealth while damaging the target's resources.===''De re militari''===Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus wrote ''De re militari (Concerning Military Matters)'' possibly in the late 4th century.", "Described by historian Walter Goffart as \"the bible of warfare throughout the Middle Ages\", ''De re militari'' was widely distributed through the Latin West.", "While Western Europe relied on a single text for the basis of its military knowledge, the Byzantine Empire in Southeastern Europe had a succession of military writers.", "Though Vegetius had no military experience and ''De re militari'' was derived from the works of Cato and Frontinus, his books were the standard for military discourse in Western Europe from their production until the 16th century.", "''De re militari'' was divided into five books: who should be a soldier and the skills they needed to learn, the composition and structure of an army, field tactics, how to conduct and withstand sieges, and the role of the navy.", "According to Vegetius, infantry was the most important element of an army because it was cheap compared to cavalry and could be deployed on any terrain.", "One of the tenets he put forward was that a general should only engage in battle when he was sure of victory or had no other choice.", "As archaeologist Robert Liddiard explains, \"Pitched battles, particularly in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, were rare.", "\"Although his work was widely reproduced, and over 200 copies, translations, and extracts survive today, the extent to which Vegetius affected the actual practice of warfare as opposed to its concept is unclear because of his habit of stating the obvious.", "Historian Michael Clanchy noted \"the medieval axiom that laymen are illiterate and its converse that clergy are literate\", so it may be the case that few soldiers read Vegetius' work.", "While their Roman predecessors were well-educated and had been experienced in warfare, the European nobility of the early Medieval period were not renowned for their education, but from the 12th century, it became more common for them to read.Some soldiers regarded the experience of warfare as more valuable than reading about it; for example, Geoffroi de Charny, a 14th century knight who wrote about warfare, recommended that his audience should learn by observing and asking advice from their superiors.", "Vegetius remained prominent in medieval literature on warfare, although it is uncertain to what extent his work was read by the warrior class as opposed to the clergy.", "In 1489, King Henry VII of England commissioned the translation of ''De re militari'' into English, \"so every gentleman born to arms and all manner of men of war, captains, soldiers, victuallers and all others would know how they ought to behave in the feats of wars and battles\"." ], [ "Supplies and logistics", "13th century German great helm with a flat top to the skullByzantine ''klivanion''AlmogavarMedieval warfare largely predated the use of supply trains, which meant that armies had to acquire food supplies from the territory they were passing through.", "This meant that large-scale looting by soldiers was unavoidable, and was actively encouraged in the 14th century with its emphasis on ''chevauchée'' tactics, where mounted troops would burn and pillage enemy territory in order to distract and demoralize the enemy while denying them their supplies.Through the medieval period, soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases.", "Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided instead of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.In 1294, the same year John II de Balliol of Scotland refused to support Edward I of England's planned invasion of France, Edward I implemented a system in Wales and Scotland where sheriffs would acquire foodstuffs, horses and carts from merchants with compulsory sales at prices fixed below typical market prices under the Crown's rights of prise and purveyance.", "These goods would then be transported to Royal Magazines in southern Scotland and along the Scottish border where English conscripts under his command could purchase them.", "This continued during the First War of Scottish Independence which began in 1296, though the system was unpopular and was ended with Edward I's death in 1307.Starting under the rule of Edward II in 1307 and ending under the rule of Edward III in 1337, the English instead used a system where merchants would be asked to meet armies with supplies for the soldiers to purchase.", "This led to discontent as the merchants saw an opportunity to profiteer, forcing the troops to pay well above normal market prices for food.As Edward III went to war with France in the Hundred Years' War (starting in 1337), the English returned to a practice of foraging and raiding to meet their logistical needs.", "This practice lasted throughout the war, extending through the remainder of Edward III's reign into the reign of Henry VI." ], [ "Regional examples", "===Arabs===14th century Arab style battering ramThe initial Muslim conquests began in the 7th century after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and were marked by a century of rapid Arab expansion beyond the Arabian Peninsula under the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates.", "Under the Rashidun, the Arabs conquered the Persian Empire, along with Roman Syria and Roman Egypt during the Byzantine-Arab Wars, all within just seven years from 633 to 640.Under the Umayyads, the Arabs annexed North Africa and southern Italy from the Romans and the Arab Empire soon stretched from parts of the Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Italy, to the Iberian Peninsula and the Pyrenees.The early Arab army mainly consisted of camel-mounted infantry, alongside a few Bedouin cavalry.", "Constantly outnumbered by their opponent, they did, however, possess the advantage of strategic mobility, their camel-borne nature allowing them to constantly outmaneuver larger Byzantine and Sassanid armies to take prime defensive positions.", "The Rashidun cavalry, while lacking the number and mounted archery skill of their Roman and Persian counterparts was for the most part skillfully employed, and played a decisive role in many crucial battles such as Battle of Yarmouk.", "During the 7th century, Arab armies employed weapons such as swords, spears, iron mace and lances.", "For protection, they used shields and wore helmets and coats of mail, although the latter was extremely rare.", "The bow and arrow was also utilized.", "Also, after the naval siege of Constantinople in the 670s, they started to employ greek fire.In contrast to the Roman and Persian army at the time both had large numbers of heavy infantry and heavy cavalry (cataphracts and clibanarii) that were better equipped, heavily protected, and were more experienced and disciplined.", "The Arab invasions came at a time when both ancient powers were exhausted from the protracted Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, particularly the bitterly fought Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 which had brought both empires close to collapse.", "Also, the typically multi-ethnic Byzantine force was always wracked by dissension and lacked a unity of command, a similar situation also being encountered among the Sassanids who had been embroiled in a bitter civil war for a decade before the coming of the Arabs.", "In contrast, the Ridda Wars which preceded the Arab conflicts with both the Sasanids and the Byzantines, had forged the Caliphate's army into a united and loyal fighting force.===Vikings===landing at Dublin, 841The Vikings were a feared force in Europe because of their savagery and speed of their attacks.", "Whilst seaborne raids were nothing new at the time, the Vikings refined the practice to a science through their shipbuilding, tactics and training.", "Unlike other raiders, the Vikings made a lasting impact on the face of Europe.", "During the Viking age, their expeditions, frequently combining raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish Empire, the British Isles, the Baltic region, Russia, and both Muslim and Christian Iberia.", "Many served as mercenaries, and the famed Varangian Guard, serving the Emperor of Constantinople, was drawn principally of Scandinavian warriors.Norwegian Vikings' defeat at the leftViking longships were swift and easily manoeuvered; they could navigate deep seas or shallow rivers, and could carry warriors that could be rapidly deployed directly onto land due to the longships being able to land directly.", "The longship was the enabler of the Viking style of warfare that was fast and mobile, relying heavily on the element of surprise.", "The usual method was to approach a target with the element of surprise and then retire swiftly using guerrilla-style fighting.", "The fully armoured Viking raider would wear an iron helmet and a mail hauberk, and fight with a combination of axe, sword, shield, spear or great \"Danish\" two-handed axe, although the typical raider would be unarmoured, carrying only a bow and arrows, a seax, a shield and spear.", "European countries with a weak system of government would be unable to organize a suitable response and would naturally suffer the most to Viking raiders.", "Viking raiders always had the option to fall back in the face of a superior force or stubborn defence and then reappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases.", "As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the \"Great Heathen Army\" that ravaged Anglo-Saxon England in the 9th century.", "In time, the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for further expansion later.After the Vikings consolidated their kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, this period marks the end of significant raider activity both for plunder or conquest; adapting a more continental European tradition of warfare, whilst retaining an emphasis on naval power – the \"Viking\" clinker-built warship was used in the war until the 14th century.", "However, developments in shipbuilding elsewhere removed the advantage they previously enjoyed at sea, whilst castle building throughout frustrated and eventually ended Viking raids.The Scandinavian armies of the High Middle Ages followed the usual pattern of the Northern European armies, but with a stronger emphasis on infantry.", "The terrain of Scandinavia favoured heavy infantry, and whilst the nobles fought mounted in the continental fashion, the Scandinavian peasants formed a well-armed and well-armoured infantry, of which approximately 30% to 50% would be archers or crossbowmen.", "The crossbow, the flatbow and the longbow were especially popular in Sweden and Finland.", "The chainmail, the lamellar armour and the coat of plates were the usual Scandinavian infantry armour before the era of plate armour.===Mongols===During The Mongol invasion of Europe, Tatars, under the leadership of Kadan, experienced a major failure in March 1242 at Klis Fortress in southern Croatia.", "By 1241, having conquered large parts of Russia, the Mongols continued the invasion of Europe with a massive three-pronged advance, following the fleeing Cumans, who had established an uncertain alliance with King Bela IV of Hungary.", "They first invaded Poland, and finally, Hungary, culminating in the crushing defeat of the Hungarians in the Battle of Mohi.", "The Mongol aim seems to have consistently been to defeat the Hungarian-Cuman alliance.", "The Mongols raided across the borders to Austria and Bohemia in the summer when the Great Khan died, and the Mongol princes returned home to elect a new Great Khan.The Golden Horde would frequently clash with Hungarians, Lithuanians and Poles in the thirteenth century, with two large raids in the 1260s and 1280s respectively.", "In 1284 the Hungarians repelled the last major raid into Hungary, and in 1287 the Poles repelled a raid against them.", "The instability in the Golden Horde seems to have quieted the western front of the Horde.", "Also, the large scale invasions and raiding that had previously characterized the expansion of the Mongols was cut short probably in some part due to the death of the last great Mongol leader, Tamerlane.The Hungarians and Poles had responded to the mobile threat by extensive fortification-building, army reform in the form of better-armoured cavalry, and refusing battle unless they could control the site of the battlefield to deny the Mongols local superiority.", "The Lithuanians relied on their forested homelands for defence and used their cavalry for raiding into Mongol-dominated Russia.", "When attacking fortresses they would launch dead or diseased animals into fortresses to help spread disease.===Turks and Central Asia===An early Turkic group, the Seljuks, were known for their cavalry archers.", "These fierce nomads were often raiding empires, such as the Byzantine Empire, and they scored several victories using mobility and timing to defeat the heavy cataphracts of the Byzantines.One notable victory was at Manzikert, where conflict among the generals of the Byzantines gave the Turks the perfect opportunity to strike.", "They hit the cataphracts with arrows, and outmanoeuvred them, then rode down their less mobile infantry with light cavalry that used scimitars (in use since the 9th century).", "When gunpowder was introduced, the Ottoman Turks of the Ottoman Empire hired the mercenaries that used the gunpowder weapons and obtained their instruction for the Janissaries.", "Out of these Ottoman soldiers rose the Janissaries (''yeni ceri''; \"new soldier\"), from which they also recruited many of their heavy infantry.", "Along with the use of cavalry and early grenades, the Ottomans mounted an offensive in the early Renaissance period and attacked Europe, taking Constantinople by massed infantry assaults.Like many other nomadic peoples, the Turks featured a core of heavy cavalry from the upper classes.", "These evolved into the Sipahis (feudal landholders similar to western knights and Byzantine ''pronoiai'') and Qapukulu (''door slaves'', taken from youth like Janissaries and trained to be royal servants and elite soldiers, mainly cataphracts).Already by the late 13th century, the Khilji dynasty utilized several siege technologies such as trebuchets, ballistas and wooden parapets by their war engineers.", "In order to breach a fortification's curtain walls, long earthen-ramps were used to fill up moats.", "In ranged military techniques, they used the powerful war-horses from Central Asia with mounted archers." ], [ "Equipment", "Replica of 12th century Serbian medieval armorA varlet or squire carrying a halberd with a thick blade; and archer, in fighting dress, drawing the string of his crossbow with a double-handled winch.", "From the miniatures of the \"Jouvencel\", and Froissart's ''Chronicles''.", "Imperial Library of Paris.15th century armor from Germany'''Weapons'''Medieval weapons consisted of many different types of ranged and hand-held objects:* Melee** Battleaxe*** Horseman's pick** Blades*** Arming Sword*** Dagger*** Knife*** Longsword*** Messer** Blunt weapons*** Club*** Mace*** War hammer** Polearm*** Halberd*** Lance*** Military fork, the weaponized Pitchfork*** Pollaxe*** Spear* Ranged** Bow** Longbow** Crossbow** Throwing axe** Throwing spear and Javelin** Sling'''Armour'''* Body armour** Leather** Fabric** Chainmail** Brigandine** Plate* Shield* Helmet'''Artillery and Siege engine'''* Battering rams* Catapult* Trebuchet* Ballista* Siege tower'''Animals'''* Camels in warfare* Dogs in warfare* Horses in warfare and Horses in the Middle Ages* War elephant* War pigs" ], [ "See also", "* Endemic warfare* Great Stirrup Controversy* Horses in warfare* Slighting* Timeline of women in Medieval warfare" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * Glete, Jan, ''Warfare at Sea, 1500–1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe.''", "Routledge, London.", "2000.", "* * Guilmartin, John Francis, ''Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century.''", "Cambridge University Press, London.", "1974.", "* Hattendorf, John B.", "& Unger, Richard W. (editors), ''War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.''", "Woodbridge, Suffolk.", "2003.", "* * Lehmann, L.", "Th., ''Galleys in the Netherlands.''", "Meulenhoff, Amsterdam.", "1984.", "* Marsden, Peter, ''Sealed by Time: The Loss and Recovery of the Mary Rose.''", "The Archaeology of the ''Mary Rose'', Volume 1.The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth.", "2003.", "* * * Rodger, Nicholas A. M., \"The Development of Broadside Gunnery, 1450–1650.\"", "''Mariner's Mirror'' 82 (1996), pp. 301–324.", "* Rodger, Nicholas A. M., ''The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649.''", "W.W. Norton & Company, New York.", "1997.", "* Laury Sarti, \"Perceiving War and the Military in Early Christian Gaul (ca.", "400–700 A.D.)\" (= Brill's Series on the Early Middle Ages, 22), Leiden/Boston 2013, ." ], [ "Further reading", "* Contamine, Philippe.", "''War in the Middle Ages''.", "Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984.", "* Creveld, Martin Van.", "''Technology and War: From 2000 BC to present'', 1989.", "* * Keegan, John.", "''The face of battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme''.", "London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1988.", "* Keen, Maurice.", "''Medieval Warfare: A History''.", "Oxford University Press, 1999.", "* H. W. Koch: ''Medieval Warfare.''", "Bison Books Limited, London, 1978, * Kosztolnyik, Z.J.", "''Hungary in the thirteenth century''.", "New York: Columbia University Press: Stackpole Books, 1996.", "( Parts of which are available online)* McNeill, William Hardy.", "''The pursuit of power: technology, armed force, and society since A.D. 1000''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.", "* Oman, Charles William Chadwick.", "''A history of the art of war in the Middle Ages''.", "London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1998.", "* De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History* Parker, Geoffrey.", "''The Military Revolution: Military innovation and the Rise of The West'', 1988.", "* Titterton, James, ''Deception in Medieval Warfare''.", "Boydell & Brewer, 2022," ], [ "External links", "* Medieval Warfare Siege warfare, open battles, weapons, armour and fighting techniques.", "* Database of thousands of English soldiers during the later medieval period* Medieval History Database (MHDB), which includes medieval military records* Guide to researching records of medieval soldiers, from the British National Archives site" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magnetic tape" ], [ "Introduction", "7-inch reel of ¼-inch-wide audio recording tape, typical of consumer use in the 1950s–70s.", "'''Magnetic tape''' is a medium for magnetic storage made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film.", "It was developed in Germany in 1928, based on the earlier magnetic wire recording from Denmark.", "Devices that use magnetic tape could with relative ease record and playback audio, visual, and binary computer data.", "Magnetic tape revolutionized sound recording and reproduction and broadcasting.", "It allowed radio, which had always been broadcast live, to be recorded for later or repeated airing.", "Since the early 1950s, magnetic tape has been used with computers to store large quantities of data and is still used for backup purposes.Magnetic tape begins to degrade after 10–20 years and therefore is not an ideal medium for long-term archival storage.", "The exception is data tape formats like LTO which are specifically designed for long-term archiving." ], [ "Durability", "While good for short-term use, magnetic tape is highly prone to disintegration.", "Depending on the environment, this process may begin after 10–20 years.Over time, magnetic tape made in the 1970s and 1980s can suffer from a type of deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome.", "It is caused by hydrolysis of the binder in the tape and can render the tape unusable." ], [ "Successors", "Since the introduction of magnetic tape, other technologies have been developed that can perform the same functions, and therefore, replace it.", "Despite this, technological innovation continues.", "Sony and IBM continue to advance tape capacity." ], [ "Uses", "===Audio===Compact Cassette Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany.Because of escalating political tensions and the outbreak of World War II, these developments in Germany were largely kept secret.", "Although the Allies knew from their monitoring of Nazi radio broadcasts that the Germans had some new form of recording technology, its nature was not discovered until the Allies acquired German recording equipment as they invaded Europe at the end of the war.", "It was only after the war that Americans, particularly Jack Mullin, John Herbert Orr, and Richard H. Ranger, were able to bring this technology out of Germany and develop it into commercially viable formats.", "Bing Crosby, an early adopter of the technology, made a large investment in the tape hardware manufacturer Ampex.A wide variety of audiotape recorders and formats have been developed since.", "Some magnetic tape-based formats include:* Reel-to-reel* Fidelipac* Stereo-Pak (Muntz Stereo-Pak, commonly known as the 4-track cartridge)* Perforated (sprocketed) film audio magnetic tape (sepmag, perfotape, sound follower tape, magnetic film)* 8-track tape* Compact Cassette* Elcaset* RCA tape cartridge* Mini-Cassette* Microcassette* Picocassette* NT (cassette)* ProDigi* Digital Audio Stationary Head* Digital Audio Tape* Digital Compact Cassette=== Video ===A VHS helical scan head drum.", "Helical and transverse scans made it possible to increase the data bandwidth to the necessary point for recording video on tapes, and not just audio.Some magnetic tape-based formats include:* Quadruplex videotape* Ampex 2 inch helical VTR* Type A videotape* IVC videotape format* Type B videotape* Type C videotape* EIAJ-1* U-matic** UniHi* Video Cassette Recording* Cartrivision* VHS** VHS-C** S-VHS*** Digital S*** W-VHS*** D-VHS* Video 2000* V-Cord* VX (videocassette format)* Betamax* Compact Video Cassette* Betacam** Betacam SP** Digital Betacam** Betacam SX*** MPEG IMX** HDCAM*** HDCAM SR* M (videocassette format)* MII (videocassette format)* D-1 (Sony)* DCT (videocassette format)* D-2 (video)* D-3 (video)* D5 HD* D6 HDTV VTR* Video8* Hi8* Digital8* DV** MiniDV** DVCAM*** DVCPRO*** DVCPRO50*** DVCPRO Progressive*** DVCPRO HD** HDV* MicroMV=== Computer data ===Small open reel of 9-track tape On-scale comparison of an LTO Ultrium, Exatape, DSS-3, and D/CAS cartridgesMagnetic tape was first used to record computer data in 1951 on the Eckert-Mauchly UNIVAC I.", "The system's UNISERVO I tape drive used a thin strip of one-half-inch (12.65  mm) wide metal, consisting of nickel-plated bronze (called Vicalloy).", "The recording density was 100 characters per inch (39.37  characters/cm) on eight tracks.In 2002, Imation received a US$11.9 million grant from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology for research into increasing the data capacity of magnetic tape.In 2014, Sony and IBM announced that they had been able to record 148 gigabits per square inch with magnetic-tape media developed using a new vacuum thin-film forming technology able to form extremely fine crystal particles, allowing true tape capacity of 185 TB." ], [ "See also", "* Analog recording* Magnetic developer*" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* History of Tape Recording Technology* The Museum of Obsolete Media" ] ]
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[ [ "Mabo v Queensland (No 2)" ], [ "Introduction", "Murray Islands'''''Mabo v Queensland (No 2)''''' (commonly known as '''''the Mabo case''''' or simply '''''Mabo''''') is a landmark decision of the High Court of Australia that recognised the existence of Native Title in Australia.", "It was brought by Eddie Mabo against the State of Queensland and decided on 3 June 1992.The case is notable for being the first in Australia to recognise pre-colonial land interests of Indigenous Australians within the common law of Australia.", "''Mabo'' is of great legal, historical, and political importance to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians.", "The decision rejected the notion that Australia was terra nullius (i.e.", "owned by no one) at the time of British settlement, and recognised that Indigenous rights to land existed by virtue of traditional customs and laws and these rights had not been wholly lost upon colonisation.The Prime Minister Paul Keating during his Redfern speech praised the decision, saying it \"establishes a fundamental truth, and lays the basis for justice\".", "Conversely, the decision was criticised by the government of Western Australia and various mining and pastoralist groups.Soon after the decision, the Keating government passed the ''Native Title Act 1993'' (Cth), which supplemented the rights recognised in ''Mabo'' and set out a new process for applicants to have their rights recognised through the newly established Native Title Tribunal and the Federal Court of Australia." ], [ "Background", "===History of Mer===The case centred on the Murray Islands Group, consisting of Murray Island (known traditionally as Mer Island), Waua Islet and Daua Island.", "The islands have been inhabited by the Meriam people (a group of Torres Strait Islanders) for between 300 and 2000 years.Prior to and after annexation by the British, rights to land on Mer is governed by Malo's Law, \"a set of religiously sanctioned laws which Merriam people feel bound to observe\".", "Under this law, the entirety of Mer is owned by different Meriam land owners and there is no concept of public ownership.", "Land is owned by the eldest son on behalf of a particular lineage or family so that land is jointly owned individually and communally.", "Unlike western law, title to land is orally based, although there is also a written tradition introduced to comply with State and Commonwealth inheritance and welfare laws.", "However, ownership is not 'one way' under this system of law, and an individual both owns the land and is owned by it.", "As such, they have the responsibility to care and share it with their clan or family and maintain it for future generations.", "In 1871 missionaries from the London Missionary Society arrived on the Torres Strait island of Darnley Island in an event known as \"The coming of the Light\" leading to the conversion to Christianity of much of the Torres Strait, including Mer Island.", "This however did not lead to a replacement of traditional native traditions, but a synthesis with traditional customs, including Malo's Law, being recognised within the framework of Christianity.", "Reverend David Passi, who gave evidence in the trial, explained that he believed that God had sent Malo to Mer island and that \"Jesus Christ was where Malo was pointing.", "\"In 1879 the islands were formally annexed by the State of Queensland.By the 1900s, the traditional economic life of the Torres Strait gave way to wage labouring on fishing boats mostly owned by others.", "In the aftermath of the great depression and an subsequent cut in wages, Islanders in 1936 joined a strike instigated by Mer Islanders.", "This strike was the first organised Islander challenge to western authorities since colonisation.===Legal Background===Prior to ''Mabo'', the pre-colonial property interests of Indigenous Australians were not recognised by the Australian legal system.", "Litigation over this issue directly did not arise until the 1970s with the case of ''Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd''.", "In that case, native title was held to not exist and to never have existed in Australia.Later in 1982, the plaintiffs, headed by Eddie Mabo, requested a declaration from the High Court that the Meriam people were entitled to property rights on Murray Island according to their local customs, original native ownership and their actual use and possession of the land.", "The State of Queensland was the respondent to the proceeding and argued that native title rights had never existed in Australia and even if it did they had been removed due to (at the latest) the passage of the ''Land Act 1910'' (Qld).Prior to judgment, the Queensland government passed the ''Queensland Coast Islands Declaratory Act 1985'' (Qld), which purported to extinguish the native title on the Murray Islands that Mabo and the other plaintiffs were seeking to claim.", "This was successfully challenged in ''Mabo v Queensland'' (1988) 166 CLR 186 (Mabo No 1) and declared as ineffective due to the act being inconsistent with the right to equality before the law, as established by the ''Racial Discrimination Act 1975'' (Cth)." ], [ "Judgment", "The court held that rights arising under native title were recognised within Australia's common law.", "These rights were sourced from Indigenous laws and customs and not from a grant from the Crown.", "However, these rights were not absolute and may be extinguished by validly enacted State or Commonwealth legislation or grants of land rights inconsistent with native title rights.", "Additionally, the acquisition of radical title to land by the Crown at British settlement did not by itself extinguish native title interests.A majority of the High Court found that:* The doctrine of terra nullius was not applicable to Australia at the time of British settlement of New South Wales* The Crown acquires radical title to land when it acquires sovereignty over it* Native title exists as part of the common law of Australia* The source of native title was the traditional customs and laws of Indigenous groups* The nature and content of native title rights depended upon ongoing traditional laws and customs* Native title could be extinguished by a valid exercise of government power that was inconsistent with an ongoing native title interest.=== Terra nullius ===Various members of the court discussed the international law doctrine of ''terra nullius'' (no one's land), meaning uninhabited or inhabited territory which is not under the jurisdiction of a state, and which can be acquired by a state through occupation.", "The court also discussed the analogous common law doctrine that \"desert and uncultivated land\" which includes land \"without settled inhabitants or settled law\" can be acquired by Britain by settlement, and that the laws of England are transmitted at settlement.", "A majority of the court rejected the notion that the doctrine of ''terra nullius'' precluded the common law recognition of traditional Indigenous rights and interests in land at the time of British settlement of New South Wales.In 2005, historian Michael Connor argued in ''The Invention of Terra Nullius'' that Mabo was wrongly decided as the British actually annexed Australia, rather than treating it as ''terra nullius.''", "Responding to these criticisms, Mason stated, \"what the British thought about its international law grounds for establishing sovereignty over Australia, for annexing Australia, is beside the point\" with the decision actually concerned with answering the question, \"does the common law (as applied in the Australian colonies) exclude altogether the rights of the indigenous people so that forever the rights they formerly had are excluded?\"" ], [ "Significance", "The case attracted widespread controversy and public debate.", "Paul Keating, Prime Minister of Australia at the time, praised the decision in his Redfern Speech, saying that it \"establishes a fundamental truth, and lays the basis for justice\".", "Richard Court, the Premier of Western Australia, voiced opposition to the decision in comments echoed by various mining and pastoralist interest groups.===Development of native title===The decision established the legal doctrine of native title, enabling further litigation for First Nations' land rights.", "Native title doctrine was eventually supplemented in statute by the Keating government in the ''Native Title Act 1993'' (Cth).The recognition of native title by the decision gave rise to many significant legal questions.", "These included questions as to the validity of titles issued which were subject to the ''Racial Discrimination Act 1975'' (Cth), the permissibility of future development of land affected by native title, and procedures for determining whether native title existed in land.In response to the judgment the Keating government enacted the ''Native Title Act 1993'' (Cth), which established the National Native Title Tribunal to hear native title claims at first instance.", "The act was subsequently amended by the Howard government in response to the Wik decision.===Legal test for First Nations identity===Within his judgment, Justice Brennan stated a three part legal test for recognition of a person's identity as a First Nations Australian.", "He wrote:Membership of the Indigenous people depends on biological descent from the Indigenous people and on mutual recognition of a particular person's membership by that person and by the elders or other persons enjoying traditional authority among those peopleThis test has been used in later cases to establish whether or not a person is Indigenous." ], [ "Aftermath", "Ten years following the ''Mabo'' decision, his wife Bonita Mabo claimed that issues remained within the community about land on Mer.On 1 February 2014, the traditional owners of land on Badu Island received freehold title to in an act of the Queensland Government.", "An Indigenous land use agreement was signed on 7 July 2014." ], [ "Legacy", "Mabo Day is an official holiday in the Torres Shire, celebrated on 3 June, and occurs during National Reconciliation Week in Australia.The case was referenced in the 1997 comedy ''The Castle'', as an icon of legal rightness, embodied in the quote: \"In summing up, it’s the Constitution, it’s Mabo, it’s justice, it’s law, it’s the vibe.", "\"In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the ''Mabo'' High Court of Australia decision was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a \"Defining Moment\".A straight-to-TV film titled ''Mabo'' was produced in 2012 by Blackfella Films in association with the ABC and SBS.", "It provided a dramatised account of the case, focusing on the effect it had on Mabo and his family." ], [ "See also", "* Native title in Australia* Aboriginal title* Indigenous land rights in Australia* History of Indigenous Australians* List of Australian Native Title court cases* ''Love v Commonwealth''* ''Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd''* ''Mabo v Queensland (No 1)''* ''Native Title Act 1993''* ''Wik Peoples v Queensland''* ''Yorta Yorta v Victoria''* Land tenure* Allodial title" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Richard Bartlett, \"The Proprietary Nature of Native Title\" (1998) 6 ''Australian Property Law Journal'' 1* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Papers of Edward Koiki Mabo, held by the National Library of Australia* A film about the case.", "* * Hi, I'm Eddie – Podcast by the State Library of Queensland.", "Winner 2021 Best Indigenous podcast, Australian Podcast Awards." ], [ "External links", "* Album of Photographs Relating to the Mabo Case on Mer Island 1989, State Library of Queensland* Photographs of the Mabo decision's 30th anniversary celebrations in Townsville, State Library of Queensland" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MeatballWiki" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MeatballWiki''' is a wiki dedicated to online communities, network culture, and hypermedia.", "Containing a record of experience on running wikis, it is intended for \"discussion about wiki philosophy, wiki culture, instructions and observations.", "\"According to founder Sunir Shah, it ran on \"a hacked-up version of UseModWiki\".", "In April 2013, after several spam attacks and a period of downtime, the site was made read-only.", "In March 2021, the site was de-spammed and reopened for editing as part of a rebuilding effort alongside Ward's Wiki and Community Wiki." ], [ "Founding", "MeatballWiki was started in 2000 by Sunir Shah, a forum administrator from Ontario, Canada, on Clifford Adams's Internet domain usemod.com.", "MeatballWiki was created as a place for discussion about Ward Cunningham's WikiWikiWeb and its operation, which were beyond the scope of WikiWikiWeb.", "As Sunir Shah stated in the WikiWikiWeb page referring to MeatballWiki: \"Community discussions about how to run the community itself should be left here.", "Abstract discussions, or objective analyses of community are encouraged on MeatballWiki.\"", "Shah created this site \"as a friendly fork of WikiWikiWeb.\"", "About the Meatball project, the website says: \"The web, and media like it, looks like a big bowl of meatball spaghetti.", "You've got content – the meatballs – linked together with the spaghetti.", "\"According to Igor Nikolic and Chris Davis, MeatballWiki was spun off of the Portland Pattern Repository, the first wiki." ], [ "Relationship to wiki community", "The original intent of MeatballWiki was to offer observations and opinions about wikis and their online communities, with the intent of helping online communities, culture and hypermedia.", "In ''Good Faith Collaboration'', Joseph M. Reagle Jr. describes MeatballWiki as \"the wiki about wiki collaboration\".", "Being a community about communities, MeatballWiki became the launching point for other wiki-based projects and a general resource for broader wiki concepts, reaching \"cult status\".", "It describes the general tendencies observed on wikis and other online communities, for example the life cycles of wikis and people's behavior on them.What differentiates MeatballWiki from many online meta-communities is that participants spend much of their time talking about sociology rather than technology, and when they do talk about technology, they do so in a social context.The MeatballWiki members created a \"bus tour\" through existing wikis.Barnstars – badges that wiki editors use to express appreciation for another editor's work – were invented on MeatballWiki and adopted by Wikipedia in 2003.Evgeny Morozov of ''Boston Review'' notes that another Wikipedia norm around voting may also have stemmed from MeatballWiki." ], [ "See also", "* History of wikis* Online community" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Official website as of March 31, 2014 web.archive.org" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marrakesh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marrakesh''' or '''Marrakech''' ( or ; , ; ) is the fourth-largest city in Morocco.", "It is one of the four imperial cities of Morocco and is the capital of the Marrakesh–Safi region.", "The city lies west of the foothills of the Atlas Mountains.The region has been inhabited by Berber farmers since Neolithic times.", "The city was founded in 1070 by Emir Abu Bakr ibn Umar as the imperial capital of the Almoravid Empire.", "The Almoravids established the first major structures in the city and shaped its layout for centuries to come.", "The red walls of the city, built by Ali ibn Yusuf in 1122–1123, and various buildings constructed in red sandstone afterwards, have given the city the nickname of the \"Red City\" ( ''Almadinat alhamra''') or \"Ochre City\" ().", "Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural, religious, and trading center for the Maghreb.After a period of decline, the city was surpassed by Fez.", "Marrakesh gained its preeminence in the early 16th century serving as the capital of the Saadian dynasty, with sultans Abdallah al-Ghalib and Ahmad al-Mansur embellishing the city with sumptuous palaces such as the El Badi Palace (1578) and restoring many ruined monuments.", "Beginning in the 17th century, the city became popular among Sufi pilgrims for its seven patron saints who are entombed within the city's quarters.", "In 1912 the French Protectorate in Morocco was established and T'hami El Glaoui became Pasha of Marrakesh and held this position nearly throughout the protectorate until the role was dissolved upon the independence of Morocco and the reestablishment of the monarchy in 1956.Marrakesh comprises an old fortified city packed with vendors and their stalls.", "This medina quarter is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "The city is one of the busiest in Africa, with Jemaa el-Fnaa being the busiest square in the continent, and serves as a major economic center and tourist destination.", "Real estate and hotel development in Marrakesh have grown dramatically in the 21st century.", "Marrakesh is particularly popular with the French, and numerous French celebrities own property in the city.", "Marrakesh has the largest traditional market (''souk'') in Morocco, with some 18 ''souks''.", "Crafts employ a significant percentage of the population, who primarily sell their products to tourists.Marrakesh is served by Ménara International Airport and by Marrakesh railway station, which connects the city to Casablanca and northern Morocco.", "Marrakesh has several universities and schools, including Cadi Ayyad University.", "A number of Moroccan football clubs are here, including Najm de Marrakech, KAC Marrakech, Mouloudia de Marrakech and Chez Ali Club de Marrakech.", "The Marrakesh Street Circuit hosts the World Touring Car Championship, Auto GP and FIA Formula Two Championship races." ], [ "Etymology", "The exact meaning of the name is debated.", "One possible origin of the name Marrakesh is from the Berber (Amazigh) words ''amur (n) akush'' (ⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵛ), which means \"Land of God\".", "According to historian Susan Searight, however, the town's name was first documented in an 11th-century manuscript in the Qarawiyyin library in Fez, where its meaning was given as \"country of the sons of Kush\".", "The word ''mur'' is used now in Berber mostly in the feminine form ''tamurt''.", "The same word \"mur\" appears in Mauretania, the North African kingdom from antiquity, although the link remains controversial as this name possibly originates from μαύρος ''mavros'', the ancient Greek word for \"dark\".", "The common English spelling is \"Marrakesh\", although \"Marrakech\" (the French spelling) is also widely used.", "The name is spelled ''Mṛṛakc'' in the Berber Latin alphabet, ''Marraquexe'' in Portuguese, ''Marrakech'' in Spanish.", "A typical pronunciation in Moroccan Arabic is ''marrākesh'' with stress on the second syllable, while vowels in the other syllables may be barely pronounced.From medieval times until around the beginning of the 20th century, the entire country of Morocco was known as the \"Kingdom of Marrakesh\", as the kingdom's historic capital city was often Marrakesh.", "The name for Morocco is still \"Marrakesh\" () to this day in Persian and Urdu as well as many other South Asian languages.", "Various European names for Morocco (Marruecos, Marrocos, Maroc, Marokko, etc.)", "are directly derived from the name ''Murrākush''.", "Conversely, the city itself was in earlier times simply called ''Marocco City'' (or similar) by travelers from abroad.", "The name of the city and the country diverged after the Treaty of Fez divided Morocco into a French protectorate in Morocco and Spanish protectorate in Morocco, and the old interchangeable usage lasted widely until about the interregnum of Mohammed Ben Aarafa (1953–1955).", "The latter episode set in motion the country's return to independence, when Morocco officially became (''al-Mamlaka al-Maġribiyya'', \"The Maghreb Kingdom\"), its name no longer referring to the city of Marrakesh.", "Marrakesh is known by a variety of nicknames, including the \"Red City\", the \"Ochre City\" and \"the Daughter of the Desert\", and has been the focus of poetic analogies such as one comparing the city to \"a drum that beats an African identity into the complex soul of Morocco.\"" ], [ "History", "The Marrakesh area was inhabited by Berber farmers from Neolithic times, and numerous stone implements have been unearthed in the area.", "Marrakesh was founded by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, chieftain and second cousin of the Almoravid king Yusuf ibn Tashfin (c. 1061–1106).", "Historical sources cite a variety of dates for this event ranging between 1062 (454 in the Hijri calendar), according to Ibn Abi Zar and Ibn Khaldun, and 1078 (470 AH), according to Muhammad al-Idrisi.", "The date most commonly used by modern historians is 1070, although 1062 is still cited by some writers.", "Gold Almoravid dinar minted during the reign of Ali ibn Yusuf|leftThe Almoravids, a Berber dynasty seeking to reform Islamic society, ruled an emirate stretching from the edge of Senegal to the centre of Spain and from the Atlantic coast to Algiers.", "They used Marrakesh as their capital and established its first structures, including mosques and a fortified residence, the Ksar al-Hajjar, near the present-day Kutubiyya Mosque.", "These Almoravid foundations also influenced the layout and urban organization of the city for centuries to come.", "For example, the present-day Jemaa el-Fnaa originated from a public square in front of the Almoravid palace gates, the ''Rahbat al-Ksar'', and the major souks (markets) of the city developed roughly in the area between this square and the city's main mosque, where they remain today.", "The city developed the community into a trading centre for the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa.", "It grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural and religious centre, supplanting Aghmat, which had long been the capital of Haouz.", "Andalusi craftsmen from Cordoba and Seville built and decorated numerous monuments, importing the Cordoban Umayyad style characterised by carved domes and cusped arches.", "This Andalusian influence merged with designs from the Sahara and West Africa, creating a unique style of architecture which was fully adapted to the Marrakesh environment.", "Yusuf ibn Tashfin built houses, minted coins, and brought gold and silver to the city in caravans.", "His son and successor, Ali Ibn Yusuf, built the Ben Youssef Mosque, the city's main mosque, between 1120 and 1132.He also fortified the city with city walls for the first time in 1126–1127 and expanded its water supply by creating the underground water system known as the ''khettara''.Bab Agnaou, the Almohad-era gate of the Kasbah (photo circa 1890)In 1125, the preacher Ibn Tumart settled in Tin Mal in the mountains to the south of Marrakesh, founding the Almohad movement.", "This new faction, composed mainly of Masmuda tribesmen, followed a doctrine of radical reform with Ibn Tumart as the ''mahdi'', a messianic figure.", "He preached against the Almoravids and influenced a revolt which succeeded in bringing about the fall of nearby Aghmat, but stopped short of bringing down Marrakesh following an unsuccessful siege in 1130.Ibn Tumart died shortly after in the same year, but his successor Abd al-Mu'min took over the political leadership of the movement and captured Marrakesh in 1147 after a siege of several months.", "The Almohads purged the Almoravid population over three days and established the city as their new capital.", "They went on to take over much of the Almoravids' former territory in Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.", "In 1147, shortly after the city's conquest, Abd al-Mu'min founded the Kutubiyya Mosque (or Koutoubia Mosque), next to the former Almoravid palace, to serve as the city's new main mosque.", "The Almoravid mosques were either demolished or abandoned as the Almohads enacted their religious reforms.", "Abd al-Mu'min was also responsible for establishing the Menara Gardens in 1157, while his successor Abu Ya'qub Yusuf (r. 1163–1184) began the Agdal Gardens.", "Ya'qub al-Mansur (r. 1184–1199), possibly on the orders of his father Abu Ya'qub Yusuf, was responsible for building the Kasbah, a citadel and palace district on the south side of the city.", "The Kasbah housed the center of government and the residence of the caliph, a title borne by the Almohad rulers to rival the eastern Abbasid Caliphate.", "In part because of these various additions, the Almohads also improved the water supply system and created water reservoirs to irrigate their gardens.", "Thanks to its economic, political, and cultural importance, Marrakesh hosted many writers, artists, and intellectuals, many of them from Al-Andalus, including the famous philosopher Averroes of Cordoba.", "''Cantiga de Santa Maria'' #181.The cantiga #181 depicts the successful 1261–62 defence of Marrakesh by Almohad ruler Al-Murtada (with help from Christian militias) from the siege laid on by Marinid ruler Abu Yusuf.The death of Yusuf II in 1224 began a period of instability.", "Marrakesh became the stronghold of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and the ''ahl ad-dar'' (descendants of Ibn Tumart), who sought to claw power back from the ruling Almohad family.", "Marrakesh was taken, lost and retaken by force multiple times by a stream of caliphs and pretenders, such as during the brutal seizure of Marrakesh by the Sevillan caliph Abd al-Wahid II al-Ma'mun in 1226, which was followed by a massacre of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and their families and a public denunciation of Ibn Tumart's doctrines by the caliph from the pulpit of the Kasbah Mosque.", "After al-Ma'mun's death in 1232, his widow attempted to forcibly install her son, acquiring the support of the Almohad army chiefs and Spanish mercenaries with the promise to hand Marrakesh over to them for the sack.", "Hearing of the terms, the people of Marrakesh sought to make an agreement with the military captains and saved the city from destruction with a sizable payoff of 500,000 dinars.", "In 1269, Marrakesh was conquered by nomadic Zenata tribes who overran the last of the Almohads.", "The city then fell into a state of decline, which soon led to the loss of its status as capital to rival city Fez.El Badi Palace, built by the Saadi sultan Ahmad al-Mansur (16th century)In the early 16th century, Marrakesh again became the capital of Morocco, after a period when it was the seat of the Hintata emirs.", "It quickly reestablished its status, especially during the reigns of the Saadian sultans Abdallah al-Ghalib and Ahmad al-Mansur.", "Thanks to the wealth amassed by the Sultans, Marrakesh was embellished with sumptuous palaces while its ruined monuments were restored.", "El Badi Palace, begun by Ahmad al-Mansur in 1578, was made with costly materials including marble from Italy.", "The palace was intended primarily for hosting lavish receptions for ambassadors from Spain, England, and the Ottoman Empire, showcasing Saadian Morocco as a nation whose power and influence reached as far as the borders of Niger and Mali.", "Under the Saadian dynasty, Marrakesh experienced a golden age, and regained its former position as a point of contact for caravan routes from the Maghreb, the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa.Litography depicting the city of Marrakesh, in 1860 by Évremond de Bérard.For centuries Marrakesh has been known as the location of the tombs of Morocco's seven patron saints (''sebaatou rizjel'').", "When sufism was at the height of its popularity during the late 17th-century reign of Moulay Ismail, the festival of these saints was founded by Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi at the request of the sultan.", "The tombs of several renowned figures were moved to Marrakesh to attract pilgrims, and the pilgrimage associated with the seven saints is now a firmly established institution.", "Pilgrims visit the tombs of the saints in a specific order, as follows: Sidi Yusuf Ali Sanhaji (1196–97), a leper; Qadi Iyyad or qadi of Ceuta (1083–1149), a theologian and author of Ash-Shifa (treatises on the virtues of Muhammad); Sidi Bel Abbas (1130–1204), known as the patron saint of the city and most revered in the region; Sidi Muhammad al-Jazuli (1465), a well known Sufi who founded the Jazuli brotherhood; Abdelaziz al-Tebaa (1508), a student of al-Jazuli; Abdallah al-Ghazwani (1528), known as Moulay al-Ksour; and Sidi Abu al-Qasim Al-Suhayli, (1185), also known as Imam al-Suhayli.", "Until 1867, European Christians were not authorized to enter the city unless they acquired special permission from the sultan; east European Jews were permitted.During the early 20th century, Marrakesh underwent several years of unrest.", "After the premature death in 1900 of the grand vizier Ba Ahmed, who had been designated regent until the designated sultan Abd al-Aziz became of age, the country was plagued by anarchy, tribal revolts, the plotting of feudal lords, and European intrigues.", "In 1907, Marrakesh caliph Moulay Abd al-Hafid was proclaimed sultan by the powerful tribes of the High Atlas and by Ulama scholars who denied the legitimacy of his brother, Abd al-Aziz.", "It was also in 1907 that Dr. Mauchamp, a French doctor, was murdered in Marrakesh, suspected of spying for his country.", "France used the event as a pretext for sending its troops from the eastern Moroccan town of Oujda to the major metropolitan center of Casablanca in the west.", "The French colonial army encountered strong resistance from Ahmed al-Hiba, a son of Sheikh Ma al-'Aynayn, who arrived from the Sahara accompanied by his nomadic Reguibat tribal warriors.", "On 30 March 1912, the French Protectorate in Morocco was established.", "After the Battle of Sidi Bou Othman, which saw the victory of the French Mangin column over the al-Hiba forces in September 1912, the French seized Marrakesh.", "The conquest was facilitated by the rallying of the Imzwarn tribes and their leaders from the powerful Glaoui family, leading to a massacre of Marrakesh citizens in the resulting turmoil.T'hami El Glaoui, Pasha of Marrakesh (1912 to 1956)T'hami El Glaoui, known as \"Lord of the Atlas\", became Pasha of Marrakesh, a post he held virtually throughout the 44-year duration of the Protectorate (1912–1956).", "Glaoui dominated the city and became famous for his collaboration with the general residence authorities, culminating in a plot to dethrone Mohammed Ben Youssef (Mohammed V) and replace him with the Sultan's cousin, Ben Arafa.", "Glaoui, already known for his amorous adventures and lavish lifestyle, became a symbol of Morocco's colonial order.", "He could not, however, subdue the rise of nationalist sentiment, nor the hostility of a growing proportion of the inhabitants.", "Nor could he resist pressure from France, who agreed to terminate its Moroccan Protectorate in 1956 due to the launch of the Algerian War (1954–1962) immediately following the end of the war in Indochina (1946–1954), in which Moroccans had been conscripted to fight in Vietnam on behalf of the French Army.", "After two successive exiles to Corsica and Madagascar, Mohammed Ben Youssef was allowed to return to Morocco in November 1955, bringing an end to the despotic rule of Glaoui over Marrakesh and the surrounding region.", "A protocol giving independence to Morocco was then signed on 2 March 1956 between French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau and M’Barek Ben Bakkai.French Protectorate period (after 1912)Since the independence of Morocco, Marrakesh has thrived as a tourist destination.", "In the 1960s and early 1970s, the city became a trendy \"hippie mecca\".", "It attracted numerous western rock stars and musicians, artists, film directors and actors, models, and fashion divas, leading tourism revenues to double in Morocco between 1965 and 1970.Yves Saint Laurent, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and Jean-Paul Getty all spent significant time in the city; Laurent bought a property here and renovated the Majorelle Gardens.", "Expatriates, especially those from France, have invested heavily in Marrakesh since the 1960s and developed many of the ''riads'' and palaces.", "Old buildings were renovated in the Old Medina, new residences and commuter villages were built in the suburbs, and new hotels began to spring up.United Nations agencies became active in Marrakesh beginning in the 1970s, and the city's international political presence has subsequently grown.", "In 1985, UNESCO declared the old town area of Marrakesh a UNESCO World Heritage Site, raising international awareness of the cultural heritage of the city.", "In the 1980s, Patrick Guerand-Hermes purchased the Ain el Quassimou, built by the family of Leo Tolstoy.", "On 15 April 1994, the Marrakesh Agreement was signed here to establish the World Trade Organisation, and in March 1997 Marrakesh served as the site of the World Water Council's first World Water Forum, which was attended by over 500 international participants.In the 21st century, property and real estate development in the city has boomed, with a dramatic increase in new hotels and shopping centres, fuelled by the policies of Mohammed VI of Morocco, who aims to increase the number of tourists annually visiting Morocco to 20 million by 2020.In 2010, a major gas explosion occurred in the city.", "On 28 April 2011, a bomb attack took place in the Jemaa el-Fnaa square, killing 15 people, mainly foreigners.", "The blast destroyed the nearby Argana Cafe.", "Police sources arrested three suspects and claimed the chief suspect was loyal to Al-Qaeda, although Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb denied involvement.", "In November 2016 the city hosted the 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference.", "In September 2023, the city was affected by a deadly earthquake.", "From October 9 to October 15, the city hosted the Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group." ], [ "Geography", "By road, Marrakesh is southwest of Tangier, southwest of the Moroccan capital of Rabat, southwest of Casablanca, southwest of Beni Mellal, east of Essaouira, and northeast of Agadir.", "The city has expanded north from the old centre with suburbs such as Daoudiat, Diour El Massakine, Sidi Abbad, Sakar and Amerchich, to the southeast with Sidi Youssef Ben Ali, to the west with Massira and Targa, and southwest to M'hamid beyond the airport.", "On the P2017 road leading south out of the city are large villages such as Douar Lahna, Touggana, Lagouassem, and Lahebichate, leading eventually through desert to the town of Tahnaout at the edge of the High Atlas, the highest mountainous barrier in North Africa.", "The average elevation of the snow-covered High Atlas lies above .", "It is mainly composed of Jurassic limestone.", "The mountain range runs along the Atlantic coast, then rises to the east of Agadir and extends northeast into Algeria before disappearing into Tunisia.The Ourika River valleyThe city is located in the Tensift River valley, with the Tensift River passing along the northern edge of the city.", "The Ourika River valley is about south of Marrakesh.", "The \"silvery valley of the Ourika river curving north towards Marrakesh\", and the \"red heights of Jebel Yagour still capped with snow\" to the south are sights in this area.", "David Prescott Barrows, who describes Marrakesh as Morocco's \"strangest city\", describes the landscape in the following terms: \"The city lies some fifteen or twenty miles 25–30 km from the foot of the Atlas mountains, which here rise to their grandest proportions.", "The spectacle of the mountains is superb.", "Through the clear desert air the eye can follow the rugged contours of the range for great distances to the north and eastward.", "The winter snows mantle them with white, and the turquoise sky gives a setting for their grey rocks and gleaming caps that is of unrivaled beauty.", "\"With 130,000 hectares of greenery and over 180,000 palm trees in its Palmeraie, Marrakesh is an oasis of rich plant variety.", "Throughout the seasons, fragrant orange, fig, pomegranate and olive trees display their color and fruits in Agdal Garden, Menara Garden and other gardens in the city.", "The city's gardens feature numerous native plants alongside other species that have been imported over the course of the centuries, including giant bamboos, yuccas, papyrus, palm trees, banana trees, cypress, philodendrons, rose bushes, bougainvilleas, pines and various kinds of cactus plants.=== Climate ===Marrakesh features a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification ''BSh'') with long, hot dry summers and brief, mild to cool winters.", "Average temperatures range from in the winter to in the summer.", "The relatively wet winter and dry summer precipitation pattern of Marrakesh mirrors precipitation patterns found in Mediterranean climates.", "However, the city receives less rain than is typically found in a Mediterranean climate, resulting in a semi-arid climate classification.Between 1961 and 1990 the city averaged of precipitation annually.", "Barrows says of the climate, \"The region of Marrakesh is frequently described as desert in character, but, to one familiar with the southwestern parts of the United States, the locality does not suggest the desert, rather an area of seasonal rainfall, where moisture moves underground rather than by surface streams, and where low brush takes the place of the forests of more heavily watered regions.", "The location of Marrakesh on the north side of the Atlas, rather than the south, prevents it from being described as a desert city, and it remains the northern focus of the Saharan lines of communication, and its history, its types of dwellers, and its commerce and arts, are all related to the great south Atlas spaces that reach further into the Sahara desert.", "\"Climate data for MarrakeshMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearMean daily daylight hours10.011.012.013.014.014.014.013.012.011.011.010.012.1Average Ultraviolet index35781011111096437.3Source: Weather Atlas==== Climate change ====A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a \"moderate\" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Marrakesh in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Bir Lehlou in Western Sahara.", "The annual temperature would increase by , and the temperature of the coldest month by , while the temperature of the warmest month would increase by .", "According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5.=== Water ===Marrakesh's water supply relies partly on groundwater resources, which have lowered gradually over the last 40 years, attaining an acute decline in the early 2000s.", "Since 2002, groundwater levels have dropped by an average of 0.9 m per year in 80% of Marrakesh and its surrounding area.", "The most affected area experienced a drop of 37 m (more than 2 m per year)." ], [ "Demographics", "According to the 2014 census, the population of Marrakesh was 928,850 against 843,575 in 2004.The number of households in 2014 was 217,245 against 173,603 in 2004." ], [ "Economy", "Sofitel Hotel, April 2013Marrakesh is a vital component of the economy and culture of Morocco.", "Improvements to the highways from Marrakesh to Casablanca, Agadir and the local airport have led to a dramatic increase in tourism in the city, which now attracts over two million tourists annually.", "Because of the importance of tourism to Morocco's economy, King Mohammed VI vowed in 2012 to double the number of tourists, attracting 20 million a year to Morocco by 2020.The city is popular with the French, and many French celebrities have bought property in the city, including fashion moguls Yves St Laurent and Jean-Paul Gaultier.", "In the 1990s very few foreigners lived in the city, and real estate developments have dramatically increased in the last 15 years; by 2005 over 3,000 foreigners had purchased properties in the city, lured by its culture and the relatively cheap house prices.", "It has been cited in French weekly magazine ''Le Point'' as the second St Tropez: \"No longer simply a destination for a scattering of adventurous elites, bohemians or backpackers seeking Arabian Nights fantasies, Marrakech is becoming a desirable stopover for the European jet set.\"", "However, despite the tourism boom, the majority of the city's inhabitants are still poor, and , some 20,000 households still have no access to water or electricity.", "Many enterprises in the city are facing colossal debt problems.Despite the global economic crisis that began in 2007, investments in real estate progressed substantially in 2011 both in the area of tourist accommodation and social housing.", "The main developments have been in facilities for tourists including hotels and leisure centres such as golf courses and health spas, with investments of 10.9 billion dirham (US$1.28 billion) in 2011.The hotel infrastructure in recent years has experienced rapid growth.", "In 2012, alone, 19 new hotels were scheduled to open, a development boom often compared to Dubai.", "Royal Ranches Marrakech, one of Gulf Finance House's flagship projects in Morocco, is a resort under development in the suburbs and one of the world's first five star Equestrian Resorts.", "The resort is expected to make a significant contribution to the local and national economy, creating many jobs and attracting thousands of visitors annually; as of April 2012 it was about 45% complete.The Avenue Mohammed VI, formerly Avenue de France, is a major city thoroughfare.", "It has seen rapid development of residential complexes and many luxury hotels.", "Avenue Mohammed VI contains what is claimed to be Africa's largest nightclub: Pacha Marrakech, a trendy club that plays house and electro house music.", "It also has two large cinema complexes, Le Colisée à Gueliz and Cinéma Rif, and a new shopping precinct, Al Mazar.Menara Mall, opened in 2015Trade and crafts are extremely important to the local tourism-fueled economy.", "There are 18 ''souks'' in Marrakesh, employing over 40,000 people in pottery, copperware, leather and other crafts.", "The ''souks'' contain a massive range of items from plastic sandals to Palestinian-style scarves imported from India or China.", "Local boutiques are adept at making western-style clothes using Moroccan materials.", "The ''Birmingham Post'' comments: \"The ''souk'' offers an incredible shopping experience with a myriad of narrow winding streets that lead through a series of smaller markets clustered by trade.", "Through the squawking chaos of the poultry market, the gory fascination of the open-air butchers' shops and the uncountable number of small and specialist traders, just wandering around the streets can pass an entire day.\"", "Marrakesh has several supermarkets including Marjane Acima, Asswak Salam and Carrefour, and three major shopping centres, Al Mazar Mall, Plaza Marrakech and Marjane Square; a branch of Carrefour opened in Al Mazar Mall in 2010.Industrial production in the city is centred in the neighbourhood of Sidi Ghanem Al Massar, containing large factories, workshops, storage depots and showrooms.", "Ciments Morocco, a subsidiary of a major Italian cement firm, has a factory in Marrakech.", "The AeroExpo Marrakech International Exhibition of aeronautical industries and services is held here, as is the Riad Art Expo.Marrakesh is one of North Africa's largest centers of wildlife trade, despite the illegality of most of this trade.", "Much of this trade can be found in the medina and adjacent squares.", "Tortoises are particularly popular for sale as pets, and Barbary macaques and snakes can also be seen.", "The majority of these animals suffer from poor welfare conditions in these stalls." ], [ "Politics", "Marrakesh City HallMarrakesh, the regional capital, constitutes a prefecture-level administrative unit of Morocco, Marrakech Prefecture, forming part of the region of Marrakech-Safi.", "Marrakesh is a major centre for law and jurisdiction in Morocco and most of the major courts of the region are here.", "These include the regional Court of Appeal, the Commercial Court, the Administrative Court, the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal of Commerce, and the Administrative Court of Appeal.", "Numerous organizations of the region are based here, including the regional government administrative offices, the Regional Council of Tourism office, and regional public maintenance organisations such as the Governed Autonomous Water Supply and Electricity and Maroc Telecom.Testament to Marrakesh's development as a modern city, on 12 June 2009, Fatima-Zahra Mansouri, a then 33-year-old lawyer and daughter of a former assistant to the local authority chief in Marrakesh, was elected the first female mayor of the city, defeating outgoing Mayor Omar Jazouli by 54 votes to 35 in a municipal council vote.", "Mansouri became the second woman in the history of Morocco to obtain a mayoral position, after Asma Chaabi, mayor of Essaouira and was elected to serve as Marrakech's mayor for a second term in September 2021.Since the legislative elections in November 2011, the ruling political party in Marrakesh has, for the first time, been the Justice and Development Party or PDJ which also rules at the national level.", "The party, which advocates Islamism and Islamic democracy, won five seats; the National Rally of Independents (RNI) took one seat, while the PAM won three.", "In the partial legislative elections for the Guéliz Ennakhil constituency in October 2012, the PDJ under the leadership of Ahmed El Moutassadik was again declared the winner with 10,452 votes.", "The PAM, largely consisting of friends of King Mohammed VI, came in second place with 9,794 votes." ], [ "Landmarks", "===Jemaa el-Fnaa===Jemaa el-Fnaa squareThe Jemaa el-Fnaa is one of the best-known squares in Africa and is the centre of city activity and trade.", "It has been described as a \"world-famous square\", \"a metaphorical urban icon, a bridge between the past and the present, the place where (spectacularized) Moroccan tradition encounters modernity.\"", "It has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage site since 1985.The square's name has several possible meanings; the most plausible etymology endorsed by historians is that it meant \"ruined mosque\" or \"mosque of annihilation\", referring to the construction of a mosque within the square in the late 16th century that was left unfinished and fell into ruin.", "The square was originally an open space for markets located on the east side of the ''Ksar el-Hajjar'', the main fortress and palace of the Almoravid dynasty who founded Marrakesh.", "Following the takeover of the city by the Almohads, a new royal palace complex was founded to the south of the city (the Kasbah) and the old Almoravid palace was abandoned, but the market square remained.", "Subsequently, with the fluctuating fortunes of the city, Jemaa el-Fnaa saw periods of decline and renewal.Historically this square was used for public executions by rulers who sought to maintain their power by frightening the public.", "The square attracted dwellers from the surrounding desert and mountains to trade here, and stalls were raised in the square from early in its history.", "The square attracted tradesmen, snake charmers (\"wild, dark, frenzied men with long disheveled hair falling over their naked shoulders\"), dancing boys of the Chleuh Atlas tribe, and musicians playing pipes, tambourines and African drums.", "Today the square attracts people from a diversity of social and ethnic backgrounds and tourists from all around the world.", "Snake charmers, acrobats, magicians, mystics, musicians, monkey trainers, herb sellers, story-tellers, dentists, pickpockets, and entertainers in medieval garb still populate the square.===Souks===Marrakesh has the largest traditional market in Morocco and the image of the city is closely associated with its ''souks''.", "Historically, the souks of Marrakesh were divided into retail areas for particular goods such as leather, carpets, metalwork and pottery.", "These divisions still roughly exist, though with significant overlap.", "Many of the souks sell items like carpets and rugs, traditional Muslim attire, leather bags, and lanterns.", "Haggling is still a very important part of trade in the souks.One of the largest ''souks'' is Souk Semmarine, which sells everything from brightly coloured bejewelled sandals and slippers and leather pouffes to jewellery and kaftans.", "Souk Ableuh contains stalls which specialize in lemons, chilis, capers, pickles, green, red, and black olives, and mint, a common ingredient of Moroccan cuisine and tea.", "Similarly, Souk Kchacha specializes in dried fruit and nuts, including dates, figs, walnuts, cashews and apricots.", "Rahba Qedima contains stalls selling hand-woven baskets, natural perfumes, knitted hats, scarves, tee shirts, Ramadan tea, ginseng, and alligator and iguana skins.", "The Criée Berbère, to the northeast of this market, is noted for its dark Berber carpets and rugs.", "Souk Siyyaghin is known for its jewellery, and Souk Smata nearby is noted for its extensive collection of babouches and belts.", "Souk Cherratine specializes in leatherware, and Souk Belaarif sells modern consumer goods.", "Souk Haddadine specializes in ironware and lanterns.", "The Medina is also famous for its street food.", "Mechoui Alley is particularly famous for selling slow-roasted lamb dishes.", "The ''Ensemble Artisanal'', located near the Koutoubia Mosque, is a government-run complex of small arts and crafts which offers a range of leather goods, textiles and carpets.", "Young apprentices are taught a range of crafts in the workshop at the back of this complex.===City walls and gates===Medina walls of MarrakeshThe ramparts of Marrakesh, which stretch for some around the medina of the city, were built by the Almoravids in the 12th century as protective fortifications.", "The walls are made of a distinct orange-red clay and chalk, giving the city its nickname as the \"red city\"; they stand up to high and have 20 gates and 200 towers along them.Bab Agnaou, the historic gate of the KasbahOf the city's gates, one of the best-known is Bab Agnaou, built in the late 12th century by the Almohad caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur as the main public entrance to the new Kasbah.", "The Berber name Agnaou, like Gnaoua, refers to people of Sub-Saharan African origin (cf.", "Akal-n-iguinawen – land of the black).", "The gate was called Bab al Kohl (the word ''kohl'' also meaning \"black\") or Bab al Qsar (palace gate) in some historical sources.", "The corner-pieces are embellished with floral decorations.", "This ornamentation is framed by three panels marked with an inscription from the Quran in Maghrebi script using foliated Kufic letters, which were also used in Al-Andalus.", "Bab Agnaou was renovated and its opening reduced in size during the rule of sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah.Medina walls of Marrakesh in a photo of 1925.ETH Library.The medina has at least eight main historic gates: Bab Doukkala, Bab el-Khemis, Bab ad-Debbagh, Bab Aylan, Bab Aghmat, Bab er-Robb, Bab el-Makhzen and Bab el-'Arissa.", "These date back to the 12th century during the Almoravid period and many have them have been modified since.", "Bab Doukkala (in the northwestern part of the city wall) is in general more massive and less ornamented than the other gates; it takes its name from Doukkala area on the Atlantic coast, well to the north of Marrakesh.", "Bab el-Khemis is in the medina's northeastern corner and is named for the open-air Thursday market (Souq el Khemis).", "It is one of the city's main gates and features a man-made spring.", "Bab ad-Debbagh, to the east, has one of the most complex layouts of any gate, with an interior passage that turns multiple times.", "Bab Aylan is located slightly further south of it.", "Bab Aghmat is one of the city's main southern gates, located east of the Jewish and Muslim cemeteries and near the tomb of Ali ibn Yusuf.", "Bab er Robb is the other main southern exit from the city, located near Bab Agnaou.", "It has a curious position and layout which may be the result of multiple modifications to the surrounding area over the years.", "It provides access to roads leading to the mountain towns of Amizmiz and Asni.===Gardens===Pavilion and reservoir of the Menara gardensThe city is home to a number of gardens, both historical and modern.", "The largest and oldest gardens in the city are the Menara gardens to the west and the Agdal Gardens to the south.", "The Menara Gardens were established in 1157 by the Almohad ruler Abd al-Mu'min.", "They are centered around a large water reservoir surrounded by orchards and olive groves.", "A 19th-century pavilion stands at the edge of the reservoir.", "The Agdal Gardens were established during the reign of Abu Ya'qub Yusuf (r. 1163–1184) and extend over a larger area today, containing several water basins and palace structures.", "The Agdal Gardens cover about and are surrounded by a circuit of pisé walls, while the Menara Gardens cover around .", "The water reservoirs for both gardens were supplied with water through an old hydraulic system known as ''khettara''s, which conveyed water from the foothills of the nearby Atlas Mountains.Majorelle GardenThe Majorelle Garden, on Avenue Yacoub el Mansour, was at one time the home of the landscape painter Jacques Majorelle.", "Famed designer Yves Saint Laurent bought and restored the property, which features a stele erected in his memory, and the Museum of Islamic Art, which is housed in a dark blue building.", "The garden, open to the public since 1947, has a large collection of plants from five continents including cacti, palms and bamboo.The Koutoubia Mosque is also flanked by another set of gardens, the Koutoubia Gardens.", "They feature orange and palm trees, and are frequented by storks.", "The Mamounia Gardens, more than 100 years old and named after Prince Moulay Mamoun, have olive and orange trees as well as a variety of floral displays.", "In 2016, artist André Heller opened the acclaimed garden ANIMA near Ourika, which combines a large collection of plants, palms, bamboo and cacti as well as works by Keith Haring, Auguste Rodin, Hans Werner Geerdts and other artists.===Palaces and Riads===Courtyard in the Bahia PalaceThe historic wealth of the city is manifested in palaces, mansions and other lavish residences.", "The best-known palaces today are the El Badi Palace and the Bahia Palace, as well as the main Royal Palace which is still in use as one of the official residences of the King of Morocco.", "''Riads'' (Moroccan mansions, historically designating a type of garden) are common in Marrakesh.", "Based on the design of the Roman villa, they are characterized by an open central garden courtyard surrounded by high walls.", "This construction provided the occupants with privacy and lowered the temperature within the building.", "Numerous riads and historic residences exist through the old city, with the oldest documented examples dating back to the Saadian period (16th-17th centuries), while many others date from the 19th and 20th centuries.===Mosques===Minaret of the Koutoubia MosqueThe Koutoubia Mosque is one of the largest and most famous mosques in the city, located southwest of Jemaa el-Fnaa.", "The mosque was founded in 1147 by the Almohad caliph Abd al-Mu'min.", "A second version of the mosque was entirely rebuilt by Abd al-Mu'min around 1158, with Ya'qub al-Mansur possibly finalizing construction of the minaret around 1195.This second mosque is the structure that stands today.", "It is considered a major example of Almohad architecture and of Moroccan mosque architecture generally.", "Its minaret tower, the tallest in the city at in height, is considered an important landmark and symbol of Marrakesh.", "It likely influenced other buildings such as the Giralda of Seville and the Hassan Tower of Rabat.Ben Youssef Mosque is named after the Almoravid sultan Ali ibn Yusuf, who built the original mosque in the 12th century to serve as the city's main Friday mosque.", "After being abandoned during the Almohad period and falling into ruin, it was rebuilt in the 1560s by Abdallah al-Ghalib and then completely rebuilt again Moulay Sliman at the beginning of the 19th century.", "The 16th-century Ben Youssef Madrasa is located next to it.", "Also next to it is the Koubba Ba’adiyn or Almoravid Koubba, a rare architectural remnant of the Almoravid period which was excavated and restored in the 20th century.", "The Koubba, a domed kiosk structure, demonstrates a sophisticated style and is an important indication of the art and architecture of the period.The Kasbah Mosque overlooks Place Moulay Yazid in the Kasbah district of Marrakesh, close to the El Badi Palace.", "It was built by the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansour in the late 12th century to serve as the main mosque of the kasbah (citadel) where he and his high officials resided.", "It contended with the Koutoubia Mosque for prestige and the decoration of its minaret was highly influential in subsequent Moroccan architecture.", "The mosque was repaired by the Saadi sultan Moulay Abdallah al-Ghalib following a devastating explosion at a nearby gunpowder reserve in the second half of the 16th century.", "Notably, the Saadian Tombs were built just outside its southern wall in this period.Among the other notable mosques of the city is the 14th-century Ben Salah Mosque, located east of the medina centre.", "It is one of the only major Marinid-era monuments in the city.", "The Mouassine Mosque (also known as the Al Ashraf Mosque) was built by the Saadian sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib between 1562–63 and 1572–73.It was part of a larger architectural complex which included a library, hammam (public bathhouse), and a madrasa (school).", "The complex also included a large ornate street fountain known as the Mouassine Fountain, which still exists today.", "The Bab Doukkala Mosque, built around the same time further west, has a similar layout and style as the Mouassine Mosque.", "Both the Mouassine and Bab Doukkala mosques appear to have been originally designed to anchor the development of new neighbourhoods after the relocation of the Jewish district from this area to the new ''mellah'' near the Kasbah.===Tombs===Saadian TombsOne of the most famous funerary monuments in the city is the Saadian Tombs, which were built in the 16th century as a royal necropolis for the Saadian Dynasty.", "It is located next to the south wall of the Kasbah Mosque.", "The necropolis contains the tombs of many Saadian rulers including Muhammad al-Shaykh, Abdallah al-Ghalib, and Ahmad al-Mansur, as well as various family members and later sultans.", "It consists of two main structures, each with several rooms, standing within a garden enclosure.", "The most important graves are marked by horizontal tombstones of finely carved marble, while others are merely covered in colorful ''zellij'' tiles.", "Al-Mansur's mausoleum chamber is especially rich in decoration, with a roof of carved and painted cedar wood supported on twelve columns of carrara marble, and with walls decorated with geometric patterns in ''zellij'' tilework and vegetal motifs in carved stucco.", "The chamber next to it, originally a prayer room equipped with a ''mihrab'', was later repurposed as a mausoleum for members of the Alaouite dynasty.The city also holds the tombs of many Sufi figures.", "Of these, there are seven patron saints of the city, which are visited every year by pilgrims during the seven-day ''ziara'' pilgrimage.", "During this time pilgrims visit the tombs in the following order: Sidi Yusuf ibn Ali Sanhaji, Sidi al-Qadi Iyyad al-Yahsubi, Sidi Bel Abbas, Sidi Mohamed ibn Sulayman al-Jazouli, Sidi Abdellaziz Tabba'a, Sidi Abdellah al-Ghazwani, and lastly, Sidi Abderrahman al-Suhayli.", "Many of these mausoleums also serve as the focus of their own zawiyas (Sufi religious complexes with mosques), including: the Zawiya and mosque of Sidi Bel Abbes (the most important of them), the Zawiya of al-Jazuli, the Zawiya of Sidi Abdellaziz, the Zawiya of Sidi Yusuf ibn Ali, and the Zawiya of Sidi al-Ghazwani (also known as Moulay el-Ksour).===Mellah===The Mellah of Marrakesh is the old Jewish Quarter (''Mellah'') of the city, and is located in the kasbah area of the city's medina, east of Place des Ferblantiers.", "It was created in 1558 by the Saadians at the site where the sultan's stables were.", "At the time, the Jewish community consisted of a large portion of the city's tailors, metalworkers, bankers, jewelers, and sugar traders.", "During the 16th century, the Mellah had its own fountains, gardens, synagogues and souks.", "Until the arrival of the French in 1912, Jews could not own property outside of the Mellah; all growth was consequently contained within the limits of the neighborhood, resulting in narrow streets, small shops and higher residential buildings.", "The Mellah, today reconfigured as a mainly residential zone renamed Hay Essalam, currently occupies an area smaller than its historic limits and has an almost entirely Muslim population.", "The Slat al-Azama Synagogue (or Lazama Synagogue), built around a central courtyard, is in the Mellah.", "The Jewish cemetery here is the largest of its kind in Morocco.", "Characterized by white-washed tombs and sandy graves, the cemetery is within the Medina on land adjacent to the Mellah.", "According to the World Jewish Congress there were only 250 Moroccan Jews remaining in Marrakesh.===Hotels===Hotel MarrakechAs one of the principal tourist cities in Africa, Marrakesh has over 400 hotels.", "Mamounia Hotel is a five-star hotel in the Art Deco-Moroccan fusion style, built in 1925 by Henri Prost and A. Marchis.", "It is considered the most eminent hotel of the city and has been described as the \"grand dame of Marrakesh hotels.\"", "The hotel has hosted numerous internationally renowned people including Winston Churchill, Prince Charles and Mick Jagger.", "Churchill used to relax within the gardens of the hotel and paint there.", "The 231-room hotel, which contains a casino, was refurbished in 1986 and again in 2007 by French designer Jacques Garcia.", "Other hotels include Eden Andalou Hotel, Hotel Marrakech, Sofitel Marrakech, Palm Plaza Hotel & Spa, Royal Mirage Hotel, Piscina del Hotel, and Palmeraie Palace at the Palmeraie Rotana Resort.", "In March 2012, Accor opened its first Pullman-branded hotel in Marrakech, Pullman Marrakech Palmeraie Resort & Spa.", "Set in a olive grove at La Palmeraie, the hotel has 252 rooms, 16 suites, six restaurants and a conference room." ], [ "Culture", "===Museums=======Marrakech Museum====Marrakech MuseumThe Marrakech Museum, housed in the Dar Menebhi Palace in the old city centre, was built at the beginning of the 20th century by Mehdi Menebhi.", "The palace was carefully restored by the Omar Benjelloun Foundation and converted into a museum in 1997.The house itself represents an example of classical Andalusian architecture, with fountains in the central courtyard, traditional seating areas, a hammam and intricate tilework and carvings.", "It has been cited as having \"an orgy of stalactite stucco-work\" which \"drips from the ceiling and combines with a mind-boggling excess of ''zellij'' work.\"", "The museum holds exhibits of both modern and traditional Moroccan art together with fine examples of historical books, coins and pottery produced by Moroccan Jewish, Berber and Arab peoples.====Dar Si Said Museum====Dar Si Said MuseumDar Si Said Museum, also known as the Museum of Moroccan Arts is to the north of the Bahia Palace.", "It was the mansion of Si Said, brother to Grand Vizier Ba Ahmad, and was constructed at the same time as Ahmad's own Bahia Palace.", "The collection of the museum is considered to be one of the finest in Morocco, with \"jewellery from the High Atlas, the Anti Atlas and the extreme south; carpets from the Haouz and the High Atlas; oil lamps from Taroudannt; blue pottery from Safi and green pottery from Tamegroute; and leatherwork from Marrakesh.\"", "Among its oldest and most significant artifacts is an early 11th-century marble basin from the late caliphal period of Cordoba, Spain.====Berber Museum====The former home and villa of Jacques Majorelle, a blue-coloured building within the Majorelle Gardens, was converted into the Berber Museum (''Musée Pierre Bergé des Arts Berbères'') in 2011, after previously serving as a museum of Islamic art.", "It exhibits a variety of objects of Amazigh (Berber) culture from across different regions of Morocco.==== Other museums ====The House of Photography of Marrakech, opened by Patrick Menac’h and Hamid Mergani in 2009, holds exhibits of vintage Moroccan photography from the 1870s to 1950s.", "It is housed in a renovated traditional house in the medina.", "The Mouassine Museum, by the same owners, consists of a historic 16th–17th-century house in the Mouassine neighbourhood, formerly inhabited by the family of painter , which was opened as a museum and cultural venue in 2014 and since 2020 has also served a museum of Moroccan music (''Musée de la Musique''), in addition to hosting musical performances.Elsewhere in the medina, the Dar El Bacha hosts the ''Musée des Confluences'', which opened in 2017.The museum holds temporary exhibits highlighting different facets of Moroccan culture as well as various art objects from different cultures across the world.''''", "The Tiskiwin Museum is housed in another restored medina mansion and features a collection of artifacts from across the former the trans-Saharan trade routes that were connected to the city.", "Various other small and often privately owned museums also exist in the medina, such as the Musée Boucharouite and the Perfume Museum (''Musée du Parfum'').", "Dar Bellarj, an arts center located in a former mansion next to the Ben Youssef Mosque, also occasionally hosts art exhibits.A number of art galleries and museums are also found outside the medina, in Gueliz and its surrounding districts in the new city.", "The Museum of Art and Culture of Marrakesh (MACMA), opened in 2016, houses a collection of Moroccan art objects and photography from the 1870s to 1970s.", "Since 2019, its collection of Orientalist paintings are now housed at its sister museum, the Orientalist Museum in the medina.", "The Museum of African Contemporary Art Al Maaden (MACAAL) is a non-profit art gallery that exhibits contemporary Moroccan and African art.", "The Yves Saint Laurent Museum, opened in 2017 in a new building near the Jardin Majorelle, displays a collection of work spanning the career of French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent.", "It is a sister museum to the Yves Saint Laurent Museum in Paris.===Music, theatre and dance===Two types of music are traditionally associated with Marrakesh.", "Berber music is influenced by Andalusian classical music and typified by its ''oud'' accompaniment.", "By contrast, Gnaoua music is loud and funky with a sound reminiscent of the Blues.", "It is performed on handmade instruments such as castanets, ''ribabs'' (three-stringed banjos) and ''deffs'' (handheld drums).", "Gnaoua music's rhythm and crescendo take the audience into a mood of trance; the style is said to have emerged in Marrakesh and Essaouira as a ritual of deliverance from slavery.", "More recently, several Marrakesh female music groups have also risen to popularity.The Théâtre Royal de Marrakesh, the Institut Français and Dar Chérifa are major performing arts institutions in the city.", "The Théâtre Royal, built by Tunisian architect Charles Boccara, puts on theatrical performances of comedy, opera, and dance in French and Arabic.", "A greater number of theatrical troupes perform outdoors and entertain tourists on the main square and the streets, especially at night.===Crafts===Locally made hatsThe arts and crafts of Marrakesh have had a wide and enduring impact on Moroccan handicrafts to the present day.", "Riad décor is widely used in carpets and textiles, ceramics, woodwork, metal work and ''zelij''.", "Carpets and textiles are weaved, sewn or embroidered, sometimes used for upholstering.", "Moroccan women who practice craftsmanship are known as ''Maalems'' (expert craftspeople) and make such fine products as Berber carpets and shawls made of ''sabra'' (another name for rayon, also sometimes called cactus silk).", "Ceramics are in monochrome Berber-style only, a limited tradition depicting bold forms and decorations.Wood crafts are generally made of cedar, including the ''riad'' doors and palace ceilings.", "Orange wood is used for making ladles known as ''harira'' (lentil soup ladles).", "''Thuya'' craft products are made of caramel coloured ''thuya'', a conifer indigenous to Morocco.", "Since this species is almost extinct, these trees are being replanted and promoted by the artists' cooperative Femmes de Marrakech.Metalwork made in Marrakesh includes brass lamps, iron lanterns, candle holders made from recycled sardine tins, and engraved brass teapots and tea trays used in the traditional serving of tea.", "Contemporary art includes sculpture and figurative paintings.", "Blue veiled ''Tuareg'' figurines and calligraphy paintings are also popular.===Festivals===Festivals, both national and Islamic, are celebrated in Marrakesh and throughout the country, and some of them are observed as national holidays.", "Cultural festivals of note held in Marrakesh include the National Folklore Festival, the Marrakech Festival of Popular Arts (in which a variety of famous Moroccan musicians and artists participate), international folklore festival Marrakech Folklore Days and the Berber Festival.", "The International Film Festival of Marrakech, which aspires to be the North African version of the Cannes Film Festival, was established in 2001.The festival, which showcases over 100 films from around the world annually, has attracted Hollywood stars such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, Susan Sarandon, Jeremy Irons, Roman Polanski and many European, Arab and Indian film stars.", "The Marrakech Bienniale was established in 2004 by Vanessa Branson as a cultural festival in various disciplines, including visual arts, cinema, video, literature, performing arts, and architecture.===Food===Surrounded by lemon, orange, and olive groves, the city's culinary characteristics are rich and heavily spiced but not hot, using various preparations of ''Ras el hanout'' (which means \"Head of the shop\"), a blend of dozens of spices which include ash berries, chilli, cinnamon, grains of paradise, monk's pepper, nutmeg, and turmeric.", "A specialty of the city and the symbol of its cuisine is ''tanjia marrakshia'', affectionately referred to as ''bint ar-rimad'' ( \"daughter of the ash\"), a local meal prepared with beef meat, spices, and ''smen'' and slow-cooked in a ceramic pot in traditional oven in hot ashes.", "Tajines can be prepared with chicken, lamb, beef or fish, adding fruit, olives and preserved lemon, vegetables and spices, including cumin, peppers, saffron, turmeric, and ''ras el hanout''.", "The meal is prepared in a tajine pot and slow-cooked with steam.", "Another version of tajine includes vegetables and chickpeas seasoned with flower petals.", "Tajines may also be basted with \"smen\" Moroccan ghee that has a flavour similar to blue cheese.Shrimp, chicken and lemon-filled ''briouats'' are another traditional specialty of Marrakesh.", "Rice is cooked with saffron, raisins, spices, and almonds, while couscous may have added vegetables.", "A ''pastilla'' is a filo-wrapped pie stuffed with minced chicken or pigeon that has been prepared with almonds, cinnamon, spices and sugar.", "Harira soup in Marrakesh typically includes lamb with a blend of chickpeas, lentils, vermicelli, and tomato paste, seasoned with coriander, spices and parsley.", "''Kefta'' (mince meat), liver in ''crépinette'', ''merguez'' and tripe stew are commonly sold at the stalls of Jemaa el-Fnaa.shebakia in Marrakesh.The desserts of Marrakesh include ''chebakia'' (sesame spice cookies usually prepared and served during Ramadan), tartlets of filo dough with dried fruit, or cheesecake with dates.The Moroccan tea culture is practiced in Marrakesh; green tea with mint is served with sugar from a curved teapot spout into small glasses.", "Another popular non-alcoholic drink is orange juice.", "Under the Almoravids, alcohol consumption was common; historically, hundreds of Jews produced and sold alcohol in the city.", "In the present day, alcohol is sold in some hotel bars and restaurants." ], [ "Education", "Université Privée de MarrakechMarrakesh has several universities and schools, including Cadi Ayyad University (also known as the University of Marrakech), and its component, the École nationale des sciences appliquées de Marrakech (ENSA Marrakech), which was created in 2000 by the Ministry of Higher Education and specializes in engineering and scientific research, and the La faculté des sciences et techniques-gueliz which known to be number one in Morocco in its kind of faculties.", "Cadi Ayyad University was established in 1978 and operates 13 institutions in the Marrakech Tensift Elhaouz and Abda Doukkala regions of Morocco in four main cities, including Kalaa of Sraghna, Essaouira and Safi in addition to Marrakech.", "Sup de Co Marrakech, also known as the École Supérieure de Commerce de Marrakech, is a private four-year college that was founded in 1987 by Ahmed Bennis.", "The school is affiliated with the École Supérieure de Commerce of Toulouse, France; since 1995 the school has built partnership programs with numerous American universities including the University of Delaware, University of St. Thomas, Oklahoma State University, National-Louis University, and Temple University.", "===Ben Youssef Madrasa===The courtyard of the Ben Youssef MadrasaThe Ben Youssef Madrasa, north of the Medina, was an Islamic college in Marrakesh named after the Almoravid sultan Ali ibn Yusuf (1106–1142) who expanded the city and its influence considerably.", "It is the largest madrasa in all of Morocco and was one of the largest theological colleges in North Africa, at one time housing as many as 900 students.This education complex specialized in Quranic law and was linked to similar institutions in Fez, Taza, Salé, and Meknes.", "The Madrasa was constructed by the Saadian Sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib (1557–1574) in 1564 as the largest and most prestigious madrasa in Morocco.", "The construction ordered by Abdallah al-Ghalib was completed in 1565, as attested by the inscription in the prayer room.", "Its 130 student dormitory cells cluster around a courtyard richly carved in cedar, marble and stucco.", "In accordance with Islam, the carvings contain no representation of humans or animals, consisting entirely of inscriptions and geometric patterns.", "One of the school's best known teachers was Mohammed al-Ifrani (1670–1745).", "After a temporary closure beginning in 1960, the building was refurbished and reopened to the public as a historical site in 1982." ], [ "Sports", "Football clubs based in Marrakesh include Najm de Marrakech, KAC Marrakech, Mouloudia de Marrakech and Chez Ali Club de Marrakech.", "The city contains the Circuit International Automobile Moulay El Hassan a race track which hosts the World Touring Car Championship and from 2017 FIA Formula E. The Marrakech Marathon is also held here.", "Roughly 5000 runners turn out for the event annually.", "Also, here takes place Grand Prix Hassan II tennis tournament (on clay) part of ATP World Tour series.", "Marrakech could host matches at the 2030 FIFA World Cup.Golf is a popular sport in Marrakech.", "The city has three golf courses just outside the city limits and played almost through the year.", "The three main courses are the Golf de Amelikis on the road to Ourazazate, the Palmeraie Golf Palace near the Palmeraie, and the Royal Golf Club, the oldest of the three courses.Jnan Amar Polo Club is located in Tameslouht, near Marrakech." ], [ "Transport", "=== Bus ===BRT MarrakeshBRT Marrakesh, a bus rapid transit system using trolleybuses was opened in 2017.=== Rail ===Marrakesh railway stationThe Marrakesh railway station is linked by several trains running daily to other major cities in Morocco such as Casablanca, Tangiers, Fez, Meknes and Rabat.", "The Casablanca–Tangier high-speed rail line opened in November 2018.In 2015, a tramway was proposed.=== Road ===The main road network within and around Marrakesh is well paved.", "The major highway connecting Marrakesh with Casablanca to the north is the A7, a toll expressway, in length.", "The road from Marrakesh to Settat, a stretch, was inaugurated by King Mohammed VI in April 2007, completing the highway to Tangiers.", "Highway A7 connects also Marrakesh to Agadir, to the south-west.=== Air ===Marrakesh Menara AirportThe Marrakesh-Menara Airport (RAK) is southwest of the city centre.", "It is an international facility that receives several European flights as well as flights from Casablanca and several Arab nations.", "The airport is at an elevation of at .", "It has two formal passenger terminals; these are more or less combined into one large terminal.", "A third terminal is being built.", "The existing T1 and T2 terminals offer a space of and have a capacity of 4.5 million passengers per year.", "The blacktopped runway is long and wide.", "The airport has parking space for 14 Boeing 737 and four Boeing 747 aircraft.", "The separate freight terminal has of covered space." ], [ "Healthcare", "Marrakesh has long been an important centre for healthcare in Morocco, and the regional rural and urban populations alike are reliant upon hospitals in the city.", "The psychiatric hospital installed by the Merinid Caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 16th century was described by the historian 'Abd al-Wahfd al- Marrakushi as one of the greatest in the world at the time.", "A strong Andalusian influence was evident in the hospital, and many of the physicians to the Caliphs came from places such as Seville, Zaragoza and Denia in eastern Spain.A severe strain has been placed upon the healthcare facilities of the city in the last decade as the city population has grown dramatically.", "Ibn Tofail University Hospital is one of the major hospitals of the city.", "In February 2001, the Moroccan government signed a loan agreement worth eight million U.S. dollars with The OPEC Fund for International Development to help improve medical services in and around Marrakesh, which led to expansions of the Ibn Tofail and Ibn Nafess hospitals.", "Seven new buildings were constructed, with a total floor area of .", "New radiotherapy and medical equipment was provided and of existing hospital space was rehabilitated.In 2009, king Mohammed VI inaugurated a regional psychiatric hospital in Marrakesh, built by the Mohammed V Foundation for Solidarity, costing 22 million ''dirhams'' (approximately 2.7 million U.S. dollars).The hospital has 194 beds, covering an area of .", "Mohammed VI has also announced plans for the construction of a 450 million dirham military hospital in Marrakesh." ], [ "International relations", "Marrakesh is twinned with:* Granada, Spain* Marseille, France* Granby, Canada* Ningbo, China* Scottsdale, United States* Sousse, Tunisia* Timbuktu, Mali" ], [ "Notable people", "*Amine Amamou, footballer*Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi, 13th-century mathematician and astronomer*Ibn Idhari, 13th-century historian*Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi, 13th-century historian*Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, 16th-century Moroccan diplomat and ambassador to Elizabeth I of England; possible inspiration for Shakespeare's Othello character*Ahmad ibn Qasim Al-Hajarī, prominent 16th-century Morisco who escaped the Spanish Inquisition and worked as an ambassador for Morocco* Abdelali Mhamdi, professional goalkeeper.", "* Ahmed Bahja - Former footballer* Hasna Benhassi - Former middle-distance runner* Tahar El Khalej - Former footballer* Abdellah Jlaidi - footballer* Abdelali Mhamdi - footballer* Adil Ramzi - Former footballer* Salaheddine Saidi - footballer* Tahar Tamsamani - Former boxer" ], [ "See also", "* Arab Astronomical Society (2016)* List of people from Marrakesh* Marrakesh in popular culture" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tast, Brigitte (2020).", "''Die rote Stadt''; in: Brigitte Tast: ''Rot in Schwarz-Weiß'', Schellerten, S. 47ff.", "* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Moroccan National Tourist Office* Bulletin du Patrimoine – Patrimoines de Marrakech: local publication (in French) on the city's historic heritage, also available on Academia" ] ]
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[ [ "Matilda of Ringelheim" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Matilda of Ringelheim''' ( – 14 March 968), also known as '''Saint Matilda''', was a Saxon noblewoman.", "Due to her marriage to Henry I in 909, she became the first Ottonian queen.", "Her eldest son, Otto I, restored the Holy Roman Empire in 962.Matilda founded several spiritual institutions and women's convents.", "She was considered to be extremely pious, righteous and charitable.", "Matilda's two hagiographical biographies and ''The Deeds of the Saxons'' serve as authoritative sources about her life and work." ], [ "Early life and marriage with Henry I", "Matilda, daughter of Reinhild and the Saxon count Dietrich (himself a descendant of the Saxon duke Widukind who fought against Charlemagne) was born in around 892, and was raised by her grandmother Matilda in Herford Abbey.", "She had three sisters; Amalrada, Bia and Fridarun, who married Charles III, king of West Francia; and a brother, Beuve II, the Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne.", "Due to her niece Fridarun's marriage to count Wichmann the Elder, there was an alliance between the House of Billung and the Ottonian family, which expanded their possessions to the west.", "In 909, she married Henry, at the time Duke of Saxony and later East Franconian king, after his first marriage to Hatheburg of Merseburg was cancelled.In 929, Matilda received her dowry, which Henry gave to her in the so-called ''Hausordnung''.", "It consisted of goods in Quedlinburg, Pöhlde, Nordhausen, Grona (near Göttingen) and Duderstadt.", "As queen, she took an interest in women's monasteries and is said to have had an influence on her husband's reign by having a strong sense of justice." ], [ "Children", "Through Henry, Matilda gave birth to five children: * Otto (912–973), who was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor in 962; * Henry (919/22–955), who was appointed Duke of Bavaria in 948; * Bruno (925–965), who was elected Archbishop of Cologne in 953 and Duke of Lorraine in 954; * Hedwig (910 - 965/80), who married the West Frankish duke Hugh the Great* Gerberga (c. 913 - 968/69 or 984), who first married Gilbert, Duke of Lorraine and later the Carolingian king Louis IV of France." ], [ "Life as a widow", "After Henry's death 936 in Memleben, he was buried in Quedlinburg, where Queen Matilda founded a convent the same year.", "She lived there during the following years and took care of the family's memorialization.", "Thus, Quedlinburg Abbey became the most important center of prayer and commemoration of the dead in the East Franconian empire.", "Like in other convents, daughters of noble families were raised in Quedlinburg, to later become Abbesses in order to secure the families influence.", "One of them was her own granddaughter, Matilda, daughter of Otto I and Adelheid of Burgundy, to whom she passed on the conducting of the convent in 966, after 30 years of leadership.", "The younger Matilda therefore became the first abbess of the convent in Quedlinburg.", "With her other goods, Queen Matilda founded further convents, one of them in 947 in Enger.", "Her last foundation was the convent of Nordhausen in 961.Matilda's handling of her dowry, which she had received from King Henry I previous to his death, was subject to a dispute between her and Otto I during the years 936–946.Otto made a claim on his mother's possessions, which eventually led to her fleeing into exile.", "Otto's wife, Queen Eadgyth, is said to have brought about the reconciliation in which Matilda left her goods and Otto was forgiven for his actions.", "The exact circumstances of this feud are still controversial to this day, but in order to protect her goods, Matilda acquired papal privileges for all monasteries in eastern Saxony in the period before her death in early 968.However, these efforts were ignored when Theophanu, the wife of Otto II, received Matilda's dowry after she died." ], [ "Death", "After a long illness, Queen Matilda died on 14 March 968, in the convent of Quedlinburg.", "She was buried in Quedlinburg Abbey, next to her late husband.", "Throughout her life, Matilda was dedicated to charity and her spiritual foundations – as expressed several times in her two hagiographies.", "A commemorative plaque dedicated to her can be found in the Walhalla memorial near Regensburg, Germany." ], [ "Canonization", "Matilda is the patron of the St. Mathilde church in Laatzen (Germany), the St. Mathilde church in Quedlinburg (Germany), the Melkite church in Aleppo (Syria), and the Mathilden-Hospital in Herford (Germany).", "Her feast day is 14 March." ], [ "See also", "* Saint Matilda of Ringelheim, patron saint archive" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Sean Gilsdorf: ''Queenship and Sanctity The Lives of Mathilda and The Epitaph of Adelheid'', Washington, D.C., 2004." ] ]
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[ [ "Monometer" ], [ "Introduction", "In poetry, a '''monometer''' is a line of verse with just one metrical foot." ], [ "Example", "Monometer can be exemplified by this portion of Robert Herrick's poem \"Upon His Departure Hence\":Thus IPasse by,And die:As one,Unknown,And gone." ], [ "See also", "*Trochaic*Foot (prosody)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Upon his departure" ] ]
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[ [ "Mazar-i-Sharif" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mazar-i-Sharīf''' ( ; Dari and ), also known as '''Mazar-e Sharīf''' or simply '''Mazar''', is the fourth-largest city in Afghanistan by population, with an estimated 500,207 residents in 2021.It is the capital of Balkh province and is linked by highways with Kunduz in the east, Kabul in the southeast, Herat in the southwest and Termez, Uzbekistan in the north.", "It is about from the Uzbek border.", "The city is also a tourist attraction because of its famous shrines as well as the Islamic and Hellenistic archeological sites.", "The ancient city of Balkh is also nearby.The region around Mazar-i-Sharif has been historically part of Greater Khorasan and was controlled by the Tahirids followed by the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Ilkhanates, Timurids, and Khanate of Bukhara until 1751 when it became part of the Durrani Empire (although under autonomous emirs).", "Eventually the city passed to a few local rulers before becoming part of Afghanistan in 1849.Mazar-i-Sharif is the regional hub of northern Afghanistan, located in close proximity to both Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.", "It is also home to an international airport.", "It has the highest percentage of built-up land (91%) of all the Afghan provincial capitals, and it has additional built-up area extending beyond the municipal boundary but forming a part of the larger urban area.", "It is also the lowest-lying major city in the country, about above sea level.", "The city was spared the devastation that occurred in the country's other large cities during the Soviet–Afghan War and subsequent civil war, and was long regarded as one of the safest cities in the country.On 14 August 2021, Mazar-i-Sharif was seized by Taliban fighters, becoming the twenty-fifth provincial capital to be captured by the Taliban as part of the wider 2021 Taliban offensive." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Mazar-i-Sharif'' means \"tomb of the saint\", a reference to the tomb of Ali, cousin, son-in-law and companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.", "The tomb is housed in the large, blue-tiled sanctuary and mosque in the center of the city known as the Shrine of Ali or the Blue Mosque." ], [ "History", "===Ancient period===The Achaemenids controlled the region from the sixth century BCE.", "Alexander the Great conquered the area but it was then incorporated into the Seleucid Empire after his death.", "The decline of the Seleucids consequently led to the emergence of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.", "Around 130 BCE, the Sakas occupied the region and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom fell.", "The Yuezhi took Mazar-i-Sharif and the surrounding area which led to the creation of the Kushan Empire.", "The Sasanians subsequently controlled the area after the fall of the Kushans.", "The Islamic conquests reached Mazar-i-Sharif in 651 CE.===9th century until 1919===The region around Mazar-i-Sharif has been historically part of Greater Khorasan and was controlled by the Tahirids followed by the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Ilkhanates, Timurids, and Khanate of Bukhara.Mazar-i-Sharif & surroundings from ISS, 2016The poet Jalal al-Din Rumi was born somewhere in this area.", "His father Baha' Walad was descended from the first caliph Abu Bakr.The Seljuk sultan Ahmed Sanjar ordered a city and shrine to be built on the location, which was later destroyed by Genghis Khan and his Mongol army in the 13th century, and then rebuilt.", "During the nineteenth century, due to the absence of drainage systems and the weak economy of the region, the excess water of this area flooded many acres of the land in the vicinity of residential areas causing a malaria epidemic in the region.", "The ruler of North Central Afghanistan decided to move the capital to Mazar-i-Sharif.The city along with the region south of the Amu Darya became part of the Durrani Empire in around 1751.For the most part the region was controlled by autonomous Uzbek rulers).", "After the Bukharan-Durrani war of 1788–1790, Qilich Ali Beg of Khulm formed a mini-empire stretching from Balkh to Aybak, Saighan, Kahmard, Darra-i Suf, and Qunduz.", "When he died in 1817, the Balkh and Mazar-i Sharif region became an independent city state with Aqcha as its dependency.", "In November 1837 the Bukharans conquered the city but Balkh was still able to retain autonomy.", "In 1849 the city was conquered and annexed into Afghanistan.===Late 20th century===During the 1980s Soviet–Afghan War, Mazar-i-Sharif was a strategic base for the Soviet Army as they used its airport to launch air strikes on mujahideen rebels.", "Mazar-i-Sharif was also the main city that linked to Soviet territory in the north, especially the roads leading to the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic.", "As a garrison for the Soviet-backed Afghan Army, the city was under the command of General Abdul Rashid Dostum.", "Mujahideen militias Hezbe Wahdat and Jamiat-e Islami both attempted to contest the city but were repelled by the Army.Dostum mutinied against Mohammad Najibullah's government on March 19, 1992, shortly before its collapse, and formed his new party and militia, Junbish-e Milli.", "The party took over the city the next day.", "Afterwards Mazar-i-Sharif became the ''de facto'' capital of a relatively stable and secular proto-state in northern Afghanistan under the rule of Dostum.", "The city remained peaceful and prosperous, whilst rest of the nation disintegrated and was slowly taken over by fundamentalist Taliban forces.", "The city was called at the time a \"glittering jewel in Afghanistan's battered crown\".", "Money rolled in from foreign donors Russia, Turkey, newly independent Uzbekistan and others, with whom Dostum had established close relations.", "He printed his own currency for the region and established his own airline.", "The city remained relatively liberal as Kabul previously was, where activities such as coeducational schools and betting was legal as opposed to the Taliban dominated regions in the south of the country.This peace was shattered in May 1997 when he was betrayed by one of his generals, warlord Abdul Malik Pahlawan who allied himself with the Taliban, forcing him to flee from Mazar-i-Sharif as the Taliban were getting ready to take the city through Pahlawan.", "Afterwards Pahlawan himself mutinied the Taliban on the deal and it was reported that between May and July 1997 that Pahlawan executed thousands of Taliban members, that he personally did many of the killings by slaughtering the prisoners as a revenge for the 1995 death of Abdul Ali Mazari.", "\"He is widely believed to have been responsible for the brutal massacre of up to 3,000 Taliban prisoners after inviting them into Mazar-i-Sharif.\"", "Several of the Taliban escaped the slaughtering and reported what had happened.", "Meanwhile, Dostum came back and took the city again from Pahlawan.However the Taliban retaliated in 1998 attacking the city and killing an estimated 8,000 non-combatants.", "At 10 am on 8 August 1998, the Taliban entered the city and for the next two days drove their pickup trucks \"up and down the narrow streets of Mazar-i-Sharif shooting to the left and right and killing everything that moved—shop owners, cart pullers, women and children shoppers and even goats and donkeys.\"", "More than 8000 noncombatants were reported killed in Mazar-i-Sharif and later in Bamiyan.", "In addition, the Taliban were criticized for forbidding anyone from burying the corpses for the first six days (contrary to the injunctions of Islam, which demands immediate burial) while the remains rotted in the summer heat and were eaten by dogs.", "The Taliban also reportedly sought out and massacred members of the Hazara, while in control of Mazar.===Since 2001===Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, Mazar-i-Sharif was the first Afghan city to fall to the U.S.-backed Northern Alliance (United Front).", "The Taliban's defeat in Mazar quickly turned into a rout from the rest of the north and west of Afghanistan.", "After the Battle of Mazar-i-Sharif in November 2001, the city was officially captured by forces of the Northern Alliance.", "They were joined by the United States Special Operations Forces and supported by U.S. Air Force aircraft.", "As many as 3,000 Taliban fighters who surrendered were reportedly massacred by the Northern Alliance after the battle, and reports also place U.S. ground troops at the scene of the massacre.", "The Irish documentary ''Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death'' investigated these allegations.", "Filmmaker Doran claims that mass graves of thousands of victims were found by United Nations investigators.", "The Bush administration reportedly blocked investigations into the incident.Camp Marmal, located south of the city next to Mazar-i-Sharif AirportThe city slowly came under the control of the Karzai administration after 2002, which is led by President Hamid Karzai.", "The 209th Corps (Shaheen) of the Afghan National Army is based at Mazar-i-Sharif, which provides military assistance to northern Afghanistan.", "The Afghan Border Police headquarters for the Northern Zone is also located in the city.", "Despite the security put in place, there are reports of Taliban activities and assassinations of tribal elders.", "Officials in Mazar-i-Sharif reported that between 20 and 30 Afghan tribal elders have been assassinated in Balkh Province in the last several years.", "There is no conclusive evidence as to who is behind it but majority of the victims are said to have been associated with the Hezb-i Islami political party.Thomas de Maizière, German Minister of Defense, with Balkh Governor Atta Muhammad Nur in 2010U.S.", "Senator John Kerry at Balkh University in May 2011A carpet seller in MazarSmall-scale clashes between militias belonging to different commanders persisted throughout 2002, and were the focus of intensive UN peace-brokering and small arms disarmament programme.", "After some pressure, an office of the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission opened an office in Mazar in April 2003.There were reports about northern Pashtun civilians being ethnically cleansed by the other groups, mainly by ethnic Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks.NATO-led peacekeeping forces in and around the city provided assistance to the Afghan government.", "ISAF Regional Command North, led by Germany, is stationed at Camp Marmal which lies next to Mazar-i-Sharif Airport.", "Since 2006, Provincial Reconstruction Team Mazar-i-Sharif had unit commanders from Sweden on loan to ISAF.", "The unit is stationed at Camp Northern Lights which is located west of Camp Marmal.", "Camp Nidaros, located within Camp Marmal, has soldiers from Latvia and Norway and is led by an ISAF-officer from Norway.In 2006, the discovery of new Hellenistic remains was announced.On April 1, 2011, ten foreign employees working for United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) were killed by angry demonstrators in the city.", "The demonstration was organized in retaliation to pastors Terry Jones and Wayne Sapp's March 21 Qur'an-burning in Florida, United States.", "Among the dead were five Nepalis, a Norwegian, Romanian and Swedish nationals, two of them were said to be decapitated.", "Terry Jones, the American pastor who was going to burn Islam's Holy Book, denied his responsibility for incitement.", "President Barack Obama strongly condemned both the Quran burning, calling it an act of \"extreme intolerance and bigotry\", and the \"outrageous\" attacks by protesters, referring to them as \"an affront to human decency and dignity.\"", "\"No religion tolerates the slaughter and beheading of innocent people, and there is no justification for such a dishonorable and deplorable act.\"", "U.S. legislators, including Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, also condemned both the burning and the violence in reaction to it.By July 2011 violence grew to a record high in the insurgency.", "In late July 2011, NATO troops also handed control of Mazar-i-Sharif to local forces amid rising security fears just days after it was hit by a deadly bombing.", "Mazar-i-Sharif is the sixth of seven areas to transition to Afghan control, but critics say the timing is political and there is skepticism over Afghan abilities to combat the Taliban insurgency.On 10 November 2016, a suicide attacker rammed a truck bomb into the wall of the German consulate in Mazar-i-Sharif.", "Eight people were killed and more than a hundred others were injured.On 21 April 2017, a coordinated Taliban attack killed more than 100 people at Camp Shaheen, the Afghan Army base in Mazar-i-Sharif.In November 2018, VOA reported that 40 houses in Qazil Abad, an immediate suburb of Mazar-i-Sharif, used unexploded Soviet Grad surface-to-surface rockets as construction materials.", "As a result, several people were killed and wounded from explosions over the years.", "These rockets, left behind by the Soviet Army in 1989 at the end of the Soviet–Afghan War, were used as cheap building materials by the poor residents of the village.", "It was estimated that over 400 rockets were incorporated into the village as wall and ceiling beams, door-stoppers, and even footbridges used by children.", "When the rest of the world discovered this fact, the Danish demining group of the Danish Refugee Council visited the village and, after asking the residents, began demining and rebuilding the village, safely removing and disposing of the rockets through controlled detonation at the border with Uzbekistan.President Ghani visited the city on 11 August 2021 to rally local warlords to fight the Taliban.", "On 14 August, the Taliban captured Mazar-i-Sharif along with Sharana and Asadabad, the provincial capitals of Paktika and Kunar provinces respectively.", "Local government forces and regional leaders Abdul Rashid Dostum and Atta Mohammad Noor fled to neighboring Uzbekistan.On 21 April 2022, Islamic State – Khorasan Province killed 31 people by bombing a Shia mosque.", "A week later, 11 people were killed in a double bombing.Mazar-i-Sharif is also known for the Afghan song ''Bia ke berem ba Mazar'' (''Come let's go to Mazar'') by Sarban." ], [ "Geography", "===Climate===Mazar-i-Sharif has a cold steppe climate (Köppen climate classification ''BSk'') with hot summers and cold winters.", "Precipitation is low and mostly falls between December and April.", "The climate in Mazar-i-Sharif is very hot during the summer with daily temperatures of over from June to August.", "The winters are cold with temperatures falling below freezing; it may snow from November through March." ], [ "Demographics", "Locals of Mazar-i-Sharif enjoying rides at a small family amusement park in 2012The city of Mazar-i-Sharif has a total population of 500,207, and is the fourth-largest city of Afghanistan by population.", "It has a total land area of 8,304 Hectares with 77,615 total number of dwellings.The November 2003 issue of National Geographic magazine indicated the ethnic composition as Pashtuns 30%, Hazaras 10%, Tajiks 40%, Turkmens 10%, and Uzbeks 20%.", "Occasional ethnic violence has been reported in the region in the last decades, mainly between Pashtuns and the other groups.", "In 2011 news reports mentioned assassinations taking place in the area but with no evidence as to who is behind them.The dominant language in Mazar-i-Sharif is Dari, followed by Pashto, and Uzbek." ], [ "Economy", "Russian name in CyrillicMazar-i-Sharif serves as the major trading center in northern Afghanistan.", "The local economy is dominated by trade, agriculture and Karakul sheep farming.", "Small-scale oil and gas exploitation have also boosted the city's prospects.", "It is also the location of consulates of India and Pakistan for trading and political links." ], [ "Main sights", "The modern city of Mazar-i Sharif is centred around the Shrine of Ali.", "Much restored, it is one of Afghanistan's most glorious monuments.", "Outside Mazar-i Sharif lies the ancient city of Balkh.", "The city is a centre for the traditional buzkashi sport, and the Blue Mosque is the focus of northern Afghanistan's Nowruz celebration.", "Although most Muslims believe that the real grave of Ali is found within Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq, others still come to Mazar-i-Sharif to pay respect.C-5 Galaxy at Mazar-i-Sharif AirportBlue Mosque is a destination for pilgrims.Governor's PalaceMazar-i-Sharif Gate under construction (July 2012)* '''Airports'''** Mazar-i-Sharif Airport – serves the population of Balkh Province and is also used by NATO-led forces, including the Afghan Air Force.", "It is being expanded to become the 4th international airport in Afghanistan.", "* '''Mosques'''** Shrine of Ali* '''Parks and monuments'''** Park-e-Ariana ** Maulana Jalaludin Cultural Park** Tashkurgan Palace** Governors Palace** Mazar-i-Sharif Gate** Khalid Ibn-al Walid Park* '''Universities'''** Balkh University** Aria University** Sadat University** Mawlana University** Taj University** Turkistan University** Rah-e-Saadat University" ], [ "Sports", ";Professional sports teams from Mazar-i-Sharif Club League Sport Venue Established Balkh LegendsAfghanistan Premier LeagueCricketSharjah Cricket Stadium2018 Amo Sharks Shpageeza Cricket League Cricket Balkh Cricket Stadium 2013 Simorgh Alborz F.C.", "Afghan Premier League Football Balkh Ground 2012* '''Stadiums'''** Balkh Cricket Stadium** Buzkashi Stadium" ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation=======Rail====Railway terminalIt became the first city in Afghanistan to connect itself by rail with a neighboring country.", "Rail service from Mazar-i-Sharif to Uzbekistan began in December 2011 and cargo on freight trains arrive at a station near Mazar-i-Sharif Airport, where the goods are reloaded onto trucks or airplanes and sent to their last destinations across Afghanistan.====Air====As of June 2016 Mazar-i-Sharif Airport had direct air connections to Kabul, Mashad, Tehran, and Istanbul.====Road====Highway AH76 links Mazar-i-Sharif to Sheberghan in the west, and Pul-e Khomri and Kabul to the south-east.", "Roads to the east link it to Kunduz.", "Roads to the north link it to the Uzbek border town Termez, where it becomes highway M39 going north to Samarkand and Tashkent.", "Roads to the south link it to Bamiyan Province and the mountainous range of central Afghanistan." ], [ "Notable people", "* Emir Wazir Akbar Khan, buried in the city* Emir Sher Ali Khan, buried in the city* Ajab Khan Afridi, freedom fighter against the British Raj* Morsal Obeidi (German-Afghan murder victim) – Born in Mazar-i-Sharif, moved to Germany at age three, and lived in Mazar-i-Sharif for eight months after her parents sent her there to Islamize her.", "*Zalmay Khalilzad (Afghan born American diplomat)*Wasef Bakhtari, Afghan poet of the Persian language, literary figure and intellectual, one of the first Persian poets to introduce ''she’r-e nimaa'i'' (\"Nimaic poetry\") to Afghan-Persian literature, grew up in Mazar-i-Sharif*Abdul Ali Mazari, ethnic Hazara and political leader of the Hezb-e Wahdat party, born in the village of Charkent, south of the northern city of Mazar-i-Sharif*Muhammad Mohaqiq, politician in Afghanistan as a member of the Afghanistan Parliament, founder and chairman of the People's Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan*Atta Muhammad Nur, former mujahideen resistance commander for the Jamiat-e Islami against the Soviets and also commander in the United Front (Northern Alliance) under Ahmad Shah Massoud against the Taliban, also former Governor of Balkh Province (2004–2018), born in Mazar-i-Sharif*Farshad Noor, Afghan professional football player who plays as a midfielder for the Afghanistan national football team" ], [ "Twin towns and sister cities", "* Dushanbe, Tajikistan (since 1991)* Mashhad, Iran" ], [ "See also", "* Battle of Qala-i-Jangi* Balkh Province" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* 'The Massacre in Mazar-i Sharif'.", "Report of Human Rights Watch, November 1998, Vol.", "10, No.", "7 (C).", "Retrieved 18 November 2017.", "* * Noble Shrine or MAZAR-I-SHARIF a pilgrimage city in Afghanistan* Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977): ''An Historical Guide to Afghanistan''.", "1st Edition: 1970.2nd Edition.", "Revised and Enlarged.", "Afghan Tourist Organization." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metaphor" ], [ "Introduction", " A political cartoon by illustrator S.D.", "Ehrhart in an 1894 ''Puck'' magazine shows a farm woman labeled \"Democratic Party\" sheltering from a tornado of political change.A '''metaphor''' is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another.", "It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas.", "Metaphors are often compared with other types of figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy, and simile.", "One of the most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the \"All the world's a stage\" monologue from ''As You Like It'':All the world's a stage,And all the men and women merely players;They have their exits and their entrances And one man in his time plays many parts,His Acts being seven ages.", "At first, the infant...:—William Shakespeare, ''As You Like It'', 2/7This quotation expresses a metaphor because the world is not literally a stage, and most humans are not literally actors and actresses playing roles.", "By asserting that the world is a stage, Shakespeare uses points of comparison between the world and a stage to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the world and the behavior of the people within it.In the ancient Hebrew psalms (around 1000 B.C.", "), one finds already vivid and poetic examples of metaphor such as, \"The Lord is my rock, my fortress and my deliverer; my God is my rock, in whom I take refuge, my shield and the horn of my salvation, my stronghold\" and \"The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want\".", "Some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.The word metaphor itself is a metaphor, coming from a Greek term meaning \"transference (of ownership)\".", "The user of a metaphor alters the reference of the word, \"carrying\" it from one semantic \"realm\" to another.", "The new meaning of the word might be derived from an analogy between the two semantic realms, but also from other reasons such as the distortion of the semantic realm - for example in sarcasm." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''metaphor'' derives from the 16th-century Old French word ''métaphore'', which comes from the Latin ''metaphora'', \"carrying over\", and in turn from the Greek μεταφορά (''metaphorá''), \"transference (of ownership)\", from μεταφέρω (''metapherō''), \"to carry over\", \"to transfer\" and that from μετά (''meta''), \"behind\", \"along with\", \"across\" + φέρω (''pherō''), \"to bear\", \"to carry\"." ], [ "Parts of a metaphor", "''The Philosophy of Rhetoric'' (1936) by rhetorician I.", "A. Richards describes a metaphor as having two parts: the tenor and the vehicle.", "The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed.", "The vehicle is the object whose attributes are borrowed.", "In the previous example, \"the world\" is compared to a stage, describing it with the attributes of \"the stage\"; \"the world\" is the tenor, and \"a stage\" is the vehicle; \"men and women\" is the secondary tenor, and \"players\" is the secondary vehicle.Other writers employ the general terms 'ground' and 'figure' to denote the tenor and the vehicle.", "Cognitive linguistics uses the terms 'target' and 'source', respectively.Psychologist Julian Jaynes coined the terms 'metaphrand' and 'metaphier', plus two new concepts, 'paraphrand' and 'paraphier'.", "'Metaphrand' is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms 'tenor', 'target', and 'ground'.", "'Metaphier' is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms 'vehicle', 'figure', and 'source'.", "In a simple metaphor, an obvious attribute of the metaphier exactly characterizes the metaphrand (e.g.", "the ship plowed the seas).", "With an inexact metaphor, however, a metaphier might have associated attributes or nuances – its paraphiers – that enrich the metaphor because they \"project back\" to the metaphrand, potentially creating new ideas – the paraphrands – associated thereafter with the metaphrand or even leading to a new metaphor.", "For example, in the metaphor \"Pat is a tornado\", the metaphrand is \"Pat\", the metaphier is \"tornado\".", "As metaphier, \"tornado\" carries paraphiers such as power, storm and wind, counterclockwise motion, and danger, threat, destruction, etc.", "The metaphoric meaning of \"tornado\" is inexact: one might understand that 'Pat is powerfully destructive' through the paraphrand of physical and emotional destruction; another person might understand the metaphor as 'Pat can spin out of control'.", "In the latter case, the paraphier of 'spinning motion' has become the paraphrand 'psychological spin', suggesting an entirely new metaphor for emotional unpredictability, a possibly apt description for a human being hardly applicable to a tornado.Based on his analysis, Jaynes claims that metaphors not only enhance description, but \"increase enormously our powers of perception...and our understanding of the world, and literally create new objects\"." ], [ "As a type of comparison", "''\"The Asherah is part of a jigsaw in weaving together the feminine threads of a religious history that could be an important new breakthrough for women, she says.\"''", "An example of mixed metaphor in print.Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes.", "A metaphor asserts the objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, while a simile merely asserts a similarity through use of words such as \"like\" or \"as\".", "For this reason a common-type metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile.The metaphor category contains these specialized types:* Allegory: An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an important attribute of the subject.", "* Antithesis: A rhetorical contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences.", "* Catachresis: A mixed metaphor, sometimes used by design and sometimes by accident (a rhetorical fault).", "* Hyperbole: Excessive exaggeration to illustrate a point.", "* Parable: An extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral or spiritual lesson, such as in Aesop's fables or Jesus' teaching method as told in the Bible.", "* Pun: A verbal device by which multiple definitions of a word or its homophones are used to give a sentence multiple valid readings, typically to humorous effect.", "* Similitude: An extended simile or metaphor that has a picture part (''Bildhälfte''), a reality part (''Sachhälfte''), and a point of comparison (''tertium comparationis'').", "Similitudes are found in the parables of Jesus.It is said that a metaphor is 'a condensed analogy' or 'analogical fusion' or that they 'operate in a similar fashion' or are 'based on the same mental process' or yet that 'the basic processes of analogy are at work in metaphor'.", "It is also pointed out that 'a border between metaphor and analogy is fuzzy' and 'the difference between them might be described (metaphorically) as the distance between things being compared'.===Metaphor vs metonymy===Metaphor is distinct from metonymy, both constituting two fundamental modes of thought.", "Metaphor works by bringing together concepts from different conceptual domains, whereas metonymy uses one element from a given domain to refer to another closely related element.", "A metaphor creates new links between otherwise distinct conceptual domains, whereas a metonymy relies on pre-existent links within them.For example, in the phrase \"lands belonging to the crown\", the word \"crown\" is a '''metonymy''' because some monarchs do indeed wear a crown, physically.", "In other words, there is a pre-existent link between \"crown\" and \"monarchy\".", "On the other hand, when Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that the Israeli language is a \"phoenicuckoo cross with some magpie characteristics\", he is using a '''metaphor'''.", "There is no physical link between a language and a bird.", "The reason the metaphors \"phoenix\" and \"cuckoo\" are used is that on the one hand hybridic \"Israeli\" is based on Hebrew, which, like a phoenix, rises from the ashes; and on the other hand, hybridic \"Israeli\" is based on Yiddish, which like a cuckoo, lays its egg in the nest of another bird, tricking it to believe that it is its own egg.", "Furthermore, the metaphor \"magpie\" is employed because, according to Zuckermann, hybridic \"Israeli\" displays the characteristics of a magpie, \"stealing\" from languages such as Arabic and English.===Subtypes===A dead metaphor is a metaphor in which the sense of a transferred image has become absent.", "The phrases \"to grasp a concept\" and \"to gather what you've understood\" use physical action as a metaphor for understanding.", "The audience does not need to visualize the action; dead metaphors normally go unnoticed.", "Some distinguish between a dead metaphor and a cliché.", "Others use \"dead metaphor\" to denote both.A mixed metaphor is a metaphor that leaps from one identification to a second inconsistent with the first, e.g.", ":This form is often used as a parody of metaphor itself:An extended metaphor, or conceit, sets up a principal subject with several subsidiary subjects or comparisons.", "In the above quote from ''As You Like It'', the world is first described as a stage and then the subsidiary subjects men and women are further described in the same context.An implicit metaphor has no specified tenor, although the vehicle is present.", "M. H. Abrams offers the following as an example of an implicit metaphor: \"That reed was too frail to survive the storm of its sorrows\".", "The reed is the vehicle for the implicit tenor, someone's death, and the \"storm\" is the vehicle for the person's \"sorrows\".Metaphor can serve as a device for persuading an audience of the user's argument or thesis, the so-called rhetorical metaphor." ], [ "In rhetoric and literature", "Aristotle writes in his work the ''Rhetoric'' that metaphors make learning pleasant: \"To learn easily is naturally pleasant to all people, and words signify something, so whatever words create knowledge in us are the pleasantest.\"", "When discussing Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'', Jan Garret stated \"metaphor most brings about learning; for when Homer calls old age \"stubble\", he creates understanding and knowledge through the genus, since both old age and stubble are species of the genus of things that have lost their bloom.\"", "Metaphors, according to Aristotle, have \"qualities of the exotic and the fascinating; but at the same time we recognize that strangers do not have the same rights as our fellow citizens\".Educational psychologist Andrew Ortony gives more explicit detail: \"Metaphors are necessary as a communicative device because they allow the transfer of coherent chunks of characteristics -- perceptual, cognitive, emotional and experiential -- from a vehicle which is known to a topic which is less so.", "In so doing they circumvent the problem of specifying one by one each of the often unnameable and innumerable characteristics; they avoid discretizing the perceived continuity of experience and are thus closer to experience and consequently more vivid and memorable.", "\"===As style in speech and writing===As a characteristic of speech and writing, metaphors can serve the poetic imagination.", "This allows Sylvia Plath, in her poem \"Cut\", to compare the blood issuing from her cut thumb to the running of a million soldiers, \"redcoats, every one\"; and enabling Robert Frost, in \"The Road Not Taken\", to compare a life to a journey.Metaphors can be implied and extended throughout pieces of literature." ], [ "Larger applications", "Sonja K. Foss characterizes metaphors as \"nonliteral comparisons in which a word or phrase from one domain of experience is applied to another domain\".She argues that since reality is mediated by the language we use to describe it, the metaphors we use shape the world and our interactions to it.A metaphorical visualization of the word angerThe term metaphor is used to describe more basic or general aspects of experience and cognition:* A cognitive metaphor is the association of object to an experience outside the object's environment* A conceptual metaphor is an underlying association that is systematic in both language and thought* A root metaphor is the underlying worldview that shapes an individual's understanding of a situation* A nonlinguistic metaphor is an association between two nonlinguistic realms of experience* A visual metaphor uses an image to create the link between different ideas=== Conceptual metaphors ===Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well.", "In ''Metaphors We Live By'', George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action.", "A common definition of metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way.", "They explain how a metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another, called a \"conduit metaphor\".", "A speaker can put ideas or objects into containers, and then send them along a conduit to a listener who removes the object from the container to make meaning of it.", "Thus, communication is something that ideas go into, and the container is separate from the ideas themselves.", "Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors in use, including \"argument is war\" and \"time is money\".", "Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning.", "The authors suggest that communication can be viewed as a machine: \"Communication is not what one does with the machine, but is the machine itself.", "\"Experimental evidence shows that \"priming\" people with material from one area will influence how they perform tasks and interpret language in a metaphorically related area.===As a foundation of our conceptual system===Cognitive linguists emphasize that metaphors serve to facilitate the understanding of one conceptual domain—typically an abstraction such as \"life\", \"theories\" or \"ideas\"—through expressions that relate to another, more familiar conceptual domain—typically more concrete, such as \"journey\", \"buildings\" or \"food\".", "For example: we ''devour'' a book of ''raw'' facts, try to ''digest'' them, ''stew'' over them, let them ''simmer on the back-burner'', ''regurgitate'' them in discussions, and ''cook'' up explanations, hoping they do not seem ''half-baked''.Lakoff and Johnson greatly contributed to establishing the importance of conceptual metaphor as a framework for thinking in language, leading scholars to investigate the original ways in which writers used novel metaphors and question the fundamental frameworks of thinking in conceptual metaphors.From a sociological, cultural, or philosophical perspective, one asks to what extent ideologies maintain and impose conceptual patterns of thought by introducing, supporting, and adapting fundamental patterns of thinking metaphorically.", "To what extent does the ideology fashion and refashion the idea of the nation as a container with borders?", "How are enemies and outsiders represented?", "As diseases?", "As attackers?", "How are the metaphoric paths of fate, destiny, history, and progress represented?", "As the opening of an eternal monumental moment (German fascism)?", "Or as the path to communism (in Russian or Czech for example)?Some cognitive scholars have attempted to take on board the idea that different languages have evolved radically different concepts and conceptual metaphors, while others hold to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.", "German philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt contributed significantly to this debate on the relationship between culture, language, and linguistic communities.", "Humboldt remains, however, relatively unknown in English-speaking nations.", "Andrew Goatly, in \"Washing the Brain\", takes on board the dual problem of conceptual metaphor as a framework implicit in the language as a system and the way individuals and ideologies negotiate conceptual metaphors.", "Neural biological research suggests some metaphors are innate, as demonstrated by reduced metaphorical understanding in psychopathy.James W. Underhill, in ''Creating Worldviews: Ideology, Metaphor & Language'' (Edinburgh UP), considers the way individual speech adopts and reinforces certain metaphoric paradigms.", "This involves a critique of both communist and fascist discourse.", "Underhill's studies are situated in Czech and German, which allows him to demonstrate the ways individuals are thinking both within and resisting the modes by which ideologies seek to appropriate key concepts such as \"the people\", \"the state\", \"history\", and \"struggle\".Though metaphors can be considered to be \"in\" language, Underhill's chapter on French, English and ethnolinguistics demonstrates that we cannot conceive of language or languages in anything other than metaphoric terms.Several other philosophers have embraced the view that metaphors may also be described as examples of a linguistic \"category mistake\" which have the potential of leading unsuspecting users into considerable obfuscation of thought within the realm of epistemology.", "Included among them is the Australian philosopher Colin Murray Turbayne.", "In his book \"The Myth of Metaphor\", Turbayne argues that the use of metaphor is an essential component within the context of any language system which claims to embody richness and depth of understanding.", "In addition, he clarifies the limitations associated with a literal interpretation of the mechanistic Cartesian and Newtonian depictions of the universe as little more than a \"machine\" - a concept which continues to underlie much of the scientific materialism which prevails in the modern Western world.", "He argues further that the philosophical concept of \"substance\" or \"substratum\" has limited meaning at best and that physicalist theories of the universe depend upon mechanistic metaphors which are drawn from deductive logic in the development of their hypotheses.", "By interpreting such metaphors literally, Turbayne argues that modern man has unknowingly fallen victim to only one of several metaphorical models of the universe which may be more beneficial in nature.=== Nonlinguistic metaphors ===Tombstone of a Jewish woman depicting broken candles, a visual metaphor of the end of lifeMetaphors can map experience between two nonlinguistic realms.", "Musicologist Leonard B. Meyer demonstrated how purely rhythmic and harmonic events can express human emotions.", "It is an open question whether synesthesia experiences are a sensory version of metaphor, the \"source\" domain being the presented stimulus, such as a musical tone, and the target domain, being the experience in another modality, such as color.Art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a painting, we \"feel ourselves into it\" by imagining our body in the posture of a nonhuman or inanimate object in the painting.", "For example, the painting ''The Lonely Tree'' by Caspar David Friedrich shows a tree with contorted, barren limbs.", "Looking at the painting, we imagine our limbs in a similarly contorted and barren shape, evoking a feeling of strain and distress.", "Nonlinguistic metaphors may be the foundation of our experience of visual and musical art, as well as dance and other art forms." ], [ "In historical linguistics", "In historical onomasiology or in historical linguistics, a metaphor is defined as a semantic change based on a similarity in form or function between the original concept and the target concept named by a word.For example, '''mouse''': ''small, gray rodent with a long tail'' → ''small, gray computer device with a long cord''.Some recent linguistic theories hold that language evolved from the capability of the brain to create metaphors that link actions and sensations to sounds." ], [ "Historical theories", "Aristotle discusses the creation of metaphors at the end of his ''Poetics'': \"But the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor.", "It is the one thing that cannot be learnt from others; and it is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars.", "\"Baroque literary theorist Emanuele Tesauro defines the metaphor \"the most witty and acute, the most strange and marvelous, the most pleasant and useful, the most eloquent and fecund part of the human intellect\".", "There is, he suggests, something divine in metaphor: the world itself is God's poem and metaphor is not just a literary or rhetorical figure but an analytic tool that can penetrate the mysteries of God and His creation.Friedrich Nietzsche makes metaphor the conceptual center of his early theory of society in ''On Truth and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense''.", "Some sociologists have found his essay useful for thinking about metaphors used in society and for reflecting on their own use of metaphor.", "Sociologists of religion note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, and that it is impossible to think sociologically about religion without metaphor." ], [ "See also", "* Alliteration* Camel's nose* Colemanballs* Conceptual blending* Description* Experience model* Hypocatastasis* Ideasthesia* List of English-language metaphors* Literal and figurative language* Metaphor identification procedure* Metaphor in philosophy* Metonymy* Misnomer* Origin of language* Origin of speech* Pataphor* Personification* Reification (fallacy)* Sarcasm* Simile* Synecdoche* Analogy* ''Tertium comparationis''* War as metaphor* ''World Hypotheses''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * Stefano Arduini (2007).", "(ed.)", "''Metaphors'', Roma, Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.", "* Aristotle.", "''Poetics''.", "Trans.", "I. Bywater.", "In ''The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation''.", "(1984).", "2 Vols.", "Ed.", "Jonathan Barnes.", "Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.", "* Max Black (1954).", "''Metaphor'', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 55, pp. 273–294.", "* Max Black (1962).", "''Models and metaphors: Studies in language and philosophy'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press.", "* Max Black (1979).", "''More about Metaphor'', in A. Ortony (ed) Metaphor & Thought.", "* Clive Cazeaux (2007).", "''Metaphor and Continental Philosophy: From Kant to Derrida.''", "New York, NY: Routledge.", "* L. J. Cohen (1979).", "''The Semantics of Metaphor'', in A. Ortony (ed.", "), ''Metaphor & Thought''.", "* Donald Davidson.", "(1978).", "\"What Metaphors Mean.\"", "Reprinted in ''Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation''.", "(1984).", "Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.", "* Jacques Derrida (1982).", "\"White Mythology: Metaphor in the Text of Philosophy.\"", "In ''Margins of Philosophy''.", "Trans.", "Alan Bass.", "Chicago, University of Chicago Press.", "* * * * Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. ''Metaphors We Live By'' (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1980), Chapters 1–3.(pp. 3–13).", "* .", "* * * McKinnon, AM.", "(2012).", "'Metaphors in and for the Sociology of Religion: Towards a Theory after Nietzsche'.", "Journal of Contemporary Religion, vol 27, no.", "2, pp. 203–216.", "* David Punter (2007).", "''Metaphor'', London, Routledge.", "* Paul Ricoeur (1975).", "''The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies in the Creation of Meaning in Language'', trans.", "Robert Czerny with Kathleen McLaughlin and John Costello, S. J., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1978.", "(Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1977)* I.", "A. Richards.", "(1936).", "''The Philosophy of Rhetoric''.", "Oxford, Oxford University Press.", "* John Searle (1979).", "\"Metaphor,\" in A. Ortony (ed.)", "''Metaphor and Thought'', Cambridge University Press.", "* Underhill, James W., Creating Worldviews: Metaphor, Ideology & Language, Edinburgh UP, 2011.", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * ''A short history of metaphor''* Audio illustrations of metaphor as figure of speech* Top Ten Metaphors of 2008* Shakespeare's Metaphors* Definition and Examples* Metaphor Examples (categorized)* List of ancient Greek words starting with ''μετα-'', on Perseus* Metaphor and Phenomenology article in the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Metaphors algebra *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monk (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''monk''' is a person who practices a strict religious and ascetic lifestyle.", "'''Monk''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Monk (nickname)* Monk (surname)* Monk Gibbon (1896–1987), Irish poet and author* Monk Higgins (1936–1986), American musician and saxophonist* Thelonious Monk (1917-1982), American jazz pianist and composer" ], [ "Places", "* Monk (Montreal Metro), a metro station in Montreal, Québec, Canada* Monk Islands, South Orkney Islands, off Antarctica* Monk's House, an 18th-century English cottage" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Characters===* Monk (character class), a character class in a number of role-playing tabletop and video games** Monk (''Dungeons & Dragons''), a playable character in most versions of ''Dungeons & Dragons''* Monk (comics), a vampire-werewolf hybrid and nemesis of Batman* The Monk (''Doctor Who''), a recurring villain in the ''Doctor Who'' television series and related media* Andrew Blodgett Mayfair (\"Monk\"), an adventurer associate of Doc Savage's* the title character of ''Monk Little Dog'', an animated series for children on CITV* Adrian Monk, the protagonist of the television series ''Monk''* William Monk, a Victorian-era detective===Films===* ''The Monk'' (1969 film), a made-for-television movie* ''The Monk'' (1972 film), a French-German-Italian-Belgian film* ''The Monk'' (1975 film), a Hong Kong martial arts film* ''The Monk'' (1990 film), a British film* ''The Monk'' (2011 film), a French film* ''The Monk'' (2015 film), a Chinese film===Music===* Monk (band), led by former Over the Rhine guitarist Ric Hordinski* ''Monk'' (1954 album), by Thelonious Monk* ''Monk'' (1964 album), by Thelonious Monk===Television===* ''Monk'' (TV series), a television show about an obsessive-compulsive detective** ''Monk'' (soundtrack), a 2004 soundtrack of the show===In print===* ''Monk Magazine'', a magazine featuring the adventures of Jim Crotty and Michael Lane* ''The Monk'', a 1796 Gothic novel by Matthew Gregory Lewis" ], [ "Flora and fauna", "* ''Amauris tartarea'', a butterfly also known as the monk or dusky friar* Monk parakeet (''Myiopsitta monachus''), a bird of South America* Monk seal, any of several species of the tribe Monachini* ''Siraitia grosvenorii'', a vine which bears a fruit known as monk fruit" ], [ "Other uses", "* Monk shoe, a men's shoe with a buckled strap" ], [ "See also", "* Monck (disambiguation)* Monks (disambiguation)* SS Major General Wilhelm Mohnke (1911–2001), one of the original 120 members of the Nazi SS-Staff Guard \"Berlin\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maasai Mara" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maasai Mara''', also sometimes spelled '''Masai Mara''' and locally known simply as '''The Mara''', is a large national game reserve in Narok, Kenya, contiguous with the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania.", "It is named in honour of the Maasai people, the ancestral inhabitants of the area, who migrated to the area from the Nile Basin.", "Their description of the area when looked at from afar: \"Mara\" means \"spotted\" in the local Maasai language, because of the short bushy trees which dot the landscape.Maasai Mara is one of the wildlife conservation and wilderness areas in Africa, with its populations of lion, leopard, cheetah and African bush elephant.", "It also hosts the Great Migration, which secured it as one of the Seven Natural Wonders of Africa, and as one of the ten Wonders of the World.The Greater Mara ecosystem encompasses areas known as the Maasai Mara National Reserve, the Mara Triangle, and several Maasai Conservancies, including Koiyaki, Lemek, Ol Chorro Oirowua, Mara North, Olkinyei, Siana, Maji Moto, Naikara, Ol Derkesi, Kerinkani, Oloirien, and Kimintet." ], [ "History", "When it was originally established in 1961 as a wildlife sanctuary the Mara covered only of the current area, including the Mara Triangle.", "The area was extended to the east in 1961 to cover and converted to a Game Reserve.", "The Narok County Council (NCC) took over management of the reserve at this time.", "Part of the reserve was given National Reserve status in 1974, and the remaining area of was returned to local communities.", "An additional were removed from the reserve in 1976, and the park was reduced to in 1984.In 1994, the TransMara County Council (TMCC) was formed in the western part of the reserve, and control was divided between the new council and the existing Narok County Council.", "In May 2001, the not-for-profit Mara Conservancy took over management of the Mara Triangle which covers the western part of the reserve.The Maasai people make up a community that spans northern, central and southern Kenya and northern parts of Tanzania.", "As pastoralists, the community holds the belief that they own all of the cattle in the world.", "The Maasai rely on their lands to sustain their cattle, as well as themselves and their families.", "Prior to the establishment of the reserve as a protected area for the conservation of wildlife and wilderness, the Maasai were forced to move out of their native lands.Tradition continues to play a major role in the lives of modern-day Maasai people, who are known for their tall stature, patterned shukas and beadwork.", "It is estimated that there are approximately half a million individuals that speak the Maa language and this number includes not only the Maasai but also Samburu and Camus people in Kenya." ], [ "Geography", "View of Mara RiverSunrise over Maasai Mara National ReserveThe total area under conservation in the Greater Maasai Mara ecosystem amounts to almost .", "It is the northernmost section of the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem, which covers some in Tanzania and Kenya.", "It is bounded by the Serengeti Park to the south, the Siria / Oloololo escarpment to the west, and Maasai pastoral ranches to the north, east and west.", "Rainfall in the ecosystem increases markedly along a southeast–northwest gradient, varies in space and time, and is markedly bimodal.", "The Sand, Talek River and Mara River are the major rivers draining the reserve.", "Shrubs and trees fringe most drainage lines and cover hillslopes and hilltops.The terrain of the reserve is primarily open grassland with seasonal riverlets.", "In the south-east region are clumps of the distinctive acacia tree.", "The western border is the Esoit (Siria) Escarpment of the East African Rift, which is a system of rifts some long, from Ethiopia's Red Sea through Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and into Mozambique.", "Wildlife tends to be most concentrated here, as the swampy ground means that access to water is always good, while tourist disruption is minimal.", "The easternmost border is from Nairobi, and hence it is the eastern regions which are most visited by tourists.It has a semi-arid climate with biannual rains and two distinct rainy seasons.", "Local farmers have referred to these as the 'long rains' which last approximately six to eight weeks in April and May and the 'short rains' in November and December which last approximately four weeks.Elevation: ;Rainfall: /month;Temperature range:" ], [ "Wildlife", "Blue wildebeest, topi, plains zebra and Thomson's gazelle migrate into and occupy the Mara reserve, from the Serengeti plains to the south and Loita Plains in the pastoral ranches to the north-east, from July to October or later.", "Herds of all three species are also resident in the reserve.", "\"Big Five\" – lion, African leopard, African bush elephant, African buffalo, black and white rhinos – are found here all year round.", "The population of black rhinos was fairly numerous until 1960, but it was severely depleted by poaching in the 1970s and early 1980s, dropping to a low of 15 individuals.", "Numbers have been slowly increasing, but the population was still only up to an estimated 23 in 1999.The Maasai Mara is the only protected area in Kenya with an indigenous black rhino population, unaffected by translocations, and due to its size, is able to support one of the largest populations in Africa.Hippopotamuses and Nile crocodiles are found in large groups in the Mara and Talek rivers.", "The plains between the Mara River and the Esoit Siria Escarpment are probably the best area for game viewing, in particular regarding lion and cheetah.There are many large carnivores found here in the reserve.", "Lions are the most dominant and are found here in large numbers.", "Spotted hyenas are another abundant carnivore, and will often compete with lions for food.", "Leopards are found anywhere in the reserve where there are trees for them to escape to.", "East African cheetahs are also found in high numbers on the open savanna, hunting gazelles and wildebeest.", "African wild dogs are quite rare here due to the widespread transmission of diseases like canine distemper and the heavy competition they face with lions, who can often decimate their populations.", "Their packs also roam around a lot and travel far distances throughout the plains, making it hard to track them.", "Smaller carnivores that don't directly compete with the latter include African wolves, black-backed jackals, African striped weasels, caracals, servals, honey badgers, aardwolves, African wildcats, side-striped jackals, bat-eared foxes, Striped polecats, African civets, genets, several mongoose species, and African clawless otters.Wildebeest are the dominant inhabitants of the Maasai Mara, and their numbers are estimated in the millions.", "Around July of each year, these animals migrate north from the Serengeti plains in search of fresh pasture, and return to the south around October.", "The Great Migration is one of the most impressive natural events worldwide, involving some 1,300,000 blue wildebeest, 500,000 Thomson's gazelles, 97,000 topi, 18,000 common elands, and 200,000 Grant's zebras.Antelopes can be found, including Grant's gazelles, impalas, duikers and Coke's hartebeests.", "The plains are also home to the distinctive Masai giraffe.", "The large roan antelope and the nocturnal bat-eared fox, rarely present elsewhere in Kenya, can be seen within the reserve borders.More than 470 species of birds have been identified in the park, many of which are migrants, with almost 60 species being raptors.", "Birds that call this area home for at least part of the year include: vultures, marabou storks, secretary birds, hornbills, crowned cranes, ostriches, long-crested eagles, African pygmy-falcons and the lilac-breasted roller, which is the national bird of Kenya." ], [ "Administration", "The Maasai Mara is administered by the Narok County government.", "The more visited eastern part of the park known as the Maasai Mara National Reserve is managed by the Narok County Council.", "The Mara Triangle in the western part is managed by the Trans-Mara county council, which has contracted management to the Mara Conservancy since the early 2000s.The outer areas are conservancies that are administered by Group Ranch Trusts of the Maasai community, although this approach has been criticised for benefitting just a few powerful individuals rather than the majority of landowners.", "Although there has been a rise in fencing on private land in recent years, the wildlife roam freely across both the reserve and conservancies." ], [ "Research", "The Maasai Mara is a major research centre for the spotted hyena.", "With two field offices in the Mara, the Michigan State University based Kay E. Holekamp Lab studies the behaviour and physiology of this predator, as well as doing comparison studies between large predators in the Mara Triangle and their counterparts in the eastern part of the Mara.A flow assessment and trans-boundary river basin management plan between Kenya and Tanzania was completed for the river to sustain the ecosystem and the basic needs of 1 million people who depend on its water.The Mara Predator Project also operates in the Maasai Mara, cataloging and monitoring lion populations throughout the region.", "Concentrating on the northern conservancies where communities coexist with wildlife, the project aims to identify population trends and responses to changes in land management, human settlements, livestock movements and tourism.Since October 2012, the Mara-Meru Cheetah Project has worked in the Mara monitoring cheetah population, estimating population status and dynamics, and evaluating the predator impact and human activity on cheetah behavior and survival.", "The head of the Project, Elena Chelysheva, was working in 2001–2002 as Assistant Researcher at the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) Maasai-Mara Cheetah Conservation Project.", "At that time, she developed original method of cheetah identification based on visual analysis of the unique spot patterns on front limbs (from toes to shoulder) and hind limbs (from toes to the hip), and spots and rings on the tail.", "Collected over the years, photographic data allows the project team to trace kinship between generations and build Mara cheetah pedigree.", "The data collected helps to reveal parental relationship between individuals, survival rate of cubs, cheetah lifespan and personal reproductive history.The resilience of the game park model and the impact of the covid pandemic have also been evaluated so as to include consideration of issues of equality, and environmentalism." ], [ "Tourism", "Sekenani GateA hot air balloon safariThe Maasai Mara is one of the most famous safari destinations in Africa.", "Entry fees are currently US$ 70 for adult non-East African Residents per 24 hours (if staying at a property inside the Reserve) or US$80 if outside the reserve, and $40 for children.", "There are a number of lodges and tented camps catering for tourists inside or bordering the Reserve and within the various separate Conservancies which border the main reserve.", "However, the main reserve is unfenced even along the border with Serengeti (Tanzania) which means there is free movement of wildlife throughout the ecosystem.Although one third of the whole Maasai Mara in the western part of the larger reserve, The Mara Triangle has only two permanent lodges within its boundaries, namely the Mara Serena Lodge and Little Governors Camp (compared to the numerous camps and lodges on the Narok side) and has well maintained, all weather gravel roads.", "The rangers patrol regularly which means that there is less poaching and excellent game viewing.", "There is also strict control over vehicle numbers around animal sightings, allowing for a better experience when out on a game drive.", "Most lodges within the region charge higher rates during the Migration season, although the Maasai Mara is home to prolific wildlife year-round.There are several airfields which serve the camps and lodges in the Maasai Mara, including Mara Serena Airstrip, Musiara Airstrip and Keekorok, Kichwa Tembo, Ngerende Airport, Ol Kiombo and Angama Mara Airstrips, and several airlines such as SafariLink and AirKenya fly scheduled services from Nairobi and elsewhere multiple times a day.", "Helicopter flights over the reserve are limited to a minimum height of 1,500 ft.Game drives are the most popular activity in the Maasai Mara, but other activities include hot air ballooning, nature walks, photographic safaris and cultural experiences." ], [ "Big Cat Diary", "The BBC Television show titled ''\"Big Cat Diary\"'' was filmed in the Maasai Mara.", "The show followed the lives of the big cats living in the reserve.", "The show highlighted scenes from the Reserve's Musiara marsh area and the Leopard Gorge, the Fig Tree Ridge areas and the Mara River, separating the Serengeti and the Maasai Mara." ], [ "Photography competition", "In 2018, the Angama Foundation, a non-profit affiliated with Angama Mara, one of the Mara's luxury safari camps, launched the Greatest Maasai Mara Photographer of the Year competition, showcasing the Mara as a year-round destination and raise funds for conservation initiatives active in the Mara.", "The inaugural winner was British photographer Anup Shah.", "The 2019 winner was Lee-Anne Robertson from South Africa." ], [ "Threats", "A study funded by WWF and conducted by ILRI between 1989 and 2003 monitored hoofed species in the Mara on a monthly basis, and found that losses were as high as 75 percent for giraffes, 80 percent for common warthogs, 76 percent for hartebeest, and 67 percent for impala.", "The study blames the loss of animals on increased human settlement in and around the reserve.", "The higher human population density leads to an increased number of livestock grazing in the park and an increase in poaching.", "The article claims, \"The study provides the most detailed evidence to date on the declines in the ungulate (hoofed animals) populations in the Mara and how this phenomenon is linked to the rapid expansion of human populations near the boundaries of the reserve.", "\"The rise of local populations in areas neighbouring the reserve has led to the formation of conservation organisations such as the Mara Elephant Project who aim to ensure the peaceful and prosperous co-existence of humans alongside wildlife.", "Human wildlife conflict is seen as a leading threat to the reserve as the population continues to grow." ], [ "See also", "* Olare Orok Conservancy*List of national parks of Kenya" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===*" ], [ "External links", "* The Mara Triangle" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maasai people" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Maasai''' (; ) are a Nilotic ethnic group inhabiting northern, central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania, near the African Great Lakes region.", "The Maasai speak the Maa language (ɔl Maa), a member of the Nilotic language family that is related to the Dinka, Kalenjin and Nuer languages.", "Except for some elders living in rural areas, most Maasai people speak the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania, being Swahili and English.", "The Maasai population has been reported as numbering 1,189,522 in Kenya in the 2019 census, compared to 377,089 in the 1989 census, though many Maasai view the census as government meddling and therefore either refuse to participate or actively provide false information." ], [ "History", "The Maasai inhabit the African Great Lakes region and arrived via South Sudan.", "Most Nilotic speakers in the area, including the Maasai, the Turkana and the Kalenjin, are pastoralists and have a reputation as fearsome warriors and cattle rustlers.", "The Maasai and other groups in East Africa have adopted customs and practices from neighbouring Cushitic-speaking groups, including the age-set system of social organisation, circumcision, and vocabulary terms.=== Origin, migration and assimilation ===Maasai manMany ethnic groups that had already formed settlements in the region were forcibly displaced by the incoming Maasai.", "Other, mainly Southern Cushitic groups, were assimilated into Maasai society.", "The Nilotic ancestors of the Kalenjin likewise absorbed some early Cushitic populations.=== Settlement in East Africa ===The Maasai territory reached its largest size in the mid-19th century and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south.", "At this time the Maasai, as well as the larger Nilotic group they were part of, raised cattle as far east as the Tanga coast in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania).", "Raiders used spears and shields but were most feared for throwing clubs (orinka) which could be accurately thrown from up to 70 paces (approx.", "100 metres).", "In 1852, there was a report of a concentration of 800 Maasai warriors on the move in what is now Kenya.", "In 1857, after having depopulated the \"Wakuafi wilderness\" in what is now southeastern Kenya, Maasai warriors threatened Mombasa on the Kenyan coast.Maasai warriors in German East Africa, –1918Because of this migration, the Maasai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers.", "The period of expansion was followed by the Maasai \"Emutai\" of 1883–1902.This period was marked by epidemics of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, rinderpest (see 1890s African rinderpest epizootic), and smallpox.", "The estimate first put forward by a German lieutenant in what was then northwest Tanganyika, was that 90% of cattle and half of wild animals perished from rinderpest.", "German doctors in the same area claimed that \"every second\" African had a pock-marked face as the result of smallpox.", "This period coincided with drought.", "Rains failed in 1897 and 1898.The Austrian explorer Oscar Baumann travelled in Maasai lands between 1891 and 1893 and described the old Maasai settlement in the Ngorongoro Crater in the 1894 book (\"Through the lands of the Maasai to the source of the Nile\").", "By one estimate two-thirds of the Maasai died during this period.", "Maasai in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania) were displaced from the fertile lands between Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro, and most of the fertile highlands near Ngorongoro in the 1940s.", "More land was taken to create wildlife reserves and national parks: Amboseli National Park, Nairobi National Park, Maasai Mara, Samburu National Reserve, Lake Nakuru National Park and Tsavo in Kenya; and Lake Manyara, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire and Serengeti National Park in what is now Tanzania.Maasai are pastoralists and have resisted the urging of the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle.", "They have demanded grazing rights to many of the national parks in both countries.The Maasai people stood against slavery and never condoned the traffic of human beings, and outsiders looking for people to enslave avoided the Maasai.Essentially there are twenty-two geographic sectors or sub-tribes of the Maasai community, each one having its customs, appearance, leadership and dialects.", "These subdivisions are known as 'nations' or 'iloshon' in the Maa language: the Keekonyokie, Ildamat, Purko, Wuasinkishu, Siria, Laitayiok, Loitai, Ilkisonko, Matapato, Dalalekutuk, Ilooldokilani, Ilkaputiei, Moitanik, Ilkirasha, Samburu, Ilchamus, Laikipiak, Loitokitoki, Larusa, Salei, Sirinket and Parakuyo." ], [ "Genetics", "Recent advances in genetic analyses have helped shed some light on the ethnogenesis of the Maasai people.", "Genetic genealogy, a tool that uses the genes of modern populations to trace their ethnic and geographic origins, has also helped clarify the possible background of the modern Maasai.=== Autosomal DNA ===The Maasai's autosomal DNA has been examined in a comprehensive study by Tishkoff et al.", "(2009) on the genetic affiliations of various populations in Africa.", "According to the study's authors, the Maasai \"have maintained their culture in the face of extensive genetic introgression\".", "Tishkoff et al.", "also indicate that: \"Many Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in East Africa, such as the Maasai, show multiple cluster assignments from the Nilo-Saharan ... and Cushitic ... AACs, in accord with linguistic evidence of repeated Nilotic assimilation of Cushites over the past 3000 years and with the high frequency of a shared East African–specific mutation associated with lactose tolerance.", "\"The modern Maasai display significant West-Eurasian admixture at roughly ~20%.", "This type of West-Eurasian ancestry reaches up to 40-50% among specific populations of the Horn of Africa, specifically among the Amhara people.", "Genetic data and archeologic evidence suggest that East African pastoralists received West Eurasian ancestry (~25%) through Afroasiatic-speaking groups from Northern Africa or the Arabian Peninsula, and later spread this ancestry component southwards into certain Khoisan groups roughly 2,000 years ago, resulting in ~5% West-Eurasian ancestry among Southern African hunter-gatherers.=== Y-DNA ===A Y chromosome study by Wood et al.", "(2005) tested various Sub-Saharan populations, including 26 Maasai men from Kenya, for paternal lineages.", "The authors observed haplogroup E1b1b-M35 (not M78) in 35% of the studied Maasai.", "E1b1b-M35-M78 in 15%, their ancestor with the more northerly Cushitic men, who possess the haplogroup at high frequencies lived more than 13 000 years ago.", "The second most frequent paternal lineage among the Maasai was Haplogroup A3b2, which is commonly found in Nilotic populations, such as the Alur; it was observed in 27% of Maasai men.", "The third most frequently observed paternal DNA marker in the Maasai was E1b1a1-M2 (E-P1), which is very common in the Sub-Saharan region; it was found in 12% of the Maasai samples.", "Haplogroup B-M60 was also observed in 8% of the studied Maasai, which is also found in 30% (16/53) of Southern Sudanese Nilotes.=== Mitochondrial DNA ===According to an mtDNA study by Castri et al.", "(2008), which tested Maasai individuals in Kenya, the maternal lineages found among the Maasai are quite diverse but similar in overall frequency to that observed in other Nilo-Hamitic populations from the region, such as the Samburu.", "Most of the tested Maasai belonged to various macro-haplogroup L sub-clades, including L0, L2, L3, L4 and L5.Some maternal gene flow from North and Northeast Africa was also reported, particularly via the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai samples." ], [ "Culture", "Maasai warriors confronting a spotted hyena, a common livestock predator, as photographed in ''In Wildest Africa'' (1907)The monotheistic Maasai worship a single deity called ''Enkai'', ''Nkai'', or ''Engai''.", "Engai has a dual nature, represented by two colours: Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Na-nyokie (Red God) is vengeful.There are also two pillars or totems of Maasai society: Oodo Mongi, the Red Cow and Orok Kiteng, the Black Cow with a subdivision of five clans or family trees.", "The Maasai also have a totemic animal, which is the lion.", "The killing of a lion is used by the Maasai in the rite of passage ceremony.", "The \"Mountain of God\", Ol Doinyo Lengai, is located in northernmost Tanzania and can be seen from Lake Natron in southernmost Kenya.", "The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the '''''' whose roles include shamanistic healing, divination and prophecy, and ensuring success in war or adequate rainfall.", "Today, they have a political role as well due to the elevation of leaders.", "Whatever power an individual laibon had was a function of personality rather than position.", "Many Maasai have also adopted Christianity or Islam.", "The Maasai produce intricate jewellery and sell these items to tourists.Maasai people and huts with enkang barrier in foreground - eastern Serengeti, 2006Educating Maasai women to use clinics and hospitals during pregnancy has enabled more infants to survive.", "The exception is found in extremely remote areas.", "A corpse rejected by scavengers is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace; therefore, it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox.Traditional Maasai lifestyle centres around their cattle, which constitute their primary source of food.", "A man's wealth is measured in cattle and children (note that the wives or women are also counted as part of the children).", "A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more children the better.", "A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor.All of the Maasai's needs for food are met by their cattle.", "They eat their meat, drink their milk daily, and drink their blood on occasion.", "Bulls, goats, and lambs are slaughtered for meat on special occasions and ceremonies.", "Though the Maasai's entire way of life has historically depended on their cattle, more recently with their cattle dwindling, the Maasai have grown dependent on food such as sorghum, rice, potatoes and cabbage (known to the Maasai as goat leaves).One common misconception about the Maasai is that each young man is supposed to kill a lion before he can be circumcised and enter adulthood.", "Lion hunting was an activity of the past, but it has been banned in East Africa – yet lions are still hunted when they maul Maasai livestock.", "Nevertheless, killing a lion gives one great value and celebrity status in the community.", "Maasai school in Tanzania=== Body modification ===Maasai woman with stretched earlobesThe piercing and stretching of earlobes are common among the Maasai as with other tribes, and both men and women wear metal hoops on their stretched earlobes.", "Various materials have been used to both pierce and stretch the lobes, including thorns for piercing, twigs, bundles of twigs, stones, the cross-section of elephant tusks and empty film canisters.", "Women wear various forms of beaded ornaments in both the ear lobe and smaller piercings at the top of the ear.", "Among Maasai males, circumcision is practised as a ritual of transition from boyhood to manhood.", "Women are also circumcised (as described below in social organisation).This belief and practice are not unique to the Maasai.", "In rural Kenya, a group of 95 children aged between six months and two years were examined in 1991/92.87% were found to have undergone the removal of one or more deciduous canine tooth buds.", "In an older age group (3–7 years of age), 72% of the 111 children examined exhibited missing mandibular or maxillary deciduous canines.==== Genital cutting ====Young Maasai warrior (a junior ''Moran'') with headdress and markingsTraditionally, the Maasai conduct elaborate rite of passage rituals which include surgical genital mutilation to initiate children into adulthood.", "The Maa word for circumcision, \"emorata,\" is applied to this ritual for both males and females.", "This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for the procedure.", "The male ceremony refers to the excision of the prepuce (foreskin).", "In the male ceremony, the boy is expected to endure the operation in silence.", "Expressions of pain bring dishonour upon him, albeit only temporarily.", "Importantly, any exclamations or unexpected movements on the part of the boy can cause the elder to make a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in severe lifelong scarring, dysfunction, and pain.Young women also undergo excision (\"female circumcision\", \"female genital mutilation,\" \"emorata\") as part of an elaborate rite of passage ritual called \"Emuatare,\" the ceremony that initiates young Maasai girls into adulthood through ritual circumcision and then into early arranged marriages.", "The Maasai believe that female circumcision is necessary and Maasai men may reject any woman who has not undergone it as either not marriageable or worthy of a much-reduced bride price.", "In Eastern Africa, uncircumcised women, even highly educated members of parliament like Linah Kilimo, can be accused of not being mature enough to be taken seriously.", "The Maasai activist Agnes Pareyio campaigns against the practice.", "The female rite of passage ritual has recently seen excision replaced in rare instances with a \"cutting with words\" ceremony involving singing and dancing in its place.", "However, despite changes to the law and education drives the practice remains deeply ingrained, highly valued, and nearly universally practised by members of the culture.=== Hair ===Maasai woman with short hairUpon reaching the age of 3 \"moons\", the child is named and the head is shaved clean apart from a tuft of hair, which resembles a cockade, from the nape of the neck to the forehead.", "Warriors are the only members of the Maasai community to wear long hair, which they weave in thinly braided strands.", "Graduation from warrior to junior elder takes place at a large gathering known as Eunoto.", "The long hair of the former warriors is shaved off; elders must wear their hair short.", "Warriors who do not have sexual relations with women who have not undergone the \"Emuatare\" ceremony are especially honoured at the Eunoto gathering.This would symbolise the healing of the woman.Two days before boys are circumcised, their heads are shaved.", "When warriors go through the ''Eunoto'' and become elders, their long plaited hair is shaved off.=== Music and dance ===Traditional jumping danceMaasai music traditionally consists of rhythms provided by a chorus of vocalists singing harmonies while a song leader, or olaranyani, sings the melody.", "Unlike most other African tribes, Maasai widely use drone polyphony.Women chant lullabies, humming songs, and songs praising their sons.", "Nambas, the call-and-response pattern, repetition of nonsensical phrases, monophonic melodies, repeated phrases following each verse being sung on a descending scale, and singers responding to their verses are characteristic of singing by women.", "When many Maasai women gather together, they sing and dance among themselves.Eunoto, the coming-of-age ceremony of the warrior, can involve ten or more days of singing, dancing and ritual.", "The warriors of the Il-Oodokilani perform a kind of march-past as well as the '''Adumu''', or aigus, sometimes referred to as \"the jumping dance\" by non-Maasai.", "(Both adumu and aigus are Maa verbs meaning \"to jump\" with adumu meaning \"To jump up and down in a dance\".", ")=== Diet ===A Maasai herdsman grazing his cattle inside the Ngorongoro crater, TanzaniaTraditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of raw meat, raw milk, honey and raw blood from cattle—note that the Maasai cattle are of the Zebu variety.Most of the milk is consumed as fermented milk or buttermilk (a by-product of butter making).", "Milk consumption figures are very high by any standards.The Maasai herd goats and sheep, including the Red Maasai sheep, as well as the more prized cattle.Although consumed as snacks, fruits constitute a major part of the food ingested by children and women looking after cattle as well as morans in the wilderness.", "'''Medicine'''The Maasai people tend to use the environment when making their medicines due to the high cost of Western treatments.", "These medicines are derived from trees, shrubs, stems, roots, etc.", "These can then be used in a multitude of ways including being boiled in soups and ingested to improve digestion and cleanse the blood.", "Some of these remedies can also be used in the treatment or prevention of diseases.", "The Maasai people also add herbs to different foods to avoid stomach upsets and give digestive aid.", "The use of plant-based medicine is a crucial part of Maasai life.=== Shelter ===Shelter covered in cattle dung for waterproofing=== Clothing ===A Maasai woman wearing her finest clothesMaasai clothing symbolises ethnic group membership, a pastoralist lifestyle, as well as an individual's social position.", "From this they can decide the roles they undertake for the tribe.", "Jewellery also can show an individual's gender, relationship status, and age.", "Maasai traditional clothing is both a means of tribal identification and symbolism: young men, for example, wear black for several months following their circumcision.The Maasai began to replace animal skin, calf hides and sheep skin with commercial cotton cloth in the 1960s.Shúkà is the Maa word for sheets traditionally worn and wrapped around the body.", "These are typically red, sometimes integrated with other colours and patterns.", "One-piece garments known as kanga, a Swahili term, are common.", "Maasai near the coast may wear kikoi, a sarong-like garment that comes in many different colours and textiles=== Influences from the outside world ===Maasai women repairing a house in Maasai Mara (1996)A traditional pastoral lifestyle has become increasingly difficult due to modern outside influences.", "Garrett Hardin's article outlining the \"tragedy of the commons\", as well as Melville Herskovits' \"cattle complex\" influenced ecologists and policymakers about the harm Maasai pastoralists were causing to savannah rangelands.", "This was later contested by some anthropologists.", "British colonial policymakers in 1951 removed all Maasai from the Serengeti National Park and relegated them to areas in and around the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA).Maasai wearing protective masks during COVID-19 pandemic.Maasai riding a motorcycle (2014)Due to an increasing population, loss of cattle due to disease, and lack of available rangelands because of new park boundaries and competition from other tribes, the Maasai were forced to develop new ways of sustaining themselves.", "Many Maasai began to cultivate maize and other crops to get by, a practice that was culturally viewed negatively.", "Cultivation was first introduced to the Maasai by displaced WaArusha and WaMeru women who married Maasai men.In 1975 the Ngorongoro Conservation Area banned cultivation, forcing the tribe to participate in Tanzania's economy.", "They have to sell animals and traditional medicines to buy food.", "The ban on cultivation was lifted in 1992 and cultivation became an important part of Maasai livelihood once more.", "Park boundaries and land privatisation has continued to limit the Maasai livestock's grazing area.Throughout the years, various projects have attempted to help the Maasai people.", "These projects help find ways to preserve Maasai traditions while also encouraging modern education for their children.Emerging employment among the Maasai people include farming, business, and wage employment in both the public and private sectors.Many Maasai have also moved away from the nomadic life to positions in commerce and government." ], [ "Eviction from ancestral land", "The Maasai community was reportedly being targeted with live ammunition and tear gas in June 2022 in Tanzania, in a government plan to seize a piece of Maasai land for elite private luxury development.", "Lawyers, human rights groups, and activists who brought the matter to light claimed that Tanzanian security forces tried to forcefully evict the indigenous Maasai people from their ancestral land for the establishment of a luxury game reserve by Otterlo Business Corporation (OBC) for the royals ruling the United Arab Emirates.", "As of 18 June 2022, approximately 30 Maasai people had been injured and at least one killed, at the hands of the Tanzanian government Field Force Unit (FFU) while protesting the government’s plans of what it claims are delimiting a 1500 sq km of land as a game reserve, an act which violates a 2018 East African Court of Justice (EACJ) injunction on the land dispute, per local activists.", "By reclassifying the area as a game reserve, the authorities aimed to systematically expropriate Maasai settlements and grazing in the area, experts warned.This was not the first time Maasai territory was encroached upon.", "Big-game hunting firms along with the government have long attacked the groups.", "The 2022 attacks are the latest escalation, which has left more than 150,000 Maasai displaced from the Loliondo and Ngorongoro areas as per the United Nations.", "A hunting concession already situated in Loliondo is owned by OBC, a company that has been allegedly linked to the significantly wealthy Emirati royal family as per Tanzanian lawyers, environmentalists as well as human rights activists.", "Anuradha Mittal, the executive director of the environmental think-tank, Oakland Institute cited that OBC was not a \"safari company for just everyone, it has operations for the royal family\".A 2019 United Nations report described OBC as a luxury-game hunting company \"based in the United Arab Emirates\" that was granted a hunting license by the Tanzanian government in 1992 permitting \"the UAE royal family to organise private hunting trips\" in addition to denying the Maasai people access to their ancestral land and water for herding cattle.When approached, the UAE government refrained from giving any statements.", "Meanwhile, the OBC commented on the matter without addressing alleged links with Emirati royals, stating that “there is no eviction in Loliondo” and calling it a \"reserve land protected area\" owned by the government." ], [ "Notable Maasai", "* Linus Kaikai - Kenyan journalist and Chair of the Kenya Editors Guild* Francis Ole Kaparo – Former Speaker of the National Assembly of Kenya* James Ole Kiyiapi – associate professor at Moi University and permanent secretary in the Ministries of Education and Local Government* Olekina Ledama – Founder, Maasai Education Discovery* Josephine Lemoyan – social scientist, Tanzanian member of the 2017-2022 East African Legislative Assembly* Nice Nailantei Lengete – First woman to address the Maasai elders council at Mount Kilimanjaro, and persuaded the council to ban female genital mutilation among the Maasai across Kenya and Tanzania* Joseph Ole Lenku – Cabinet Secretary of Kenya for Interior and Coordination of National Government from 2012 to 2014* Edward Lowassa – Prime Minister of Tanzania from 2005 to 2008.2nd runner up to president John Pombe Magufuli in the 2015 Tanzania General Elections.", "* Mbatian - Prophet after whom Batian Peak, the highest peak of Mount Kenya, is named* Katoo Ole Metito – Member of Parliament for Kajiado South sub county* Joseph Nkaissery – Former Cabinet Secretary of Kenya for Interior and Coordination of National Government from 2014 to his death in 2017* William Ole Ntimama – Former Kenyan politician and leader of the Maa community* David Rudisha – Middle-distance runner and 800-meter world record holder* Jackson Ole Sapit - Sixth Archbishop and Primate of the Anglican Church of Kenya* Edward Sokoine – Prime Minister of Tanzania from 1977 to 1980 and again from 1983 to 1984* Samuel Ole Tunai - Former intelligence officer who served as the first governor of Narok county" ], [ "See also", "* Maasai mythology* Maasai language* Maa Civil Society Forum" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===*" ], [ "External links", "* African People Ethnography | Maasai* Maasai online dictionary* Maasai Aid Association* Working for a just and self-sustaining community for the Maasai People* Maasai Trust* The Maasai People - History and Culture* Maasai people, Kenya at the Maasai Association* Indiana University Art Museum Arts of Kenya online collection* Maasai Mara Tribe Facts" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Medieval fortification" ], [ "Introduction", "Beaumaris Castle in Wales was built in the late 13th century and is an example of concentric castles which developed in the late medieval period.BadajozCastle of Topoľčany in Slovakia'''Medieval fortification''' refers to medieval military methods that cover the development of fortification construction and use in Europe, roughly from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance.", "During this millennium, fortifications changed warfare, and in turn were modified to suit new tactics, weapons and siege techniques." ], [ "Fortification types", "===Archer towers===Chindia Tower, Târgoviște, RomaniaTowers of medieval castles were usually made of stone, wood or a combination of both (with a stone base supporting a wooden loft).", "Often toward the later part of the era they included battlements and arrow loops.", "Arrow loops were vertical slits in the wall through which archers inside shot arrows at the attackers, but made it extremely difficult for attackers to get many arrows back through at the defenders.===City walls===Remains of a commandry (Order of Knights of St. John of Jerusalem) wall in Steinfurt, Germany.", "The downward slope on the outer side is hidden behind a fence and shrubberyWalls of Dubrovnik, CroatiaAn exact nature of the walls of a medieval town or city would depend on the resources available for building them, the nature of the terrain, and the perceived threat.", "In northern Europe, early in the period, walls were likely to have been constructed of wood and proofed against small forces.", "Especially where stone was readily available for building, the wood will have been replaced by stone to a higher or lower standard of security.", "This would have been the pattern of events in the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw in England.In many cases, the wall would have had an internal and an external ''pomoerium''.", "This was a strip of clear ground immediately adjacent the wall.", "The word is from the late medieval, derived from the classical Latin ''post murum'' (\"behind the wall\").An external pomoerium, stripped of bushes and building, gave defenders a clear view of what was happening outside and an unobstructed field of shot.", "An internal pomoerium gave ready access to the rear of the curtain wall to facilitate movement of the garrison to a point of need.", "By the end of the sixteenth century, the word had developed further in common use, into ''pomery''.Also by that time, the medieval walls were no longer secure against a serious threat from an army, as they were not designed to be strong enough to resist cannon fire.", "They were sometimes rebuilt, as at Berwick on Tweed, or retained for use against thieves and other threats of a lower order.", "Very elaborate and complex schemes for town defences were developed in the Netherlands and France, but these belong mainly to the post-medieval periods.", "By 1600, the medieval wall is likely to have been seen more as a platform for displaying hangings and the pomery as a gathering ground for spectators, or as a source of building stone and a site for its use, respectively.", "However, a few, such as those of Carcassonne and Dubrovnik, survived fairly well and have been restored to a nearly complete state.Medieval walls that were no longer adequate for defending were succeeded by the star fort.", "After the invention of the explosive shell, star forts became obsolete as well.===Harbours===Fortifications of Várad (now Oradea/Nagyvárad, Romania) in a 1617 printHarbours or some sort of water access were often essential to the construction of medieval fortifications.", "It was a direct route for trading and fortification.", "Having direct access to a body of water provided a route for resupply in times of war, an additional method of transportation in times of peace, and potential drinking water for a besieged castle or fortification.", "The concept of rivers or harbours coming directly up to the walls of fortifications was especially used by the English as they constructed castles throughout Wales.There is evidence that harbours were fortified, with wooden structures in the water creating a semi-circle around the harbour, or jetties, as seen in an artist's reconstruction of Hedeby, in Denmark, with an opening for ships to access the land.", "Usually, these wooden structures would have small bases at either end, creating a 'watch' and defense platform.===Churches and monasteries===Religion was a central part of the lives of medieval soldiers, and churches, chapels, monasteries, and other buildings of religious function were often included within the walls of any fortification, be it temporary or permanent.", "A place to conduct religious services was usually essential to the morale of the soldiers.Srebrenik in Bosnia, castle used to have lifting bridge.===Mottes and baileys===Motte-and-bailey was the prevalent form of castle during 11th and 12th centuries.", "A courtyard (called a bailey) was protected by a ditch and a palisade (strong timber fence).", "Often the entrance was protected by a lifting bridge, a drawbridge or a timber gate tower.", "Inside the bailey were stables, workshops, and a chapel.The motte was the final refuge in this type of castle.", "It was a raised earth mound, and varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height (10 feet to 100 feet), and from in diameter.", "There was a tower on top of the motte.", "In most cases, the tower was made of timber, though some were also made of stones.", "Stone towers were found in natural mounds, as artificial ones were not strong enough to support stone towers.", "Larger mottes had towers with many rooms, including the great hall.", "Smaller ones had only a watch tower." ], [ "Construction", "Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur, which was built between the 15th and 17th centuriesBaba Vida medieval fortress build on the banks of the Danube in Vidin, BulgariaConstruction could sometimes take decades.", "The string of Welsh castles Edward I of England had built were an exception in that he focused much of the resources of his kingdom on their speedy construction.", "In addition to paid workers, forced levies of labourers put thousands of men on each site and shortened construction to a few years.===Location===Predjama Castle was built next to the caveNature could provide very effective defenses for the castle.", "For this reason many castles were built on larger hills, cliffs, close to rivers, lakes or even caves.===Materials===Materials that were used in the building of castles varied through history.", "Wood was used for most castles until 1066.They were cheap and were quick to construct.", "The reason wood fell into disuse as a material is that it is quite flammable.", "Soon stone became more popular.Stone castles took years to construct depending on the overall size of the castle.", "Stone was stronger and of course much more expensive than wood.", "Most stone had to be quarried miles away, and then brought to the building site.", "But with the invention of the cannon and gunpowder, castles soon lost their power.===Costs===Drawing of battlements on a towerCosts for the walls depended on the material used.", "Wood would cost very little and was quick to build, but was weak.", "Stone was strong but very expensive and time-consuming to construct.===Manpower===Manpower in the medieval era in Europe consisted mainly of serfs.===Walls===Snežnik Castle protected by defensive wall in southern SloveniaThe height of walls varied widely by castle, but were often thick.", "They were usually topped with crenellation or parapets that offered protection to defenders.", "Some also featured machicolations (from the French ''machicoulis'', approximately \"neck-crusher\") which consisted of openings between a wall and a parapet, formed by corbelling out the latter, allowing defenders to throw stones, boiling water, and so forth, upon assailants below.", "Some castles featured additional inner walls, as additional fortifications from which to mount a defense if outer walls were breached.===Gates===Gate of Tomar Castle, PortugalAny entrance through a wall, being an opening, forms an obvious weak point.", "To be practical, the entryway would have to accommodate supplies being brought through, yet difficult for attackers to breach.", "For example, passage over ditches or moats would have to be withdrawn to deny attackers.", "The use of multiple walls or ditches around an entrance would also make it difficult for defenders to use the entrance practically, necessitating better methods of control.", "Gates came in many forms, from the simple stone buttress and timber blocks, to the massive and imposing stone archways and thick wooden doors most associated with medieval citadels.===Killing fields===A killing field was an area between the main wall and a secondary wall, so when the first wall was breached the attackers would run into the killing field to be confronted by another wall from which soldiers bombarded them.", "Soldiers would be positioned atop the second wall and armed with any variety of weapons, ranging from bows to crossbows to simple rocks.===Moats===A moat was a common addition to medieval fortifications, and the principal purpose was to simply increase the effective height of the walls and to prevent digging under the walls.", "In many instances, natural water paths were used as moats, and often extended through ditches to surround as much of the fortification as possible.", "Provided this was not so unnaturally contrived as to allow an attacker to drain the system, it served two defensive purposes.", "It made approaching the curtain wall of the castle more difficult and the undermining of the wall virtually impossible.", "To position a castle on a small island was very favorable from a defensive point of view, although it made deliveries of supplies and building materials more cumbersome and expensive.===Keeps===A keep is a strong central tower which normally forms the heart of a castle.", "Often the keep is the most defended area of a castle, and as such may form the main habitation area for a noble or lord, or contain important stores such as the armoury or the main well.===Stairs===Stumble steps at Maynooth Castle, Ireland.", "Note the canting, and the varied tread depth and riser height.Stairs were also constructed to contain trick or stumble steps.", "These were steps that had different rise height or tread depth from the rest and would cause anyone running up the stairs to stumble or fall, so slowing down the attackers' progress.===Doors===Reinforced wood doorA typical exterior wooden door might be made out of two or more layers of oak planks.", "The grain of the wood would run vertically on the front layer and horizontally on the back, like a simple form of plywood.", "The two layers would be held together by iron studs, and the structure might be strengthened and stiffened with iron bands.The studs themselves were pointed on the front so that attackers would damage their weapons (swords, axes, etc.)", "while trying to break through." ], [ "Transition to modern fortification", "From the mid-15th century onwards, the power of cannons grew and medieval walls became obsolete as they were too thin to offer any realistic protection against prolonged bombardment.", "As a consequence of this, medieval walls were often upgraded with the addition of artillery platforms or bastions, and battlements were replaced by thick parapets with embrasures.", "In many cases, the medieval walls were dismantled and their stonework, which was still valuable as construction material, was reused in the construction of the new fortifications.", "The resulting space is often seen in old city centers of Europe even to this day, as broader streets often outline where the old wall once stood (evident for example in Prague and Florence, Italy).The transition between medieval and early modern fortification can be seen in the fortifications of Rhodes in Greece and the fortifications of Famagusta in Cyprus." ], [ "Defensive obstacles", "Just as modern military engineers enhance field fortifications with obstacles such as barbed wire, medieval engineers used a number of obstacle types including abatis, caltrops, cheval de frise, and trou de loup.The siege of Constantinople" ], [ "Siegecraft", "* Trebuchet* Cannon* Mangonel* Ballista* Catapult" ], [ "See also", "*Medieval warfare*Siege engine*Guédelon Castle - from 1996 to 2020 they will build a 13th-century castle exclusively using methods of that time.", "A lot of information regarding castrametation and castellology had already surfaced thanks to this project.", "*Star fort replaced medieval fortifications.", "*Encastellation* Rocca di Manerba del Garda" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Toy, Sidney.", "(1985) ''Castles: Their Construction and History''.", "." ] ]
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[ [ "Mark Whitacre" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mark Edward Whitacre''' (born May 1, 1957) is an American business executive who came to public attention in 1995 when, as president of the Decatur, Illinois-based BioProducts Division at Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), he became the highest-level corporate executive in U.S. history to become a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) whistleblower.", "For three years (1992–95), Whitacre acted as a cooperating witness for the FBI, which was investigating ADM for price fixing.", "In the late 1990s, Whitacre was sentenced to nine years in federal prison for embezzling $9.5 million from ADM at the same time he was assisting the federal price-fixing investigation.ADM investigated Whitacre's activities and, upon discovering suspicious activity, requested the FBI investigate Whitacre for embezzlement.", "As a result of $9.5 million in various frauds, Whitacre lost his whistleblower's immunity, and consequently spent eight and a half years in federal prison.", "He was released in December 2006.Whitacre is currently the chief science officer and President of Operations at Cypress Systems, a California biotechnology firm." ], [ "Early life and education", "Whitacre holds B.S.", "and M.S.", "degrees from Ohio State University, and earned a PhD in Nutritional Biochemistry from Cornell University (1983)." ], [ "Career", "Whitacre was a PhD scientist at Ralston Purina after he graduated from Cornell University in early 1983.He then was Vice President at Degussa from 1984 to 1989 prior to joining ADM.", "In late 1989, Whitacre became the President of the BioProducts Division at ADM.", "In 1992, he was promoted to Corporate Vice President of ADM, as well as being President of the BioProducts Division.", "On August 9, 1995, Whitacre was terminated for conducting a $9.5 million fraud after ADM learned that he was an FBI informant for three years.", "Whitacre wore a wire for the FBI assisting in one of the largest price fixing cases in U.S. history, against ADM.After leaving ADM in August 1995, Whitacre was hired as the CEO of Future Health Technologies (FHT), which soon was renamed Biomar International.", "He worked at Biomar until his incarceration began during early 1998.In December 2006, after his release from federal prison, Whitacre was hired by Cypress Systems Inc., a California biotechnology company, as the President of Technology and Business Development.", "In March 2008, Whitacre was promoted to the company's Chief Operating Officer (COO) and President of operations." ], [ "Legal issues", "=== ADM price-fixing ===In 1992, during an ADM-initiated investigation of corporate espionage and sabotage, Whitacre informed an FBI agent that he and other ADM executives were involved in an illegal multinational lysine price-fixing scheme.", "Whitacre's wife pressured him into becoming a whistleblower after she threatened to go to the FBI herself.Over the next three years, Whitacre worked with FBI agents to collect information and record conversations with both ADM executives and its competitors.", "ADM ultimately settled federal charges for more than $100 million and paid hundreds of millions of dollars more to plaintiffs and customers ($400 million alone on a high-fructose corn syrup class action case).===Whitacre embezzlement===A few years into the price-fixing investigation, Whitacre confessed to his FBI handlers that he had been involved with corporate kickbacks and money laundering at ADM. Whitacre was later convicted of embezzling $9 million; some of this criminal activity occurred during the time he was cooperating with the FBI.===Sentencing and release===Whitacre pled guilty to tax evasion and fraud and was sent to prison on March 4, 1998.Although some officials in the FBI and the Department of Justice opposed the length of the penalty, Whitacre was sentenced to nine years in Federal prison.", "In December 2006, he was released on good behavior after serving eight and a half years.===Differing perspectives======= Kurt Eichenwald ====In his 2000 book, ''The Informant'', Kurt Eichenwald, a former ''The New York Times'' reporter, portrays Whitacre as a complex figure: while working for the FBI as one of the best and most effective undercover cooperating witnesses the U.S. government ever had, Whitacre was simultaneously committing a $9 million white-collar crime.", "According to Eichenwald, preceding the investigation Whitacre was scammed by a group in Nigeria in an advance fee fraud, and suggests that Whitacre's losses in the scam may have been the initial reason behind his embezzlement activity at ADM.Eichenwald writes that Whitacre lied and became delusional in a failed attempt to save himself, making the FBI investigation much more difficult.", "''The Informant'' details Whitacre's bizarre behavior, including Whitacre cracking under pressure, increasing his mania, telling the media that FBI agents tried to force him to destroy tapes (a story that Whitacre later recanted), and attempting suicide.", "Two doctors later diagnosed Whitacre as suffering from bipolar disorder.", "Eichenwald concludes that Whitacre's sentence was unjust because of his mental instability at the time.Eichenwald, two prosecutors, an FBI agent, and Mark Whitacre (during his incarceration) were featured on a September 15, 2000, episode of the radio program ''This American Life'' about the ADM case.", "Eichenwald referred to Whitacre's sentence as \"excessive and a law enforcement failure\" because Whitacre never received credit for his substantial cooperation in assisting the government with the massive price-fixing case.==== Feature film ====''The Informant!''", "is a Warner Bros. feature film released on September 18, 2009.Produced by Jennifer Fox and directed by Steven Soderbergh, the dark comedy/drama film stars Matt Damon as Whitacre.", "The screenplay by Scott Z. Burns is based on Kurt Eichenwald's book, ''The Informant'', with most of the filming done in Central Illinois (Blue Mound,Springfield,Moweaqua and Decatur).", "In the movie, the character of Whitacre is portrayed as exhibiting bizarre behavior, including delusions, mania, and compulsively lying.", "It was eventually learned that Whitacre was suffering from bipolar disorder.====James B. Lieber====In his 2000 book, ''Rats In The Grain'', attorney James B. Lieber focuses on ADM's price-fixing trial and presents Whitacre as an American hero overpowered by ADM's vast political clout.", "''Rats In The Grain'' presents evidence that the U.S. Department of Justice often subjugated itself to ADM's political power and well-connected attorneys in prosecuting Whitacre.", "Lieber reveals that, in 1996, \"ADM CEO, Mr. Dwayne Andreas, told ''The Washington Post'' that he had known about Whitacre's frauds for three years\" and speculates that Whitacre was fired and turned over to the Federal authorities only after ADM learned he had been working as an FBI mole.", "If he knew about Whitacre's embezzlement for three years, Lieber asks, why didn't Andreas fire Whitacre immediately?", "Lieber surmises: \"There were only two logical explanations for Andreas' behavior: either he did not think the funds were stolen (in other words, they were approved) or he didn't care.\"", "Based on the fact that other ADM executives committed crimes such as financial fraud by a former treasurer and technology thefts by others, Lieber concludes that fraud was well-known and widespread at ADM during the 1990s.", "Lieber suggests that ADM would have not turned Whitacre over to the authorities if he had not been a mole for the FBI.Like Eichenwald, Lieber concludes that Whitacre's lengthy prison sentence was excessive and unjust when one takes into account Whitacre's cooperation in the much larger price-fixing case.Lieber also poses this question: \"Where will the government obtain the next Mark Whitacre after potential whistleblowers observe how Whitacre was treated?", "\"===Clemency and pardon support===Appeals for Whitacre's full pardon or clemency to the White House were supported by several current and former justice department officials: Dean Paisley, a retired 25-year veteran and former FBI supervisor on the price-fixing case; two other FBI agents involved with the case; a former Attorney General of the United States; one of the former Asst.", "U.S.", "Attorneys who prosecuted Whitacre; two prosecutors from the Canadian Department of Justice; several Senators and Congressmen; Cornell University and Ohio State University professors; Major League Baseball Hall of Famer Harmon Killebrew; Chuck Colson; and numerous top executives of corporations.In 2008, more than ten years after the original conviction, Paisley and two other FBI agents went public with praise for Whitacre.", "Paisley concluded that \"Whitacre's fraud case was minuscule as compared to the ADM case Whitacre cooperated with.\"", "\"Had it not been for the fraud conviction,\" Paisley said, \"he would be a national hero.", "Well, he is a national hero.\"", "Paisley added, \"Without him, the biggest antitrust case we've ever had would not have been.\"", "On August 4, 2010, in a Discovery Channel documentary, ''Undercover: Operation Harvest King'', several FBI agents stated that \"Whitacre got a raw deal.\"", "In addition, official letters from the FBI in support of a Whitacre pardon were published in Floyd Perry's September 2009 book, ''Mark Whitacre: Against All Odds.", "''===Discovery Channel TV documentary===A Discovery Channel TV documentary titled ''Undercover: Operation Harvest King'', which documents Mark Whitacre's role in the ADM price fixing case, aired several times during 2009 and 2010.Discovery Channel interviewed the three FBI agents who handled the Mark Whitacre/ADM case (i.e., Dean Paisley, Brian Shepard and Robert Herndon), along with Mark and Ginger Whitacre." ], [ "Personal life", "Whitacre married his high school sweetheart, Ginger Gilbert, on June 16, 1979.Together they have three children.Whitacre became a Christian during his incarceration, and since his prison release during December 2006, he has been often interviewed by the Christian community-including the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN)-about redemption, second chances, and the importance of his faith.", "Forbes reported that Whitacre was guest speaker at the Quantico FBI Academy during 2011 about second chances, and he was keynote speaker for the 40th Annual NAPSA (Pre Trial Services and U.S. Federal Probation) Conference in 2012 along with Robert F. Kennedy Jr." ], [ "References", "===Inline citations======Bibliography===*************====General references====**" ], [ "External links", "** \"January, 2010 PBS (WSRE) interview with Mark Whitacre\".", "The Official Website of Mark Whitacre, PhD* \"Success Stories: Mark Whitacre\".", "Re-entry Success Stories.", "2011.", "* \"Archer Daniels Midland Segment from \"Fair Fight in the Marketplace\".", "The Video Project.", "YouTube.", "September 11, 2009* \"168: The Fix Is In\".", "''This American Life''.", "NPR.", "September 18, 2009." ] ]
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[ [ "Marrakesh Agreement" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Marrakesh Agreement''', manifested by the '''Marrakesh Declaration''', was an agreement signed in Marrakesh, Morocco, by 123 nations on 15 April 1994, marking the culmination of the 8-year-long Uruguay Round and establishing the World Trade Organization, which officially came into being on 1 January 1995.The agreement developed out of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), supplemented by a number of other agreements on issues including trade in services, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, trade-related aspects of intellectual property and technical barriers to trade.", "It also established a new, more efficient and legally binding means of dispute resolution.", "The various agreements which make up the Marrakesh Agreement combine as an indivisible whole; no entity can be party to any one agreement without being party to them all." ], [ "See also", "* The UN Global Compact for Migration treaty, developed in Marrakesh and New York conferences in 2018" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* An unofficial chart of the Marrakech Agreement (at WTO Cell, Government of the Punjab)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mad" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mad''', '''mad''', or '''MAD''' may refer to:" ], [ "Geography", "* Mad (village), a village in the Dunajská Streda District of Slovakia* Mád, a village in Hungary* Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport, by IATA airport code* Mad River (disambiguation), several rivers" ], [ "Music", "===Bands===* Mad (band), a rock band from Buenos Aires, Argentina* M.A.D (band), a British boyband* M.A.D.", "(punk band), a 1980s band, which later became Blast* Meg and Dia, an American indie rock band===Albums===* ''Mad'' (Raven EP), released in 1986* ''Mad'' (Hadouken!", "EP), released in 2009* ''Mad'' (GOT7 EP), released 2015===Songs===* \"Mad\" (Ne-Yo song), 2008* \"Mad\", by Dave Dudley from ''Talk of the Town'', 1964* \"Mad\", from ''Secret Life of Harpers Bizarre'', 1968 * \"Mad\", by The Lemonheads from ''Lick'', 1989* \"Mad\", from the album ''Magnetic Man'', 2010* \"Mad\", by Cassie Steele, 2014* \"M・A・D\" (Buck-Tick song), 1991" ], [ "Organizations", "* MAD Studio, an architectural firm* Mad Computers, defunct American computer company* Make A Difference, an Indian NGO* Might and Delight, a Swedish video game development studio* ''Militärischer Abschirmdienst'', German military counterintelligence agency* Museum of Arts and Design, New York City, US* Mechanical Art and Design museum, in Stratford-upon-Avon" ], [ "Science and technology", "* MAD (programming language), for Michigan Algorithm Decoder* MAD, a protein encoded by the MXD1 gene* Magnetic anomaly detector, detects variations in Earth's magnetic field* Maritime anomaly detection in Global Maritime Situational Awareness, for avoiding maritime collisions* Mathematicians of the African Diaspora, a website* Methodical Accelerator Design, a CERN scripting language* Modified Atkins diet* Mothers against decapentaplegic, a protein* MPEG Audio Decoder, software* Multi-conjugate Adaptive optics Demonstrator, an astronomical instrument* Multi-wavelength anomalous dispersion, an X-ray crystallography technique* Mitral annular disjunction, a structural abnormality of the heart" ], [ "Statistics", "* Mean absolute deviation, a measure of the variability of quantitative data* Median absolute deviation, a statistical measure of variability* Maximum absolute deviation, a statistical measure of variability* Mean absolute difference, a measure of statistical dispersion" ], [ "Television and video", "* ''Mad TV'', a 1995–2009 US series* ''The Mad'', a 2007 Canadian horror/comedy film* ''Mad'' (TV series), 2010–2013, on Cartoon Network* MAD TV (Greece), a music channel* ''M.A.D.''", "(Indian TV programme), 2005–2010, children's educational programme* M.A.D., organization in ''Inspector Gadget''* \"M.A.D.\"", "(''Veronica Mars''), a 2005 episode" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Mad'' (magazine), an American humor magazine* Mad, a term for insanity used chiefly in British English* Mad, a term for anger used chiefly in US English* Madagascar, IOC country code* Mutual assured destruction, nuclear warfare deterrence concept* Mandibuloacral dysplasia* Moroccan dirham, the currency of Morocco by ISO 4217 currency code* mad, the ISO 639-2 code for the Madurese language" ], [ "See also", "* MADD (disambiguation)* Rabies, (Latin ''rabies'' for \"madness\")* Mad, a variant of the Hindi-Urdu word for alcohol, madhu* Madness (disambiguation)* List of people known as the Mad" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mainz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mainz''' (; ; see below) is the capital and largest city of the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate, and with around 221,000 inhabitants, it is Germany's 35th-largest city.", "It lies in the Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region—Germany's second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr—which also encompasses the cities of Frankfurt am Main, Wiesbaden, Darmstadt, Offenbach am Main, and Hanau.Mainz is located at the northern end of the Upper Rhine Plain, on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite the Hessian capital of Wiesbaden and the mouth of the River Main into the Rhine.", "It is the largest city of Rhenish Hesse, a region of Rhineland-Palatinate that was historically part of Hesse, and is one of Germany's most important wine regions because of its mild climate.", "Mainz is connected to Frankfurt am Main by the Rhine-Main S-Bahn rapid transit system.", "Before 1945, Mainz had six boroughs on the other side of the Rhine (see: :de:Rechtsrheinische Stadtteile von Mainz).", "Three have been incorporated into Wiesbaden (see: :de:AKK-Konflikt), and three are no|w independent.Mainz was founded as Castrum ''Mogontiacum'' by Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus in the 1st century BC on the northern frontier of the Roman Empire, and became the capital of the Roman province of Germania Superior.", "The city was settled by the Franks from 459 on, and in the 8th century it became an important city within the Holy Roman Empire, as capital of the Electorate of Mainz and seat of the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, the primate of Germany.", "Mainz Cathedral is one of the three Rhenish Imperial Cathedrals along with Speyer Cathedral and Worms Cathedral.Since the 12th century, Mainz was one of the —a league formed by the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz—which are referred to as the cradle of Ashkenazi Jewish life and as the center of Jewish life during Medieval times.", "The Jewish heritage of these cities is one of a kind, and has been declared the UNESCO World Heritage Site of , which includes the (Jews' Sand), the second-oldest Jewish cemetery in Europe after the Heiliger Sand in Worms.Mainz is the birthplace of Johannes Gutenberg, who introduced letterpress printing to Europe with his movable type printing press, and in the early 1450s manufactured his first books in the city, including the Gutenberg Bibles, two of which are kept at the city's Gutenberg Museum.", "Mainz was heavily damaged in World War II; more than 30 air raids destroyed around half of the old town in the city centre, but many buildings were rebuilt post-war.Like most cities in the Rhineland, Mainz holds extensive carnival celebrations, that are known as the second-most important in Germany, after the celebrations in Cologne.", "The borough of Lerchenberg is the seat of ZDF (Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen, \"Second German Television\"), the second-most important German public service television broadcaster, as well as of 3sat, another television broadcaster, that is jointly operated by public broadcasters from Germany (ARD and ZDF), Austria (ORF), and Switzerland (SRG SSR)." ], [ "Alternative names", "Mainz has a number of different names in other languages and dialects.", "In Latin it is known as () or and, in the local Hessian dialect, it is ''Määnz'' or ''Meenz'' .", "It is known as in French, in Italian, in Spanish, in Portuguese, in Polish, () in Yiddish, and in Czech and Slovak ().Before the 20th century, Mainz was commonly known in English as ''Mentz'' or by its French name of ''Mayence''.", "It is the namesake of two American cities named Mentz." ], [ "Geography", "===Topography===Mainz is on the 50th latitude north, on the left bank of the Rhine.", "The east of the city is opposite where the Main falls into it.", ", the population was 217,272.The city is part of the FrankfurtRheinMain area of 5.9 million people.", "Mainz can easily be reached from Frankfurt International Airport in 30 minutes by commuter railway or regional trains .The river port of Mainz is located on the Rhine and thus on one of the most important waterways in Germany.", "The container port hub is north of the town centre.After the last ice age, sand dunes were deposited in the Rhine valley at what was to become the western edge of the city.", "The Mainz Sand Dunes area is now a nature reserve with a unique landscape and rare ''steppe'' vegetation for this area.While the Mainz legion camp was founded in 13/12 BC on the Kästrich hill, the associated vici and canabae (civilian settlements) were erected towards the Rhine.", "Historical sources and archaeological findings both prove the importance of the military and civilian Mogontiacum as a port city on the Rhine.===Climate===Mainz experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: ''Cfb'').==History=====Roman Mogontiacum===Remains of a Roman town gate from the late 4th centuryThe Roman stronghold or ''castrum '''Mogontiacum''''', the precursor to Mainz, was founded by the Roman general Drusus perhaps as early as 13/12 BC.", "As related by Suetonius the existence of ''Mogontiacum'' is well established by four years later (the account of the death and funeral of Nero Claudius Drusus).", "Although the city is situated opposite the mouth of the Main, the name of Mainz is not from ''Main'', the similarity being perhaps reinforced by folk-etymological reanalysis.", "''Main'' is from Latin ''Moenis'' (also ''Moenus'' or ''Menus''), the name the Romans used for the river.", "Linguistic analysis of the many forms that the name \"Mainz\" has taken on make it clear that it is a simplification of ''Mogontiacum''.", "The name appears to be Celtic, however, it had also become Roman and was selected by them with a special significance.", "The Roman soldiers defending Gallia had adopted the Gallic god Mogons (Mogounus, Moguns, Mogonino), for the meaning of which etymology offers two basic options: \"the great one\", similar to Latin magnus, which was used in aggrandizing names such as ''Alexander magnus'', \"Alexander the Great\" and ''Pompeius magnus'', \"Pompey the great\", or the god of \"might\" personified as it appears in young servitors of any type whether of noble or ignoble birth.The Drusus monument or Drususstein (surrounded by the 17th-century citadel) raised by the troops of Nero Claudius Drusus to commemorate himRemains of the Roman aqueduct of MogontiacumMogontiacum was an important military town throughout Roman times, probably due to its strategic position at the confluence of the Main and the Rhine.", "The town of ''Mogontiacum'' grew up between the fort and the river.", "The castrum was the base of Legio XIV ''Gemina'' and XVI ''Gallica'' (AD 9–43), XXII ''Primigenia'', IV ''Macedonica'' (43–70), I ''Adiutrix'' (70–88), XXI ''Rapax'' (70–89), and XIV ''Gemina'' (70–92), among others.", "Mainz was also a base of a Roman river fleet, the Classis Germanica.", "Remains of Roman troop ships (navis lusoria) and a patrol boat from the late 4th century were discovered in 1982/86 and may now be viewed in the ''Museum für Antike Schifffahrt''.", "A temple dedicated to Isis Panthea and Magna Mater was discovered in 2000 and is open to the public.", "The city was the provincial capital of Germania Superior, and had an important funeral monument dedicated to Drusus, to which people made pilgrimages for an annual festival from as far away as Lyon.", "Among the famous buildings were the largest theatre north of the Alps and a bridge across the Rhine.", "The city was also the site of the assassination of emperor Severus Alexander in 235.Alemanni forces under Rando sacked the city in 368.From the last day of 405 or 406, the Siling and Asding Vandals, the Suebi, the Alans, and other Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine, possibly at Mainz.", "Christian chronicles relate that the bishop, Aureus, was put to death by the Alemannian Crocus.Throughout the changes of time, the Roman castrum never seems to have been permanently abandoned as a military installation, which is a testimony to Roman military judgement.", "Different structures were built there at different times.", "The current citadel originated in 1660, but it replaced previous forts.", "It was used in World War II.", "One of the sights at the citadel is still the cenotaph raised by legionaries to commemorate their general, Drusus.===Frankish Mainz===In the 4th century, Alemans repeatedly invaded the neighborhood of Mogontiacum.", "In 357, the city was liberated by the Emperor Julian.", "The last emperor to station troops serving the western empire at Mainz was Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), who relied heavily on his ''Magister militum per Gallias'', Flavius Aëtius.", "In 451, Attila's Huns sacked the city.Gold solidus of the Frankish king Theudebert I, Mainz mint, 534The Franks from the middle and upper Rhine area took Mainz shortly before 460.After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Franks under the rule of Clovis I gained control over western Europe by the year 496.Clovis, son of Childeric, became king of the Salians in 481, ruling from Tournai.", "He converted from paganism to Catholic Christianity.", "Theudebert I ( 500–547 or 548) had installed as bishop of Mainz.", "Dagobert I (605/603–639) reinforced the walls of Mainz.Charlemagne (768–814), through a succession of wars against other tribes, built a vast Frankish empire in Europe.", "Mainz from its central location became important to the empire and to Christianity.", "Meanwhile, language change was gradually working to divide the Franks.After the death of Charlemagne, distinctions between France and Germany began to be made.", "The Rhine roughly formed the border of their territories, whereby the three important episcopal cities of Mainz, Worms and Speyer with their counties to the left of the Rhine were assigned to East Francia.===Christian Mainz===In the early Middle Ages, Mainz was a centre for the Christianisation of the German and Slavic peoples.", "The first archbishop in Mainz, Boniface, was killed in 754 while trying to convert the Frisians to Christianity and is buried in Fulda.", "Boniface held a personal title of archbishop; Mainz became a regular archbishopric see in 781, when Boniface's successor Lullus was granted the pallium by Pope Adrian I. Harald Klak, king of Jutland, his family and followers, were baptized at Mainz in 826, in the abbey of St. Alban's.", "Other early archbishops of Mainz include Rabanus Maurus, the scholar and author, and Willigis (975–1011), who began construction on the current building of the Mainz Cathedral and founded the monastery of St. Stephan.From the time of Willigis until the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Archbishops of Mainz were archchancellors of the Empire and the most important of the seven Electors of the Holy Roman Emperor.", "Besides Rome, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz today is the only diocese in the world with an episcopal see that is called a Holy See (''sancta sedes'').", "The Archbishops of Mainz traditionally were ''primas germaniae''.In 1244, Archbishop Siegfried III granted Mainz a city charter, which included the right of the citizens to establish and elect a city council.", "The city saw a feud between two archbishops in 1461, namely Diether von Isenburg, who was elected Archbishop by the cathedral chapter and supported by the citizens, and Adolf II von Nassau, who had been named archbishop of Mainz by the pope.", "In 1462, Archbishop Adolf raided the city of Mainz, plundering and killing 400 inhabitants.", "At a tribunal, those who had survived lost all their property, which was then divided between those who promised to follow Adolf.", "Those who would not promise to follow Adolf (amongst them Johannes Gutenberg) were driven out of the town or thrown into prison.", "The new archbishop revoked the city charter of Mainz and put the city under his direct rule.", "Ironically, after the death of Adolf II his successor was again Diether von Isenburg, now legally elected by the chapter and named by the Pope.Mainzer Dom vom Kreuzgang.jpg|Mainz Cathedral, western main towerBonifazius.jpg|Monument to St. Boniface before Mainz CathedralWenzel Hollar Mainzer Dom 1632.jpg|St.", "Martin's Cathedral in Mainz, by Wenzel Hollar; pen-and-ink drawing 1632===Early Jewish community===Interior of the Weisenau Synagogue, built in the first half of the 18th centuryThe Jewish community of Mainz dates to the 10th century CE.", "It is noted for its religious education.", "Rabbi Gershom ben Judah (960–1040) taught there, among others.", "He concentrated on the study of the Talmud, creating a German Jewish tradition.", "Mainz is also the legendary home of the martyred Rabbi Amnon of Mainz, composer of the Unetanneh Tokef prayer.", "From the late 12th century rabbis met in synods.The city of Mainz responded to the Jewish population in a variety of ways, behaving in a capricious manner towards them.", "Sometimes they were allowed freedom and were protected; at other times, they were persecuted.", "The Jews were expelled in 1438, 1462 (after which they were invited to return), and in 1470.Jews were attacked in the Rhineland massacres of 1096 and by mobs in 1283.Outbreaks of the Black Death were usually blamed on the Jews, at which times they were massacred, such as the murder of 6000 Jews in 1349.Outside of the medieval city centre, there is a Jewish cemetery, with over 1500 headstones dating from the 11th through the 19th centuries.", "The earliest known gravestone is date to 1062 or 1063, and these early gravestones resemble those found in Italy in the 8th–9th centuries.Nowadays the Jewish community is growing rapidly, and a new synagogue by the architect Manuel Herz was constructed in 2010 on the site of the one destroyed by the Nazis on ''Kristallnacht'' in 1938., the Jewish community Mainz has 985 members.===Republic of Mainz===During the French Revolution, the French Revolutionary army occupied Mainz in 1792; the Archbishop-elector of Mainz, Friedrich Karl Josef von Erthal, had already fled to Aschaffenburg by the time the French marched in.", "On 18 March 1793, the Jacobins of Mainz, with other German democrats from about 130 towns in the Rhenish Palatinate, proclaimed the 'Republic of Mainz'.", "Led by Georg Forster, representatives of the Mainz Republic in Paris requested political affiliation of the Mainz Republic with France, but too late: Prussia was not entirely happy with the idea of a democratic free state on German soil (although the French dominated Mainz was neither free nor democratic).", "Prussian troops had already occupied the area and besieged Mainz by the end of March 1793.After a siege of 18 weeks, the French troops in Mainz surrendered on 23 July 1793; Prussians occupied the city and ended the Republic of Mainz.", "It came to the Battle of Mainz in 1795 between Austria and France.", "Members of the Mainz Jacobin Club were mistreated or imprisoned and punished for treason.Jeanbon Baron de St. André, Prefect of Napoleonic MainzIn 1797, the French returned.", "The army of Napoleon Bonaparte occupied the German territory to the west of the Rhine, and the Treaty of Campo Formio awarded France this entire area, initially as the Cisrhenian Republic.", "On 17 February 1800, the French ''Département du Mont-Tonnerre'' was founded here, with Mainz as its capital, the Rhine being the new eastern frontier of la Grande Nation.", "Austria and Prussia could not but approve this new border with France in 1801.However, after several defeats in Europe during the War of the Sixth Coalition, the weakened Napoleon and his troops had to leave Mainz in May 1814.===Rhenish Hesse===In 1816, the part of the former French Département which is known today as Rhenish Hesse () was awarded to the Hesse-Darmstadt, Mainz being the capital of the new Hessian province of Rhenish Hesse.", "From 1816 to 1866, a part of the German Confederation, Mainz was the most important fortress in the defence against France, and had a strong garrison of Austrian, Prussian and Bavarian troops.On the afternoon of 18 November 1857, a huge explosion rocked Mainz when the city's powder magazine, the ''Pulverturm'', exploded.", "Approximately 150 people were killed and at least 500 injured; 57 buildings were destroyed and a similar number severely damaged in what was to be known as the ''Powder Tower Explosion'' or ''Powder Explosion''.During the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Mainz was declared a neutral zone.", "After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, Mainz no longer was as important a stronghold, because in the Franco-Prussian War France had lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany (which France had occupied bit by bit from 1630 to 1795), and this defined the new border between the two countries.===Industrial expansion===Mainz towards the Rhine (around 1890)For centuries the inhabitants of the fortress of Mainz had suffered from a severe shortage of space which led to disease and other inconveniences.", "In 1872 Mayor Carl Wallau and the council of Mainz persuaded the military government to sign a contract to expand the city.", "Beginning in 1874, the city of Mainz assimilated the ''Gartenfeld'', an idyllic area of meadows and fields along the banks of the Rhine to the north of the rampart.", "The city expansion more than doubled the urban area which allowed Mainz to participate in the industrial revolution which had previously avoided the city for decades.", "was the man who made this happen.", "Having been the master-builder of the city of Mainz since 1865, Kreyßig had the vision for the new part of town, the ''Neustadt''.", "He also planned the first sewer system for the old part of town since Roman times and persuaded the city government to relocate the railway line from the Rhine side to the west end of the town.", "The main station was built from 1882 to 1884 according to the plans of .Mainz including expansion zone the Rhine (1898)Kreyßig constructed a number of state-of-the-art public buildings, including the Mainz town hall – which was the largest of its kind in Germany at that time – as well a synagogue, the Rhine harbour and a number of public baths and school buildings.", "Kreyßig's last work was Christ Church (''Christuskirche''), the largest Protestant church in the city and the first building constructed solely for the use of a Protestant congregation.", "In 1905 the demolition of the entire circumvallation and the Rheingauwall was taken in hand, according to the imperial order of Wilhelm II.===20th century===During the German Revolution of 1918 the Mainz Workers' and Soldiers' Council was formed which ran the city from 9 November until the arrival of French troops under the terms of the occupation of the Rhineland agreed in the Armistice.", "The French occupation was confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles which went into effect 28 June 1919.The Rhineland (in which Mainz is located) was to be a demilitarized zone until 1935 and the French garrison, representing the ''Triple Entente'', was to stay until reparations were paid.In 1923 Mainz participated in the Rhineland separatist movement that proclaimed a Rhenish Republic.", "It collapsed in 1924.The French withdrew on 30 June 1930.Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany in January 1933 and his political opponents, especially those of the Social Democratic Party, were either incarcerated or murdered.", "Some were able to move away from Mainz in time.", "One was the political organizer for the SPD, Friedrich Kellner, who went to Laubach, where, as the chief justice inspector of the district court, he continued his opposition against the Nazis by recording their misdeeds in a 900-page diary.In March 1933, a detachment from the National Socialist Party in Worms brought the party to Mainz.", "They hoisted the swastika on all public buildings and began to denounce the Jewish population in the newspapers.", "In 1936, the Nazis remilitarized the Rhineland with great fanfare, the first move of Nazi Germany's meteoric expansion.", "The former Triple Entente took no action.During World War II the citadel at Mainz hosted the Oflag XII-B prisoner of war camp.", "The city was also the location of four subcamps of the Hinzert concentration camp, mostly for Luxembourgish, Polish, Dutch and Soviet prisoners, but also Belgian, French and Italian.During World War II, several air raids destroyed about 80 per cent of the city's centre, including most of the historic buildings.", "Mainz was captured on 22 March 1945 against uneven German resistance (staunch in some sectors and weak in other parts of the city) by the 90th Infantry Division under William A. McNulty, a formation of the XII Corps under Third Army commanded by General George S. Patton Jr.From 1945 to 1949, the city was part of the French zone of occupation.", "When the state of Rhineland-Palatinate was founded on 30 August 1946 by the commander of the French army on the French occupation zone Marie Pierre Kœnig, Mainz became the capital of the new state.", "In 1962, the diarist, Friedrich Kellner, returned to spend his last years in Mainz.", "His life in Mainz, and the impact of his writings, is the subject of the Canadian documentary ''My Opposition: The Diaries of Friedrich Kellner''.Following the withdrawal of French forces from Mainz, the United States Army Europe occupied the military bases in Mainz.", "Today United States Army Europe and Africa only occupies McCulley Barracks in Wackernheim and the Mainz Sand Dunes for the training areas.", "Mainz is home to the headquarters of the ''Bundeswehr''s '''' and other units." ], [ "Cityscape", "===Architecture===The destruction caused by the bombing of Mainz during World War II led to the most intense phase of building in the history of the town.", "During the last war in Germany, more than 30 air raids destroyed about 80 per cent of the city's centre, including most of the historic buildings.", "The attack on the afternoon of 27 February 1945 remains the most destructive of all 33 bombings that Mainz has suffered in World War II in the collective memory of most of the population living then.", "The air raid caused most of the dead and made an already hard-hit city largely levelled.Nevertheless, the post-war reconstruction took place very slowly.", "While cities such as Frankfurt had been rebuilt fast by a central authority, only individual efforts were initially successful in rebuilding Mainz.", "The reason for this was that the French wanted Mainz to expand and become a model city.", "Mainz lay within the French-controlled sector of Germany and it was a French architect and town-planner, Marcel Lods, who produced a Le Corbusier-style plan of an ideal architecture.", "But the very first interest of the inhabitants was the restoration of housing areas.", "Even after the failure of the model city plans it was the initiative of the French (founding of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, elevation of Mainz to the state capital of Rhineland-Palatinate, the early resumption of the Mainz carnival) driving the city in a positive development after the war.", "The City Plan of 1958 by Ernst May allowed a regulated reconstruction for the first time.", "In 1950, the seat of the government of Rhineland-Palatinate had been transferred to the new Mainz and in 1963 the seat of the new ZDF, notable architects were Adolf Bayer, Richard Jörg and Egon Hartmann.", "At the time of the two-thousand-years-anniversary in 1962 the city was largely reconstructed.", "During the 1950s and 1960s, the Oberstadt had been extended, Münchfeld and Lerchenberg added as suburbs, the Altstadttangente (intersection of the old town), new neighbourhoods as Westring and Südring contributed to the extension.", "By 1970 there remained only a few ruins.", "The new town hall of Mainz had been designed by Arne Jacobsen and finished by Dissing+Weitling.", "The town used Jacobsens activity for the Danish Novo company erecting a new office and warehouse building to contact him.", "The urban renewal of the old town changed the inner city.", "In the framework of the preparation of the cathedrals millennium, pedestrian zones were developed around the cathedral, in northern direction to the Neubrunnenplatz and in a southern direction across the Leichhof to the Augustinerstraße and Kirschgarten.", "The 1980s brought the renewal of the façades on the Markt and a new inner-city neighbourhood on the Kästrich.", "During the 1990s the Kisselberg and the \"Fort Malakoff Center\" at the site of the old police barracks were built." ], [ "Main sights", "Deutschhaus, the House of Parliament of Rhineland-PalatinateChristuskircheTheodor Heuss BridgeAugustinian Church*Romano-Germanic Central Museum (''Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum'').", "It is home to Roman, Medieval, and earlier artifacts.", "*Museum of Ancient Seafaring (''Museum für Antike Schifffahrt'').", "It houses the remains of five Roman boats from the late 4th century, discovered in the 1980s.", "*Roman remains, including Jupiter's column, Drusus' mausoleum, the ruins of the theatre and the aqueduct.", "*Mainz Cathedral of St. Martin (''Mainzer Dom''), over 1,000 years old.*St.", "John's Church, 7th-century church building*Staatstheater Mainz*The Iron Tower (''Eisenturm'', tower at the former iron market), a 13th-century gate-tower.", "*The Wood Tower (''Holzturm'', tower at the former wood market), a 15th-century gate tower.", "*The Gutenberg Museum – exhibits an original Gutenberg Bible amongst many other printed books from the 15th century and later.", "*The Mainz Old Town – what's left of it, the quarter south of the cathedral survived World War II.", "*The old arsenal, the central arsenal of the fortress Mainz during the 17th and 18th century*The Electoral Palace (''Kurfürstliches Schloss''), residence of the prince-elector.", "*The Marktbrunnen, one of the largest Renaissance fountains in Germany.", "*''Domus Universitatis'' (1615), for centuries the tallest edifice in Mainz.", "*Christ Church (''Christuskirche''), built 1898–1903, bombed in 1945 and rebuilt in 1948–1954.", "*The Church of St. Stephan, with post-war windows by Marc Chagall.*Citadel.", "*The ruins of the church St. Christoph, a World War II memorial*''Schönborner Hof'' (1668).", "*Rococo churches of St. Augustin (the Augustinerkirche, Mainz) and St. Peter (the Peterskirche, Mainz).", "*Churches of St. Ignatius (1763) and St.", "Quintin.", "*Erthaler Hof (1743)*The Baroque Bassenheimer Hof (1750)*The Botanischer Garten der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, a botanical garden maintained by the university*Landesmuseum Mainz, state museum with archaeology and art.", "*Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF) – one of the largest public German TV-Broadcaster.", "*New synagogue in Mainz*Old Jewish Cemetery Mainz (''Judensand'') – ShUM city of Mainz, UNESCO World Heritage Site*Kunsthalle Mainz – museum for contemporary art*Humbrechthof, later called Schöfferhof, the building in which Johannes Gutenberg developed his technique of printing" ], [ "Administration", "Mainz Rad and FSV Mainz 05 flags on the DomplatzThe city of Mainz is divided into 15 local districts according to the main statute of the city of Mainz.", "Each local district has a district administration of 13 members and a directly elected mayor, who is the chairman of the district administration.", "This local council decides on important issues affecting the local area, however, the final decision on new policies is made by Mainz's municipal council.In accordance with section 29 paragraph 2 Local Government Act of Rhineland-Palatinate, which refers to municipalities of more than 150,000 inhabitants, the city council has 60 members.Districts of the town are:*Altstadt*Bretzenheim*Drais*Ebersheim*Finthen*Gonsenheim*Hartenberg-Münchfeld*Hechtsheim*Laubenheim**Marienborn*Mombach*Neustadt*Oberstadt*WeisenauUntil 1945, the districts of Bischofsheim (now an independent town), Ginsheim-Gustavsburg (which together are an independent town) belonged to Mainz.", "The former districts Amöneburg, Kastel, and Kostheim – (in short, ''AKK'') are now administered by the city of Wiesbaden (on the north bank of the river).", "The AKK was separated from Mainz when the Rhine was designated the boundary between the French occupation zone (the later state of Rhineland-Palatinate) and the U.S. occupation zone (Hesse) in 1945.===Coat of arms===The coat of arms of Mainz is derived from the coat of arms of the Archbishops of Mainz and features two six-spoked silver wheels connected by a silver cross on a red background." ], [ "Population", "Mainz has a population of about 220,000 and is the largest city in Rhineland-Palatinate.", "Mainz passed 100,000 in 1908.In 1945, After WWII, right side of the Rhine river, which were a part of Mainz, became a part of Wiesbaden and other part of Hesse due to its occupation zone where Mainz and Rhineland-Palatinate were French occupation zone and Wiesbaden and Hesse were American occupation zone where both cities became its state capital in 1946.Mainz lost 21.1% of population at this time.", "Mainz and Wiesbaden has rivalries who the better city on the Rhine river are even today.", "Mainz became an attractive city, especially for young people due to its radio and television broadcasters, Universities and good workplaces.", "Mainz's population grow normally and Mainz passed 200,000 in 2011.===Foreign populations===The following list shows the largest foreign populations in Mainz :RankNationalityPopulation (2022) 5,424 3,875 3,300 2,739 2,587 2,126 1,920 1,790 1,612 1,325 1,106 942" ], [ "Politics", "===Mayor===Results of the second round of the 2019 mayoral electionThe mayor of Mainz was Michael Ebling of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) until he was promoted State Minister of the Interior in the government of Rhineland-Palatinate in 2022.The new mayoral election was held on 12 February 2023, with a runoff after Mainz carnival.", "The final election took place 5 March 2023.The new elected is Nino Haase, independent.Election 2019 of the council: Candidate Party First round Second round Votes % Votes % Michael Ebling Social Democratic Party 30,278 41.0 35,752 55.2 Nino Haase Independent (CDU, ÖDP, FW) 23,968 32.4 29,029 44.8 Tabea Rößner Alliance 90/The Greens 16,621 22.5 Martin Malcherek The Left 2,063 2.8 Martin Ehrhardt Die PARTEI 999 1.4 Valid votes 73,929 99.6 64,781 99.4 Invalid votes 289 0.4 372 0.6 Total 74,218 100.0 65,153 100.0 Electorate/voter turnout 161,967 45.8 162,030 40.2 Source: City of Mainz ( 1st round, 2nd round)===City council===Results of the 2019 city council electionThe Mainz city council governs the city alongside the Mayor.", "The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2019, and the results were as follows: Party Votes % +/- Seats +/- Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) 1,582,459 27.7 7.5 17 5 Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 1,339,561 23.5 6.9 14 4 Social Democratic Party (SPD) 1,151,572 20.2 7.2 12 5 Free Democratic Party (FDP) 340,501 6.0 0.9 4 1 The Left (Die Linke) 335,459 5.9 1.3 4 1 Alternative for Germany (AfD) 302,604 5.3 2.3 3 1 Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP) 238,727 4.2 0.2 2 ±0 Die PARTEI 127,581 2.2 New 1 New Free Voters (FW) 108,701 1.9 0.9 1 ±0 Pirate Party (Piraten) 78,595 1.4 0.4 1 ±0 Volt Germany (Volt) 67,376 1.2 New 1 New Alliance for Innovation and Justice (BIG) 31,419 0.6 0.1 0 ±0 Total votes 5,704,555 100.0 Total ballots 100,522 100.0 60 ±0 Electorate/voter turnout 162,321 61.9 11.0 Source: City of Mainz" ], [ "Culture", "Mainz is home to a Carnival, the ''Mainzer Fassenacht'' or ''Fastnacht'', which has developed since the early 19th century.", "Carnival in Mainz has its roots in the criticism of social and political injustices under the shelter of cap and bells.", "Today, the uniforms of many traditional Carnival clubs still imitate and caricature the uniforms of the French and Prussian troops of the past.", "The height of the carnival season is on Rosenmontag (\"rose Monday\"), when there is a large parade in Mainz, with more than 500,000 people celebrating in the streets.The first-ever Katholikentag, a festival-like gathering of German Catholics, was held in Mainz in 1848.Forum of the ''Johannes Gutenberg University'' of MainzJohannes Gutenberg, credited with the invention of a modern printing press with movable type, was born here and died here.", "Since 1968 the Mainzer Johannisnacht commemorates the person Johannes Gutenberg in his native city.", "The Mainz University, which was refounded in 1946, is named after Gutenberg; the earlier University of Mainz that dated back to 1477 had been closed down by Napoleon's troops in 1798.Mainz was one of three important centres of Jewish theology and learning in Central Europe during the Middle Ages.", "Known collectively as ''Shum'', the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz played a key role in the preservation and propagation of Talmudic scholarship.The city is the seat of Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (literally, \"Second German Television\", ZDF), one of two federal nationwide TV broadcasters.", "There are also a couple of radio stations based in Mainz.", "The Mainzer Stadtschreiber (City clerk in Mainz) is an annual German literature award.Other cultural aspects of the city include:*As city in the Greater Region, Mainz participated in the program of the year of European Capital of Culture 2007.", "*The Walk of Fame of Cabaret may be found nearby the Schillerplatz.", "*The music publisher Schott Music is located in Mainz.", "*One of the oldest brass instrument manufacturers in the world, Gebr.", "Alexander is located in Mainz.", "*Fans of Gospel music enjoy the yearly performances of Colours of Gospel.", "*Every one or two years a festival for improvised music between jazz, avant-garde and rock with a line-up of international renowned musicians takes place, the Akut-Festival." ], [ "Education", "*University of Mainz*University of Applied Sciences Mainz*Catholic University of Applied Sciences Mainz" ], [ "Sports", "The local football club 1.FSV Mainz 05 has a long history in the German football leagues.", "Since 2004 it has competed in the Bundesliga (First German soccer league) except a break in second level in 2007–08 season.", "Mainz is closely associated with renowned coach Jürgen Klopp, who spent the vast majority of his playing career at the club and was also the manager for seven years, leading the club to Bundesliga football for the first time.", "After leaving Mainz Klopp went on to win two Bundesliga titles and reaching a Champions League final with Borussia Dortmund.", "In the summer of 2011, the club opened its new stadium called Coface Arena, which was later renamed Opel Arena.", "Further relevant football clubs are TSV Schott Mainz, SV Gonsenheim, Fontana Finthen, FC Fortuna Mombach and FVgg Mombach 03.The local wrestling club ASV Mainz 1888 is currently in the top division of team wrestling in Germany, the Bundesliga.", "In 1973, 1977 and 2012 the ASV Mainz 1888 won the German championship.In 2007 the Mainz Athletics won the German Men's Championship in baseball.As a result of the 2008 invasion of Georgia by Russian troops, Mainz acted as a neutral venue for the Georgian Vs Republic of Ireland football game.The biggest basketball club in the city is the ASC Theresianum Mainz.", "Its men's team is playing in the Regionalliga and its women's team is playing in the 2.DBBL.===USC Mainz==='''Universitäts-Sportclub Mainz''' (University Sports Club Mainz) is a German sports club based in Mainz (Germany).", "It was founded on 9 September 1959 by Berno Wischmann primarily for students of the University of Mainz.", "It is considered one of the most powerful Athletics Sports clubs in Germany.", "50 athletes of USC have distinguished themselves in a half-century in club history at Olympic Games, World and European Championships.", "In particular in the decathlon dominated USC athletes for decades: Already at the European Championships in Budapest in 1966, Mainz won three (Werner von Moltke, Jörg Mattheis and Horst Beyer) all decathlon medals.", "In the all-time list of the USC, there are nine athletes who have achieved more than 8,000 points – at the head of Siegfried Wentz (8762 points in 1983) and Guido Kratschmer (1980 world record with 8667 points).", "The most successful athlete of the association is more fighter, sprinter and long jumper Ingrid Becker (Olympic champion in 1968 in the pentathlon and Olympic champion in 1972 in the 4 × 100 Metres Relay and European champion in 1971 in the long jump).", "The most famous athletes of the present are the sprinter Marion Wagner (world champion in 2001 in the 4 × 100 Metres Relay) and the pole vaulters Carolin Hingst (Eighth of the 2008 Olympics in Beijing) and Anna Battke.Three world titles adorn the balance of USC Mainz.", "For the discus thrower, Lars Riedel attended (1991 and 1993) and the already mentioned sprinter Marion Wagner (2001).", "Added to 5 titles at the European Championships, a total of 65 international medals and 260 victories at the German Athletics Championships.The players of USC's basketball section played from the season 1968/69 to the season 1974/75 in the National Basketball League (BBL) of the German Basketball Federation (DBB).", "As a finalist to winning the DBB Cup in 1971 USC Mainz played in the 1971–72 FIBA European Cup Winners' Cup against the Italian Cup winners of Fides Napoli.===Mainz Athletics===The '''Baseball and Softball Club Mainz Athletics''' is a German baseball and softball club located in the city of Mainz in Rhineland-Palatinate.", "The Athletics is one of the largest clubs in the Baseball-Bundesliga Süd in terms of membership, claiming to have hundreds of active players.", "The club has played in the Baseball-Bundesliga for more than two decades and has won the German Championship in 2007 and 2016." ], [ "Economy", "Bonifatius center building===Wine centre===Mainz has been a wine-growing region since Roman times and is one of the centres of the German wine industry.", "Since 2008, the city is a member of the Great Wine Capitals Global Network (GWC), an association of well-known wineculture-cities of the world.", "Many wine traders work in the city.", "The sparkling wine producer Kupferberg produced in Mainz-Hechtsheim and Henkell – now located on the other side of the river Rhine – were once founded in Mainz.", "The famous Blue Nun, one of the first branded wines, was marketed by the Sichel family.", "The ''Haus des Deutschen Weines'' (House of German Wine), is located in the city.", "The Mainzer Weinmarkt (wine market) is one of the great wine fairs in Germany.===Other industries===The Schott AG, one of the world's largest glass manufactures, as well as the Werner & Mertz, a large chemical factory, are based in Mainz.", "Other companies such as IBM, QUINN Plastics, or Novo Nordisk have their German administration in Mainz as well.", "BioNTech, a biotechnology company developing immunotherapies including a vaccine against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was founded in 2008 in Mainz by scientists Uğur Şahin, and Özlem Türeci, with the Austrian oncologist Christoph Huber., founder of France's famous Krug champagne house in 1843, was born in Mainz in 1800." ], [ "Transport", "Mainz is a major transport hub in southern Germany.", "It is an important component in European distribution, as it has the fifth largest inter-modal port in Germany.", "The Port of Mainz, now handling mainly containers, is a sizable industrial area to the north of the city, along the banks of the Rhine.", "In order to open up space along the city's riverfront for residential development, it was shifted further northwards in 2010.===Rail===Aerial photograph of MainzMainz Central Station or ''Mainz Hauptbahnhof'', is frequented by 80,000 travelers and visitors each day and is therefore one of the busiest 21 stations in Germany.", "It is a stop for the S-Bahn line S8 of the Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund.", "Additionally, the Mainbahn line to Frankfurt Hbf starts at the station.", "It is served by 440 daily local and regional trains (StadtExpress, RE and RB) and 78 long-distance trains (IC, EC and ICE).", "Intercity-Express lines connect Mainz with Frankfurt (Main), Karlsruhe Hbf, Worms Hauptbahnhof and Koblenz Hauptbahnhof.", "It is a terminus of the West Rhine Railway and the Mainz–Ludwigshafen railway, as well as the Alzey–Mainz Railway erected by the Hessische Ludwigsbahn in 1871.Access to the East Rhine Railway is provided by the Kaiserbrücke, a railway bridge across the Rhine at the north end of Mainz.====Operational usage==== In brief Number of passenger tracksabove ground: 7 main line,1 branch,1 tramway station,2 tracks each Trains(daily): 78 long-distance440 regional===Public transportation===The Mainz Central Station is an interchange point for the Mainz tramway network, and an important bus junction for the city and region (RNN, ORN and MVG).===Cycling===Mainz offers a wide array of bicycle transportation facilities and events, including several miles of on-street bike lanes.", "The Rheinradweg (Rhine Cycle Route) is an international cycle route, running from the source to the mouth of the Rhine, traversing four countries at a distance of .", "Another cycling tour runs towards Bingen and further to the Middle Rhine, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002).===Air transportation===Mainz is served by Frankfurt Airport, the busiest airport by passenger traffic in Germany by far, the third busiest in Europe and the ninth busiest worldwide in 2009.Located about east of Mainz, it is connected to the city by an S-Bahn line.The small Mainz Finthen Airport, located just southwest of Mainz, is used by general aviation only.", "Another airport, Frankfurt-Hahn Airport located about west of Mainz, is served by a few low-cost carriers." ], [ "Notable people", "*List of people related to Mainz*Archbishops of Mainz*List of mayors of Mainz" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Mainz is twinned with:* Watford, United Kingdom (1956)* Dijon, France (1957)* Zagreb, Croatia (1967)* Valencia, Spain (1978)* Haifa, Israel (1981)* Erfurt, Germany (1988)* Louisville, United States (1994)* Longchamp, France (1966, with Mainz-Laubenheim)* Rodeneck, Italy (1977, with Mainz-Finthen)Mainz has friendly relations with:* Kigali, Rwanda (1982)* Baku, Azerbaijan (1984)" ], [ "See also", "*Johann Fust*Johannes Gutenberg*Peter Schöffer, apprentice of Gutenberg and early printer" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Sources===" ], [ "Further reading", "*Hope, Valerie.", "''Constructing Identity: The Roman Funerary Monuments of Aquelia, Mainz and Nîmes''; British Archaeological Reports (16 July 2001) *Imhof, Michael and Simone Kestin: ''Mainz City and Cathedral Guide.''", "Petersberg: Michael Imhof Verlag, 2004.", "*''Mainz'' (\"Vierteljahreshefte für Kultur, Politik, Wirtschaft, Geschichte\"), since 1981*Saddington, Denis.", "''The stationing of auxiliary regiments in Germania Superior in the Julio-Claudian period''*Stanton, Shelby, ''World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939–1946'' (Revised Edition, 2006), Stackpole Books *" ], [ "External links", "******" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maria Feodorovna''' (; 26 November 1847 – 13 October 1928), known before her marriage as '''Princess Dagmar of Denmark''', was Empress of Russia from 1881 to 1894 as the wife of Emperor Alexander III.", "She was the fourth child and second daughter of Christian IX of Denmark and Louise of Hesse-Kassel.", "Maria’s eldest son, Nicholas, was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his abdication on 15 March 1917.Maria lived for 10 years after Bolshevik functionaries killed Nicholas and his immediate family in 1918." ], [ "Appearance and personality", "Tsesarevna Maria Feodorovna of Russia, 1870sDagmar was known for her beauty.", "Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge said that Dagmar was \"sweetly pretty\" and commented favorably on her \"splendid dark eyes\".", "Her fiancé Nicholas Alexandrovich, Tsesarevich of Russia was enthusiastic about her beauty.", "He wrote to his mother that \"she is even prettier in real life than in the portraits that we had seen so far.", "Her eyes speak for her: they are so kind, intelligent, animated.\"", "When she was tsarevna, Thomas W. Knox met her at Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia's wedding and wrote favorably about her beauty compared to that of the bride, Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.", "He wrote that Dagmar was \"less inclined to stoutness than the bride, she does not display such a plumpness of shoulder, and her neck rises more swan-like and gives fuller play to her finely formed head, with its curly hair and Grecian outline of face.\"", "He also commented favorably on \"her keen, clear, and flashing eyes.", "\"Dagmar was intelligent.", "When considering Dagmar for her second son, Prince Alfred, Queen Victoria judged that \"Dagmar is cleverer than her older sister, Alexandra... she is a very nice girl.\"", "When she married, she didn't know how to speak any Russian.", "However, within a few years, she mastered the language and was so proficient that her husband wrote to her in Russian.", "She told an American minister to Russia that \"the Russian language is full of power and beauty, it equals the Italian in music, the English in vigorous power and copiousness.\"", "She claimed that \"for compactness of expression\", Russian rivaled \"Latin, and for the making of new words is equal to the Greek.", "\"Dagmar was very fashionable.", "John Logan, a visitor to Russia, described her as \"the best dressed woman in Europe\".", "He claimed that Empress Elisabeth of Austria \"excelled her in beauty\" but that \"no one touched\" her \"in frocks\".", "Charles Frederick Worth, a Parisian couturier, greatly admired her style.", "He said, \"Bring to me any woman in Europe-- queen, artiste, or bourgeoise-- who can inspire me as does Madame Her Majesty, and I will make her confections while I live and charge her nothing.", "\"Dagmar was very charming and likable.", "After meeting her, Thomas W. Knox wrote, \"No wonder the emperor likes her, and no wonder the Russians like her.", "I like her, and I am neither emperor nor any other Russian, and never exchanged a thousand words with her in my life.\"", "Maria von Bock, the daughter of Pyotr Stolypin, wrote, \"kind, amiable, simple in her discourse, Maria Fedorovna was an Empress from head to toe, combining an inborn majesty with such goodness that she was idolized by all who knew her.\"", "Meriel Buchanan wrote that she possessed a \"gracious and delightful charm of manner.\"", "Andrew Dickson White, the U.S. minister to Russia, said that she was \"graceful, with a most kindly face and manner\" and that she was \"in every way cordial and kindly.\"", "Nadine Wonar-Larsky, her lady-in-waiting, noted that \"her smile cheered everyone and her gracious manner always suggested a touch of personal feeling which went straight to the hearts of her subjects.", "She also possessed that priceless royal gift of never forgetting a face or name.\"" ], [ "Early life", "Yellow Mansion in Copenhagen.Princess Marie Sophie Frederikke Dagmar was born on 26 November 1847 at her parents' residence in the Yellow Mansion, an 18th-century town house at 18 Amaliegade, which is located immediately adjacent to the Amalienborg Palace complex, the principal residence of the Danish royal family in the district of Frederiksstaden in central Copenhagen.", "She was the fourth child and second daughter of the then Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, a member of a princely cadet line, and his wife Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel.", "She was baptised as a Lutheran in the Yellow Mansion with Queen Caroline Amalie of Denmark as her Godmother, and named after her kinswoman Marie Sophie Frederikke of Hesse-Kassel, Queen Dowager of Denmark, as well as the popular medieval Danish queen, Dagmar of Bohemia, in accordance with the national romantic fashion of the time.", "Growing up, she was known by the name Dagmar.", "Most of her adult life, however, she was known as Maria Feodorovna, the name which she took when she converted to Orthodoxy immediately before her 1866 marriage to the future Emperor Alexander III.", "Within her family, she was known as \"Minnie\" throughout her life.Princess Dagmar, Prince Vilhelm, Christian IX of Denmark and Princess Alexandra in 1861.In 1852 Dagmar's father became heir-presumptive to the throne of Denmark, largely due to the succession rights of his wife Louise as niece of King Christian VIII.", "In 1853, he was given the title Prince of Denmark and he and his family were given an official summer residence, Bernstorff Palace, north of Copenhagen.", "It quickly became Princess Louise's favorite residence, and the family often stayed there.", "The children grew up within a close-knit family, in what is described as a humble but happy environment.", "During the children's childhood, the father only had his officer salary to live on, and the family lived a relatively simple life according to royal norms.", "Their household only had six employees, and Dagmar and her siblings were allowed to walk around the streets of Copenhagen during their childhood and do such things as go to the market and visit cafes.", "Only very rarely did they take part in ceremonial functions and then immediately had to take off their fine clothes again so as not to risk getting them dirty.", "Dagmar's parents emphasized giving the children a simple civic upbringing that placed great emphasis on royal duties.", "Later, all the children became known for their effortless ability to interact with people, their sense of duty and ability to represent.Princesses Alexandra and Dagmar.", "Portrait by Elisabeth Jerichau Baumann (1856).Dagmar was closest to her eldest sister, Alexandra, and they maintained a strong connection to each other all their lives.", "The two princesses shared a room in the Yellow Mansion and were raised together.", "The sisters received the same education deemed appropriate for upper-class girls: they were taught housekeeping by their mother, and learned to dance, play music, paint and draw, and speak French, English, and German by tutors.", "However, the father also insisted that they learn gymnastics and sports, which was more unusual for girls.", "During their upbringing, Dagmar and Alexandra were given swimming lessons by the Swedish pioneer of swimming for women, Nancy Edberg; she would later welcome Edberg to Russia, where she came on royal scholarship to hold swimming lessons for women.", "Dagmar is described as lively and intelligent, sweet but less beautiful than Alexandra, and better at painting and drawing than her sisters, who, on the other hand, were more talented in music.Upon the death of King Frederick VII in 1863, Dagmar's father became King of Denmark, as she turned 16 years old.", "Due to the brilliant marital alliances of his children, he became known as the \"Father-in-law of Europe\".", "Dagmar's eldest brother would succeed his father as King Frederik VIII of Denmark (one of whose sons would be elected as King of Norway).", "Her elder, and favourite, sister, Alexandra married Albert Edward, the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) in March 1863.Alexandra, along with being queen consort of King Edward VII, was also mother of George V of the United Kingdom, which helps to explain the striking resemblance between their sons Nicholas II and George V. Within months of Alexandra's marriage, Dagmar's second older brother, Wilhelm, was elected as King George I of Greece.", "Her younger sister was Thyra, Duchess of Cumberland.", "She also had another younger brother, Valdemar." ], [ "Engagements and marriage", "===First engagement===Portrait of a young Princess Dagmar with her dog in the 1860s by Andreas Herman Hunæus.At the end of 1863, as the daughter and sister of the kings of Denmark and Greece and sister-in-law of the Prince of Wales, Dagmar was now considered one of Europe's most coveted princesses.", "She received a proposal from Crown Prince Umberto of Italy, but was reluctant to marry him because she found him unattractive.", "Her mother was also reluctant to support such a marriage as she saw a greater status in the prospect of Dagmar marrying into the Russian imperial family.", "Due to the rise of Slavophile ideology in the Russian Empire, Alexander II of Russia searched for a bride for the heir apparent, Nicholas Alexandrovich, Tsesarevich of Russia, in countries other than the German states that had traditionally provided consorts for the tsars.", "Princess Dagmar was one of the candidates, and as early as 1860 the emperor had made his first inquiries about a possible engagement.", "There were also already family ties between the two families, as Dagmar's uncle had been married to the emperor's sister.Princess Dagmar and her first fiancé Tsarevich Nicholas, 1864.In 1864, the Russian Empress Maria Alexandrovna announced that her son would visit Denmark, and during the summer Nicholas, or \"Nixa\" as he was known in his family, arrived at Fredensborg Palace, where the Danish royal family was staying.", "Nicholas had never met Dagmar, but had for a number of years collected photographs of her, and both families wanted the marriage.", "When they met, Dagmar and Nicholas were mutually attracted, and Nicholas wrote to his mother:After returning to Russia to obtain his father's permission, Nicholas proposed to Dagmar on 28 September 1864 in the Bernstorff Palace Gardens and received a yes.", "The engagement was announced at Bernstorff Palace later the same day.", "Her future mother-in-law Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse) gave her a six-strand pearl necklace and Nicholas gave her a diamond bracelet.", "In total, the betrothal gifts Dagmar received from her future in-laws cost 1.5 million rubles.The engagement was popular in both countries and at the same time ensured the Danish royal family even better connections.", "The engagement took place right during the Second Schleswig War between Denmark on one side and Prussia and Austria on the other, and during the peace negotiations after the war in October 1864, Dagmar unsuccessfully asked her future father-in-law to help Denmark against Prussia over the disputed territory of Schleswig-Holstein.", "In a letter, she asked Alexander II of Russia: \"Use your power to mitigate the terrible conditions which the Germans have brutally forced Papa to accept... the sad plight of my fatherland, which makes my heart heavy, has inspired me to turn to you.\"", "It is believed that she did it with the consent of her parents, but it is not known if it was at their request.", "Her appeal was in vain, but from that moment on she became known for her anti-Prussian views.Deathbed of Tsarevich Nicholas.As Nicholas continued on his journey to Florence, Dagmar and Nicholas exchanged daily love letters for months.", "When he grew ill, Nicholas sent fewer letters and Dagmar teasingly asked him if he had fallen in love with \"a dark-eyed Italian\".", "In April, Nicholas grew gravely ill with cerebrospinal meningitis.", "Alexander II of Russia sent a telegram to Dagmar: \"Nicholas has received the Last Rites.", "Pray for us and come if you can.\"", "On 22 April 1865, Nicholas died in the presence of his parents, brothers, and Dagmar.", "His last wish was that Dagmar would marry his younger brother, the future Alexander III.Dagmar was devastated by Nicholas' death.", "Nicholas' parents struggled to \"pull Princess Dagmar away from the corpse and carry her out.\"", "She was so heartbroken when she returned to her homeland that her relatives were seriously worried about her health.", "She had already become emotionally attached to Russia and often thought of the huge, remote country that was to have been her home.", "Many were sympathetic towards Dagmar.", "Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge wrote of \"poor dear Minny's sorrow and the blight which has fallen upon her young life.\"", "Queen Victoria wrote \"how terrible for poor Dagmar... the poor parents and bride are most deeply to be pitied.", "\"=== Second engagement and marriage ===Princess Dagmar and her second fiancé, Tsarevich Alexander.Alexander II of Russia and Maria Alexandrovna had grown fond of Dagmar, and they wanted her to marry their new heir, Tsarevich Alexander.", "In an affectionate letter, Alexander II told Dagmar that he hoped she would still consider herself a member of their family.", "Maria Alexandrovna tried to convince Louise of Hesse-Kassel to send Dagmar to Russia immediately, but Louise insisted that Dagmar must \"strengthen her nerves... and avoid emotional upsets.\"", "Dagmar, who sincerely mourned Nicholas, and Alexander, who was in love with his mother's lady-in-waiting Maria Meshcherskaya and attempted to renounce his place as heir to the throne in order to marry her, were both initially reluctant.", "However, under pressure from his parents, Alexander decided to go to Denmark.In June 1866, Tsarevich Alexander arrived in Copenhagen with his brothers Grand Duke Vladimir and Grand Duke Alexei.", "While looking over photographs of Nicholas, Alexander asked Dagmar if \"she could love him after having loved Nixa, to whom they were both devoted.\"", "She answered that she could love no one but him, because he had been so close to his brother.", "Alexander recalled that \"we both burst into tears... and I told her that my dear Nixa helped us much in this situation and that now of course he prays about our happiness.\"", "On 17 June, he proposed to her during a picnic to the beach at Hellebæk by the coast of the Øresund strait near Elsinore and received a yes.", "The engagement was announced on 23 June at Fredensborg Palace.", "Both Dagmar and Alexander quickly embraced the prospect of marrying each other, and were soon described as genuinely enthusiastic.Wedding delegation in the Danish harbour, 1866In the time leading up to Dagmar's departure to Russia, many festive events took place in Copenhagen, On 22 September 1866, Dagmar left Copenhagen on board the Danish royal yacht ''Slesvig'' escorted by the armoured frigate ''Peder Skram'', and accompanied by her brother, Crown Prince Frederik.", "Hans Christian Andersen, who had occasionally been invited to tell stories to Dagmar and her siblings when they were children, was among the crowd which flocked to the quay in order to see her off.", "The writer remarked in his diary, \"Yesterday, at the quay, while passing me by, she stopped and took me by the hand.", "My eyes were full of tears.", "What a poor child!", "Oh Lord, be kind and merciful to her!", "They say that there is a brilliant court in Saint Petersburg and the tsar's family is nice; still, she heads for an unfamiliar country, where people are different and religion is different and where she will have none of her former acquaintances by her side.", "\"Danish armoured frigate ''Peder Skram'' which escorted Princess Dagmar to Russia shown here at Kronstadt in September 1866.Dagmar was warmly welcomed in Kronstadt by the emperor's brother Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia and escorted to St. Petersburg, where she was greeted by her future mother-in-law and sister-in-law on 24 September.", "The weather on this September day was almost summery with temperatures of more than 20 degrees, which was noted by the poet Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev in the welcome poem dedicated to the arrival of the princess: ''The sky is light blue...'' On the 29th, she made her formal entry in to the Russian capital dressed in a Russian national costume in blue and gold and traveled with the Empress to the Winter Palace where she was introduced to the Russian public on a balcony.", "Catherine Radziwill described the occasion: \"rarely has a foreign princess been greeted with such enthusiasm… from the moment she set foot on Russian soil, succeeded in winning to herself all hearts.", "Her smile, the delightful way she had of bowing to the crowds…, laid immediately the foundation of …popularity\"Wedding of Alexander and Maria Feodorovna in 1866, by Mihály Zichy (1867).In the following weeks, Dagmar was educated in Russian court etiquette.", "She converted to Orthodoxy on and became ''Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna of Russia'' the following day.", "However, at the Russian court, where French was practically the first language, she was often called \"Marie\".", "The lavish wedding took place on in the Imperial Chapel of the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg.", "Financial constraints had prevented her parents from attending the wedding, and in their stead, they sent her brother, Crown Prince Frederick.", "Her brother-in-law, the Prince of Wales, had also travelled to Saint Petersburg for the ceremony; pregnancy had prevented the Princess of Wales from attending.", "After the wedding night, Alexander wrote in his diary, \"I took off my slippers and my silver embroidered robe and felt the body of my beloved next to mine... How I felt then, I do not wish to describe here.", "Afterwards we talked for a long time.", "\"The Anichkov Palace in 1862After the many wedding parties were over the newlyweds moved into the Anichkov Palace in Saint Petersburg where they were to live for the next 15 years, when they were not taking extended holidays at their summer villa Livadia in the Crimean Peninsula.", "Despite the fact that their relationship began under such strange circumstances, Maria and Alexander had an exceptionally happy marriage, and during almost thirty years of marriage, the spouses maintained a sincere devotion to each other.", "She was widely recognized as \"the only person on the face of the earth in whom the Autocrat of all the Russias puts any real trust.", "In his gentle consort, he has unlimited confidence.\"", "Despite her anti-Russian sentiments, Queen Victoria wrote favorably about Maria and Alexander's marriage.", "She wrote that \"Maria seems quite happy and contented with her fat, good-natured husband who seems far more attentive and kind to her than one would have thought....I think they are very domestic and happy and attached to each other; he makes a very good husband.", "\"unbreeched at two years old in 1870.On 18 May 1868, Maria gave birth to their eldest child, Nicholas, the future Nicholas II, at the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo south of Saint Petersburg.", "In his diary, the then Tsarevich Alexander recorded the momentous event of the birth of his first child,The entire imperial family was present at the birth of Alexander and Maria's first child.", "In a letter to her mother, Queen Louise, the Tsarevna wrote,Her next son, Alexander, born in 1869, died from meningitis in infancy.", "She would bear Alexander four more children who reached adulthood: George (b.", "1871), Xenia (b.", "1875), Michael (b.", "1878), and Olga (b.", "1882).", "As a mother, she doted on and was quite possessive of her sons.", "She had a more distant relationship with her daughters.", "Her favorite child was George, and Olga and Michael were closer to their father.", "She was lenient towards George, and she could never bear to punish him for his pranks.", "Her daughter Olga remembered that \"mother had a great weakness for him.\"" ], [ "Tsarevna", "Since her mother-in-law, Empress Maria Alexandrovna, was in fragile health and spent long periods abroad for health reasons, Maria Feodorovna often had to fulfill the role of first lady of the court.", "She did not have best conditions to become popular in Russia, as most Russians disliked her having married Alexander after first having been engaged to his brother.", "However, she quickly overcame this obstacle, and became beloved by the Russian public, a popularity she never really lost.", "Early on, she made it a priority to learn the Russian language and to try to understand the Russian people.", "Baroness Editha von Rahden wrote that \"the Czarevna is forming a real, warm sympathy for that country which is receiving her with so much enthusiasm.\"", "In 1876, she and her husband visited Helsinki and were greeted by cheers, most of which were \"directed to the wife of the heir apparent.", "\"Maria rarely interfered with politics, preferring to devote her time and energies to her family, charities, and the more social side of her position.", "She had also seen the student protests of Kiev and St. Petersburg in the 1860s, and when police were beating students, the students cheered on Maria Feodorovna to which she replied, \"They were quite loyal, they cheered me.", "Why do you allow the police to treat them so brutally?\"", "Her one exception to official politics was her militant anti-German sentiment because of the annexation of Danish territories by Prussia in 1864, a sentiment also expressed by her sister, Alexandra.", "Prince Gorchakov remarked about that policy that 'it is our belief, that Germany will not forget that both in Russia and in England sic a Danish Princess has her foot on the steps of the throne\".Maria arranged the marriage between her brother George I of Greece and her cousin-in-law Olga Constantinovna of Russia.", "When George visited St. Petersburg in 1867, she contrived to have George spend time with Olga.", "She convinced Olga's parents of her brother's suitability.", "In a letter, her father Christian IX of Denmark praised her for her shrewd arranging of the marriage: \"Where in the world have you, little rogue, ever learned to intrigue so well, since you have worked hard on your uncle and aunt, who were previously decidedly against a match of this kind.", "\"Maria's relationship with her father-in-law, Alexander II, deteriorated because she did not accept his second marriage to Catherine Dolgorukov.", "She refused to allow her children to visit their grandfather's second wife and his legitimized bastards, which caused Alexander's anger.", "She confided in Sophia Tolstaya that \"there were grave scenes between me and the Sovereign, caused by my refusal to let my children to him.\"", "At a Winter Palace reception in February 1881, she refused to kiss Catherine and only gave Catherine her hand to kiss.", "Alexander II was furious and chastised his daughter-in-law: \"Sasha is a good son, but you – you have no heart\".In 1873, Maria, Alexander, and their two eldest sons made a journey to the United Kingdom.", "The imperial couple and their children were entertained at Marlborough House by the Prince and Princess of Wales.", "The royal sisters Maria and Alexandra delighted London society by dressing alike at social gatherings.", "The following year, Maria and Alexander welcomed the Prince and Princess of Wales to St. Petersburg; they had come for the wedding of the Prince's younger brother, Alfred, to Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna, daughter of Tsar Alexander II and the sister of the tsarevich." ], [ "Empress of Russia", "Maria Feodorovna kneels at the deathbed of Alexander II.", "Later rendering.On the morning of 13 March 1881, Maria's father-in-law Alexander II of Russia was killed by a bomb attack carried out by the revolutionary socialist political organization ''Narodnaya Volya'' on his way back to the Winter Palace from a military parade.", "His leg was blown to pieces by the second of two bombs, and in her diary, Maria described how the wounded, still living Emperor was taken to the palace: \"His legs were crushed terribly and ripped open to the knee; a bleeding mass, with half a boot on the right foot, and only the sole of the foot remaining on the left.\"", "Alexander II died of blood loss a few hours later.", "After her father-in-law's gruesome death, she was worried about her husband's safety.", "In her diary, she wrote, \"Our happiest and serenest times are now over.", "My peace and calm are gone, for now I will only ever be able to worry about Sasha.\"", "Her favorite sister, the Princess of Wales, and brother-in-law Prince of Wales, stayed in Russia for several weeks after the funeral.Silver-gilt plate, celebrating the coronation of Emperor Alexander Alexandrovich and Empress Maria Feodorovna, from the Khalili Collection of Enamels of the WorldAlexander and Maria were crowned at the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin in Moscow on 27 May 1883.Just before the coronation, a major conspiracy had been uncovered, which cast a pall over the celebration.", "Nevertheless, over 8000 guests attended the splendid ceremony.", "Because of the many threats against Maria and Alexander III, the head of the security police, General Cherevin, shortly after the coronation urged the Tsar and his family to relocate to Gatchina Palace, a more secure location 50 kilometres outside St. Petersburg.", "The huge palace had 900 rooms and was built by Catherine the Great.", "The Romanovs heeded the advice.", "Maria and Alexander III lived at Gatchina for 13 years, and it was here that their five surviving children grew up.", "Under heavy guard, Alexander III and Maria made periodic trips from Gatchina to the capital to take part in official events, continuing to use the Anichkov Palace when staying there in preference to the Winter Palace.The Empress consort of All the Russias, 1880sMaria was a universally beloved Empress.", "Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin wrote that Maria's \"bearing, her distinguished and forceful personality, and the intelligence which shone in her face, made her the perfect figure of a queen... She was extraordinarily well-loved in Russia, and everyone had confidence in her... and was a real mother to her people.", "\"Maria was active in philanthropic work.", "Her husband called her \"the Guardian Angel of Russia\".", "As Empress, she assumed patronage of the Marie Institutions that her mother-in-law had run: It encompassed 450 charitable establishments.", "In 1882, she founded many establishments called Marie schools to give young girls an elementary education.", "She was the patroness of the Russian Red Cross Society.", "During a cholera epidemic in the late 1870s, she visited the sick in hospitals.Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia, circa 1885Maria was the head of the social scene.", "She loved to dance at the balls of high society, and she became a popular socialite and hostess of the Imperial balls at Gatchina.", "Her daughter Olga commented, \"Court life had to run in splendor, and there my mother played her part without a single false step\".", "A contemporary remarked on her success: \"of the long gallery of Tsarinas who have sat in state in the Kremlin or paced in the Winter Palace, Marie Feodorovna was perhaps the most brilliant\".", "Alexander used to enjoy joining in with the musicians, although he would end up sending them off one by one.", "When that happened, Maria knew the party was over.As tsarevna, and then as tsarina, Maria Feodorovna had something of a social rivalry with the popular Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna, wife of her Russian brother-in-law, Grand Duke Vladimir.", "This rivalry had echoed the one shared by their husbands, and served to exacerbate the rift within the family.", "While she knew better than to publicly criticise both the Grand Duke and Duchess in public, Maria Feodorovna referred to Marie Pavlovna with the caustic epithet of \"Empress Vladimir\".Empress Maria Feodorovna and her husband Emperor Alexander III in Denmark in 1893Nearly each summer, Maria, Alexander and their children would make an annual trip to Denmark, where her parents, King Christian IX and Queen Louise, hosted family reunions.", "Maria's brother, King George I, and his wife, Queen Olga, would come up from Athens with their children, and the Princess of Wales, often without her husband, would come with some of her children from the United Kingdom.", "In contrast to the tight security observed in Russia, the tsar, tsarina and their children relished the relative freedom that they could enjoy at Bernstorff and Fredensborg.", "The annual family meetings of monarchs in Denmark was regarded as suspicious in Europe, where many assumed they secretly discussed state affairs.", "Otto von Bismarck nicknamed Fredensborg \"Europe's Whispering Gallery\" and accused Queen Louise of plotting against him with her children.", "Maria also had a good relationship with the majority of her in-laws, and was often asked to act as a mediator between them and the tsar.", "In the words of her daughter Olga: \"She proved herself extremely tactful with her in-laws, which was no easy task\".During Alexander III's reign, the monarchy's opponents quickly disappeared underground.", "A group of students had been planning to assassinate Alexander III on the sixth anniversary of his father's death at the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.", "The plotters had stuffed hollowed-out books with dynamite, which they intended to throw at the Tsar when he arrived at the cathedral.", "However, the Russian secret police uncovered the plot before it could be carried out.", "Five students were hanged in 1887; amongst them was Aleksandr Ulyanov, older brother of Vladimir Lenin.The Imperial family the year before Alexander III's death.", "From left to right: Tsarevich Nicholas, Grand Duke George, Empress Maria Feodorovna, Grand Duchess Olga, Grand Duchess Xenia, Grand Duke Michael, Emperor Alexander III, Livadia 1893The biggest threat to the lives of the tsar and his family, however, came not from terrorists, but from a derailment of the imperial train in the fall of 1888.Maria and her family had been at lunch in the dining car when the train jumped the tracks and slid down an embankment, causing the roof of the dining car to nearly cave in on them.When Maria's eldest sister Alexandra visited Gatchina in July 1894, she was surprised to see how weak her brother-in-law Alexander III had become.", "At the time Maria had long known that he was ill and did not have long left.", "She now turned her attention to her eldest son, the future Nicholas II, for it was on him that both her personal future and the future of the dynasty now depended.Nicholas had long had his heart set on marrying Princess Alix of Hesse and by Rhine, a favourite grandchild of Queen Victoria.", "Despite the fact that she was their godchild, neither Alexander III nor Maria approved of the match.", "Nicholas summed up the situation as follows: \"I wish to move in one direction, and it is clear that Mama wishes me to move in another – my dream is to one day marry Alix.\"", "Maria and Alexander found Alix shy and somewhat peculiar.", "They were also concerned that the young Princess was not possessed of the right character to be Empress of Russia.", "Nicholas's parents had known Alix as a child and formed the impression that she was hysterical and unbalanced, which may have been due to the loss of her mother and youngest sister, Marie, to diphtheria when she was just six.", "It was only when Alexander III's health was beginning to fail that they reluctantly gave permission for Nicholas to propose." ], [ "Empress Dowager", "Emperor Nicholas II and his mother Empress Dowager Maria Feodorovna in 1896.On 1 November 1894, Alexander III died aged just 49 at Livadia.", "In her diary Maria wrote, \"I am utterly heartbroken and despondent, but when I saw the blissful smile and the peace in his face that came after, it gave me strength.\"", "Two days later, the Prince and Princess of Wales arrived at Livadia from London.", "While the Prince of Wales took it upon himself to involve himself in the preparations for the funeral, the Princess of Wales spent her time comforting grieving Maria, including praying with her and sleeping at her bedside.", "Maria Feodorovna's birthday was a week after the funeral, and as it was a day in which court mourning could be somewhat relaxed, Nicholas used the day to marry Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, who took the name Alexandra Feodorovna.As Empress Dowager, Maria was much more popular than either Nicholas or Alexandra.", "During her son's coronation in May 1896, she, Nicholas, and Alexandra arrived in separate carriages.", "She was greeted with \"almost deafening\" applause.", "Visiting writer Kate Kool noted that she \"provoked more cheering from the people than did her son.", "The people have had thirteen years in which to know this woman and they have learned to love her very much.\"", "Richard Harding Davis, an American journalist, was surprised that she \"was more loudly greeted than either the Emperor or the Czarina.", "\"Once the death of Alexander III had receded, Maria again took a brighter view of the future.", "\"Everything will be all right\", as she said.", "Maria continued to live in the Anichkov Palace in St. Petersburg and at Gatchina Palace.As a new Imperial Train was constructed for Nicholas II in time for his coronation, Alexander III's \"Temporary Imperial Train\" (composed of the cars that had survived the Borki disaster and a few converted standard passenger cars) was transferred to the Empress Dowager's personal use.During the first years of her son's reign, Maria often acted as the political adviser to the Tsar.", "Uncertain of his own ability and aware of her connections and knowledge, Tsar Nicholas II often told the ministers that he would ask her advice before making decisions, and the ministers sometimes suggested this themselves.", "It was reportedly on her advice that Nicholas initially kept his father's ministers.", "Maria herself estimated that her son was of a weak character and that it was better that he was influenced by her than someone worse.", "Her daughter Olga remarked upon her influence: \"she had never before taken the least interest … now she felt it was her duty.", "Her personality was magnetic and her zest of activity was incredible.", "She had her finger on every educational pulse in the empire.", "She would work her secretaries to shreds, but she did not spare herself.", "Even when bored in committee she never looked bored.", "Her manner and, above all, her tact conquered everybody\".", "After the death of her spouse, Maria came to be convinced that Russia needed reforms to avoid a revolution.", "According to courtier Paul Benckendorff there was a scene when Maria asked her son not to appoint the conservative Viktor von Wahl as minister for internal affairs: \"during which one the empress dowager almost threw herself at his the tsar's knees' begging him not to make this appointment and to choose someone who could make concessions.", "She said that if Nicholas did not agree, she would 'leave for Denmark, and then without me here let them twist your head around'\".", "Nicholas did appoint her favored candidate, and she reportedly told her favoured candidate the liberal reformist Pyotr Sviatopolk-Mirsky to accept by saying: \"You must fulfil my son's wish; If you do, I will give you a kiss\".", "After the birth of a son to the tsar the same year, however, Nicholas II replaced his mother as his political confidant and adviser with his wife, Empress Alexandra.Maria Feodorovna's grandson-in-law, Prince Felix Yusupov, noted that she had great influence in the Romanov family.", "Sergei Witte praised her tact and diplomatic skill.", "Nevertheless, despite her social tact, she did not get along well with her daughter-in-law, Tsarina Alexandra, holding her responsible for many of the woes that beset her son Nicholas and the Russian Empire in general.", "She was appalled with Alexandra's inability to win favour with the public, and also that she did not give birth to an heir until almost ten years after her marriage, after bearing four daughters.", "The fact that Russian court custom dictated that an empress dowager took precedence over an empress consort, combined with the possessiveness that Maria had of her sons, and her jealousy of Empress Alexandra only served to exacerbate tensions between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law.", "Sophie Buxhoeveden remarked of this conflict: \"Without actually clashing they seemed fundamentally unable … to understand one another\", and her daughter Olga commented: \"they had tried to understand each other and failed.", "They were utterly different in character, habits and outlook\".", "Maria was sociable and a good dancer, with an ability to ingratiate herself with people, while Alexandra, though intelligent and beautiful, was very shy and closed herself off from the Russian people.Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna in the family circle on the porch of their home at Langinkoski in Kotka, FinlandBy the turn of the twentieth century, Maria was spending increasing time abroad.", "In 1906, following the death of their father, King Christian IX, she and her sister, Alexandra, who had become queen-consort of the United Kingdom in 1901, purchased the villa of Hvidøre.", "The following year, a change in political circumstances allowed Maria Feodorovna to be welcomed to England by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, Maria's first visit to England since 1873.Following a visit in early 1908, Maria Feodorovna was present at her brother-in-law and sister's visit to Russia that summer.", "A little under two years later, Maria Feodorovna travelled to England yet again, this time for the funeral of her brother-in-law, King Edward VII, in May 1910.During her nearly three-month visit to England in 1910, Maria Feodorovna attempted, unsuccessfully, to get her sister, now Queen Dowager Alexandra, to claim a position of precedence over her daughter-in-law, Queen Mary.Alexandra (center) with their niece Maria of Greece, (right) circa 1893 Victoria (left), London, 1903Empress Maria Feodorovna, the mistress of Langinkoski retreat, was also otherwise a known friend of Finland.", "During the first Russification period, she tried to have her son halt the constraining of the grand duchy's autonomy and to recall the unpopular Governor-General Nikolai Bobrikov from Finland to some other position in Russia itself.", "During the second Russification period, at the start of the First World War, the Empress Dowager, travelling by her special train through Finland to Saint Petersburg, expressed her continued disapprobation for the Russification of Finland by having an orchestra of a welcoming committee play the March of the Pori Regiment and the Finnish national anthem \"Maamme\", which at the time were under the explicit ban from Franz Albert Seyn, the Governor-General of Finland.In 1899, Maria's second son, George, died of tuberculosis in the Caucasus.", "During the funeral, she kept her composure, but at the end of the service, she ran from the church clutching her son's top hat that been atop the coffin and collapsed in her carriage sobbing.In 1901, Maria arranged Olga's disastrous marriage to Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg.", "For years Nicholas refused to grant his unhappy sister a divorce, only relenting in 1916 in the midst of the War.", "When Olga attempted to contract a morganatic marriage with Nikolai Kulikovsky, Maria Feodorovna and the tsar tried to dissuade her, yet, they did not protest too vehemently.", "Indeed, Maria Feodorovna was one of the few people who attended the wedding in November 1916.In 1912, Maria faced trouble with her youngest son, when he secretly married his mistress, much to the outrage and scandal of both Maria Feodorovna and Nicholas.Maria Feodorovna disliked Rasputin and unsuccessfully tried to convince Nicholas and Alexandra to send him away.", "She considered Rasputin a dangerous charlatan and despaired of Alexandra's obsession with \"crazy, dirty, religious fanatics\".", "She was concerned that Rasputin's activities damaged the prestige of the Imperial family and asked Nicholas and Alexandra to send him away.", "Nicholas remained silent and Alexandra refused.", "Maria recognized the empress was the true regent and that she also lacked the capability for such a position: \"My poor daughter-in-law does not perceive that she is ruining the dynasty and herself.", "She sincerely believes in the holiness of an adventurer, and we are powerless to ward off the misfortune, which is sure to come.\"", "When the Tsar dismissed minister Vladimir Kokovtsov in February 1914 on the advice of Alexandra, Maria again reproached her son, who answered in such a way that she became even more convinced that Alexandra was the real ruler of Russia, and she called upon Kokovtsov and said to him: \"My daughter-in-law does not like me; she thinks that I am jealous of her power.", "She does not perceive that my one aspiration is to see my son happy.", "Yet I see we are nearing some kind of catastrophe and the Tsar listens to no one but flatterers… Why do you not tell the Tsar everything that you think and know… if it is not already too late\".=== World War I===In May 1914, Maria Feodorovna travelled to England to visit her sister.", "While she was in London, World War I broke out (July 1914), forcing her to hurry home to Russia.", "In Berlin the German authorities prevented her train from continuing toward the Russian border.", "Instead she had to return to Russia by way of (neutral) Denmark and Finland.", "Upon her return in August, she took up residence at Yelagin Palace, which was closer to St. Petersburg (renamed Petrograd in August 1914) than Gatchina.", "During the war she served as president of Russia's Red Cross.", "As she had done a decade earlier in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, she also financed a sanitary train.During the war, there was great concern within the imperial house about the influence Empress Alexandra had upon state affairs through the Tsar, and the influence Grigori Rasputin was believed to have upon her, as it was considered to provoke the public and endanger the safety of the imperial throne and the survival of the monarchy.", "On behalf of the imperial relatives of the Tsar, both the Empress's sister Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna and her cousin Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna had been selected to mediate and ask Empress Alexandra to banish Rasputin from court to protect her and the throne's reputation, but without success.", "In parallel, several of the Grand Dukes had tried to intervene with the Tsar, but with no more success.During this conflict of 1916–1917, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna reportedly planned a coup d'état to depose the Tsar with the help of four regiments of the imperial guard which were to invade the Alexander Palace, force the Tsar to abdicate and replace him with his underage son under the regency of her son Grand Duke Kirill.There are documents that support the fact that in this critical situation, Maria Feodorovna was involved in a planned coup d'état to depose her son from the throne in order to save the monarchy.", "The plan was reportedly for Maria to make a final ultimatum to the Tsar to banish Rasputin unless he wished for her to leave the capital, which would be the signal to unleash the coup.", "Exactly how she planned to replace her son is unconfirmed, but two versions are available: first, that Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia would take power in Maria's name, and that she herself would thereafter become sole empress of Russia (like Catherine the Great did over 100 years prior); the other version further claims that Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia would replace the Tsar with his son, the heir to the throne, Maria's grandson Alexei, upon which Maria and Paul Alexandrovich would share power as regents during his minority.", "Maria was asked to make her appeal to the Tsar after Empress Alexandra had asked the Tsar to dismiss minister Alexei Polivanov.", "Initially, she refused to make the appeal, and her sister-in-law Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna stated to the French Ambassador: \"It's not want of courage or inclination that keeps her back.", "It's better that she don't.", "She's too outspoken and imperious.", "The moment she starts to lecture her son, her feelings run away with her; she sometimes says the exact opposite of what she should; she annoys and humiliates him.", "Then he stands on his dignity and reminds his mother he is the emperor.", "They leave each other in a rage\".", "Eventually, she was however convinced to make the appeal.", "Reportedly, Empress Alexandra was informed about the planned coup, and when Maria Feodorovna made the ultimatum to the Tsar, the empress convinced him to order his mother to leave the capital.", "Consequently, the Empress Dowager left Petrograd to live in the Mariinskyi Palace in Kiev the same year.", "She never again returned to Russia's capital.", "Empress Alexandra commented about her departure: \"it's much better Motherdear stays … at Kiev, where the climate is better and she can live as she wishes and hears less gossip\".In Kiev, Maria engaged in the Red Cross and hospital work, and in September, the 50th anniversary of her arrival in Russia was celebrated with great festivities, during which she was visited by her son, Nicholas II, who came without his wife.", "Empress Alexandra wrote to the Tsar: \"When you see Motherdear, you must rather sharply tell her how pained you are, that she listens to slander and does not stop it, as it makes mischief and others would be delighted, I am sure, to put her against me…\" Maria did ask Nicholas II to remove both Rasputin and Alexandra from all political influence, but shortly after, Nicholas and Alexandra broke all contact with the Tsar's family.When Rasputin was murdered, part of the Imperial relatives asked Maria to return to the capital and use the moment to replace Alexandra as the Tsar's political adviser.", "Maria refused, but she did admit that Alexandra should be removed from influence over state affairs: \"Alexandra Feodorovna must be banished.", "Don't know how but it must be done.", "Otherwise she might go completely mad.", "Let her enter a convent or just disappear\"." ], [ "Revolution and exile", "Revolution came to Russia in 1917, first with the February Revolution, then with Nicholas II's abdication on 15 March.", "After travelling from Kiev to meet with her deposed son, Nicholas II, in Mogilev, Maria returned to the city, where she quickly realised how Kiev had changed and that her presence was no longer wanted.", "She was persuaded by her family there to travel to the Crimea by train with a group of other refugee Romanovs.After a time living in one of the imperial residences in the Crimea, she received reports that her sons, her daughter-in-law and her grandchildren had been murdered.", "However, she publicly rejected the report as a rumour.", "On the day after the murder of the Tsar's family, Maria received a messenger from Nicky, \"a touching man\" who told of how difficult life was for her son's family in Yekaterinburg.", "\"And nobody can help or liberate them – only God!", "My Lord save my poor, unlucky Nicky, help him in his hard ordeals!\"", "In her diary she comforted herself: \"I am sure they all got out of Russia and now the Bolsheviks are trying to hide the truth.\"", "She firmly held on to this conviction until her death.", "The truth was too painful for her to admit publicly.", "Her letters to her son and his family have since almost all been lost; but in one that survives, she wrote to Nicholas: \"You know that my thoughts and prayers never leave you.", "I think of you day and night and sometimes feel so sick at heart that I believe I cannot bear it any longer.", "But God is merciful.", "He will give us strength for this terrible ordeal.\"", "Maria's daughter Olga Alexandrovna commented further on the matter, \"Yet I am sure that deep in her heart my mother had steeled herself to accept the truth some years before her death.", "\"Nicholas on board HMS ''Marlborough'' leaving Russia forever with Yalta in the distanceDespite the overthrow of the monarchy in 1917, the former Empress Dowager Maria at first refused to leave Russia.", "Only in 1919, at the urging of her sister, Queen Dowager Alexandra, did she begrudgingly depart, fleeing Crimea over the Black Sea to London.", "King George V sent the battleship HMS ''Marlborough'' to retrieve his aunt.", "The party of 17 Romanovs included her daughter the Grand Duchess Xenia and five of Xenia's sons plus six dogs and a canary.After a brief stay in the British base in Malta, they travelled to England on the British battleship , and she stayed with her sister, Alexandra.", "Although Queen Alexandra never treated her sister badly and they spent time together at Marlborough House in London and at Sandringham House in Norfolk, Maria, as a deposed empress dowager, felt that she was now \"number two\", in contrast to her sister, a popular queen dowager, and she eventually returned to her native Denmark.", "After living briefly with her nephew, King Christian X, in a wing of the Amalienborg Palace, she chose her holiday villa Hvidøre near Copenhagen as her new permanent home.There were many Russian émigrées in Copenhagen who continued to regard her as the Empress and often asked her for help.", "The All-Russian Monarchical Assembly held in 1921 offered her the ''locum tenens'' of the Russian throne but she declined with the evasive answer \"Nobody saw Nicky killed\" and therefore there was a chance her son was still alive.", "She provided financial support to Nikolai Sokolov, who studied the circumstances of the death of the Tsar's family, but they never met.", "The Grand Duchess Olga sent a telegram to Paris cancelling an appointment because it would have been too difficult for the old and sick woman to hear the terrible story of her son and his family." ], [ "Death and burial", "The sarcophagus of Maria Feodorovna in the vaults of Roskilde Cathedral.In November 1925, Maria's favourite sister, Queen Alexandra, died.", "That was the last loss that she could bear.", "\"She was ready to meet her Creator,\" wrote her son-in-law, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich, about Dowager Empress Maria's last years.", "On 13 October 1928 at Hvidøre near Copenhagen, in a house she had once shared with her sister Queen Alexandra, Dowager Empress Maria died at the age of 80, having outlived four of her six children.", "Following services in Copenhagen's Russian Orthodox Alexander Nevsky Church, the Empress was interred at Roskilde Cathedral on the island of Zealand, the traditional burial site for Danish monarchs since the 15th century.sarcophagi of Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.In 2005, Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and President Vladimir Putin of Russia and their respective governments agreed that the Empress's remains should be returned to St. Petersburg in accordance with her wish to be interred next to her husband.", "A number of ceremonies took place from 23 to 28 September 2006.The funeral service, attended by high dignitaries, including the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of Denmark and Prince and Princess Michael of Kent, did not pass without some turbulence.", "The crowd around the coffin was so great that a young Danish diplomat fell into the grave before the coffin was interred.", "On 26 September 2006, a statue of Maria Feodorovna was unveiled near her favourite Cottage Palace in Peterhof.", "Following a service at Saint Isaac's Cathedral, she was interred next to her husband Alexander III in the Peter and Paul Cathedral on 28 September 2006, 140 years after her first arrival in Russia and almost 78 years after her death." ], [ "Issue", "Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna and their five childrenEmperor Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna had four sons and two daughters:NameBirthDeathNotesNicholas II of Russia18 May 186817 July 1918married 1894, Princess Alix of Hesse; had issue; no surviving descendants todayGrand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia7 June 18692 May 1870died of meningitis at age 10 months and 26 daysGrand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia9 May 18719 August 1899died of tuberculosis; had no issueGrand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia6 April 187520 April 1960married 1894, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia; had issueGrand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia4 December 187813 June 1918married 1912, Natalia Brasova; had issue; no surviving descendants todayGrand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia13 June 188224 November 1960married 1901, Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg; no issue, 1916, Nikolai Kulikovsky; had issue" ], [ "Legacy", "The Dagmarinkatu street in Töölö, Helsinki, and the Maria Hospital, which also previously operated in Helsinki, are named after Empress Maria Feodorovna.She is portrayed by Helen Hayes in the 1956 Hollywood historical drama ''Anastasia''.", "Irene Worth portrays her in the 1971 epic Nicholas and Alexandra.", "Ursula Howells played the role in one episode of the 1974 drama Fall of Eagles.", "Jane Lapotaire portrays the Empress in the 1975 television series Edward the Seventh.", "In the 1997 American animated version of the film ''Anastasia'', directed by Don Bluth and Gary Goldman, Maria Feodorovna is voiced by Angela Lansbury." ], [ "Honours", "* :** Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Catherine, ''1864''** Dame of the Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle the First-called, ''1883''* Mexican Empire: Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Saint Charles, ''10 April 1865''* : Dame 1st Class of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, ''25 May 1881''* Kingdom of Prussia: Dame 1st Class of the Order of Louise* : Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, ''6 January 1887''* : Grand Cordon (Paulownia) of the Order of the Precious Crown, ''23 January 1889''" ], [ "Paintings by Maria Feodorovna", "Image:Maria Fyodorovna-Still-life.jpg|''Still-life''.", "1868Image:Maria Fyodorovna-Miser.jpg|''Miser''.", "1890" ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===**** ** ******** *==== Primary sources ====*" ], [ "External links", "* Website of the Danish Cultural Society ''Dagmaria''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Montauban" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Montauban''' (, ; ) is a commune in the Tarn-et-Garonne department, region of Occitania, Southern France.", "It is the capital of the department and lies north of Toulouse.", "Montauban is the most populated town in Tarn-et-Garonne, and the sixth most populated of Occitanie behind Toulouse, Montpellier, Nîmes, Perpignan and Béziers.", "In 2019, there were 61,372 inhabitants, called ''Montalbanais''.", "The town has been classified ''Ville d’art et d’histoire'' (City of art and history) since 2015.The town, built mainly of a reddish brick, stands on the right bank of the Tarn at its confluence with the Tescou." ], [ "History", "Place Nationale in MontaubanArcade at Place NationaleMontauban is the second oldest (after Mont-de-Marsan) of the ''bastides'' of southern France.", "Its foundation dates from 1144 when Count Alphonse Jourdain of Toulouse, granted it a liberal charter.", "The inhabitants were drawn chiefly from Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neighbouring monastery of St Théodard.In the 13th century the town suffered much from the ravages of the Albigensian war and from the Inquisition, but by 1317 it had recovered sufficiently to be chosen by John XXII as the head of a diocese of which the basilica of St Théodard became the cathedral.", "''Redition of Montauban'', 21 August 1629.Château de Richelieu.In 1360, under the Treaty of Brétigny, it was ceded to the English; they were expelled by the inhabitants in 1414.In 1560 the bishops and magistrates embraced Protestantism, expelled the monks, and demolished the cathedral.", "Ten years later it became one of the four Huguenot strongholds under the Peace of Saint-Germain, and formed a small independent republic.", "It was the headquarters of the Huguenot rebellion of 1621, and successfully withstood an 86-day siege by Louis XIII.Because Montauban was a Protestant town, it resisted and held its position against the royal power, refusing to give allegiance to the Catholic King.", "To scare off the King's opponents and speed up the end of the siege, 400 cannonballs were fired, but Montauban resisted and the royal army was vanquished.", "Saint Jacques church is still marked by the cannonballs, and every year in September, the city celebrates \"les 400 coups\" (the 400 shots), which has become a common phrase in French.Montauban did not submit to royal authority until after the fall of La Rochelle in 1629, when its fortifications were destroyed by Cardinal Richelieu.", "The Protestants again suffered persecution later in the century, as Louis XIV began to persecute Protestants by sending troops to their homes (dragonnades) and then in 1685 revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had granted the community tolerance.During World War II, Leonardo da Vinci's ''Mona Lisa'' was briefly hidden in a secret vault behind a wine cellar at Montauban." ], [ "Climate", "Montauban has a borderline oceanic climate (''Cfb'') and humid subtropical climate (''Cfa'') in the Köppen climate classification).", "Temperatures are rather mild in winter and hot in summer.", "The town experienced severe droughts in 2003, 2006, 2012 and 2015.On 31 August 2015, the Tarn-et-Garonne area was particularly struck by a wave of violent storms.", "These storms, accompanied by very strong winds, created a tornado, which caused considerable damage in a large part of the department.", "Montauban was particularly affected, with winds measured between 130 and 150 kilometers per hour (a record) in the city center." ], [ "Sights", "Its fortifications have been replaced by boulevards beyond which extend numerous suburbs, while on the left bank of the Tarn is the suburb of Villebourbon, which is connected to the town by a remarkable bridge of the early 14th century.", "This bridge is known as ''Pont Vieux'' (i.e.", "\"Old Bridge\").", "King Philip the Fair of France officially launched the building of the bridge in 1303 while on a tour to Toulouse.", "The project took 30 years to complete, and the bridge was inaugurated in 1335.The main architects were Étienne de Ferrières and Mathieu de Verdun.", "It is a pink brick structure over in length, but while its fortified towers have disappeared, it is otherwise in a good state of preservation.", "The bridge was designed to resist the violent floods of the Tarn, and indeed it successfully withstood the two terrible millennial floods of 1441 and 1930.The bridge is a straight level bridge, which is quite unusual for Medieval Europe, where lack of technological skills meant that most bridges were of the humpback type.", "''The Great Warrior of Montauban'' by Antoine Bourdelle.The ''Musée Ingres'', on the site of a castle of the Counts of Toulouse and once the residence of the bishops of Montauban, stands at the east end of the bridge.", "It belongs chiefly to the 17th century, but some portions are much older, notably an underground chamber known as the Hall of the Black Prince (''Salle du Prince Noir'').", "It comprises most of the work (including his \"Jesus among the Teachers of the Law\") of Jean Ingres, the celebrated painter, whose birth in Montauban is commemorated by an elaborate monument.", "It is the largest museum of Ingres paintings in the world.", "The museum also contains some sculptures by famous sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, another native of Montauban, as well as collections of antiquities (Greek vases) and 18th and 19th ceramics.The ''Place Nationale'' is a square of the 17th century, entered at each corner by gateways giving access to a large open space surrounded by pink brick houses supported by double rows of arcades.The is located in the palace built by the ''intendant'' of Montauban (the equivalent of a ''préfet'' before the French Revolution), and is a large elegant 18th century mansion, built of pink bricks and white stone, with a steep roof of blue gray slates, in a style combining northern and southern French styles of architecture.The chief churches of Montauban are the cathedral, remarkable only for the possession of the \"Vow of Louis XIII\", one of the masterpieces of Ingres, and the church of St Jacques (14th and 15th centuries), dedicated to Saint James of Compostela, the façade of which is surmounted by a handsome octagonal tower, the base of which is in Romanesque style, while the upper levels, built later, are in Gothic style.", "Montauban:" ], [ "Economy", "The commercial importance of Montauban is due rather to its trade in agricultural produce, horses, game and poultry, than to its industries, which include nursery-gardening, cloth-weaving, cloth-dressing, flour-milling, wood-sawing, and the manufacture of furniture, silk-gauze and straw hats.However, due to the proximity of Toulouse and the cheaper cost of industrial grounds, more and more mechanical products are being manufactured there." ], [ "Demographics", "Montauban is the centre of an urban area with 79,300 inhabitants as of 2017." ], [ "Transport", "The town is a railway junction, and the station Gare de Montauban-Ville-Bourbon offers connections with Toulouse, Bordeaux, Paris, Brive-la-Gaillarde, Marseille and several regional destinations.", "Montauban communicates with the Garonne via the Canal de Montech." ], [ "Monuments", "Hôtel d'Alies - Mairie de Montauban.jpg|Town hallMontauban - Le Musée Ingres.jpg|Ingres MuseumMontauban - Salle du Prince Noir (1).jpg|The Hall of the Black Prince (14th c.)Cathédrale Notre Dame de l'Assomption de Montauban.jpg|CathedralMontauban_-_L'église_St_Jacques.jpg|Church of Saint-JacquesMontauban - Place Nationale (1).jpg|Place NationaleFounded in 1144 by the Comte de Toulouse, the town of Montauban has some particularities: its center's red brick streets intersect at right angles and meet at the National Square (Place Nationale) which is ranked among the most beautiful squares of France.", "Some buildings and architectural complexes are distinguished, such as \"le Musée Ingres\", \"la Place Nationale\", \"le Pont vieux\", \"L’église Saint Jacques\", \"la Cathédrale Notre Dame\", « l’Ancien Collège des Jésuites », « le Muséum »." ], [ "Main sights", "* The Ingres-Bourdelle Museum is the old town hall and an episcopal palace built in 1664 at the initiative of Pierre de Bertier on the remains of the palace that the Black Prince occupied during the Hundred Years' War.", "Some of the rooms of the latter, in the basements, are open to visitors.", "The building houses works by two former residents: Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres and Antoine Bourdelle.", "* The fortified church of Saint-Jacques.", "Of the second church built in the XIII-th century, only the Toulouse-style bell tower and part of the nave remain.", "In the XIVth century, the flat apse was replaced by a polygonal apse, while the city was going through a period of prosperity and the church became the seat of a parish.", "Transformed into a watchtower (bell tower), saltpeter manufacturing workshop (nave) and fort (choir) during the French Wars of Religion, Saint-Jacques still bears traces of cannonballs from the siege of 1621 on its facade.", "After the Catholic reconquest (1629), Cardinal Richelieu ordered the identical reconstruction of the church.", "Once a cathedral (1629-1739), in the 18th century it was equipped with new side portals and a gallery.", "On the facade, the Neo-Romanesque portal topped with a mosaic dates from the XIX-th century." ], [ "Sport", "The town is home of the rugby union club US Montauban.", "The team gained promotion from the Pro D2 competition for the 2006–07 Top 14 season.", "The whole town supports rugby, but the athletic club is also very efficient and national results have been regular since 2007.Some athletes in Montauban's athletic club are international athletes.", "Every year, since 2004, the Rene Arcuset cross country race has been organized in the city." ], [ "Movies", "In the movie \"Les Tontons Flingueurs\" a French classic by Georges Lautner, shot and released in 1963, Lino Ventura's character is a businessman from Montauban.", "Called to Paris for a personal case, he is nicknamed by Bernard Blier's character \"Le gugusse de Montauban\" (the guy from Montauban.)", "The \"gugusse\" will later answer: \"one should never leave Montauban\".", "Recently, a round-about in the center of the town was renamed \"Tonton Flingueurs' round-about\" and placards with drawings of the actors have been displayed." ], [ "Personalities", "Montauban was the birthplace of:* Jean-Baptiste Massip (1676–1751), 18th-century French playwright, poet, librettist* Marquis Jean-Jacques Lefranc of Pompignan (1709–1784), poet* Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert (1743–1790), general and military writer* Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793), playwright and journalist whose feminist writings reached a large audience* Jean Bon Saint-André (1749–1813), French revolutionary* Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, (1780–1867), painter* Paul-Henry de Belvèze, (1801–1875), French sailor* Adrien Joseph Prax-Paris (1829–1909), Bonapartist deputy for Tarn-et-Garonne during the Second French Empire and the French Third Republic.", "* Joseph Lachaud de Loqueyssie (1848–1896), deputy of Tarn-et-Garonne in 1877–81.", "* Antoine Bourdelle (1861–1929), sculptor and teacher* Camille Gardelle (1866–1947), architect who designed many famous buildings in Uruguay* Léon Bourjade (1889–1924), French fighter pilot during World War One and Catholic missionary* Daniel Cohn-Bendit (b.", "1943), leader of May '68 student protests and MEP* Vincent de Swarte (1963–2006), writer* Didier Rous (b.", "1970), former road cyclist* Mathieu Perget (b.", "1984), former road cyclist* Alexis Palisson (b.", "1987), rugby union player* Valentin Rosier (b.", "1996), football player* Alessandro Ghiretti (b.2002), racing driverMontauban was the death place of:* Manuel Azaña (1880–1940), the last President of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939), died in exile" ], [ "Institutions", "Montauban is the seat of a bishop and a court of assize.", "It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of trade arbitration, lycées and a training college, schools of commerce and viticulture, a branch of the Bank of France, and a faculty of Protestant theology." ], [ "Sister cities", "*Pawhuska, Oklahoma, USA*Gourbeyre, France*Yokneam, Israel*Khemisset, Morocco*Kozarac, Bosnia and Herzegovina*Prokuplje, Serbia" ], [ "See also", "*Communes of the Tarn-et-Garonne department" ], [ "References", "*Philip Conner, ''Huguenot Heartland: Montauban and Southern French Calvinism during the Wars of Religion'' (Aldershot, 2002) (St Andrews Studies in Reformation History).", ";Attribution*" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Rail transport modelling" ], [ "Introduction", "A Japanese H0e scale model railroadOne of the smallest (Z scale, 1:220) placed on the buffer bar of one of the larger (live steam, 1:8) model locomotivesHO scale (1:87) model of a North American center cab switcher shown with a pencil for sizeZ scale (1:220) scene of a 2-6-0 steam locomotive being turned.", "A scratch-built Russell snow plow is parked on a stub (Val Ease Central Railroad).", "'''Railway modelling''' (UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland) or '''model railroading''' (US and Canada) is a hobby in which rail transport systems are modelled at a reduced scale.The scale models include locomotives, rolling stock, streetcars, tracks, signalling, cranes, and landscapes including: countryside, roads, bridges, buildings, vehicles, harbors, urban landscape, model figures, lights, and features such as rivers, hills, tunnels, and canyons.The earliest model railways were the 'carpet railways' in the 1840s.", "The first documented model railway was the Railway of the Prince Imperial (French: Chemin de fer du Prince Impérial) built in 1859 by Emperor Napoleon III for his then 3-year-old son, also Napoleon, in the grounds of the Château de Saint-Cloud in Paris.", "It was powered by clockwork and ran in a figure-of-eight.", "Electric trains appeared around the start of the 20th century, but these were crude likenesses.", "Model trains today are more realistic, in addition to being much more technologically advanced.", "Today modellers create model railway layouts, often recreating real locations and periods throughout history.", "The world's oldest working model railway is a model designed to train signalmen on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway.", "It is located in the National Railway Museum, York, England and dates back to 1912.It remained in use until 1995.The model was built as a training exercise by apprentices of the company's Horwich Works and supplied with rolling stock by Bassett-Lowke." ], [ "General description", "Involvement ranges from possession of a train set to spending hours and large sums of money on a large and exacting model of a railroad and the scenery through which it passes, called a \"layout\".", "Hobbyists, called \"railway modellers\" or \"model railroaders\", may maintain models large enough to ride (see ''Live steam, Ridable miniature railway'' and ''Backyard railroad'').Modellers may collect model trains, building a landscape for the trains to pass through.", "They may also operate their own railroad in miniature.", "For some modellers, the goal of building a layout is to eventually run it as if it were a real railroad (if the layout is based on the fancy of the builder) or as the real railroad did (if the layout is based on a prototype).", "If modellers choose to model a prototype, they may reproduce track-by-track reproductions of the real railroad in miniature, often using prototype track diagrams and historic maps.Layouts vary from a circle or oval of track to realistic reproductions of real places modelled to scale.", "Probably the largest model landscape in the UK is in the Pendon Museum in Oxfordshire, UK, where an EM gauge (same 1:76.2 scale as 00 but with more accurate track gauge) model of the Vale of White Horse in the 1930s is under construction.", "The museum also houses one of the earliest scenic models – the Madder Valley layout built by John Ahern.", "This was built in the late 1930s to late 1950s and brought in realistic modelling, receiving coverage on both sides of the Atlantic in the magazines ''Model Railway News'' and ''Model Railroader''.", "Bekonscot in Buckinghamshire is the oldest model village and includes a model railway, dating from the 1930s.", "The world's largest model railroad in H0 scale is the ''Miniatur Wunderland'' in Hamburg, Germany.", "The largest live steam layout, with of track is Train Mountain in Chiloquin, Oregon, U.S.Operations form an important aspect of rail transport modelling with many layouts being dedicated to emulating the operational aspects of a working railway.", "These layouts can become extremely complex with multiple routes, movement patterns and timetabled operation.", "The British outline model railway of Banbury Connections is one of the world's most complicated model railways.Model railroad clubs exist where enthusiasts meet.", "Clubs often display models for the public.", "One specialist branch concentrates on larger scales and gauges, commonly using track gauges from .", "Models in these scales are usually hand-built and powered by live steam, or diesel-hydraulic, and the engines are often powerful enough to haul dozens of human passengers.The Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) at MIT in the 1950s pioneered automatic control of track-switching by using telephone relays.The oldest society is 'The Model Railway Club' (established 1910), near Kings Cross, London, UK.", "As well as building model railways, it has 5,000 books and periodicals.", "Similarly, 'The Historical Model Railway Society' at Butterley, near Ripley, Derbyshire specialises in historical matters and has archives available to members and non-members." ], [ "Scales and gauges", "The words ''scale'' and ''gauge'' seem at first interchangeable but their meanings are different.", "''Scale'' is the model's measurement as a proportion to the original, while ''gauge'' is the measurement between the rails.The size of engines depends on the scale and can vary from tall for the largest rideable live steam scales such as 1:4, down to matchbox size for the smallest: Z-scale (1:220) or T scale (1:450).", "A typical HO (1:87) engine is tall, and long.", "The most popular scales are: G scale, Gauge 1, O scale, S scale, HO scale (in Britain, the similar OO), TT scale, and N scale (1:160 in the United States, but 1:148 in the UK).", "HO and OO are the most popular.", "Popular narrow-gauge scales include Sn3, HOn3 and Nn3, which are the same in scale as S, HO and N except with a narrower spacing between the tracks (in these examples, a scale instead of the standard gauge).The largest common scale is 1:8, with 1:4 sometimes used for park rides.", "G scale (Garden, 1:24 scale) is most popular for backyard modelling.", "It is easier to fit a G scale model into a garden and keep scenery proportional to the trains.", "Gauge 1 and Gauge 3 are also popular for gardens.", "O, S, HO, and N scale are more often used indoors.ScaleRatioT1:450ZZ1:300Z1:220N1:1602mm1:152TT1:1203mm1:101HO1:87OO1:76.2S1:64O1:4811:32G1:22.5At first, model railways were not to scale.", "Aided by trade associations such as the National Model Railroad Association (NMRA) and ''Normen Europäischer Modellbahnen'' (NEM), manufacturers and hobbyists soon arrived at ''de facto'' standards for interchangeability, such as gauge, but trains were only a rough approximation to the real thing.", "Official scales for the gauges were drawn up but not at first rigidly followed and not necessarily correctly proportioned for the gauge chosen.", "0 (zero) gauge trains, for instance, operate on track too widely spaced in the United States as the scale is accepted as 1:48 whereas in Britain 0 gauge uses a ratio of 43.5:1 or 7 mm/1 foot and the gauge is near to correct.", "British OO standards operate on track significantly too narrow.", "The 4 mm/1 foot scale on a gauge corresponds to a track gauge of , (undersized).", "gauge corresponds to standard gauge in H0 (half-0) 3.5 mm/1 foot or 1:87.1.This arose due to British locomotives and rolling stock being smaller than those found elsewhere, leading to an increase in scale to enable H0 scale mechanisms to be used.", "Most commercial scales have standards that include wheel flanges that are too deep, wheel treads that are too wide, and rail tracks that are too large.", "In H0 scale, the rail heights are codes 100, 87, 83, 70, 55, 53, and 40 -- the height in thousandths of an inch from base to railhead (so code 100 is a tenth of an inch and represents 156-pound rail).Later, modellers became dissatisfied with inaccuracies and developed standards in which everything is correctly scaled.", "These are used by modellers but have not spread to mass-production because the inaccuracies and overscale properties of the commercial scales ensure reliable operation and allow for shortcuts necessary for cost control.", "The finescale standards include the UK's P4, and the even finer S4, which uses track dimensions scaled from the prototype.", "This 4 mm:1 ft modelling uses wheels or less wide running on track with a gauge of .", "Check-rail and wing-rail clearances are similarly accurate.", "A compromise of P4 and OO is \"EM\" which uses a gauge of with more generous tolerances than P4 for check clearances.", "It gives a better appearance than OO though pointwork is not as close to reality as P4.It suits many where time and improved appearance are important.", "There is a small following of finescale OO which uses the same 16.5mm gauge as OO, but with the finer scale wheels and smaller clearances as used with EM- it is essentially 'EM-minus-1.7mm.'" ], [ "Modules", "Many groups build modules, which are sections of layouts, and can be joined together to form a larger layout, for meetings or for special occasions.", "For each kind of module system, there is an interface standard, so that modules made by different participants may be connected, even if they have never been connected before.", "Many of these module types are listed in the Layout standards organizations section of this article." ], [ "Couplers and connectors", "In addition to different scales, there are also different types of couplers for connecting cars, which are not compatible with each other.In HO, the Americans standardized on horn-hook, or X2F couplers.", "Horn hook couplers have largely given way to a design known as a working knuckle coupler which was popularized by the Kadee Quality Products Co., and which has subsequently been emulated by a number of other manufactures in recent years.", "Working knuckle couplers are a closer approximation to the \"automatic\" couplers used on the prototype there and elsewhere.", "Also in HO, the European manufacturers have standardized, but on a coupler mount, not a coupler: many varieties of coupler can be plugged in (and out) of the NEM coupler box.", "None of the popular couplers has any resemblance to the prototype three-link chains generally used on the continent.For British modellers, whose most popular scale is OO, the normal coupler is a tension-lock coupler, which, again has no pretence of replicating the usual prototype three-link chain couplers.", "Bachmann and more recently Hornby have begun to offer models fitted with NEM coupler pockets.", "This theoretically enables modellers of British railways to substitute any other NEM362 coupler, though many Bachmann models place the coupler pocket at the wrong height.", "A fairly common alternative is to use representations of chain couplings as found on the prototype, though these require large radius curves to be used to avoid derailments.Other scales have similar ranges of non-compatible couplers available.", "In all scales couplers can be exchanged, with varying degrees of difficulty." ], [ "Landscaping", "A simple H0 (1:87) scale model railroad, consisting of three interconnected modules, each 70 x 100 cm in size.", "It has two concentric ovals of track and a few switches to sidetracks.", "It makes no pretension of being a copy of \"real life\".", "Using low-cost landscaping parts, house kits and rolling stock, it was built for a total of only a few hundred dollars.A H0e scale layout, in sizeThe landscape in this N scale town includes weathered buildings and tall uncut grass.Some modellers pay attention to landscaping their layout, creating a fantasy world or modelling an actual location, often historic.", "Landscaping is termed \"scenery building\" or \"scenicking\".Constructing scenery involves preparing a sub-terrain using a wide variety of building materials, including (but not limited to) screen wire, a lattice of cardboard strips, or carved stacks of expanded polystyrene (styrofoam) sheets.", "A scenery base is applied over the sub-terrain; typical base include casting plaster, plaster of Paris, hybrid paper-pulp (papier-mâché) or a lightweight foam/fiberglass/bubblewrap composite as in Geodesic Foam Scenery.The scenery base is covered with substitutes for ground cover, which may be Static Grass or '''scatter'''.", "''Scatter'' or ''flock'' is a substance used in the building of dioramas and model railways to simulate the effect of grass, poppies, fireweed, track ballast and other scenic ground cover.", "Scatter used to simulate track ballast is usually fine-grained ground granite.", "Scatter which simulates coloured grass is usually tinted sawdust, wood chips or ground foam.", "Foam or natural lichen or commercial '''scatter''' materials can be used to simulate shrubbery.", "An alternative to scatter, for grass, is static grass which uses static electricity to make its simulated grass actually stand up.Buildings and structures can be purchased as kits, or built from cardboard, balsa wood, basswood, other soft woods, paper, or polystyrene or other plastic.", "Trees can be fabricated from materials such as Western sagebrush, candytuft, and caspia, to which adhesive and model foliage are applied; or they can be bought ready-made from specialist manufacturers.", "Water can be simulated using polyester casting resin, polyurethane, or rippled glass.", "Rocks can be cast in plaster or in plastic with a foam backing.", "Castings can be painted with stains to give colouring and shadows." ], [ "Weathering", "''Weathering'' refers to making a model look used and exposed to weather by simulating dirt and wear on real vehicles, structures and equipment.", "Most models come out of the box looking new, because unweathered finishes are easier to produce.", "Also, the wear a freight car or building undergoes depends not only on age but where it is used.", "Rail cars in cities accumulate grime from building and automobile exhaust and graffiti, while cars in deserts may be subjected to sandstorms which etch or strip paint.", "A model that is weathered would not fit as many layouts as a pristine model which can be weathered by its purchaser.There are many weather techniques that include, but are not limited to, painting (by either drybrushing or an airbrush), sanding, breaking, and even the use of chemicals to cause corrosion.", "Some processes become very creative depending on the skill of the modeller.", "For instance several steps may be taken to create a rusting effect to ensure not only proper colouring, but also proper texture and lustre.Weathering purchased models is common, at the least, weathering aims to reduce the plastic-like finish of scale models.", "The simulation of grime, rust, dirt, and wear adds realism.", "Some modellers simulate fuel stains on tanks, or corrosion on battery boxes.", "In some cases, evidence of accidents or repairs may be added, such as dents or freshly painted replacement parts, and weathered models can be nearly indistinguishable from their prototypes when photographed appropriately." ], [ "Methods of power", "The sugar-cube sized electric motor in a Z scale model locomotive.", "The entire engine is only 50 mm (2\") long.Model of WP Steam Locomotive (1:3 size) at Guntur, IndiaStatic diorama models or \"push along\" scale models are a branch of model railways for unpowered locomotives, examples are Lone Star and Airfix models.", "Powered model railways are now generally operated by low voltage direct current (DC) electricity supplied via the tracks, but there are exceptions, such as Märklin and Lionel Corporation, which use alternating current (AC).", "Modern Digital Command Control (DCC) systems use alternating current.", "Other locomotives, particularly large models, can use steam.", "Steam and clockwork-driven engines are still sought by collectors.=== Clockwork ===Most early models for the toy market were powered by clockwork and controlled by levers on the locomotive.", "Although this made control crude the models were large and robust enough that handling the controls was practical.", "Various manufacturers introduced slowing and stopping tracks that could trigger levers on the locomotive and allow station stops.=== Electricity ===;Three-railEarly electrical models used a three-rail system with the wheels resting on a metal track with metal sleepers that conducted power and a middle rail which provided power to a skid under the locomotive.", "This made sense at the time as models were metal and conductive.", "Modern plastics were not available and insulation was a problem.", "In addition the notion of accurate models had yet to evolve and toy trains and track were crude tinplate.", "A variation on the three-rail system, Trix Twin, allowed two trains to be independently controlled on one track, before the advent of Digital Command Control.", ";Two-railAs accuracy became important some systems adopted two-rail power in which the wheels were isolated from each other and the rails carried the positive and negative supply with the right rail carrying the positive potential.", "This system precludes some track layouts that occur in the real world but would create short circuits in a two-rail model.", ";Stud contactOther systems such as Märklin instead used fine metal studs to replace the central rail, allowing existing three-rail models to use more realistic track.", ";Overhead lineWhere the model is of an electric locomotive, it may be supplied by overhead lines, like the full-size locomotive.", "Before Digital Command Control became available, this was one way of controlling two trains separately on the same track.", "The electric-outline model would be supplied by the overhead wire and the other model could be supplied by one of the running rails.", "The other running rail would act as a common return.", ";BatteryEarly electric trains ran on trackside batteries because few homes in the late 19th century and early 20th century had electricity.", "Today, inexpensive train sets running on batteries are again common but regarded as toys and seldom used by hobbyists.", "Batteries located in the model often power garden railway and larger scale systems because of the difficulty in obtaining reliable power supply through the outdoor rails.", "The high power consumption and current draw of large-scale garden models is more easily and safely met with internal rechargeable batteries.", "Most large-scale battery-powered models use radio control.=== Live steam ===Engines powered by live steam are often built in large outdoor gauges of and , are also available in Gauge 1, G scale, 16 mm scale and can be found in O and OO/HO.", "Hornby Railways produce live steam locomotives in OO, based on designs first arrived at by an amateur modeller.", "Other modellers have built live steam models in HO/OO, OO9 and N, and there is one in Z in Australia.=== Internal combustion ===Occasionally gasoline-electric models, patterned after real diesel-electric locomotives, come up among hobbyists and companies like Pilgrim Locomotive Works have sold such locomotives.", "Large-scale petrol-mechanical and petrol-hydraulic models are available but unusual and pricier than the electrically powered versions." ], [ "Scratch building", "Model of a Russian locomotive class FD number FD20-2865 at the Museum of the Moscow RailwayModern manufacturing techniques can allow mass-produced models to cost-effectively achieve a high degree of precision and realism.", "In the past this was not the case and scratch building was very common.", "Simple models are made using cardboard engineering techniques.", "More sophisticated models can be made using a combination of etched sheets of brass and low temperature castings.", "Parts that need machining, such as wheels and couplings are purchased.Etched kits are still popular, still accompanied by low temperature castings.", "These kits produce models that are not covered by the major manufacturers or in scales that are not in mass production.", "Laser machining techniques have extended this ability to thicker materials for scale steam and other locomotive types.", "Scratch builders may also make silicone rubber moulds of the parts they create, and cast them in various plastic resins (see Resin casting), or plasters.", "This may be done to save duplication of effort, or to sell to others.", "Resin \"craftsman kits\" are also available for a wide range of prototypes." ], [ "Control", "Coin-operated model train layout in GermanyThe first clockwork (spring-drive) and live steam locomotives ran until out of power, with no way for the operator to stop and restart the locomotive or vary its speed.", "The advent of electric trains, which appeared commercially in the 1890s, allowed control of the speed by varying the current or voltage.", "As trains began to be powered by transformers and rectifiers more sophisticated throttles appeared, and soon trains powered by AC contained mechanisms to change direction or go into neutral gear when the operator cycled the power.", "Trains powered by DC can change direction by reversing polarity.Electricity permits control by dividing the layout into isolated blocks, where trains can be slowed or stopped by lowering or cutting power to a block.", "Dividing a layout into blocks permits operators to run more than one train with less risk of a fast train catching and hitting a slow train.", "Blocks can also trigger signals or other accessories, adding realism or whimsy.", "Three-rail systems often insulate one of the common rails on a section of track, and use a passing train to complete the circuit and activate an accessory.Many layout builders are choosing digital operation of their layouts rather than the more traditional DC design.", "Of the several competing systems, the command system offered by the majority of manufacturers in 2020 was a variant of Digital Command Control (DCC).", "The advantages of DCC are that track voltage is constant (usually in the range of 20 volts AC) and the command throttle sends a signal to small circuit cards, or decoders, hidden inside the piece of equipment which control several functions of an individual locomotive, including speed, direction of travel, lights, smoke and various sound effects.", "This allows more realistic operation in that the modeller can operate independently several locomotives on the same stretch of track.", "Several manufacturers also offer software that can provide computer-control of DCC layouts.In large scales, particularly for garden railways, radio control and DCC in the garden have become popular." ], [ "Model railway manufacturers", "File:ExeterBank modelrailway.JPG|''Exeter Bank'': An HO-scale Australian model railwayFile:Modelrailway1.JPG|An O-scale Australian model railwayFile:Livesteamtrain.jpg|A propane-fired 1:8 scale live steam train running on the Finnish Railway Museum's gauge trackFile:Wagga-modeltrain.jpg|A small gauge live steam locomotive at the Wagga Wagga Society of Model Engineers' miniature railway, Willans Hill, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australiafile:Modelljärnväg i Malmö-1987.jpg|1:8 Live Steam Malmö 1987file:Modelljärnväg - Malmö-1987.jpg|1:8 Live Steam Malmö 1987File:Sapsan Museum of Moscow Railway.JPG|HO gauge Model Railway featuring the Sapsan train on the Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway and Moscow to Nizhny Novgorod Railway in the Museum of the Moscow Railway, Moscow* Accurail* Accurascale* Airfix* Acme* American Flyer* American Z Lines* Aristo-Craft Trains* Arnold* Associated Hobby Manufacters (AHM) (defunct)* Athearn* Atlas Model Railroad* Auhagen* Auscision* Austrains* Austrains NEO* Bachmann Industries* Bassett-Lowke* Bavaria* * Bing* Bowser Manufacturing* Branchline (Bachmann Branchline)* Broadway Limited Imports (BLI)* Buggleskelly Station (founded by Tom Marshall)* Con-Cor* Dapol* Darstaed* Doepke (defunct)* DJH Models and Kits* DJ Models Ltd* Exley* Eggerbahn* ExactRail* Eureka Models* Faller* Ferris (defunct)* Fleischmann* Frateschi* Fulgurex* G .& R. Wrenn Ltd* Golden Age Models Limited* Graham Farish (\"Grafar\")* Great West Models* Gützold* HAG* Hartlan Locomotive Works* Haskell* Heljan* Herpa* Hornby Railways* Ibertren* Intermountain* International Hobby Corp.* Irish Railway Models* Ives Manufacturing Company (defunct 1928)* Jouef* Kadee* Kato Precision Railroad Models* Kemtron Corporation (defunct 1964)* Klein Modellbahn* Kleinbahn* K-Line* Kres (model railway)* Kuehn-modell* Lego train* Lemaco* * * Lesney (Matchbox)* Lehmann Gross Bahn* Life-Like* Liliput (owned by Bachmann Industries)* Lima* Lionel, LLC* LS Models* Marx* Mainline* Mantua, later Tyco Toys (both defunct by 2001)* Märklin* Mehano* Merkur (toy)* Merten (model railway)* Micro-Trains Line* Minitrains* Mistral Train Models* Model Power* Modemo (Hasegawa)* MTH Electric Trains* Noch* Norsk Modelljernbane (NMJ)* Oxford Rail* Peco* Piko* Playcraft (defunct)* Playmobil* Powerline model railway* Rapido* Rapido Trains (Canada)* REE Modèles* Rio Grande Models, Ltd.* Rivarossi* Roco* Rokal* Rokuhan* ScaleTrains* Slater's Plastikard* Seven* Southern Rail Models* SDS Models* SceneryScapers* Stewart Hobbies* Tenmille* Tenshodo* Tomix* * Tillig* Bob's Hobbies and Models (Trainorama)* Tri-ang Railways* Trix/Minitrix* USA Trains* Varney* Viessmann* Vitrains* Vollmer* Von Stetina Artworks* Wiking* Walthers* Weaver Trains* Williams* Woodland Scenics* Worsley Works* Wuiske" ], [ "Magazines", "Chicago's Museum of Science and IndustryA model railway based on a fictional location in the United States" ], [ "Layout standards organizations", "Several organizations exist to set standardizations for connectibility between individual layout sections (commonly called \"modules\").", "This is so several (or hundreds, given enough space and power) people or groups can bring together their own modules, connect them together with as little trouble as possible, and operate their trains.", "Despite different design and operation philosophies, different organizations have similar goals; standardized ends to facilitate connection with other modules built to the same specifications, standardized electricals, equipment, curve radii.", "*ausTRAK, N Scale, two-track main with hidden third track (can be used as NTRAK's third main, as a return/continuous loop, or hidden yard/siding/on-line storage).", "Australian scenery and rolling stock modelled in Standard Gauge.", "*FREMO a European-based organisation focusing on a single-track line, HO Scale.", "Also sets standards for N Scale modules.", "Standards are considerably more flexible in module shape than NTRAK, and has expanded over the years to accommodate several scenery variations.", "*Free-mo Originally developed by the San Luis Obispo Model Railroad Club in 1995 (California), it has grown across North America and is expanding across the world.", "The objective of the Free-mo Standard is to provide a platform for prototype modelling in a flexible, modular environment.", "Free-mo modules not only provide track to operate realistic models, but also emphasize realistic, plausible scenery; realistic, reliable trackwork; and operations.", "Free-Mo was designed to go beyond the traditional closed-loop set-up in creating a truly universal \"free-form\" modular design that is operations-oriented and heavily influenced by prototype railroading.", "This is emphasized in the Free-mo motto, \"More than Just a Standard\".", "*MOROP, European Union of Model Railroad and Railroad Fans, the European standardization organisation.", "*NEM, The German modelling standards organisation.", "*NMRA, National Model Railroad Association, the largest organization devoted to the development, promotion, and enjoyment of the hobby of model railroading.", "*N-orma, Polish N-scale (1:160) modules organization.", "*NTRAK, standardized three-track (heavy operation) mainline with several optional branchlines.", "Focuses on standard gauge, but also has specifications for narrow gauge.", "Due to its popularity, it can be found in regional variations, most notably the imperial-to-metric measurement conversions.", "Tends to be used more for \"unattended display\" than \"operation\".", "*oNeTRAK, operationally similar to FREMO, standardises around a single-track mainline, with modules of varying sizes and shapes.", "Designed with the existing NTRAK spec in mind, is fully compatible with such modules.", "*Sipping and Switching Society of NC is a society/association of individuals which has developed a system of HO modules, which feature lightweight waffle construction using 5 mm lauan plywood underlayment and an interface which depends on using a metal template to locate pegs to mate to 1-inch holes in the adjoining module.", "The rails of the tracks are positioned in an exact relationship with the pegs.", "The rails come up to the end of the modules, so that the rails on adjacent modules do not need joiner track, but depend on the accuracy of the placement of the rails to allow trains to pass from one section to another.", "This style of module allows for very quick set-up, compared with module systems that use joiner tracks.", "*sTTandard, Polish TT-scale (1:120) modules organization.", "*T-TRAK, is a modular system that uses table-top modules, high, which set on tables, that are not part of the modules, but are often found at sites which members meet.", "It uses a specific track interface, which has joiners which hold the modules together, which enables quick setting up and taking down.", "*Z-Bend Track, uses a double-track mainline running down both sides of a module.", "Modules can be of any length or width in the middle and any overall shape.", "The \"standard\" called Z-Bend Track applies only to the last of the module's interface to other modules, the electrical interface and the module height." ], [ "In popular culture", "A humorous sign regarding \"model railway disease\"* In the 1990 film ''Back to the Future III'', Doc brown builds a \"crude\" electrified model rail \"not to scale\" to demonstrate his time travel experiment to Marty in 1885.", "* In ''Hinterland'' Season 1, Episode 4 (\"The Girl in the Water\"), a semi-recluse who lives and works at Borth railway station maintains a model train set with custom made components; the set and certain components contribute to a death as well as provide important clues to a murder investigation.", "During the investigation, DCI Tom Mathias reveals that his late brother was a model train aficionado.", "* In ''The Sopranos'', Bobby Baccalieri is a model train aficionado.", "He is shown wearing an engineer's cap while playing with model trains in his garage.", "* In ''The Simpsons'', Reverend Lovejoy is often depicted playing with his model trains when not on ecumenical duty, often while wearing a conductor's uniforn and hat.", "* In ''Trailer Park Boys'', Season 7 Episode 4, \"Friends of the Dead\", heavy metal singer Sebastian Bach is a featured guest at the Bangor model train convention and is introduced as \"our Competitive Model Train World Champion\".", "He expresses a dislike of alleged rival model train competitor Patrick Swayze.", "Attendees at the family event are shocked by Sebastian's use of obscenities as he attempts to work the crowd in a rock concert fashion shouting, \"I know, I just know, that there are some great f**king trains here in Bangor!\"" ], [ "See also", "*Railway enthusiast*Brass model*Great American Train Show*Lego train*List of model railroad clubs*Model airport*Plasticville*Rail transport modelling scales*Rail transport modelling standards*Scale model*Standard gauge in Model railways*Train game; Displays and famous layouts*Carnegie Science Center's Miniature Railroad & Village in Pittsburgh*Clemenceau Heritage Museum, elaborate model railroad display depicts the seven railroads that operated in the Upper Verde Valley of Arizona, 1895–1953*Gorre & Daphetid*The Great Train Story exhibit at Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)*Miniatur Wunderland in Hamburg*National Toy Train Museum*Northlandz*San Diego Model Railroad Museum*The Toy Train Depot – A museum dedicated to the history of scale model railroading in Alamogordo, New Mexico*Virginian and Ohio*Výtopna; Groups dedicated to railway modelling* Historical Model Railway Society (UK)* National Model Railroad Association (USA)* Sydney Model Railway Exhibition" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The National Model Railroad Association, USA – the largest model railroad organization in the world* The Model Railway Club, UK – the oldest known society in the world – established 1910* Associazione Ferrovie Siciliane – AFS (Messina – IT) – One of the most important group of rail enthusiasts end railways modellers active in Sicily and all over Italy founded in 2006" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Morphophonology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Morphophonology''' (also '''morphophonemics''' or '''morphonology''') is the branch of linguistics that studies the interaction between morphological and phonological or phonetic processes.", "Its chief focus is the sound changes that take place in morphemes (minimal meaningful units) when they combine to form words.Morphophonological analysis often involves an attempt to give a series of formal rules or constraints that successfully predict the regular sound changes occurring in the morphemes of a given language.", "Such a series of rules converts a theoretical underlying representation into a surface form that is actually heard.", "The units of which the underlying representations of morphemes are composed are sometimes called '''morphophonemes'''.", "The surface form produced by the morphophonological rules may consist of phonemes (which are then subject to ordinary phonological rules to produce speech sounds or ''phones''), or else the morphophonological analysis may bypass the phoneme stage and produce the phones itself." ], [ "Morphophonemes and morphophonological rules", "When morphemes combine, they influence each other's sound structure (whether analyzed at a phonetic or phonemic level), resulting in different variant pronunciations for the same morpheme.", "Morphophonology attempts to analyze these processes.", "A language's morphophonological structure is generally described with a series of rules which, ideally, can predict every morphophonological alternation that takes place in the language.An example of a morphophonological alternation in English is provided by the plural morpheme, written as \"-s\" or \"-es\".", "Its pronunciation varies among , , and , as in ''cats'', ''dogs'', and ''horses'' respectively.", "A purely phonological analysis would most likely assign to these three endings the phonemic representations , , .", "On a morphophonological level, however, they may all be considered to be forms of the underlying object , which is a '''morphophoneme''' realized as one of the phonemic forms .", "The different forms it takes are dependent on the segment at the end of the morpheme to which it attaches: the dependencies are described by morphophonological rules.", "(The behaviour of the English past tense ending \"-ed\" is similar: it can be pronounced , or , as in ''hoped'', ''bobbed'' and ''added''.", ")The plural suffix \"-s\" can also influence the form taken by the preceding morpheme, as in the case of the words ''leaf'' and ''knife'', which end with in the singular/but have in the plural (''leaves'', ''knives'').", "On a morphophonological level, the morphemes may be analyzed as ending in a morphophoneme , which becomes voiced when a voiced consonant (in this case the of the plural ending) is attached to it.", "The rule may be written symbolically as -> αvoice / αvoice.", "This expression is called Alpha Notation in which α can be + (positive value) or − (negative value).Common conventions to indicate a morphophonemic rather than phonemic representation include double slashes (⫽  ⫽) (as above, implying that the transcription is 'more phonemic than simply phonemic').", "This is the only convention consistent with the IPA.", "Other conventions include pipes (|  |), double pipes (‖  ‖) and braces ({  }).", "Braces, from a convention in set theory, tend to be used when the phonemes are all listed, as in {s, z, ɪz} and {t, d, ɪd} for the English plural and past-tense morphemes ⫽z⫽ and ⫽d⫽ above.For instance, the English word ''cats'' may be transcribed phonetically as , phonemically as and morphophonemically as , if the plural is argued to be underlyingly , assimilating to after a voiceless nonsibilant.", "The tilde ~ may indicate morphological alternation, as in or for ''kneel~knelt'' (the plus sign '+' indicates a morpheme boundary)." ], [ "Types of changes", "Inflected and agglutinating languages may have extremely complicated systems of morphophonemics.", "Examples of complex morphophonological systems include:* Sandhi, the phenomenon behind the English examples of plural and past tense above, is found in virtually all languages to some degree.", "Even Mandarin, which is sometimes said to display no morphology, nonetheless displays tone sandhi, a morphophonemic alternation.", "* Consonant gradation, found in some Uralic languages such as Finnish, Estonian, Northern Sámi, and Nganasan.", "* Vowel harmony, which occurs in varying degrees in languages all around the world, notably Turkic languages.", "* Ablaut, found in English and other Germanic languages.", "Ablaut is the phenomenon wherein stem vowels change form depending on context, as in English ''sing'', ''sang'', ''sung''." ], [ "Relation with phonology", "Until the 1950s, many phonologists assumed that neutralizing rules generally applied before allophonic rules.", "Thus phonological analysis was split into two parts: a morphophonological part, where neutralizing rules were developed to derive phonemes from morphophonemes; and a purely phonological part, where phones were derived from the phonemes.", "Since the 1960s (in particular with the work of the generative school, such as Chomsky and Halle's ''The Sound Pattern of English'') many linguists have moved away from making such a split, instead regarding the surface phones as being derived from the underlying morphophonemes (which may be referred to using various terminology) through a single system of (morpho)phonological rules.The purpose of both phonemic and morphophonemic analysis is to produce simpler underlying descriptions for what appear on the surface to be complicated patterns.", "In purely phonemic analysis the data is just a set of words in a language, while for the purposes of morphophonemic analysis the words must be considered in grammatical paradigms to take account of the underlying morphemes.", "It is postulated that morphemes are recorded in the speaker's \"lexicon\" in an invariant (morphophonemic) form, which, in a given environment, is converted by rules into a surface form.", "The analyst attempts to present as completely as possible a system of underlying units (morphophonemes) and a series of rules that act on them, so as to produce surface forms consistent with the linguistic data." ], [ "Isolation forms", "The '''isolation form''' of a morpheme is the form in which that morpheme appears in isolation (when it is not subject to the effects of any other morpheme).", "In the case of a bound morpheme, such as the English past tense ending \"-ed\", it is generally not possible to identify an isolation form since such a morpheme does not occur in isolation.It is often reasonable to assume that the isolation form of a morpheme provides its underlying representation.", "For example, in some varieties of American English, ''plant'' is pronounced , while ''planting'' is , where the morpheme \"plant-\" appears in the form .", "Here, the underlying form can be assumed to be , corresponding to the isolation form, since rules can be set up to derive the reduced form from this (but it would be difficult or impossible to set up rules that would derive the isolation form from an underlying ).That is not always the case, however; the isolation form itself is sometimes subject to neutralization that does not apply to some other instances of the morpheme.", "For example, the French word ''petit'' (\"small\") is pronounced in isolation without the final t sound, but in certain derived forms (such as the feminine ''petite''), the t is heard.", "If the isolation form were adopted as the underlying form, the information that there is a final \"t\" would be lost, and it would then be difficult to explain the appearance of the \"t\" in the inflected forms.", "Similar considerations apply to languages with final obstruent devoicing, in which the isolation form undergoes loss of voicing contrast, but other forms may not.If the grammar of a language is assumed to have two rules, rule A and rule B, with A ordered before B, a given derivation may cause the application of rule A to create the environment for rule B to apply, which was not present before the application of rule A.", "Both rules then are in a ''feeding relationship''.If rule A is ordered before B in the derivation in which rule A destroys the environment to which rule B applies, both rules are in a ''bleeding order''.If A is ordered before B, and B creates an environment in which A could have applied, B is then said to counterfeed A, and the relationship is ''counterfeeding''.If A is ordered before B, there is a ''counterbleeding'' relationship if B destroys the environment that A applies to and has already applied and so B has missed its chance to bleed A.", "''Conjunctive ordering'' is the ordering that ensures that all rules are applied in a derivation before the surface representation occurs.", "Rules applied in a feeding relationship are said to be ''conjunctively ordered''.", "''Disjunctive ordering'' is a rule that applies and prevents the other rule from applying in the surface representation.", "Such rules have a bleeding relationship and are said to be ''disjunctively ordered''." ], [ "Orthography", "The principle behind alphabetic writing systems is that the letters (graphemes) represent phonemes.", "However, many orthographies based on such systems have correspondences between graphemes and phonemes that are not exact, and it is sometimes the case that certain spellings better represent a word's morphophonological structure rather than the purely-phonological structure.", "An example is that the English plural morpheme is written ''-s'', regardless of whether it is pronounced or : ''cat'''s''''' and ''dog'''s''''', not ''dog'''z'''''.The above example involves active morphology (inflection), and morphophonemic spellings are common in this context in many languages.", "Another type of spelling that can be described as morphophonemic is the kind that reflects the etymology of words.", "Such spellings are particularly common in English; examples include '''''sci'''ence'' vs. ''uncon'''sci'''ous'' , '''''pre'''judice'' vs. '''''pre'''quel'' , '''''sign''''' '''''sign'''ature'' , '''''na'''tion'' vs. '''''na'''tionalism'' , and '''''spe'''cial'' vs. '''''spe'''cies'' .For more detail on this topic, see Phonemic orthography, particularly the section on Morphophonemic features." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Hayes, Bruce (2009).", "\"Morphophonemic Analysis\" ''Introductory Phonology'', pp.", "161–185.Blackwell" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mirror" ], [ "Introduction", "A mirror reflecting the image of a vaseA first-surface mirror coated with aluminium and enhanced with dielectric coatings.", "The angle of the incident light (represented by both the light in the mirror and the shadow behind it) exactly matches the angle of reflection (the reflected light shining on the table).-tall acoustic mirror near Kilnsea Grange, East Yorkshire, UK, from World War I.", "The mirror magnified the sound of approaching enemy Zeppelins for a microphone placed at the focal point.", "Sound waves are much longer than light waves, thus the object produces diffuse reflections in the visual spectrum.A '''mirror''', also known as a '''looking glass''', is an object that reflects an image.", "Light that bounces off a mirror will show an image of whatever is in front of it, when focused through the lens of the eye or a camera.", "Mirrors reverse the direction of the image in an equal yet opposite angle from which the light shines upon it.", "This allows the viewer to see themselves or objects behind them, or even objects that are at an angle from them but out of their field of view, such as around a corner.", "Natural mirrors have existed since prehistoric times, such as the surface of water, but people have been manufacturing mirrors out of a variety of materials for thousands of years, like stone, metals, and glass.", "In modern mirrors, metals like silver or aluminium are often used due to their high reflectivity, applied as a thin coating on glass because of its naturally smooth and very hard surface.A mirror is a wave reflector.", "Light consists of waves, and when light waves reflect from the flat surface of a mirror, those waves retain the same degree of curvature and vergence, in an equal yet opposite direction, as the original waves.", "This allows the waves to form an image when they are focused through a lens, just as if the waves had originated from the direction of the mirror.", "The light can also be pictured as rays (imaginary lines radiating from the light source, that are always perpendicular to the waves).", "These rays are reflected at an equal yet opposite angle from which they strike the mirror (incident light).", "This property, called specular reflection, distinguishes a mirror from objects that diffuse light, breaking up the wave and scattering it in many directions (such as flat-white paint).", "Thus, a mirror can be any surface in which the texture or roughness of the surface is smaller (smoother) than the wavelength of the waves.", "When looking at a mirror, one will see a mirror image or reflected image of objects in the environment, formed by light emitted or scattered by them and reflected by the mirror towards one's eyes.", "This effect gives the illusion that those objects are behind the mirror, or (sometimes) in front of it.", "When the surface is not flat, a mirror may behave like a reflecting lens.", "A plane mirror yields a real-looking undistorted image, while a curved mirror may distort, magnify, or reduce the image in various ways, while keeping the lines, contrast, sharpness, colors, and other image properties intact.A mirror is commonly used for inspecting oneself, such as during personal grooming; hence the old-fashioned name \"looking glass\".", "This use, which dates from prehistory, overlaps with uses in decoration and architecture.", "Mirrors are also used to view other items that are not directly visible because of obstructions; examples include rear-view mirrors in vehicles, security mirrors in or around buildings, and dentist's mirrors.", "Mirrors are also used in optical and scientific apparatus such as telescopes, lasers, cameras, periscopes, and industrial machinery.According to superstitions breaking a mirror is said to bring seven years of bad luck.The terms \"mirror\" and \"reflector\" can be used for objects that reflect any other types of waves.", "An acoustic mirror reflects sound waves.", "Objects such as walls, ceilings, or natural rock-formations may produce echos, and this tendency often becomes a problem in acoustical engineering when designing houses, auditoriums, or recording studios.", "Acoustic mirrors may be used for applications such as parabolic microphones, atmospheric studies, sonar, and seafloor mapping.", "An atomic mirror reflects matter waves and can be used for atomic interferometry and atomic holography." ], [ "History", "Roman fresco of a woman fixing her hair using a mirror, from Stabiae, Italy, 1st century ADDetail of the convex mirror from the Arnolfini portrait, Bruges, 1434 AD'Adorning Oneself', detail from 'Admonitions of the Instructress to the Palace Ladies', Tang dynasty copy of an original by Chinese painter Gu Kaizhi, A sculpture of a lady looking into a mirror, from Halebidu, India, in the 12th century===Prehistory===The first mirrors used by humans were most likely pools of still water, or shiny stones.", "The requirements for making a good mirror are a surface with a very high degree of flatness (preferably but not necessarily with high reflectivity), and a surface roughness smaller than the wavelength of the light.The earliest manufactured mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass.", "Examples of obsidian mirrors found in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) have been dated to around 6000 BCE.", "Mirrors of polished copper were crafted in Mesopotamia from 4000 BCE, and in ancient Egypt from around 3000 BCE.", "Polished stone mirrors from Central and South America date from around 2000 BCE onwards.===Bronze Age to Early Middle Ages===By the Bronze Age most cultures were using mirrors made from polished discs of bronze, copper, silver, or other metals.", "The people of Kerma in Nubia were skilled in the manufacturing of mirrors.", "Remains of their bronze kilns have been found within the temple of Kerma.", "In China, bronze mirrors were manufactured from around 2000 BC, some of the earliest bronze and copper examples being produced by the Qijia culture.", "Such metal mirrors remained the norm through to Greco-Roman Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages in Europe.", "During the Roman Empire silver mirrors were in wide use by servants.Speculum metal is a highly reflective alloy of copper and tin that was used for mirrors until a couple of centuries ago.", "Such mirrors may have originated in China and India.", "Mirrors of speculum metal or any precious metal were hard to produce and were only owned by the wealthy.Common metal mirrors tarnished and required frequent polishing.", "Bronze mirrors had low reflectivity and poor color rendering, and stone mirrors were much worse in this regard.", "These defects explain the New Testament reference in 1 Corinthians 13 to seeing \"as in a mirror, darkly.", "\"The Greek philosopher Socrates urged young people to look at themselves in mirrors so that, if they were beautiful, they would become worthy of their beauty, and if they were ugly, they would know how to hide their disgrace through learning.Glass began to be used for mirrors in the 1st century CE, with the development of soda-lime glass and glass blowing.", "The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder claims that artisans in Sidon (modern-day Lebanon) were producing glass mirrors coated with lead or gold leaf in the back.", "The metal provided good reflectivity, and the glass provided a smooth surface and protected the metal from scratches and tarnishing.", "However, there is no archeological evidence of glass mirrors before the third century.These early glass mirrors were made by blowing a glass bubble, and then cutting off a small circular section from 10 to 20 cm in diameter.", "Their surface was either concave or convex, and imperfections tended to distort the image.", "Lead-coated mirrors were very thin to prevent cracking by the heat of the molten metal.", "Due to the poor quality, high cost, and small size of glass mirrors, solid-metal mirrors (primarily of steel) remained in common use until the late nineteenth century.Silver-coated metal mirrors were developed in China as early as 500 CE.", "The bare metal was coated with an amalgam, then heated until the mercury boiled away.===Middle Ages and Renaissance===An 18th century vermeil mirror in the Musée des Arts décoratifs, StrasbourgA mirror with lacquered back inlaid with four phoenixes holding ribbons in their mouths during the Tang Dynasty in eastern Xi'anThe evolution of glass mirrors in the Middle Ages followed improvements in glassmaking technology.", "Glassmakers in France made flat glass plates by blowing glass bubbles, spinning them rapidly to flatten them, and cutting rectangles out of them.", "A better method, developed in Germany and perfected in Venice by the 16th century, was to blow a cylinder of glass, cut off the ends, slice it along its length, and unroll it onto a flat hot plate.", "Venetian glassmakers also adopted lead glass for mirrors, because of its crystal-clarity and its easier workability.", "By the 11th century, glass mirrors were being produced in Moorish Spain.During the early European Renaissance, a fire-gilding technique developed to produce an even and highly reflective tin coating for glass mirrors.", "The back of the glass was coated with a tin-mercury amalgam, and the mercury was then evaporated by heating the piece.", "This process caused less thermal shock to the glass than the older molten-lead method.", "The date and location of the discovery is unknown, but by the 16th century Venice was a center of mirror production using this technique.", "These Venetian mirrors were up to square.For a century, Venice retained the monopoly of the tin amalgam technique.", "Venetian mirrors in richly decorated frames served as luxury decorations for palaces throughout Europe, and were very expensive.", "For example, in the late seventeenth century, the Countess de Fiesque was reported to have traded an entire wheat farm for a mirror, considering it a bargain.", "However, by the end of that century the secret was leaked through industrial espionage.", "French workshops succeeded in large-scale industrialization of the process, eventually making mirrors affordable to the masses, in spite of the toxicity of mercury's vapor.===Industrial Revolution===The invention of the ribbon machine in the late Industrial Revolution allowed modern glass panes to be produced in bulk.", "The Saint-Gobain factory, founded by royal initiative in France, was an important manufacturer, and Bohemian and German glass, often rather cheaper, was also important.The invention of the silvered-glass mirror is credited to German chemist Justus von Liebig in 1835.His wet deposition process involved the deposition of a thin layer of metallic silver onto glass through the chemical reduction of silver nitrate.", "This silvering process was adapted for mass manufacturing and led to the greater availability of affordable mirrors.===Contemporary technologies===Mirrors are often produced by the wet deposition of silver, or sometimes nickel or chromium (the latter used most often in automotive mirrors) via electroplating directly onto the glass substrate.Glass mirrors for optical instruments are usually produced by vacuum deposition methods.", "These techniques can be traced to observations in the 1920s and 1930s that metal was being ejected from electrodes in gas discharge lamps and condensed on the glass walls forming a mirror-like coating.", "The phenomenon, called sputtering, was developed into an industrial metal-coating method with the development of semiconductor technology in the 1970s.A similar phenomenon had been observed with incandescent light bulbs: the metal in the hot filament would slowly sublimate and condense on the bulb's walls.", "This phenomenon was developed into the method of evaporation coating by Pohl and Pringsheim in 1912.John D. Strong used evaporation coating to make the first aluminium-coated telescope mirrors in the 1930s.", "The first dielectric mirror was created in 1937 by Auwarter using evaporated rhodium.The metal coating of glass mirrors is usually protected from abrasion and corrosion by a layer of paint applied over it.", "Mirrors for optical instruments often have the metal layer on the front face, so that the light does not have to cross the glass twice.", "In these mirrors, the metal may be protected by a thin transparent coating of a non-metallic (dielectric) material.", "The first metallic mirror to be enhanced with a dielectric coating of silicon dioxide was created by Hass in 1937.In 1939 at the Schott Glass company, Walter Geffcken invented the first dielectric mirrors to use multilayer coatings.===Burning mirrors===The Greek in Classical Antiquity were familiar with the use of mirrors to concentrate light.", "Parabolic mirrors were described and studied by the mathematician Diocles in his work ''On Burning Mirrors''.", "Ptolemy conducted a number of experiments with curved polished iron mirrors, and discussed plane, convex spherical, and concave spherical mirrors in his ''Optics''.Parabolic mirrors were also described by the Caliphate mathematician Ibn Sahl in the tenth century.", "The scholar Ibn al-Haytham discussed concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries, carried out a number of experiments with mirrors, and solved the problem of finding the point on a convex mirror at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point." ], [ "Types of mirrors", "Universum museum in Mexico City.", "The image splits between the convex and concave curves.A large convex mirror.", "Distortions in the image increase with the viewing distance.Mirrors can be classified in many ways; including by shape, support, reflective materials, manufacturing methods, and intended application.===By shape===Typical mirror shapes are planar and curved mirrors.The surface of curved mirrors is often a part of a sphere.", "Mirrors that are meant to precisely concentrate parallel rays of light into a point are usually made in the shape of a paraboloid of revolution instead; they are used in telescopes (from radio waves to X-rays), in antennas to communicate with broadcast satellites, and in solar furnaces.", "A segmented mirror, consisting of multiple flat or curved mirrors, properly placed and oriented, may be used instead.Mirrors that are intended to concentrate sunlight onto a long pipe may be a circular cylinder or of a parabolic cylinder.===By structural material===The most common structural material for mirrors is glass, due to its transparency, ease of fabrication, rigidity, hardness, and ability to take a smooth finish.====Back-silvered mirrors====The most common mirrors consist of a plate of transparent glass, with a thin reflective layer on the back (the side opposite to the incident and reflected light) backed by a coating that protects that layer against abrasion, tarnishing, and corrosion.", "The glass is usually soda-lime glass, but lead glass may be used for decorative effects, and other transparent materials may be used for specific applications.A plate of transparent plastic may be used instead of glass, for lighter weight or impact resistance.", "Alternatively, a flexible transparent plastic film may be bonded to the front and/or back surface of the mirror, to prevent injuries in case the mirror is broken.", "Lettering or decorative designs may be printed on the front face of the glass, or formed on the reflective layer.", "The front surface may have an anti-reflection coating.====Front-silvered mirrors====Mirrors which are reflective on the front surface (the same side of the incident and reflected light) may be made of any rigid material.", "The supporting material does not necessarily need to be transparent, but telescope mirrors often use glass anyway.", "Often a protective transparent coating is added on top of the reflecting layer, to protect it against abrasion, tarnishing, and corrosion, or to absorb certain wavelengths.====Flexible mirrors====Thin flexible plastic mirrors are sometimes used for safety, since they cannot shatter or produce sharp flakes.", "Their flatness is achieved by stretching them on a rigid frame.", "These usually consist of a layer of evaporated aluminium between two thin layers of transparent plastic.===By reflective material===A dielectric mirror-stack works on the principle of thin-film interference.", "Each layer has a different refractive index, allowing each interface to produce a small amount of reflection.", "When the thickness of the layers is proportional to the chosen wavelength, the multiple reflections constructively interfere.", "Stacks may consist of a few to hundreds of individual coats.A hot mirror used in a camera to reduce red eyeIn common mirrors, the reflective layer is usually some metal like silver, tin, nickel, or chromium, deposited by a wet process; or aluminium, deposited by sputtering or evaporation in vacuum.", "The reflective layer may also be made of one or more layers of transparent materials with suitable indices of refraction.The structural material may be a metal, in which case the reflecting layer may be just the surface of the same.", "Metal concave dishes are often used to reflect infrared light (such as in space heaters) or microwaves (as in satellite TV antennas).", "Liquid metal telescopes use a surface of liquid metal such as mercury.Mirrors that reflect only part of the light, while transmitting some of the rest, can be made with very thin metal layers or suitable combinations of dielectric layers.", "They are typically used as beamsplitters.", "A dichroic mirror, in particular, has surface that reflects certain wavelengths of light, while letting other wavelengths pass through.", "A cold mirror is a dichroic mirror that efficiently reflects the entire visible light spectrum while transmitting infrared wavelengths.", "A hot mirror is the opposite: it reflects infrared light while transmitting visible light.", "Dichroic mirrors are often used as filters to remove undesired components of the light in cameras and measuring instruments.In X-ray telescopes, the X-rays reflect off a highly precise metal surface at almost grazing angles, and only a small fraction of the rays are reflected.", "In flying relativistic mirrors conceived for X-ray lasers, the reflecting surface is a spherical shockwave (wake wave) created in a low-density plasma by a very intense laser-pulse, and moving at an extremely high velocity.====Nonlinear optical mirrors====A phase-conjugating mirror uses nonlinear optics to reverse the phase difference between incident beams.", "Such mirrors may be used, for example, for coherent beam combination.", "The useful applications are self-guiding of laser beams and correction of atmospheric distortions in imaging systems." ], [ "Physical principles", "A mirror reflects light waves to the observer, preserving the wave's curvature and divergence, to form an image when focused through the lens of the eye.", "The angle of the impinging wave, as it traverses the mirror's surface, matches the angle of the reflected wave.When a sufficiently narrow beam of light is reflected at a point of a surface, the surface's normal direction will be the bisector of the angle formed by the two beams at that point.", "That is, the direction vector towards the incident beams's source, the normal vector , and direction vector of the reflected beam will be coplanar, and the angle between and will be equal to the angle of incidence between and , but of opposite sign.This property can be explained by the physics of an electromagnetic plane wave that is incident to a flat surface that is electrically conductive or where the speed of light changes abruptly, as between two materials with different indices of refraction.", "* When parallel beams of light are reflected on a plane surface, the reflected rays will be parallel too.", "* If the reflecting surface is concave, the reflected beams will be convergent, at least to some extent and for some distance from the surface.", "* A convex mirror, on the other hand, will reflect parallel rays towards divergent directions.More specifically, a concave parabolic mirror (whose surface is a part of a paraboloid of revolution) will reflect rays that are parallel to its axis into rays that pass through its focus.", "Conversely, a parabolic concave mirror will reflect any ray that comes from its focus towards a direction parallel to its axis.", "If a concave mirror surface is a part of a prolate ellipsoid, it will reflect any ray coming from one focus toward the other focus.A convex parabolic mirror, on the other hand, will reflect rays that are parallel to its axis into rays that seem to emanate from the focus of the surface, behind the mirror.", "Conversely, it will reflect incoming rays that converge toward that point into rays that are parallel to the axis.", "A convex mirror that is part of a prolate ellipsoid will reflect rays that converge towards one focus into divergent rays that seem to emanate from the other focus.Spherical mirrors do not reflect parallel rays to rays that converge to or diverge from a single point, or vice versa, due to spherical aberration.", "However, a spherical mirror whose diameter is sufficiently small compared to the sphere's radius will behave very similarly to a parabolic mirror whose axis goes through the mirror's center and the center of that sphere; so that spherical mirrors can substitute for parabolic ones in many applications.A similar aberration occurs with parabolic mirrors when the incident rays are parallel among themselves but not parallel to the mirror's axis, or are divergent from a point that is not the focus – as when trying to form an image of an objet that is near the mirror or spans a wide angle as seen from it.", "However, this aberration can be sufficiently small if the object image is sufficiently far from the mirror and spans a sufficiently small angle around its axis.===Mirror images===angle of incidence.", "When the surface is at a 90°, horizontal angle from the object, the image appears inverted 180° along the vertical (right and left remain on the correct sides, but the image appears upside down), because the normal angle of incidence points down vertically toward the water.A mirror reflects a real image (blue) back to the observer (red), forming a virtual image; a perceptual illusion that objects in the image are behind the mirror's surface and facing the opposite direction (purple).", "The arrows indicate the direction of the real and perceived images, and the reversal is analogous to viewing a movie with the film facing backwards, except the \"screen\" is the viewer's retina.Mirrors reflect an image to the observer.", "However, unlike a projected image on a screen, an image does not actually exist on the surface of the mirror.", "For example, when two people look at each other in a mirror, both see different images on the same surface.", "When the light waves converge through the lens of the eye they interfere with each other to form the image on the surface of the retina, and since both viewers see waves coming from different directions, each sees a different image in the same mirror.", "Thus, the images observed in a mirror depend upon the angle of the mirror with respect to the eye.", "The angle between the object and the observer is always twice the angle between the eye and the normal, or the direction perpendicular to the surface.", "This allows animals with binocular vision to see the reflected image with depth perception and in three dimensions.The mirror forms a ''virtual image'' of whatever is in the opposite angle from the viewer, meaning that objects in the image appear to exist in a direct line of sight—behind the surface of the mirror—at an equal distance from their position in front of the mirror.", "Objects behind the observer, or between the observer and the mirror, are reflected back to the observer without any actual change in orientation; the light waves are simply reversed in a direction perpendicular to the mirror.", "However, when viewer is facing the object and the mirror is at an angle between them, the image appears inverted 180° along the direction of the angle.Objects viewed in a (plane) mirror will appear laterally inverted (e.g., if one raises one's right hand, the image's left hand will appear to go up in the mirror), but not vertically inverted (in the image a person's head still appears above their body).", "However, a mirror does not actually \"swap\" left and right any more than it swaps top and bottom.", "A mirror swaps front and back.", "To be precise, it reverses the object in the direction perpendicular to the mirror surface (the normal), turning the three dimensional image inside out (the way a glove stripped off the hand can be turned inside out, turning a left-hand glove into a right-hand glove or vice versa).", "When a person raises their left hand, the actual left hand raises in the mirror, but gives the illusion of a right hand raising because the imaginary person in the mirror is literally inside-out, hand and all.", "If the person stands side-on to a mirror, the mirror really does reverse left and right hands, that is, objects that are physically closer to the mirror always appear closer in the virtual image, and objects farther from the surface always appear symmetrically farther away regardless of angle.Looking at an image of oneself with the front-back axis flipped results in the perception of an image with its left-right axis flipped.", "When reflected in the mirror, a person's right hand remains directly opposite their real right hand, but it is perceived by the mind as the left hand in the image.", "When a person looks into a mirror, the image is actually front-back reversed (inside-out), which is an effect similar to the hollow-mask illusion.", "Notice that a mirror image is fundamentally different from the object (inside-out) and cannot be reproduced by simply rotating the object.", "An object and its mirror image are said to be chiral.For things that may be considered as two-dimensional objects (like text), front-back reversal cannot usually explain the observed reversal.", "An image is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional space, and because it exists in a two-dimensional plane, an image can be viewed from front or back.", "In the same way that text on a piece of paper appears reversed if held up to a light and viewed from behind, text held facing a mirror will appear reversed, because the image of the text is still facing away from the observer.", "Another way to understand the reversals observed in images of objects that are effectively two-dimensional is that the inversion of left and right in a mirror is due to the way human beings perceive their surroundings.", "A person's reflection in a mirror appears to be a real person facing them, but for that person to really face themselves (i.e.", ": twins) one would have to physically turn and face the other, causing an actual swapping of right and left.", "A mirror causes an illusion of left-right reversal because left and right were ''not'' swapped when the image appears to have turned around to face the viewer.", "The viewer's egocentric navigation (left and right with respect to the observer's point of view; i.e.", ": \"my left...\") is unconsciously replaced with their allocentric navigation (left and right as it relates another's point of view; \"...your right\") when processing the virtual image of the apparent person behind the mirror.", "Likewise, text viewed in a mirror would have to be physically turned around, facing the observer and away from the surface, actually swapping left and right, to be read in the mirror." ], [ "Optical properties", "===Reflectivity===Four different mirrors, showing the difference in reflectivity.", "Clockwise from upper left: dielectric (80%), aluminium (85%), chrome (25%), and enhanced silver (99.9%).", "All are first-surface mirrors except the chrome mirror.", "The dielectric mirror reflects yellow light from the first-surface, but acts like an antireflection coating to purple light, thus produced a ghost reflection of the lightbulb from the second-surface.The reflectivity of a mirror is determined by the percentage of reflected light per the total of the incident light.", "The reflectivity may vary with wavelength.", "All or a portion of the light not reflected is absorbed by the mirror, while in some cases a portion may also transmit through.", "Although some small portion of the light will be absorbed by the coating, the reflectivity is usually higher for first-surface mirrors, eliminating both reflection and absorption losses from the substrate.The reflectivity is often determined by the type and thickness of the coating.", "When the thickness of the coating is sufficient to prevent transmission, all of the losses occur due to absorption.", "Aluminium is harder, less expensive, and more resistant to tarnishing than silver, and will reflect 85 to 90% of the light in the visible to near-ultraviolet range, but experiences a drop in its reflectance between 800 and 900 nm.", "Gold is very soft and easily scratched, costly, yet does not tarnish.", "Gold is greater than 96% reflective to near and far-infrared light between 800 and 12000 nm, but poorly reflects visible light with wavelengths shorter than 600 nm (yellow).", "Silver is expensive, soft, and quickly tarnishes, but has the highest reflectivity in the visual to near-infrared of any metal.", "Silver can reflect up to 98 or 99% of light to wavelengths as long as 2000 nm, but loses nearly all reflectivity at wavelengths shorter than 350 nm.Dielectric mirrors can reflect greater than 99.99% of light, but only for a narrow range of wavelengths, ranging from a bandwidth of only 10 nm to as wide as 100 nm for tunable lasers.", "However, dielectric coatings can also enhance the reflectivity of metallic coatings and protect them from scratching or tarnishing.", "Dielectric materials are typically very hard and relatively cheap, however the number of coats needed generally makes it an expensive process.", "In mirrors with low tolerances, the coating thickness may be reduced to save cost, and simply covered with paint to absorb transmission.===Surface quality===Flatness errors, like rippled dunes across the surface, produced these artifacts, distortion, and low image quality in the far field reflection of a household mirror.Surface quality, or surface accuracy, measures the deviations from a perfect, ideal surface shape.", "Increasing the surface quality reduces distortion, artifacts, and aberration in images, and helps increase coherence, collimation, and reduce unwanted divergence in beams.", "For plane mirrors, this is often described in terms of flatness, while other surface shapes are compared to an ideal shape.", "The surface quality is typically measured with items like interferometers or optical flats, and are usually measured in wavelengths of light (λ).", "These deviations can be much larger or much smaller than the surface roughness.", "A normal household-mirror made with float glass may have flatness tolerances as low as 9–14λ per inch (25.4 mm), equating to a deviation of 5600 through 8800 nanometers from perfect flatness.", "Precision ground and polished mirrors intended for lasers or telescopes may have tolerances as high as λ/50 (1/50 of the wavelength of the light, or around 12 nm) across the entire surface.", "The surface quality can be affected by factors such as temperature changes, internal stress in the substrate, or even bending effects that occur when combining materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion, similar to a bimetallic strip.===Surface roughness===Surface roughness describes the texture of the surface, often in terms of the depth of the microscopic scratches left by the polishing operations.", "Surface roughness determines how much of the reflection is specular and how much diffuses, controlling how sharp or blurry the image will be.For perfectly specular reflection, the surface roughness must be kept smaller than the wavelength of the light.", "Microwaves, which sometimes have a wavelength greater than an inch (~25 mm) can reflect specularly off a metal screen-door, continental ice-sheets, or desert sand, while visible light, having wavelengths of only a few hundred nanometers (a few hundred-thousandths of an inch), must meet a very smooth surface to produce specular reflection.", "For wavelengths that are approaching or are even shorter than the diameter of the atoms, such as X-rays, specular reflection can only be produced by surfaces that are at a grazing incidence from the rays.Surface roughness is typically measured in microns, wavelength, or grit size, with ~80,000–100,000 grit or ~½λ–¼λ being \"optical quality\".===Transmissivity===A dielectric, laser output-coupler that is 75–80% reflective between 500 and 600 nm, on a 3° wedge prism made of quartz glass.", "Left: The mirror is highly reflective to yellow and green but highly transmissive to red and blue.", "Right: The mirror transmits 25% of the 589 nm laser light.", "Because the smoke particles diffract more light than they reflect, the beam appears much brighter when reflecting back toward the observer.Transmissivity is determined by the percentage of light transmitted per the incident light.", "Transmissivity is usually the same from both first and second surfaces.", "The combined transmitted and reflected light, subtracted from the incident light, measures the amount absorbed by both the coating and substrate.", "For transmissive mirrors, such as one-way mirrors, beam splitters, or laser output couplers, the transmissivity of the mirror is an important consideration.", "The transmissivity of metallic coatings are often determined by their thickness.", "For precision beam-splitters or output couplers, the thickness of the coating must be kept at very high tolerances to transmit the proper amount of light.", "For dielectric mirrors, the thickness of the coat must always be kept to high tolerances, but it is often more the number of individual coats that determine the transmissivity.", "For the substrate, the material used must also have good transmissivity to the chosen wavelengths.", "Glass is a suitable substrate for most visible-light applications, but other substrates such as zinc selenide or synthetic sapphire may be used for infrared or ultraviolet wavelengths.===Wedge===Wedge errors are caused by the deviation of the surfaces from perfect parallelism.", "An optical wedge is the angle formed between two plane-surfaces (or between the principle planes of curved surfaces) due to manufacturing errors or limitations, causing one edge of the mirror to be slightly thicker than the other.", "Nearly all mirrors and optics with parallel faces have some slight degree of wedge, which is usually measured in seconds or minutes of arc.", "For first-surface mirrors, wedges can introduce alignment deviations in mounting hardware.", "For second-surface or transmissive mirrors, wedges can have a prismatic effect on the light, deviating its trajectory or, to a very slight degree, its color, causing chromatic and other forms of aberration.", "In some instances, a slight wedge is desirable, such as in certain laser systems where stray reflections from the uncoated surface are better dispersed than reflected back through the medium.===Surface defects===Surface defects are small-scale, discontinuous imperfections in the surface smoothness.", "Surface defects are larger (in some cases much larger) than the surface roughness, but only affect small, localized portions of the entire surface.", "These are typically found as scratches, digs, pits (often from bubbles in the glass), sleeks (scratches from prior, larger grit polishing operations that were not fully removed by subsequent polishing grits), edge chips, or blemishes in the coating.", "These defects are often an unavoidable side-effect of manufacturing limitations, both in cost and machine precision.", "If kept low enough, in most applications these defects will rarely have any adverse effect, unless the surface is located at an image plane where they will show up directly.", "For applications that require extremely low scattering of light, extremely high reflectance, or low absorption due to high energy levels that could destroy the mirror, such as lasers or Fabry-Perot interferometers, the surface defects must be kept to a minimum." ], [ "Manufacturing", "Polishing the primary mirror for the Hubble Space Telescope.", "A deviation in the surface quality of approximately 4λ resulted in poor images initially, which was eventually compensated for using corrective optics.Mirrors are usually manufactured by either polishing a naturally reflective material, such as speculum metal, or by applying a reflective coating to a suitable polished substrate.In some applications, generally those that are cost-sensitive or that require great durability, such as for mounting in a prison cell, mirrors may be made from a single, bulk material such as polished metal.", "However, metals consist of small crystals (grains) separated by grain boundaries that may prevent the surface from attaining optical smoothness and uniform reflectivity.===Coating=======Silvering====The coating of glass with a reflective layer of a metal is generally called \"silvering\", even though the metal may not be silver.", "Currently the main processes are electroplating, \"wet\" chemical deposition, and vacuum deposition Front-coated metal mirrors achieve reflectivities of 90–95% when new.====Dielectric coating====Applications requiring higher reflectivity or greater durability, where wide bandwidth is not essential, use dielectric coatings, which can achieve reflectivities as high as 99.997% over a limited range of wavelengths.", "Because they are often chemically stable and do not conduct electricity, dielectric coatings are almost always applied by methods of vacuum deposition, and most commonly by evaporation deposition.", "Because the coatings are usually transparent, absorption losses are negligible.", "Unlike with metals, the reflectivity of the individual dielectric-coatings is a function of Snell's law known as the Fresnel equations, determined by the difference in refractive index between layers.", "Therefore, the thickness and index of the coatings can be adjusted to be centered on any wavelength.", "Vacuum deposition can be achieved in a number of ways, including sputtering, evaporation deposition, arc deposition, reactive-gas deposition, and ion plating, among many others.===Shaping and polishing=======Tolerances====Mirrors can be manufactured to a wide range of engineering tolerances, including reflectivity, surface quality, surface roughness, or transmissivity, depending on the desired application.", "These tolerances can range from wide, such as found in a normal household-mirror, to extremely narrow, like those used in lasers or telescopes.", "Tightening the tolerances allows better and more precise imaging or beam transmission over longer distances.", "In imaging systems this can help reduce anomalies (artifacts), distortion or blur, but at a much higher cost.", "Where viewing distances are relatively close or high precision is not a concern, wider tolerances can be used to make effective mirrors at affordable costs." ], [ "Applications", "A cheval glassReflections in a spherical convex mirror.", "The photographer is seen at top right.A side-mirror on a racing carRear-view mirror=== Personal grooming ===Mirrors are commonly used as aids to personal grooming.", "They may range from small sizes (portable), to full body sized; they may be handheld, mobile, fixed or adjustable.", "A classic example of an adjustable mirror is the cheval glass, which the user can tilt.=== Safety and easier viewing ===;Convex mirrorsA convex mirror in a parking garageConvex mirrors provide a wider field of view than flat mirrors, and are often used on vehicles, especially large trucks, to minimize blind spots.", "They are sometimes placed at road junctions, and at corners of sites such as parking lots to allow people to see around corners to avoid crashing into other vehicles or shopping carts.", "They are also sometimes used as part of security systems, so that a single video camera can show more than one angle at a time.", "Convex mirrors as decoration are used in interior design to provide a predominantly experiential effect.", ";Mouth mirrors or \"dental mirrors\":Dentists use mouth mirrors or \"dental mirrors\" to allow indirect vision and lighting within the mouth.", "Their reflective surfaces may be either flat or curved.", "Mouth mirrors are also commonly used by mechanics to allow vision in tight spaces and around corners in equipment.", ";Rear-view mirrors:Rear-view mirrors are widely used in and on vehicles (such as automobiles, or bicycles), to allow drivers to see other vehicles coming up behind them.", "On rear-view sunglasses, the left end of the left glass and the right end of the right glass work as mirrors.=== One-way mirrors and windows ===;One-way mirrors:One-way mirrors (also called two-way mirrors) work by overwhelming dim transmitted light with bright reflected light.", "A true one-way mirror that actually allows light to be transmitted in one direction only without requiring external energy is not possible as it violates the second law of thermodynamics.", ":;One-way windows:One-way windows can be made to work with polarized light in the laboratory without violating the second law.", "This is an apparent paradox that stumped some great physicists, although it does not allow a practical one-way mirror for use in the real world.", "Optical isolators are one-way devices that are commonly used with lasers.=== Signalling ===With the sun as light source, a mirror can be used to signal by variations in the orientation of the mirror.", "The signal can be used over long distances, possibly up to on a clear day.", "Native American tribes and numerous militaries used this technique to transmit information between distant outposts.Mirrors can also be used to attract the attention of search-and-rescue parties.", "Specialized types of mirrors are available and are often included in military survival kits.=== Technology ======= Televisions and projectors ====Microscopic mirrors are a core element of many of the largest high-definition televisions and video projectors.", "A common technology of this type is Texas Instruments' DLP.", "A DLP chip is a postage stamp-sized microchip whose surface is an array of millions of microscopic mirrors.", "The picture is created as the individual mirrors move to either reflect light toward the projection surface (pixel on), or toward a light-absorbing surface (pixel off).Other projection technologies involving mirrors include LCoS.", "Like a DLP chip, LCoS is a microchip of similar size, but rather than millions of individual mirrors, there is a single mirror that is actively shielded by a liquid crystal matrix with up to millions of pixels.", "The picture, formed as light, is either reflected toward the projection surface (pixel on), or absorbed by the activated LCD pixels (pixel off).", "LCoS-based televisions and projectors often use 3 chips, one for each primary color.Large mirrors are used in rear-projection televisions.", "Light (for example from a DLP as discussed above) is \"folded\" by one or more mirrors so that the television set is compact.==== Solar power ====Parabolic troughs near Harper Lake in CaliforniaMirrors are integral parts of a solar power plant.", "The one shown in the adjacent picture uses concentrated solar power from an array of parabolic troughs.==== Instruments ====E-ELT mirror segments under testTelescopes and other precision instruments use ''front silvered'' or first surface mirrors, where the reflecting surface is placed on the front (or first) surface of the glass (this eliminates reflection from glass surface ordinary back mirrors have).", "Some of them use silver, but most are aluminium, which is more reflective at short wavelengths than silver.All of these coatings are easily damaged and require special handling.They reflect 90% to 95% of the incident light when new.The coatings are typically applied by vacuum deposition.A protective overcoat is usually applied before the mirror is removed from the vacuum, because the coating otherwise begins to corrode as soon as it is exposed to oxygen and humidity in air.", "''Front silvered'' mirrors have to be resurfaced occasionally to maintain their quality.", "There are optical mirrors such as mangin mirrors that are ''second surface mirrors'' (reflective coating on the rear surface) as part of their optical designs, usually to correct optical aberrations.Deformable thin-shell mirror.", "It is 1120 millimetres across but just 2 millimetres thick, making it much thinner than most glass windows.The reflectivity of the mirror coating can be measured using a reflectometer and for a particular metal it will be different for different wavelengths of light.", "This is exploited in some optical work to make cold mirrors and hot mirrors.", "A cold mirror is made by using a transparent substrate and choosing a coating material that is more reflective to visible light and more transmissive to infrared light.A hot mirror is the opposite, the coating preferentially reflects infrared.", "Mirror surfaces are sometimes given thin film overcoatings both to retard degradation of the surface and to increase their reflectivity in parts of the spectrum where they will be used.", "For instance, aluminium mirrors are commonly coated with silicon dioxide or magnesium fluoride.", "The reflectivity as a function of wavelength depends on both the thickness of the coating and on how it is applied.A dielectric coated mirror used in a dye laser.", "The mirror is over 99% reflective at 550 nanometers, (yellow), but will allow most other colors to pass through.A dielectric mirror used in tunable lasers.", "With a center wavelength of 600 nm and bandwidth of 100 nm, the coating is totally reflective to the orange construction paper, but only reflects the reddish hues from the blue paper.For scientific optical work, dielectric mirrors are often used.", "These are glass (or sometimes other material) substrates on which one or more layers of dielectric material are deposited, to form an optical coating.", "By careful choice of the type and thickness of the dielectric layers, the range of wavelengths and amount of light reflected from the mirror can be specified.", "The best mirrors of this type can reflect >99.999% of the light (in a narrow range of wavelengths) which is incident on the mirror.", "Such mirrors are often used in lasers.In astronomy, adaptive optics is a technique to measure variable image distortions and adapt a deformable mirror accordingly on a timescale of milliseconds, to compensate for the distortions.Although most mirrors are designed to reflect visible light, surfaces reflecting other forms of electromagnetic radiation are also called \"mirrors\".", "The mirrors for other ranges of electromagnetic waves are used inoptics and astronomy.", "Mirrors for radio waves (sometimes known as reflectors) are important elements of radio telescopes.Simple periscopes use mirrors.==== Face-to-face mirrors ====Two or more mirrors aligned exactly parallel and facing each other can give an infinite regress of reflections, called an infinity mirror effect.", "Some devices use this to generate multiple reflections:* Fabry–Pérot interferometer* Laser (which contains an optical cavity)* 3D Kaleidoscope to concentrate light* momentum-enhanced solar sail==== Military applications ====Tradition states that Archimedes used a large array of mirrors to burn Roman ships during an attack on Syracuse.", "This has never been proven or disproved.", "On the TV show ''MythBusters'', a team from MIT tried to recreate the famous \"Archimedes Death Ray\".", "They were unsuccessful at starting a fire on a ship.", "Previous attempts to set a boat on fire using only the bronze mirrors available in Archimedes' time were unsuccessful, and the time taken to ignite the craft would have made its use impractical, resulting in the ''MythBusters'' team deeming the myth \"busted\".", "It was however found that the mirrors made it very difficult for the passengers of the targeted boat to see; such a scenario could have impeded attackers and have provided the origin of the legend.", "(See solar power tower for a practical use of this technique.", ")Periscopes were used to great effect in war, especially during the World Wars where they were used to peer over the parapet of trenches to ensure that the soldier using the periscope could see safely without the risk of incoming direct fire from other small arms.==== Seasonal lighting ====A multi-facet mirror in the Kibble Palace conservatory, Glasgow, ScotlandDue to its location in a steep-sided valley, the Italian town of Viganella gets no direct sunlight for seven weeks each winter.", "In 2006 a €100,000 computer-controlled mirror, 8×5 m, was installed to reflect sunlight into the town's piazza.", "In early 2007 the similarly situated village of Bondo, Switzerland, was considering applying this solution as well.", "In 2013, mirrors were installed to reflect sunlight into the town square in the Norwegian town of Rjukan.", "Mirrors can be used to produce enhanced lighting effects in greenhouses or conservatories.=== Architecture ===Mirrored building in Manhattan - 2008401 N. Wabash Ave. reflects the skyline along the Chicago River in downtown ChicagoMirrors are a popular design-theme in architecture, particularly with late modern and post-modernist high-rise buildings in major cities.", "Early examples include the Campbell Center in Dallas, which opened in 1972, and the John Hancock Tower (completed in 1976) in Boston.More recently, two skyscrapers designed by architect Rafael Viñoly, the Vdara in Las Vegas and 20 Fenchurch Street in London, have experienced unusual problems due to their concave curved-glass exteriors acting as respectively cylindrical and spherical reflectors for sunlight.", "In 2010, the ''Las Vegas Review Journal'' reported that sunlight reflected off the Vdara's south-facing tower could singe swimmers in the hotel pool, as well as melting plastic cups and shopping bags; employees of the hotel referred to the phenomenon as the \"Vdara death ray\", aka the \"fryscraper.\"", "In 2013, sunlight reflecting off 20 Fenchurch Street melted parts of a Jaguar car parked nearby and scorching or igniting the carpet of a nearby barber-shop.", "This building had been nicknamed the \"walkie-talkie\" because its shape was supposedly similar to a certain model of two-way radio; but after its tendency to overheat surrounding objects became known, the nickname changed to the \"walkie-scorchie\".=== Fine art ======= Paintings ====Titian's ''Venus with a Mirror''Painters depicting someone gazing into a mirror often also show the person's reflection.", "This is a kind of abstraction—in most cases the angle of view is such that the person's reflection should not be visible.", "Similarly, in movies and still photography an actor or actress is often shown ostensibly looking at him- or herself in a mirror, and yet the reflection faces the camera.", "In reality, the actor or actress sees only the camera and its operator in this case, not their own reflection.", "In the psychology of perception, this is known as the Venus effect.The mirror is the central device in some of the greatest of European paintings:* Édouard Manet's ''A Bar at the Folies-Bergère'' (1882)* Titian's ''Venus with a Mirror''* Jan van Eyck's ''Arnolfini Portrait''* Pablo Picasso's ''Girl before a Mirror'' (1932)* Diego Velázquez's ''Rokeby Venus''* Diego Velázquez's ''Las Meninas'' (wherein the viewer is both the watcher - of a self-portrait in progress - and the watched) and the many adaptations of that painting in various media* Veronese's ''Venus with a Mirror''Artists have used mirrors to create works and to hone their craft:* Filippo Brunelleschi discovered linear perspective with the help of the mirror.", "* Leonardo da Vinci called the mirror the \"master of painters\".", "He recommended, \"When you wish to see whether your whole picture accords with what you have portrayed from nature take a mirror and reflect the actual object in it.", "Compare what is reflected with your painting and carefully consider whether both likenesses of the subject correspond, particularly in regard to the mirror.", "\"* Many self-portraits are made possible through the use of mirrors, such as great self-portraits by Dürer, Frida Kahlo, Rembrandt, and Van Gogh.", "M. C. Escher used special shapes of mirrors in order to achieve a much more complete view of his surroundings than by direct observation in ''Hand with Reflecting Sphere'' (1935; also known as ''Self-Portrait in Spherical Mirror'').Mirrors are sometimes necessary to fully appreciate art work:* István Orosz's anamorphic works are images distorted such that they only become clearly visible when reflected in a suitably shaped and positioned mirror.==== Sculpture ====Mirrors in interior design:\"Waiting room in the house of M.me B.", "\", Art Deco project by Italian architect Arnaldo dell'Ira, Rome, 1939.", "* Anamorphosis projecting sculpture into mirrorsContemporary anamorphic artist Jonty Hurwitz uses cylindrical mirrors to project distorted sculptures.", "* Sculptures comprised entirely or in part of mirrors include:** ''Infinity Also Hurts'', a mirror, glass and silicone sculpture by artist Seth Wulsin** ''Sky Mirror'', a public sculpture by artist Anish Kapoor==== Other artistic mediums ====''Grove Of Mirrors'' by Hilary Arnold Baker, RomseySome other contemporary artists use mirrors as the material of art:* A Chinese magic mirror is a device in which the face of the bronze mirror projects the same image that was cast on its back.", "This is due to minute curvatures on its front.", "* Specular holography uses a large number of curved mirrors embedded in a surface to produce three-dimensional imagery.", "* Paintings on mirror surfaces (such as silkscreen printed glass mirrors)* Special mirror installations:** ''Follow Me'' mirror labyrinth by artist, Jeppe Hein (see also, Entertainment: Mirror mazes, below)** ''Mirror Neon Cube'' by artist, Jeppe Hein==== Religious function of the real and depicted mirror ====In the Middle Ages mirrors existed in various shapes for multiple uses.", "Mostly they were used as an accessory for personal hygiene but also as tokens of courtly love, made from ivory in the ivory-carving centers in Paris, Cologne and the Southern Netherlands.", "They also had their uses in religious contexts as they were integrated in a special form of pilgrims badges or pewter/lead mirror boxes From the late 14th century.", "Burgundian ducal inventories show us that the dukes owned a mass of mirrors or objects with mirrors, not only with religious iconography or inscriptions, but combined with reliquaries, religious paintings or other objects that were distinctively used for personal piety.", "Considering mirrors in paintings and book illumination as depicted artifacts and trying to draw conclusions about their functions from their depicted setting, one of these functions is to be an aid in personal prayer to achieve self-knowledge and knowledge of God, in accord with contemporary theological sources.", "For example, the famous Arnolfini-Wedding by Jan van Eyck shows a constellation of objects that can be recognized as one which would allow a praying man to use them for his personal piety: the mirror surrounded by scenes of the Passion to reflect on it and on oneself, a rosary as a device in this process, the veiled and cushioned bench to use as a prie-dieu, and the abandoned shoes that point in the direction in which the praying man kneeled.", "The metaphorical meaning of depicted mirrors is complex and many-layered, e.g.", "as an attribute of Mary, the \"speculum sine macula\" (mirror without blemish), or as attributes of scholarly and theological wisdom and knowledge as they appear in book illuminations of different evangelists and authors of theological treatises.", "Depicted mirrors – orientated on the physical properties of a real mirror – can be seen as metaphors of knowledge and reflection and are thus able to remind beholders to reflect and get to know themselves.", "The mirror may function simultaneously as a symbol and as a device of a moral appeal.", "That is also the case if it is shown in combination with virtues and vices, a combination which also occurs more frequently in the 15th century: the moralizing layers of mirror metaphors remind the beholder to examine himself thoroughly according to his own virtuous or vicious life.", "This is all the more true if the mirror is combined with iconography of death.", "Not only is Death as a corpse or skeleton holding the mirror for the still-living personnel of paintings, illuminations and prints, but the skull appears on the convex surfaces of depicted mirrors, showing the painted and real beholder his future face.=== Decoration ===Chimneypiece and overmantel mirror, c. 1750 V&A Museum no.", "738:1 to 3–1897Glasses with mirrors – Prezi HQDunville's Whiskey.Mirrors are frequently used in interior decoration and as ornaments:* Mirrors, typically large and unframed, are frequently used in interior decoration to create an illusion of space and to amplify the apparent size of a room.", "They come also framed in a variety of forms, such as the pier glass and the overmantel mirror.", "* Mirrors are used also in some schools of feng shui, an ancient Chinese practice of placement and arrangement of space to achieve harmony with an environment.", "* The softness of old mirrors is sometimes replicated by contemporary artisans for use in interior design.", "These reproduction antiqued mirrors are works of art and can bring color and texture to an otherwise hard, cold reflective surface.", "* A decorative reflecting sphere of thin metal-coated glass, working as a reducing wide-angle mirror, is sold as a Christmas ornament called a ''bauble''.", "* Some pubs and bars hang mirrors depicting the logo of a brand of liquor, beer or drinking establishment.=== Entertainment ===* Illuminated rotating disco balls covered with small mirrors are used to cast moving spots of light around a dance floor.", "* The hall of mirrors, commonly found in amusement parks, is an attraction in which a number of distorting mirrors produce unusual reflections of the visitor.", "* Mirrors are employed in kaleidoscopes, personal entertainment-devices invented in Scotland by Sir David Brewster.", "* Mirrors are often used in magic to create an illusion.", "One effect is called Pepper's ghost.", "* Mirror mazes, often found in amusement parks, contain large numbers of mirrors and sheets of glass.", "The idea is to navigate the disorientating array without bumping into the walls.", "Mirrors in attractions like this are often made of Plexiglas to prevent breakages.=== Film and television ===Mirrors appear in many movies and TV shows: *''Black Swan'' is a psychological horror film that frequently incorporates mirrors.", "Fractured mirrors are prominent in the film, and the character Nina stabs herself with a broken piece of mirror.", "* ''Candyman'' is a horror film about a malevolent spirit summoned by speaking its name in front of a mirror.", "* ''Conan the Destroyer'' features a mirror-embedded chamber deep within Thoth-Amon's castle.", "The mirrors are first used in an illusory fashion to deceive Conan once he is separated by his companions, and during a battle sequence it is discovered that by breaking the mirrors he is able to damage and eventually defeat the otherwise-invulnerable wizard Thoth-Amon.", "*''Dead of Night'' is an anthology horror film with one segment titled \"The Haunted Mirror,\" in which a mirror casts a murderous spell.", "*''Doctor Strange'', ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness'', and ''Spider-Man: No Way Home'' feature the fictional mirror dimension, a parallel dimension in the Marvel Universe that reflects objects like a mirror, but in different directions.", "*''Enter the Dragon'''s iconic and final fight scene occurs in a mirrored room.", "The mirrors create multiple reflections of the fight movements but are eventually smashed.", "*''The Floorwalker'' and ''Duck Soup'' contain a mirror scene in which one person comically pretends to be the mirror reflection of someone else.", "This mirror scene has been imitated in other comedy films and TV shows.", "*''Hamlet'' has a throne room with mirrored walls.", "Hamlet, played by Kenneth Branagh, gives his famous speech with the words \"to be or not to be,\" looking into these mirrors.", "*''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' includes the magical Mirror of Erised.", "*''Inception'' contains mirrors created in a dream sequence.", "Ariadne creates two mirrors facing each other that form an infinite number of reflected mirrors.", "*''Last Night in Soho'' is a psychological horror movie with several mirror scenes.", "The character Ellie occasionally sees her mother's ghost in mirrors.", "*''The Matrix'' uses various reflections and mirrors throughout the film.", "Neo watches a broken mirror mend itself, and different objects create reflections.", "* ''Mirror'' is a drama film by Andrei Tarkovsky that includes several scenes with mirrors and several scenes shot in reflection.", "*''Mirror Mirror'' is a fantasy comedy film based on Snow White that features a Mirror House and Mirror Queen.", "* ''Mirrors'' is a horror film about haunted mirrors that reflect different scenes than those in front of them.", "*''Persona'' relies on mirror sequences to show how the two women, Bibi and Liv, reflect each other and become more alike.", "* ''Poltergeist III'' features mirrors that do not reflect reality and which can be used as portals to an afterlife.", "*''Psycho'' by Alfred Hitchock has several shots with mirrors that reflect characters.", "* ''Oculus'' is a horror film about a haunted mirror that causes people to hallucinate and commit acts of violence.", "*''Orpheus'' includes an important theme of mirrors in connection to aging and death.", "*''Taxi Driver'' has a notable scene with a mirror in which the character Travis, played by Robert De Niro, asks himself the famous line, \"You talkin' to me?", "\"*''The Lady from Shanghai'' has a climatic hall of mirrors scene that has become a trope in cinema narratives.", "*''Raging Bull'' ends with the character Jake talking to himself in a mirror, a scene that was reused in ''Boogie Nights''.", "*''The Shining'' is a horror movie that includes several scenes with mirrors.", "Every time the character Jack encounters a ghost, a mirror is present.", "* ''The 10th Kingdom'' miniseries requires the characters to use a magic mirror to travel between New York City (the 10th Kingdom) and the Nine Kingdoms of fairy tale.", "*''The Twilight Zone'' episode \"The Mirror\" features a mirror that the character Clemente believes can provide visions and information about enemies.", "*''Us'' is a horror film that includes a girl seeing a doppelgänger of herself in a house of mirrors in a funhouse.", "The mirror images reflect the similarities in the clones throughout the film.", "*''Vertigo'' includes several appearances of mirrors with both Scottie and Madeleine in the frame.=== Literature ===Mjallhvít'' (Snow White) an 1852 Icelandic translation of the Grimm-version fairytaleTaijitu within a frame of trigrams and a demon-warding mirror.", "These charms are believed to frighten away evil spirits and to protect a dwelling from bad luckMirrors feature in literature:* Christian Bible passages, 1 Corinthians 13:12 (\"Through a Glass Darkly\") and 2 Corinthians 3:18, reference a dim mirror-image or poor mirror-reflection.", "* Narcissus of Greek mythology wastes away while gazing, self-admiringly, at his reflection in water.", "* Elsewhere in Greek Mythology, Perseus is said to have defeated the Gorgon Medusa with the aid of a mirrored shield which allowed him to avoid the petrifying effect of her visage by only viewing her reflection.", "* The Song-dynasty history ''Zizhi Tongjian'' ''Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance'' by Sima Guang is so titled because \"mirror\" (鑑, jiàn) is used metaphorically in Chinese to refer to gaining insight by reflecting on past experience or history.", "* In the late 6th century Chinese folktale ''The Broken Mirror Restored'' two lovers who are separated by war break a mirror in two so that they might find each other again by identifying the other half of the mirror.", "The phrase \"broken mirror restored\", or \"broken mirror joined together\" has been used as an idiom to suggests the happy reunion of a separated couple.", "* In the European fairy tale, ''Snow White'' (collected by the Brothers Grimm in 1812), the evil queen asks, \"Mirror, mirror, on the wall... who's the fairest of them all?", "\"* In the Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 329, \"Hiding from the Devil (Princess)\", the protagonist must find a way to hide from a princess, who, in many variants, owns a magical mirror that can see the whole world.", "* In Tennyson's famous poem ''The Lady of Shalott'' (1833, revised in 1842), the titular character possesses a mirror that enables her to look out on the people of Camelot, as she is under a curse that prevents her from seeing Camelot directly.", "* Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale ''The Snow Queen'', features the devil, in a form of an evil troll, who made a magic mirror that distorts the appearance of everything that it reflects.", "* Lewis Carroll's ''Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There'' (1871) has become one of the best-loved exemplars of the use of mirrors in literature.", "The text itself utilizes a narrative that mirrors that of its predecessor, ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''.", "* In Oscar Wilde's novel, ''The Picture of Dorian Gray'' (1890), a portrait serves as a magical mirror that reflects the true visage of the perpetually youthful protagonist, as well as the effect on his soul of each sinful act.", "* W. H. Auden's villanelle \"Miranda\" repeats the refrain: \"My dear one is mine as mirrors are lonely\".", "* The short story ''Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius'' (1940) by Jorge Luis Borges begins with the phrase \"I owe the discovery of Uqbar to the conjunction of a mirror and an encyclopedia\" and contains other references to mirrors.", "* ''The Trap'', a short story by H.P.", "Lovecraft and Henry S. Whitehead, centers around a mirror.", "\"It was on a certain Thursday morning in December that the whole thing began with that unaccountable motion I thought I saw in my antique Copenhagen mirror.", "Something, it seemed to me, stirred—something reflected in the glass, though I was alone in my quarters.", "\"* Magical objects in the ''Harry Potter'' series (1997–2011) include the Mirror of Erised and two-way mirrors.", "* Under ''Appendix: Variant Planes & Cosmologies'' of the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' ''Manual of the Planes'' (2000), is The Plane of Mirrors (page 204).", "It describes the Plane of Mirrors as a space existing behind reflective surfaces, and experienced by visitors as a long corridor.", "The greatest danger to visitors upon entering the plane is the instant creation of a mirror-self with the opposite alignment of the original visitor.", "* ''The Mirror Thief'', a novel by Martin Seay (2016), includes a fictional account of industrial espionage surrounding mirror-manufacturing in 16th-century Venice.", "* ''The Reaper's Image'', a short story by Stephen King, concerns a rare Elizabethan mirror that displays the Reaper's image when viewed, which symbolises the death of the viewer.", "* Kilgore Trout, a protagonist of Kurt Vonnegut's novel ''Breakfast of Champions'', believes that mirrors are windows to other universes, and refers to them as \"leaks\", a recurring motif in the book.", "*In ''The Fellowship of the Ring'' by J. R. R. Tolkien, the Mirror of Galadriel allows one to see things of the past, present and possible future.", "The mirror additionally appears in the movie adaptation." ], [ "<span id=\"Mirrors and animals\"></span> Mirror test", "Only a few animal species have been shown to have the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror, most of them mammals.", "Experiments have found that the following animals can pass the mirror test:* Humans.", "Humans tend to fail the mirror test until they are about 18 months old, or what psychoanalysts call the \"mirror stage\".", "* All great apes:** Bonobos** Chimpanzees** Orangutans** Gorillas.", "Initially, it was thought that gorillas did not pass the test, but there are now several well-documented reports of gorillas (such as Koko) passing the test.", "* Bottlenose dolphins* Orcas* Elephants* European magpies" ], [ "See also", "* Anish Kapoor (artist working with mirrors)* Aranmula kannadi* Chirality (mathematics)* Corner reflector* Deformable mirror* Digital micromirror device* Heliotrope (instrument)* Honeycomb mirror* List of telescope parts and construction* Mirror armour* Non-reversing mirror* Mirror writing* Mirrors in Mesoamerican culture* Perfect mirror* Periscope* Selfie* Spectrophobia* TLV mirror* Venus effect" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Le miroir: révélations, science-fiction et fallacies.", "Essai sur une légende scientifique'', Jurgis Baltrušaitis, Paris, 1978..* ''On reflection'', Jonathan Miller, National Gallery Publications Limited (1998).", ".", "* ''Lo specchio, la strega e il quadrante.", "Vetrai, orologiai e rappresentazioni del 'principium individuationis' dal Medioevo all'Età moderna'', Francesco Tigani, Roma, 2012..*Shrum, Rebecca K.", "2017.''", "In the Looking Glass: Mirrors and Identity in Early America''.", "Johns Hopkins University Press." ], [ "External links", "*** ''Mirror Manufacturing and Composition'', Mirrorlink* * How Mirrors Are Made (video), Glass Association of North America (GANA)* July 2019 \"The Ugly History of Beautiful Things: Mirrors\" by Katy Kelleher for Longreads" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mindanao" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mindanao''' ( ) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world.", "Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of the same name that also includes its adjacent islands, notably the Sulu Archipelago.", "According to the 2020 census, Mindanao has a population of 26,252,442 people, while the entire island group has an estimated population of 27,021,036 according to the 2021 census.Mindanao is divided into six administrative regions: the Zamboanga Peninsula, Northern Mindanao, the Caraga region, the Davao region, Soccsksargen, and the autonomous region of Bangsamoro.", "According to the 2020 census, Davao City is the most populous city on the island, with 1,776,949 people, followed by Zamboanga City (pop.", "977,234), Cagayan de Oro (pop.", "728,402), General Santos (pop.", "697,315), Butuan (pop.", "372,910), Iligan (pop.", "363,115) and Cotabato City (pop.", "325,079).", "About 70% of residents identify as Christian and 24% as Muslim.", "Mindanao is considered the major breadbasket of the Philippines." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Mindanao'' is a Spanish variation of the name of the Maguindanao people, the dominant ruling ethnic group in the Sultanate of Maguindanao in southwestern Mindanao during the Spanish colonial period.", "The name itself means \"people of the lake\", although it is usually translated to \"people of the flood plains\" in modern sources." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===The Agusan image statue (900–950 CE) discovered in 1917 on the banks of the Wawa River near Esperanza, Agusan del SurA 1926 photograph of Bagobo (Manobo) warriorsArchaeological findings on the island point to evidence of human activity dating back about ten thousand years.", "Around 1500 BC, Austronesian people spread throughout the Philippines.The Subanon are believed to have settled in the Zamboanga Peninsula during the Neolithic era c. 4500–2000 BC.", "Evidence of stone tools in Zamboanga del Norte may indicate a late Neolithic presence.", "Ceramic burial jars, both unglazed and glazed, Chinese celadons, gold ornaments, beads, and bracelets have been found in caves.", "Many of the ceramic objects are from the Yuan and Ming periods.", "Evidently, there was a long history of trade between the Subanon and the Chinese.===Rajahnates and Hindu-Buddhism===An old Spanish map of Mindanao island.In the classic epoch of Philippine history (900 AD onwards), the people of Mindanao were heavily exposed to Hindu and Buddhist influence and beliefs from Indonesia and Malaysia.", "Indianized abugida scripts such as Kawi and baybayin were introduced from Java and an extinct intermediate from Sulawesi or Borneo respectively.", "Cultural icons of the sarong (known as ''malong'' or ''patadyong''), the ''pudong'' turban, silk, and batik and ikat weaving and dyeing methods were introduced.", "Artifacts found from this era include a golden kinnara, a golden image believed by some to be a Tara, and a Ganesha pendant.", "These cultural traits passed from Mindanao into the Visayas and Luzon, but were subsequently lost or heavily modified after the Spanish arrival in the 16th century.Hindu-Buddhist cultural influence took root in the coastal settlements, syncretizing with indigenous animist beliefs and customs among the tribes of the interior.", "The Butuan Rajahnate, a Hinduized kingdom mentioned in Chinese records as a tributary state in the 10th century, was concentrated along the northeastern coast of Butuan Bay.", "The Rajahnate of Sanmalan in Zamboanga, was also in Mindanao.", "The ''Darangen'' epic of the Maranao people harkens back to this era as the most complete local version of the ''Ramayana''.", "The Maguindanao at this time also had strong Hindu beliefs, evidenced by the Ladya Lawana (Rajah Ravana) epic saga that survives to the present, albeit highly Islamized from the 17th century onward.===Sultanates and Islam===Sulu, Maguindanao and Lanao in the 19th centuryThe spread of Islam in the Philippines began in the 14th century, mostly through the influence of Muslim merchants from the western Malay Archipelago.", "The first mosque in the Philippines was built in the mid-14th century in the town of Simunul, Tawi-Tawi.", "Around the 16th century, the Muslim sultanates of Sulu, Lanao and Maguindanao were established from formerly Hindu-Buddhist rajahnates.As Islam gained influence in Mindanao, the natives of the sultanates had to either convert to Islam or pay tribute to their new Muslim rulers.", "The largest of the Muslim polities in mainland Mindanao was the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which controlled the southern floodplains of the Rio Grande de Mindanao and most of the coastal area of Illana Bay, Moro Gulf, Sarangani Bay and Davao Gulf.", "The name Mindanao was derived from this sultanate.", "But most of Mindanao remained animist, especially the Lumad people in the interior.", "Most of the northern, eastern, and southern coastal regions inhabited by Visayans (Surigaonon and Butuanon) and other groups were later converted to Christianity by the Spanish.", "Mindanao was then embroiled between a conflict with the Boholano (Visayan) Dapitan Kingdom and the Moluccan Sultanate of Ternate.", "Dapitan which was originally at Bohol was destroyed by an expeditionary force from the Ternate Sultanate and Dapitenyos were forced to relocate to Northern Mindanao where they waged war against the Sultanate of Lanao and established a new Dapitan there.", "Mindanaoans then spread out of Mindanao across Southeast Asia, Historian William Henry Scott, quoting the Portuguese manuscript Summa Orientalis, noted that Mottama in Burma (Myanmar) had a large presence of merchants from Mindanao.===Spanish colonization and Christianity===Christian Filipinos, who served under the Spanish Army, searching for Moro rebels during the Spanish–Moro conflict, c. 1887.The insurgency in Mindanao can be traced to the early 16th century.baptizing a Moro convert to Catholicism, circa 1890.In 1521 Antonio Pigafetta wrote an account of reaching 'Maingdano.'", "He was with Magellan on the first circumnavigation of the globe and sailing for the king of Spain.On February 2, 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos was the first Spaniard to reach Mindanao.", "He called the island ''\"Caesarea Caroli\"'' after Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (and I of Spain).", "Shortly after Spain's colonization of Cebu, it moved on to colonize the Caraga region in northeast Mindanao and discovered significant Muslim presence on the island.", "Over time a number of tribes in Mindanao converted to Catholicism and built settlements and forts throughout the coastal regions.", "These settlements endured despite attacks from neighboring Muslim sultanates.", "The most heavily fortified of them, apart from a short period in 1662 when Spain sent soldiers from the city to Manila after a threat of invasion from the Chinese general Koxinga, was Zamboanga City which was settled by soldiers from Peru and Mexico.", "The sultanates resisted Spanish pressure and attempts to convert them to Christianity during this period.", "The Sultanate of Ternate of the Maluku Islands formed a close alliance with the sultanates of Mindanao, especially Maguindanao.", "Ternate regularly sent military reinforcements to Mindanao to assist the local sultanates in their war against Spanish-controlled Manila.By the late 18th century Spain had geographic dominance over the island, having established settlements and forts in most of Mindanao, including Zamboanga City and Misamis Occidental to the northwest, Iligan City, Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, and Camiguin Island to the north, Surigao and Agusan in the Caraga region to the east, and Davao in the island's gulf coast.", "Spain continued to engage in battles with Muslim sultanates until the end of the 19th century.At the same time as the Philippine revolution against Spain, the Republic of Zamboanga rose as a revolutionary state in Mindanao before it was absorbed by the oncoming Americans.===American occupation and Philippine Commonwealth===In the Treaty of Paris in 1898 Spain sold the entire Philippine archipelago to the United States for $20 million.", "The 1900 Treaty of Washington and the 1930 Convention Between the United States and Great Britain clarified the borders between Mindanao and Borneo.In early 1900s the Commonwealth government (led by Americans) encouraged citizens from Luzon and Visayas to migrate to Mindanao.", "Consisting mostly of Ilocanos, Cebuanos, and Ilonggos.", "Settlers streaming into Soccsksargen led to the displacement of the Blaan and Tboli tribes.===World War II===In April 1942 Mindanao, along with the rest of the Philippines, officially entered World War II after Japanese soldiers invaded key cities in the islands.", "Many towns and cities were burned to the ground in Mindanao, most notably Davao City, Zamboanga City, Lanao, Cagayan de Oro, Iligan City, and Butuan.", "In the months of April and May 1942, Japanese forces defeated US troops commanded by William F. Sharp and Guy Fort, in a battle that started at Malabang (a town close to Gandamatu Macadar, Lanao) and ended close to the town of Ganassi, Lanao.", "Davao City was among the earliest to be occupied by the invading Japanese forces.", "They immediately fortified the city as a bastion of the Japanese defense system.Davao City was subjected by the returning forces of Gen. Douglas MacArthur to constant bombing before the American Liberation Forces landed in Leyte in October 1944.Filipino soldiers and local guerrilla fighters were actively fighting Japanese forces until liberation at the conclusion of the Battle of Mindanao.=== Postwar era and Philippine independence ===Mindanao was peaceful and increasingly progressive in the postwar period, including the 1950s and the mid-1960s.", "Ethnic tensions were minimal, and there was essentially no presence of secessionists groups in Mindanao.=== Marcos era (1965–1986) ===Under Ferdinand Marcos's administration, Christian groups began to settle in Mindanao, displacing many locals.", "The population boom resulted in conflicts as the original owners sought their ancestral land domains.The Marcos administration encouraged new settlers who had emigrated to Mindanao to form a militia, which was eventually called the Ilaga.", "Anecdotal evidence states that the Ilaga often committed human rights abuses by targeting the Moro and Lumad people, as well as attempting to seize additional territory.", "It resulted in a lingering animosity between Moro and Christian communities.", "Mistrust and a cycle of violence are still felt today due to the creation of the Ilaga.The Jabidah massacre in 1968 is commonly cited as the major flashpoint that ignited the Moro insurgency, and the ensuing ethnic tensions led to the formation of secessionist movements, such as the Muslim Independence Movement and the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization.", "These movements were largely political in nature, but the prohibition of political parties after Marcos' 1972 declaration of Martial Law led to the founding and dominance of armed groups such as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).", "Ethnic conflicts continued to escalate, leading to incidents like the 1971 Manili massacre, the Pata Island massacre, and the Palimbang massacre.Additionally, an economic crisis in late 1969 led to social unrest throughout the country, and violent crackdowns on protests led to the radicalization of many students, with some joining the New People's Army, bringing the New People's Army rebellion to Mindanao for the first time.Marcos' declaration led to the shuttering of press outlets – television stations, national newspapers, weekly magazines, community newspapers, and radio stations – throughout the country, including in Mindanao.", "The remaining years of the Marcos dictatorship led to the killings of many Mindanao journalists, with prominent examples being Alex Orcullo of ''Mindanao Currents'' and ''Mindaweek'', and Jacobo Amatong of the ''Mindanao Observer''.=== Fifth Republic (1986–present) ===In 1989, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) was established, constituted by several provinces in Western Mindanao.In March 2000, President Joseph Estrada declared an \"All Out War\" against the MILF after it committed a series of terrorist attacks on government buildings, civilians, and foreigners.", "A number of livelihood intervention projects, from organisations such as USAID and the Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program (ELAP), aided in the reconstruction of areas affected by constant battles on the island.In December 2009, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo officially placed Maguindanao under a state of martial law following the Maguindanao massacre.On September 9, 2013, an MNLF faction attempted to raise the flag of a self-proclaimed Bangsamoro Republik at Zamboanga City Hall in an armed incursion into parts of the city.On January 25, 2015, a shootout took place during a police operation by the Special Action Force (SAF) of the Philippine National Police (PNP) in Tukanalipao, Mamasapano, Maguindanao.", "The operation, codenamed Oplan Exodus, was intended to capture or kill wanted Malaysian terrorist and bomb-maker Zulkifli Abdhir and other Malaysian terrorists or high-ranking members of the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF).Lanao sultans making an open letter to Duterte urging for the quick resolution of the Marawi crisisIn May 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law on the entire island group of Mindanao following the Marawi siege by the Maute terrorist group.", "More than 180,000 people were forced to evacuate Marawi City.", "Around 165 security forces and 47 residents were confirmed killed in the battle, although Marawi residents believe the number of civilians killed was far higher.", "The official death toll in the five-month conflict is 1,109, most of which were members of a militant alliance which drew fighters from radical factions of domestic Islamist groups.In 2019, the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao was established, replacing the former ARMM.In 2024, former President Rodrigo Duterte called for Mindanao to secede from the Philippines, reviving the movement started by congressman Pantaleon Alvarez." ], [ "Economy", "Cagayan de Oro skyline in 2018Mindanao's economy accounts for 14% of the country's gross domestic product.", "The region grew 4.9% in 2016 against Luzon's 5.5% and Visayas' 9.1%.Agriculture, forestry and fishing make up more than 40% of Mindanao's market, being the country's largest supplier of major crops such as pineapples and bananas.There is one defined growth corridor in the island, namely Metro Davao.", "Other growth centers are: Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, Zamboanga City, Cotabato City, and Pagadian City.Being the top-performing economy in Mindanao, Davao Region has the 5th-biggest economy in the country and the second-fastest-growing economy next to Cordillera Autonomous Region.", "While the region's economy is predominantly agri-based, it is now developing into a center for agro-industrial business, trade and tourism.", "Its competitive advantage is in agri-industry as its products, papayas, mangoes, bananas, pineapples, fresh asparagus, flowers, and fish products are exported internationally.", "The region can be a vital link to markets in other parts of Mindanao, Brunei Darussalam and parts of Malaysia and Indonesia.There is also a growing call center sector in the region, mostly centered in Davao City.=== Upcoming developments ===Some 2,130 government-led infrastructure projects worth P547.9 billion have also been lined up for Mindanao until 2022.NEDA official said that 68% of that budget will be allotted for the transportation sector, while 16% will go to water resources, and 6% to social infrastructure.Of this amount, 18 infrastructure projects have been identified as \"flagship projects,\" five of them have already been approved by President Rodrigo Duterte.The projects include the ₱35.26 billion Tagum-Davao-Digos Segment of the Mindanao Railway, the ₱40.57 billion Davao airport, the ₱14.62 billion Laguindingan airport, the ₱4.86 billion Panguil Bay Bridge Project, and the ₱5.44 billion Malitubog-Maridagao Irrigation Project, Phase II.Projects in the pipeline are the second and third phases of the Mindanao Railway; the Agus-Pulangi plant rehabilitation; the Davao expressway; the Zamboanga Fish Port Complex rehabilitation; the Balo-i Plains Flood Control Project; Asbang Small Reservoir Irrigation Project; the Ambal Simuay Sub-Basin of the Mindanao River Basin Flood Control and River Protection Project; as well as the Road Network Development Project in Conflict-Affected Areas in Mindanao project." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The island consists of six administrative regions, 23 provinces, and 30 cities (27 provinces and 33 cities if associated islands are included).", "Location Region Area Density Regionalcenter alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Zamboanga Peninsula ZamboangaPeninsula 3,875,376('''') Pagadian City alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Northern Mindanao NorthernMindanao 5,022,768('''') Cagayan de Oro alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Davao Region Davao Region 5,243,536('''') '''Davao City''' alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting Soccsksargen Soccsksargen 4,360,974('''') Koronadal alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Caraga Region Caraga Region 2,804,788('''') Butuan alt=Map of the Philippines highlighting the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao Bangsamoro Autonomous Regionin MuslimMindanao 4,944,800('''') Cotabato City ;Table notes===Largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao===The list of largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao in terms of population is shown in the table below." ], [ "Geography", "Geofeatures map of MindanaoMindanao is the second-largest island in the Philippines at , and is the seventh-most populous island in the world.", "The island is mountainous, and is home to Mount Apo, the highest mountain in the country.", "Mindanao is surrounded by four seas: the Sulu Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, the Celebes Sea to the south, and the Mindanao Sea to the north.The island itself is part of an island group of the same name, which includes the Sulu Archipelago and the outlying islands of Camiguin, Dinagat, Siargao, and Samal.=== Mountains ===Mountains in the province of BukidnonThe mountains of Mindanao can be grouped into ten ranges, including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes.", "The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of Mesozoic rock, and Ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast.", "Other parts of the island consist mainly of Cenozoic and Quaternary volcanic or sedimentary rocks.In the eastern portion of the island, from Bilas Point in Surigao del Norte to Cape San Agustin in Davao Oriental, is a range of complex mountains known in their northern portion as the Diwata Mountains.", "This range is low and rolling in its central portion.", "A proposed road connecting Bislig on the east coast with the Agusan River would pass through of broad saddle across the mountains at a maximum elevation of less than ; while the existing east–west road from Lianga, north of Bislig, reaches a maximum elevation of only .", "The Diwata Mountains, north of these low points, are considerably higher and more rugged, reaching an elevation of in Mount Hilong-Hilong, along the eastern portion of Cabadbaran.", "The southern portion of this range is broader and even more rugged than the northern section.", "In Davao Oriental, several peaks rise above and one mountain rises to .Mt.", "Apo, the highest peak in the PhilippinesThe east-facing coastal regions of Davao and Surigao del Sur are marked by a series of small coastal lowlands separated from each other by rugged forelands which extend to the water's edge.", "Offshore are numerous coral reefs and tiny islets.", "This remote and forbidding coast is made doubly difficult to access during the months from October to March by the heavy surf driven before the northeast trade winds.", "A few miles offshore is found the Philippine Deep.", "This ocean trench, reaching measured depths of , is the third-deepest trench, (after the Mariana Trench and Tonga Trench) on the earth's surface.A second north–south mountain range extends from Talisayan in the north, to Tinaca Point in the southernmost point of Mindanao.", "This mountain range runs along the western borders of the Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, and Davao provinces.", "This range is mainly structural in origin, but it also contains at least three active volcano peaks.", "The central and northern portions of this range contain several peaks between , and here the belt of mountains is about across.West of Davao City stand two inactive volcanoes: Mount Talomo at , and Mount Apo at .", "Mount Apo is the highest point in the Philippines.", "South of Mount Apo, this central mountain belt is somewhat lower than it is to the north, with peaks averaging only .In Western Mindanao, a range of complex structural mountains forms the long, hand-like Zamboanga Peninsula.", "These mountains, reaching heights of only , are not as high as the other structural belts in Mindanao.", "There are several places in the Zamboanga Mountains where small inter-mountain basins have been created, with some potential for future agricultural development.", "The northeastern end of this range is marked by the twin peaks of the now-extinct volcano, Mount Malindang, that towers over Ozamiz at a height of .", "Mount Dapia is the highest mountain in the Zamboanga Peninsula, reaching a height of .", "Batorampon Point is the highest mountain of the southernmost end of the peninsula, reaching a height of only ; it is located in the boundary of Zamboanga City.A series of volcanic mountains is located within the vicinity of Lake Lanao forming a broad arc through the Lanao del Sur, Cotabato and Bukidnon provinces.", "At least six of the twenty odd peaks in this area are active and several stand in semi-isolation.", "The Butig Peaks, with their four crater lakes, are easily seen from Cotabato.", "Mount Ragang, an active volcano cone reaching , is the most isolated, while the greatest height is reached by Mount Kitanglad at .Mindanao coastIn South Cotabato, is another range of volcanic mountains, this time paralleling the coast.", "These mountains have a maximum extent of from northwest to southeast and measures some across.", "One of the well-known mountains here is Mount Parker, whose almost circular crater lake measures a mile-and-a-quarter in diameter and lies below its summit.", "Mount Matutum is a protected area and is considered one of the major landmarks in the South Cotabato province.=== Plateaus ===Another important physiographic division of Mindanao is the series of upland plateaus in the Bukidnon and Lanao del Sur provinces.", "These plateaus are rather extensive and almost surround several volcanoes in this area.", "The plateaus are made up of basaltic lava flows inter-bedded with volcanic ash and tuff.", "Near their edges, the plateaus are cut by deep canyons, and at several points waterfalls drop down to the narrow coastal plain.", "These falls hold considerable promise for development of hydroelectric energy.", "Indeed, one such site at Maria Cristina Falls has already become a major producer.", "The rolling plateaus lie at an elevation averaging 700 meters above sea level, and offer relief from the often oppressive heat of the coastal lowlands.=== Lakes and waterfalls ===Lake Lanao occupies a large portion of one such plateau in Lanao del Sur.", "This lake is the largest lake in Mindanao and the second largest in the country; it is roughly triangular in shape with an base, having a surface at 780 meters above sea level, and is rimmed on the east, south, and west by a series of peaks reaching 2,300 meters.", "Marawi City, at the northern tip of the lake, is bisected by the Agus River, that feeds the Maria Cristina Falls.Another of Mindanao's waterfall sites is located in Malabang, south of Lake Lanao.", "Here the Jose Abad Santos Falls present one of the nation's scenic wonders at the gateway to a 200-hectare national park development.The Limunsudan Falls, with an approximate height of , is the highest waterfall in the Philippines; it is located in Iligan City.=== Valleys, rivers, and plains ===Rio Grande de MindanaoMindanao contains two large lowland areas in the valleys of the Agusan River in Agusan, and the Rio Grande de Mindanao in Cotabato City.There is some indication that the Agusan Valley occupies a broad syncline between the central mountains and the east-coast mountains.", "This valley measures from south to north and varies from in width.", "north of the head of Davao Gulf lies the watershed between the Agusan and the tributaries of the Libuganon River, which flows to the gulf.", "The elevation of this divide is well under , indicating the almost continuous nature of the lowland from the Mindanao Sea on the north to Davao Gulf.The Rio Grande de Mindanao and its main tributaries, the Catisan and the Pulangi, form a valley with a maximum length of and a width which varies from at the river mouth to about in central Cotabato.", "The southern extensions of this Cotabato Valley extend uninterrupted across a watershed from Illana Bay on the northwest to Sarangani Bay on the southeast.Other lowlands of a coastal nature are to be found in various parts of Mindanao.", "Many of these are tiny isolated pockets, along the northwest coast of Zamboanga.", "In other areas such as the Davao Plain, these coastal lowlands are wide and several times in length.From Dipolog, eastward along the northern coast of Mindanao approaching Butuan, extends a rolling coastal plain of varying width.", "In Misamis Occidental, the now dormant Mount Malindang has created a lowland averaging in width.", "Shallow Panguil Bay divides this province from Lanao del Norte, and is bordered by low-lying, poorly drained lowlands and extensive mangroves.", "In Misamis Oriental, the plain is narrower and in places whittle into rugged capes that reach the sea.", "East of Cagayan de Oro, a rugged peninsula extends into the Mindanao Sea." ], [ "Climate change", "Climate change is expected to have adverse effects on Mindanao's population, environment, and agriculture.", "Mindanao is already experiencing severe climate events attributed to changes in the earth's temperature.", "These climate events include typhoons such as Typhoon Washi, Typhoon Bopha and Typhoon Rai in December 2021.Those storms had severe impact on the island of Mindanao." ], [ "Demographics", "As of 2017, Mindanao had a population of over 25 million people.", "This comprises 22.1 percent of the entire population of the country.===Ethnicity and culture===''I-indak sa kadalanan'' or the Street dancing competition, part of Kadayawan Festival celebration in Davao City.Davao City's ChinatownRegionProvinceMajor ethnic groups '''Indigenous''' '''Non-indigenous''''''Zamboanga Peninsula'''|Iranun, Maguindanaon, Maranao,Sama-Bajaw, Subanen, Tausug, Yakan Chavacano, CebuanoMaguindanaon, Subanen, Tausug Chavacano, Cebuano, IlocanoMaguindanaon, Sama-Bajaw, Subanen, Tausug Chavacano, Cebuano'''Northern Mindanao'''|Subanen CebuanoHigaonon, Maranao CebuanoHigaonon, Maranao Bicolano, Chinese, Cebuano, Hiligaynon , Ilocano, Indian, Kapampangan, TagalogKamigin Manobo CebuanoHigaonon, Maguindanaon, Maranao, Matigsalug, Talaandig Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Ivatan, Tagalog, Waray'''Davao Region'''|Ata Manobo, Bagobo, Iranun, Kagan, Maguindanaon, Maranao, Matigsalug, Obu Manuvu, Sama-Bajaw, Tausug Cebuano, Chinese, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Indian, Kapampangan, TagalogAta, Dibabawon, Kagan, Maguindanaon, Mandaya, Mangguangan, Mansaka, Sama-Bajaw Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, TagalogAta Manobo, Dibabawon, Kagan, Mandaya, Mangguangan, Mansaka Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, TagalogManobo, Kagan, Mandaya, Mansaka Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, TagalogBlaan, Tagakaulo, Manobo, Sangil Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog'''Soccsksargen'''|Bagobo Tagabawa, Iranun, Maguindanaon, Manobo, Tagakaulo Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Tagalog, WarayBlaan, Maguindanaon, Tagakaulo, Tboli Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Tagalog, WarayBlaan, Maguindanaon, Tboli Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Kapampangan, Tagalog, WarayBlaan, Maguindanaon, Manobo, Teduray Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, Kapampangan, Tagalog'''BARMM'''|Iranun, Maguindanaon, Teduray Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, TagalogIlianen Manobo, Maguindanaon, Teduray Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Karay-a, TagalogIranun, Maranao Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, TagalogSama-Bajaw, Tausug, Yakan Chavacano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, IlocanoSama-Bajaw, Tausug CebuanoSama-Bajaw, Tausug Cebuano'''Caraga'''|Agusan Manobo, Higaonon, Mamanwa Butuanon, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, TagalogBagobo, Agusan Manobo, Higaonon, Mamanwa Bicolano, Butuanon, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, TagalogMandaya, Agusan Manobo, Mamanwa, Mansaka Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, WarayMandaya, Agusan Manobo Bicolano, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Waray Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Surigaonon, Tagalog, WarayAn American census conducted in the early 1900s noted that the island was inhabited by people \"greatly divided in origin, temperament and religion\".", "Evidence of the island's cultural diversity can be seen in the buildings and ruins of old Spanish settlements in the northwestern peninsula that span eastwards to the southern gulf coast, the site of the ancient Rajahnate of Butuan in the northeast region (Caraga), the sultanates in the southwest (Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao, Sultanate of Maguindanao), a number of Buddhist and Taoist temples, and the numerous indigenous tribes.Today around 25.8 percent of the household population in Mindanao classified themselves as Cebuanos.", "Other ethnic groups included Bisaya/Binisaya (18.4%), Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (8.2%), Maguindanaon (5.5%), and Maranao (5.4%).", "The remaining 36.6 percent belonged to other ethnic groups, including individuals from Luzon and the Lumad people (indigenous peoples of Mindanao).", "Cebuano registered the highest proportion of ethnic group in Northern Mindanao and Davao Region with 35.59 percent and 37.76 percent, respectively.", "In Soccsksargen, it was Hiligaynon/Ilonggo (31.58%), Binisaya/Bisaya (33.10%) in Zamboanga Peninsula, Maranao (26.40%) in BARMM, and Surigaonon (25.67%) in Caraga.Like elsewhere, assimilation from one ethnic group into another is not uncommon in Mindanao.", "Over the last decades, many migrants from Luzon and Lumad tribes in the island integrated and assimilated into the majority Cebuano-speaking society in Mindanao (Hiligaynon-speaking in the case of Soccsksargen), identifying themselves as Visayans, resulting from learning to speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently through Cebuano or Hiligaynon neighbors, despite many of them still know and retain their non-Visayan roots and some speak their ancestor's language fluently at least as their second or third languages, since Mindanao is a melting pot of cultures as a result of southward migration from Luzon and Visayas to the island since the 20th century.", "Descendants of these migrant Luzon ethnic groups and Lumads, especially newer generations (as Mindanao-born natives), now speak Cebuano or Hiligaynon fluently as their main language with little or no knowledge of their ancestors' native tongues at the time of their southward journey to Mindanao and Lumads developed contact with Cebuano and Hiligaynon speakers.=== Languages ===Dozens of languages are spoken in Mindanao; among them, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Maguindanaon, Maranao, Surigaonon, Tausug, and Chavacano are most widely spoken.", "Of the seven aforementioned regional languages, Cebuano (often referred to as ''Bisaya'') has the largest number of speakers, being spoken throughout Northern Mindanao (except the southern parts of Lanao del Norte), the Davao region, the western half of the Caraga region (as well as the city of Bislig and the municipalities surrounding it in Surigao del Sur), the entirety of the Zamboanga Peninsula (with the exception of Zamboanga City), and southern Soccsksargen.Hiligaynon is the main language of Soccsksargen, where majority of the inhabitants are of ethnic Hiligaynon stock.", "Maguindanaon, Manobo, Tboli and Blaan are the indigenous languages spoken in Soccsksargen.", "Ilocano, a native language of the Luzon ethnic group of the same name, is also spoken in some areas in Soccsksargen, where they also share residency with Hiligaynons.", "Surigaonon is spoken in the eastern half of the Caraga region, mainly by the eponymous Surigaonons.", "Tausug is widely spoken specifically in the Sulu Archipelago, which comprises the provinces of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi, with a sizeable community of speakers residing in Zamboanga City.Maranao and Maguindanaon are the dominant languages of the eastern territories of the Bangsamoro, respectively, with the former being spoken in Lanao del Sur as well as the southern areas of Lanao del Norte, and the latter in the eponymous provinces of Maguindanao del Norte and Maguindanao del Sur and also in adjacent areas which are part of Soccsksargen.", "Chavacano is the native language of Zamboanga City and is also the lingua franca of Basilan; it is also spoken in the southernmost fringes of Zamboanga Sibugay.", "It is also spoken, albeit as a minority language, in Cotabato City and Davao City, where dialects of it, respectively, exist, namely Cotabateño and Castellano Abakay, both of which evolved from the variant of the language spoken in Zamboanga City.English and Filipino are also widely understood and spoken, with the former being highly utilized in business and academia, and the latter being used to communicate with visitors from Luzon and other parts of Visayas.", "Filipino is also the main lingua franca of Cotabato City and in BARMM as a whole.===Religion===Christianity is the dominant religious affiliation in Mindanao with 65.9% of the household population, majority of which are adherents of Catholicism; Islam comprised 23.39%, and other religions were Pentecostal (5.34%), Aglipayan (2.16%), and Iglesia ni Cristo (5.2%)." ], [ "Tourism", "Major tourist spots are scattered throughout Mindanao, consisting mostly of beach resorts, scuba diving resorts, surfing, museums, nature parks, mountain climbing, and river rafting.", "Siargao, best known for its surfing tower in Cloud 9, also has caves, pools, waterfalls, and lagoons.", "There are archaeological sites, historical ruins, and museums in Butuan.", "White Island is a popular tourist spot in Camiguin.", "The Duka Bay and the Matangale dive resorts in Misamis Oriental offer glass bottomed boat rides and scuba diving lessons.", "Cagayan de Oro has beach resorts, the Mapawa Nature Park, white water rafting and kayaking, museums, and historical landmarks.", "Ziplining is the main attraction at the Dahilayan Adventure Park and rock wall climbing at Kiokong in Bukidnon.", "Iligan City has the Maria Cristina Falls, Tinago Falls, nature parks, beaches, and historical landmarks.", "There are parks, historical buildings, the Vinta Ride at Paseo del Mar, boat villages, 11 Islands (commonly called as ''Onçe Islas''), 17th-century Fort Pilar Shrine and Museum and the world-renowned ''Pink Sand Beach'' of Sta.", "Cruz in Zamboanga City.", "There are festivals, fireworks, and the Beras Bird Sanctuary in Takurong City.", "Davao has Mt Apo, parks, museums, beaches, historical landmarks, and scuba diving resorts." ], [ "Energy", "Many areas in Mindanao suffer rotating 12-hour blackouts due to the island's woefully inadequate power supply.", "The island is forecast to continue suffering from a 200-megawatt power deficit until 2015, when the private sector begins to operate new capacity.", "Aboitiz Equity Ventures, a publicly listed holdings company, has committed to supplying 1,200 megawatts through a coal-fired plant on the border of Davao City and Davao del Sur that is slated for operation by 2018.The Agus-Pulangui hydropower complex, which supplies more than half of Mindanao's power supply, is currently producing only 635 megawatts of its 982 megawatt capacity due to the heavy siltation of the rivers that power the complex.", "Zamboanga City, an urbanized center in southwest Mindanao, is expected to begin experience daily three-hour brownouts due to the National Power Corporation's decision to reduce power supply in the city by 10 megawatts.The Manila Electric Company (Meralco), the largest power distributor in the Philippines, and Global Business Power Corp (GBPC), also a major provider, have announced plans to enter Mindanao for the first time to establish solutions for the power problems within the island." ], [ "Major annual events", "* Mindanao Film Festival (Established in 2003)* Kadayawan Festival* Kaamulan Festival* Christmas Symbols Festival* Bangsamoro Short Film Festival* Halad Festival* P'gsalabuk Festival* Kinabayo Festival" ], [ "See also", "* Geography of the Philippines* Island groups of the Philippines* List of islands in the Philippines* Luzon* Visayas" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Mindanao Development Authority Official Website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moveable feast" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''moveable feast''' is an observance in a Christian liturgical calendar which occurs on different dates in different years." ], [ "Spring paschal feasts", "Often considered the most important Christian observance, Spring paschal feasts are a fixed number of days before or after Easter Sunday, which varies by 35 days since it depends partly on the phase of the moon and must be computed each year.", "In the Hebrew calendar, the new moon of Aviv, spring, is fixed as the Lunar New Year, and the month is called Nisan.", "The 14 of Nisan is the paschal full moon, the day of the Pesach seder, a ritual meal telling the story of the Exodus from Egypt.", "It is one of the three pilgrimage festivals incumbent on all Jewish males living in the land of Israel.", "For this observance of this mitzvah, commandment, Jesus and the disciples went to Jerusalem, and held a festive meal known as the Last Supper on Passover night according to the gospel of John (or the day before according to the synoptic gospels).Quartodeciman Christians continued to end the Lenten fast in time to observe the Passover (Christian), which occurs before the Lord's day, as the two are not mutually exclusive.", "However, due to intense persecution from Nicene Christianity after the Easter controversy, the practice had mostly died out by the 5th or 6th century, and only re-emerged in the 20th century.In Eastern Christianity (including the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Eastern Catholic Churches), these moveable feasts form what is called the Paschal cycle, which stands in contrast to the approach taken by Catholic and Protestant Christianity." ], [ "Pentecost" ], [ "Moveable solemnities", "Not all observances are feasts, and among those that are moveable is the Lenten fast, which is held for the 40 days prior to Easter." ], [ "Relationship to solar fixed feasts", "Most other feast days, such as those of particular saints, are ''fixed feasts'', held on the same date every year.", "However, some observances are always held on the same day of the week, and thus occur on a range of days without depending on the date of Easter.", "For example, the start of Advent is the Sunday nearest November 30.In addition, the observance of some fixed feasts may move a few days in a particular year to not clash with that year's date for a more important moveable feast.", "There are rare examples of saints with genuinely moveable feast days, such as Saint Sarkis the Warrior in the calendar of the Armenian Church." ], [ "See also", "*Liturgical year*Movable Eastern Christian observances*Movable Western Christian observances" ], [ "In other religions", "The Roman calendar possessed a number of moveable feasts (, \"proclaimed festivals\") like the Sementivae or Paganalia honoring Ceres and Tellus that varied to allow them to occur in the proper season and conditions.", "Michels has argued that such moveable feasts were probably universal before the adoption of the lunar-based nundinal cycle, the earliest Italian calendars most likely being observational and based on natural cycles like vernation and ripening.The traditional Chinese calendar is lunisolar, as are others in East Asia based on it.", "This causes the timing of the Chinese New Year, the Mid-Autumn Festival, and several other holidaysall traditionally associated with various rituals and offeringsto vary within the Gregorian calendar, usually within a space of two months.", "In Judaism, all holidays fixed to the lunisolar traditional calendar move relative to the Gregorian calendar, again usually within a space of two months.", "In addition, there are two observances that are moveable within both systems, being based on the Shmuelian tekufot approximations of the equinoxes and solstices established by Samuel of Nehardea.", "Samuel fixed them to the Julian calendar, which slowly slips out of alignment with the Gregorian over a span of several centuries.", "The first is the annual commencement of the ''sh'elah'' period during which diaspora Jews add a petition for rain to their daily prayers, which occurs on 23 November (Julian) in most years and on 24 November (Julian) when the following year will be a Julian leap year.", "The second is the Birkat Hachama (\"Blessing of the Sun\"), a ceremony performed once every 28 years, which always occurs on Wednesday, 26 March (Julian), in a Julian year of the form 28n+21.In Islam, all holidays fixed to the lunar Islamic calendar vary completely within the Gregorian calendar, shifting by 10 or 11 days each year and moving through the entire Gregorian year over the course of about 33 years (making 34 Islamic years)." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*A table of moveable feasts with dates, published by the Church of England.", "* \"Why Some Feasts Are Moveable\" – a ''Slate'' article* \"How the dates of moveable feasts are calculated, then and now\" – translated from the Latin by Michael Deckers" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mark McGwire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mark David McGwire''' (born October 1, 1963), nicknamed \"'''Big Mac'''\", is an American former professional baseball first baseman who played 16 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1986 to 2001 for the Oakland Athletics and the St. Louis Cardinals.", "He won two World Series championships, one with Oakland as a player in 1989 and one with St. Louis as a coach in 2011.One of the most prolific home run hitters in baseball history, McGwire hit 583 home runs during his career, which ranked 5th-most in MLB history at the time of his retirement and currently ranks 11th.", "He holds the major-league career record for at bats per home run ratio (10.6), and is the former record holder for both home runs in a single season (70 in 1998) and home runs hit by a rookie (49 in 1987).McGwire led the major leagues in home runs in five different seasons, and set the major-league record for home runs hit in a four-season period from 1996 to 1999 with 245.He demonstrated exemplary patience as a batter, producing a career .394 on-base percentage (OBP) and twice leading the major leagues in bases on balls.", "McGwire also led the league in runs batted in once, on-base percentage twice, and slugging percentage four times.", "Injuries cut short even greater potential, as he reached 140 games played in just eight of 16 total seasons.", "Injuries particularly cut into his playing time in 2000 and 2001 and factored into his decision to retire.", "A right-handed batter and thrower, McGwire stood tall and weighed during his playing career.With the Cardinals in 1998, McGwire joined Cubs slugger Sammy Sosa in a chase for the single-season home-run record set by Roger Maris in 1961.McGwire surpassed Maris and finished with 70 home runs, a record that Barry Bonds would break three years later with 73.McGwire was one of several central figures in baseball's steroids scandal.", "In 2010, McGwire publicly admitted to using performance-enhancing drugs during a large portion of his career." ], [ "Early life", "McGwire was born in the Los Angeles suburb of Pomona, California.", "His father was a dentist.", "He attended Damien High School in La Verne, California, where he played baseball, golf, and basketball.", "He was drafted in the 8th round by the Montreal Expos in the 1981 amateur draft, but did not sign." ], [ "College career", "He played college baseball at the University of Southern California (where he was a teammate of Randy Johnson, Jack Del Rio, and Rodney Peete) under coach Rod Dedeaux.McGwire was selected by the Athletics with the 10th overall selection in the 1984 MLB draft." ], [ "Professional career", "===Draft and minor leagues===After three years at USC and a stint on the 1984 U.S. Olympic team, McGwire was drafted tenth overall in the 1984 Major League Baseball draft by the Oakland Athletics.===Oakland Athletics (1986–1997)===McGwire debuted in the major leagues in August 1986, hitting three home runs and nine runs batted in in 18 games.====Rookie home-run record and major-league leader (1987)====Retaining his rookie status in 1987, McGwire took center stage in baseball with his home-run hitting.", "He hit just four in the month of April, but followed in May with 15 and another nine in June.", "Before the All-Star break arrived, he had totaled 33 home runs and earned a spot on the American League All-Star team.", "On August 11, he broke Al Rosen's AL rookie record of 37 home runs.", "Three days later, McGwire broke the major-league record of 38, which Frank Robinson and Wally Berger had jointly held.", "In September, McGwire hit nine more home runs while posting monthly personal bests of a .351 batting average, .419 on-base percentage (OBP) and 11 doubles (2B).", "With 49 home runs and two games remaining in the regular season for him to reach 50 home runs, he missed the games in order to attend the birth of his first child.", "McGwire also totaled 118 runs batted in, a .289 batting average, 97 runs scored, 28 doubles, a .618 slugging percentage and a .370 on-base percentage (OBP).", "McGwire's 49 home runs as a rookie stood as a major league record until Aaron Judge hit 52 for the New York Yankees in 2017.Not only did McGwire lead the AL in home runs in 1987, but he also tied for the major-league lead with Chicago Cubs right fielder Andre Dawson.", "McGwire also led the major leagues in slugging, finished second in the AL in adjusted on-base plus slugging percentage (OPS+, 164) and total bases (344) and placed third in RBI and on-base plus slugging (OPS, .987).", "He was unanimously chosen as the AL Rookie of the Year Award and finished sixth overall in the AL Most Valuable Player Award voting.====More All-Star appearances (1988–1991)====McGwire with the A's, 1989From 1988 to 1990, McGwire followed with 32, 33, and 39 home runs, respectively, becoming the first Major Leaguer to hit 30+ home runs in each of his first four full seasons.", "On July 3 and 4, 1988, he hit game-winning home runs in the 16th inning of both games.", "Through May 2009, McGwire was tied for third all-time with Joe DiMaggio in home runs over his first two calendar years in the major leagues (71), behind Chuck Klein (83) and Ryan Braun (79).McGwire's most famous home run with the A's was likely his game-winning solo shot in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 3 of the 1988 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers and former A's closer Jay Howell.", "McGwire's game-winner brought the A's their only victory in the 1988 World Series, which they lost in five games; however, McGwire and his fellow Bash Brother, José Canseco, played a large part in the 1989 championship club that defeated the San Francisco Giants in the famous \"Earthquake Series.", "\"Working diligently on his defense at first base, McGwire bristled at the notion that he was a one-dimensional player.", "He was generally regarded as a good fielder in his early years, even winning a Gold Glove Award in 1990, the only one that the Yankees' Don Mattingly would not win between 1985 and 1994.In later years, his mobility decreased along with his defensive ability.", "His batting averages after his rookie season plummeted to .260, .231, and .235 from 1988 to 1990.In 1991, he bottomed out with a .201 average and 22 homers.", "Manager Tony La Russa sat him for the final game of the season to avoid causing his batting average to dip below .200.Despite the declining averages during this time of his career, McGwire's high base-on-balls totals allowed him to maintain an acceptable on-base percentage.", "In fact, when he hit .201, his OPS+ was 103, just over the league average.McGwire stated in an interview with ''Sports Illustrated'' that 1991 was the \"worst year\" of his life, with his on-field performance and marriage difficulties, and that he \"didn't lift a weight\" that entire season.", "With all that behind him, McGwire rededicated himself to working out harder than ever and received visual therapy from a sports vision specialist.====Career resurgence (1992–1997)====The \"new look\" McGwire hit 42 homers and batted .268 in 1992, with an outstanding OPS+ of 175 (the highest of his career to that point), and put on a victorious home-run-hitting show at the Home Run Derby during the 1992 All-Star break.", "His performance propelled the A's to the American League West Division title in 1992, their fourth in five seasons.", "The A's lost in the playoffs to the eventual World Series champion Toronto Blue Jays.Foot injuries limited McGwire to a total of 74 games in 1993 and 1994, and just nine home runs in each of the two seasons.", "He played just 104 games in 1995, but his proportional totals were much improved, as he hit 39 home runs in 317 at-bats.", "In 1996, McGwire belted a major-league-leading 52 homers in 423 at-bats.", "He also hit for a career-high .312 average and led the league in both slugging and on-base percentage.McGwire's total of 363 home runs with the Athletics surpassed the previous franchise record.", "He was selected or voted to nine American League All-Star teams while playing for the A's, including six consecutive appearances from 1987 through 1992.On April 21, 1997, McGwire became the fourth and final player to hit a home run over the left-field roof of Detroit's Tiger Stadium, joining Harmon Killebrew, Frank Howard and Cecil Fielder.", "The blast was estimated to have traveled 491 feet.===St.", "Louis Cardinals (1997–2001)===On July 31, having already amassed 34 home runs in the 1997 season, McGwire was traded from the Oakland Athletics to the St. Louis Cardinals for T. J. Mathews, Eric Ludwick and Blake Stein.", "Despite playing just two-thirds of the season in the American League, he finished ninth in home runs.", "In 51 games with the Cardinals to finish the 1997 season, McGwire compiled a .253 batting average, 24 home runs, and 42 RBI.", "Overall in 1997, McGwire led the majors with 58 home runs.", "He also finished third in the major leagues in slugging percentage (.646), fourth in OPS (1.039), fifth in OPS+ (170), tenth in RBI (123), and ninth in walks (101).", "He placed 16th in the NL MVP voting.It was the last year of his contract, so there was speculation that McGwire would play for the Cardinals only for the remainder of the season, then seek a long-term deal, possibly in Southern California, where he still lived; however, McGwire signed a contract to stay in St. Louis.", "It is also believed that McGwire later encouraged Jim Edmonds, another Southern California resident who was traded to St. Louis, to forgo free agency and sign a contract with the Cardinals in 2000.====Single-season home run record chase (1998)====McGwire batting during a May 1998 gameAs the 1998 season progressed, it became clear that McGwire, Seattle Mariners outfielder Ken Griffey Jr., and Chicago Cubs outfielder Sammy Sosa were all on track to break Roger Maris's single-season home run record.", "The race to break the record first attracted media attention as the home-run leader changed often throughout the season.", "On August 19, Sosa hit his 48th home run to move ahead of McGwire; however, later that day McGwire hit his 48th and 49th home runs to regain the lead.On September 8, 1998, McGwire hit a pitch by the Cubs' Steve Trachsel over the left-field wall for his record-breaking 62nd home run, setting off massive celebrations at Busch Stadium.", "The fact that the game was against the Cubs meant that Sosa was able to congratulate McGwire personally on his achievement.", "Members of Maris's family were also present at the game.", "The ball was given to McGwire in a ceremony on the field by the stadium worker who found it.McGwire circling the field at Busch Memorial Stadium in a Chevrolet Corvette after hitting his 62nd home run of the season.McGwire finished the 1998 season with 70 home runs (including five in his last three games), four ahead of Sosa's 66, a record that was broken three seasons later in 2001 by Barry Bonds with 73.McGwire was honored with the inaugural Babe Ruth Home Run Award for leading Major League Baseball in home runs.", "Although McGwire had the prestige of the home-run record, Sammy Sosa (who had fewer home runs but more RBI and stolen bases) won the 1998 NL MVP award, as his contributions helped propel the Cubs to the playoffs (the Cardinals finished third in the NL Central).", "Many credited the Sosa-McGwire home run chase in 1998 with \"saving baseball\" by attracting new, younger fans and bringing back old fans soured by the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike.====Later playing career (1999–2001)====McGwire hitting a home run in St. Louis against the Tigers on July 14, 2001McGwire kept his high level of offensive production from 1998 going in 1999 while setting or extending several significant records.", "For the fourth consecutive season, he led MLB in home runs with 65.It was also his fourth consecutive season with at least 50 home runs, extending his own major league record.", "Sosa, who hit 63 home runs in 1999, again trailed McGwire.", "Thus, they became the first, and still only, players in major league history to hit 60 or more home runs in consecutive seasons.", "McGwire also set a record from 1998 to 1999 for home runs in a two-season period with 135.He also owned the highest four-season home-run total, with 245 from 1996 to 1999.In 1999, he drove in an NL-leading 147 runs while only having 145 hits, the highest RBI-per-hit tally for a season in baseball history.Following the 1999 season, McGwire and the Cardinals exercised a mutual option in his contract for the 2001 season which would pay him $11 million for the 2001 season.", "Shortly before the 2001 season, McGwire and the Cardinals agreed to another extension through the 2004 season for $30 million which, according to Phil Rogers in the ''Chicago Tribune'', was far less than he could have made in free agency.However, in 2000 and 2001, McGwire's statistics declined relative to previous years as he struggled to avoid injury, hitting 32 home runs in 89 games in 2000 and 29 in 97 games in 2001.He retired after the 2001 season." ], [ "International career", "McGwire played for the United States national team during his collegiate years.", "On the 1984 team, he batted .359 over 35 games.", "McGwire was selected to the roster for the Summer Olympics in Los Angeles that same year.", "That squad, which included future Hall-of-Famer Barry Larkin, emerged as the favorite for the competition, after Cuba joined the Soviet Union-led boycott of the games.", "The U.S. team won the silver medal in the tournament, with Japan finishing ahead for the gold medal.", "McGwire finished the five-game competition 4–21 with no home runs.", "McGwire later said of the 1984 Olympics squad: \"People may not have recognized it at the time, but that was definitely a dream team.\"" ], [ "Coaching career (2010–2018)", "St. Louis Cardinals in 2011After his playing career ended, McGwire demonstrated coaching ability, personally assisting players such as Matt Holliday, Bobby Crosby and Skip Schumaker before accepting an official role as hitting coach with an MLB team.", "On October 26, 2009, Cardinals manager Tony La Russa confirmed that McGwire would become the club's fifth hitting coach of La Russa's tenure with the Cardinals, replacing Hal McRae.", "McGwire received a standing ovation prior to the Cardinals' home opener on April 12, 2010.In his three seasons as Cardinals hitting coach, the team's prolific offense led the National League in batting and on-base percentage, and the team finished second in runs scored.In early November 2012, McGwire rejected a contract extension to return as Cardinals hitting coach for the 2013 season.", "Instead, he accepted an offer for the same position with the Los Angeles Dodgers in order to be closer to his wife and five children.On June 11, 2013, McGwire was ejected for the first time as a coach during a bench-clearing brawl with the Arizona Diamondbacks.", "He was suspended for two games starting the next day.On December 2, 2015, he was named bench coach for the San Diego Padres.", "He left the team after the 2018 season." ], [ "Honors, records and achievements", "Known as one of the top sluggers of his era, McGwire ended his career with 583 home runs, which was fifth-most in history when he retired.", "When he hit his 500th career home run in 1999, he did so in 5,487 career at-bats, the fewest in major league history.", "He led all of MLB in home runs in five different seasons: 1987 and each season from 1996 to 1999.His total of 245 home runs from 1996 to 1999 is the highest four-season home-run output in major league history.", "In each of those four seasons, he exceeded 50 home runs, becoming the first player to do so.", "He was also the first player to hit 49 or more home runs five times, including his rookie-season record of 49 in 1987.With a career average of one home every 10.61 at-bats, he holds the MLB record for most home runs per at-bat, leading second-place Babe Ruth by more than a full at-bat (11.76).As of 2015, McGwire owned three of the four lowest single-season AB/HR ratios in MLB history, which covered his 1996, 1998 and 1999 seasons; they were actually the top three seasons in MLB history until Bonds broke his single-season home-run record in 2001.McGwire's 1997 season ranked 13th.", "Considered one of the slowest runners in the game, McGwire had the fewest career triples (six) of any player with 5,000 or more at-bats, and had just 12 stolen bases while being caught stealing eight times.===Honors and distinctions===In a 1999 list of the 100 greatest baseball players, ''The Sporting News'' ranked McGwire at number 91.The list had been compiled during the 1998 season and included statistics through the 1997 season.", "That year, he was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.", "In 2005, ''The Sporting News'' published an update of its list with McGwire at number 84.A five-mile stretch of Interstate 70 in Missouri in St. Louis and near Busch Stadium was named Mark McGwire Highway to honor his 70-home-run achievement, along with his various good works for the city.", "In May 2010, St. Louis politicians succeeded in passing a state bill to change the name to Mark Twain Highway.===National Baseball Hall of Fame consideration===McGwire first became eligible for Hall of Fame voting in 2007.For election, a player needs to be listed on 75% of ballots cast; falling under 5% removes a player from future consideration.", "Between 2007 and 2010, McGwire's performance held steady, receiving 128 votes (23.5%) in 2007, 128 votes (23.6%) in 2008, 118 votes (21.9%) in 2009, and 128 votes (23.7%) in 2010.The 2011 ballot resulted in his first sub-20% total of 115 votes (19.8%), and McGwire's total votes continued to decline (112 votes (19.5%) in 2012, 96 votes (16.9%) in 2013, 63 votes (11.0%) in 2014 and 55 votes (10.0%) in 2015) until he was eliminated after receiving only 54 votes (12.3%) in 2016.===Records===+ '''MLB and team records'''AccomplishmentRecordDate(s)Refs Major League Baseball records Fewest at-bats to 500 career home runs 5,487 1999 Fewest career at bats per home run 10.6 Home runs in a four-season period 245 1996–1999 Consecutive 50-HR seasons 4† 50-HR seasons 4†† Consecutive 60-HR seasons 2† 1998–1999 Home runs in a two-season period 135 Single-season highest RBI/H ratio 1.014 1999 Oakland Athletics records Lowest career AB/HR ratio 12.1 Career HR 363 Lowest single-season AB/HR ratio 8.1 1995, 1996 St. Louis Cardinals records Lowest career AB/HR ratio 7.9 Highest career OPS 1.222 Highest career OPS+ 180 Highest career SLG .683 Lowest single-season AB/HR ratio 7.3 1998 Most HR in a season 70 Most times on base in a season 320 Most bases on balls in a season 162===Playing career totals===In 16 seasons playing major league baseball (1986–2001), McGwire accumulated the following career totals:* G 1,874* ABs 6,187* Runs 1,167* Hits 1,626* Doubles 252* Triples 6* HR 583* RBI 1,414* GIDP 147* BB 1,317* IBB 150* HBP 75* SH 3* SF 78* Strikeouts 1,596* SBs 12* CS 8* BA .263* OBP .394* SLG .588* OPS .982* OPS+ 162" ], [ "Steroid use", "In a 1998 article by Associated Press writer Steve Wilstein, McGwire admitted to taking androstenedione, an over-the-counter muscle enhancement product that had already been banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency, the NFL, and the IOC; however, use of the substance was not prohibited by Major League Baseball at the time, and it was not federally classified as an anabolic steroid in the United States until 2004.Jose Canseco released a book, ''Juiced: Wild Times, Rampant 'Roids, Smash Hits & How Baseball Got Big'', in 2005.In it, he wrote positively about steroids and made various claims—among them, that McGwire had used performance-enhancing drugs since the 1980s and that Canseco had personally injected him with them.In 2005, McGwire and Canseco were among 11 baseball players and executives subpoenaed to testify at a congressional hearing on steroids.", "During his testimony on March 17, 2005, McGwire declined to answer questions under oath when he appeared before the House Government Reform Committee.", "In a tearful opening statement, McGwire said:On January 11, 2010, McGwire admitted to using steroids on and off for a decade and said, \"I wish I had never touched steroids.", "It was foolish and it was a mistake.", "I truly apologize.", "Looking back, I wish I had never played during the steroid era.\"", "He admitted using them in the 1989/90 offseason and then after he was injured in 1993.He admitted using them on occasion throughout the 1990s, including during the 1998 season.", "McGwire said that he used steroids to recover from injuries.McGwire's decision to admit using steroids was prompted by his decision to become hitting coach of the St. Louis Cardinals.", "According to McGwire, he took steroids for health reasons rather than to improve performance." ], [ "Personal life", "McGwire's brother Dan McGwire was a quarterback for the Seattle Seahawks and Miami Dolphins of the NFL in the early 1990s, and was a first-round draft choice out of San Diego State University.", "He has another brother, Jay McGwire, a bodybuilder, who wrote a book in 2010 detailing their shared steroid use.McGwire married Stephanie Slemer—a former pharmaceutical sales representative from the St. Louis area—in Las Vegas on April 20, 2002.On June 1, 2010, their triplet girls were born: Monet Rose, Marlo Rose, and Monroe Rose.", "They join brothers Max and Mason.", "Mason was drafted by the Chicago Cubs in the eighth round of the 2022 MLB draft.", "They reside in a gated community in Shady Canyon, Irvine, California.", "Together they created the Mark McGwire Foundation for Children to support agencies that help children who have been sexually and physically abused come to terms with a difficult childhood.", "Mark has a son, Matthew (b.", "1987), from a previous marriage (1984–1990, divorced) to Kathleen Hughes.Prior to admitting to using steroids, McGwire avoided the media and spent much of his free time playing golf.", "He also worked as a hitting coach for Major League players Matt Holliday, Bobby Crosby, Chris Duncan and Skip Schumaker.McGwire appeared as himself in season 7, episode 13 of the sitcom ''Mad About You''.McGwire provided his voice for a 1999 episode of ''The Simpsons'' titled \"Brother's Little Helper\", where he played himself." ], [ "See also", "* 1998 Major League Baseball home run record chase* At bats per home run* List of doping cases in sport* List of Major League Baseball home run records* List of Major League Baseball career bases on balls leaders* List of Major League Baseball career extra base hits leaders* List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders* List of Major League Baseball career OPS leaders* List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders* List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders* List of Major League Baseball career strikeouts by batters leaders* List of Major League Baseball career slugging percentage leaders* List of St. Louis Cardinals team records* Major League Baseball titles leaders* St. Louis Cardinals award winners and league leaders" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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